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sciq-6733
|
multiple_choice
|
In preparation for phagocytosis, a portion of the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane becomes coated with a protein called clathrin, which stabilizes this section of what?
|
[
"membrane",
"mitochondria",
"nuclei",
"particles"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment (the extracellular space). The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, made up of two layers of phospholipids with cholesterols (a lipid component) interspersed between them, maintaining appropriate membrane fluidity at various temperatures. The membrane also contains membrane proteins, including integral proteins that span the membrane and serve as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer (peripheral) side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes to facilitate interaction with the cell's environment. Glycolipids embedded in the outer lipid layer serve a similar purpose. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell, being selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall and the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, as well as the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.
History
While Robert Hooke's discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the cell theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to su
Document 1:::
Membrane proteins are common proteins that are part of, or interact with, biological membranes. Membrane proteins fall into several broad categories depending on their location. Integral membrane proteins are a permanent part of a cell membrane and can either penetrate the membrane (transmembrane) or associate with one or the other side of a membrane (integral monotopic). Peripheral membrane proteins are transiently associated with the cell membrane.
Membrane proteins are common, and medically important—about a third of all human proteins are membrane proteins, and these are targets for more than half of all drugs. Nonetheless, compared to other classes of proteins, determining membrane protein structures remains a challenge in large part due to the difficulty in establishing experimental conditions that can preserve the correct conformation of the protein in isolation from its native environment.
Function
Membrane proteins perform a variety of functions vital to the survival of organisms:
Membrane receptor proteins relay signals between the cell's internal and external environments.
Transport proteins move molecules and ions across the membrane. They can be categorized according to the Transporter Classification database.
Membrane enzymes may have many activities, such as oxidoreductase, transferase or hydrolase.
Cell adhesion molecules allow cells to identify each other and interact. For example, proteins involved in immune response
The localization of proteins in membranes can be predicted reliably using hydrophobicity analyses of protein sequences, i.e. the localization of hydrophobic amino acid sequences.
Integral membrane proteins
Integral membrane proteins are permanently attached to the membrane. Such proteins can be separated from the biological membranes only using detergents, nonpolar solvents, or sometimes denaturing agents. They can be classified according to their relationship with the bilayer:
Integral polytopic proteins are transmembran
Document 2:::
Every organism requires energy to be active. However, to obtain energy from its outside environment, cells must not only retrieve molecules from their surroundings but also break them down. This process is known as intracellular digestion. In its broadest sense, intracellular digestion is the breakdown of substances within the cytoplasm of a cell. In detail, a phagocyte's duty is obtaining food particles and digesting it in a vacuole. For example, following phagocytosis, the ingested particle (or phagosome) fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes to form a phagolysosome; the pathogens or food particles within the phagosome are then digested by the lysosome's enzymes.
Intracellular digestion can also refer to the process in which animals that lack a digestive tract bring food items into the cell for the purposes of digestion for nutritional needs. This kind of intracellular digestion occurs in many unicellular protozoans, in Pycnogonida, in some molluscs, Cnidaria and Porifera. There is another type of digestion, called extracellular digestion. In amphioxus, digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
Function
Intracellular digestion is divided into heterophagic digestion and autophagic digestion. These two types take place in the lysosome and they both have very specific functions. Heterophagic intracellular digestion has an important job which is to break down all molecules that are brought into a cell by endocytosis. The degraded molecules need to be delivered to the cytoplasm; however, this will not be possible if the molecules are not hydrolyzed in the lysosome. Autophagic intracellular digestion is processed in the cell, which means it digests the internal molecules.
Autophagy
Generally, autophagy includes three small branches, which are macroautophagy, microautophagy, and chaperone-mediated autophagy.
Occurrence
Most organisms that use intracellular digestion belong to Kingdom Protista, such as amoeba and paramecium.
Amoeba
Amoeba u
Document 3:::
Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism. Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure.
General characteristics
There are two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes were the first of the two to develop and do not have a self-contained nucleus. Their mechanisms are simpler than later-evolved eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus that envelops the cell's DNA and some organelles.
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes have DNA located in an area called the nucleoid, which is not separated from other parts of the cell by a membrane. There are two domains of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes have fewer organelles than eukaryotes. Both have plasma membranes and ribosomes (structures that synthesize proteins and float free in cytoplasm). Two unique characteristics of prokaryotes are fimbriae (finger-like projections on the surface of a cell) and flagella (threadlike structures that aid movement).
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is contained. They are usually larger than prokaryotes and contain many more organelles. The nucleus, the feature of a eukaryote that distinguishes it from a prokaryote, contains a nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin. In cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesizes membranes and performs other metabolic activities. There are two types, rough ER (containing ribosomes) and smooth ER (lacking ribosomes). The Golgi apparatus consists of multiple membranous sacs, responsible for manufacturing and shipping out materials such as proteins. Lysosomes are structures that use enzymes to break down substances through phagocytosis, a process that comprises endocytosis and exocytosis. In the mitochondria, metabolic processes such as cellular respiration occur. The cytoskeleton is made of fibers that support the str
Document 4:::
Protoplasm (; ) is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions, monosaccharides, amino acids, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.
In some definitions, it is a general term for the cytoplasm (e.g., Mohl, 1846), but for others, it also includes the nucleoplasm (e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the protoplast [the entire cell, excluding the cell wall] was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger's (1882) terms cytoplasm [coined by Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm] and nucleoplasm [term coined by van Beneden (1875), or karyoplasm, used by Flemming (1878)]." The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids (Chromatoplasm).
Like the nucleus, whether to include the vacuole in the protoplasm concept is controversial.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
In preparation for phagocytosis, a portion of the inward-facing surface of the plasma membrane becomes coated with a protein called clathrin, which stabilizes this section of what?
A. membrane
B. mitochondria
C. nuclei
D. particles
Answer:
|
|
sciq-994
|
multiple_choice
|
Physical and chemical properties of geometric isomers are generally what?
|
[
"difficult",
"round",
"similar",
"different"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 2:::
GRE Subject Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology was a standardized exam provided by ETS (Educational Testing Service) that was discontinued in December 2016. It is a paper-based exam and there are no computer-based versions of it. ETS places this exam three times per year: once in April, once in October and once in November. Some graduate programs in the United States recommend taking this exam, while others require this exam score as a part of the application to their graduate programs. ETS sends a bulletin with a sample practice test to each candidate after registration for the exam. There are 180 questions within the biochemistry subject test.
Scores are scaled and then reported as a number between 200 and 990; however, in recent versions of the test, the maximum and minimum reported scores have been 760 (corresponding to the 99 percentile) and 320 (1 percentile) respectively. The mean score for all test takers from July, 2009, to July, 2012, was 526 with a standard deviation of 95.
After learning that test content from editions of the GRE® Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCM) Test has been compromised in Israel, ETS made the decision not to administer this test worldwide in 2016–17.
Content specification
Since many students who apply to graduate programs in biochemistry do so during the first half of their fourth year, the scope of most questions is largely that of the first three years of a standard American undergraduate biochemistry curriculum. A sampling of test item content is given below:
Biochemistry (36%)
A Chemical and Physical Foundations
Thermodynamics and kinetics
Redox states
Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers
Solutions and equilibria
Solute-solvent interactions
Chemical interactions and bonding
Chemical reaction mechanisms
B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics
Small molecules
Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids)
Supramolecular complexes (e.g.
Document 3:::
Further Mathematics is the title given to a number of advanced secondary mathematics courses. The term "Higher and Further Mathematics", and the term "Advanced Level Mathematics", may also refer to any of several advanced mathematics courses at many institutions.
In the United Kingdom, Further Mathematics describes a course studied in addition to the standard mathematics AS-Level and A-Level courses. In the state of Victoria in Australia, it describes a course delivered as part of the Victorian Certificate of Education (see § Australia (Victoria) for a more detailed explanation). Globally, it describes a course studied in addition to GCE AS-Level and A-Level Mathematics, or one which is delivered as part of the International Baccalaureate Diploma.
In other words, more mathematics can also be referred to as part of advanced mathematics, or advanced level math.
United Kingdom
Background
A qualification in Further Mathematics involves studying both pure and applied modules. Whilst the pure modules (formerly known as Pure 4–6 or Core 4–6, now known as Further Pure 1–3, where 4 exists for the AQA board) build on knowledge from the core mathematics modules, the applied modules may start from first principles.
The structure of the qualification varies between exam boards.
With regard to Mathematics degrees, most universities do not require Further Mathematics, and may incorporate foundation math modules or offer "catch-up" classes covering any additional content. Exceptions are the University of Warwick, the University of Cambridge which requires Further Mathematics to at least AS level; University College London requires or recommends an A2 in Further Maths for its maths courses; Imperial College requires an A in A level Further Maths, while other universities may recommend it or may promise lower offers in return. Some schools and colleges may not offer Further mathematics, but online resources are available
Although the subject has about 60% of its cohort obtainin
Document 4:::
The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many mathematics journals, which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020.
Structure
The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used.
The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example:
53 is the classification for differential geometry
53A is the classification for classical differential geometry
53A45 is the classification for vector and tensor analysis
First level
At the top level, 64 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number. In addition to the typical areas of mathematical research, there are top-level categories for "History and Biography", "Mathematics Education", and for the overlap with different sciences. Physics (i.e. mathematical physics) is particularly well represented in the classification scheme with a number of different categories including:
Fluid mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Geophysics
Optics and electromagnetic theory
All valid MSC classification codes must have at least the first-level identifier.
Second level
The second-level codes are a single letter from the Latin alphabet. These represent specific areas covered by the first-level discipline. The second-level codes vary from discipline to discipline.
For example, for differential geometry, the top-level code is 53, and the second-level codes are:
A for classical differential geometry
B for local differential geometry
C for glo
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Physical and chemical properties of geometric isomers are generally what?
A. difficult
B. round
C. similar
D. different
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3348
|
multiple_choice
|
While matter is recycled, ecosystems need a constant input of what?
|
[
"heating",
"food",
"light",
"energy"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of inorganic and organic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is a unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition.
Overview
The nutrient cycle is nature's recycling system. All forms of recycling have feedback loops that use energy in the process of putting material resources back into use. Recycling in ecology is regulated to a large extent during the process of decomposition. Ecosystems employ biodiversity in the food webs that recycle natural materials, such as mineral nutrients, which includes water. Recycling in natural systems is one of the many ecosystem services that sustain and contribute to the well-being of human societies.
There is much overlap between the terms for the biogeochemical cycle and nutrient cycle. Most textbooks integrate the two and seem to treat them as synonymous terms. However, the terms often appear independently. Nutrient cycle is more often used in direct reference to the idea of an intra-system cycle, where an ecosystem functions as a unit. From a practical point, it does not make sense to assess a terrestrial ecosystem by considering the full column of air above it as well as the great depths of Earth below it. While an ecosystem often has no clear boundary, as a working model it is practical to consider the functional community where the bulk of matter and energy transfer occurs. Nutrient cycling occurs in ecosystems that participate in the "larger biogeochemical cycles of the earth through a system of inputs and outputs."
Complete and closed loop
Ecosystems are capable of complete recycling. Complete recycling means that 100% of the waste material can be reconstituted inde
Document 1:::
Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into by-products, products and services which can be bought and sold to meet the needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the industrial processes that make modern society function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural resources, and with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is a young but growing multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering, economics, sociology, toxicology and the natural sciences.
Industrial ecology has been defined as a "systems-based, multidisciplinary discourse that seeks to understand emergent behavior of complex integrated human/natural systems". The field approaches issues of sustainability by examining problems from multiple perspectives, usually involving aspects of sociology, the environment, economy and technology. The name comes from the idea that the analogy of natural systems should be used as an aid in understanding how to design sustainable industrial systems.
Overview
Industrial ecology is concerned with the shifting of industrial process from linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes can become inputs for new processes.
Much of the research focuses on the following areas:
material and energy flow studies ("industrial metabolism")
dematerialization and decarbonization
technological change and the environment
life-cycle planning, design and assessment
design for the environment ("eco-design")
extended producer responsibility ("product stewardship")
eco-industrial parks
Document 2:::
Earth system science (ESS) is the application of systems science to the Earth. In particular, it considers interactions and 'feedbacks', through material and energy fluxes, between the Earth's sub-systems' cycles, processes and "spheres"—atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and even the magnetosphere—as well as the impact of human societies on these components. At its broadest scale, Earth system science brings together researchers across both the natural and social sciences, from fields including ecology, economics, geography, geology, glaciology, meteorology, oceanography, climatology, paleontology, sociology, and space science. Like the broader subject of systems science, Earth system science assumes a holistic view of the dynamic interaction between the Earth's spheres and their many constituent subsystems fluxes and processes, the resulting spatial organization and time evolution of these systems, and their variability, stability and instability. Subsets of Earth System science include systems geology and systems ecology, and many aspects of Earth System science are fundamental to the subjects of physical geography and climate science.
Definition
The Science Education Resource Center, Carleton College, offers the following description: "Earth System science embraces chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics and applied sciences in transcending disciplinary boundaries to treat the Earth as an integrated system. It seeks a deeper understanding of the physical, chemical, biological and human interactions that determine the past, current and future states of the Earth. Earth System science provides a physical basis for understanding the world in which we live and upon which humankind seeks to achieve sustainability".
Earth System science has articulated four overarching, definitive and critically important features of the Earth System, which include:
Variability: Many of the Earth System's natural 'modes' and variab
Document 3:::
Biobased economy, bioeconomy or biotechonomy is economic activity involving the use of biotechnology and biomass in the production of goods, services, or energy. The terms are widely used by regional development agencies, national and international organizations, and biotechnology companies. They are closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry and the capacity to study, understand, and manipulate genetic material that has been possible due to scientific research and technological development. This includes the application of scientific and technological developments to agriculture, health, chemical, and energy industries. The terms bioeconomy (BE) and bio-based economy (BBE) are sometimes used interchangeably. However, it is worth to distinguish them: the biobased economy takes into consideration the production of non-food goods, whilst bioeconomy covers both bio-based economy and the production and use of food and feed. More than 60 countries and regions have bioeconomy or bioscience-related strategies, of which 20 have published dedicated bioeconomy strategies in Africa, Asia, Europe, Oceania, and the Americas.
Definitions
Bioeconomy has large variety of definitions. The bioeconomy comprises those parts of the economy that use renewable biological resources from land and sea – such as crops, forests, fish, animals and micro-organisms – to produce food, health, materials, products, textiles and energy. The definitions and usage does however vary between different areas of the world.
An important aspect of the bioeconomy is understanding mechanisms and processes at the genetic, molecular, and genomic levels, and applying this understanding to creating or improving industrial processes, developing new products and services, and producing new energy. Bioeconomy aims to reduce our dependence on fossil natural resources, to prevent biodiversity loss and to create new economic growth and jobs that are in line with the principles of sustainable develo
Document 4:::
Plant ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology that studies the distribution and abundance of plants, the effects of environmental factors upon the abundance of plants, and the interactions among plants and between plants and other organisms. Examples of these are the distribution of temperate deciduous forests in North America, the effects of drought or flooding upon plant survival, and competition among desert plants for water, or effects of herds of grazing animals upon the composition of grasslands.
A global overview of the Earth's major vegetation types is provided by O.W. Archibold. He recognizes 11 major vegetation types: tropical forests, tropical savannas, arid regions (deserts), Mediterranean ecosystems, temperate forest ecosystems, temperate grasslands, coniferous forests, tundra (both polar and high mountain), terrestrial wetlands, freshwater ecosystems and coastal/marine systems. This breadth of topics shows the complexity of plant ecology, since it includes plants from floating single-celled algae up to large canopy forming trees.
One feature that defines plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process of a chemical reactions to create glucose and oxygen, which is vital for plant life. One of the most important aspects of plant ecology is the role plants have played in creating the oxygenated atmosphere of earth, an event that occurred some 2 billion years ago. It can be dated by the deposition of banded iron formations, distinctive sedimentary rocks with large amounts of iron oxide. At the same time, plants began removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, thereby initiating the process of controlling Earth's climate. A long term trend of the Earth has been toward increasing oxygen and decreasing carbon dioxide, and many other events in the Earth's history, like the first movement of life onto land, are likely tied to this sequence of events.
One of the early classic books on plant ecology was written by J.E. Weaver and F.E. Clements. It
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
While matter is recycled, ecosystems need a constant input of what?
A. heating
B. food
C. light
D. energy
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9153
|
multiple_choice
|
What nest of cells protect the egg as it matures in the ovary?
|
[
"the clump",
"the epidermis",
"the follicle",
"the tube"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The larger ovarian follicles consist of an external fibrovascular coat, connected with the surrounding stroma of the ovary by a network of blood vessels, and an internal coat, which consists of several layers of nucleated cells, called the membrana granulosa. It contains numerous granulosa cells.
At one part of the mature follicle the cells of the membrana granulosa are collected into a mass which projects into the cavity of the follicle. This is termed the discus proligerus.
Document 1:::
The germinal epithelium is the epithelial layer of the seminiferous tubules of the testicles. It is also known as the wall of the seminiferous tubules. The cells in the epithelium are connected via tight junctions.
There are two types of cells in the germinal epithelium. The large Sertoli cells (which are not dividing) function as supportive cells to the developing sperm. The second cell type are the cells belonging to the spermatogenic cell lineage. These develop to eventually become sperm cells (spermatozoon). Typically, the spermatogenic cells will make four to eight layers in the germinal epithelium.
Document 2:::
Oogenesis, ovogenesis, or oögenesis is the differentiation of the ovum (egg cell) into a cell competent to further develop when fertilized. It is developed from the primary oocyte by maturation. Oogenesis is initiated in the embryonic stage.
Oogenesis in non-human mammals
In mammals, the first part of oogenesis starts in the germinal epithelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles, the functional unit of the ovary.
Oogenesis consists of several sub-processes: oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form an ovum (oogenesis proper). Folliculogenesis is a separate sub-process that accompanies and supports all three oogenetic sub-processes.
Oogonium —(Oocytogenesis)—> Primary Oocyte —(Meiosis I)—> First Polar body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte —(Meiosis II)—> Second Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovum
Oocyte meiosis, important to all animal life cycles yet unlike all other instances of animal cell division, occurs completely without the aid of spindle-coordinating centrosomes.
The creation of oogonia
The creation of oogonia traditionally doesn't belong to oogenesis proper, but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis, which, in the female human, begins with the processes of folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis. Oogonia enter meiosis during embryonic development, becoming oocytes. Meiosis begins with DNA replication and meiotic crossing over. It then stops in early prophase.
Maintenance of meiotic arrest
Mammalian oocytes are maintained in meiotic prophase arrest for a very long time—months in mice, years in humans. Initially the arrest is due to lack of sufficient cell cycle proteins to allow meiotic progression. However, as the oocyte grows, these proteins are synthesized, and meiotic arrest becomes dependent on cyclic AMP. The cyclic AMP is generated by the oocyte by adenylyl cyclase in the oocyte membrane. The adenylyl cyclase is kept active by a constitutively active G-protein-coupled
Document 3:::
The germ cell nest (germ-line cyst) forms in the ovaries during their development. The nest consists of multiple interconnected oogonia formed by incomplete cell division. The interconnected oogonia are surrounded by somatic cells called granulosa cells. Later on in development, the germ cell nests break down through invasion of granulosa cells. The result is individual oogonia surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells. There is also a comparative germ cell nest structure in the developing spermatogonia, with interconnected intracellular cytoplasmic bridges.
Formation of germ cell nests
Prior to meiosis primordial germ cells (PGCs) migrate to the gonads and mitotically divide along the genital ridge in clusters or nests of cells referred to as germline cysts or germ cell nests. The understating of germ cell nest formation is limited. However, invertebrate models, especially drosophila have provided insight into the mechanisms surrounding formation. In females, it is suggested that cysts form from dividing progenitor cells. During this cyst formation, 4 rounds of division with incomplete cytokinesis occur resulting in cystocytes that are joined by intercellular bridges, also known as ring canals.
Rodent PGCs migrate to the gonads and mitotically divide at embryonic day (E) 10.5. It is at this stage they switch from complete to incomplete cytokinesis during the mitotic cycle from E10.5-E14.5. Germ cell nests emerge following consecutive divisions of progenitor cells resulting from cleavage furrows arresting and forming intercellular bridges. The intercellular bridges are crucial in maintaining effective communication. They ensure meiosis begins immediately after the mitotic cyst formation cycle is complete. In females, mitosis will end at E14.5 and meiosis will commence. However, It is possible that germ cells may travel to the gonads and cluster together forming nests after their arrival or form through cellular aggregation.
Function
Most of our understan
Document 4:::
Chorionic villi are villi that sprout from the chorion to provide maximal contact area with maternal blood.
They are an essential element in pregnancy from a histomorphologic perspective, and are, by definition, a product of conception. Branches of the umbilical arteries carry embryonic blood to the villi. After circulating through the capillaries of the villi, blood returns to the embryo through the umbilical vein. Thus, villi are part of the border between maternal and fetal blood during pregnancy.
Structure
Villi can also be classified by their relations:
Floating villi float freely in the intervillous space. They exhibit a bi-layered epithelium consisting of cytotrophoblasts with overlaying syncytium (syncytiotrophoblast).
Anchoring (stem) villi stabilize the mechanical integrity of the placental-maternal interface.
Development
The chorion undergoes rapid proliferation and forms numerous processes, the chorionic villi, which invade and destroy the uterine decidua and at the same time absorb from it nutritive materials for the growth of the embryo. They undergo several stages, depending on their composition.
Until about the end of the second month of pregnancy, the villi cover the entire chorion, and are almost uniform in size—but after then, they develop unequally.
Microanatomy
The bulk of the villi consist of connective tissues that contain blood vessels. Most of the cells in the connective tissue core of the villi are fibroblasts. Macrophages known as Hofbauer cells are also present.
Clinical significance
Use for prenatal diagnosis
In 1983, an Italian biologist named Giuseppe Simoni discovered a new method of prenatal diagnosis using chorionic villi.
Stem cell
Chorionic villi are a rich source of stem cells. Biocell Center, a biotech company managed by Giuseppe Simoni, is studying and testing these types of stem cells. Chorionic stem cells, like amniotic stem cells, are uncontroversial multipotent stem cells.
Infections
Recent studies indicate th
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What nest of cells protect the egg as it matures in the ovary?
A. the clump
B. the epidermis
C. the follicle
D. the tube
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3413
|
multiple_choice
|
An alternative to inclusive fitness is group selection, a type of what scenario where small groups of organisms of the same species are effectively acting as single (perhaps colonial) organisms?
|
[
"combination",
"evolutionary",
"molecular",
"introductory"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A unit of selection is a biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organization (for example, an entity such as: a self-replicating molecule, a gene, a cell, an organism, a group, or a species) that is subject to natural selection. There is debate among evolutionary biologists about the extent to which evolution has been shaped by selective pressures acting at these different levels.
There is debate over the relative importance of the units themselves. For instance, is it group or individual selection that has driven the evolution of altruism? Where altruism reduces the fitness of individuals, individual-centered explanations for the evolution of altruism become complex and rely on the use of game theory, for instance; see kin selection and group selection. There also is debate over the definition of the units themselves, and the roles for selection and replication, and whether these roles may change in the course of evolution.
Fundamental theory
Two useful introductions to the fundamental theory underlying the unit of selection issue and debate, which also present examples of multi-level selection from the entire range of the biological hierarchy (typically with entities at level N-1 competing for increased representation, i.e., higher frequency, at the immediately higher level N, e.g., organisms in populations or cell lineages in organisms), are Richard Lewontin's classic piece The Units of Selection and John Maynard-Smith and Eörs Szathmáry's co-authored book, The Major Transitions in Evolution. As a theoretical introduction to units of selection, Lewontin writes:
The generality of the principles of natural selection means that any entities in nature that have variation, reproduction, and heritability may evolve. ...the principles can be applied equally to genes, organisms, populations, species, and at opposite ends of the scale, prebiotic molecules and ecosystems." (1970, pp. 1-2)
Elisabeth Lloyd's book The Structure and Confirmation of Evolutio
Document 1:::
Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. Evolution holds that all species are related and gradually change over generations. In a population, the genetic variations affect the phenotypes (physical characteristics) of an organism. These changes in the phenotypes will be an advantage to some organisms, which will then be passed onto their offspring. Some examples of evolution in species over many generations are the peppered moth and flightless birds. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics, and paleontology.
The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. Moreover, the newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryogenesis is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis.
Subfields
Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of biological organization, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by perceived taxonomic group, with fields such as zoology, botany, and microbiology, reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution, and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with evolution
Document 2:::
This is a list of topics in evolutionary biology.
A
abiogenesis – adaptation – adaptive mutation – adaptive radiation – allele – allele frequency – allochronic speciation – allopatric speciation – altruism – : anagenesis – anti-predator adaptation – applications of evolution – aposematism – Archaeopteryx – aquatic adaptation – artificial selection – atavism
B
Henry Walter Bates – biological organisation – Brassica oleracea – breed
C
Cambrian explosion – camouflage – Sean B. Carroll – catagenesis – gene-centered view of evolution – cephalization – Sergei Chetverikov – chronobiology – chronospecies – clade – cladistics – climatic adaptation – coalescent theory – co-evolution – co-operation – coefficient of relationship – common descent – convergent evolution – creation–evolution controversy – cultivar – conspecific song preference
D
Darwin (unit) – Charles Darwin – Darwinism – Darwin's finches – Richard Dawkins – directed mutagenesis – Directed evolution – directional selection – Theodosius Dobzhansky – dog breeding – domestication – domestication of the horse
E
E. coli long-term evolution experiment – ecological genetics – ecological selection – ecological speciation – Endless Forms Most Beautiful – endosymbiosis – error threshold (evolution) – evidence of common descent – evolution – evolutionary arms race – evolutionary capacitance
Evolution: of ageing – of the brain – of cetaceans – of complexity – of dinosaurs – of the eye – of fish – of the horse – of insects – of human intelligence – of mammalian auditory ossicles – of mammals – of monogamy – of sex – of sirenians – of tetrapods – of the wolf
evolutionary developmental biology – evolutionary dynamics – evolutionary game theory – evolutionary history of life – evolutionary history of plants – evolutionary medicine – evolutionary neuroscience – evolutionary psychology – evolutionary radiation – evolutionarily stable strategy – evolutionary taxonomy – evolutionary tree – evolvability – experimental evol
Document 3:::
Modularity refers to the ability of a system to organize discrete, individual units that can overall increase the efficiency of network activity and, in a biological sense, facilitates selective forces upon the network. Modularity is observed in all model systems, and can be studied at nearly every scale of biological organization, from molecular interactions all the way up to the whole organism.
Evolution of Modularity
The exact evolutionary origins of biological modularity has been debated since the 1990s. In the mid 1990s, Günter Wagner argued that modularity could have arisen and been maintained through the interaction of four evolutionary modes of action:
[1] Selection for the rate of adaptation: If different complexes evolve at different rates, then those evolving more quickly reach fixation in a population faster than other complexes. Thus, common evolutionary rates could be forcing the genes for certain proteins to evolve together while preventing other genes from being co-opted unless there is a shift in evolutionary rate.
[2] Constructional selection: When a gene exists in many duplicated copies, it may be maintained because of the many connections it has (also termed pleiotropy). There is evidence that this is so following whole genome duplication, or duplication at a single locus. However, the direct relationship that duplication processes have with modularity has yet to be directly examined.
[3] Stabilizing selection: While seeming antithetical to forming novel modules, Wagner maintains that it is important to consider the effects of stabilizing selection as it may be "an important counter force against the evolution of modularity". Stabilizing selection, if ubiquitously spread across the network, could then be a "wall" that makes the formation of novel interactions more difficult and maintains previously established interactions. Against such strong positive selection, other evolutionary forces acting on the network must exist, with gaps of relaxed
Document 4:::
Adaptive type – in evolutionary biology – is any population or taxon which have the potential for a particular or total occupation of given free of underutilized home habitats or position in the general economy of nature. In evolutionary sense, the emergence of new adaptive type is usually a result of adaptive radiation certain groups of organisms in which they arise categories that can effectively exploit temporary, or new conditions of the environment.
Such evolutive units with its distinctive – morphological and anatomical, physiological and other characteristics, i.e. genetic and adjustments (feature) have a predisposition for an occupation certain home habitats or position in the general nature economy.
Simply, the adaptive type is one group organisms whose general biological properties represent a key to open the entrance to the observed adaptive zone in the observed natural ecological complex.
Adaptive types are spatially and temporally specific. Since the frames of general biological properties these types of substantially genetic are defined between, in effect the emergence of new adaptive types of the corresponding change in population genetic structure and eternal contradiction between the need for optimal adapted well the conditions of living environment, while maintaining genetic variation for survival in a possible new circumstances.
For example, the specific place in the economy of nature existed millions of years before the appearance of human type. However, just when the process of evolution of primates (order Primates) reached a level that is able to occupy that position, it is open, and then (in leaving world) an unprecedented acceleration increasingly spreading. Culture, in the broadest sense, is a key adaptation of adaptive type type of Homo sapiens the occupation of existing adaptive zone through work, also in the broadest sense of the term.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
An alternative to inclusive fitness is group selection, a type of what scenario where small groups of organisms of the same species are effectively acting as single (perhaps colonial) organisms?
A. combination
B. evolutionary
C. molecular
D. introductory
Answer:
|
|
sciq-797
|
multiple_choice
|
The tidal forces near what celestial phenomena are so great they can actually tear matter from a companion star?
|
[
"dwarf star",
"black holes",
"large holes",
"wormholes"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A tidal disruption event (TDE) is an astronomical phenomenon that occurs when a star approaches sufficiently close to a supermassive black hole (SMBH) to be pulled apart by the black hole's tidal force, experiencing spaghettification. A portion of the star's mass can be captured into an accretion disk around the black hole (if the star is on a parabolic orbit), resulting in a temporary flare of electromagnetic radiation as matter in the disk is consumed by the black hole. According to early papers, tidal disruption events should be an inevitable consequence of massive black holes' activity hidden in galaxy nuclei, whereas later theorists concluded that the resulting explosion or flare of radiation from the accretion of the stellar debris could be a unique signpost for the presence of a dormant black hole in the center of a normal galaxy. Sometimes a star can survive the encounter with an SMBH, and a remnant is formed. These events are termed partial TDEs.
History
Physicist John A. Wheeler suggested that the breakup of a star in the ergosphere of a rotating black hole could induce acceleration of the released gas to relativistic speeds by the so-called "tube of toothpaste effect". Wheeler succeeded in applying the relativistic generalization of the classical Newtonian tidal disruption problem to the neighbourhood of a Schwarzschild or Kerr black hole. However, these early works restricted their attention to incompressible star models or to stars penetrating slightly into the Roche radius, conditions in which the tides would have small amplitude.
In 1976, astronomers Juhan Frank and Martin J. Rees of the Cambridge Institute of Astronomy explored the possibility of black holes at the centers of galaxies and globular clusters, defining a critical radius under which stars are disturbed and swallowed by the black hole, suggesting that it is possible to observe these events in certain galaxies. But at the time, the English researchers did not propose any precise model o
Document 1:::
MAXI J1659-152 is a rapidly rotating black hole/star system, discovered by NASA's Swift space telescope on September 25, 2010. On March 19, 2013, ESA's XMM-Newton space telescope helped to identify a star and a black hole that orbit each other at the rate of once every 2.4 hours.
The black hole and the star orbit their common center of mass. Because the star is the lighter object, it lies farther from this point and has to "travel around its larger orbit at a breakneck speed of two million kilometers per hour", 500 to 600 km/s, or about 20 times Earth's orbital velocity. The star was the fastest moving star ever seen in an X-ray binary system until the discovery of system 47 Tuc X9. On the other hand, the black hole orbits at 'only' .
The black hole in this compact pairing is at least three times more massive than the Sun, while its red dwarf companion star has a mass only 20% that of the Sun. The pair is separated by roughly a million kilometers – for comparison the distance to the Sun from Earth is about 150 million kilometers.
See also
MAXI (ISS Experiment)
S4716
Document 2:::
The Blandford–Znajek process is a mechanism for the extraction of energy from a rotating black hole, introduced by Roger Blandford and Roman Znajek in 1977. This mechanism is the most preferred description of how astrophysical jets are formed around spinning supermassive black holes. This is one of the mechanisms that power quasars, or rapidly accreting supermassive black holes. Generally speaking, it was demonstrated that the power output of the accretion disk is significantly larger than the power output extracted directly from the hole, through its ergosphere. Hence, the presence (or not) of a poloidal magnetic field around the black hole is not determinant in its overall power output. It was also suggested that the mechanism plays a crucial role as a central engine for a gamma-ray burst.
Physics of the mechanism
As in the Penrose process, the ergosphere plays an important role in the Blandford–Znajek process. In order to extract energy and angular momentum from the black hole, the electromagnetic field around the hole must be modified by magnetospheric currents. In order to drive such currents, the electric field needs to not be screened, and consequently the vacuum field created within the ergosphere by distant sources must have an unscreened component. The most favored way to provide this is an e± pair cascade in a strong electric and radiation field. As the ergosphere causes the magnetosphere inside it to rotate, the outgoing flux of angular momentum results in extraction of energy from the black hole.
The Blandford–Znajek process requires an accretion disc with a strong poloidal magnetic field around a spinning black hole. The magnetic field extracts spin energy, and the power can be estimated as the energy density at the speed of light cylinder times area:
where B is the magnetic field strength, is the Schwarzschild radius, and ω is the angular velocity.
See also
Penrose process, another mechanism to extract energy from a black hole
Hawking radia
Document 3:::
The theorized habitability of red dwarf systems is determined by a large number of factors. Modern evidence indicates that planets in red dwarf systems are unlikely to be habitable, due to their low stellar flux, high probability of tidal locking and thus likely lack of magnetospheres and atmospheres, small circumstellar habitable zones and the high stellar variation experienced by planets of red dwarf stars, impeding their planetary habitability. However, the ubiquity and longevity of red dwarfs could provide ample opportunity to realize any small possibility of habitability.
A major impediment to life developing in these systems is the intense tidal heating caused by the proximity of planets to their host red dwarfs. Other tidal effects reduce the probability of life around red dwarfs, such as the extreme temperature differences created by one side of habitable-zone planets permanently facing the star, and the other perpetually turned away and lack of planetary axial tilts. Still, a planetary atmosphere may redistribute the heat, making temperatures more uniform. Non-tidal factors further reduce the prospects for life in red-dwarf systems, such as extreme stellar variation, spectral energy distributions shifted to the infrared relative to the Sun, (though a planetary magnetic field could protect from these flares) and small circumstellar habitable zones due to low light output.
There are, however, a few factors that could increase the likelihood of life on red dwarf planets. Intense cloud formation on the star-facing side of a tidally locked planet may reduce overall thermal flux and drastically reduce equilibrium temperature differences between the two sides of the planet. In addition, the sheer number of red dwarfs statistically increases the probability that there might exist habitable planets orbiting some of them. Red dwarfs account for about 85% of stars in the Milky Way and the vast majority of stars in spiral and elliptical galaxies. There are expected t
Document 4:::
AT2019qiz is a tidal disruption event (TDE) that occurred at a distance of 215 millions light years (65 megaparsec), from Earth. It is the nearest TDE discovered to date. It was discovered in September 2019 by observations in ultraviolet, optical, X-ray and radio wavelengths made at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) situated in Chile and was presented in October 2020 by research published in the monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. It involves a star with a sun-like mass and a black hole with a mass of around 106 solar masses. The TDE appears very young and increasing in brightness. The encounter tore away half of the mass of the star and threw debris at a speed of 10,000 km/s, comparable to that observed in supernova explosions.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The tidal forces near what celestial phenomena are so great they can actually tear matter from a companion star?
A. dwarf star
B. black holes
C. large holes
D. wormholes
Answer:
|
|
sciq-6340
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the most abundant biochemical compound, making up the cell walls of plants?
|
[
"cellulose",
"cytoplasm",
"magnesium",
"mitochondria"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Xylan (; ) (CAS number: 9014-63-5) is a type of hemicellulose, a polysaccharide consisting mainly of xylose residues. It is found in plants, in the secondary cell walls of dicots and all cell walls of grasses. Xylan is the third most abundant biopolymer on Earth, after cellulose and chitin.
Composition
Xylans are polysaccharides made up of β-1,4-linked xylose (a pentose sugar) residues with side branches of α-arabinofuranose and/or α-glucuronic acids. On the basis of substituted groups xylan can be categorized into three classes i) glucuronoxylan (GX) ii) neutral arabinoxylan (AX) and iii) glucuronoarabinoxylan (GAX). In some cases contribute to cross-linking of cellulose microfibrils and lignin through ferulic acid residues.
Occurrence
Plant cell structure
Xylans play an important role in the integrity of the plant cell wall and increase cell wall recalcitrance to enzymatic digestion; thus, they help plants to defend against herbivores and pathogens (biotic stress). Xylan also plays a significant role in plant growth and development. Typically, xylans content in hardwoods is 10-35%, whereas they are 10-15% in softwoods. The main xylan component in hardwoods is O-acetyl-4-O-methylglucuronoxylan, whereas arabino-4-O-methylglucuronoxylans are a major component in softwoods. In general, softwood xylans differ from hardwood xylans by the lack of acetyl groups and the presence of arabinose units linked by α-(1,3)-glycosidic bonds to the xylan backbone.
Algae
Some macrophytic green algae contain xylan (specifically homoxylan) especially those within the Codium and Bryopsis genera where it replaces cellulose in the cell wall matrix. Similarly, it replaces the inner fibrillar cell-wall layer of cellulose in some red algae.
Document 1:::
Epicuticular wax is a waxy coating which covers the outer surface of the plant cuticle in land plants. It may form a whitish film or bloom on leaves, fruits and other plant organs. Chemically, it consists of hydrophobic organic compounds, mainly straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons with or without a variety of substituted functional groups. The main functions of the epicuticular wax are to decrease surface wetting and moisture loss. Other functions include reflection of ultraviolet light, assisting in the formation of an ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning surface and acting as an anti-climb surface.
Chemical composition
Common constituents of epicuticular wax are predominantly straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons that may be saturated or unsaturated and contain a variety of functional groups, such as -hydroxyl, carboxyl, and -ketoyl at the terminal position. This broadens the spectrum of wax composition to fatty acids, primary alcohols, and aldehydes; if the substitution occurs at the mid-chain, it will result in β-diketones and secondary alcohols. Other major components of epicuticular waxes are long-chain n-alkanoic acids such as C24, C26, and C28.
These waxes can be composed of a variety of compounds which differ between plant species. Wax tubules and wax platelets often have chemical as well as morphological differences. Tubules can be separated into two groups; the first primarily containing secondary alcohols, and the second containing β-diketones. Platelets are either dominated by triterpenoids, alkanes, aldehydes, esters, secondary alcohols, or flavonoids. However, chemical composition is not diagnostic of a tubule or platelet, as this does not determine the morphology.
Paraffins occur in leaves of peas and cabbages, for example. Leaves of carnauba palm and banana feature alkyl esters. The asymmetrical secondary alcohol 10-nonacosanol appears in most gymnosperms such as Ginkgo biloba and Sitka spruce as well as many of the Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae
Document 2:::
Ergastic substances are non-protoplasmic materials found in cells. The living protoplasm of a cell is sometimes called the bioplasm and distinct from the ergastic substances of the cell. The latter are usually organic or inorganic substances that are products of metabolism, and include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds that can aid the organism in defense, maintenance of cellular structure, or just substance storage. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell wall.
Carbohydrates
Reserve carbohydrate of plants are the derivatives of the end products of photosynthesis. Cellulose and starch are the main ergastic substances of plant cells. Cellulose is the chief component of the cell wall, and starch occurs as a reserve material in the protoplasm.
Starch, as starch grains, arise almost exclusively in plastids, especially leucoplasts and amyloplasts.
Proteins
Although proteins are the main component of living protoplasm, proteins can occur as inactive, ergastic bodies—in an amorphous or crystalline (or crystalloid) form. A well-known amorphous ergastic protein is gluten.
Fats and oils
Fats (lipids) and oils are widely distributed in plant tissues. Substances related to fats—waxes, suberin, and cutin—occur as protective layers in or on the cell wall.
Crystals
Animals eliminate excess inorganic materials; plants mostly deposit such material in their tissues. Such mineral matter is mostly salts of calcium and anhydrides of silica.
Raphides are a type of elongated crystalline form of calcium oxalate aggregated in bundles within a plant cell. Because of the needle-like form, large numbers in the tissue of, say, a leaf can render the leaf unpalatable to herbivores (see Dieffenbachia and taro).
Druse
Cystolith
Document 3:::
The secondary cell wall is a structure found in many plant cells, located between the primary cell wall and the plasma membrane. The cell starts producing the secondary cell wall after the primary cell wall is complete and the cell has stopped expanding.
Secondary cell walls provide additional protection to cells and rigidity and strength to the larger plant. These walls are constructed of layered sheaths of cellulose microfibrils, wherein the fibers are in parallel within each layer. The inclusion of lignin makes the secondary cell wall less flexible and less permeable to water than the primary cell wall. In addition to making the walls more resistant to degradation, the hydrophobic nature of lignin within these tissues is essential for containing water within the vascular tissues that carry it throughout the plant.
The secondary cell wall consists primarily of cellulose, along with other polysaccharides, lignin, and glycoprotein. It sometimes consists of three distinct layers - S1, S2 and S3 - where the direction of the cellulose microfibrils differs between the layers. The direction of the microfibrils is called microfibril angle (MFA). In the secondary cell wall of fibres of trees a low microfibril angle is found in the S2-layer, while S1 and S3-layers show a higher MFA . However, the MFA can also change depending on the loads on the tissue. It has been shown that in reaction wood the MFA in S2-layer can vary. Tension wood has a low MFA, meaning that the microfibril is oriented parallel to the axis of the fibre. In compression wood the MFA is high and reaches up to 45°. These variations influence the mechanical properties of the cell wall.
The secondary cell wall has different ratios of constituents compared to the primary wall. An example of this is that secondary wall in wood contains polysaccharides called xylan, whereas the primary wall contains the polysaccharide xyloglucan.
The cells fraction in secondary walls is also higher. Pectins may also be a
Document 4:::
Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA, double stranded macromolecule that carries the hereditary information of the cell and found in all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence.
Examples include macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, biomolecular complexes such as a ribosome, and structures such as membranes, and organelles. While the majority of cellular components are located within the cell itself, some may exist in extracellular areas of an organism.
Cellular components may also be called biological matter or biological material. Most biological matter has the characteristics of soft matter, being governed by relatively small energies. All known life is made of biological matter. To be differentiated from other theoretical or fictional life forms, such life may be called carbon-based, cellular, organic, biological, or even simply living – as some definitions of life exclude hypothetical types of biochemistry.
See also
Cell (biology)
Cell biology
Biomolecule
Organelle
Tissue (biology)
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20130918033010/http://bioserv.fiu.edu/~walterm/FallSpring/review1_fall05_chap_cell3.htm
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the most abundant biochemical compound, making up the cell walls of plants?
A. cellulose
B. cytoplasm
C. magnesium
D. mitochondria
Answer:
|
|
sciq-5602
|
multiple_choice
|
Human culture is related to evolutionary theory in the discipline of what?
|
[
"psychopathology",
"sociobiology",
"ethnology",
"astrology"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Evolutionary educational psychology is the study of the relation between inherent folk knowledge and abilities and accompanying inferential and attributional biases as these influence academic learning in evolutionarily novel cultural contexts, such as schools and the industrial workplace. The fundamental premises and principles of this discipline are presented below.
Premises
The premises of evolutionary educational psychology state there are:
(a) aspects of mind and brain that have evolved to draw the individuals’ attention to and facilitate the processing of social (folk psychology), biological (folk biology), physical (folk physics) information patterns that facilitated survival or reproductive outcomes during human evolution (Cosmides & Tooby, 1994; Geary, 2005; Gelman, 1990; Pinker, 1997; Shepard, 1994; Simon, 1956);
(b) although plastic to some degree, these primary abilities are inherently constrained to the extent associated information patterns tended to be consistent across generations and within lifetimes (e.g., Caramazza & Shelton, 1998; Geary & Huffman, 2002);
(c) other aspects of mind and brain evolved to enable the mental generation of potential future social, ecological, or climatic conditions and enable rehearsal of behaviors to cope with variation in these conditions, and are now known as general fluid intelligence, or gF (including skill at everyday reasoning/problem solving; Chiappe & MacDonald, 2005; Geary, 2005; Mithen, 1996); and
(d) children are inherently motivated to learn in folk domains, with the associated attentional and behavioral biases resulting in experiences that automatically and implicitly flesh out and adapt these systems to local conditions (Gelman, 1990; Gelman & Williams, 1998; Gelman, 2003).
Principles
The principles of evolutionary educational psychology represent the foundational assumptions for an evolutionary educational psychology. The gist is knowledge and expertise that is useful in the cultural milieu or ecolo
Document 1:::
Human biology is an interdisciplinary area of academic study that examines humans through the influences and interplay of many diverse fields such as genetics, evolution, physiology, anatomy, epidemiology, anthropology, ecology, nutrition, population genetics, and sociocultural influences. It is closely related to the biomedical sciences, biological anthropology and other biological fields tying in various aspects of human functionality. It wasn't until the 20th century when biogerontologist, Raymond Pearl, founder of the journal Human Biology, phrased the term "human biology" in a way to describe a separate subsection apart from biology.
It is also a portmanteau term that describes all biological aspects of the human body, typically using the human body as a type organism for Mammalia, and in that context it is the basis for many undergraduate University degrees and modules.
Most aspects of human biology are identical or very similar to general mammalian biology. In particular, and as examples, humans :
maintain their body temperature
have an internal skeleton
have a circulatory system
have a nervous system to provide sensory information and operate and coordinate muscular activity.
have a reproductive system in which they bear live young and produce milk.
have an endocrine system and produce and eliminate hormones and other bio-chemical signalling agents
have a respiratory system where air is inhaled into lungs and oxygen is used to produce energy.
have an immune system to protect against disease
Excrete waste as urine and feces.
History
The start of integrated human biology started in the 1920's, caused by Charles Darwin's theories, such as evolution, were re-conceptualized by many scientists. Human attributes, such as child growth and genetics, were put into question and thus human biology was created.
Typical human attributes
The key aspects of human biology are those ways in which humans are substantially different from other mammals.
Humans ha
Document 2:::
Cultural competency training is an instruction to achieve cultural competence and the ability to appreciate and interpret accurately other cultures. In an increasingly globalised world, training in cultural sensitivity to others' cultural identities (which may include race, sexuality, religion and other factors) and how to achieve cultural competence is being practised in the workplace, particularly in healthcare, schools and in other settings.
Cultural competence
Cultural competence refers to an ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures. Cultural competence comprises four components: (a) awareness of one's own cultural worldview, (b) attitude towards cultural differences, (c) knowledge of different cultural practices and worldviews, and (d) cross-cultural skills. Developing cultural competence results in an ability to understand, communicate with, and effectively interact with people across cultures and leads to a 15% decrease in miscommunication. Cultural competence has a fundamental importance in every aspect of a work field and that includes school and government setting. With the amalgamation of different cultures in American society, it has become imperative for teachers and government employees to have some form of cultural competency training.
To attain the goal of cultural competence, cultural sensitivity must be understood. Cultural sensitivity is the knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of other cultures, and includes "the willingness, ability and sensitivity required to understand people with different backgrounds", and acceptance of diversity. Crucially, it "refers to being aware that cultural differences and similarities between people exist without assigning them a value",
Background
To cater to an increasingly globalized society, many hospitals, organizations, and employers may choose to implement forms of cultural competency training methods to enhance transparency between language, values, beliefs, and cultural differen
Document 3:::
Cultural selection theory is the study of cultural change modelled on theories of evolutionary biology. Cultural selection theory has so far never been a separate discipline. However it has been proposed that
human culture exhibits key Darwinian evolutionary properties, and "the structure of a science of cultural evolution should share fundamental features with the structure of the science of biological evolution".
In addition to Darwin's work the term historically covers a diverse range of theories from both the sciences and the humanities including those of Lamark, politics and economics e.g. Bagehot, anthropology e.g. Edward B. Tylor, literature e.g. Ferdinand Brunetière, evolutionary ethics e.g. Leslie Stephen, sociology e.g. Albert Keller, anthropology e.g. Bronislaw Malinowski, Biosciences e.g.
Alex Mesoudi, geography e.g.
Richard Ormrod, sociobiology and biodiversity e.g. E.O. Wilson, computer programming e.g. Richard Brodie, and other fields e.g. Neoevolutionism, and Evolutionary archaeology.
Outline
Crozier suggests that Cultural Selection emerges from three bases: Social contagion theory, Evolutionary epistemology, and Memetics.
This theory is an extension of memetics. In memetics, memes, much like biology's genes, are informational units passed through generations of culture. However, unlike memetics, cultural selection theory moves past these isolated "memes" to encompass selection processes, including continuous and quantitative parameters. Two other approaches to cultural selection theory are social contagion and evolutionary epistemology.
Social contagion theory’s epidemiological approach construes social entities as analogous to parasites that are transmitted virally through a population of biological organisms. Evolutionary epistemology's focus lies in causally connecting evolutionary biology and rationality by generating explanations for why traits for rational behaviour or thought patterns would have been selected for in a species’ evolut
Document 4:::
Center for Evolutionary Psychology (CEP) is a research center co-founded and co-directed by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides and is affiliated with the University of California, Santa Barbara.
The center is meant to provide research support and comprehensive training in the field of evolutionary psychology. The goals of the center are to facilitate the discovery of the adaptations that characterize the species-wide architecture of the human mind and brain and to explore how socio-cultural phenomena can be explained with reference to these adaptations.
The extramural board of the center are made up of Irven DeVore, Paul Ekman, Michael Gazzaniga, Steven Pinker and Roger Shepard.
See also
Leda Cosmides
Evolutionary psychology
John Tooby
External links
University of California, Santa Barbara
Evolutionary psychology
Research institutes in California
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Human culture is related to evolutionary theory in the discipline of what?
A. psychopathology
B. sociobiology
C. ethnology
D. astrology
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8767
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the most common type of organic compound?
|
[
"carbohydrates",
"hydrocarbons",
"proteins",
"lipids"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
This is an index of lists of molecules (i.e. by year, number of atoms, etc.). Millions of molecules have existed in the universe since before the formation of Earth. Three of them, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen were necessary for the growth of life. Although humanity had always been surrounded by these substances, it has not always known what they were composed of.
By century
The following is an index of list of molecules organized by time of discovery of their molecular formula or their specific molecule in case of isomers:
List of compounds
By number of carbon atoms in the molecule
List of compounds with carbon number 1
List of compounds with carbon number 2
List of compounds with carbon number 3
List of compounds with carbon number 4
List of compounds with carbon number 5
List of compounds with carbon number 6
List of compounds with carbon number 7
List of compounds with carbon number 8
List of compounds with carbon number 9
List of compounds with carbon number 10
List of compounds with carbon number 11
List of compounds with carbon number 12
List of compounds with carbon number 13
List of compounds with carbon number 14
List of compounds with carbon number 15
List of compounds with carbon number 16
List of compounds with carbon number 17
List of compounds with carbon number 18
List of compounds with carbon number 19
List of compounds with carbon number 20
List of compounds with carbon number 21
List of compounds with carbon number 22
List of compounds with carbon number 23
List of compounds with carbon number 24
List of compounds with carbon numbers 25-29
List of compounds with carbon numbers 30-39
List of compounds with carbon numbers 40-49
List of compounds with carbon numbers 50+
Other lists
List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
List of gases
List of molecules with unusual names
See also
Molecule
Empirical formula
Chemical formula
Chemical structure
Chemical compound
Chemical bond
Coordination complex
L
Document 1:::
Phyllocladane is a tricyclic diterpane which is generally found in gymnosperm resins. It has a formula of C20H34 and a molecular weight of 274.4840. As a biomarker, it can be used to learn about the gymnosperm input into a hydrocarbon deposit, and about the age of the deposit in general. It indicates a terrogenous origin of the source rock. Diterpanes, such as Phyllocladane are found in source rocks as early as the middle and late Devonian periods, which indicates any rock containing them must be no more than approximately 360 Ma. Phyllocladane is commonly found in lignite, and like other resinites derived from gymnosperms, is naturally enriched in 13C. This enrichment is a result of the enzymatic pathways used to synthesize the compound.
The compound can be identified by GC-MS. A peak of m/z 123 is indicative of tricyclic diterpenoids in general, and phyllocladane in particular is further characterized by strong peaks at m/z 231 and m/z 189. Presence of phyllocladane and its relative abundance to other tricyclic diterpanes can be used to differentiate between various oil fields.
Document 2:::
A simple lipid is a fatty acid ester of different alcohols and carries no other substance. These lipids belong to a heterogeneous class of predominantly nonpolar compounds, mostly insoluble in water, but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents such as chloroform and benzene.
Simple lipids: esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
a. Fats: esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state. Fats are also called triglycerides because all the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are esterified.
b. Waxes: Solid esters of long-chain fatty acids such as palmitic acid with aliphatic or alicyclic higher molecular weight monohydric alcohols. Waxes are water-insoluble due to the weakly polar nature of the ester group.
See also
Lipid
Lipids
Document 3:::
Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether lipids (GDGTs) are a class of membrane lipids synthesized by archaea and some bacteria, making them useful biomarkers for these organisms in the geological record. Their presence, structure, and relative abundances in natural materials can be useful as proxies for temperature, terrestrial organic matter input, and soil pH for past periods in Earth history. Some structural forms of GDGT form the basis for the TEX86 paleothermometer. Isoprenoid GDGTs, now known to be synthesized by many archaeal classes, were first discovered in extremophilic archaea cultures. Branched GDGTs, likely synthesized by acidobacteriota, were first discovered in a natural Dutch peat sample in 2000.
Chemical structure
The two primary structural classes of GDGTs are isoprenoid (isoGDGT) and branched (brGDGT), which refer to differences in the carbon skeleton structures. Isoprenoid compounds are numbered -0 through -8, with the numeral representing the number of cyclopentane rings present within the carbon skeleton structure. The exception is crenarchaeol, a Nitrososphaerota product with one cyclohexane ring moiety in addition to four cyclopentane rings. Branched GDGTs have zero, one, or two cyclopentane moieties and are further classified based the positioning of their branches. They are numbered with roman numerals and letters, with -I indicating structures with four modifications (i.e. either a branch or a cyclopentane moiety), -II indicating structures with five modifications, and -III indicating structures with six modifications. The suffix a after the roman numeral means one of its modifications is a cyclopentane moiety; b means two modifications are cyclopentane moieties. For example, GDGT-IIb is a compound with three branches and two cyclopentane moieties (a total of five modifications). GDGTs form as monolayers and with ether bonds to glycerol, as opposed to as bilayers and with ester bonds as is the case in eukaryotes and most bacteria.
Biologi
Document 4:::
GRE Subject Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology was a standardized exam provided by ETS (Educational Testing Service) that was discontinued in December 2016. It is a paper-based exam and there are no computer-based versions of it. ETS places this exam three times per year: once in April, once in October and once in November. Some graduate programs in the United States recommend taking this exam, while others require this exam score as a part of the application to their graduate programs. ETS sends a bulletin with a sample practice test to each candidate after registration for the exam. There are 180 questions within the biochemistry subject test.
Scores are scaled and then reported as a number between 200 and 990; however, in recent versions of the test, the maximum and minimum reported scores have been 760 (corresponding to the 99 percentile) and 320 (1 percentile) respectively. The mean score for all test takers from July, 2009, to July, 2012, was 526 with a standard deviation of 95.
After learning that test content from editions of the GRE® Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCM) Test has been compromised in Israel, ETS made the decision not to administer this test worldwide in 2016–17.
Content specification
Since many students who apply to graduate programs in biochemistry do so during the first half of their fourth year, the scope of most questions is largely that of the first three years of a standard American undergraduate biochemistry curriculum. A sampling of test item content is given below:
Biochemistry (36%)
A Chemical and Physical Foundations
Thermodynamics and kinetics
Redox states
Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers
Solutions and equilibria
Solute-solvent interactions
Chemical interactions and bonding
Chemical reaction mechanisms
B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics
Small molecules
Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids)
Supramolecular complexes (e.g.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the most common type of organic compound?
A. carbohydrates
B. hydrocarbons
C. proteins
D. lipids
Answer:
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|
sciq-2506
|
multiple_choice
|
Neurons are classified based on the direction in which they carry what?
|
[
"neurotransmitters",
"metabolism impulses",
"energy",
"nerve impulses"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Non-spiking neurons are neurons that are located in the central and peripheral nervous systems and function as intermediary relays for sensory-motor neurons. They do not exhibit the characteristic spiking behavior of action potential generating neurons.
Non-spiking neural networks are integrated with spiking neural networks to have a synergistic effect in being able to stimulate some sensory or motor response while also being able to modulate the response.
Discovery
Animal models
There are an abundance of neurons that propagate signals via action potentials and the mechanics of this particular kind of transmission is well understood. Spiking neurons exhibit action potentials as a result of a neuron characteristic known as membrane potential. Through studying these complex spiking networks in animals, a neuron that did not exhibit characteristic spiking behavior was discovered. These neurons use a graded potential to transmit data as they lack the membrane potential that spiking neurons possess. This method of transmission has a huge effect on the fidelity, strength, and lifetime of the signal. Non-spiking neurons were identified as a special kind of interneuron and function as an intermediary point of process for sensory-motor systems. Animals have become substantial models for understanding more about non-spiking neural networks and the role they play in an animal’s ability to process information and its overall function. Animal models indicate that the interneurons modulate directional and posture coordinating behaviors.
Crustaceans and arthropods such as the crawfish have created many opportunities to learn about the modulatory role that these neurons have in addition to their potential to be modulated regardless of their lack of exhibiting spiking behavior. Most of the known information about nonspiking neurons is derived from animal models. Studies focus on neuromuscular junctions and modulation of abdominal motor cells. Modulatory interneurons are neurons
Document 1:::
Neural coding (or neural representation) is a neuroscience field concerned with characterising the hypothetical relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses and the relationship among the electrical activity of the neurons in the ensemble. Based on the theory that
sensory and other information is represented in the brain by networks of neurons, it is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog information.
Overview
Neurons have an ability uncommon among the cells of the body to propagate signals rapidly over large distances by generating characteristic electrical pulses called action potentials: voltage spikes that can travel down axons. Sensory neurons change their activities by firing sequences of action potentials in various temporal patterns, with the presence of external sensory stimuli, such as light, sound, taste, smell and touch. Information about the stimulus is encoded in this pattern of action potentials and transmitted into and around the brain. Beyond this, specialized neurons, such as those of the retina, can communicate more information through graded potentials. This differs from action potentials because information about the strength of a stimulus directly correlates with the strength of the neurons output. The signal decays much faster for graded potentials, necessitating short inter-neuron distances and high neuronal density. The advantage of graded potentials are higher information rates capable of encoding more states (i.e. higher fidelity) than spiking neurons.
Although action potentials can vary somewhat in duration, amplitude and shape, they are typically treated as identical stereotyped events in neural coding studies. If the brief duration of an action potential (about 1ms) is ignored, an action potential sequence, or spike train, can be characterized simply by a series of all-or-none point events in time. The lengths of interspike intervals (ISIs) between two successive spikes in a spi
Document 2:::
In neuroscience, nerve conduction velocity (CV) is the speed at which an electrochemical impulse propagates down a neural pathway. Conduction velocities are affected by a wide array of factors, which include age, sex, and various medical conditions. Studies allow for better diagnoses of various neuropathies, especially demyelinating diseases as these conditions result in reduced or non-existent conduction velocities. CV is an important aspect of nerve conduction studies.
Normal conduction velocities
Ultimately, conduction velocities are specific to each individual and depend largely on an axon's diameter and the degree to which that axon is myelinated, but the majority of 'normal' individuals fall within defined ranges.
Nerve impulses are extremely slow compared to the speed of electricity, where the electric field can propagate with a speed on the order of 50–99% of the speed of light; however, it is very fast compared to the speed of blood flow, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s (432 km/h or 275 mph).
Different sensory receptors are innervated by different types of nerve fibers. Proprioceptors are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers, mechanoreceptors by type II and III sensory fibers, and nociceptors and thermoreceptors by type III and IV sensory fibers.
Normal impulses in peripheral nerves of the legs travel at 40–45 m/s, and those in peripheral nerves of the arms at 50–65 m/s.
Largely generalized, normal conduction velocities for any given nerve will be in the range of 50–60 m/s.
Testing methods
Nerve conduction studies
Nerve conduction velocity is just one of many measurements commonly made during a nerve conduction study (NCS). The purpose of these studies is to determine whether nerve damage is present and how severe that damage may be.
Nerve conduction studies are performed as follows:
Two electrodes are attached to the subject's skin over the nerve being tested.
Electrical impulses are sent through one elec
Document 3:::
The following diagram is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the human nervous system:
Human nervous system – the part of the human body that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary movement; the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system and regulating involuntary functions; and the enteric nervous system, a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.
Evolution of the human nervous system
Evolution of nervous systems
Evolution of human intelligence
Evolution of the human brain
Paleoneurology
Some branches of science that study the human nervous system
Neuroscience
Neurology
Paleoneurology
Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system and includes the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal cord
Brain
Brain – center of the nervous system.
Outline of the human brain
List of regions of the human brain
Principal regions of the vertebrate brain:
Peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.
Sensory system
A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.
List of sensory systems
Sensory neuron
Perception
Visual system
Auditory system
Somatosensory system
Vestibular system
Olfactory system
Taste
Pain
Components of the nervous system
Neuron
I
Document 4:::
In neuroethology and the study of learning, anti-Hebbian learning describes a particular class of learning rule by which synaptic plasticity can be controlled. These rules are based on a reversal of Hebb's postulate, and therefore can be simplistically understood as dictating reduction of the strength of synaptic connectivity between neurons following a scenario in which a neuron directly contributes to production of an action potential in another neuron.
Evidence from neuroethology
Neuroethological study has provided strong evidence for the existence of a system which adheres to an anti-Hebbian learning rule. Research on the mormyrid electric fish has demonstrated that the electrosensory lateral-line lobe (ELL) receives sensory input from knollenorgans (electroreceptive sensory organs) which utilize a self-generated electrical discharge (called an EOD; electric organ discharge) to extract information from the environment about objects in close proximity to the fish.
In addition to information from sensory receptors, the ELL receives a signal from the area of the brain responsible for initiating the electrical discharges, known as the EOD command nucleus. This efference copy diverges, transmitted through two separate pathways, before the signals converge along with electrosensory input on Purkinje-like Medium Ganglion cells in the ELL. These cells receive information through extensive apical dendritic projections from parallel fibers that signal the transmission of an order to release an EOD. These cells also receive information from neurons conveying electrosensory information.
Important to anti-Hebbian learning, the synapses between the parallel fibers and the apical dendrites of Medium Ganglion cells show a specific pattern of synaptic plasticity. Should activation of the dendrites by parallel fibers occur in a short time period preceding the initiation of a dendritic broad spike (an action potential which travels through the dendrites), the strength of the co
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Neurons are classified based on the direction in which they carry what?
A. neurotransmitters
B. metabolism impulses
C. energy
D. nerve impulses
Answer:
|
|
sciq-5796
|
multiple_choice
|
Processes in which matter changes between liquid and solid states are freezing and?
|
[
"boiling",
"melting",
"transpiration",
"steaming"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds.
Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not change their chemical composition. This contrasts with the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible using physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered by allowing the water to evaporate.
A physical change involves a change in physical properties. Examples of physical properties include melting, transition to a gas, change of strength, change of durability, changes to crystal form, textural change, shape, size, color, volume and density.
An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to form a knife blade. A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered which changes the hardness of the steel, its flexibility and its ability to maintain a sharp edge.
Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change.
Examples
Heating and cooling
Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation.
Magnetism
Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is reve
Document 1:::
In chemistry, thermodynamics, and other related fields, a phase transition (or phase change) is the physical process of transition between one state of a medium and another. Commonly the term is used to refer to changes among the basic states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas, and in rare cases, plasma. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given medium, certain properties of the medium change as a result of the change of external conditions, such as temperature or pressure. This can be a discontinuous change; for example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to its boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in volume. The identification of the external conditions at which a transformation occurs defines the phase transition point.
Types of phase transition
States of matter
Phase transitions commonly refer to when a substance transforms between one of the four states of matter to another. At the phase transition point for a substance, for instance the boiling point, the two phases involved - liquid and vapor, have identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist. Below the boiling point, the liquid is the more stable state of the two, whereas above the boiling point the gaseous form is the more stable.
Common transitions between the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a single component, due to the effects of temperature and/or pressure are identified in the following table:
For a single component, the most stable phase at different temperatures and pressures can be shown on a phase diagram. Such a diagram usually depicts states in equilibrium. A phase transition usually occurs when the pressure or temperature changes and the system crosses from one region to another, like water turning from liquid to solid as soon as the temperature drops below the freezing point. In exception to the usual case, it is sometimes possible to change the state of a system dia
Document 2:::
In materials science, liquefaction is a process that generates a liquid from a solid or a gas or that generates a non-liquid phase which behaves in accordance with fluid dynamics.
It occurs both naturally and artificially. As an example of the latter, a "major commercial application of liquefaction is the liquefaction of air to allow separation of the constituents, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases." Another is the conversion of solid coal into a liquid form usable as a substitute for liquid fuels.
Geology
In geology, soil liquefaction refers to the process by which water-saturated, unconsolidated sediments are transformed into a substance that acts like a liquid, often in an earthquake. Soil liquefaction was blamed for building collapses in the city of Palu, Indonesia in October 2018.
In a related phenomenon, liquefaction of bulk materials in cargo ships may cause a dangerous shift in the load.
Physics and chemistry
In physics and chemistry, the phase transitions from solid and gas to liquid (melting and condensation, respectively) may be referred to as liquefaction. The melting point (sometimes called liquefaction point) is the temperature and pressure at which a solid becomes a liquid. In commercial and industrial situations, the process of condensing a gas to liquid is sometimes referred to as liquefaction of gases.
Coal
Coal liquefaction is the production of liquid fuels from coal using a variety of industrial processes.
Dissolution
Liquefaction is also used in commercial and industrial settings to refer to mechanical dissolution of a solid by mixing, grinding or blending with a liquid.
Food preparation
In kitchen or laboratory settings, solids may be chopped into smaller parts sometimes in combination with a liquid, for example in food preparation or laboratory use. This may be done with a blender, or liquidiser in British English.
Irradiation
Liquefaction of silica and silicate glasses occurs on electron beam irradiation of nanos
Document 3:::
States of matter are distinguished by changes in the properties of matter associated with external factors like pressure and temperature. States are usually distinguished by a discontinuity in one of those properties: for example, raising the temperature of ice produces a discontinuity at 0°C, as energy goes into a phase transition, rather than temperature increase. The three classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. In the 20th century, however, increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal conditions.
Low-energy states of matter
Classical states
Solid: A solid holds a definite shape and volume without a container. The particles are held very close to each other.
Amorphous solid: A solid in which there is no far-range order of the positions of the atoms.
Crystalline solid: A solid in which atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in regular order.
Plastic crystal: A molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom.
Quasicrystal: A solid in which the positions of the atoms have long-range order, but this is not in a repeating pattern.
Liquid: A mostly non-compressible fluid. Able to conform to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure.
Liquid crystal: Properties intermediate between liquids and crystals. Generally, able to flow like a liquid but exhibiting long-range order.
Gas: A compressible fluid. Not only will a gas take the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.
Modern states
Plasma: Free charged particles, usually in equal numbers, such as ions and electrons. Unlike gases, plasma may self-generate magnetic fields and electric currents and respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic forces. Plasma is very uncommon on Earth (except for the ionosphere), although it is the mo
Document 4:::
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas state, without passing through the liquid state. Sublimation is an endothermic process that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substance's triple point in its phase diagram, which corresponds to the lowest pressure at which the substance can exist as a liquid. The reverse process of sublimation is deposition or desublimation, in which a substance passes directly from a gas to a solid phase. Sublimation has also been used as a generic term to describe a solid-to-gas transition (sublimation) followed by a gas-to-solid transition (deposition). While vaporization from liquid to gas occurs as evaporation from the surface if it occurs below the boiling point of the liquid, and as boiling with formation of bubbles in the interior of the liquid if it occurs at the boiling point, there is no such distinction for the solid-to-gas transition which always occurs as sublimation from the surface.
At normal pressures, most chemical compounds and elements possess three different states at different temperatures. In these cases, the transition from the solid to the gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state. The pressure referred to is the partial pressure of the substance, not the total (e.g. atmospheric) pressure of the entire system. Thus, any solid can sublimate if its vapour pressure is higher than the surrounding partial pressure of the same substance, and in some cases sublimates at an appreciable rate (e.g. water ice just below 0 °C). For some substances, such as carbon and arsenic, sublimation is much easier than evaporation from the melt, because the pressure of their triple point is very high, and it is difficult to obtain them as liquids.
The term sublimation refers to a physical change of state and is not used to describe the transformation of a solid to a gas in a chemical reaction. For example, the dissociation on heating of solid ammonium chloride into hydrogen chlori
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Processes in which matter changes between liquid and solid states are freezing and?
A. boiling
B. melting
C. transpiration
D. steaming
Answer:
|
|
sciq-6195
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the name for an underground layer of rock that is saturated with groundwater?
|
[
"gradient",
"artesian well",
"aqueous cavity",
"aquifer"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The Géotechnique lecture is an biennial lecture on the topic of soil mechanics, organised by the British Geotechnical Association named after its major scientific journal Géotechnique.
This should not be confused with the annual BGA Rankine Lecture.
List of Géotechnique Lecturers
See also
Named lectures
Rankine Lecture
Terzaghi Lecture
External links
ICE Géotechnique journal
British Geotechnical Association
Document 1:::
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.
Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances.
Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Over 2 billion people rely on it as their primary water source worldwide.
Human use of groundwater causes environmental prob
Document 2:::
FEFLOW (Finite Element subsurface FLOW system) is a computer program for simulating groundwater flow, mass transfer and heat transfer in porous media and fractured media. The program uses finite element analysis to solve the groundwater flow equation of both saturated and unsaturated conditions as well as mass and heat transport, including fluid density effects and chemical kinetics for multi-component reaction systems.
History
The software was firstly introduced by Hans-Jörg G. Diersch in 1979, see and. He developed the software in the Institute of Mechanics of the German Academy of Sciences Berlin up to 1990. In 1990 he was one of the founders of WASY GmbH of Berlin, Germany (the acronym WASY translates from German to Institute for Water Resources Planning and Systems Research), where FEFLOW has been developed further, continuously improved and extended as a commercial simulation package. In 2007 the shares of WASY GmbH were purchased by DHI. The WASY company has been fused and FEFLOW became part of the DHI Group software portfolio. FEFLOW is being further developed at DHI by an international team. Software distribution and services are worldwide.
Technology
The program is offered in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions for Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems.
FEFLOW's theoretical basis is fully described in the comprehensive FEFLOW book. It covers a wide range of physical and computational issues in the field of porous/fractured-media modeling. The book starts with a more general theory for all relevant flow and transport phenomena on the basis of the continuum mechanics, systematically develops the basic framework for important classes of problems (e.g., multiphase/multispecies non-isothermal flow and transport phenomena, variably saturated porous media, free-surface groundwater flow, aquifer-averaged equations, discrete feature elements), introduces finite element methods for solving the basic multidimensional balance equations, in detail discusses a
Document 3:::
Rock mechanics is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rocks and rock masses.
Compared to geology, it is the branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock and rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment.
Background
Rock mechanics is part of a much broader subject of geomechanics, which is concerned with the mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils.
Rock mechanics is concerned with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of structures built in or on rock. The structure could include many objects such as a drilling well, a mine shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a repository component, or a building. Rock mechanics is used in many engineering disciplines, but is primarily used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical, Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering.
Rock mechanics answers questions such as, "is reinforcement necessary for a rock, or will it be able to handle whatever load it is faced with?" It also includes the design of reinforcement systems, such as rock bolting patterns.
Assessing the Project Site
Before any work begins, the construction site must be investigated properly to inform of the geological conditions of the site. Field observations, deep drilling, and geophysical surveys, can all give necessary information to develop a safe construction plan and create a site geological model. The level of investigation conducted at this site depends on factors such as budget, time frame, and expected geological conditions.
The first step of the investigation is the collection of maps and aerial photos to analyze. This can provide information about potential sinkholes, landslides, erosion, etc. Maps can provide information on the rock type of the site, geological structure, and boundaries between bedrock units.
Boreholes
Creating a borehole is a technique that consists of drilling through the ground in various areas at various depths, to get a bett
Document 4:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the name for an underground layer of rock that is saturated with groundwater?
A. gradient
B. artesian well
C. aqueous cavity
D. aquifer
Answer:
|
|
sciq-6124
|
multiple_choice
|
What type of image is formed when light rays diverge in front of a mirror?
|
[
"reversed",
"fake",
"large",
"virtual"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The study of image formation encompasses the radiometric and geometric processes by which 2D images of 3D objects are formed. In the case of digital images, the image formation process also includes analog to digital conversion and sampling.
Imaging
The imaging process is a mapping of an object to an image plane. Each point on the image corresponds to a point on the object. An illuminated object will scatter light toward a lens and the lens will collect and focus the light to create the image. The ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object is the magnification. The spatial extent of the image surface and the focal length of the lens determines the field of view of the lens. Image formation of mirror these have a center of curvature and its focal length of the mirror is half of the center of curvature.
Illumination
An object may be illuminated by the light from an emitting source such as the sun, a light bulb or a Light Emitting Diode. The light incident on the object is reflected in a manner dependent on the surface properties of the object. For rough surfaces, the reflected light is scattered in a manner described by the Bi-directional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) of the surface. The BRDF of a surface is the ratio of the exiting power per square meter per steradian (radiance) to the incident power per square meter (irradiance). The BRDF typically varies with angle and may vary with wavelength, but a specific important case is a surface that has constant BRDF. This surface type is referred to as Lambertian and the magnitude of the BRDF is R/π, where R is the reflectivity of the surface. The portion of scattered light that propagates toward the lens is collected by the entrance pupil of the imaging lens over the field of view.
Field of view and imagery
The Field of view of a lens is limited by the size of the image plane and the focal length of the lens. The relationship between a location on the image and a location on t
Document 1:::
In optics, an erect image is one that appears right-side up. An image is formed when rays from a point on the original object meet again after passing through an optical system. In an erect image, directions are the same as those in the object, in contrast to an inverted image. It is one of the properties of images formed in a plane mirror.
Some telescopes and other devices such as the camera obscura present an inverted image on the viewing surface. Mirrors and compound prism elements can be used to achieve an erect image instead.
Optics
Document 2:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 3:::
A METATOY is a sheet, formed by a two-dimensional array of small, telescopic optical components, that switches the path of transmitted light rays. METATOY is an acronym for "metamaterial for rays", representing a number of analogies with metamaterials; METATOYs even satisfy a few definitions of metamaterials, but are certainly not metamaterials in the usual sense. When seen from a distance, the view through each individual telescopic optical component acts as one pixel of the view through the METATOY as a whole. In the simplest case, the individual optical components are all identical; the METATOY then behaves like a homogeneous, but pixellated, window that can have very unusual optical properties (see the picture of the view through a METATOY).
METATOYs are usually treated within the framework of geometrical optics; the light-ray-direction change performed by a METATOY is described by a mapping of the direction of any incoming light ray onto the corresponding direction of the outgoing ray. The light-ray-direction mappings can be very general. METATOYs can even create pixellated light-ray fields that could not exist in non-pixellated form due to a condition imposed by wave optics.
Much of the work on METATOYs is currently theoretical, backed up by computer simulations. A small number of experiments have been performed to date; more experimental work is ongoing.
Examples of METATOYs
Telescopic optical components that have been used as the unit cell of two-dimensional arrays, and which therefore form homogeneous METATOYs, include a pair of identical lenses (focal length ) that share the same optical axis (perpendicular to the METATOY) and that are separated by , that is they share one focal plane (a special case of a refracting telescope with angular magnification -1); a pair of non-identical lenses (focal lengths and ) that share the same optical axis (again perpendicular to the METATOY) and that are separated by , that is they again share one focal plane (
Document 4:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What type of image is formed when light rays diverge in front of a mirror?
A. reversed
B. fake
C. large
D. virtual
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9934
|
multiple_choice
|
Do tropical regions have very high or very low rates of immigration?
|
[
"medium",
"too high",
"very high",
"low"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research.
Americas
Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970)
Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government.
Human and Social Biology (Caribbean)
Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment.
Human Biology Program at University of Toronto
The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications.
Asia
BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002)
BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New
Document 1:::
The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
Document 2:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 3:::
Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.
The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development.
Current status of girls and women in STEM education
Overall trends in STEM education
Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle.
Learning achievement in STEM education
Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and
Document 4:::
Tech City College (Formerly STEM Academy) is a free school sixth form located in the Islington area of the London Borough of Islington, England.
It originally opened in September 2013, as STEM Academy Tech City and specialised in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) and the Creative Application of Maths and Science. In September 2015, STEM Academy joined the Aspirations Academy Trust was renamed Tech City College. Tech City College offers A-levels and BTECs as programmes of study for students.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Do tropical regions have very high or very low rates of immigration?
A. medium
B. too high
C. very high
D. low
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8120
|
multiple_choice
|
While normal light microscopes can magnify objects up to about 1,500 times, what advanced instruments can magnify objects up to 1,000,000 times?
|
[
"magnetic microscopes",
"electron microscopes",
"micro microscopes",
"electric microscopes"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A comparison microscope is a device used to analyze side-by-side specimens. It consists of two microscopes connected by an optical bridge, which results in a split view window enabling two separate objects to be viewed simultaneously. This avoids the observer having to rely on memory when comparing two objects under a conventional microscope.
History
One of the first prototypes of a comparison microscope was developed in 1913 in Germany.
In 1929, using a comparison microscope adapted for forensic ballistics, Calvin Goddard and his partner Phillip Gravelle were able to absolve the Chicago Police Department of participation in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.
Col. Calvin H. Goddard
Philip O. Gravelle, a chemist, developed a comparison microscope for use in the identification of fired bullets and cartridge cases with the support and guidance of forensic ballistics pioneer Calvin Goddard. It was a significant advance in the science of firearms identification in forensic science. The firearm from which a bullet or cartridge case has been fired is identified by the comparison of the unique striae left on the bullet or cartridge case from the worn, machined metal of the barrel, breach block, extractor, or firing pin in the gun. It was Gravelle who mistrusted his memory. "As long as he could inspect only one bullet at a time with his microscope, and had to keep the picture of it in his memory until he placed the comparison bullet under the microscope, scientific precision could not be attained. He therefore developed the comparison microscope and Goddard made it work." Calvin Goddard perfected the comparison microscope and subsequently popularized its use. Sir Sydney Smith also appreciated the idea, emphasizing its importance in forensic science and firearms identification. He took the comparison microscope to Scotland and introduced it to the European scientists for firearms identification and other forensic science needs.
Modern comparison microscope
The modern inst
Document 1:::
The microscopic scale () is the scale of objects and events smaller than those that can easily be seen by the naked eye, requiring a lens or microscope to see them clearly. In physics, the microscopic scale is sometimes regarded as the scale between the macroscopic scale and the quantum scale. Microscopic units and measurements are used to classify and describe very small objects. One common microscopic length scale unit is the micrometre (also called a micron) (symbol: μm), which is one millionth of a metre.
History
Whilst compound microscopes were first developed in the 1590s, the significance of the microscopic scale was only truly established in the 1600s when Marcello Malphigi and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek microscopically observed frog lungs and microorganisms. As microbiology was established, the significance of making scientific observations at a microscopic level increased.
Published in 1665, Robert Hooke’s book Micrographia details his microscopic observations including fossils insects, sponges, and plants, which was possible through his development of the compound microscope. During his studies of cork, he discovered plant cells and coined the term ‘cell’.
Prior to the use of the micro- prefix, other terms were originally incorporated into the International metric system in 1795, such as centi- which represented a factor of 10^-2, and milli-, which represented a factor of 10^-3.
Over time the importance of measurements made at the microscopic scale grew, and an instrument named the Millionometre was developed by watch-making company owner Antoine LeCoultre in 1844. This instrument had the ability to precisely measure objects to the nearest micrometre.
The British Association for the Advancement of Science committee incorporated the micro- prefix into the newly established CGS system in 1873.
The micro- prefix was finally added to the official SI system in 1960, acknowledging measurements that were made at an even smaller level, denoting a factor of 10
Document 2:::
Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of something. This enlargement is quantified by a size ratio called optical magnification. When this number is less than one, it refers to a reduction in size, sometimes called de-magnification.
Typically, magnification is related to scaling up visuals or images to be able to see more detail, increasing resolution, using microscope, printing techniques, or digital processing. In all cases, the magnification of the image does not change the perspective of the image.
Examples of magnification
Some optical instruments provide visual aid by magnifying small or distant subjects.
A magnifying glass, which uses a positive (convex) lens to make things look bigger by allowing the user to hold them closer to their eye.
A telescope, which uses its large objective lens or primary mirror to create an image of a distant object and then allows the user to examine the image closely with a smaller eyepiece lens, thus making the object look larger.
A microscope, which makes a small object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, which is usually much smaller than the eyepiece.
A slide projector, which projects a large image of a small slide on a screen. A photographic enlarger is similar.
A zoom lens, a system of camera lens elements for which the focal length and angle of view can be varied.
Size ratio (optical magnification)
Optical magnification is the ratio between the apparent size of an object (or its size in an image) and its true size, and thus it is a dimensionless number. Optical magnification is sometimes referred to as "power" (for example "10× power"), although this can lead to confusion with optical power.
Linear or transverse magnification
For real images, such as images projected on a screen, size means a linear dimension (measured, for examp
Document 3:::
A microtome (from the Greek mikros, meaning "small", and temnein, meaning "to cut") is a cutting tool used to produce extremely thin slices of material known as sections, with the process being termed microsectioning. Important in science, microtomes are used in microscopy for the preparation of samples for observation under transmitted light or electron radiation.
Microtomes use steel, glass or diamond blades depending upon the specimen being sliced and the desired thickness of the sections being cut. Steel blades are used to prepare histological sections of animal or plant tissues for light microscopy. Glass knives are used to slice sections for light microscopy and to slice very thin sections for electron microscopy. Industrial grade diamond knives are used to slice hard materials such as bone, teeth and tough plant matter for both light microscopy and for electron microscopy. Gem-quality diamond knives are also used for slicing thin sections for electron microscopy.
Microtomy is a method for the preparation of thin sections for materials such as bones, minerals and teeth, and an alternative to electropolishing and ion milling. Microtome sections can be made thin enough to section a human hair across its breadth, with section thickness between 50 nm and 100 μm.
History
In the beginnings of light microscope development, sections from plants and animals were manually prepared using razor blades. It was found that to observe the structure of the specimen under observation it was important to make clean reproducible cuts on the order of 100 μm, through which light can be transmitted. This allowed for the observation of samples using light microscopes in a transmission mode.
One of the first devices for the preparation of such cuts was invented in 1770 by George Adams, Jr. (1750–1795) and further developed by Alexander Cummings. The device was hand operated, and the sample held in a cylinder and sections created from the top of the sample using a hand crank.
In
Document 4:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
While normal light microscopes can magnify objects up to about 1,500 times, what advanced instruments can magnify objects up to 1,000,000 times?
A. magnetic microscopes
B. electron microscopes
C. micro microscopes
D. electric microscopes
Answer:
|
|
sciq-6564
|
multiple_choice
|
How do plants grow?
|
[
"through cell growth and cell division",
"through mitosis and cell division",
"through pollination and cell division",
"through cell growth and sexual reproduction"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Plant embryonic development, also plant embryogenesis is a process that occurs after the fertilization of an ovule to produce a fully developed plant embryo. This is a pertinent stage in the plant life cycle that is followed by dormancy and germination. The zygote produced after fertilization must undergo various cellular divisions and differentiations to become a mature embryo. An end stage embryo has five major components including the shoot apical meristem, hypocotyl, root meristem, root cap, and cotyledons. Unlike the embryonic development in animals, and specifically in humans, plant embryonic development results in an immature form of the plant, lacking most structures like leaves, stems, and reproductive structures. However, both plants and animals including humans, pass through a phylotypic stage that evolved independently and that causes a developmental constraint limiting morphological diversification.
Morphogenic events
Embryogenesis occurs naturally as a result of single, or double fertilization, of the ovule, giving rise to two distinct structures: the plant embryo and the endosperm which go on to develop into a seed. The zygote goes through various cellular differentiations and divisions in order to produce a mature embryo. These morphogenic events form the basic cellular pattern for the development of the shoot-root body and the primary tissue layers; it also programs the regions of meristematic tissue formation. The following morphogenic events are only particular to eudicots, and not monocots.
Plant
Following fertilization, the zygote and endosperm are present within the ovule, as seen in stage I of the illustration on this page. Then the zygote undergoes an asymmetric transverse cell division that gives rise to two cells - a small apical cell resting above a large basal cell.
These two cells are very different, and give rise to different structures, establishing polarity in the embryo.
apical cellThe small apical cell is on the top and contains
Document 1:::
Important structures in plant development are buds, shoots, roots, leaves, and flowers; plants produce these tissues and structures throughout their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature tissues. Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues. By contrast, an animal embryo will very early produce all of the body parts that it will ever have in its life. When the animal is born (or hatches from its egg), it has all its body parts and from that point will only grow larger and more mature. However, both plants and animals pass through a phylotypic stage that evolved independently and that causes a developmental constraint limiting morphological diversification.
According to plant physiologist A. Carl Leopold, the properties of organization seen in a plant are emergent properties which are more than the sum of the individual parts. "The assembly of these tissues and functions into an integrated multicellular organism yields not only the characteristics of the separate parts and processes but also quite a new set of characteristics which would not have been predictable on the basis of examination of the separate parts."
Growth
A vascular plant begins from a single celled zygote, formed by fertilisation of an egg cell by a sperm cell. From that point, it begins to divide to form a plant embryo through the process of embryogenesis. As this happens, the resulting cells will organize so that one end becomes the first root while the other end forms the tip of the shoot. In seed plants, the embryo will develop one or more "seed leaves" (cotyledons). By the end of embryogenesis, the young plant will have all the parts necessary to begin in its life.
Once the embryo germinates from its seed or parent plant, it begins to produce additional organs (leaves, stems, and roots) through the process of organogenesis. New roots grow from root meristems located at the tip of the root, and new stems and leaves grow from shoot meristems located at the
Document 2:::
Primary growth in plants is growth that takes place from the tips of roots or shoots. It leads to lengthening of roots and stems and sets the stage for organ formation. It is distinguished from secondary growth that leads to widening. Plant growth takes place in well defined plant locations. Specifically, the cell division and differentiation needed for growth occurs in specialized structures called meristems. These consist of undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells) capable of cell division. Cells in the meristem can develop into all the other tissues and organs that occur in plants. These cells continue to divide until they differentiate and then lose the ability to divide. Thus, the meristems produce all the cells used for plant growth and function.
At the tip of each stem and root, an apical meristem adds cells to their length, resulting in the elongation of both. Examples of primary growth are the rapid lengthening growth of seedlings after they emerge from the soil and the penetration of roots deep into the soil. Furthermore, all plant organs arise ultimately from cell divisions in the apical meristems, followed by cell expansion and differentiation.
In contrast, a growth process that involves thickening of stems takes place within lateral meristems that are located throughout the length of the stems. The lateral meristems of larger plants also extend into the roots. This thickening is secondary growth and is needed to give mechanical support and stability to the plant.
The functions of a plant's growing tips – its apical (or primary) meristems – include: lengthening through cell division and elongation; organising the development of leaves along the stem; creating platforms for the eventual development of branches along the stem; laying the groundwork for organ formation by providing a stock of undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated cells that later develop into fully differentiated cells, thereby ultimately allowing the "spatial deployment
Document 3:::
A plantoid is a robot or synthetic organism designed to look, act and grow like a plant. The concept was first scientifically published in 2010 (although models of comparable systems controlled by neural networks date back to 2003) and has so far remained largely theoretical. Plantoids imitate plants through appearances and mimicking behaviors and internal processes (which function to keep the plant alive or to ensure its survival). A prototype for the European Commission is now in development by сonsortium of the following scientists: Dario Floreano, Barbara Mazzolai, Josep Samitier, Stefano Mancuso.
A plantoid incorporates an inherently distributed architecture consisting of autonomous and specialized modules. Modules can be modeled on plant parts such as the root cap and communicate to form a simple swarm intelligence. This kind of system may display great robustness and resilience. It is conjectured to be capable of energy harvesting and management, collective environmental awareness and many other functions.
In science fiction, while human-like robots (androids) are fairly frequent and animal-like biomorphic robots turn up occasionally, plantoids are quite rare. Exceptions occur in the novel Hearts, Hands and Voices (1992, US: The Broken Land) by Ian McDonald and the TV series Jikuu Senshi Spielban.
Systems and Processes
Like plants, plantoids position its roots and appendages (projecting parts of the plantoid) towards beneficial conditions that stimulate growth (i.e sunlight, ideal temperatures, areas with larger water concentration) and away from factors that bar growth. This occurs through a combination of information from its sensors and the plantoid reacting accordingly.
Sensors
The use of soft tactical sensors (devices that gather information based on the surrounding physical environment) allows the plantoid to navigate its way through its environment. These sensors relay information to the plantoid and produce signals, similar to how a computer ca
Document 4:::
Phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant morphology is useful in the visual identification of plants. Recent studies in molecular biology started to investigate the molecular processes involved in determining the conservation and diversification of plant morphologies. In these studies transcriptome conservation patterns were found to mark crucial ontogenetic transitions during the plant life cycle which may result in evolutionary constraints limiting diversification.
Scope
Plant morphology "represents a study of the development, form, and structure of plants, and, by implication, an attempt to interpret these on the basis of similarity of plan and origin". There are four major areas of investigation in plant morphology, and each overlaps with another field of the biological sciences.
First of all, morphology is comparative, meaning that the morphologist examines structures in many different plants of the same or different species, then draws comparisons and formulates ideas about similarities. When structures in different species are believed to exist and develop as a result of common, inherited genetic pathways, those structures are termed homologous. For example, the leaves of pine, oak, and cabbage all look very different, but share certain basic structures and arrangement of parts. The homology of leaves is an easy conclusion to make. The plant morphologist goes further, and discovers that the spines of cactus also share the same basic structure and development as leaves in other plants, and therefore cactus spines are homologous to leaves as well. This aspect of plant morphology overlaps with the study of plant evolution and paleobotany.
Secondly, plant morphology observes both the vegetative (somatic) structures of plants, as well as the reproductive str
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
How do plants grow?
A. through cell growth and cell division
B. through mitosis and cell division
C. through pollination and cell division
D. through cell growth and sexual reproduction
Answer:
|
|
sciq-7663
|
multiple_choice
|
Hfcs are used as a replacement for what?
|
[
"gases",
"cfcs",
"nitrofluorocarbons",
"pollutants"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The Timeline of the oil and gas industry in the United Kingdom is a selection of significant events in the history of the oil and gas sector in the United Kingdom.
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 3:::
Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low-volume pores that increase the surface area available for adsorption (which is not the same as absorption) or chemical reactions. Activation is analogous to making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Activated is sometimes replaced by active.
Due to its high degree of microporosity, one gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of as determined by gas adsorption. Charcoal, before activation, has a specific surface area in the range of . An activation level sufficient for useful application may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties.
Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks; waste from paper mills has been studied as a source. These bulk sources are converted into charcoal before being 'activated'. When derived from coal it is referred to as activated coal. Activated coke is derived from coke.
Uses
Activated carbon is used in methane and hydrogen storage, air purification, capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, decaffeination, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in respirators, filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of hydrogen chloride, edible electronics, and many other applications.
Industrial
One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing
Document 4:::
The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Hfcs are used as a replacement for what?
A. gases
B. cfcs
C. nitrofluorocarbons
D. pollutants
Answer:
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sciq-8371
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multiple_choice
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When lactose is present in the cell, what allows the lac genes to be expressed?
|
[
"binding of expressor protein",
"the addition of water",
"concentration of repressor protein",
"nonbinding of repressor protein"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
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Lactase persistence is the continued activity of the lactase enzyme in adulthood, allowing the digestion of lactose in milk. In most mammals, the activity of the enzyme is dramatically reduced after weaning. In some human populations though, lactase persistence has recently evolved as an adaptation to the consumption of nonhuman milk and dairy products beyond infancy. Lactase persistence is very high among northern Europeans, especially Irish people. Worldwide, most people are lactase non-persistent, and are affected by varying degrees of lactose intolerance as adults. However, lactase persistence and lactose intolerance do not always overlap.
Global distribution of the phenotype
The distribution of the lactase persistence (LP) phenotype, or the ability to digest lactose into adulthood, is not homogeneous in the world. Lactase persistence frequencies are highly variable. In Europe, the distribution of the lactase persistence phenotype is clinal, with frequencies ranging from 15–54% in the south-east to 89–96% in the north-west. For example, only 17% of Greeks and 14% of Sardinians are predicted to possess this phenotype, while around 80% of Finns and Hungarians and 100% of Irish people are predicted to be lactase persistent. Similarly, the frequency of lactase-persistence is clinal in India, a 2011 study of 2,284 individuals identifying a prevalence of LP in the Ror community, of Haryana, in the North West, of 48.95%, declining to 1.5% in the Andamanese, of the South East, and 0.8% in the Tibeto-Burman communities, of the North East.
High frequencies of lactase persistence are also found in some places in Sub-Saharan Africa and in the Middle East. But the most common situation is intermediate to low lactase persistence: intermediate (11 to 32%) in Central Asia, low (<=5%) in Native Americans, East Asians, most Chinese populations and some African populations.
In Africa, the distribution of lactase persistence is "patchy": high variations of frequency are observ
Document 1:::
The lactose operon (lac operon) is an operon required for the transport and metabolism of lactose in E. coli and many other enteric bacteria. Although glucose is the preferred carbon source for most bacteria, the lac operon allows for the effective digestion of lactose when glucose is not available through the activity of beta-galactosidase. Gene regulation of the lac operon was the first genetic regulatory mechanism to be understood clearly, so it has become a foremost example of prokaryotic gene regulation. It is often discussed in introductory molecular and cellular biology classes for this reason. This lactose metabolism system was used by François Jacob and Jacques Monod to determine how a biological cell knows which enzyme to synthesize. Their work on the lac operon won them the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1965.
Bacterial operons are polycistronic transcripts that are able to produce multiple proteins from one mRNA transcript. In this case, when lactose is required as a sugar source for the bacterium, the three genes of the lac operon can be expressed and their subsequent proteins translated: lacZ, lacY, and lacA. The gene product of lacZ is β-galactosidase which cleaves lactose, a disaccharide, into glucose and galactose. lacY encodes β-galactoside permease, a membrane protein which becomes embedded in the cytoplasmic membrane to enable the cellular transport of lactose into the cell. Finally, lacA encodes β-galactoside transacetylase.
It would be wasteful to produce enzymes when no lactose is available or if a preferable energy source such as glucose were available. The lac operon uses a two-part control mechanism to ensure that the cell expends energy producing the enzymes encoded by the lac operon only when necessary. In the absence of lactose, the lac repressor, lacI, halts production of the enzymes encoded by the lac operon. The lac repressor is always expressed, unless a co-inducer binds to it. In other words, it is transcribed only in the presence
Document 2:::
The lac repressor (LacI) is a DNA-binding protein that inhibits the expression of genes coding for proteins involved in the metabolism of lactose in bacteria. These genes are repressed when lactose is not available to the cell, ensuring that the bacterium only invests energy in the production of machinery necessary for uptake and utilization of lactose when lactose is present. When lactose becomes available, it is firstly converted into allolactose by β-Galactosidase (lacZ) in bacteria. The DNA binding ability of lac repressor bound with allolactose is inhibited due to allosteric regulation, thereby genes coding for proteins involved in lactose uptake and utilization can be expressed.
Function
The lac repressor (LacI) operates by a helix-turn-helix motif in its DNA-binding domain, binding base-specifically to the major groove of the operator region of the lac operon, with base contacts also made by residues of symmetry-related alpha helices, the "hinge" helices, which bind deeply in the minor groove. This bound repressor can reduce transcription of the Lac proteins by occluding the RNA polymerase binding site or by prompting DNA looping. When lactose is present, allolactose binds to the lac repressor, causing an allosteric change in its shape. In its changed state, the lac repressor is unable to bind tightly to its cognate operator. Thus, the gene is mostly off in the absence of inducer and mostly on in the presence of inducer, although the degree of gene expression depends on the number of repressors in the cell and on the repressor's DNA-binding affinity. Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) is a commonly used allolactose mimic which can be used to induce transcription of genes being regulated by lac repressor.
Structure
Structurally, the lac repressor protein is a homotetramer. More precisely, the tetramer contains two DNA-binding subunits composed of two monomers each (a dimer of dimers). Each monomer consists of four distinct regions:
An N-termin
Document 3:::
Delayed onset of lactation (DOL) describes the absence of copious milk secretion (onset of lactation) within the first 72 hours following childbirth. It affects around 20–40% of lactating women, the prevalence differs among distinct populations.
The onset of lactation (OL), also referred to as stage II lactogenesis or secretory activation, is one of the three stages of the milk production process. OL is the stage when plentiful production of milk is initiated following the delivery of a full-term infant. It is stimulated by an abrupt withdrawal of progesterone and elevation of prolactin levels after the complete expulsion of placenta. The other two stages of milk production are stage I lactogenesis and stage III lactogenesis. Stage I lactogenesis refers to the initiation of the mammary glands' synthetic capacity, indicated by the onset of colostrum production that takes place during pregnancy. Stage III lactogenesis refers to the continuous supply of mature milk from day nine postpartum, until weaning.
Late-onset of lactogenesis II can be provoked by a variety of pathophysiological, psychological, external and mixed causes. The delay of the process is associated with a range of complications such as excessive neonatal weight loss and early cessation of breastfeeding, which can lead to undesirable outcomes for the infant and the mother. These problems can be addressed by different interventions targeting the underlying cause of the delay.
Diagnosis
Women who experienced delayed OL reports the absence of typical onset signs, including breast swelling, breast heaviness and sense of breast milk "coming in" within the first 72 hours postpartum; nevertheless, some reports suggest that the sensation of "milk coming in (to the breasts)" is resultant of milk production overshoot instead.Clinically, obstetricians may look for biomarkers to determine the onset of lactation. Some common biomarkers for the determination of secretory activation include:
A drop in progesteron
Document 4:::
Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a complex and unique structure composed primarily of lipids and proteins that surrounds milk fat globule secreted from the milk producing cells of humans and other mammals. It is a source of multiple bioactive compounds, including phospholipids, glycolipids, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates that have important functional roles within the brain and gut.
Preclinical studies have demonstrated effects of MFGM-derived bioactive components on brain structure and function, intestinal development, and immune defense. Similarly, pediatric clinical trials have reported beneficial effects on cognitive and immune outcomes. In populations ranging from premature infants to preschool-age children, dietary supplementation with MFGM or its components has been associated with improvements in cognition and behavior, gut and oral bacterial composition, fever incidence, and infectious outcomes including diarrhea and otitis media.
MFGM may also play a role in supporting cardiovascular health by modulating cholesterol and fat uptake. Clinical trials in adult populations have shown that MFGM could positively affect markers associated with cardiovascular disease including lowering serum cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels as well as blood pressure.
Origin
MFGM secretion process in milk
Milk lipids are secreted in a unique manner by lactocytes, which are specialized epithelial cells within the alveoli of the lactating mammary gland.
The process takes place in multiple stages. First, fat synthesized within the endoplasmic reticulum accumulates in droplets between the inner and outer phospholipid monolayers of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. As these droplets increase in size, the two monolayers separate further and eventually pinch off. This leads to the surrounding of the droplet in a phospholipid monolayer that allows it to disperse within the aqueous cytoplasm. In the next stage, lipid droplets then migrate to the apical surface of the cell,
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
When lactose is present in the cell, what allows the lac genes to be expressed?
A. binding of expressor protein
B. the addition of water
C. concentration of repressor protein
D. nonbinding of repressor protein
Answer:
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sciq-1045
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multiple_choice
|
What type of invisible waves are used in microwaves?
|
[
"radiation",
"thermal",
"convection",
"electric"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering industrial, medical, and scientific applications of electromagnetic and microwaves from 0.1 to 100 GHz, including topics such as food processing, instrumentation, polymer technologies, microwave chemistry and systems design.
The journal is published jointly by the International Microwave Power Institute and Taylor & Francis. Its editor-in-chief is Juan Antonio Aguilar-Garib (Autonomous University of Nuevo León). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 1.5.
Document 1:::
Microwave welding is a plastic welding process that utilizes alternating electromagnetic fields in the microwave band to join thermoplastic base materials that are melted by the phenomenon of dielectric heating.
See also
Dielectric heating
Plastic welding
Radio-frequency welding
Document 2:::
Joseph Helszajn , (1934 — 11 October 2019) was Professor of Microwave Engineering at Heriot-Watt University. He was best known for his work on non-reciprocal microwave circuits and devices, such as yttrium iron garnet isolators and circulators. During his tenure, Helszajn has authored multiple engineering textbooks on non-reciprocal microwave devices.
Helszajn was born in Belgium in 1934 and emigrated to England in 1946. After obtaining a full technological certificate from Northern Polytechnic Institute in 1955, he obtained his M.S. degree from Santa Clara University in 1964. Helszajn has completed his doctoral degree in Leeds University in 1969. He was awarded the J.J. Thomson Medal by the Institution of Electrical Engineers in 1995, and elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 1996. He was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1997 Queen's Birthday Honours for services to engineering.
He died on 11 October 2019.
Selected publications
Books
Joseph Helszajn, Principles of Microwave Ferrite Engineering, Wiley, 1969
—, Nonreciprocal Microwave Junctions and Circulators, Wiley, 1975
—, Waveguide Junction Circulators: Theory and Practice, Wiley, 1998
—, Ridge Waveguides and passive Microwave Components, Wiley, 2000
—, The Stripline Circulator: Theory and Practice, Wiley, 2008
Journal articles
Document 3:::
Microwave transmission is the transmission of information by electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the microwave frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz (1 m - 1 mm wavelength) of the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwave signals are normally limited to the line of sight, so long-distance transmission using these signals requires a series of repeaters forming a microwave relay network. It is possible to use microwave signals in over-the-horizon communications using tropospheric scatter, but such systems are expensive and generally used only in specialist roles.
Although an experimental microwave telecommunication link across the English Channel was demonstrated in 1931, the development of radar in World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation of microwave communication. During the war, the British Army introduced the Wireless Set No. 10, which used microwave relays to multiplex eight telephone channels over long distances. A link across the English Channel allowed General Bernard Montgomery to remain in continual contact with his group headquarters in London.
In the post-war era, the development of microwave technology was rapid, which led to the construction of several transcontinental microwave relay systems in North America and Europe. In addition to carrying thousands of telephone calls at a time, these networks were also used to send television signals for cross-country broadcast, and later, computer data. Communication satellites took over the television broadcast market during the 1970s and 80s, and the introduction of long-distance fibre optic systems in the 1980s and especially 90s led to the rapid rundown of the relay networks, most of which are abandoned.
In recent years, there has been an explosive increase in use of the microwave spectrum by new telecommunication technologies such as wireless networks, and direct-broadcast satellites which broadcast television and radio directly into consumers' homes. Larger line-of-sight links are
Document 4:::
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques (T-MTT) is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal with a focus on that part of engineering and theory associated with microwave/millimeter-wave technology and components, electronic devices, guided wave structures and theory, electromagnetic theory, and Radio Frequency Hybrid and Monolithic Integrated Circuits, including mixed-signal circuits, from a few MHz to THz.
T-MTT is published by the IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society. T-MTT was established in 1953 as the Transactions of the IRE Professional Group on Microwave Theory and Techniques. From 1955 T-MTT was published as the IRE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques and was finally the current denomination since 1963.
The editors-in-chief is Jianguo Ma (Guangdong University of Technology). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 3.599.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What type of invisible waves are used in microwaves?
A. radiation
B. thermal
C. convection
D. electric
Answer:
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|
sciq-4567
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the fruiting body that occurs after two hyphae mate and form a mycelium with sporangia?
|
[
"fungus",
"yeast",
"mold",
"mushroom"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The life stage at which a fungus lives, grows, and develops, gathering nutrients and energy.
The fungus uses this stage to proliferate itself through asexually created mitotic spores.
Cycles through somatic hyphae, zoosporangia, zoospores, encystation & germination, and back to somatic hyphae.
Document 1:::
Suspensors are anatomical structures found in certain fungi and plants.
Fungi
In fungi, suspensors are filamentous structural formations having the function of holding a zygospore between two strains of hyphae.
Plants
In plants, suspensors are found in zygotes in angiosperms, connecting the endosperm to an embryo. Usually in dicots the suspensor cells divide transversally a few times to form a filamentous suspensor of 6-10 cells. The suspensor helps in pushing the embryo into the endosperm. The first cell of the suspensor towards the micropylar end becomes swollen and functions as a haustorium. The haustorium has wall ingrowths similar to those of a transfer cell. The last of the suspensors at the end of the embryo is known as hypophysis. Hypophysis later gives rise to the radicle and root cap. During embryo development in angiosperm seeds, normal development involves asymmetrical division of the unicellular embryo, inducing polarity. The smaller terminal cell divides to become the proembryo while the larger basal cell divides laterally to form the suspensor. The suspensor is analogous to a placental mammalian's umbilical cord.
Document 2:::
The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia (basidiomycetes) or paraphyses (ascomycetes). Cystidia are often important for microscopic identification. The subhymenium consists of the supportive hyphae from which the cells of the hymenium grow, beneath which is the hymenophoral trama, the hyphae that make up the mass of the hymenophore.
The position of the hymenium is traditionally the first characteristic used in the classification and identification of mushrooms. Below are some examples of the diverse types which exist among the macroscopic Basidiomycota and Ascomycota.
In agarics, the hymenium is on the vertical faces of the gills.
In boletes and polypores, it is in a spongy mass of downward-pointing tubes.
In puffballs, it is internal.
In stinkhorns, it develops internally and then is exposed in the form of a foul-smelling gel.
In cup fungi, it is on the concave surface of the cup.
In teeth fungi, it grows on the outside of tooth-like spines.
Gallery
Document 3:::
In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa.
Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions. Myxozoan spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula.
In plants, spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium of a diploid sporophyte. Under favourable conditions the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a zygote, which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of generations.
The spores of seed plants are produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units, the seeds and pollen grains.
Definition
The term spore derives from the ancient Greek word σπορά spora, meaning "seed, sowing", related to σπόρος , "sowing", and σπείρειν , "to sow".
In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a "gamete" is that a spore will germinate and develop into a sporeling, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form a zygote before developing further.
The main difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete for
Document 4:::
Plectenchyma (from Greek πλέκω pleko 'I weave' and ἔγχυμα enchyma 'infusion', i.e., 'a woven tissue') is the general term employed to designate all types of fungal tissues.
The two most common types of tissues are prosenchyma and pseudoparenchyma.
The hyphae specifically become fused together.
Notes
Fungal morphology and anatomy
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the fruiting body that occurs after two hyphae mate and form a mycelium with sporangia?
A. fungus
B. yeast
C. mold
D. mushroom
Answer:
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|
sciq-10559
|
multiple_choice
|
What term is used to describe birds that hunt, eat mammals, and other birds?
|
[
"predators",
"consumers",
"warriors",
"raptors"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The following is a glossary of common English language terms used in the description of birds—warm-blooded vertebrates of the class Aves and the only living dinosaurs, characterized by , the ability to in all but the approximately 60 extant species of flightless birds, toothless, , the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
Among other details such as size, proportions and shape, terms defining bird features developed and are used to describe features unique to the class—especially evolutionary adaptations that developed to aid flight. There are, for example, numerous terms describing the complex structural makeup of feathers (e.g., , and ); types of feathers (e.g., , and feathers); and their growth and loss (e.g., , and ).
There are thousands of terms that are unique to the study of birds. This glossary makes no attempt to cover them all, concentrating on terms that might be found across descriptions of multiple bird species by bird enthusiasts and ornithologists. Though words that are not unique to birds are also covered, such as or , they are defined in relation to other unique features of external bird anatomy, sometimes called . As a rule, this glossary does not contain individual entries on any of the approximately 9,700 recognized living individual bird species of the world.
A
B
C
D
{| border="1"
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|carnivores (sometimes called faunivores): birds that predominantly forage for the meat of vertebrates—generally hunters as in certain birds of prey—including eagles, owls and shrikes, though piscivores, insectivores and crustacivores may be called specialized types of carnivores.
|-
|crustacivores: birds that forage for and eat crustaceans, such as crab-plovers and some rails.
|-
|detritivores: birds that forage for and eat decomposing material, such as vultures. It is usually used as a more general term than "saprovore" (defined below), which often connotes the eating of de
Document 1:::
In ecology, hunting success is the proportion of hunts initiated by a predatory organism that end in success. Hunting success is determined by a number of factors such as the features of the predator, timing, different age classes, conditions for hunting, experience, and physical capabilities. Predators selectivity target certain categories of prey, in particular prey of a certain size. Prey animals that are in poor health are targeted and this contributes to the predator's hunting success. Different predation strategies can also contribute to hunting success, for example, hunting in groups gives predators an advantage over a solitary predator, and pack hunters like lions can kill animals that are too powerful for a solitary predator to overcome, like a megaherbivore.
Similar to hunting success, kill rates are the number of animals an individual predator kills per time unit. Hunting success rate focuses on the percentage of successful hunts. Hunting success is also measured in humans, but due to their unnaturally high hunting success, human hunters can have a big effect on prey population and behaviour, especially in areas lacking natural predators, recreational hunting can have inferences for wildlife populations. Humans display a great variety of hunting methods, numbering up to 24 hunting methods. There are also many types of hunting such as whaling, trophy hunting, big game hunting, fowling, poaching, pest control, etc.
Definition
Predators may actively seek out prey, if the predator spots its preferred target it would decide whether to attack or continue searching, and success ultimately depends on a number of factors. Predators may deploy a variety of hunting methods such as ambush, ballistic interception, pack hunting or pursuit predation. Hunting success is used to measure a predator's success rate against a species of prey or against all prey species in its diet, for example in the Mweya area of Queen Elizabeth National Park, lions had a hunting success
Document 2:::
The difficulty of defining or measuring intelligence in non-human animals makes the subject difficult to study scientifically in birds. In general, birds have relatively large brains compared to their head size. The visual and auditory senses are well developed in most species, though the tactile and olfactory senses are well realized only in a few groups. Birds communicate using visual signals as well as through the use of calls and song. The testing of intelligence in birds is therefore usually based on studying responses to sensory stimuli.
The corvids (ravens, crows, jays, magpies, etc.) and psittacines (parrots, macaws, and cockatoos) are often considered the most intelligent birds, and are among the most intelligent animals in general. Pigeons, finches, domestic fowl, and birds of prey have also been common subjects of intelligence studies.
Studies
Bird intelligence has been studied through several attributes and abilities. Many of these studies have been on birds such as quail, domestic fowl, and pigeons kept under captive conditions. It has, however, been noted that field studies have been limited, unlike those of the apes. Birds in the crow family (corvids) as well as parrots (psittacines) have been shown to live socially, have long developmental periods, and possess large forebrains, all of which have been hypothesized to allow for greater cognitive abilities.
Counting has traditionally been considered an ability that shows intelligence. Anecdotal evidence from the 1960s has suggested that crows can count up to 3. Researchers need to be cautious, however, and ensure that birds are not merely demonstrating the ability to subitize, or count a small number of items quickly. Some studies have suggested that crows may indeed have a true numerical ability. It has been shown that parrots can count up to 6.
Cormorants used by Chinese fishermen were given every eighth fish as a reward, and found to be able to keep count up to 7. E.H. Hoh wrote in Natural Histo
Document 3:::
Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill the host) and parasitoidism (which always does, eventually). It is distinct from scavenging on dead prey, though many predators also scavenge; it overlaps with herbivory, as seed predators and destructive frugivores are predators.
Predators may actively search for or pursue prey or wait for it, often concealed. When prey is detected, the predator assesses whether to attack it. This may involve ambush or pursuit predation, sometimes after stalking the prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible parts like the shell or spines, and eats it.
Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as vision, hearing, or smell. Many predatory animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, have sharp claws or jaws to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and aggressive mimicry that improve hunting efficiency.
Predation has a powerful selective effect on prey, and the prey develop antipredator adaptations such as warning coloration, alarm calls and other signals, camouflage, mimicry of well-defended species, and defensive spines and chemicals. Sometimes predator and prey find themselves in an evolutionary arms race, a cycle of adaptations and counter-adaptations. Predation has been a major driver of evolution since at least the Cambrian period.
Definition
At the most basic level, predators kill and eat other organisms. However, the concept of predation is broad, defined differently in different contexts, and includes a wide variety of feeding methods; and some relationships that result in the prey's death are not generally called predation. A parasitoid, such as an ichneumon wasp, lays its eggs in or on its host; the eggs hatch into larvae
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Significant work has gone into analyzing the effects of climate change on birds. Like other animal groups, birds are affected by anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change. The research includes tracking the changes in species' life cycles over decades in response to the changing world, evaluating the role of differing evolutionary pressures and even comparing museum specimens with modern birds to track changes in appearance and body structure. Predictions of range shifts caused by the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on bird species are amongst the most important, as they are crucial for informing animal conservation work, required to minimize extinction risk from climate change.
Climate change mitigation options can also have varying impacts on birds. However, even the environmental impact of wind power is estimated to be much less threatening to birds than the continuing effects of climate change.
Causes
Climate change has raised the temperature of the Earth by about since the Industrial Revolution. As the extent of future greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation actions determines the climate change scenario taken, warming may increase from present levels by less than with rapid and comprehensive mitigation (the Paris Agreement goal) to around ( from the preindustrial) by the end of the century with very high and continually increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
Effects
Physical changes
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves, characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
Climate change has already altered the appearance of some birds by facilitating changes to their feathers. A comparison of museum specimens of juvenile passerines from 1800s with juveniles of the same species today had shown that these birds now complete the switch from their nesting feathers to adult feathers ea
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What term is used to describe birds that hunt, eat mammals, and other birds?
A. predators
B. consumers
C. warriors
D. raptors
Answer:
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sciq-9629
|
multiple_choice
|
What are electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths called?
|
[
"infrared waves",
"channel waves",
"sound waves",
"radio waves"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
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Terahertz radiation – also known as submillimeter radiation, terahertz waves, tremendously high frequency (THF), T-rays, T-waves, T-light, T-lux or THz – consists of electromagnetic waves within the ITU-designated band of frequencies from 0.3 to 3 terahertz (THz), although the upper boundary is somewhat arbitrary and is considered by some sources as 30 THz. One terahertz is 1012 Hz or 1000 GHz. Wavelengths of radiation in the terahertz band correspondingly range from 1 mm to 0.1 mm = 100 µm. Because terahertz radiation begins at a wavelength of around 1 millimeter and proceeds into shorter wavelengths, it is sometimes known as the submillimeter band, and its radiation as submillimeter waves, especially in astronomy. This band of electromagnetic radiation lies within the transition region between microwave and far infrared, and can be regarded as either.
At some frequencies, terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by the gases of the atmosphere, and in air is attenuated to zero within a few meters, so it is not practical for terrestrial radio communication at such frequencies. However, there are frequency windows in Earth's atmosphere, where the terahertz radiation could propagate up to 1 km or even longer depending on atmospheric conditions. The most important is the 0.3 THz band that will be used for 6G communications. It can penetrate thin layers of materials but is blocked by thicker objects. THz beams transmitted through materials can be used for material characterization, layer inspection, relief measurement, and as a lower-energy alternative to X-rays for producing high resolution images of the interior of solid objects.
Terahertz radiation occupies a middle ground where the ranges of microwaves and infrared light waves overlap, known as the “terahertz gap”; it is called a “gap” because the technology for its generation and manipulation is still in its infancy. The generation and modulation of electromagnetic waves in this frequency range ceases to be pos
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The mode of electromagnetic describes the field pattern of the propagating waves. Electromagnetic modes are analogous to the normal modes of vibration in other systems, such as mechanical systems.
Some of the classifications of electromagnetic modes include;
Free space modes
Plane waves, waves in which the electric and magnetic fields are both orthogonal to the direction of travel of the wave. These are the waves that exist in free space far from any antenna.
Modes in waveguides and transmission lines
Transverse modes, modes that have at least one of the electric field and magnetic field entirely in a transverse direction.
Transverse electromagnetic mode (TEM), as with a free space plane wave, both the electric field and magnetic field are entirely transverse.
Transverse electric (TE) modes, only the electric field is entirely transverse. Also notated as H modes to indicate there is a longitudinal magnetic component.
Transverse magnetic (TM) modes, only the magnetic field is entirely transverse. Also notated as E modes to indicate there is a longitudinal electric component.
Hybrid electromagnetic (HEM) modes, both the electric and magnetic fields have a component in the longitudinal direction. They can be analysed as a linear superposition of the corresponding TE and TM modes.
HE modes, hybrid modes in which the TE component dominates.
EH modes, hybrid modes in which the TM component dominates.
Longitudinal-section modes
Longitudinal-section electric (LSE) modes, hybrid modes in which the electric field in one of the transverse directions is zero
Longitudinal-section magnetic (LSM) modes, hybrid modes in which the magnetic field in one of the transverse directions is zero
Modes in other structures
Bloch modes, modes of Bloch waves; these occur in periodically repeating structures.
Mode names are sometimes prefixed with quasi-, meaning that the mode is not quite pure. For instance, quasi-TEM mode has a small component of longitudinal field.
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Longitudinal-section modes are a set of a particular kind of electromagnetic transmission modes found in some types of transmission line. They are a subset of hybrid electromagnetic modes (HEM modes). HEM modes are those modes that have both an electric field and a magnetic field component longitudinally in the direction of travel of the propagating wave. Longitudinal-section modes, additionally, have a component of either magnetic or electric field that is zero in one transverse direction. In longitudinal-section electric (LSE) modes this field component is electric. In longitudinal-section magnetic (LSM) modes the zero field component is magnetic. Hybrid modes are to be compared to transverse modes which have, at most, only one component of either electric or magnetic field in the longitudinal direction.
Derivation and notation
There is an analogy between the way transverse modes (TE and TM modes) are arrived at and the definition of longitudinal section modes (LSE and LSM modes). When determining whether a structure can support a particular TE mode, one sets the electric field in the direction (the longitudinal direction of the line) to zero and then solves Maxwell's equations for the boundary conditions set by the physical structure of the line. One can just as easily set the electric field in the direction to zero and ask what modes that gives rise to. Such modes are designated LSE{x} modes. Similarly there can be LSE{y} modes and, analogously for the magnetic field, LSM{x} and LSM{y} modes. When dealing with longitudinal-section modes, the TE and TM modes are sometimes written as LSE{z} and LSM{z} respectively to produce a consistent set of notations and to reflect the analogous way in which they are defined.
Both LSE and LSM modes are a linear superposition of the corresponding TE and TM modes (that is, the modes with the same suffix numbers). Thus, in general, the LSE and LSM modes have a longitudinal component of both electric and magnetic
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In the physical sciences, the wavenumber (or wave number), also known as repetency, is the spatial frequency of a wave, measured in cycles per unit distance (ordinary wavenumber) or radians per unit distance (angular wavenumber). It is analogous to temporal frequency, which is defined as the number of wave cycles per unit time (ordinary frequency) or radians per unit time (angular frequency).
In multidimensional systems, the wavenumber is the magnitude of the wave vector. The space of wave vectors is called reciprocal space. Wave numbers and wave vectors play an essential role in optics and the physics of wave scattering, such as X-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction, electron diffraction, and elementary particle physics. For quantum mechanical waves, the wavenumber multiplied by the reduced Planck's constant is the canonical momentum.
Wavenumber can be used to specify quantities other than spatial frequency. For example, in optical spectroscopy, it is often used as a unit of temporal frequency assuming a certain speed of light.
Definition
Wavenumber, as used in spectroscopy and most chemistry fields, is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit distance, typically centimeters (cm−1):
where λ is the wavelength. It is sometimes called the "spectroscopic wavenumber". It equals the spatial frequency.
For example, a wavenumber in inverse centimeters can be converted to a frequency in gigahertz by multiplying by 29.9792458 cm/ns (the speed of light, in centimeters per nanosecond); conversely, an electromagnetic wave at 29.9792458 GHz has a wavelength of 1 cm in free space.
In theoretical physics, a wave number, defined as the number of radians per unit distance, sometimes called "angular wavenumber", is more often used:
When wavenumber is represented by the symbol , a frequency is still being represented, albeit indirectly. As described in the spectroscopy section, this is done through the relationship , where s is a frequency in hertz. This is done for con
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The IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal was a science award presented by the IEEE for outstanding achievements in the field of electromagnetic waves. The medal was named in honour of German physicist Heinrich Hertz, and was first proposed in 1986 by IEEE Region 8 (Germany) as a centennial recognition of Hertz's work on electromagnetic radiation theory from 1886 to 1891. The medal was first awarded in 1988, and was presented annually until 2001. It was officially discontinued in November 2009.
Recipients
1988: Hans-Georg Unger (Technical University at Brunswick, Germany) for outstanding merits in radio-frequency science, particularly the theory of dielectric wave guides and their application in modern wide-band communication.
1989: Nathan Marcuvitz (Polytechnic University of New York, United States) for fundamental theoretical and experimental contributions to the engineering formulation of electromagnetic field theory.
1990: John D. Kraus (Ohio State University, United States) for pioneering work in radio astronomy and the development of the helical antenna and the corner reflector antenna.
1991: Leopold B. Felsen (Polytechnic University of New York, United States) for highly original and significant developments in the theories of propagation, diffraction and dispersion of electromagnetic waves.
1992: James R. Wait (University of Arizona, United States) for fundamental contributions to electromagnetic theory, to the study of propagation of Hertzian waves through the atmosphere, ionosphere and the Earth, and to their applications in communications, navigation and geophysical exploration.
1993: Kenneth Budden (Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom) for major original contributions to the theory of electromagnetic waves in ionized media with applications to terrestrial and space communications.
1994: Ronald N. Bracewell (Stanford University, United States) for pioneering work in antenna aperture synthesis and image reconstruction as applied to radioast
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What are electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths called?
A. infrared waves
B. channel waves
C. sound waves
D. radio waves
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3605
|
multiple_choice
|
What is water falling from the sky called?
|
[
"acid",
"precipitation",
"temperature",
"snow"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
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In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 2:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
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The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
Document 4:::
Further Mathematics is the title given to a number of advanced secondary mathematics courses. The term "Higher and Further Mathematics", and the term "Advanced Level Mathematics", may also refer to any of several advanced mathematics courses at many institutions.
In the United Kingdom, Further Mathematics describes a course studied in addition to the standard mathematics AS-Level and A-Level courses. In the state of Victoria in Australia, it describes a course delivered as part of the Victorian Certificate of Education (see § Australia (Victoria) for a more detailed explanation). Globally, it describes a course studied in addition to GCE AS-Level and A-Level Mathematics, or one which is delivered as part of the International Baccalaureate Diploma.
In other words, more mathematics can also be referred to as part of advanced mathematics, or advanced level math.
United Kingdom
Background
A qualification in Further Mathematics involves studying both pure and applied modules. Whilst the pure modules (formerly known as Pure 4–6 or Core 4–6, now known as Further Pure 1–3, where 4 exists for the AQA board) build on knowledge from the core mathematics modules, the applied modules may start from first principles.
The structure of the qualification varies between exam boards.
With regard to Mathematics degrees, most universities do not require Further Mathematics, and may incorporate foundation math modules or offer "catch-up" classes covering any additional content. Exceptions are the University of Warwick, the University of Cambridge which requires Further Mathematics to at least AS level; University College London requires or recommends an A2 in Further Maths for its maths courses; Imperial College requires an A in A level Further Maths, while other universities may recommend it or may promise lower offers in return. Some schools and colleges may not offer Further mathematics, but online resources are available
Although the subject has about 60% of its cohort obtainin
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is water falling from the sky called?
A. acid
B. precipitation
C. temperature
D. snow
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8080
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the term for the green pigment in leaves that captures energy from the sun?
|
[
"carbonate",
"chlorophyll",
"verdye",
"ammonia"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Autumn leaf color is a phenomenon that affects the normally green leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs by which they take on, during a few weeks in the autumn season, various shades of yellow, orange, red, purple, and brown. The phenomenon is commonly called autumn colours or autumn foliage in British English and fall colors, fall foliage, or simply foliage in American English.
In some areas of Canada and the United States, "leaf peeping" tourism is a major contribution to economic activity. This tourist activity occurs between the beginning of color changes and the onset of leaf fall, usually around September and October in the Northern Hemisphere and April to May in the Southern Hemisphere.
Chlorophyll and the green/yellow/orange colors
A green leaf is green because of the presence of a pigment known as chlorophyll, which is inside an organelle called a chloroplast. When abundant in the leaf's cells, as during the growing season, the chlorophyll's green color dominates and masks out the colors of any other pigments that may be present in the leaf. Thus, the leaves of summer are characteristically green.
Chlorophyll has a vital function: it captures solar rays and uses the resulting energy in the manufacture of the plant's food simple sugars which are produced from water and carbon dioxide. These sugars are the basis of the plant's nourishment the sole source of the carbohydrates needed for growth and development. In their food-manufacturing process, the chlorophylls break down, thus are continually "used up". During the growing season, however, the plant replenishes the chlorophyll so that the supply remains high and the leaves stay green.
In late summer, with daylight hours shortening and temperatures cooling, the veins that carry fluids into and out of the leaf are gradually closed off as a layer of special cork cells forms at the base of each leaf. As this cork layer develops, water and mineral intake into the leaf is reduced, slowly at first, and the
Document 1:::
Ecophysiology (from Greek , oikos, "house(hold)"; , physis, "nature, origin"; and , -logia), environmental physiology or physiological ecology is a biological discipline that studies the response of an organism's physiology to environmental conditions. It is closely related to comparative physiology and evolutionary physiology. Ernst Haeckel's coinage bionomy is sometimes employed as a synonym.
Plants
Plant ecophysiology is concerned largely with two topics: mechanisms (how plants sense and respond to environmental change) and scaling or integration (how the responses to highly variable conditions—for example, gradients from full sunlight to 95% shade within tree canopies—are coordinated with one another), and how their collective effect on plant growth and gas exchange can be understood on this basis.
In many cases, animals are able to escape unfavourable and changing environmental factors such as heat, cold, drought or floods, while plants are unable to move away and therefore must endure the adverse conditions or perish (animals go places, plants grow places). Plants are therefore phenotypically plastic and have an impressive array of genes that aid in acclimating to changing conditions. It is hypothesized that this large number of genes can be partly explained by plant species' need to live in a wider range of conditions.
Light
Light is the food of plants, i.e. the form of energy that plants use to build themselves and reproduce. The organs harvesting light in plants are leaves and the process through which light is converted into biomass is photosynthesis. The response of photosynthesis to light is called light response curve of net photosynthesis (PI curve). The shape is typically described by a non-rectangular hyperbola. Three quantities of the light response curve are particularly useful in characterising a plant's response to light intensities. The inclined asymptote has a positive slope representing the efficiency of light use, and is called quantum
Document 2:::
Accessory pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work in conjunction with chlorophyll a. They include other forms of this pigment, such as chlorophyll b in green algal and vascular ("higher") plant antennae, while other algae may contain chlorophyll c or d. In addition, there are many non-chlorophyll accessory pigments, such as carotenoids or phycobiliproteins, which also absorb light and transfer that light energy to photosystem chlorophyll. Some of these accessory pigments, in particular the carotenoids, also serve to absorb and dissipate excess light energy, or work as antioxidants. The large, physically associated group of chlorophylls and other accessory pigments is sometimes referred to as a pigment bed.
The different chlorophyll and non-chlorophyll pigments associated with the photosystems all have different absorption spectra, either because the spectra of the different chlorophyll pigments are modified by their local protein environment or because the accessory pigments have intrinsic structural differences. The result is that, in vivo, a composite absorption spectrum of all these pigments is broadened and flattened such that a wider range of visible and infrared radiation is absorbed by plants and algae. Most photosynthetic organisms do not absorb green light well, thus most remaining light under leaf canopies in forests or under water with abundant plankton is green, a spectral effect called the "green window". Organisms such as some cyanobacteria and red algae contain accessory phycobiliproteins that absorb green light reaching these habitats.
In aquatic ecosystems, it is likely that the absorption spectrum of water, along with gilvin and tripton (dissolved and particulate organic matter, respectively), determines phototrophic niche differentiation. The six shoulders in the light absorption of water between wavelengths 400 and 1100 nm correspond to troughs in the collective absorption of at least twenty diverse
Document 3:::
A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, flower, and fruit collectively form the shoot system. In most leaves, the primary photosynthetic tissue is the palisade mesophyll and is located on the upper side of the blade or lamina of the leaf but in some species, including the mature foliage of Eucalyptus, palisade mesophyll is present on both sides and the leaves are said to be isobilateral. Most leaves are flattened and have distinct upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces that differ in color, hairiness, the number of stomata (pores that intake and output gases), the amount and structure of epicuticular wax and other features. Leaves are mostly green in color due to the presence of a compound called chlorophyll which is essential for photosynthesis as it absorbs light energy from the sun. A leaf with lighter-colored or white patches or edges is called a variegated leaf.
Leaves can have many different shapes, sizes, textures and colors. The broad, flat leaves with complex venation of flowering plants are known as megaphylls and the species that bear them, the majority, as broad-leaved or megaphyllous plants, which also include acrogymnosperms and ferns. In the lycopods, with different evolutionary origins, the leaves are simple (with only a single vein) and are known as microphylls. Some leaves, such as bulb scales, are not above ground. In many aquatic species, the leaves are submerged in water. Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls and spines. Furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called phylloclades and cladodes, and flattened leaf stems
Document 4:::
The photosynthetic efficiency is the fraction of light energy converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis in green plants and algae. Photosynthesis can be described by the simplified chemical reaction
6 H2O + 6 CO2 + energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
where C6H12O6 is glucose (which is subsequently transformed into other sugars, starches, cellulose, lignin, and so forth). The value of the photosynthetic efficiency is dependent on how light energy is defined – it depends on whether we count only the light that is absorbed, and on what kind of light is used (see Photosynthetically active radiation). It takes eight (or perhaps ten or more) photons to use one molecule of CO2. The Gibbs free energy for converting a mole of CO2 to glucose is 114 kcal, whereas eight moles of photons of wavelength 600 nm contains 381 kcal, giving a nominal efficiency of 30%. However, photosynthesis can occur with light up to wavelength 720 nm so long as there is also light at wavelengths below 680 nm to keep Photosystem II operating (see Chlorophyll). Using longer wavelengths means less light energy is needed for the same number of photons and therefore for the same amount of photosynthesis. For actual sunlight, where only 45% of the light is in the photosynthetically active wavelength range, the theoretical maximum efficiency of solar energy conversion is approximately 11%. In actuality, however, plants do not absorb all incoming sunlight (due to reflection, respiration requirements of photosynthesis and the need for optimal solar radiation levels) and do not convert all harvested energy into biomass, which results in a maximum overall photosynthetic efficiency of 3 to 6% of total solar radiation. If photosynthesis is inefficient, excess light energy must be dissipated to avoid damaging the photosynthetic apparatus. Energy can be dissipated as heat (non-photochemical quenching), or emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence.
Typical efficiencies
Plants
Quoted values sunlight-to-biomass efficien
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the term for the green pigment in leaves that captures energy from the sun?
A. carbonate
B. chlorophyll
C. verdye
D. ammonia
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9668
|
multiple_choice
|
What state of matter is characterized by tiny particles separated by large distances, which do not experience any force of attraction or repulsion with each other?
|
[
"gas",
"steam",
"emissions",
"liquids"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in everyday as well as scientific usage, matter generally includes atoms and anything made up of them, and any particles (or combination of particles) that act as if they have both rest mass and volume. However it does not include massless particles such as photons, or other energy phenomena or waves such as light or heat. Matter exists in various states (also known as phases). These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid, and gas – for example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam – but other states are possible, including plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.
Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding "cloud" of orbiting electrons which "take up space". However this is only somewhat correct, because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like waves as well as particles, and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms are quantum entities which do not have an inherent "size" or "volume" in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some "point particles" known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea tha
Document 1:::
Minicharged particles (or milli-charged particles) are a proposed type of subatomic particle. They are charged, but with a tiny fraction of the charge of the electron. They weakly interact with matter. Minicharged particles are not part of the Standard Model. One proposal to detect them involved photons tunneling through an opaque barrier in the presence of a perpendicular magnetic field, the rationale being that a pair of oppositely charged minicharged particles are produced that curve in opposite directions, and recombine on the other side of the barrier reproducing the photon again.
Minicharged particles would result in vacuum magnetic dichroism, and would cause energy loss in microwave cavities. Photons from the cosmic microwave background would be dissipated by galactic-scale magnetic fields if minicharged particles existed, so this effect could be observable. In fact the dimming observed of remote supernovae that was used to support dark energy could also be explained by the formation of minicharged particles.
Tests of Coulomb's law can be applied to set bounds on minicharged particles.
Document 2:::
In physics, action at a distance is the concept that an object's motion can be affected by another object without being physically contact (as in mechanical contact) by the other object. That is, it is the non-local interaction of objects that are separated in space. Coulomb's law and Newton's law of universal gravitation are based on action at a distance.
Historically, action at a distance was the earliest scientific model for gravity and electricity and it continues to be useful in many practical cases. In the 19th and 20th centuries, field models arose to explain these phenomena with more precision. The discovery of electrons and of special relativity lead to new action at a distance models providing alternative to field theories.
Categories of action
In the study of mechanics, action at a distance is one of three fundamental actions on matter that cause motion. The other two are direct impact (elastic or inelastic collisions) and actions in a continuous medium as in fluid mechanics or solid mechanics.
Historically, physical explanations for particular phenomena have moved between these three categories over time as new models were developed.
Action at a distance and actions in a continuous medium may be easily distinguished when the medium dynamics are visible, like waves in water or in an elastic solid. In the case of electricity or gravity, there is no medium required. In the nineteenth century, criteria like the effect of actions on intervening matter, the observation of a time delay, the apparent storage of energy, or even the possibility of a plausible mechanical model for action transmission were all accepted as evidence against action at a distance. Aether theories were alternative proposals to replace apparent action-at-a-distance in gravity and electromagnetism, in terms of continuous action inside an (invisible) medium called "aether".
Roles
The concept of action at a distance acts in multiple roles in physics and it can co-exist with other mode
Document 3:::
In physics, ultradivided matter is a family of states of matter characterised by a heterogeneous mixture of two or more different materials, where the interaction energy between the suspended phase is larger than kT. The term 'ultradivided matter' encapsulates several types of substance including: soap micelles, emulsions, and suspensions of solids such as colloids.).
An ultradivided state differs from a solution. In a steady-state solution, all interactions between a solution's constituent molecules are on the order of the thermal energy kT. Thus any otherwise aggregative force between similar molecules in a solution is subordinate to thermal fluctuations, and the solution does allow flocculation of one of the constituent components. Ultradivided matter, however, is characterised by large interfacial energies where the intermolecular interactions of one or more constituents of the substance are stronger than kT. This leads to different behaviour. An intuitive example of this can be seen in the tendency of a biphasic mixture of water (a polar liquid) and oil (a non-polar liquid) to spontaneously separate into two phases. This may seem to imply a change from a state with higher disorder or higher entropy (a suspension of oil droplets in water) to a lower-entropy arrangement (a neat separation into two regions of different material). Such a transition would seem to violate the second law of thermodynamics, which is impossible. The resolution to this apparent paradox is that the interface between oil and water necessitates an ordered alignment of oil and water molecules at the interface. Minimisation of the surface area between the two phases thus correlates with an increase of the entropy of the system. The highest entropy state thus has a minimum interfacial surface area between the two phases and thus a neat separation is created, into two regions of different material.
See also
Colloid
Document 4:::
The Smoluchowski factor, also known as von Smoluchowski's f-factor is related to inter-particle interactions. It is named after Marian Smoluchowski.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What state of matter is characterized by tiny particles separated by large distances, which do not experience any force of attraction or repulsion with each other?
A. gas
B. steam
C. emissions
D. liquids
Answer:
|
|
sciq-1231
|
multiple_choice
|
What are the major sites of gibberellin production?
|
[
"soil and leaves",
"young roots and leaves",
"stem and roots",
"flower and fruit"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The Biffen Lecture is a lectureship organised by the John Innes Centre, named after Rowland Biffen.
Lecturers
Source: John Innes Centre
2001 John Doebley
2002 Francesco Salamini
2003 Steven D. Tanksley
2004 Michael Freeling
2006 Dick Flavell
2008 Rob Martienssen – 'Propagating silent heterochromatin with RNA interference in plants and fission yeast'
2009 Susan McCouch, Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Cornell University – 'Gene flow and genetic isolation during crop evolution'
2010 Peter Langridge, University of Adelaide, Australia – 'Miserable but worth the trouble: Genomics, wheat and difficult environments'
2012 Sarah Hake, Plant Gene Expression Center, USDA-ARS – 'Patterning the maize leaf'
2014 Professor Pamela Ronald, Department of Plant Pathology & The Genome Center, University of California Davis – ‘Engineering crops for resistance to disease and tolerance of stress’
2015 Professor Lord May, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford – ‘Unanswered questions in ecology, and why they matter’
2016 Edward Buckler, US Department of Agriculture – ‘Breeding 4.0? Sorting through the adaptive and deleterious variants in maize and beyond’
See also
Bateson Lecture
Chatt Lecture
Darlington Lecture
Haldane Lecture
List of genetics awards
Document 1:::
The International Plant Nutrition Colloquium (IPNC) is an international conference held every four years for the promotion of research within the field of plant nutrition. Prior to 1981, it was known as the International Colloquium on Plant Analysis and Fertiliser Problems. The IPNC is organised by the International Plant Nutrition Council, which "seeks to advance science-based non-commercial research and education in plant nutrition in order to highlight the importance of this scientific field for crop production, food security, human health and sustainable environmental protection". It is considered that the IPNC is the most important international meeting on plant nutrition globally, with more than 800 delegates attending each meeting. The IPNC covers research in the fields of plant mineral nutrition, plant molecular biology, plant genetics, agronomy, horticulture, ecology, environmental sciences, and fertilizer use and production.
In honour of Professor Horst Marschner, who was a passionate supporter of students and young researchers, the IPNC has established the Marschner Young Scientist Award for outstanding early-career researchers and PhD students with a potential to become future research leaders.
The current President of the International Plant Nutrition Council is Professor Ciro A. Rosolem from the São Paulo State University. The next IPNC is to be held in Iguazu Falls, Brazil, from 22-27 August 2022.
Past and future locations for the IPNC:
Document 2:::
The Crop Science Centre (informally known as 3CS during its planning) is an alliance between the University of Cambridge and National Institute of Agricultural Botany (NIAB).
History
The Crop Science Centre development plans began in 2015, between the University of Cambridge's Department of Plant Sciences, NIAB (National Institute of Agricultural Botany) and the Sainsbury Laboratory. The research institute received £16.9m funding in 2017 from the UK Research Partnership Investment Fund (UKRPIF) from Research England (United Kingdom Research and Innovation or UKRI) to build a new state-of-the-art building, designed exclusively for crop research, which opened on the 1st October 2020.
Structure
The Crop Science Centre is based at NIAB's Lawrence Weaver Road HQ site in Cambridge.
Document 3:::
The horticulture industry embraces the production, processing and shipping of and the market for fruits and vegetables. As such it is a sector of agribusiness and industrialized agriculture. Industrialized horticulture sometimes also includes the floriculture industry and production and trade of ornamental plants.
Among the most important fruits are:
bananas
Semi-tropical fruits like lychee, guava or tamarillo
Citrus fruits
soft fruits (berries)
apples
stone fruits
Important vegetables include:
Potatoes
Sweet potatoes
Tomatoes
Onions and
Cabbage
In 2013 global fruit production was estimated at . Global vegetable production (including melons) was estimated at with China and India being the two top producing countries.
Value chain
The horticultural value chain includes:
Inputs: elements needed for production; seeds, fertilizers, agrochemicals, farm equipment, irrigation equipment, GMO technology
Production for export: includes fruit and vegetables production and all processes related to growth and harvesting; planting, weeding, spraying, picking
Packing and cold storage: grading, washing, trimming, chopping, mixing, packing, labeling, blast chilling
Processed fruit and vegetables: dried, frozen, preserved, juices, pulps; mostly for increasing shelf life
Distribution and marketing: supermarkets, small scale retailers, wholesalers, food service
Companies
Fruit
Chiquita Brands International
Del Monte Foods
Dole Food Company
Genetically modified crops / GMO
Monsanto/Bayer
Document 4:::
The Plant Genome Mapping Laboratory (PGML) is a department of the University of Georgia, directed by Dr. Andrew H. Paterson. Research focuses on the study of major crop species such as sorghum and cotton, as well as other species such as Bermuda Grass, Brassica and Peanut. Research topics include whole genome genetic mapping and physical mapping; polyploidy; ancient whole genome duplications; comparative genomics; gene cloning; drought tolerance; seed shattering and cotton fiber qualities. PGML has led in the sequencing of the sorghum genome and the cotton genome.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What are the major sites of gibberellin production?
A. soil and leaves
B. young roots and leaves
C. stem and roots
D. flower and fruit
Answer:
|
|
sciq-7197
|
multiple_choice
|
The combustion of propane gas produces carbon dioxide and what else?
|
[
"methane",
"phosphorous",
"water vapor",
"carbon monoxide"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Endothermic gas is a gas that inhibits or reverses oxidation on the surfaces it is in contact with. This gas is the product of incomplete combustion in a controlled environment. An example mixture is hydrogen gas (H2), nitrogen gas (N2), and carbon monoxide (CO). The hydrogen and carbon monoxide are reducing agents, so they work together to shield surfaces from oxidation.
Endothermic gas is often used as a carrier gas for gas carburizing and carbonitriding. An endothermic gas generator could be used to supply heat to form an endothermic reaction.
Synthesised in the catalytic retort(s) of endothermic generators, the gas in the endothermic atmosphere is combined with an additive gas including natural gas, propane (C3H8) or air and is then used to improve the surface chemistry work positioned in the furnace.
Purposes
There are two common purposes of the atmospheres in the heat treating industry:
Protect the processed material from surface reactions (chemically inert)
Allow surface of processed material to change (chemically reactive)
Principal components of a endothermic gas generator
Principal components of endothermic gas generators:
Heating chamber for supplying heat by electric heating elements of combustion,
Vertical cylindrical retorts,
Tiny, porous ceramic pieces that are saturated with nickel, which acts as a catalyst for the reaction,
Cooling heat exchanger in order to cool the products of the reaction as quickly as possible so that it reaches a particular temperature which stops any further reaction,
Control system which will help maintain the consistency of the temperature of the reaction which will help adjust the gas ratio, providing the wanted dew point.
Chemical composition
Chemistry of endothermic gas generators:
N2 (nitrogen) → 45.1% (volume)
CO (carbon monoxide) → 19.6% (volume)
CO2 (carbon dioxide) → 0.4% (volume)
H2 (hydrogen) → 34.6% (volume)
CH4 (methane) → 0.3% (volume)
Dew point → +20/+50
Gas ratio → 2.6:1
Applications
Document 1:::
Biogas is a gaseous renewable energy source produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste, wastewater, and food waste. Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms or methanogens inside an anaerobic digester, biodigester or a bioreactor.
The gas composition is primarily methane () and carbon dioxide () and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulfide (), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane and hydrogen can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used in fuel cells and for heating purpose, such as in cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
After removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide it can be compressed in the same way as natural gas and used to power motor vehicles. In the United Kingdom, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. From a carbon perspective, as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released, when the material is ultimately converted to energy.
Production
Biogas is produced by microorganisms, such as methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria, performing anaerobic respiration. Biogas can refer to gas produced naturally and industrially.
Natural
In soil, methane is produced in anaerobic environments by methanogens, but is mostly consumed in aerobic zones by methanotrophs. Methane emissions result when the balance favors methanogens. Wetland soils are the main natural source of methane. Other sources include ocea
Document 2:::
Butane () or n-butane is an alkane with the formula C4H10. Butane is a highly flammable, colorless, easily liquefied gas that quickly vaporizes at room temperature and pressure. The name butane comes from the root but- (from butyric acid, named after the Greek word for butter) and the suffix -ane. It was discovered in crude petroleum in 1864 by Edmund Ronalds, who was the first to describe its properties, and commercialized by Walter O. Snelling in early 1910s.
Butane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include propane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Butane burns more cleanly than both gasoline and coal.
History
The first synthesis of butane was accidentally achieved by British chemist Edward Frankland in 1849 from ethyl iodide and zinc, but he had not realized that the ethyl radical dimerized and misidentified the substance.
The proper discoverer of the butane called it "hydride of butyl", but already in the 1860s more names were used: "butyl hydride", "hydride of tetryl" and "tetryl hydride", "diethyl" or "ethyl ethylide" and others. August Wilhelm von Hofmann in his 1866 systemic nomenclature proposed the name "quartane", and the modern name was introduced to English from German around 1874.
Butane did not have much practical use until the 1910s, when W. Snelling identified butane and propane as components in gasoline and found that, if they were cooled, they could be stored in a volume-reduced liquified state in pressurized containers.
Density
The density of butane is highly dependent on temperature and pressure in the reservoir. For example, the density of liquid propane is 571.8±1 kg/m3 (for pressures up to 2MPa and temperature 27±0.2 °C), while the density of liquid butane is 625.5±0.7 kg/m3 (for pressures up to 2MPa and temperature -13±0.2 °C).
Isomers
Rotation about the central C−C bond produces two different conformations (trans and gauche) for n-butane.
Reactions
When oxyg
Document 3:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 4:::
The Fischer–Tropsch process (FT) is a collection of chemical reactions that converts a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, known as syngas, into liquid hydrocarbons. These reactions occur in the presence of metal catalysts, typically at temperatures of and pressures of one to several tens of atmospheres. The Fischer–Tropsch process is an important reaction in both coal liquefaction and gas to liquids technology for producing liquid hydrocarbons.
In the usual implementation, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the feedstocks for FT, are produced from coal, natural gas, or biomass in a process known as gasification. The process then converts these gases into synthetic lubrication oil and synthetic fuel. This process has received intermittent attention as a source of low-sulfur diesel fuel and to address the supply or cost of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons. Fischer-Tropsch process is discussed as a step of producing carbon-neutral liquid hydrocarbon fuels from CO2 and hydrogen.
The process was first developed by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany, in 1925.
Reaction mechanism
The Fischer–Tropsch process involves a series of chemical reactions that produce a variety of hydrocarbons, ideally having the formula (CnH2n+2). The more useful reactions produce alkanes as follows:
(2n + 1) H2 + n CO → CnH2n+2 + n H2O
where n is typically 10–20. The formation of methane (n = 1) is unwanted. Most of the alkanes produced tend to be straight-chain, suitable as diesel fuel. In addition to alkane formation, competing reactions give small amounts of alkenes, as well as alcohols and other oxygenated hydrocarbons.
The reaction is a highly exothermic reaction due to a standard reaction enthalpy (ΔH) of −165 kJ/mol CO combined.
Fischer–Tropsch intermediates and elemental reactions
Converting a mixture of H2 and CO into aliphatic products is a multi-step reaction with several intermediate compounds. The
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The combustion of propane gas produces carbon dioxide and what else?
A. methane
B. phosphorous
C. water vapor
D. carbon monoxide
Answer:
|
|
sciq-598
|
multiple_choice
|
When cats mark their territory by rubbing their face against an object, they deposit chemicals released by what structures?
|
[
"taste buds",
"scent glands",
"whiskers",
"pituitary glands"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Olfactory glands, also known as Bowman's glands, are a type of nasal gland situated in the part of the olfactory mucosa beneath the olfactory epithelium, that is the lamina propria, a connective tissue also containing fibroblasts, blood vessels and bundles of fine axons from the olfactory neurons.
An olfactory gland consists of an acinus in the lamina propria and a secretory duct going out through the olfactory epithelium.
Electron microscopy studies show that olfactory glands contain cells with large secretory vesicles. Olfactory glands secrete the gel-forming mucin protein MUC5B. They might secrete proteins such as lactoferrin, lysozyme, amylase and IgA, similarly to serous glands. The exact composition of the secretions from olfactory glands is unclear, but there is evidence that they produce odorant-binding protein.
Function
The olfactory glands are tubuloalveolar glands surrounded by olfactory receptors and sustentacular cells in the olfactory epithelium. These glands produce mucous to lubricate the olfactory epithelium and dissolve odorant-containing gases. Several olfactory binding proteins are produced from the olfactory glands that help facilitate the transportation of odorants to the olfactory receptors. These cells exhibit the mRNA to transform growth factor α, stimulating the production of new olfactory receptor cells.
See also
William Bowman
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
Document 1:::
Cat behavior is a cat's behavior and responses to events and other stimuli. Cat behavior includes body language, elimination habits, aggression, play, communication, hunting, grooming, urine marking, and face rubbing. It varies among individuals, colonies, and breeds.
Communication and sociability can vary greatly among individual cats. In a family with many cats, the interactions can change depending on which individuals are present and how restricted the territory and resources are. One or more individuals may become aggressive: fighting may occur with the attack, resulting in scratches and deep bite wounds.
Communication
Kittens vocalize early in development. Some examples of different vocalizations are described below.
Purring - means that the cat is either content or is self-soothing due to fear
Meowing - a frequently used greeting. A mother meows when interacting with her young. Meows can also be used when a cat wishes for attention.
Hissing or spitting - indicates an angry or defensive cat.
Yowling - means that the cat is in distress or feeling aggressive.
Chattering - occurs when hunting or tracking potential prey. This consists of quick chirps made while the mouth vibrates. The gaze is fixed and staring. This behavior may be in response to a surge of adrenaline or may be caused by the anticipation of a pending hunt.
Body language
Cats rely strongly on body language to communicate. A cat may rub against an object or lick a person. Much of a cat's body language is through its tail, ears, head position, and back posture.
The tail
Observing how a cat holds its tail can give a good sense of the cat’s current temperament.
Held high, may have a slight curl forward - a sign of friendliness. The cat is happy, content, and comfortable. The tail may quiver or vibrate if the cat is excited.
Held low and tucked under - a sign of fear or unease. The cat is attempting to make itself a smaller target to potential threats.
Document 2:::
Dogs, as with all mammals, have natural odors. Natural dog odor can be unpleasant to dog owners, especially when dogs are kept inside the home, as some people are not used to being exposed to the natural odor of a non-human species living in proximity to them. Dogs may also develop unnatural odors as a result of skin disease or other disorders or may become contaminated with odors from other sources in their environment.
Healthy odors
All natural dog odors are most prominent near the ears and from the paw pads. Dogs naturally produce secretions, the function of which is to produce scents allowing for individual animal recognition by dogs and other species in the scent-marking of territory.
Dogs only produce sweat on areas not covered with fur, such as the nose and paw pads, unlike humans who sweat almost everywhere. However, they do have sweat glands, called apocrine glands, associated with every hair follicle on the body. The exact function of these glands is not known, but they may produce pheromones or chemical signals for communication with other dogs. It is believed that these sweat secretions produce an individual odor signal that is recognizable by other dogs.
Dogs also have sweat glands on their noses. These are eccrine glands. When these glands are active, they leave the nose and paw pads slightly moist and help these specialized skin features maintain their functional properties. The odor associated with dog paw pads is much more noticeable on dogs with moist paw pads than on those with dry pads.
Dogs also have numerous apocrine glands in their external ear canals. In this location, they are referred to as ceruminous glands. The ear canals also have numerous sebaceous glands. Together, these two sets of glands produce natural ear wax, or cerumen. Micro-organisms live naturally in this material and give the ears a characteristic slightly yeasty odor, even when healthy. When infected, the ears can give off a strong disagreeable smell. It is no
Document 3:::
A taste receptor or tastant is a type of cellular receptor which facilitates the sensation of taste. When food or other substances enter the mouth, molecules interact with saliva and are bound to taste receptors in the oral cavity and other locations. Molecules which give a sensation of taste are considered "sapid".
Vertebrate taste receptors are divided into two families:
Type 1, sweet, first characterized in 2001: –
Type 2, bitter, first characterized in 2000: In humans there are 25 known different bitter receptors, in cats there are 12, in chickens there are three, and in mice there are 35 known different bitter receptors.
Visual, olfactive, "sapictive" (the perception of tastes), trigeminal (hot, cool), mechanical, all contribute to the perception of taste. Of these, transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) vanilloid receptors are responsible for the perception of heat from some molecules such as capsaicin, and a CMR1 receptor is responsible for the perception of cold from molecules such as menthol, eucalyptol, and icilin.
Tissue distribution
The gustatory system consists of taste receptor cells in taste buds. Taste buds, in turn, are contained in structures called papillae. There are three types of papillae involved in taste: fungiform papillae, foliate papillae, and circumvallate papillae. (The fourth type - filiform papillae do not contain taste buds). Beyond the papillae, taste receptors are also in the palate and early parts of the digestive system like the larynx and upper esophagus. There are three cranial nerves that innervate the tongue; the vagus nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, and the facial nerve. The glossopharyngeal nerve and the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve innervate the TAS1R and TAS2R taste receptors. Next to the taste receptors in on the tongue, the gut epithelium is also equipped with a subtle chemosensory system that communicates the sensory information to several effector systems involved
Document 4:::
Sniffing is a perceptually-relevant behavior, defined as the active sampling of odors through the nasal cavity for the purpose of information acquisition. This behavior, displayed by all terrestrial vertebrates, is typically identified based upon changes in respiratory frequency and/or amplitude, and is often studied in the context of odor guided behaviors and olfactory perceptual tasks. Sniffing is quantified by measuring intra-nasal pressure or flow or air or, while less accurate, through a strain gauge on the chest to measure total respiratory volume. Strategies for sniffing behavior vary depending upon the animal, with small animals (rats, mice, hamsters) displaying sniffing frequencies ranging from 4 to 12 Hz but larger animals (humans) sniffing at much lower frequencies, usually less than 2 Hz. Subserving sniffing behaviors, evidence for an "olfactomotor" circuit in the brain exists, wherein perception or expectation of an odor can trigger brain respiratory center to allow for the modulation of sniffing frequency and amplitude and thus acquisition of odor information. Sniffing is analogous to other stimulus sampling behaviors, including visual saccades, active touch, and whisker movements in small animals (viz., whisking). Atypical sniffing has been reported in cases of neurological disorders, especially those disorders characterized by impaired motor function and olfactory perception.
Background and history of sniffing
Background
The behavior of sniffing incorporates changes in air flow within the nose. This can involve changes in the depth of inhalation and the frequency of inhalations. Both of these entail modulations in the manner whereby air flows within the nasal cavity and through the nostrils. As a consequence, when the air being breathed is odorized, odors can enter and leave the nasal cavity with each sniff. The same applies regardless of what gas is being inhaled, including toxins and solvents, and other industrial chemicals which may be inh
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
When cats mark their territory by rubbing their face against an object, they deposit chemicals released by what structures?
A. taste buds
B. scent glands
C. whiskers
D. pituitary glands
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9084
|
multiple_choice
|
When an action and reaction occur, what is transferred from one object to the other, yet in combination it remains the same?
|
[
"energy",
"momentum",
"force",
"matter"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
This is a list of topics that are included in high school physics curricula or textbooks.
Mathematical Background
SI Units
Scalar (physics)
Euclidean vector
Motion graphs and derivatives
Pythagorean theorem
Trigonometry
Motion and forces
Motion
Force
Linear motion
Linear motion
Displacement
Speed
Velocity
Acceleration
Center of mass
Mass
Momentum
Newton's laws of motion
Work (physics)
Free body diagram
Rotational motion
Angular momentum (Introduction)
Angular velocity
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force
Circular motion
Tangential velocity
Torque
Conservation of energy and momentum
Energy
Conservation of energy
Elastic collision
Inelastic collision
Inertia
Moment of inertia
Momentum
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Rotational energy
Electricity and magnetism
Ampère's circuital law
Capacitor
Coulomb's law
Diode
Direct current
Electric charge
Electric current
Alternating current
Electric field
Electric potential energy
Electron
Faraday's law of induction
Ion
Inductor
Joule heating
Lenz's law
Magnetic field
Ohm's law
Resistor
Transistor
Transformer
Voltage
Heat
Entropy
First law of thermodynamics
Heat
Heat transfer
Second law of thermodynamics
Temperature
Thermal energy
Thermodynamic cycle
Volume (thermodynamics)
Work (thermodynamics)
Waves
Wave
Longitudinal wave
Transverse waves
Transverse wave
Standing Waves
Wavelength
Frequency
Light
Light ray
Speed of light
Sound
Speed of sound
Radio waves
Harmonic oscillator
Hooke's law
Reflection
Refraction
Snell's law
Refractive index
Total internal reflection
Diffraction
Interference (wave propagation)
Polarization (waves)
Vibrating string
Doppler effect
Gravity
Gravitational potential
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newtonian constant of gravitation
See also
Outline of physics
Physics education
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Physics education research (PER) is a form of discipline-based education research specifically related to the study of the teaching and learning of physics, often with the aim of improving the effectiveness of student learning. PER draws from other disciplines, such as sociology, cognitive science, education and linguistics, and complements them by reflecting the disciplinary knowledge and practices of physics. Approximately eighty-five institutions in the United States conduct research in science and physics education.
Goals
One primary goal of PER is to develop pedagogical techniques and strategies that will help students learn physics more effectively and help instructors to implement these techniques. Because even basic ideas in physics can be confusing, together with the possibility of scientific misconceptions formed from teaching through analogies, lecturing often does not erase common misconceptions about physics that students acquire before they are taught physics. Research often focuses on learning more about common misconceptions that students bring to the physics classroom so that techniques can be devised to help students overcome these misconceptions.
In most introductory physics courses, mechanics is usually the first area of physics that is taught. Newton's laws of motion about interactions between forces and objects are central to the study of mechanics. Many students hold the Aristotelian misconception that a net force is required to keep a body moving; instead, motion is modeled in modern physics with Newton's first law of inertia, stating that a body will keep its state of rest or movement unless a net force acts on the body. Like students who hold this misconception, Newton arrived at his three laws of motion through empirical analysis, although he did it with an extensive study of data that included astronomical observations. Students can erase such as misconception in a nearly frictionless environment, where they find that
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Applied physics is the application of physics to solve scientific or engineering problems. It is usually considered a bridge or a connection between physics and engineering.
"Applied" is distinguished from "pure" by a subtle combination of factors, such as the motivation and attitude of researchers and the nature of the relationship to the technology or science that may be affected by the work. Applied physics is rooted in the fundamental truths and basic concepts of the physical sciences but is concerned with the utilization of scientific principles in practical devices and systems and with the application of physics in other areas of science and high technology.
Examples of research and development areas
Accelerator physics
Acoustics
Atmospheric physics
Biophysics
Brain–computer interfacing
Chemistry
Chemical physics
Differentiable programming
Artificial intelligence
Scientific computing
Engineering physics
Chemical engineering
Electrical engineering
Electronics
Sensors
Transistors
Materials science and engineering
Metamaterials
Nanotechnology
Semiconductors
Thin films
Mechanical engineering
Aerospace engineering
Astrodynamics
Electromagnetic propulsion
Fluid mechanics
Military engineering
Lidar
Radar
Sonar
Stealth technology
Nuclear engineering
Fission reactors
Fusion reactors
Optical engineering
Photonics
Cavity optomechanics
Lasers
Photonic crystals
Geophysics
Materials physics
Medical physics
Health physics
Radiation dosimetry
Medical imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging
Radiation therapy
Microscopy
Scanning probe microscopy
Atomic force microscopy
Scanning tunneling microscopy
Scanning electron microscopy
Transmission electron microscopy
Nuclear physics
Fission
Fusion
Optical physics
Nonlinear optics
Quantum optics
Plasma physics
Quantum technology
Quantum computing
Quantum cryptography
Renewable energy
Space physics
Spectroscopy
See also
Applied science
Applied mathematics
Engineering
Engineering Physics
High Technology
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In physics, action at a distance is the concept that an object's motion can be affected by another object without being physically contact (as in mechanical contact) by the other object. That is, it is the non-local interaction of objects that are separated in space. Coulomb's law and Newton's law of universal gravitation are based on action at a distance.
Historically, action at a distance was the earliest scientific model for gravity and electricity and it continues to be useful in many practical cases. In the 19th and 20th centuries, field models arose to explain these phenomena with more precision. The discovery of electrons and of special relativity lead to new action at a distance models providing alternative to field theories.
Categories of action
In the study of mechanics, action at a distance is one of three fundamental actions on matter that cause motion. The other two are direct impact (elastic or inelastic collisions) and actions in a continuous medium as in fluid mechanics or solid mechanics.
Historically, physical explanations for particular phenomena have moved between these three categories over time as new models were developed.
Action at a distance and actions in a continuous medium may be easily distinguished when the medium dynamics are visible, like waves in water or in an elastic solid. In the case of electricity or gravity, there is no medium required. In the nineteenth century, criteria like the effect of actions on intervening matter, the observation of a time delay, the apparent storage of energy, or even the possibility of a plausible mechanical model for action transmission were all accepted as evidence against action at a distance. Aether theories were alternative proposals to replace apparent action-at-a-distance in gravity and electromagnetism, in terms of continuous action inside an (invisible) medium called "aether".
Roles
The concept of action at a distance acts in multiple roles in physics and it can co-exist with other mode
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
When an action and reaction occur, what is transferred from one object to the other, yet in combination it remains the same?
A. energy
B. momentum
C. force
D. matter
Answer:
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sciq-4139
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multiple_choice
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When what common element forms single bonds with other atoms, the shape is tetrahedral, and when its atoms form a double bond, the shape is planar?
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[
"carbon",
"oxygen",
"silicon",
"hydrogen"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
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In organic chemistry, a Platonic hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon (molecule) whose structure matches one of the five Platonic solids, with carbon atoms replacing its vertices, carbon–carbon bonds replacing its edges, and hydrogen atoms as needed.
Not all Platonic solids have molecular hydrocarbon counterparts; those that do are the tetrahedron (tetrahedrane), the cube (cubane), and the dodecahedron (dodecahedrane).
Tetrahedrane
Tetrahedrane (C4H4) is a hypothetical compound. It has not yet been synthesized without substituents, but it is predicted to be kinetically stable in spite of its angle strain. Some stable derivatives, including tetra(tert-butyl)tetrahedrane (a hydrocarbon) and tetra(trimethylsilyl)tetrahedrane, have been produced.
Cubane
Cubane (C8H8) has been synthesized. Although it has high angle strain, cubane is kinetically stable, due to a lack of readily available decomposition paths.
Octahedrane
Angle strain would make an octahedron highly unstable due to inverted tetrahedral geometry at each vertex. There would also be no hydrogen atoms because four edges meet at each corner; thus, the hypothetical octahedrane molecule would be an allotrope of elemental carbon, C6, and not a hydrocarbon. The existence of octahedrane cannot be ruled out completely, although calculations have shown that it is unlikely.
Dodecahedrane
Dodecahedrane (C20H20) was first synthesized in 1982, and has minimal angle strain; the tetrahedral angle is 109.5° and the dodecahedral angle is 108°, only a slight discrepancy.
Icosahedrane
The tetravalency (4-connectedness) of carbon excludes an icosahedron because 5 edges meet at each vertex. True pentavalent carbon is unlikely; methanium, nominally , usually exists as . The hypothetical icosahedral lacks hydrogen so it is not a hydrocarbon; it is also an ion.
Both icosahedral and octahedral structures have been observed in boron compounds such as the dodecaborate ion and some of the carbon-containing carboranes.
Other polyhedr
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In a tetrahedral molecular geometry, a central atom is located at the center with four substituents that are located at the corners of a tetrahedron. The bond angles are cos−1(−) = 109.4712206...° ≈ 109.5° when all four substituents are the same, as in methane () as well as its heavier analogues. Methane and other perfectly symmetrical tetrahedral molecules belong to point group Td, but most tetrahedral molecules have lower symmetry. Tetrahedral molecules can be chiral.
Tetrahedral bond angle
The bond angle for a symmetric tetrahedral molecule such as CH4 may be calculated using the dot product of two vectors. As shown in the diagram, the molecule can be inscribed in a cube with the tetravalent atom (e.g. carbon) at the cube centre which is the origin of coordinates, O. The four monovalent atoms (e.g. hydrogens) are at four corners of the cube (A, B, C, D) chosen so that no two atoms are at adjacent corners linked by only one cube edge. If the edge length of the cube is chosen as 2 units, then the two bonds OA and OB correspond to the vectors a = (1, –1, 1) and b = (1, 1, –1), and the bond angle θ is the angle between these two vectors. This angle may be calculated from the dot product of the two vectors, defined as a • b = ||a|| ||b|| cos θ where ||a|| denotes the length of vector a. As shown in the diagram, the dot product here is –1 and the length of each vector is √3, so that cos θ = –1/3 and the tetrahedral bond angle θ = arccos(–1/3) ≃ 109.47°.
Examples
Main group chemistry
Aside from virtually all saturated organic compounds, most compounds of Si, Ge, and Sn are tetrahedral. Often tetrahedral molecules feature multiple bonding to the outer ligands, as in xenon tetroxide (XeO4), the perchlorate ion (), the sulfate ion (), the phosphate ion (). Thiazyl trifluoride () is tetrahedral, featuring a sulfur-to-nitrogen triple bond.
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Other molecules have a tetrahedral arrangement of electron pairs around a central atom; for example ammonia () with the nitrogen at
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A carbon–carbon bond is a covalent bond between two carbon atoms. The most common form is the single bond: a bond composed of two electrons, one from each of the two atoms. The carbon–carbon single bond is a sigma bond and is formed between one hybridized orbital from each of the carbon atoms. In ethane, the orbitals are sp3-hybridized orbitals, but single bonds formed between carbon atoms with other hybridizations do occur (e.g. sp2 to sp2). In fact, the carbon atoms in the single bond need not be of the same hybridization. Carbon atoms can also form double bonds in compounds called alkenes or triple bonds in compounds called alkynes. A double bond is formed with an sp2-hybridized orbital and a p-orbital that is not involved in the hybridization. A triple bond is formed with an sp-hybridized orbital and two p-orbitals from each atom. The use of the p-orbitals forms a pi bond.
Chains and branching
Carbon is one of the few elements that can form long chains of its own atoms, a property called catenation. This coupled with the strength of the carbon–carbon bond gives rise to an enormous number of molecular forms, many of which are important structural elements of life, so carbon compounds have their own field of study: organic chemistry.
Branching is also common in C−C skeletons. Carbon atoms in a molecule are categorized by the number of carbon neighbors they have:
A primary carbon has one carbon neighbor.
A secondary carbon has two carbon neighbors.
A tertiary carbon has three carbon neighbors.
A quaternary carbon has four carbon neighbors.
In "structurally complex organic molecules", it is the three-dimensional orientation of the carbon–carbon bonds at quaternary loci which dictates the shape of the molecule. Further, quaternary loci are found in many biologically active small molecules, such as cortisone and morphine.
Synthesis
Carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions are organic reactions in which a new carbon–carbon bond is formed. They are important in th
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The cubical atom was an early atomic model in which electrons were positioned at the eight corners of a cube in a non-polar atom or molecule. This theory was developed in 1902 by Gilbert N. Lewis and published in 1916 in the article "The Atom and the Molecule" and used to account for the phenomenon of valency.
Lewis' theory was based on Abegg's rule. It was further developed in 1919 by Irving Langmuir as the cubical octet atom. The figure below shows structural representations for elements of the second row of the periodic table.
Although the cubical model of the atom was soon abandoned in favor of the quantum mechanical model based on the Schrödinger equation, and is therefore now principally of historical interest, it represented an important step towards the understanding of the chemical bond. The 1916 article by Lewis also introduced the concept of the electron pair in the covalent bond, the octet rule, and the now-called Lewis structure.
Bonding in the cubical atom model
Single covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share an edge, as in structure C below. This results in the sharing of two electrons. Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of an electron from one cube to another without sharing an edge (structure A). An intermediate state where only one corner is shared (structure B) was also postulated by Lewis.
Double bonds are formed by sharing a face between two cubic atoms. This results in sharing four electrons:
Triple bonds could not be accounted for by the cubical atom model, because there is no way of having two cubes share three parallel edges. Lewis suggested that the electron pairs in atomic bonds have a special attraction, which result in a tetrahedral structure, as in the figure below (the new location of the electrons is represented by the dotted circles in the middle of the thick edges). This allows the formation of a single bond by sharing a corner, a double bond by sharing an edge, and a triple bond by sharing a face. It also accounts
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
When what common element forms single bonds with other atoms, the shape is tetrahedral, and when its atoms form a double bond, the shape is planar?
A. carbon
B. oxygen
C. silicon
D. hydrogen
Answer:
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|
sciq-5420
|
multiple_choice
|
What term is used to describe the way that animals interact with each other or their environment?
|
[
"animal range",
"animal decline",
"animal behavior",
"animal magnetism"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
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This glossary of ecology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts in ecology and related fields. For more specific definitions from other glossaries related to ecology, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of evolutionary biology, and Glossary of environmental science.
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See also
Outline of ecology
History of ecology
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Eric Michael Johnson (20 March 2014). The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us From Other Animals, by Thomas Suddendorf. The Times Higher Education.
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to ecology:
Ecology – scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as solar insolation, climate and geology, as well as the other organisms that share its habitat. Also called ecological science.
Essence of ecology
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Other criteria
Ecology can also be classified on the basis of:
the primary kinds of organism under study, e.g. animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology;
the biomes principally studied, e.g. forest ecology, grassland ecology, desert ecology, benthic ecology, marine ecology, urban ecology;
the geographic or climatic area, e.g. arctic ecology, tropical ecology;
the spatial scale under consideration, e.g. macroecology, landscape ecology;
the philosophical approach, e.g. systems ecology which adopts a holistic approach;
the methods used, e.g. molecular ecology.
Subdisciplines of ecology, and subdiscipline classification
Ecology is a broad discipline comprising many subdisciplines. The field of ecology can be subdivided according to several classification schemes:
By methodology used for investigation
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– the development of ecological theory, usually with mathematical, statistical and/or computer modeling tools.
By spatial scale of ecological system under study
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By level of organisation or scope
Arranged from lowest to highest level of organisation:
– the study of individual organisms of a single species in relation to their environment;
– the study of homogenous or heterogenous groups of organisms in relation to their environment;
– the study of homogenous groups of organisms related as a single species;
– the study of heterogenous groups of organisms of multipl
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Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million in total. Animals range in size from 8.5 millionths of a metre to long and have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The study of animals is called zoology.
Animals may be listed or indexed by many criteria, including taxonomy, status as endangered species, their geographical location, and their portrayal and/or naming in human culture.
By common name
List of animal names (male, female, young, and group)
By aspect
List of common household pests
List of animal sounds
List of animals by number of neurons
By domestication
List of domesticated animals
By eating behaviour
List of herbivorous animals
List of omnivores
List of carnivores
By endangered status
IUCN Red List endangered species (Animalia)
United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species
By extinction
List of extinct animals
List of extinct birds
List of extinct mammals
List of extinct cetaceans
List of extinct butterflies
By region
Lists of amphibians by region
Lists of birds by region
Lists of mammals by region
Lists of reptiles by region
By individual (real or fictional)
Real
Lists of snakes
List of individual cats
List of oldest cats
List of giant squids
List of individual elephants
List of historical horses
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
List of individual apes
List of individual bears
List of giant pandas
List of individual birds
List of individual bovines
List of individual cetaceans
List of individual dogs
List of oldest dogs
List of individual monkeys
List of individual pigs
List of w
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This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms. It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Glossary of genetics, Glossary of evolutionary biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science and Glossary of scientific naming, or any of the organism-specific glossaries in :Category:Glossaries of biology.
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Related to this search
Index of biology articles
Outline of biology
Glossaries of sub-disciplines and related fields:
Glossary of botany
Glossary of ecology
Glossary of entomology
Glossary of environmental science
Glossary of genetics
Glossary of ichthyology
Glossary of ornithology
Glossary of scientific naming
Glossary of speciation
Glossary of virology
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What term is used to describe the way that animals interact with each other or their environment?
A. animal range
B. animal decline
C. animal behavior
D. animal magnetism
Answer:
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|
ai2_arc-357
|
multiple_choice
|
Which of these most likely has the GREATEST mass?
|
[
"Chicken",
"Puppy",
"Lizard",
"Horse"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591.
On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education.
Format
This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions.
The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test.
Preparation
The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a
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Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses. Today, courses available look at a broader area, including companion animals, like dogs and cats, and many exotic species. Degrees in Animal Science are offered at a number of colleges and universities. Animal science degrees are often offered at land-grant universities, which will often have on-campus farms to give students hands-on experience with livestock animals.
Education
Professional education in animal science prepares students for careers in areas such as animal breeding, food and fiber production, nutrition, animal agribusiness, animal behavior, and welfare. Courses in a typical Animal Science program may include genetics, microbiology, animal behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Courses in support areas, such as genetics, soils, agricultural economics and marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are offered.
Bachelor degree
At many universities, a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in Animal Science allows emphasis in certain areas. Typical areas are species-specific or career-specific. Species-specific areas of emphasis prepare students for a career in dairy management, beef management, swine management, sheep or small ruminant management, poultry production, or the horse industry. Other career-specific areas of study include pre-veterinary medicine studies, livestock business and marketing, animal welfare and behavior, animal nutrition science, animal reproduction science, or genetics. Youth programs are also an important part of animal science programs.
Pre-veterinary emphasis
Many schools that offer a degree option in Animal Science also offer a pre-veterinary emphasis such as Iowa State University, th
Document 3:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 4:::
The Bachelor of Science in Aquatic Resources and Technology (B.Sc. in AQT) (or Bachelor of Aquatic Resource) is an undergraduate degree that prepares students to pursue careers in the public, private, or non-profit sector in areas such as marine science, fisheries science, aquaculture, aquatic resource technology, food science, management, biotechnology and hydrography. Post-baccalaureate training is available in aquatic resource management and related areas.
The Department of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, at the Uva Wellassa University of Badulla, Sri Lanka, has the largest enrollment of undergraduate majors in Aquatic Resources and Technology, with about 200 students as of 2014.
The Council on Education for Aquatic Resources and Technology includes undergraduate AQT degrees in the accreditation review of Aquatic Resources and Technology programs and schools.
See also
Marine Science
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Which of these most likely has the GREATEST mass?
A. Chicken
B. Puppy
C. Lizard
D. Horse
Answer:
|
|
scienceQA-2751
|
multiple_choice
|
What do these two changes have in common?
silver jewelry tarnishing
baking cookies
|
[
"Both are only physical changes.",
"Both are caused by heating.",
"Both are chemical changes.",
"Both are caused by cooling."
] |
C
|
Step 1: Think about each change.
Metal turning less shiny over time is called tarnishing. Silver jewelry tarnishing is a chemical change. The silver reacts with sulfur in the air to form black tarnish. The tarnish is a different type of matter that was not there before the change.
Baking cookies is a chemical change. The type of matter in the cookie dough changes when it is baked. The cookie dough turns into cookies!
Step 2: Look at each answer choice.
Both are only physical changes.
Both changes are chemical changes. They are not physical changes.
Both are chemical changes.
Both changes are chemical changes. The type of matter before and after each change is different.
Both are caused by heating.
Baking is caused by heating. But silver tarnishing is not.
Both are caused by cooling.
Neither change is caused by cooling.
|
Relavent Documents:
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Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds.
Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not change their chemical composition. This contrasts with the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible using physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered by allowing the water to evaporate.
A physical change involves a change in physical properties. Examples of physical properties include melting, transition to a gas, change of strength, change of durability, changes to crystal form, textural change, shape, size, color, volume and density.
An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to form a knife blade. A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered which changes the hardness of the steel, its flexibility and its ability to maintain a sharp edge.
Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change.
Examples
Heating and cooling
Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation.
Magnetism
Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is reve
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
Adaptive comparative judgement is a technique borrowed from psychophysics which is able to generate reliable results for educational assessment – as such it is an alternative to traditional exam script marking. In the approach, judges are presented with pairs of student work and are then asked to choose which is better, one or the other. By means of an iterative and adaptive algorithm, a scaled distribution of student work can then be obtained without reference to criteria.
Introduction
Traditional exam script marking began in Cambridge 1792 when, with undergraduate numbers rising, the importance of proper ranking of students was growing. So in 1792 the new Proctor of Examinations, William Farish, introduced marking, a process in which every examiner gives a numerical score to each response by every student, and the overall total mark puts the students in the final rank order. Francis Galton (1869) noted that, in an unidentified year about 1863, the Senior Wrangler scored 7,634 out of a maximum of 17,000, while the Second Wrangler scored 4,123. (The 'Wooden Spoon' scored only 237.)
Prior to 1792, a team of Cambridge examiners convened at 5pm on the last day of examining, reviewed the 19 papers each student had sat – and published their rank order at midnight. Marking solved the problems of numbers and prevented unfair personal bias, and its introduction was a step towards modern objective testing, the format it is best suited to. But the technology of testing that followed, with its major emphasis on reliability and the automatisation of marking, has been an uncomfortable partner for some areas of educational achievement: assessing writing or speaking, and other kinds of performance need something more qualitative and judgemental.
The technique of Adaptive Comparative Judgement is an alternative to marking. It returns to the pre-1792 idea of sorting papers according to their quality, but retains the guarantee of reliability and fairness. It is by far the most rel
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Allomerism is the similarity in the crystalline structure of substances of different chemical composition.
Document 4:::
In physics, a dynamical system is said to be mixing if the phase space of the system becomes strongly intertwined, according to at least one of several mathematical definitions. For example, a measure-preserving transformation T is said to be strong mixing if
whenever A and B are any measurable sets and μ is the associated measure. Other definitions are possible, including weak mixing and topological mixing.
The mathematical definition of mixing is meant to capture the notion of physical mixing. A canonical example is the Cuba libre: suppose one is adding rum (the set A) to a glass of cola. After stirring the glass, the bottom half of the glass (the set B) will contain rum, and it will be in equal proportion as it is elsewhere in the glass. The mixing is uniform: no matter which region B one looks at, some of A will be in that region. A far more detailed, but still informal description of mixing can be found in the article on mixing (mathematics).
Every mixing transformation is ergodic, but there are ergodic transformations which are not mixing.
Physical mixing
The mixing of gases or liquids is a complex physical process, governed by a convective diffusion equation that may involve non-Fickian diffusion as in spinodal decomposition. The convective portion of the governing equation contains fluid motion terms that are governed by the Navier–Stokes equations. When fluid properties such as viscosity depend on composition, the governing equations may be coupled. There may also be temperature effects. It is not clear that fluid mixing processes are mixing in the mathematical sense.
Small rigid objects (such as rocks) are sometimes mixed in a rotating drum or tumbler. The 1969 Selective Service draft lottery was carried out by mixing plastic capsules which contained a slip of paper (marked with a day of the year).
See also
Miscibility
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What do these two changes have in common?
silver jewelry tarnishing
baking cookies
A. Both are only physical changes.
B. Both are caused by heating.
C. Both are chemical changes.
D. Both are caused by cooling.
Answer:
|
sciq-216
|
multiple_choice
|
Global warming will raise ocean levels due to melt water from glaciers and the greater volume of what?
|
[
"warmer water",
"rain",
"rainforests",
"greenhouse gases"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Between 1901 and 2018, the average global sea level rose by , or an average of 1–2 mm per year. This rate accelerated to 4.62 mm/yr for the decade 2013–2022. Climate change due to human activities is the main cause. Between 1993 and 2018, thermal expansion of water accounted for 42% of sea level rise. Melting temperate glaciers accounted for 21%, with Greenland accounting for 15% and Antarctica 8%. Sea level rise lags changes in the Earth's temperature. So sea level rise will continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that is already happening. What happens after that will depend on what happens with human greenhouse gas emissions. Sea level rise may slow down between 2050 and 2100 if there are deep cuts in emissions. It could then reach a little over from now by 2100. With high emissions it may accelerate. It could rise by or even by then. In the long run, sea level rise would amount to over the next 2000 years if warming amounts to . It would be if warming peaks at .
Rising seas ultimately impact every coastal and island population on Earth. This can be through flooding, higher storm surges, king tides, and tsunamis. These have many knock-on effects. They lead to loss of coastal ecosystems like mangroves. Crop production falls because of salinization of irrigation water and damage to ports disrupts sea trade. The sea level rise projected by 2050 will expose places currently inhabited by tens of millions of people to annual flooding. Without a sharp reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this may increase to hundreds of millions in the latter decades of the century. Areas not directly exposed to rising sea levels could be affected by large scale migrations and economic disruption.
At the same time, local factors like tidal range or land subsidence, as well as the varying resilience and adaptive capacity of individual ecosystems, sectors, and countries will greatly affect the severity of impacts. For instance, sea level rise along the
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In earth science, global surface temperature (GST; sometimes referred to as global mean surface temperature, GMST, or global average surface temperature) is calculated by averaging the temperatures over sea and land. Periods of global cooling and global warming have alternated throughout Earth's history.
Series of reliable global temperature measurements began in the 1850—1880 time frame. Through 1940, the average annual temperature increased, but was relatively stable between 1940 and 1975. Since 1975, it has increased by roughly 0.15 °C to 0.20 °C per decade, to at least 1.1 °C (1.9 °F) above 1880 levels. The current annual GMST is about , though monthly temperatures can vary almost above or below this figure.
Sea levels have risen and fallen sharply during Earth's 4.6 billion year history. However, recent global sea level rise, driven by increasing global surface temperatures, has increased over the average rate of the past two to three thousand years. The continuation or acceleration of this trend will cause significant changes in the world's coastlines.
Background
In the 1860s, physicist John Tyndall recognized the Earth's natural greenhouse effect and suggested that slight changes in the atmospheric composition could bring about climatic variations. In 1896, a seminal paper by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius first predicted that changes in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could substantially alter the surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.
Changes in global temperatures over the past century provide evidence for the effects of increasing greenhouse gasses. When the climate system reacts to such changes, climate change follows. Measurement of the GST(global surface temperature) is one of the many lines of evidence supporting the scientific consensus on climate change, which is that humans are causing warming of Earth's climate system.
Warming oceans
With the Earth's temperature increasing, the ocean has absorbed much of th
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At the global scale sustainability and environmental management involves managing the oceans, freshwater systems, land and atmosphere, according to sustainability principles.
Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation, agriculture, forest, woodland, grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water, carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles. Management of the Earth's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities. Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms.
Atmosphere
In March 2009, at a meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council, 2,500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now "no excuse" for failing to act on global warming and without strong carbon reduction targets "abrupt or irreversible" shifts in climate may occur that "will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with". Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities.
Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the air pollution in cities, the pollutants including toxic chemicals like nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds and airborne particulate matter that produce photochemical smog and acid rain, and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer. Anthropogenic particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradianc
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Global change in broad sense refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system. It is most commonly used to encompass the variety of changes connected to the rapid increase in human activities which started around mid-20th century, i.e., the Great Acceleration. While the concept stems from research on the climate change, it is used to adopt a more holistic view of the observed changes. Global change refers to the changes of the Earth system, treated in its entirety with interacting physicochemical and biological components as well as the impact human societies have on the components and vice versa. Therefore, the changes are studied through means of Earth system science.
History of global-change research
The first global efforts to address the environmental impact of human activities on the environment worldwide date before the concept of global change was introduced. Most notably, in 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, which led to United Nations Environment Programme. While the efforts were global and the effects across the globe were considered, the Earth system approach was not yet developed at this time. The events, however, started a chain of events that led to the emergence of the field of global change research.
The concept of global change was coined as researchers investigating climate change started that not only the climate but also other components of the Earth system change at a rapid pace, which can be contributed to human activities and follow dynamics similar to many societal changes. It has its origins in the World Climate Research Programme, or WCRP, an international program under the leadership of Peter Bolin, which at the time of its establishment in 1980 focused on determining if the climate is changing, can it be predicted and do humans cause the change. The first results not only confirmed human impact but led to the realisation of a larger phenomenon of global change. Subsequently Peter Boli
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International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans (IAPSO) is one of eight associations of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), constituted within the International Science Council (ISC). It was founded in 1919 as an oceanographic section of the IUGG and renamed an association in 1931. IAPSO is the primary body responsible for maintaining and improving oceanographic standards and practices. The President of IAPSO is Dr. Hans van Haren.
IAPSO’s Goal and Objectives
IAPSO’s prime goal is "promoting the study of scientific problems relating to the oceans and the interactions taking places at the sea floor, coastal, and atmospheric boundaries insofar as such research is conducted by the use of mathematics, physics, and chemistry." This goal is addressed through four objectives:
Organization, sponsorship, and co-sponsorship of formal and informal international events to facilitate communication of ocean scientists throughout the world;
Establishment of commissions, sub-committees, and organization of commensurate workshops to support and coordinate new and advanced international research activities;
Provision of services needed to conduct the physical sciences of the oceans;
Publishing proceedings of the conducted events and fundamental references on the current state-of-the art and knowledge of physical sciences of the oceans.
Awards and honors
Prince Albert I Medal
The IAPSO Prince Albert I Medal is provided by the Foundation Rainier III of Monaco every two years to scientists for outstanding contributions to the physical sciences of the oceans. In 2023 the recipient of the IAPSO Prince Albert I Medal was Prof. John A. Church, Emeritus Professor at the University of New South Wales, Australia, for his outstanding contributions to sea level research and related new insights into climate change.
Eugene LaFond Medal
The Eugene LaFond Medal is awarded to ocean scientists from developing countries for presentation (poster or or
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Global warming will raise ocean levels due to melt water from glaciers and the greater volume of what?
A. warmer water
B. rain
C. rainforests
D. greenhouse gases
Answer:
|
|
sciq-2542
|
multiple_choice
|
A diver's air bubbles increase in size as he approaches the surface because what decreases?
|
[
"water energy",
"water weight",
"water direction",
"water pressure"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Diving physics, or the physics of underwater diving is the basic aspects of physics which describe the effects of the underwater environment on the underwater diver and their equipment, and the effects of blending, compressing, and storing breathing gas mixtures, and supplying them for use at ambient pressure. These effects are mostly consequences of immersion in water, the hydrostatic pressure of depth and the effects of pressure and temperature on breathing gases. An understanding of the physics is useful when considering the physiological effects of diving, breathing gas planning and management, diver buoyancy control and trim, and the hazards and risks of diving.
Changes in density of breathing gas affect the ability of the diver to breathe effectively, and variations in partial pressure of breathing gas constituents have profound effects on the health and ability to function underwater of the diver.
Aspects of physics with particular relevance to diving
The main laws of physics that describe the influence of the underwater diving environment on the diver and diving equipment include:
Buoyancy
Archimedes' principle (Buoyancy) - Ignoring the minor effect of surface tension, an object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Thus, when in water, the weight of the volume of water displaced as compared to the weight of the diver's body and the diver's equipment, determine whether the diver floats or sinks. Buoyancy control, and being able to maintain neutral buoyancy in particular, is an important safety skill. The diver needs to understand buoyancy to effectively and safely operate drysuits, buoyancy compensators, diving weighting systems and lifting bags.
Pressure
The concept of pressure as force distributed over area, and the variation of pressure with immersed depth are central to the understanding of the physiology of diving, particularly the physiology of decompression an
Document 2:::
The actuarial credentialing and exam process usually requires passing a rigorous series of professional examinations, most often taking several years in total, before one can become recognized as a credentialed actuary. In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a university setting. In others, such as the U.S., most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations. In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure.
Australia
The education system in Australia is divided into three components: an exam-based curriculum; a professionalism course; and work experience. The system is governed by the Institute of Actuaries of Australia.
The exam-based curriculum is in three parts. Part I relies on exemptions from an accredited under-graduate degree from either Bond University, Monash University, Macquarie University, University of New South Wales, University of Melbourne, Australian National University or Curtin University. The courses cover subjects including finance, financial mathematics, economics, contingencies, demography, models, probability and statistics. Students may also gain exemptions by passing the exams of the Institute of Actuaries in London. Part II is the Actuarial control cycle and is also offered by each of the universities above. Part III consists of four half-year courses of which two are compulsory and the other two allow specialization.
To become an Associate, one needs to complete Part I and Part II of the accreditation process, perform 3 years of recognized work experience, and complete a professionalism course. To become a Fellow, candidates must complete Part I, II, III, and take a professionalism course. Work experience is not required, however, as the Institute deems that those who have successfully completed Part III have shown enough level of professionalism.
China
Actuarial exams were suspended in 2014 but reintroduced in 2023.
Denmark
In Denmark it normal
Document 3:::
The Force Concept Inventory is a test measuring mastery of concepts commonly taught in a first semester of physics developed by Hestenes, Halloun, Wells, and Swackhamer (1985). It was the first such "concept inventory" and several others have been developed since for a variety of topics. The FCI was designed to assess student understanding of the Newtonian concepts of force. Hestenes (1998) found that while "nearly 80% of the [students completing introductory college physics courses] could state Newton's Third Law at the beginning of the course, FCI data showed that less than 15% of them fully understood it at the end". These results have been replicated in a number of studies involving students at a range of institutions (see sources section below), and have led to greater recognition in the physics education research community of the importance of students' "active engagement" with the materials to be mastered.
The 1995 version has 30 five-way multiple choice questions.
Example question (question 4):
Gender differences
The FCI shows a gender difference in favor of males that has been the subject of some research in regard to gender equity in education. Men score on average about 10% higher.
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In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
A diver's air bubbles increase in size as he approaches the surface because what decreases?
A. water energy
B. water weight
C. water direction
D. water pressure
Answer:
|
|
sciq-11294
|
multiple_choice
|
When plants reproduce, the offspring has characteristics similar to the?
|
[
"siblings",
"parents",
"cousins",
"grandparents"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Quantitative trait loci mapping or QTL mapping is the process of identifying genomic regions that potentially contain genes responsible for important economic, health or environmental characters. Mapping QTLs is an important activity that plant breeders and geneticists routinely use to associate potential causal genes with phenotypes of interest. Family-based QTL mapping is a variant of QTL mapping where multiple-families are used.
Pedigree in humans and wheat
Pedigree information include information about ancestry. Keeping pedigree records is a centuries-old tradition. Pedigrees can also be verified using gene-marker data.
In plants
The method has been discussed in the context of plant breeding populations. Pedigree records are kept by plants breeders and pedigree-based selection is popular in several plant species. Plant pedigrees are different from that of humans, particularly as plant are hermaphroditic – an individual can be male or female and mating can be performed in random combinations, with inbreeding loops. Also plant pedigrees may contain of "selfs", i.e. offspring resulting from self-pollination of a plant.
Pedigree denotation
SIMPLE CROSS SYMBOL Example
/ first order cross SON 64/KLRE
//, second order cross IR 64/KLRE // CIAN0
/3/, third order cross TOBS /3/ SON 64/KLRE // CIAN0
/4/, fourth order cross TOBS /3/ SON 64/KLRE // CIAN0 /4/ SEE
/n/, nth order cross
BACK CROSS SYMBOL
*n n number of times the back cross parent used
left side simple cross symbol,
back cross parent is the female,
right side – male,
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Marker assisted selection or marker aided selection (MAS) is an indirect selection process where a trait of interest is selected based on a marker (morphological, biochemical or DNA/RNA variation) linked to a trait of interest (e.g. productivity, disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and quality), rather than on the trait itself. This process has been extensively researched and proposed for plant- and animal- breeding.
For example, using MAS to select individuals with disease resistance involves identifying a marker allele that is linked with disease resistance rather than the level of disease resistance. The assumption is that the marker associates at high frequency with the gene or quantitative trait locus (QTL) of interest, due to genetic linkage (close proximity, on the chromosome, of the marker locus and the disease resistance-determining locus). MAS can be useful to select for traits that are difficult or expensive to measure, exhibit low heritability and/or are expressed late in development. At certain points in the breeding process the specimens are examined to ensure that they express the desired trait.
Marker types
The majority of MAS work in the present era uses DNA-based markers. However, the first markers that allowed indirect selection of a trait of interest were morphological markers. In 1923, Karl Sax first reported association of a simply inherited genetic marker with a quantitative trait in plants when he observed segregation of seed size associated with segregation for a seed coat color marker in beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). In 1935, J. Rasmusson demonstrated linkage of flowering time (a quantitative trait) in peas with a simply inherited gene for flower color.
Markers may be:
Morphological These were the first markers loci available that have an obvious impact on the morphology of plants. These markers are often detectable by eye, by simple visual inspection. Examples of this type of marker include the presence or absence of a
Document 2:::
Plant genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity specifically in plants. It is generally considered a field of biology and botany, but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. Plant genetics is similar in many ways to animal genetics but differs in a few key areas.
The discoverer of genetics was Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (most famously pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete "units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Much of Mendel's work with plants still forms the basis for modern plant genetics.
Plants, like all known organisms, use DNA to pass on their traits. Animal genetics often focuses on parentage and lineage, but this can sometimes be difficult in plant genetics due to the fact that plants can, unlike most animals, be self-fertile. Speciation can be easier in many plants due to unique genetic abilities, such as being well adapted to polyploidy. Plants are unique in that they are able to produce energy-dense carbohydrates via photosynthesis, a process which is achieved by use of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts, like the superficially similar mitochondria, possess their own DNA. Chloroplasts thus provide an additional reservoir for genes and genetic diversity, and an extra layer of genetic complexity not found in animals.
The study of plant genetics has major economic impacts: many staple crops are genetically modified to increase yields, confer pest and disease resistance, provide resistance to herbicides, or to increase their nutritional value.
History
The earliest evidence of plant domestication found has been dated to 11,000 years before present in ancestral wheat. While initially selection may have happene
Document 3:::
A monohybrid cross is a cross between two organisms with different variations at one genetic locus of interest. The character(s) being studied in a monohybrid cross are governed by two or multiple variations for a single location of a gene.
Then carry out such a cross, each parent is chosen to be homozygous or true breeding for a given trait (locus). When a cross satisfies the conditions for a monohybrid cross, it is usually detected by a characteristic distribution of second-generation (F2) offspring that is sometimes called the monohybrid ratio.
Usage
Generally, the monohybrid cross is used to determine the dominance relationship between two alleles. The cross begins with the parental generation. One parent is homozygous for one allele, and the other parent is homozygous for the other allele. The offspring make up the first filial (F1) generation. Every member of the F1 generation is heterozygous and the phenotype of the F1 generation expresses the dominant trait. Crossing two members of the F1 generation produces the second filial (F2) generation. Probability theory predicts that three quarters of the F2 generation will have the dominant allele's phenotype. And the remaining quarter of the F2s will have the recessive allele's phenotype. This predicted 3:1 phenotypic ratio assumes Mendelian inheritance.
Mendel's experiment with peas (Pisum sativum)
Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was an Austrian monk who theorized basic rules of inheritance. From 1858 to 1866, he bred garden peas (Pisum sativum) in his monastery garden and analyzed the offspring of these matings. The garden pea was chosen as an experimental organism because
many varieties were available that bred true for qualitative traits and their pollination could be manipulated. The seven variable characteristics Mendel investigated in pea plants were.
seed texture (round vs wrinkled)
seed color (yellow vs green)
flower color (white vs purple)
growth habit (tall vs dwarf)
pod shape (pinched or inf
Document 4:::
In ecology, functional equivalence (or functional redundancy) is the ecological phenomenon that multiple species representing a variety of taxonomic groups can share similar, if not identical, roles in ecosystem functionality (e.g., nitrogen fixers, algae scrapers, scavengers). This phenomenon can apply to both plant and animal taxa. The idea was originally presented in 2005 by Stephen Hubbell, a plant ecologist at the University of Georgia. This idea has led to a new paradigm for species-level classification – organizing species into groups based on functional similarity rather than morphological or evolutionary history. In the natural world, several examples of functional equivalence among different taxa have emerged analogously.
Plant-pollinator relationships
One example of functional equivalence is demonstrated in plant-pollinator relationships, whereby a certain plant species may evolve flower morphology that selects for pollination by a host of taxonomically-unrelated species to provide the same function (fruit production following pollination). For example, the herbaceous plant spiny madwort (Hormathophylla spinosa) grows flowers that are shaped so that taxonomically unrelated pollinators behave almost identically during pollination. From the plant's perspective, each of these pollinators are functionally equivalent and thus are not subjected to specific selective pressures Variation in the shape and structure of both flower and seed morphology can be a source of selective pressure for animal species to evolve a variety of morphological features, yet also provide the same function to the plant.
Plant-animal seed dispersal mechanisms
Plant-animal interactions in terms of seed dispersal are another example of functional equivalence. Evidence has shown that, over the course of millions of years, most plants have maintained evolutionary trait stability in terms of the size and shape of their fruits. However, the animal species that consume and disperse the
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
When plants reproduce, the offspring has characteristics similar to the?
A. siblings
B. parents
C. cousins
D. grandparents
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8993
|
multiple_choice
|
In single-celled organisms, what does the plasma membrane extensions help the organisms to do?
|
[
"prevent",
"inspect",
"increase",
"move"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment (the extracellular space). The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, made up of two layers of phospholipids with cholesterols (a lipid component) interspersed between them, maintaining appropriate membrane fluidity at various temperatures. The membrane also contains membrane proteins, including integral proteins that span the membrane and serve as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer (peripheral) side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes to facilitate interaction with the cell's environment. Glycolipids embedded in the outer lipid layer serve a similar purpose. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell, being selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall and the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, as well as the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.
History
While Robert Hooke's discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the cell theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to su
Document 1:::
Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism. Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure.
General characteristics
There are two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes were the first of the two to develop and do not have a self-contained nucleus. Their mechanisms are simpler than later-evolved eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus that envelops the cell's DNA and some organelles.
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes have DNA located in an area called the nucleoid, which is not separated from other parts of the cell by a membrane. There are two domains of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes have fewer organelles than eukaryotes. Both have plasma membranes and ribosomes (structures that synthesize proteins and float free in cytoplasm). Two unique characteristics of prokaryotes are fimbriae (finger-like projections on the surface of a cell) and flagella (threadlike structures that aid movement).
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is contained. They are usually larger than prokaryotes and contain many more organelles. The nucleus, the feature of a eukaryote that distinguishes it from a prokaryote, contains a nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin. In cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesizes membranes and performs other metabolic activities. There are two types, rough ER (containing ribosomes) and smooth ER (lacking ribosomes). The Golgi apparatus consists of multiple membranous sacs, responsible for manufacturing and shipping out materials such as proteins. Lysosomes are structures that use enzymes to break down substances through phagocytosis, a process that comprises endocytosis and exocytosis. In the mitochondria, metabolic processes such as cellular respiration occur. The cytoskeleton is made of fibers that support the str
Document 2:::
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life. Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from the Latin word meaning 'small room'.
Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell.
Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms.
The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology.
Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago.
Discovery
With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology became advanced enough to discover cells. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, known as cell biology. When observing a piece of cork under the scope, he was able to see pores. This was shocking at the time as i
Document 3:::
Bacterial motility is the ability of bacteria to move independently using metabolic energy. Most motility mechanisms that evolved among bacteria also evolved in parallel among the archaea. Most rod-shaped bacteria can move using their own power, which allows colonization of new environments and discovery of new resources for survival. Bacterial movement depends not only on the characteristics of the medium, but also on the use of different appendages to propel. Swarming and swimming movements are both powered by rotating flagella. Whereas swarming is a multicellular 2D movement over a surface and requires the presence of surfactants, swimming is movement of individual cells in liquid environments.
Other types of movement occurring on solid surfaces include twitching, gliding and sliding, which are all independent of flagella. Twitching depends on the extension, attachment to a surface, and retraction of type IV pili which pull the cell forwards in a manner similar to the action of a grappling hook, providing energy to move the cell forward. Gliding uses different motor complexes, such as the focal adhesion complexes of Myxococcus. Unlike twitching and gliding motilities, which are active movements where the motive force is generated by the individual cell, sliding is a passive movement. It relies on the motive force generated by the cell community due to the expansive forces caused by cell growth within the colony in the presence of surfactants, which reduce the friction between the cells and the surface. The overall movement of a bacterium can be the result of alternating tumble and swim phases. As a result, the trajectory of a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment will form a random walk with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium.
Bacteria can also exhibit taxis, which is the ability to move towards or away from stimuli in their environment. In chemotaxis the overall motion of bacteria responds to the presence
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This lecture, named in memory of Keith R. Porter, is presented to an eminent cell biologist each year at the ASCB Annual Meeting. The ASCB Program Committee and the ASCB President recommend the Porter Lecturer to the Porter Endowment each year.
Lecturers
Source: ASCB
See also
List of biology awards
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
In single-celled organisms, what does the plasma membrane extensions help the organisms to do?
A. prevent
B. inspect
C. increase
D. move
Answer:
|
|
scienceQA-11522
|
multiple_choice
|
Select the living thing.
|
[
"Mount Rushmore National Memorial",
"zebra",
"rainboot",
"bathtub"
] |
B
|
Mount Rushmore National Memorial is not a living thing.
The Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture of four American presidents: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln. The sculpture does not have all the traits of a living thing. It does not grow or respond to the world around it. It does not need food or water.
A rainboot is not a living thing.
Rainboots do not have all of the traits of living things. They do not grow or respond to their environment. They do not need food or water.
A zebra is a living thing.
Zebras grow and respond to their environment. They need food and water. Zebras are made up of many cells.
A bathtub is not a living thing.
Bathtubs do not have all of the traits of living things. They do not grow or respond to their environment. They do not need food or water.
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The University of Michigan Biological Station (UMBS) is a research and teaching facility operated by the University of Michigan. It is located on the south shore of Douglas Lake in Cheboygan County, Michigan. The station consists of 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land near Pellston, Michigan in the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan and 3,200 acres (13 km2) on Sugar Island in the St. Mary's River near Sault Ste. Marie, in the Upper Peninsula. It is one of only 28 Biosphere Reserves in the United States.
Overview
Founded in 1909, it has grown to include approximately 150 buildings, including classrooms, student cabins, dormitories, a dining hall, and research facilities. Undergraduate and graduate courses are available in the spring and summer terms. It has a full-time staff of 15.
In the 2000s, UMBS is increasingly focusing on the measurement of climate change. Its field researchers are gauging the impact of global warming and increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the ecosystem of the upper Great Lakes region, and are using field data to improve the computer models used to forecast further change. Several archaeological digs have been conducted at the station as well.
UMBS field researchers sometimes call the station "bug camp" amongst themselves. This is believed to be due to the number of mosquitoes and other insects present. It is also known as "The Bio-Station".
The UMBS is also home to Michigan's most endangered species and one of the most endangered species in the world: the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle. The species lives in only five locations in the world, two of which are in Emmet County. One of these, a two and a half mile stretch downstream from the Douglas Road crossing of the East Branch of the Maple River supports the only stable population of the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle, with roughly 1000 specimens. This area, though technically not part of the UMBS is largely within and along the boundary of the University of Michigan
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The Bachelor of Science in Aquatic Resources and Technology (B.Sc. in AQT) (or Bachelor of Aquatic Resource) is an undergraduate degree that prepares students to pursue careers in the public, private, or non-profit sector in areas such as marine science, fisheries science, aquaculture, aquatic resource technology, food science, management, biotechnology and hydrography. Post-baccalaureate training is available in aquatic resource management and related areas.
The Department of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, at the Uva Wellassa University of Badulla, Sri Lanka, has the largest enrollment of undergraduate majors in Aquatic Resources and Technology, with about 200 students as of 2014.
The Council on Education for Aquatic Resources and Technology includes undergraduate AQT degrees in the accreditation review of Aquatic Resources and Technology programs and schools.
See also
Marine Science
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development
Document 2:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
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The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
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Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Select the living thing.
A. Mount Rushmore National Memorial
B. zebra
C. rainboot
D. bathtub
Answer:
|
ai2_arc-88
|
multiple_choice
|
After observing several dogs running, students ask the following question: Do dogs with long hair run faster than dogs with short hair? How can the students best answer their question?
|
[
"record the weights and heights of many dogs",
"measure the speeds and hair lengths of many dogs",
"research to find the type of dog with the longest hair",
"race one long-haired dog against one short-haired dog"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses. Today, courses available look at a broader area, including companion animals, like dogs and cats, and many exotic species. Degrees in Animal Science are offered at a number of colleges and universities. Animal science degrees are often offered at land-grant universities, which will often have on-campus farms to give students hands-on experience with livestock animals.
Education
Professional education in animal science prepares students for careers in areas such as animal breeding, food and fiber production, nutrition, animal agribusiness, animal behavior, and welfare. Courses in a typical Animal Science program may include genetics, microbiology, animal behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Courses in support areas, such as genetics, soils, agricultural economics and marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are offered.
Bachelor degree
At many universities, a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in Animal Science allows emphasis in certain areas. Typical areas are species-specific or career-specific. Species-specific areas of emphasis prepare students for a career in dairy management, beef management, swine management, sheep or small ruminant management, poultry production, or the horse industry. Other career-specific areas of study include pre-veterinary medicine studies, livestock business and marketing, animal welfare and behavior, animal nutrition science, animal reproduction science, or genetics. Youth programs are also an important part of animal science programs.
Pre-veterinary emphasis
Many schools that offer a degree option in Animal Science also offer a pre-veterinary emphasis such as Iowa State University, th
Document 2:::
Test equating traditionally refers to the statistical process of determining comparable scores on different forms of an exam. It can be accomplished using either classical test theory or item response theory.
In item response theory, equating is the process of placing scores from two or more parallel test forms onto a common score scale. The result is that scores from two different test forms can be compared directly, or treated as though they came from the same test form. When the tests are not parallel, the general process is called linking. It is the process of equating the units and origins of two scales on which the abilities of students have been estimated from results on different tests. The process is analogous to equating degrees Fahrenheit with degrees Celsius by converting measurements from one scale to the other. The determination of comparable scores is a by-product of equating that results from equating the scales obtained from test results.
Purpose
Suppose that Dick and Jane both take a test to become licensed in a certain profession. Because the high stakes (you get to practice the profession if you pass the test) may create a temptation to cheat, the organization that oversees the test creates two forms. If we know that Dick scored 60% on form A and Jane scored 70% on form B, do we know for sure which one has a better grasp of the material? What if form A is composed of very difficult items, while form B is relatively easy? Equating analyses are performed to address this very issue, so that scores are as fair as possible.
Equating in item response theory
In item response theory, person "locations" (measures of some quality being assessed by a test) are estimated on an interval scale; i.e., locations are estimated in relation to a unit and origin. It is common in educational assessment to employ tests in order to assess different groups of students with the intention of establishing a common scale by equating the origins, and when appropri
Document 3:::
Dog intelligence or dog cognition is the process in dogs of acquiring information and conceptual skills, and storing them in memory, retrieving, combining and comparing them, and using them in new situations.
Studies have shown that dogs display many behaviors associated with intelligence. They have advanced memory skills, and are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.
Evolutionary perspective
Dogs have often been used in studies of cognition, including research on perception, awareness, memory, and learning, notably research on classical and operant conditioning. In the course of this research, behavioral scientists uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog, abilities that are neither possessed by dogs' closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes. Rather, these skills resemble some of the social-cognitive skills of human children. This may be an example of convergent evolution, which happens when distantly related species independently evolve similar solutions to the same problems. For example, fish, penguins and dolphins have each separately evolved flippers as solution to the problem of moving through the water. With dogs and humans, we may see psychological convergence; that is, dogs have evolved to be cognitively more similar to humans than we are to our closest genetic relatives.
However, it is questionable whether the cognitive evolution of humans and animals may be called "independent". The cognitive capacities of dogs have inevitably been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, many dogs readily respond to social cues common to humans, quickly learn the meaning of words, show cognitive bias and exhibit emotions that seem to reflect those of humans.
Research suggests that dom
Document 4:::
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.
Co-evolution with humans
The origin of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) is not clear. Whole-genome sequencing indicates that the dog, the gray wolf and the extinct Taymyr wolf diverged around the same time 27,000–40,000 years ago. How dogs became domesticated is not clear, however the two main hypotheses are self-domestication or human domestication. There exists evidence of human-canine behavioral coevolution.
Intelligence
Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge in order to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately. He also retained this ability four weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. After undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception.
Senses
The dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, taste, touch, proprioception, and sensitivity to the Ear
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
After observing several dogs running, students ask the following question: Do dogs with long hair run faster than dogs with short hair? How can the students best answer their question?
A. record the weights and heights of many dogs
B. measure the speeds and hair lengths of many dogs
C. research to find the type of dog with the longest hair
D. race one long-haired dog against one short-haired dog
Answer:
|
|
sciq-2234
|
multiple_choice
|
In the water molecule, two of the electron pairs are lone pairs rather than what?
|
[
"ions pairs",
"acid pairs",
"bonding ions",
"bonding pairs"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In chemistry, a lone pair refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom in a covalent bond and is sometimes called an unshared pair or non-bonding pair. Lone pairs are found in the outermost electron shell of atoms. They can be identified by using a Lewis structure. Electron pairs are therefore considered lone pairs if two electrons are paired but are not used in chemical bonding. Thus, the number of electrons in lone pairs plus the number of electrons in bonds equals the number of valence electrons around an atom.
Lone pair is a concept used in valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) which explains the shapes of molecules. They are also referred to in the chemistry of Lewis acids and bases. However, not all non-bonding pairs of electrons are considered by chemists to be lone pairs. Examples are the transition metals where the non-bonding pairs do not influence molecular geometry and are said to be stereochemically inactive. In molecular orbital theory (fully delocalized canonical orbitals or localized in some form), the concept of a lone pair is less distinct, as the correspondence between an orbital and components of a Lewis structure is often not straightforward. Nevertheless, occupied non-bonding orbitals (or orbitals of mostly nonbonding character) are frequently identified as lone pairs.
A single lone pair can be found with atoms in the nitrogen group, such as nitrogen in ammonia. Two lone pairs can be found with atoms in the chalcogen group, such as oxygen in water. The halogens can carry three lone pairs, such as in hydrogen chloride.
In VSEPR theory the electron pairs on the oxygen atom in water form the vertices of a tetrahedron with the lone pairs on two of the four vertices. The H–O–H bond angle is 104.5°, less than the 109° predicted for a tetrahedral angle, and this can be explained by a repulsive interaction between the lone pairs.
Various computational criteria for the presence of lone pairs have
Document 1:::
In chemistry, an electron pair or Lewis pair consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the concepts of both the electron pair and the covalent bond in a landmark paper he published in 1916.
Because electrons are fermions, the Pauli exclusion principle forbids these particles from having the same quantum numbers. Therefore, for two electrons to occupy the same orbital, and thereby have the same orbital quantum number, they must have different spin quantum number. This also limits the number of electrons in the same orbital to two.
The pairing of spins is often energetically favorable, and electron pairs therefore play a large role in chemistry. They can form a chemical bond between two atoms, or they can occur as a lone pair of valence electrons. They also fill the core levels of an atom.
Because the spins are paired, the magnetic moment of the electrons cancel one another, and the pair's contribution to magnetic properties is generally diamagnetic.
Although a strong tendency to pair off electrons can be observed in chemistry, it is also possible that electrons occur as unpaired electrons.
In the case of metallic bonding the magnetic moments also compensate to a large extent, but the bonding is more communal so that individual pairs of electrons cannot be distinguished and it is better to consider the electrons as a collective 'sea'.
A very special case of electron pair formation occurs in superconductivity: the formation of Cooper pairs. In unconventional superconductors, whose crystal structure contains copper anions, the electron pair bond is due to antiferromagnetic spin fluctuations.
See also
Electron pair production
Frustrated Lewis pair
Jemmis mno rules
Lewis acids and bases
Nucleophile
Polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory
Document 2:::
Linnett double-quartet theory (LDQ) is a method of describing the bonding in molecules which involves separating the electrons depending on their spin, placing them into separate 'spin tetrahedra' to minimise the Pauli repulsions between electrons of the same spin. Introduced by J. W. Linnett in his 1961 monograph and 1964 book, this method expands on the electron dot structures pioneered by G. N. Lewis. While the theory retains the requirement for fulfilling the octet rule, it dispenses with the need to force electrons into coincident pairs. Instead, the theory stipulates that the four electrons of a given spin should maximise the distances between each other, resulting in a net tetrahedral electronic arrangement that is the fundamental molecular building block of the theory.
By taking cognisance of both the charge and the spin of the electrons, the theory can describe bonding situations beyond those invoking electron pairs, for example two-centre one-electron bonds. This approach thus facilitates the generation of molecular structures which accurately reflect the physical properties of the corresponding molecules, for example molecular oxygen, benzene, nitric oxide or diborane. Additionally, the method has enjoyed some success for generating the molecular structures of excited states, radicals, and reaction intermediates. The theory has also facilitated a more complete understanding of chemical reactivity, hypervalent bonding and three-centre bonding.
Historical background
The cornerstone of classical bonding theories is the Lewis structure, published by G. N. Lewis in 1916 and continuing to be widely taught and disseminated to this day. In this theory, the electrons in bonds are believed to pair up, forming electron pairs which result in the binding of nuclei. While Lewis’ model could explain the structures of many molecules, Lewis himself could not rationalise why electrons, negatively-charged particles which should repel, were able to form electron pairs in
Document 3:::
Cooperative binding occurs in molecular binding systems containing more than one type, or species, of molecule and in which one of the partners is not mono-valent and can bind more than one molecule of the other species. In general, molecular binding is an interaction between molecules that results in a stable physical association between those molecules.
Cooperative binding occurs in a molecular binding system where two or more ligand molecules can bind to a receptor molecule. Binding can be considered "cooperative" if the actual binding of the first molecule of the ligand to the receptor changes the binding affinity of the second ligand molecule. The binding of ligand molecules to the different sites on the receptor molecule do not constitute mutually independent events. Cooperativity can be positive or negative, meaning that it becomes more or less likely that successive ligand molecules will bind to the receptor molecule.
Cooperative binding is observed in many biopolymers, including proteins and nucleic acids. Cooperative binding has been shown to be the mechanism underlying a large range of biochemical and physiological processes.
History and mathematical formalisms
Christian Bohr and the concept of cooperative binding
In 1904, Christian Bohr studied hemoglobin binding to oxygen under different conditions. When plotting hemoglobin saturation with oxygen as a function of the partial pressure of oxygen, he obtained a sigmoidal (or "S-shaped") curve. This indicates that the more oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, the easier it is for more oxygen to bind - until all binding sites are saturated. In addition, Bohr noticed that increasing CO2 pressure shifted this curve to the right - i.e. higher concentrations of CO2 make it more difficult for hemoglobin to bind oxygen. This latter phenomenon, together with the observation that hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen increases with increasing pH, is known as the Bohr effect.
A receptor molecule is said to exhibit cooper
Document 4:::
Electron deficiency (and electron-deficient) is jargon that is used in two contexts: species that violate the octet rule because they have too few valence electrons and species that happen to follow the octet rule but have electron-acceptor properties, forming donor-acceptor charge-transfer salts.
Octet rule violations
Traditionally, "electron-deficiency" is used as a general descriptor for boron hydrides and other molecules which do not have enough valence electrons to form localized (2-centre 2-electron) bonds joining all atoms. For example, diborane (B2H6) would require a minimum of 7 localized bonds with 14 electrons to join all 8 atoms, but there are only 12 valence electrons. A similar situation exists in trimethylaluminium. The electron deficiency in such compounds is similar to metallic bonding.
Electron-acceptor molecules
Alternatively, electron-deficiency describes molecules or ions that function as electron acceptors. Such electron-deficient species obey the octet rule, but they have (usually mild) oxidizing properties. 1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene and related polynitrated aromatic compounds are often described as electron-deficient. Electron deficiency can be measured by linear free-energy relationships: "a strongly negative ρ value indicates a large electron demand at the reaction center, from which it may be concluded that a highly electron-deficient center, perhaps an incipient carbocation, is involved."
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
In the water molecule, two of the electron pairs are lone pairs rather than what?
A. ions pairs
B. acid pairs
C. bonding ions
D. bonding pairs
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3046
|
multiple_choice
|
When a solute dissolves into a solvent what is that called?
|
[
"viscosity",
"solubility",
"enthalpy",
"mixing"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In chemistry, solubility is the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with another substance, the solvent. Insolubility is the opposite property, the inability of the solute to form such a solution.
The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is generally measured as the concentration of the solute in a saturated solution, one in which no more solute can be dissolved. At this point, the two substances are said to be at the solubility equilibrium. For some solutes and solvents, there may be no such limit, in which case the two substances are said to be "miscible in all proportions" (or just "miscible").
The solute can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas, while the solvent is usually solid or liquid. Both may be pure substances, or may themselves be solutions. Gases are always miscible in all proportions, except in very extreme situations, and a solid or liquid can be "dissolved" in a gas only by passing into the gaseous state first.
The solubility mainly depends on the composition of solute and solvent (including their pH and the presence of other dissolved substances) as well as on temperature and pressure. The dependency can often be explained in terms of interactions between the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) of the two substances, and of thermodynamic concepts such as enthalpy and entropy.
Under certain conditions, the concentration of the solute can exceed its usual solubility limit. The result is a supersaturated solution, which is metastable and will rapidly exclude the excess solute if a suitable nucleation site appears.
The concept of solubility does not apply when there is an irreversible chemical reaction between the two substances, such as the reaction of calcium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid; even though one might say, informally, that one "dissolved" the other. The solubility is also not the same as the rate of solution, which is how fast a solid solute dissolves in a liquid solvent. This property de
Document 1:::
Relative viscosity () (a synonym of "viscosity ratio") is the ratio of the viscosity of a solution () to the viscosity of the solvent used (),
.
The significance in Relative viscosity is that it can be analyzed the effect a polymer can have on a solution's viscosity such as increasing the solutions viscosity.
Lead Liquids possess an amount of internal friction that presents itself when stirred in the form of resistance. This resistance is the different layers of the liquid reacting to one another as they are stirred. This can be seen in things like syrup, which has a higher viscosity than water and exhibits less internal friction when stirred. The ratio of this viscosity is known as Relative Viscosity.
Document 2:::
In physical chemistry, supersaturation occurs with a solution when the concentration of a solute exceeds the concentration specified by the value of solubility at equilibrium. Most commonly the term is applied to a solution of a solid in a liquid, but it can also be applied to liquids and gases dissolved in a liquid. A supersaturated solution is in a metastable state; it may return to equilibrium by separation of the excess of solute from the solution, by dilution of the solution by adding solvent, or by increasing the solubility of the solute in the solvent.
History
Early studies of the phenomenon were conducted with sodium sulfate, also known as Glauber's Salt because, unusually, the solubility of this salt in water may decrease with increasing temperature. Early studies have been summarised by Tomlinson. It was shown that the crystallization of a supersaturated solution does not simply come from its agitation, (the previous belief) but from solid matter entering and acting as a "starting" site for crystals to form, now called "seeds". Expanding upon this, Gay-Lussac brought attention to the kinematics of salt ions and the characteristics of the container having an impact on the supersaturation state. He was also able to expand upon the number of salts with which a supersaturated solution can be obtained. Later Henri Löwel came to the conclusion that both nuclei of the solution and the walls of the container have a catalyzing effect on the solution that cause crystallization. Explaining and providing a model for this phenomenon has been a task taken on by more recent research. Désiré Gernez contributed to this research by discovering that nuclei must be of the same salt that is being crystallized in order to promote crystallization.
Occurrence and examples
Solid precipitate, liquid solvent
A solution of a chemical compound in a liquid will become supersaturated when the temperature of the saturated solution is changed. In most cases solubility decreases wit
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Sorption is a physical and chemical process by which one substance becomes attached to another. Specific cases of sorption are treated in the following articles:
Absorption "the incorporation of a substance in one state into another of a different state" (e.g., liquids being absorbed by a solid or gases being absorbed by a liquid);
Adsorption The physical adherence or bonding of ions and molecules onto the surface of another phase (e.g., reagents adsorbed to a solid catalyst surface);
Ion exchange An exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an electrolyte solution and a complex.
The reverse of sorption is desorption.
Sorption rate
The adsorption and absorption rate of a diluted solute in gas or liquid solution to a surface or interface can be calculated using Fick's laws of diffusion.
See also
Sorption isotherm
Document 4:::
Binary liquid is a type of chemical combination, which creates a special reaction or feature as a result of mixing two liquid chemicals, that are normally inert or have no function by themselves. A number of chemical products are produced as a result of mixing two chemicals as a binary liquid, such as plastic foams and some explosives.
See also
Binary chemical weapon
Thermophoresis
Percus-Yevick equation
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
When a solute dissolves into a solvent what is that called?
A. viscosity
B. solubility
C. enthalpy
D. mixing
Answer:
|
|
sciq-11073
|
multiple_choice
|
What process joins two haploid gametes into a diploid zygote?
|
[
"embryo",
"fertilization",
"fusion",
"migration"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Karyogamy is the final step in the process of fusing together two haploid eukaryotic cells, and refers specifically to the fusion of the two nuclei. Before karyogamy, each haploid cell has one complete copy of the organism's genome. In order for karyogamy to occur, the cell membrane and cytoplasm of each cell must fuse with the other in a process known as plasmogamy. Once within the joined cell membrane, the nuclei are referred to as pronuclei. Once the cell membranes, cytoplasm, and pronuclei fuse, the resulting single cell is diploid, containing two copies of the genome. This diploid cell, called a zygote or zygospore can then enter meiosis (a process of chromosome duplication, recombination, and division, to produce four new haploid cells), or continue to divide by mitosis. Mammalian fertilization uses a comparable process to combine haploid sperm and egg cells (gametes) to create a diploid fertilized egg.
The term karyogamy comes from the Greek karyo- (from κάρυον karyon) 'nut' and γάμος gamos 'marriage'.
Importance in haploid organisms
Haploid organisms such as fungi, yeast, and algae can have complex cell cycles, in which the choice between sexual or asexual reproduction is fluid, and often influenced by the environment. Some organisms, in addition to their usual haploid state, can also exist as diploid for a short time, allowing genetic recombination to occur. Karyogamy can occur within either mode of reproduction: during the sexual cycle or in somatic (non-reproductive) cells.
Thus, karyogamy is the key step in bringing together two sets of different genetic material which can recombine during meiosis. In haploid organisms that lack sexual cycles, karyogamy can also be an important source of genetic variation during the process of forming somatic diploid cells. Formation of somatic diploids circumvents the process of gamete formation during the sexual reproduction cycle and instead creates variation within the somatic cells of an already developed organ
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Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. Depending on the biological life cycle of the organism, gametogenesis occurs by meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into various gametes, or by mitosis. For example, plants produce gametes through mitosis in gametophytes. The gametophytes grow from haploid spores after sporic meiosis. The existence of a multicellular, haploid phase in the life cycle between meiosis and gametogenesis is also referred to as alternation of generations.
It is the biological process of gametogenesis; cells that are haploid or diploid divide to create other cells. matured haploid gametes. It can take place either through mitosis or meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into different depending on an organism's biological life cycle, gametes. For instance, gametophytes in plants undergo mitosis to produce gametes. Both male and female have different forms.
In animals
Animals produce gametes directly through meiosis from diploid mother cells in organs called gonads (testis in males and ovaries in females). In mammalian germ cell development, sexually dimorphic gametes differentiates into primordial germ cells from pluripotent cells during initial mammalian development. Males and females of a species that reproduce sexually have different forms of gametogenesis:
spermatogenesis (male): Immature germ cells are produced in a man's testes. To mature into sperms, males' immature germ cells, or spermatogonia, go through spermatogenesis during adolescence. Spermatogonia are diploid cells that become larger as they divide through mitosis. These primary spermatocytes. These diploid cells undergo meiotic division to create secondary spermatocytes. These secondary spermatocytes undergo a second meiotic division to produce immature sperms or spermatids. These spermatids undergo spermiogenesis in order to develop into sperm. LH, FSH, GnRH
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Haploidisation is the process of halving the chromosomal content of a cell, producing a haploid cell. Within the normal reproductive cycle, haploidisation is one of the major functional consequences of meiosis, the other being a process of chromosomal crossover that mingles the genetic content of the parental chromosomes. Usually, haploidisation creates a monoploid cell from a diploid progenitor, or it can involve halving of a polyploid cell, for example to make a diploid potato plant from a tetraploid lineage of potato plants.
If haploidisation is not followed by fertilisation, the result is a haploid lineage of cells. For example, experimental haploidisation may be used to recover a strain of haploid Dictyostelium from a diploid strain. It sometimes occurs naturally in plants when meiotically reduced cells (usually egg cells) develop by parthenogenesis.
Haploidisation was one of the procedures used by Japanese researchers to produce Kaguya, a mouse which had same-sex parents; two haploids were then combined to make the diploid mouse.
Haploidisation commitment is a checkpoint in meiosis which follows the successful completion of premeiotic DNA replication and recombination commitment.
See also
Polyploidy
Ploidy
Document 3:::
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in which a gamete (haploid reproductive cells, such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes combines with another gamete to produce a zygote that develops into an organism composed of cells with two sets of chromosomes (diploid). This is typical in animals, though the number of chromosome sets and how that number changes in sexual reproduction varies, especially among plants, fungi, and other eukaryotes.
Sexual reproduction is the most common life cycle in multicellular eukaryotes, such as animals, fungi and plants. Sexual reproduction also occurs in some unicellular eukaryotes. Sexual reproduction does not occur in prokaryotes, unicellular organisms without cell nuclei, such as bacteria and archaea. However, some processes in bacteria, including bacterial conjugation, transformation and transduction, may be considered analogous to sexual reproduction in that they incorporate new genetic information. Some proteins and other features that are key for sexual reproduction may have arisen in bacteria, but sexual reproduction is believed to have developed in an ancient eukaryotic ancestor.
In eukaryotes, diploid precursor cells divide to produce haploid cells in a process called meiosis. In meiosis, DNA is replicated to produce a total of four copies of each chromosome. This is followed by two cell divisions to generate haploid gametes. After the DNA is replicated in meiosis, the homologous chromosomes pair up so that their DNA sequences are aligned with each other. During this period before cell divisions, genetic information is exchanged between homologous chromosomes in genetic recombination. Homologous chromosomes contain highly similar but not identical information, and by exchanging similar but not identical regions, genetic recombination increases genetic diversity among future generations.
During sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes combine into one diploid ce
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Microgametogenesis is the process in plant reproduction where a microgametophyte develops in a pollen grain to the three-celled stage of its development. In flowering plants it occurs with a microspore mother cell inside the anther of the plant.
When the microgametophyte is first formed inside the pollen grain four sets of fertile cells called sporogenous cells are apparent. These cells are surrounded by a wall of sterile cells called the tapetum, which supplies food to the cell and eventually becomes the cell wall for the pollen grain. These sets of sporogenous cells eventually develop into diploid microspore mother cells. These microspore mother cells, also called microsporocytes, then undergo meiosis and become four microspore haploid cells. These new microspore cells then undergo mitosis and form a tube cell and a generative cell. The generative cell then undergoes mitosis one more time to form two male gametes, also called sperm.
See also
Gametogenesis
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What process joins two haploid gametes into a diploid zygote?
A. embryo
B. fertilization
C. fusion
D. migration
Answer:
|
|
sciq-7412
|
multiple_choice
|
Cooling or evaporation of what from the sea surface makes surface water dense?
|
[
"warm water",
"dirty water",
"salt water",
"fresh water"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Seawater, or sea water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium () and chloride () ions). The average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about . The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier: the measured temperature was .
Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.
Properties
Salinity
Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed
Document 2:::
The Bachelor of Science in Aquatic Resources and Technology (B.Sc. in AQT) (or Bachelor of Aquatic Resource) is an undergraduate degree that prepares students to pursue careers in the public, private, or non-profit sector in areas such as marine science, fisheries science, aquaculture, aquatic resource technology, food science, management, biotechnology and hydrography. Post-baccalaureate training is available in aquatic resource management and related areas.
The Department of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, at the Uva Wellassa University of Badulla, Sri Lanka, has the largest enrollment of undergraduate majors in Aquatic Resources and Technology, with about 200 students as of 2014.
The Council on Education for Aquatic Resources and Technology includes undergraduate AQT degrees in the accreditation review of Aquatic Resources and Technology programs and schools.
See also
Marine Science
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development
Document 3:::
The borders of the oceans are the limits of Earth's oceanic waters. The definition and number of oceans can vary depending on the adopted criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) of the five oceans are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern (Antarctic) Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other terms. Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water.
See also the list of seas article for the seas included in each ocean area.
Overview
Though generally described as several separate oceans, the world's oceanic waters constitute one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or Global Ocean. This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) are the: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern (Antarctic) Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other terms.
Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth's mantle. Continental crust is thicker but less dense. From this perspective, the Earth has three oceans: the World Ocean, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea. The latter two were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is at times a discrete ocean because tectonic plate movement has repeatedly broken its connection to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus, but the Bosporus is a natural canal cut through continental rock some 7,000 years ago, rather than a piece of oceanic sea floo
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Region of Freshwater Influence (ROFI) is a region in coastal sea where stratification is governed by the local input of freshwater discharge from the coastal source, while the role of the seasonal input of buoyancy from atmospheric heating is much smaller.
Background
ROFI and river plume are similar terms related to water masses formed as a result of mixing of river discharge and sea water. The difference between river plumes and ROFI's consists in their spatial scales and freshwater residence time. River plumes are regarded as water masses formed as a result of transformation of freshwater discharge in coastal sea on diurnal to synoptic time scales, while ROFI’s reproduce transformation of freshwater discharge on seasonal to annual time scales. A river plume embedded into a ROFI reproduce a continuous process of transformation of freshwater discharge.
Initially, river discharge enters the shelf sea from a river mouth and forms a sub-mesoscale (with spatial extents ~1-10 km) or mesoscale (with spatial extents ~10-100 km) water mass referred to as a river plume. Salinity within a plume is significantly lower than that of surrounding sea water. Structure and dynamical characteristics within a river plume are strongly inhomogeneous. In particular, salinity and velocity fields in the vicinity of a freshwater source are significantly different as compared to the outer parts of a plume.
A river plume is spreading and mixing with ambient saline sea water, which results in the transformation of a plume, but also influences the hydrological structure of the ambient sea. Strength and extent of this influence mainly depend on the volume of freshwater discharge and varies from negligible impact of small plumes formed by rivers with low discharge rates to the formation of stable freshened water masses in the upper ocean by the World’s largest rivers on wide coastal and shelf areas. The latter water masses with spatial extents on the order of hundreds of kilometers are referre
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Cooling or evaporation of what from the sea surface makes surface water dense?
A. warm water
B. dirty water
C. salt water
D. fresh water
Answer:
|
|
sciq-4659
|
multiple_choice
|
Professionals known as genetic counselors can help them understand the risks of?
|
[
"disease",
"infection",
"children being affected",
"contagion"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Genetic counseling is the process of investigating individuals and families affected by or at risk of genetic disorders to help them understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease. This field is considered necessary for the implementation of genomic medicine. The process integrates:
Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence
Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, resources
Counseling to promote informed choices, adaptation to the risk or condition and support in reaching out to relatives that are also at risk
History
The practice of advising people about inherited traits began around the turn of the 20th century, shortly after William Bateson suggested that the new medical and biological study of heredity be called "genetics". Heredity became intertwined with social reforms when the field of modern eugenics took form. Although initially well-intentioned, ultimately the movement had disastrous consequences; many states in the United States had laws mandating the sterilization of certain individuals, others were not allowed to immigrate and by the 1930s these ideas were accepted by many other countries including in Germany where euthanasia for the "genetically defective" was legalized in 1939. This part of the history of genetics is at the heart of the now "non directive" approach to genetic counseling.
Sheldon Clark Reed coined the term genetic counseling in 1947 and published the book Counseling in Medical Genetics in 1955. Most of the early genetic counseling clinics were run by non-medical scientists or by those who were not experienced clinicians. With the growth in knowledge of genetic disorders and the appearance of medical genetics as a distinct specialty in the 1960s, genetic counseling progressively became medicalized, representing one of the key components of clinical genetics. It was not, though, unti
Document 1:::
A geneticist is a biologist or physician who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or a lecturer. Geneticists may perform general research on genetic processes or develop genetic technologies to aid in the pharmaceutical or and agriculture industries. Some geneticists perform experiments in model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish, rodents or humans and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of biological traits. A basic science geneticist is a scientist who usually has earned a PhD in genetics and undertakes research and/or lectures in the field. A medical geneticist is a physician who has been trained in medical genetics as a specialization and evaluates, diagnoses, and manages patients with hereditary conditions or congenital malformations; and provides genetic risk calculations and mutation analysis.
Education
Geneticists participate in courses from many areas, such as biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, cell biology, bioinformatics, and mathematics. They also participate in more specific genetics courses such as molecular genetics, transmission genetics, population genetics, quantitative genetics, ecological genetics, epigenetics, and genomics.
Careers
Geneticists can work in many different fields, doing a variety of jobs. There are many careers for geneticists in medicine, agriculture, wildlife, general sciences, or many other fields.
Listed below are a few examples of careers a geneticist may pursue.
Research and Development
Genetic counseling
Clinical Research
Medical genetics
Gene therapy
Pharmacogenomics
Molecular ecology
Animal breeding
Genomics
Biotechnology
Proteomics
Microbial genetics
Teaching
Molecular diagnostics
Sales and Marketing of scientific products
Science Journalism
Patent Law
Paternity testing
Forensic DNA
Agriculture
Document 2:::
Genetics (from Ancient Greek , “genite” and that from , “origin”), a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms.
Articles (arranged alphabetically) related to genetics include:
#
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Document 3:::
The Personal Genetics Education Project (pgEd) aims to engage and inform a worldwide audience about the benefits of knowing one's genome as well as the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) and dimensions of personal genetics. pgEd was founded in 2006, is housed in the Department of Genetics at Harvard Medical School and is directed by Ting Wu, a professor in that department. It employs a variety of strategies for reaching general audiences, including generating online curricular materials, leading discussions in classrooms, workshops, and conferences, developing a mobile educational game (Map-Ed), holding an annual conference geared toward accelerating awareness (GETed), and working with the world of entertainment to improve accuracy and outreach.
Online curricular materials and professional development for teachers
pgEd develops tools for teachers and general audiences that examine the potential benefits and risks of personalized genome analysis. These include freely accessible, interactive lesson plans that tackle issues such as genetic testing of minors, reproductive genetics, complex human traits and genetics, and the history of eugenics. pgEd also engages educators at conferences as well as organizes professional development workshops. All of pgEd's materials are freely available online.
Map-Ed, a mobile quiz
In 2013, pgEd created a mobile educational quiz called Map-Ed. Map-Ed invites players to work their way through five questions that address key concepts in genetics and then pin themselves on a world map. Within weeks of its launch, Map-Ed gained over 1,000 pins around the world, spanning across all 7 continents. Translations and new maps linked to questions on topics broadly related to genetics are in development.
GETed conference
pgEd hosts the annual GETed conference, a meeting that brings together experts from across the United States and beyond in education, research, health, entertainment, and policy to develop strategies for acceleratin
Document 4:::
The European Genetics Foundation (EGF) is a non-profit organization, dedicated to the training of young geneticists active in medicine, to continuing education in genetics/genomics and to the promotion of public understanding of genetics. Its main office is located in Bologna, Italy.
Background
In 1988 Prof. Giovanni Romeo, President of the European Genetics Foundation (EGF) and professor of Medical Genetics at the University of Bologna and Prof. Victor A. McKusick founded together the European School of Genetic Medicine (ESGM).
Since that time ESGM has taught genetics to postgraduate students (young M.D. and PhD) from some 70 different countries. Most of the courses are presented at ESGM's Main Training Center (MTC) in Bertinoro di Romagna (Italy), and are also available via webcast at authorized Remote Training Centers (RTC) in various countries in Europe and the Mediterranean area (Hybrid Courses). In the Netherlands and Switzerland, medical geneticists must attend at least one ESGM course before admission to their Board examinations.
For these reasons, the School has been able to expand and to obtain funding from the European Commission and from other international organizations.
Presentation of the Ronzano Project
The European School of Genetic Medicine was founded in 1988 and saw rapid success, which necessitated that an administrative body be formed. To this end the European Genetics Foundation was born in Genoa on 20 November 1995, with the following aims:
to run the ESGM, promoting the advanced scientific and professional training of young European Geneticists, with particular attention to the applications in the field of preventive medicine;
to promote public education about genetics discoveries;
to organize conferences, courses, international prizes and initiatives aimed at bringing together the scientific and humanistic disciplines.
The ESGM began receiving funding from the European Union and from other international organizations including the Eu
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Professionals known as genetic counselors can help them understand the risks of?
A. disease
B. infection
C. children being affected
D. contagion
Answer:
|
|
sciq-11639
|
multiple_choice
|
What can protons and neutrons be broken down into?
|
[
"molecules",
"quarks",
"strings",
"ions"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Physics B was a physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It was equivalent to a year-long introductory university course covering Newtonian mechanics, electromagnetism, fluid mechanics, thermal physics, waves, optics, and modern physics. The course was algebra-based and heavily computational; in 2015, it was replaced by the more concept-focused AP Physics 1 and AP Physics 2.
Exam
The exam consisted of a 70 MCQ section, followed by a 6-7 FRQ section. Each section was 90 minutes and was worth 50% of the final score. The MCQ section banned calculators, while the FRQ allowed calculators and a list of common formulas. Overall, the exam was configured to approximately cover a set percentage of each of the five target categories:
Purpose
According to the College Board web site, the Physics B course provided "a foundation in physics for students in the life sciences, a pre medical career path, and some applied sciences, as well as other fields not directly related to science."
Discontinuation
Starting in the 2014–2015 school year, AP Physics B was no longer offered, and AP Physics 1 and AP Physics 2 took its place. Like AP Physics B, both are algebra-based, and both are designed to be taught as year-long courses.
Grade distribution
The grade distributions for the Physics B scores from 2010 until its discontinuation in 2014 are as follows:
Document 2:::
There are four Advanced Placement (AP) Physics courses administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program: the algebra-based Physics 1 and Physics 2 and the calculus-based Physics C: Mechanics and Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. All are intended to be at the college level. Each AP Physics course has an exam for which high-performing students may receive credit toward their college coursework.
AP Physics 1 and 2
AP Physics 1 and AP Physics 2 were introduced in 2015, replacing AP Physics B. The courses were designed to emphasize critical thinking and reasoning as well as learning through inquiry. They are algebra-based and do not require any calculus knowledge.
AP Physics 1
AP Physics 1 covers Newtonian mechanics, including:
Unit 1: Kinematics
Unit 2: Dynamics
Unit 3: Circular Motion and Gravitation
Unit 4: Energy
Unit 5: Momentum
Unit 6: Simple Harmonic Motion
Unit 7: Torque and Rotational Motion
Until 2020, the course also covered topics in electricity (including Coulomb's Law and resistive DC circuits), mechanical waves, and sound. These units were removed because they are included in AP Physics 2.
AP Physics 2
AP Physics 2 covers the following topics:
Unit 1: Fluids
Unit 2: Thermodynamics
Unit 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential
Unit 4: Electric Circuits
Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
Unit 6: Geometric and Physical Optics
Unit 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
AP Physics C
From 1969 to 1972, AP Physics C was a single course with a single exam that covered all standard introductory university physics topics, including mechanics, fluids, electricity and magnetism, optics, and modern physics. In 1973, the College Board split the course into AP Physics C: Mechanics and AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. The exam was also split into two separate 90-minute tests, each equivalent to a semester-length calculus-based college course. Until 2006, both exams could be taken for a single
Document 3:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Physics 1 is a year-long introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a one-semester algebra-based university course in mechanics. Along with AP Physics 2, the first AP Physics 1 exam was administered in 2015.
In its first five years, AP Physics 1 covered forces and motion, conservation laws, waves, and electricity. As of 2021, AP Physics 1 includes mechanics topics only.
History
The heavily computational AP Physics B course served for four decades as the College Board's algebra-based offering. As part of the College Board's redesign of science courses, AP Physics B was discontinued; therefore, AP Physics 1 and 2 were created with guidance from the National Research Council and the National Science Foundation. The course covers material of a first-semester university undergraduate physics course offered at American universities that use best practices of physics pedagogy. The first AP Physics 1 classes had begun in the 2014–2015 school year, with the first AP exams administered in May 2015.
Curriculum
AP Physics 1 is an algebra-based, introductory college-level physics course that includes mechanics topics such as motion, force, momentum, energy, harmonic motion, and rotation; The College Board published a curriculum framework that includes seven big ideas on which the AP Physics 1 and 2 courses are based, along with "enduring understandings" students are expected to acquire within each of the big ideas.:
Questions for the exam are constructed with direct reference to items in the curriculum framework. Student understanding of each topic is tested with reference to multiple skills—that is, questions require students to use quantitative, semi-quantitative, qualitative, and experimental reasoning in each content area.
Exam
Science Practices Assessed
Multiple Choice and Free Response Sections of the AP® Physics 1 exam are also assessed on scientific prac
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Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams.
Course content
E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are:
Electrostatics
Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics
Electric circuits
Magnetic fields
Electromagnetism.
Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class.
AP test
The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution.
Registration
The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test.
Format
The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What can protons and neutrons be broken down into?
A. molecules
B. quarks
C. strings
D. ions
Answer:
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|
ai2_arc-718
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multiple_choice
|
Kailey and LeAnn were preparing a report on ocean tides. Which information should they include in their report concerning the greatest influence on the strength of a high tide in a particular area?
|
[
"the position of the Moon around Earth",
"the position of Earth around the Sun",
"the rotation of the Moon",
"the rotation of Earth"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
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Tide-Predicting Machine No. 2, also known as Old Brass Brains, was a special-purpose mechanical computer that uses gears, pulleys, chains, and other mechanical components to compute the height and time of high and low tides for specific locations. The machine can perform tide calculations much faster than a person could do with pencil and paper. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey put the machine into operation in 1910. It was used until 1965, when it was replaced by an electronic computer.
Early U.S. tide-prediction efforts
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of gravitational forces exerted by the Moon, Sun, and rotation of the Earth. In 1867 the United States Coast Survey started printing annual tide tables to support safe and effective maritime, coastal, and defense activities. Before long, these tables showed the times and heights of high and low tides to the nearest minute and tenth of a foot, respectively. Tables were printed for a year at a time and distributed prior to the start of the year.
The prediction of tides is very challenging as it depends on multiple factors–including the alignment of the Sun and Moon, the shape of the coastline, and near-shore bathymetry. Tide theories attempt to account for these factors but lead to complex calculations. Originally, calculations were performed by hand, which was very labor-intensive and error-prone. The burden became even larger when the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (USCGS, the successor to the Coast Survey) started using the more accurate harmonic method for predictions of tides in 1884.
To significantly reduce the work required to predict tides, in 1881 William Ferrel of the USCGS designed a tide-predicting machine. Fauth & Co. Instrument Makers built Tide-Predicting Machine No. 1 and delivered it in 1882. The Survey started using the machine routinely in 1883.
History and mechanism
In 1895 the USCGS grew concerned because Tide-Predicting Machine No. 1 had de
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Tidal range is the difference in height between high tide and low tide. Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and Sun, by Earth's rotation and by centrifugal force caused by Earth's progression around the Earth-Moon barycenter. Tidal range depends on time and location.
Larger tidal range occur during spring tides (spring range), when the gravitational forces of both the Moon and Sun are aligned (at syzygy), reinforcing each other in the same direction (new moon) or in opposite directions (full moon). The largest annual tidal range can be expected around the time of the equinox if it coincides with a spring tide. Spring tides occur at the second and fourth (last) quarters of the lunar phases.
By contrast, during neap tides, when the Moon and Sun's gravitational force vectors act in quadrature (making a right angle to the Earth's orbit), the difference between high and low tides (neap range) is smallest. Neap tides occur at the first and third quarters of the lunar phases.
Tidal data for coastal areas is published by national hydrographic offices. The data is based on astronomical phenomena and is predictable. Sustained storm-force winds blowing from one direction combined with low barometric pressure can increase the tidal range, particularly in narrow bays. Such weather-related effects on the tide can cause ranges in excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding. These weather-related effects are not calculable in advance.
Mean tidal range is calculated as the difference between mean high water (i.e., the average high tide level) and mean low water (the average low tide level).
Geography
The typical tidal range in the open ocean is about (blue and green on the map on the right). Closer to the coast, this range is much greater. Coastal tidal ranges vary globally and can differ anywhere from near zero to over . The exact range depends on the volume of water adjacent to the coast, and the g
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Earth tide (also known as solid-Earth tide, crustal tide, body tide, bodily tide or land tide) is the displacement of the solid earth's surface caused by the gravity of the Moon and Sun. Its main component has meter-level amplitude at periods of about 12 hours and longer. The largest body tide constituents are semi-diurnal, but there are also significant diurnal, semi-annual, and fortnightly contributions.
Though the gravitational force causing earth tides and ocean tides is the same, the responses are quite different.
Tide raising force
The larger of the periodic gravitational forces is from the Moon but that of the Sun is also important.
The images here show lunar tidal force when the Moon appears directly over 30° N (or 30° S). This pattern remains fixed with the red area directed toward (or directly away from) the Moon. Red indicates upward pull, blue downward. If, for example the Moon is directly over 90° W (or 90° E), the red areas are centred on the western northern hemisphere, on upper right. Red up, blue down. If for example the Moon is directly over 90° W (90° E), the centre of the red area is 30° N, 90° W and 30° S, 90° E, and the centre of the bluish band follows the great circle equidistant from those points. At 30° latitude a strong peak occurs once per lunar day, giving a significant diurnal force at that latitude. Along the equator two equally sized peaks (and depressions) impart semi-diurnal force.
Body tide components
The Earth tide encompasses the entire body of the Earth and is unhindered by the thin crust and land masses of the surface, on scales that make the rigidity of rock irrelevant. Ocean tides are a consequence of tangent forces (see: equilibrium tide) and the resonance of the same driving forces with water movement periods in ocean basins accumulated over many days, so that their amplitude and timing are quite different and vary over short distances of just a few hundred kilometres. The oscillation periods of the Earth as a who
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Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
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In oceanography, a tidal resonance occurs when the tide excites one of the resonant modes of the ocean.
The effect is most striking when a continental shelf is about a quarter wavelength wide. Then an incident tidal wave can be reinforced by reflections between the coast and the shelf edge, the result producing a much higher tidal range at the coast.
Famous examples of this effect are found in the Bay of Fundy, where the world's highest tides are reportedly found, and in the Bristol Channel. Less well known is Leaf Bay, part of Ungava Bay near the entrance of Hudson Strait (Canada), which has tides similar to those of the Bay of Fundy. Other resonant regions with large tides include the Patagonian Shelf and on the continental shelf of northwest Australia.
Most of the resonant regions are also responsible for large fractions of the total amount of tidal energy dissipated in the oceans. Satellite altimeter data shows that the M2 tide dissipates approximately 2.5 TW, of which 261 GW is lost in the Hudson Bay complex, 208 GW on the European Shelves (including the Bristol Channel), 158 GW on the North-west Australian Shelf, 149 GW in the Yellow Sea and 112 GW on the Patagonian Shelf.
Scale of the resonances
The speed of long waves in the ocean is given, to a good approximation, by , where g is the acceleration of gravity and h is the depth of the ocean.
For a typical continental shelf with a depth of 100 m, the speed is approximately 30 m/s. So if the tidal period is 12 hours, a quarter wavelength shelf will have a width of about 300 km.
With a narrower shelf, there is still a resonance but it is mismatched to the frequency of the tides and so has less effect on tidal amplitudes. However the effect is still enough to partly explain why tides along a coast lying behind a continental shelf are often higher than at offshore islands in the deep ocean (one of the additional partial explanations being Green's law). Resonances also generate strong tidal currents and
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Kailey and LeAnn were preparing a report on ocean tides. Which information should they include in their report concerning the greatest influence on the strength of a high tide in a particular area?
A. the position of the Moon around Earth
B. the position of Earth around the Sun
C. the rotation of the Moon
D. the rotation of Earth
Answer:
|
|
scienceQA-2161
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multiple_choice
|
What do these two changes have in common?
butter melting on a hot day
burning a marshmallow over a campfire
|
[
"Both are caused by cooling.",
"Both are caused by heating.",
"Both are only physical changes.",
"Both are chemical changes."
] |
B
|
Step 1: Think about each change.
Butter melting on a hot day is a change of state. So, it is a physical change. The butter changes from solid to liquid, but it is still made of the same type of matter.
Burning a marshmallow is a chemical change. The heat from the fire causes the type of matter in the marshmallow to change. The marshmallow becomes black and crispy.
Step 2: Look at each answer choice.
Both are only physical changes.
Butter melting on a hot day is a physical change. But burning a marshmallow is not.
Both are chemical changes.
Burning a marshmallow is a chemical change. But butter melting on a hot day is not.
Both are caused by heating.
Both changes are caused by heating.
Both are caused by cooling.
Neither change is caused by cooling.
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds.
Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not change their chemical composition. This contrasts with the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible using physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered by allowing the water to evaporate.
A physical change involves a change in physical properties. Examples of physical properties include melting, transition to a gas, change of strength, change of durability, changes to crystal form, textural change, shape, size, color, volume and density.
An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to form a knife blade. A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered which changes the hardness of the steel, its flexibility and its ability to maintain a sharp edge.
Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change.
Examples
Heating and cooling
Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation.
Magnetism
Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is reve
Document 2:::
Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields:
Heat transfer
Thermodynamics
Fluid mechanics
Combustion
The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids".
Heat transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer.
Sections include :
Energy transfer by heat, work and mass
Laws of thermodynamics
Entropy
Refrigeration Techniques
Properties and nature of pure substances
Applications
Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems.
Fluid mechanics
Fluid Mechanics the study of the physical forces at work during fluid flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid kinetics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid mechanics can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Some of its more interesting concepts include momentum and reactive forces in fluid flow and fluid machinery theory and performance.
Sections include:
Flu
Document 3:::
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchanges of kinetic energy of particles (such as molecules) or quasiparticles (such as lattice waves) through the boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings, heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in thermal equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature, as described in the second law of thermodynamics.
Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries its heat through the fluid. All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". The former process is often called "forced convection." In this case, the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan, or other mechanical means.
Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid or gas). It is the transfer of energy by means of photons or electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.
Overview
Heat
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Perfect thermal contact of the surface of a solid with the environment (convective heat transfer) or another solid occurs when the temperatures of the mating surfaces are equal.
Perfect thermal contact conditions
Perfect thermal contact supposes that on the boundary surface there holds an equality of the temperatures
and an equality of heat fluxes
where are temperatures of the solid and environment (or mating solid), respectively; are thermal conductivity coefficients of the solid and mating laminar layer (or solid), respectively; is normal to the surface .
If there is a heat source on the boundary surface , e.g. caused by sliding friction, the latter equality transforms in the following manner
where is heat-generation rate per unit area.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What do these two changes have in common?
butter melting on a hot day
burning a marshmallow over a campfire
A. Both are caused by cooling.
B. Both are caused by heating.
C. Both are only physical changes.
D. Both are chemical changes.
Answer:
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sciq-4620
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multiple_choice
|
The brain and spinal cord are part of what system, which serves as a control center?
|
[
"central nervous system",
"active nervous system",
"primary nervous system",
"large nervous system"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The following diagram is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the human nervous system:
Human nervous system – the part of the human body that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary movement; the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system and regulating involuntary functions; and the enteric nervous system, a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.
Evolution of the human nervous system
Evolution of nervous systems
Evolution of human intelligence
Evolution of the human brain
Paleoneurology
Some branches of science that study the human nervous system
Neuroscience
Neurology
Paleoneurology
Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system and includes the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal cord
Brain
Brain – center of the nervous system.
Outline of the human brain
List of regions of the human brain
Principal regions of the vertebrate brain:
Peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.
Sensory system
A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.
List of sensory systems
Sensory neuron
Perception
Visual system
Auditory system
Somatosensory system
Vestibular system
Olfactory system
Taste
Pain
Components of the nervous system
Neuron
I
Document 1:::
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to neuroscience:
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure and function of the nervous system. It encompasses the branch of biology that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology of neurons and neural circuits. It also encompasses cognition, and human behavior. Neuroscience has multiple concepts that each relate to learning abilities and memory functions. Additionally, the brain is able to transmit signals that cause conscious/unconscious behaviors that are responses verbal or non-verbal. This allows people to communicate with one another.
Branches of neuroscience
Neurophysiology
Neurophysiology is the study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system.
Brain mapping
Electrophysiology
Extracellular recording
Intracellular recording
Brain stimulation
Electroencephalography
Intermittent rhythmic delta activity
:Category: Neurophysiology
:Category: Neuroendocrinology
:Neuroendocrinology
Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system.
Immunostaining
:Category: Neuroanatomy
Neuropharmacology
Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system.
Drug
Psychoactive drug
Anaesthetic
Narcotic
Behavioral neuroscience
Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior in human and non-human animals.
Neuroethology
Developmental neuroscience
Developmental neuroscience aims to describe the cellular basis of brain development and to address the underlying mechanisms. The field draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology to provide insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems develop.
Aging and memory
Cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive ne
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The human brain anatomical regions are ordered following standard neuroanatomy hierarchies. Functional, connective, and developmental regions are listed in parentheses where appropriate.
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
Myelencephalon
Medulla oblongata
Medullary pyramids
Arcuate nucleus
Olivary body
Inferior olivary nucleus
Rostral ventrolateral medulla
Caudal ventrolateral medulla
Solitary nucleus (Nucleus of the solitary tract)
Respiratory center-Respiratory groups
Dorsal respiratory group
Ventral respiratory group or Apneustic centre
Pre-Bötzinger complex
Botzinger complex
Retrotrapezoid nucleus
Nucleus retrofacialis
Nucleus retroambiguus
Nucleus para-ambiguus
Paramedian reticular nucleus
Gigantocellular reticular nucleus
Parafacial zone
Cuneate nucleus
Gracile nucleus
Perihypoglossal nuclei
Intercalated nucleus
Prepositus nucleus
Sublingual nucleus
Area postrema
Medullary cranial nerve nuclei
Inferior salivatory nucleus
Nucleus ambiguus
Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
Hypoglossal nucleus
Chemoreceptor trigger zone
Metencephalon
Pons
Pontine nuclei
Pontine cranial nerve nuclei
Chief or pontine nucleus of the trigeminal nerve sensory nucleus (V)
Motor nucleus for the trigeminal nerve (V)
Abducens nucleus (VI)
Facial nerve nucleus (VII)
Vestibulocochlear nuclei (vestibular nuclei and cochlear nuclei) (VIII)
Superior salivatory nucleus
Pontine tegmentum
Pontine micturition center (Barrington's nucleus)
Locus coeruleus
Pedunculopontine nucleus
Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
Tegmental pontine reticular nucleus
Nucleus incertus
Parabrachial area
Medial parabrachial nucleus
Lateral parabrachial nucleus
Subparabrachial nucleus (Kölliker-Fuse nucleus)
Pontine respiratory group
Superior olivary complex
Medial superior olive
Lateral superior olive
Medial nucleus of the trapezoid body
Paramedian pontine reticular formation
Parvocellular reticular nucleus
Caudal pontine reticular nucleus
Cerebellar peduncles
Superior cerebellar peduncle
Middle cerebellar peduncle
Inferior
Document 3:::
The brainstem (or brain stem) is the stalk-like part of the brain that interconnects the cerebrum and diencephalon with the spinal cord. In the human brain, the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is continuous with the thalamus of the diencephalon through the tentorial notch.
The brainstem is very small, making up around only 2.6 percent of the brain's total weight. It has the critical roles of regulating cardiac, and respiratory function, helping to control heart rate and breathing rate. It also provides the main motor and sensory nerve supply to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. Ten pairs of cranial nerves come from the brainstem. Other roles include the regulation of the central nervous system and the body's sleep cycle. It is also of prime importance in the conveyance of motor and sensory pathways from the rest of the brain to the body, and from the body back to the brain. These pathways include the corticospinal tract (motor function), the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (fine touch, vibration sensation, and proprioception), and the spinothalamic tract (pain, temperature, itch, and crude touch).
Structure
The parts of the brainstem are the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata; the diencephalon is sometimes considered part of the brainstem.
The brainstem extends from just above the tentorial notch superiorly to the first cervical vertebra below the foramen magnum inferiorly.
Midbrain
The midbrain is further subdivided into three parts: tectum, tegmentum, and the ventral tegmental area. The tectum forms the ceiling. The tectum comprises the paired structure of the superior and inferior colliculi and is the dorsal covering of the cerebral aqueduct. The inferior colliculus is the principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway and receives input from several peripheral brainstem nuclei, as well as inputs from the auditory cortex. Its inferior brachium (arm-like process) reaches t
Document 4:::
There are yet unsolved problems in neuroscience, although some of these problems have evidence supporting a hypothesized solution, and the field is rapidly evolving. One major problem is even enumerating what would belong on a list such as this. However, these problems include:
Consciousness
Consciousness:
How can consciousness be defined?
What is the neural basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention?
Quantum mind: Does quantum mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition, play an important part in the brain's function and can it explain critical aspects of consciousness?
Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"?
If so, how is it solved?
What, if any, is the function of consciousness?
What is the nature and mechanism behind near-death experiences?
How can death be defined? Can consciousness exist after death?
If consciousness is generated by brain activity, then how do some patients with physically deteriorated brains suddenly gain a brief moment of restored consciousness prior to death, a phenomenon known as terminal lucidity?
Problem of representation: How exactly does the mind function (or how does the brain interpret and represent information about the world)?
Bayesian mind: Does the mind make sense of the world by constantly trying to make predictions according to the rules of Bayesian probability?
Computational theory of mind: Is the mind a symbol manipulation system, operating on a model of computation, similar to a computer?
Connectionism: Can the mind be explained by mathematical models known as artificial neural networks?
Embodied cognition: Is the cognition of an organism affected by the organism's entire body (rather than just simply its brain), including its interactions with the environment?
Extended mind thesis: Does the mind not only exist in the brain, but also functions in the outside world by using physical objects as mental processes? Or just as prosthetic limbs can becom
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The brain and spinal cord are part of what system, which serves as a control center?
A. central nervous system
B. active nervous system
C. primary nervous system
D. large nervous system
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8495
|
multiple_choice
|
Which organisms capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy inside their cell?
|
[
"pores",
"chloroplasts",
"sporozoans",
"phototrophs"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The evolution of photosynthesis refers to the origin and subsequent evolution of photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is used to assemble sugars from carbon dioxide and a hydrogen and electron source such as water. The process of photosynthesis was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch-born British physician and scientist, first publishing about it in 1779.
The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen rather than water. There are three major metabolic pathways by which photosynthesis is carried out: C3 photosynthesis, C4 photosynthesis, and CAM photosynthesis. C3 photosynthesis is the oldest and most common form. A C3 plant uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate into organic material. A C4 plant prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate into four-carbon compounds. A CAM plant uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions. C4 and CAM plants have special adaptations that save water.
Origin
Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (>2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma. Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old, consistent with recent studies of photosynthesis. Early photosynthetic systems, such as those from green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, using various molecules as electron donors. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide as electron and hydrogen donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic and inorganic molecules. It is suggested that photosynthesis likely originated at low-wavelength geothermal light from acidic hydrothermal vents, Zn-tetrapyrroles w
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Phototrophs () are organisms that carry out photon capture to produce complex organic compounds (e.g. carbohydrates) and acquire energy. They use the energy from light to carry out various cellular metabolic processes. It is a common misconception that phototrophs are obligatorily photosynthetic. Many, but not all, phototrophs often photosynthesize: they anabolically convert carbon dioxide into organic material to be utilized structurally, functionally, or as a source for later catabolic processes (e.g. in the form of starches, sugars and fats). All phototrophs either use electron transport chains or direct proton pumping to establish an electrochemical gradient which is utilized by ATP synthase, to provide the molecular energy currency for the cell. Phototrophs can be either autotrophs or heterotrophs. If their electron and hydrogen donors are inorganic compounds (e.g., , as in some purple sulfur bacteria, or , as in some green sulfur bacteria) they can be also called lithotrophs, and so, some photoautotrophs are also called photolithoautotrophs. Examples of phototroph organisms are Rhodobacter capsulatus, Chromatium, and Chlorobium.
History
Originally used with a different meaning, the term took its current definition after Lwoff and collaborators (1946).
Photoautotroph
Most of the well-recognized phototrophs are autotrophic, also known as photoautotrophs, and can fix carbon. They can be contrasted with chemotrophs that obtain their energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environments. Photoautotrophs are capable of synthesizing their own food from inorganic substances using light as an energy source. Green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are photoautotrophs. Photoautotrophic organisms are sometimes referred to as holophytic.
Oxygenic photosynthetic organisms use chlorophyll for light-energy capture and oxidize water, "splitting" it into molecular oxygen.
Ecology
In an ecological context, phototrophs are often the food source for neighboring he
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Biological photovoltaics, also called biophotovoltaics or BPV, is an energy-generating technology which uses oxygenic photoautotrophic organisms, or fractions thereof, to harvest light energy and produce electrical power. Biological photovoltaic devices are a type of biological electrochemical system, or microbial fuel cell, and are sometimes also called photo-microbial fuel cells or “living solar cells”. In a biological photovoltaic system, electrons generated by photolysis of water are transferred to an anode. A relatively high-potential reaction takes place at the cathode, and the resulting potential difference drives current through an external circuit to do useful work. It is hoped that using a living organism (which is capable of self-assembly and self-repair) as the light harvesting material, will make biological photovoltaics a cost-effective alternative to synthetic light-energy-transduction technologies such as silicon-based photovoltaics.
Principle of operation
Like other fuel cells, biological photovoltaic systems are divided into anodic and cathodic half-cells.
Oxygenic photosynthetic biological material, such as purified photosystems or whole algal or cyanobacterial cells, are employed in the anodic half-cell. These organisms are able to use light energy to drive the oxidation of water, and a fraction of the electrons produced by this reaction are transferred to the extracellular environment, where they can be used to reduce an anode. No heterotrophic organisms are included in the anodic chamber - electrode reduction is performed directly by the photosynthetic material.
The higher electrode potential of the cathodic reaction relative to the reduction of the anode drives current through an external circuit. In the illustration, oxygen is being reduced to water at the cathode, though other electron acceptors can be used. If water is regenerated there is a closed loop in terms of electron flow (similar to a conventional photovoltaic system), i
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Anoxygenic photosynthesis is a special form of photosynthesis used by some bacteria and archaea, which differs from the better known oxygenic photosynthesis in plants in the reductant used (e.g. hydrogen sulfide instead of water) and the byproduct generated (e.g. elemental sulfur instead of molecular oxygen).
Bacteria and archaea
Several groups of bacteria can conduct anoxygenic photosynthesis: green sulfur bacteria (GSB), red and green filamentous phototrophs (FAPs e.g. Chloroflexia), purple bacteria, acidobacteriota, and heliobacteria.
Some archaea (e.g. Halobacterium) capture light energy for metabolic function and are thus phototrophic but none are known to "fix" carbon (i.e. be photosynthetic). Instead of a chlorophyll-type receptor and electron transport chain, proteins such as halorhodopsin capture light energy with the aid of diterpenes to move ions against a gradient and produce ATP via chemiosmosis in the manner of mitochondria.
Pigments
The photopigments used to carry out anaerobic photosynthesis are similar to chlorophyll but differ in molecular detail and peak wavelength of light absorbed. Bacteriochlorophylls a through g absorb electromagnetic radiation maximally in the near-infrared within their natural membrane milieu. This differs from chlorophyll a, the predominant plant and cyanobacteria pigment, which has peak absorption wavelength approximately 100 nanometers shorter (in the red portion of the visible spectrum).
Reaction centers
There are two main types of anaerobic photosynthetic electron transport chains in bacteria. The type I reaction centers are found in GSB, Chloracidobacterium, and Heliobacteria, while the type II reaction centers are found in FAPs and purple bacteria.
Type I reaction centers
The electron transport chain of green sulfur bacteria — such as is present in the model organism Chlorobaculum tepidum — uses the reaction center bacteriochlorophyll pair, P840. When light is absorbed by the reaction center, P840 enters an exci
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Chromatophores are cells that produce color, of which many types are pigment-containing cells, or groups of cells, found in a wide range of animals including amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans and cephalopods. Mammals and birds, in contrast, have a class of cells called melanocytes for coloration.
Chromatophores are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in ectothermic animals and are generated in the neural crest during embryonic development. Mature chromatophores are grouped into subclasses based on their colour (more properly "hue") under white light: xanthophores (yellow), erythrophores (red), iridophores (reflective / iridescent), leucophores (white), melanophores (black/brown), and cyanophores (blue). While most chromatophores contain pigments that absorb specific wavelengths of light, the color of leucophores and iridophores is produced by their respective scattering and optical interference properties.
Some species can rapidly change colour through mechanisms that translocate pigment and reorient reflective plates within chromatophores. This process, often used as a type of camouflage, is called physiological colour change or metachrosis. Cephalopods, such as the octopus, have complex chromatophore organs controlled by muscles to achieve this, whereas vertebrates such as chameleons generate a similar effect by cell signalling. Such signals can be hormones or neurotransmitters and may be initiated by changes in mood, temperature, stress or visible changes in the local environment. Chromatophores are studied by scientists to understand human disease and as a tool in drug discovery.
Human discovery
Aristotle mentioned the ability of the octopus to change colour for both camouflage and signalling in his Historia animalium (ca 400 BC):
Giosuè Sangiovanni was the first to describe invertebrate pigment-bearing cells as in an Italian science journal in 1819.
Charles Darwin described the colour-changing abilities of the cuttlefish in The
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Which organisms capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy inside their cell?
A. pores
B. chloroplasts
C. sporozoans
D. phototrophs
Answer:
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|
sciq-4692
|
multiple_choice
|
After what state is reached, the concentrations of all reaction components remain constant unless a change is made to the system?
|
[
"equality",
"level",
"equilibrium",
"homeostasis"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
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Equilibrium chemistry is concerned with systems in chemical equilibrium. The unifying principle is that the free energy of a system at equilibrium is the minimum possible, so that the slope of the free energy with respect to the reaction coordinate is zero. This principle, applied to mixtures at equilibrium provides a definition of an equilibrium constant. Applications include acid–base, host–guest, metal–complex, solubility, partition, chromatography and redox equilibria.
Thermodynamic equilibrium
A chemical system is said to be in equilibrium when the quantities of the chemical entities involved do not and cannot change in time without the application of an external influence. In this sense a system in chemical equilibrium is in a stable state. The system at chemical equilibrium will be at a constant temperature, pressure or volume and a composition. It will be insulated from exchange of heat with the surroundings, that is, it is a closed system. A change of temperature, pressure (or volume) constitutes an external influence and the equilibrium quantities will change as a result of such a change. If there is a possibility that the composition might change, but the rate of change is negligibly slow, the system is said to be in a metastable state. The equation of chemical equilibrium can be expressed symbolically as
reactant(s) product(s)
The sign means "are in equilibrium with". This definition refers to macroscopic properties. Changes do occur at the microscopic level of atoms and molecules, but to such a minute extent that they are not measurable and in a balanced way so that the macroscopic quantities do not change. Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state in which forward and backward reactions proceed at such rates that the macroscopic composition of the mixture is constant. Thus, equilibrium sign symbolizes the fact that reactions occur in both forward and backward directions.
A steady state, on the other hand, is not necessarily an equilibrium state
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In biochemistry, steady state refers to the maintenance of constant internal concentrations of molecules and ions in the cells and organs of living systems. Living organisms remain at a dynamic steady state where their internal composition at both cellular and gross levels are relatively constant, but different from equilibrium concentrations. A continuous flux of mass and energy results in the constant synthesis and breakdown of molecules via chemical reactions of biochemical pathways. Essentially, steady state can be thought of as homeostasis at a cellular level.
Maintenance of steady state
Metabolic regulation achieves a balance between the rate of input of a substrate and the rate that it is degraded or converted, and thus maintains steady state. The rate of metabolic flow, or flux, is variable and subject to metabolic demands. However, in a metabolic pathway, steady state is maintained by balancing the rate of substrate provided by a previous step and the rate that the substrate is converted into product, keeping substrate concentration relatively constant.
Thermodynamically speaking, living organisms are open systems, meaning that they constantly exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. A constant supply of energy is required for maintaining steady state, as maintaining a constant concentration of a molecule preserves internal order and thus is entropically unfavorable. When a cell dies and no longer utilizes energy, its internal composition will proceed toward equilibrium with its surroundings.
In some occurrences, it is necessary for cells to adjust their internal composition in order to reach a new steady state. Cell differentiation, for example, requires specific protein regulation that allows the differentiating cell to meet new metabolic requirements.
ATP
The concentration of ATP must be kept above equilibrium level so that the rates of ATP-dependent biochemical reactions meet metabolic demands. A decrease in ATP will result in a decre
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In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both the reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the system. This state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but they are equal. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactants and products. Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.
Historical introduction
The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed in 1803, after Berthollet found that some chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward (reverse) reactions must be equal. In the following chemical equation, arrows point both ways to indicate equilibrium. A and B are reactant chemical species, S and T are product species, and α, β, σ, and τ are the stoichiometric coefficients of the respective reactants and products:
α A + β B σ S + τ T
The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the right" if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left" if hardly any product is formed from the reactants.
Guldberg and Waage (1865), building on Berthollet's ideas, proposed the law of mass action:
where A, B, S and T are active masses and k+ and k− are rate constants. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal:
and the ratio of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as an equilibrium constant.
By convention, the products form the numerator.
However, the law of mass action is valid only for concerted one-step reactions that proceed through a single transition state and is not valid in general because rate equations do not, in general, follow the stoichiometry of the reaction
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The plateau principle is a mathematical model or scientific law originally developed to explain the time course of drug action (pharmacokinetics). The principle has wide applicability in pharmacology, physiology, nutrition, biochemistry, and system dynamics. It applies whenever a drug or nutrient is infused or ingested at a relatively constant rate and when a constant fraction is eliminated during each time interval. Under these conditions, any change in the rate of infusion leads to an exponential increase or decrease until a new level is achieved. This behavior is also called an approach to steady state because rather than causing an indefinite increase or decrease, a natural balance is achieved when the rate of infusion or production is balanced by the rate of loss.
An especially important use of the plateau principle is to study the renewal of tissue constituents in the human and animal body. In adults, daily synthesis of tissue constituents is nearly constant, and most constituents are removed with a first-order reaction rate. Applicability of the plateau principle was recognized during radioactive tracer studies of protein turnover in the 1940s by Rudolph Schoenheimer and David Rittenberg. Unlike the case with drugs, the initial amount of tissue or tissue protein is not zero because daily synthesis offsets daily elimination. In this case, the model is also said to approach a steady state with exponential or logarithmic kinetics. Constituents that change in this manner are said to have a biological half-life.
A practical application of the plateau principle is that most people have experienced "plateauing" during regimens for weight management or training for sports. After a few weeks of progress, one seems unable to continue gaining in ability or losing weight. This outcome results from the same underlying quantitative model. This entry will describe the popular concepts as well as development of the plateau principle as a scientific, mathematical model.
In
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In physical chemistry and chemical engineering, extent of reaction is a quantity that measures the extent to which the reaction has proceeded. Often, it refers specifically to the value of the extent of reaction when equilibrium has been reached. It is usually denoted by the Greek letter ξ. The extent of reaction is usually defined so that it has units of amount (moles). It was introduced by the Belgian scientist Théophile de Donder.
Definition
Consider the reaction
A ⇌ 2 B + 3 C
Suppose an infinitesimal amount of the reactant A changes into B and C. This requires that all three mole numbers change according to the stoichiometry of the reaction, but they will not change by the same amounts. However, the extent of reaction can be used to describe the changes on a common footing as needed. The change of the number of moles of A can be represented by the equation , the change of B is , and the change of C is .
The change in the extent of reaction is then defined as
where denotes the number of moles of the reactant or product and is the stoichiometric number of the reactant or product. Although less common, we see from this expression that since the stoichiometric number can either be considered to be dimensionless or to have units of moles, conversely the extent of reaction can either be considered to have units of moles or to be a unitless mole fraction.
The extent of reaction represents the amount of progress made towards equilibrium in a chemical reaction. Considering finite changes instead of infinitesimal changes, one can write the equation for the extent of a reaction as
The extent of a reaction is generally defined as zero at the beginning of the reaction. Thus the change of is the extent itself. Assuming that the system has come to equilibrium,
Although in the example above the extent of reaction was positive since the system shifted in the forward direction, this usage implies that in general the extent of reaction can be positive or negative,
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
After what state is reached, the concentrations of all reaction components remain constant unless a change is made to the system?
A. equality
B. level
C. equilibrium
D. homeostasis
Answer:
|
|
sciq-7691
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the most prevalent gas in the atmosphere, but not the most vital for life?
|
[
"nitrogen",
"carbon dioxide",
"oxygen",
"argon"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Carbon is a primary component of all known life on Earth, representing approximately 45–50% of all dry biomass. Carbon compounds occur naturally in great abundance on Earth. Complex biological molecules consist of carbon atoms bonded with other elements, especially oxygen and hydrogen and frequently also nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur (collectively known as CHNOPS).
Because it is lightweight and relatively small in size, carbon molecules are easy for enzymes to manipulate. It is frequently assumed in astrobiology that if life exists elsewhere in the Universe, it will also be carbon-based. Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism.
Characteristics
Carbon is capable of forming a vast number of compounds, more than any other element, with almost ten million compounds described to date, and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions. The enormous diversity of carbon-containing compounds, known as organic compounds, has led to a distinction between them and compounds that do not contain carbon, known as inorganic compounds. The branch of chemistry that studies organic compounds is known as organic chemistry.
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass, after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon's widespread abundance, its ability to form stable bonds with numerous other elements, and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables it to serve as a common element of all known living organisms. In a 2018 study, carbon was found to compose approximately 550 billion tons of all life on Earth. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.
The most important characteristics of carbon as a basis for the chemistry of life are that each carbon atom is capable of forming up to four valence bonds with other atoms simultaneously
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Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature, and as the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation, acting as a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater, lakes, ice caps, and seawater. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate (), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric levels increase.
It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm), or about 0.04% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.025%. Burning fossil fuels is the primary cause of these increased concentrations and also the primary cause of climate change.
Its concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological phenomena. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis, which produces oxygen as a waste product. In turn, oxygen is consumed and is released as waste by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize organic compounds to produce energy by respiration. is released from organic materials when they decay or combust, such as in forest fires. Since plants require for photosynthesis, and humans and animals depend on plants for food, is necessary for the survival of life on earth.
Carbon dioxide is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by land and ocean carbon sinks. These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and wildfires result i
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An atmosphere () is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosphere is the outer region of a star, which includes the layers above the opaque photosphere; stars of low temperature might have outer atmospheres containing compound molecules.
The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (78 %), oxygen (21 %), argon (0.9 %), carbon dioxide (0.04 %) and trace gases. Most organisms use oxygen for respiration; lightning and bacteria perform nitrogen fixation to produce ammonia that is used to make nucleotides and amino acids; plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The layered composition of the atmosphere minimises the harmful effects of sunlight, ultraviolet radiation, solar wind, and cosmic rays to protect organisms from genetic damage. The current composition of the atmosphere of the Earth is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.
Composition
The initial gaseous composition of an atmosphere is determined by the chemistry and temperature of the local solar nebula from which a planet is formed, and the subsequent escape of some gases from the interior of the atmosphere proper. The original atmosphere of the planets originated from a rotating disc of gases, which collapsed onto itself and then divided into a series of spaced rings of gas and matter that, which later condensed to form the planets of the Solar System. The atmospheres of the planets Venus and Mars are principally composed of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, argon and oxygen.
The composition of Earth's atmosphere is determined by the by-products of the life that it sustains. Dry air (mixture of gases) from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen,
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Volcanic gases are gases given off by active (or, at times, by dormant) volcanoes. These include gases trapped in cavities (vesicles) in volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases emanating from lava, from volcanic craters or vents. Volcanic gases can also be emitted through groundwater heated by volcanic action.
The sources of volcanic gases on Earth include:
primordial and recycled constituents from the Earth's mantle,
assimilated constituents from the Earth's crust,
groundwater and the Earth's atmosphere.
Substances that may become gaseous or give off gases when heated are termed volatile substances.
Composition
The principal components of volcanic gases are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur either as sulfur dioxide (SO2) (high-temperature volcanic gases) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) (low-temperature volcanic gases), nitrogen, argon, helium, neon, methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Other compounds detected in volcanic gases are oxygen (meteoric), hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen bromide, sulfur hexafluoride, carbonyl sulfide, and organic compounds. Exotic trace compounds include mercury, halocarbons (including CFCs), and halogen oxide radicals.
The abundance of gases varies considerably from volcano to volcano, with volcanic activity and with tectonic setting. Water vapour is consistently the most abundant volcanic gas, normally comprising more than 60% of total emissions. Carbon dioxide typically accounts for 10 to 40% of emissions.
Volcanoes located at convergent plate boundaries emit more water vapor and chlorine than volcanoes at hot spots or divergent plate boundaries. This is caused by the addition of seawater into magmas formed at subduction zones. Convergent plate boundary volcanoes also have higher H2O/H2, H2O/CO2, CO2/He and N2/He ratios than hot spot or divergent plate boundary volcanoes.
Magmatic gases and high-temperature volcanic gases
Magma contains dissolved volatile componen
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Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the most prevalent gas in the atmosphere, but not the most vital for life?
A. nitrogen
B. carbon dioxide
C. oxygen
D. argon
Answer:
|
|
ai2_arc-854
|
multiple_choice
|
Marni runs 1500 meters around the school track. What does she need to know in order to find out her speed?
|
[
"her time from start to finish",
"the number of steps she took",
"her heart rate at the finish line",
"the direction she began running"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
The Texas Math and Science Coaches Association or TMSCA is an organization for coaches of academic University Interscholastic League teams in Texas middle schools and high schools, specifically those that compete in mathematics and science-related tests.
Events
There are four events in the TMSCA at both the middle and high school level: Number Sense, General Mathematics, Calculator Applications, and General Science.
Number Sense is an 80-question exam that students are given only 10 minutes to solve. Additionally, no scratch work or paper calculations are allowed. These questions range from simple calculations such as 99+98 to more complicated operations such as 1001×1938. Each calculation is able to be done with a certain trick or shortcut that makes the calculations easier.
The high school exam includes calculus and other difficult topics in the questions also with the same rules applied as to the middle school version.
It is well known that the grading for this event is particularly stringent as errors such as writing over a line or crossing out potential answers are considered as incorrect answers.
General Mathematics is a 50-question exam that students are given only 40 minutes to solve. These problems are usually more challenging than questions on the Number Sense test, and the General Mathematics word problems take more thinking to figure out. Every problem correct is worth 5 points, and for every problem incorrect, 2 points are deducted. Tiebreakers are determined by the person that misses the first problem and by percent accuracy.
Calculator Applications is an 80-question exam that students are given only 30 minutes to solve. This test requires practice on the calculator, knowledge of a few crucial formulas, and much speed and intensity. Memorizing formulas, tips, and tricks will not be enough. In this event, plenty of practice is necessary in order to master the locations of the keys and develop the speed necessary. All correct questions are worth 5
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Progress tests are longitudinal, feedback oriented educational assessment tools for the evaluation of development and sustainability of cognitive knowledge during a learning process. A progress test is a written knowledge exam (usually involving multiple choice questions) that is usually administered to all students in the "A" program at the same time and at regular intervals (usually twice to four times yearly) throughout the entire academic program. The test samples the complete knowledge domain expected of new graduates upon completion of their courses, regardless of the year level of the student). The differences between students’ knowledge levels show in the test scores; the further a student has progressed in the curriculum the higher the scores. As a result, these resultant scores provide a longitudinal, repeated measures, curriculum-independent assessment of the objectives (in knowledge) of the entire programme.
History
Since its inception in the late 1970s at both Maastricht University and the University of Missouri–Kansas City independently, the progress test of applied knowledge has been increasingly used in medical and health sciences programs across the globe. They are well established and increasingly used in medical education in both undergraduate and postgraduate medical education. They are used formatively and summatively.
Use in academic programs
The progress test is currently used by national progress test consortia in the United Kingdom, Italy, The Netherlands, in Germany (including Austria), and in individual schools in Africa, Saudi Arabia, South East Asia, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Finland, UK, and the USA. The National Board of Medical Examiners in the USA also provides progress testing in various countries The feasibility of an international approach to progress testing has been recently acknowledged and was first demonstrated by Albano et al. in 1996, who compared test scores across German, Dutch and Italian medi
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is a world mathematics certification program and examination established in Japan in 1988.
Outline of Suken
Each Suken level (Kyu) has two sections. Section 1 is calculation and Section 2 is application.
Passing Rate
In order to pass the Suken, you must correctly answer approximately 70% of section 1 and approximately 60% of section 2.
Levels
Level 5 (7th grade math)
The examination time is 180 minutes for section 1, 60 minutes for section 2.
Level 4 (8th grade)
The examination time is 60 minutes for section 1, 60 minutes for section 2.
3rd Kyu, suits for 9th grade
The examination time is 60 minutes for section 1, 60 minutes for section 2.
Levels 5 - 3 include the following subjects:
Calculation with negative numbers
Inequalities
Simultaneous equations
Congruency and similarities
Square roots
Factorization
Quadratic equations and functions
The Pythagorean theorem
Probabilities
Level pre-2 (10th grade)
The examination time is 60 minutes for section 1, 90 minutes for section 2.
Level 2 (11th grade)
The examination time is 60 minutes for section 1, 90 minutes for section 2.
Level pre-1st (12th grade)
The examination time is 60 minutes for section 1, 120 minutes for section 2.
Levels pre-2 - pre-1 include the following subjects:
Quadratic functions
Trigonometry
Sequences
Vectors
Complex numbers
Basic calculus
Matrices
Simple curved lines
Probability
Level 1 (undergrad and graduate)
The examination time is 60 minutes for section 1, 120 minutes for section 2.
Level 1 includes the following subjects:
Linear algebra
Vectors
Matrices
Differential equations
Statistics
Probability
Document 4:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Marni runs 1500 meters around the school track. What does she need to know in order to find out her speed?
A. her time from start to finish
B. the number of steps she took
C. her heart rate at the finish line
D. the direction she began running
Answer:
|
|
ai2_arc-360
|
multiple_choice
|
A 72 W navigation unit on a commercial aircraft has a 24 V power supply and uses 3 A of electric current. What is the electrical resistance of the navigation unit?
|
[
"4 ohms",
"8 ohms",
"13 ohms",
"22 ohms"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams.
Course content
E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are:
Electrostatics
Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics
Electric circuits
Magnetic fields
Electromagnetism.
Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class.
AP test
The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution.
Registration
The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test.
Format
The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with
Document 2:::
Test equating traditionally refers to the statistical process of determining comparable scores on different forms of an exam. It can be accomplished using either classical test theory or item response theory.
In item response theory, equating is the process of placing scores from two or more parallel test forms onto a common score scale. The result is that scores from two different test forms can be compared directly, or treated as though they came from the same test form. When the tests are not parallel, the general process is called linking. It is the process of equating the units and origins of two scales on which the abilities of students have been estimated from results on different tests. The process is analogous to equating degrees Fahrenheit with degrees Celsius by converting measurements from one scale to the other. The determination of comparable scores is a by-product of equating that results from equating the scales obtained from test results.
Purpose
Suppose that Dick and Jane both take a test to become licensed in a certain profession. Because the high stakes (you get to practice the profession if you pass the test) may create a temptation to cheat, the organization that oversees the test creates two forms. If we know that Dick scored 60% on form A and Jane scored 70% on form B, do we know for sure which one has a better grasp of the material? What if form A is composed of very difficult items, while form B is relatively easy? Equating analyses are performed to address this very issue, so that scores are as fair as possible.
Equating in item response theory
In item response theory, person "locations" (measures of some quality being assessed by a test) are estimated on an interval scale; i.e., locations are estimated in relation to a unit and origin. It is common in educational assessment to employ tests in order to assess different groups of students with the intention of establishing a common scale by equating the origins, and when appropri
Document 3:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 4:::
There are four Advanced Placement (AP) Physics courses administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program: the algebra-based Physics 1 and Physics 2 and the calculus-based Physics C: Mechanics and Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. All are intended to be at the college level. Each AP Physics course has an exam for which high-performing students may receive credit toward their college coursework.
AP Physics 1 and 2
AP Physics 1 and AP Physics 2 were introduced in 2015, replacing AP Physics B. The courses were designed to emphasize critical thinking and reasoning as well as learning through inquiry. They are algebra-based and do not require any calculus knowledge.
AP Physics 1
AP Physics 1 covers Newtonian mechanics, including:
Unit 1: Kinematics
Unit 2: Dynamics
Unit 3: Circular Motion and Gravitation
Unit 4: Energy
Unit 5: Momentum
Unit 6: Simple Harmonic Motion
Unit 7: Torque and Rotational Motion
Until 2020, the course also covered topics in electricity (including Coulomb's Law and resistive DC circuits), mechanical waves, and sound. These units were removed because they are included in AP Physics 2.
AP Physics 2
AP Physics 2 covers the following topics:
Unit 1: Fluids
Unit 2: Thermodynamics
Unit 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential
Unit 4: Electric Circuits
Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
Unit 6: Geometric and Physical Optics
Unit 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
AP Physics C
From 1969 to 1972, AP Physics C was a single course with a single exam that covered all standard introductory university physics topics, including mechanics, fluids, electricity and magnetism, optics, and modern physics. In 1973, the College Board split the course into AP Physics C: Mechanics and AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. The exam was also split into two separate 90-minute tests, each equivalent to a semester-length calculus-based college course. Until 2006, both exams could be taken for a single
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
A 72 W navigation unit on a commercial aircraft has a 24 V power supply and uses 3 A of electric current. What is the electrical resistance of the navigation unit?
A. 4 ohms
B. 8 ohms
C. 13 ohms
D. 22 ohms
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9828
|
multiple_choice
|
Resistance to pesticides in a population of insects is an example of what?
|
[
"macroevolution",
"redistributions",
"extinction",
"microevolution"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Cross-resistance is when something develops resistance to several substances that have a similar mechanism of action. For example, if a certain type of bacteria develops resistance to one antibiotic, that bacteria will also have resistance to several other antibiotics that target the same protein or use the same route to get into the bacterium. A real example of cross-resistance occurred for nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin, which are both quinolone antibiotics. When bacteria developed resistance to ciprofloxacin, they also developed resistance to nalidixic acid because both drugs inhibit topoisomerase, a key enzyme in DNA replication. Due to cross-resistance, antimicrobial treatments like phage therapy can quickly lose their efficacy against bacteria. This makes cross-resistance an important consideration in designing evolutionary therapies.
Definition
Cross-resistance is the idea is that the development of resistance to one substance subsequently leads to resistance to one or more substances that can be resisted in a similar manner. It occurs when resistance is provided against multiple compounds through one single mechanism, like an efflux pump. Which can keep concentrations of a toxic substance at low levels and can do so for multiple compounds. Increasing the activity of such a mechanism in response to one compound then also has a similar effect on the others. The precise definition of cross-resistance depends on the field of interest.
Pest management
In pest management, cross-resistance is defined as the development of resistance by pest populations to multiple pesticides within a chemical family. Similar to the case of microbes, this may occur due to sharing binding target sites. One such example occurs in the case of cadherin mutations may result in cross resistance in H. armigera to Cry1Aa and Cry1Ab. There also exists multiple resistance in which resistance to multiple pesticides occurs via different resistances mechanisms as opposed to the same mechan
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591.
On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education.
Format
This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions.
The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test.
Preparation
The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a
Document 3:::
A refuge area is a countermeasure against pesticide resistance in agriculture. In this technique two adjacent pieces of land are demarcated, and one is applied with a pesticide and one is not - the refuge. Given that resistance develops concurrent with application, a more complex way of dealing with the problem is needed than simply using or not using a particular pesticide. A refuge encourages the overall population to maintain a lower prevalence of resistance by segmenting them into two populations: The population receiving the pesticide and the pesticide-free population. Over time the population that suffers pesticide application will evolve resistance - and more widespread resistance. Meanwhile, the other will continue to be pesticide-naive. However the trick here is that a larger proportion of the main population will die off - allowing the pesticide-naive genetics to more successfully reproduce within the overall area, and thus to dominate the overall population.
Refugia are commonly used today especially to maintain effectiveness in Bt-modified transgenic crops.
Document 4:::
Knockdown resistance, also called kdr, describes cases of resistance to diphenylethane (e.g. DDT) and pyrethroid insecticides in insects and other arthropods that result from reduced sensitivity of the nervous system caused by point mutations in the insect population's genetic makeup. Such mutative resistance is characterized by the presence of kdr alleles in the insect's genome. Knockdown resistance, first identified and characterized in the house fly (Musca domestica) in the 1950s, remains a threat to the continued usefulness of pyrethroids in the control of many pest species. Research since 1990 has provided a wealth of new information on the molecular basis of knockdown resistance.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Resistance to pesticides in a population of insects is an example of what?
A. macroevolution
B. redistributions
C. extinction
D. microevolution
Answer:
|
|
sciq-11126
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element is called?
|
[
"nucleus",
"neutron",
"atom",
"proton"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The subatomic scale is the domain of physical size that encompasses objects smaller than an atom. It is the scale at which the atomic constituents, such as the nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and the electrons in their orbitals, become apparent.
The subatomic scale includes the many thousands of times smaller subnuclear scale, which is the scale of physical size at which constituents of the protons and neutrons - particularly quarks - become apparent.
See also
Astronomical scale the opposite end of the spectrum
Subatomic particles
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
An atom is a particle that consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by an electromagnetically-bound cloud of electrons. The atom is the basic particle of the chemical elements, and the chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms. For example, any atom that contains 11 protons is sodium, and any atom that contains 29 protons is copper. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element.
Atoms are extremely small, typically around 100 picometers across. A human hair is about a million carbon atoms wide. This is smaller than the shortest wavelength of visible light, which means humans cannot see atoms with conventional microscopes. Atoms are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics is not possible due to quantum effects.
More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. Each proton has a positive electric charge, while each electron has a negative charge, and the neutrons, if any are present, have no electric charge. If the numbers of protons and electrons are equal, as they normally are, then the atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative charge, and is called a negative ion (or anion). Conversely, if it has more protons than electrons, it has a positive charge, and is called a positive ion (or cation).
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force. This force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force. In this case, the nucleus splits and leaves behind different elements. This is a form of nuclear decay.
Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to
Document 3:::
Electron scattering occurs when electrons are displaced from their original trajectory. This is due to the electrostatic forces within matter interaction or, if an external magnetic field is present, the electron may be deflected by the Lorentz force. This scattering typically happens with solids such as metals, semiconductors and insulators; and is a limiting factor in integrated circuits and transistors.
The application of electron scattering is such that it can be used as a high resolution microscope for hadronic systems, that allows the measurement of the distribution of charges for nucleons and nuclear structure. The scattering of electrons has allowed us to understand that protons and neutrons are made up of the smaller elementary subatomic particles called quarks.
Electrons may be scattered through a solid in several ways:
Not at all: no electron scattering occurs at all and the beam passes straight through.
Single scattering: when an electron is scattered just once.
Plural scattering: when electron(s) scatter several times.
Multiple scattering: when electron(s) scatter many times over.
The likelihood of an electron scattering and the degree of the scattering is a probability function of the specimen thickness to the mean free path.
History
The principle of the electron was first theorised in the period of 1838-1851 by a natural philosopher by the name of Richard Laming who speculated the existence of sub-atomic, unit charged particles; he also pictured the atom as being an 'electrosphere' of concentric shells of electrical particles surrounding a material core.
It is generally accepted that J. J. Thomson first discovered the electron in 1897, although other notable members in the development in charged particle theory are George Johnstone Stoney (who coined the term "electron"), Emil Wiechert (who was first to publish his independent discovery of the electron), Walter Kaufmann, Pieter Zeeman and Hendrik Lorentz.
Compton scattering was first observed at
Document 4:::
The elementary charge, usually denoted by , is a fundamental physical constant, defined as the electric charge carried by a single proton or, equivalently, the magnitude of the negative electric charge carried by a single electron, which has charge −1 .
In the SI system of units, the value of the elementary charge is exactly defined as = coulombs, or 160.2176634 zeptocoulombs (zC). Since the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, the seven SI base units are defined by seven fundamental physical constants, of which the elementary charge is one.
In the centimetre–gram–second system of units (CGS), the corresponding quantity is .
Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher's oil drop experiment first directly measured the magnitude of the elementary charge in 1909, differing from the modern accepted value by just 0.6%. Under assumptions of the then-disputed atomic theory, the elementary charge had also been indirectly inferred to ~3% accuracy from blackbody spectra by Max Planck in 1901 and (through the Faraday constant) at order-of-magnitude accuracy by Johann Loschmidt's measurement of the Avogadro number in 1865.
As a unit
In some natural unit systems, such as the system of atomic units, e functions as the unit of electric charge. The use of elementary charge as a unit was promoted by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874 for the first system of natural units, called Stoney units. Later, he proposed the name electron for this unit. At the time, the particle we now call the electron was not yet discovered and the difference between the particle electron and the unit of charge electron was still blurred. Later, the name electron was assigned to the particle and the unit of charge e lost its name. However, the unit of energy electronvolt (eV) is a remnant of the fact that the elementary charge was once called electron.
In other natural unit systems, the unit of charge is defined as with the result that
where is the fine-structure constant, is the speed of light, is
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element is called?
A. nucleus
B. neutron
C. atom
D. proton
Answer:
|
|
sciq-7721
|
multiple_choice
|
Vertebrates lacking what structures often use lungs for gas exchange?
|
[
"gills",
"pores",
"nostrils",
"spores"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Enteral respiration, also referred to as cloacal respiration or intestinal respiration, is a form of respiration in which gas exchange occurs in the posterior cavity of the enteral system. This is used in various species as an accessory respiration mechanism in hypoxic environments as a means to supplement blood oxygen.
Turtles
Some turtles, especially those specialized in diving, are highly reliant on cloacal respiration during dives. They accomplish this by having a pair of accessory air bladders connected to the cloaca which can absorb oxygen from the water.
Other animals
Various fish, as well as polychaete worms and even crabs, are specialized to take advantage of the constant flow of water through the cloacal respiratory tree of sea cucumbers while simultaneously gaining the protection of living within the sea cucumber itself. At night, many of these species emerge from the anus of the sea cucumber in search of food.
The pond loach is able to respond to the periodic drying in their native habitats by burrowing into the mud and exchanging gas through the posterior end of their alimentary canal.
Studies have shown that mammals are capable of performing intestinal respiration to a limited degree in a laboratory setting. Mice were subjected to hypoxic conditions and supplied oxygen through their intestines survived an average of 18 minutes compared to 11 minutes in the control group. When the intestinal lining was abraded before oxygen was introduced, most of the animals survived for at least 50 minutes. Investigations are planned regarding the effectiveness of the strategy, the safety of this application of perfluorocarbons, and the feasibility of application to humans.
See also
Cutaneous respiration
Document 1:::
The control of ventilation is the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of breathing, which is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Ventilation facilitates respiration. Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and balancing of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole, or by individual cells in cellular respiration.
The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and balancing of the carbon dioxide levels. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate.
The peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are located in the arterial aortic bodies and the carotid bodies. Central chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to changes in the pH of the blood, (resulting from changes in the levels of carbon dioxide) and they are located on the medulla oblongata near to the medullar respiratory groups of the respiratory center.
Information from the peripheral chemoreceptors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory groups of the respiratory center. There are four respiratory groups, two in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups in the pons are known as the pontine respiratory group.
Dorsal respiratory group – in the medulla
Ventral respiratory group – in the medulla
Pneumotaxic center – various nuclei of the pons
Apneustic center – nucleus of the pons
From the respiratory center, the muscles of respiration, in particular the diaphragm, are activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs.
Control of respiratory rhythm
Ventilatory pattern
Breathing is normally an unconscious, involuntary, automatic process. The pattern of motor stimuli during breathing can be divided into an inhalation stage and an exhalation stage. Inhalation shows a sudden, ramped increase in motor discharge to the respiratory muscles (and the pharyngeal constrictor muscles). Before the end of inh
Document 2:::
Breathing (spiration or ventilation) is the process of moving air into and from the lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal environment, mostly to flush out carbon dioxide and bring in oxygen.
All aerobic creatures need oxygen for cellular respiration, which extracts energy from the reaction of oxygen with molecules derived from food and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product. Breathing, or external respiration, brings air into the lungs where gas exchange takes place in the alveoli through diffusion. The body's circulatory system transports these gases to and from the cells, where cellular respiration takes place.
The breathing of all vertebrates with lungs consists of repetitive cycles of inhalation and exhalation through a highly branched system of tubes or airways which lead from the nose to the alveoli. The number of respiratory cycles per minute is the breathing or respiratory rate, and is one of the four primary vital signs of life. Under normal conditions the breathing depth and rate is automatically, and unconsciously, controlled by several homeostatic mechanisms which keep the partial pressures of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the arterial blood constant. Keeping the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood unchanged under a wide variety of physiological circumstances, contributes significantly to tight control of the pH of the extracellular fluids (ECF). Over-breathing (hyperventilation) and under-breathing (hypoventilation), which decrease and increase the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide respectively, cause a rise in the pH of ECF in the first case, and a lowering of the pH in the second. Both cause distressing symptoms.
Breathing has other important functions. It provides a mechanism for speech, laughter and similar expressions of the emotions. It is also used for reflexes such as yawning, coughing and sneezing. Animals that cannot thermoregulate by perspiration, because they lack sufficient sweat glands, may
Document 3:::
Speech science refers to the study of production, transmission and perception of speech. Speech science involves anatomy, in particular the anatomy of the oro-facial region and neuroanatomy, physiology, and acoustics.
Speech production
The production of speech is a highly complex motor task that involves approximately 100 orofacial, laryngeal, pharyngeal, and respiratory muscles. Precise and expeditious timing of these muscles is essential for the production of temporally complex speech sounds, which are characterized by transitions as short as 10 ms between frequency bands and an average speaking rate of approximately 15 sounds per second. Speech production requires airflow from the lungs (respiration) to be phonated through the vocal folds of the larynx (phonation) and resonated in the vocal cavities shaped by the jaw, soft palate, lips, tongue and other articulators (articulation).
Respiration
Respiration is the physical process of gas exchange between an organism and its environment involving four steps (ventilation, distribution, perfusion and diffusion) and two processes (inspiration and expiration). Respiration can be described as the mechanical process of air flowing into and out of the lungs on the principle of Boyle's law, stating that, as the volume of a container increases, the air pressure will decrease. This relatively negative pressure will cause air to enter the container until the pressure is equalized. During inspiration of air, the diaphragm contracts and the lungs expand drawn by pleurae through surface tension and negative pressure. When the lungs expand, air pressure becomes negative compared to atmospheric pressure and air will flow from the area of higher pressure to fill the lungs. Forced inspiration for speech uses accessory muscles to elevate the rib cage and enlarge the thoracic cavity in the vertical and lateral dimensions. During forced expiration for speech, muscles of the trunk and abdomen reduce the size of the thoracic cavity by
Document 4:::
Lung receptors sense irritation or inflammation in the bronchi and alveoli.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Vertebrates lacking what structures often use lungs for gas exchange?
A. gills
B. pores
C. nostrils
D. spores
Answer:
|
|
sciq-5827
|
multiple_choice
|
What are the four well-known states of matter?
|
[
"solid, liquid, plasma, and metal",
"solid, liquid, gas, and plasma",
"solid, liquid, gas, and wave",
"solid , imine , gas , and plasma"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
States of matter are distinguished by changes in the properties of matter associated with external factors like pressure and temperature. States are usually distinguished by a discontinuity in one of those properties: for example, raising the temperature of ice produces a discontinuity at 0°C, as energy goes into a phase transition, rather than temperature increase. The three classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. In the 20th century, however, increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal conditions.
Low-energy states of matter
Classical states
Solid: A solid holds a definite shape and volume without a container. The particles are held very close to each other.
Amorphous solid: A solid in which there is no far-range order of the positions of the atoms.
Crystalline solid: A solid in which atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in regular order.
Plastic crystal: A molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom.
Quasicrystal: A solid in which the positions of the atoms have long-range order, but this is not in a repeating pattern.
Liquid: A mostly non-compressible fluid. Able to conform to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure.
Liquid crystal: Properties intermediate between liquids and crystals. Generally, able to flow like a liquid but exhibiting long-range order.
Gas: A compressible fluid. Not only will a gas take the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.
Modern states
Plasma: Free charged particles, usually in equal numbers, such as ions and electrons. Unlike gases, plasma may self-generate magnetic fields and electric currents and respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic forces. Plasma is very uncommon on Earth (except for the ionosphere), although it is the mo
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
This is a list of topics that are included in high school physics curricula or textbooks.
Mathematical Background
SI Units
Scalar (physics)
Euclidean vector
Motion graphs and derivatives
Pythagorean theorem
Trigonometry
Motion and forces
Motion
Force
Linear motion
Linear motion
Displacement
Speed
Velocity
Acceleration
Center of mass
Mass
Momentum
Newton's laws of motion
Work (physics)
Free body diagram
Rotational motion
Angular momentum (Introduction)
Angular velocity
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force
Circular motion
Tangential velocity
Torque
Conservation of energy and momentum
Energy
Conservation of energy
Elastic collision
Inelastic collision
Inertia
Moment of inertia
Momentum
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Rotational energy
Electricity and magnetism
Ampère's circuital law
Capacitor
Coulomb's law
Diode
Direct current
Electric charge
Electric current
Alternating current
Electric field
Electric potential energy
Electron
Faraday's law of induction
Ion
Inductor
Joule heating
Lenz's law
Magnetic field
Ohm's law
Resistor
Transistor
Transformer
Voltage
Heat
Entropy
First law of thermodynamics
Heat
Heat transfer
Second law of thermodynamics
Temperature
Thermal energy
Thermodynamic cycle
Volume (thermodynamics)
Work (thermodynamics)
Waves
Wave
Longitudinal wave
Transverse waves
Transverse wave
Standing Waves
Wavelength
Frequency
Light
Light ray
Speed of light
Sound
Speed of sound
Radio waves
Harmonic oscillator
Hooke's law
Reflection
Refraction
Snell's law
Refractive index
Total internal reflection
Diffraction
Interference (wave propagation)
Polarization (waves)
Vibrating string
Doppler effect
Gravity
Gravitational potential
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newtonian constant of gravitation
See also
Outline of physics
Physics education
Document 3:::
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. The others are solid, liquid, and plasma.
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture, such as air, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer.
The gaseous state of matter occurs between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper-temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention.
High-density atomic gases super-cooled to very low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either Bose gases or Fermi gases. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter.
Elemental gases
The only chemical elements that are stable diatomic homonuclear molecular gases at STP are hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and two halogens: fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2). When grouped with the monatomic noble gases – helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) – these gases are referred to as "elemental gases".
Etymology
The word gas was first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont. He identified carbon dioxide, the first known gas other than air. Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Ancient Greek word – the g in Dutch being pronounced like ch in "loch" (voiceless velar fricative, ) – in which case Van Helmont was simply following the established alchemical usage first attested in the works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like .
An alternative st
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Introduction to Solid State Physics, known colloquially as Kittel, is a classic condensed matter physics textbook written by American physicist Charles Kittel in 1953. The book has been highly influential and has seen widespread adoption; Marvin L. Cohen remarked in 2019 that Kittel's content choices in the original edition played a large role in defining the field of solid-state physics. It was also the first proper textbook covering this new field of physics. The book is published by John Wiley and Sons and, as of 2018, it is in its ninth edition and has been reprinted many times as well as translated into over a dozen languages, including Chinese, French, German, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malay, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, and Turkish. In some later editions, the eighteenth chapter, titled Nanostructures, was written by Paul McEuen. Along with its rival Ashcroft and Mermin, the book is considered a standard textbook in condensed matter physics.
Background
Kittel received his PhD from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1941 under his advisor Gregory Breit. Before being promoted to professor of physics at UC Berkeley in 1951, Kittel held several other positions. He worked for the Naval Ordnance Laboratory from 1940 to 1942, was a research physicist in the US Navy until 1945, worked at the Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT from 1945 to 1947 and at Bell Labs from 1947 to 1951, and was a visiting associate professor at UC Berkeley from 1950 until his promotion.
Henry Ehrenreich has noted that before the first edition of Introduction to Solid State Physics came out in 1953, there were no other textbooks on the subject; rather, the young field's study material was spread across several prominent articles and treatises. The field of solid state physics was very new at the time of writing and was defined by only a few treatises that, in the Ehrenreich's view, expounded rather than explained the topics and were not suitable as textb
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What are the four well-known states of matter?
A. solid, liquid, plasma, and metal
B. solid, liquid, gas, and plasma
C. solid, liquid, gas, and wave
D. solid , imine , gas , and plasma
Answer:
|
|
sciq-780
|
multiple_choice
|
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called what?
|
[
"chlorophyll",
"sodium",
"chloroplasm",
"melanin"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Accessory pigments are light-absorbing compounds, found in photosynthetic organisms, that work in conjunction with chlorophyll a. They include other forms of this pigment, such as chlorophyll b in green algal and vascular ("higher") plant antennae, while other algae may contain chlorophyll c or d. In addition, there are many non-chlorophyll accessory pigments, such as carotenoids or phycobiliproteins, which also absorb light and transfer that light energy to photosystem chlorophyll. Some of these accessory pigments, in particular the carotenoids, also serve to absorb and dissipate excess light energy, or work as antioxidants. The large, physically associated group of chlorophylls and other accessory pigments is sometimes referred to as a pigment bed.
The different chlorophyll and non-chlorophyll pigments associated with the photosystems all have different absorption spectra, either because the spectra of the different chlorophyll pigments are modified by their local protein environment or because the accessory pigments have intrinsic structural differences. The result is that, in vivo, a composite absorption spectrum of all these pigments is broadened and flattened such that a wider range of visible and infrared radiation is absorbed by plants and algae. Most photosynthetic organisms do not absorb green light well, thus most remaining light under leaf canopies in forests or under water with abundant plankton is green, a spectral effect called the "green window". Organisms such as some cyanobacteria and red algae contain accessory phycobiliproteins that absorb green light reaching these habitats.
In aquatic ecosystems, it is likely that the absorption spectrum of water, along with gilvin and tripton (dissolved and particulate organic matter, respectively), determines phototrophic niche differentiation. The six shoulders in the light absorption of water between wavelengths 400 and 1100 nm correspond to troughs in the collective absorption of at least twenty diverse
Document 1:::
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) is the DNA located in chloroplasts, which are photosynthetic organelles located within the cells of some eukaryotic organisms. Chloroplasts, like other types of plastid, contain a genome separate from that in the cell nucleus. The existence of chloroplast DNA was identified biochemically in 1959, and confirmed by electron microscopy in 1962. The discoveries that the chloroplast contains ribosomes and performs protein synthesis revealed that the chloroplast is genetically semi-autonomous. The first complete chloroplast genome sequences were published in 1986, Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) by Sugiura and colleagues and Marchantia polymorpha (liverwort) by Ozeki et al. Since then, a great number of chloroplast DNAs from various species have been sequenced.
Molecular structure
Chloroplast DNAs are circular, and are typically 120,000–170,000 base pairs long. They can have a contour length of around 30–60 micrometers, and have a mass of about 80–130 million daltons.
Most chloroplasts have their entire chloroplast genome combined into a single large ring, though those of dinophyte algae are a notable exception—their genome is broken up into about forty small plasmids, each 2,000–10,000 base pairs long. Each minicircle contains one to three genes, but blank plasmids, with no coding DNA, have also been found.
Chloroplast DNA has long been thought to have a circular structure, but some evidence suggests that chloroplast DNA more commonly takes a linear shape. Over 95% of the chloroplast DNA in corn chloroplasts has been observed to be in branched linear form rather than individual circles.
Inverted repeats
Many chloroplast DNAs contain two inverted repeats, which separate a long single copy section (LSC) from a short single copy section (SSC).
The inverted repeats vary wildly in length, ranging from 4,000 to 25,000 base pairs long each. Inverted repeats in plants tend to be at the upper end of this range, each being 20,000–25,000 base pairs long.
T
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Chlorophyll c refers to forms of chlorophyll found in certain marine algae, including the photosynthetic Chromista (e.g. diatoms and brown algae) and dinoflagellates. These pigments are characterized by their unusual chemical structure, with a porphyrin as opposed to the chlorin (which has a reduced ring D) as the core; they also do not have an isoprenoid tail. Both these features stand out from the other chlorophylls commonly found in algae and plants.
It has a blue-green color and is an accessory pigment, particularly significant in its absorption of light in the 447–52 nm wavelength region. Like chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, it helps the organism gather light and passes a quanta of excitation energy through the light harvesting antennae to the photosynthetic reaction centre.
Chlorophyll c can be further divided into chlorophyll c1, chlorophyll c2, and chlorophyll c3, plus at least eight other more recently found subtypes.
Chlorophyll c1
Chlorophyll c1 is a common form of chlorophyll c. It differs from chlorophyll c2 in its C8 group, having an ethyl group instead of vinyl group (C-C single bond instead of C=C double bond).
Its absorption maxima are around 444, 577, 626 nm and 447, 579, 629 nm in diethyl ether and acetone respectively.
Chlorophyll c2
Chlorophyll c2 is the most common form of chlorophyll c.
Its absorption maxima are around 447, 580, 627 nm and 450, 581, 629 nm in diethyl ether and acetone respectively.
Chlorophyll c3
Chlorophyll c3 is a form of chlorophyll c found in microalga Emiliania huxleyi, identified in 1989.
Its absorption maxima are around 452, 585, 625 nm and 452, 585, 627 nm in diethyl ether and acetone respectively.
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In organic chemistry, chlorins are tetrapyrrole pigments that are partially hydrogenated porphyrins. The parent chlorin is an unstable compound which undergoes air oxidation to porphine. The name chlorin derives from chlorophyll. Chlorophylls are magnesium-containing chlorins and occur as photosynthetic pigments in chloroplasts. The term "chlorin" strictly speaking refers to only compounds with the same ring oxidation state as chlorophyll.
Chlorins are excellent photosensitizing agents. Various synthetic chlorins analogues such as m-tetrahydroxyphenylchlorin (mTHPC) and mono-L-aspartyl chlorin e6 are effectively employed in experimental photodynamic therapy as photosensitizer.
Chlorophylls
The most abundant chlorin is the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophylls have a fifth, ketone-containing ring unlike the chlorins. Diverse chlorophylls exists, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, chlorophyll d, chlorophyll e, chlorophyll f, and chlorophyll g. Chlorophylls usually feature magnesium as a central metal atom, replacing the two NH centers in the parent.
Variation
Microbes produce two reduced variants of chlorin, bacteriochlorins and isobacteriochlorins. Bacteriochlorins are found in some bacteriochlorophylls; the ring structure is produced by Chlorophyllide a reductase (COR) reducing a chlorin ring at the C7-8 double boud. Isobacteriochlorins are found in nature mostly as sirohydrochlorin, a biosynthetic intermediate of vitamin B12, produced without going through a chlorin. In living organisms, both are ultimately derived from uroporphyrinogen III, a near-universal intermediate in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis.
Synthetic chlorins
Numerous synthetic chlorins with different functional groups and/or ring modifications have been examined.
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Retinal (also known as retinaldehyde) is a polyene chromophore. Retinal, bound to proteins called opsins, is the chemical basis of visual phototransduction, the light-detection stage of visual perception (vision).
Some microorganisms use retinal to convert light into metabolic energy. In fact, a recent study suggests most living organisms on our planet ~3 billion years ago used retinal to convert sunlight into energy rather than chlorophyll. Since retinal absorbs mostly green light and transmits purple light, this gave rise to the Purple Earth Hypothesis.
There are many forms of vitamin A — all of which are converted to retinal, which cannot be made without them. Retinal itself is considered to be a form of vitamin A when eaten by an animal. The number of different molecules that can be converted to retinal varies from species to species. Retinal was originally called retinene, and was renamed after it was discovered to be vitamin A aldehyde.
Vertebrate animals ingest retinal directly from meat, or they produce retinal from carotenoids — either from α-carotene or β-carotene — both of which are carotenes. They also produce it from β-cryptoxanthin, a type of xanthophyll. These carotenoids must be obtained from plants or other photosynthetic organisms. No other carotenoids can be converted by animals to retinal. Some carnivores cannot convert any carotenoids at all. The other main forms of vitamin A — retinol and a partially active form, retinoic acid — may both be produced from retinal.
Invertebrates such as insects and squid use hydroxylated forms of retinal in their visual systems, which derive from conversion from other xanthophylls.
Vitamin A metabolism
Living organisms produce retinal by irreversible oxidative cleavage of carotenoids.
For example:
beta-carotene + O2 → 2 retinal,
catalyzed by a beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase or a beta-carotene 15,15'-dioxygenase.
Just as carotenoids are the precursors of retinal, retinal is the precursor of the other
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called what?
A. chlorophyll
B. sodium
C. chloroplasm
D. melanin
Answer:
|
|
scienceQA-4559
|
multiple_choice
|
Which organ gives the body its structure and allows it to move?
|
[
"brain",
"heart",
"skin",
"skeleton"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In a multicellular organism, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to act together in a function. Tissues of different types combine to form an organ which has a specific function. The intestinal wall for example is formed by epithelial tissue and smooth muscle tissue. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system.
An organ's tissues can be broadly categorized as parenchyma, the functional tissue, and stroma, the structural tissue with supportive, connective, or ancillary functions. For example, the gland's tissue that makes the hormones is the parenchyma, whereas the stroma includes the nerves that innervate the parenchyma, the blood vessels that oxygenate and nourish it and carry away its metabolic wastes, and the connective tissues that provide a suitable place for it to be situated and anchored. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, such as arising from the same germ layer. Organs exist in most multicellular organisms. In single-celled organisms such as members of the eukaryotes, the functional analogue of an organ is known as an organelle. In plants, there are three main organs.
The number of organs in any organism depends on the definition used. By one widely adopted definition, 79 organs have been identified in the human body.
Animals
Except for placozoans, multicellular animals including humans have a variety of organ systems. These specific systems are widely studied in human anatomy. The functions of these organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The sam
Document 1:::
Splanchnology is the study of the visceral organs, i.e. digestive, urinary, reproductive and respiratory systems.
The term derives from the Neo-Latin splanchno-, from the Greek σπλάγχνα, meaning "viscera". More broadly, splanchnology includes all the components of the Neuro-Endo-Immune (NEI) Supersystem. An organ (or viscus) is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an internal organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs consist of different tissues, one or more of which prevail and determine its specific structure and function. Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems.
Viscera are the soft organs of the body. There are organs and systems of organs that differ in structure and development but they are united for the performance of a common function. Such functional collection of mixed organs, form an organ system. These organs are always made up of special cells that support its specific function. The normal position and function of each visceral organ must be known before the abnormal can be ascertained.
Healthy organs all work together cohesively and gaining a better understanding of how, helps to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Some functions cannot be accomplished only by one organ. That is why organs form complex systems. The system of organs is a collection of homogeneous organs, which have a common plan of structure, function, development, and they are connected to each other anatomically and communicate through the NEI supersystem.
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This article contains a list of organs of the human body. A general consensus is widely believed to be 79 organs (this number goes up if you count each bone and muscle as an organ on their own, which is becoming more common practice to do); however, there is no universal standard definition of what constitutes an organ, and some tissue groups' status as one is debated. Since there is no single standard definition of what an organ is, the number of organs varies depending on how one defines an organ. For example, this list contains more than 79 organs (about ~103).
It is still not clear which definition of an organ is used for all the organs in this list, it seemed that it may have been compiled based on what wikipedia articles were available on organs.
Musculoskeletal system
Skeleton
Joints
Ligaments
Muscular system
Tendons
Digestive system
Mouth
Teeth
Tongue
Lips
Salivary glands
Parotid glands
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Large intestine
Cecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Liver
Gallbladder
Mesentery
Pancreas
Anal canal
Appendix
Respiratory system
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles and smaller air passages
Lungs
Muscles of breathing
Urinary system
Kidneys
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Reproductive systems
Female reproductive system
Internal reproductive organs
Ovaries
Fallopian tubes
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
External reproductive organs
Vulva
Clitoris
Male reproductive system
Internal reproductive organs
Testicles
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Prostate
External reproductive organs
Penis
Scrotum
Endocrine system
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Circulatory system
Circulatory system
Heart
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Lymphatic system
Lymphatic vessel
Lymph node
Bone marrow
Thymus
Spleen
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue
Tonsils
Interstitium
Nervous system
Central nervous system
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Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine.
Anatomy is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans, which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures.
The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells.
The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th-century medical imaging techniques, including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.
Etymology and definition
Derived from the Greek anatomē "dissection" (from anatémnō "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά aná "up", and τέμνω té
Document 4:::
The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organs and then organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body.
It comprises a head, hair, neck, torso (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet.
The study of the human body includes anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.
The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and artists to assist them in their work.
Composition
The human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus. These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body.
The adult male body is about 60% water for a total water content of some . This is made up of about of extracellular fluid including about of blood plasma and about of interstitial fluid, and about of fluid inside cells. The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside cells is carefully maintained. The main electrolytes in body water outside cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within cells it is potassium and other phosphates.
Cells
The body contains trillions of cells, the fundamental unit of life. At maturity, there are roughly 3037trillion cells in the body, an estimate arrived at by totaling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The body is also host to about the same number of non-human cells as well as multicellular organisms which reside in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin. Not all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen,
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Which organ gives the body its structure and allows it to move?
A. brain
B. heart
C. skin
D. skeleton
Answer:
|
|
scienceQA-11527
|
multiple_choice
|
Select the solid.
|
[
"fruit punch",
"coffee",
"rain puddle",
"beads"
] |
D
|
Coffee is a liquid. A liquid takes the shape of any container it is in. If you pour coffee into a different container, the coffee will take the shape of that container. But the coffee will still take up the same amount of space.
Each bead in the jar is a solid. If you put many beads into a bottle, they will take the shape of the bottle, as a liquid would. But be careful! Beads are not a liquid. Each bead still has a size and shape of its own.
A rain puddle is a liquid. A liquid takes the shape of any container it is in. If you collect rainwater in a bucket, the rainwater will take the shape of the bucket. But the rainwater will still take up the same amount of space.
Fruit punch is a liquid. A liquid takes the shape of any container it is in. If you pour fruit punch into a cup, the punch will take the shape of the cup. But the punch will still take up the same amount of space.
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 2:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 3:::
The Force Concept Inventory is a test measuring mastery of concepts commonly taught in a first semester of physics developed by Hestenes, Halloun, Wells, and Swackhamer (1985). It was the first such "concept inventory" and several others have been developed since for a variety of topics. The FCI was designed to assess student understanding of the Newtonian concepts of force. Hestenes (1998) found that while "nearly 80% of the [students completing introductory college physics courses] could state Newton's Third Law at the beginning of the course, FCI data showed that less than 15% of them fully understood it at the end". These results have been replicated in a number of studies involving students at a range of institutions (see sources section below), and have led to greater recognition in the physics education research community of the importance of students' "active engagement" with the materials to be mastered.
The 1995 version has 30 five-way multiple choice questions.
Example question (question 4):
Gender differences
The FCI shows a gender difference in favor of males that has been the subject of some research in regard to gender equity in education. Men score on average about 10% higher.
Document 4:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams.
Course content
E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are:
Electrostatics
Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics
Electric circuits
Magnetic fields
Electromagnetism.
Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class.
AP test
The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution.
Registration
The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test.
Format
The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Select the solid.
A. fruit punch
B. coffee
C. rain puddle
D. beads
Answer:
|
sciq-4774
|
multiple_choice
|
What are genes that are close together on the same chromosome called?
|
[
"infected genes",
"stored genes",
"linked genes",
"mutated genes"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In genetics, a locus (: loci) is a specific, fixed position on a chromosome where a particular gene or genetic marker is located. Each chromosome carries many genes, with each gene occupying a different position or locus; in humans, the total number of protein-coding genes in a complete haploid set of 23 chromosomes is estimated at 19,000–20,000.
Genes may possess multiple variants known as alleles, and an allele may also be said to reside at a particular locus. Diploid and polyploid cells whose chromosomes have the same allele at a given locus are called homozygous with respect to that locus, while those that have different alleles at a given locus are called heterozygous. The ordered list of loci known for a particular genome is called a gene map. Gene mapping is the process of determining the specific locus or loci responsible for producing a particular phenotype or biological trait. Association mapping, also known as "linkage disequilibrium mapping", is a method of mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that takes advantage of historic linkage disequilibrium to link phenotypes (observable characteristics) to genotypes (the genetic constitution of organisms), uncovering genetic associations.
Nomenclature
The shorter arm of a chromosome is termed the p arm or p-arm, while the longer arm is the q arm or q-arm. The chromosomal locus of a typical gene, for example, might be written 3p22.1, where:
3 = chromosome 3
p = p-arm
22 = region 2, band 2 (read as "two, two", not "twenty-two")
1 = sub-band 1
Thus the entire locus of the example above would be read as "three P two two point one". The cytogenetic bands are areas of the chromosome either rich in actively-transcribed DNA (euchromatin) or packaged DNA (heterochromatin). They appear differently upon staining (for example, euchromatin appears white and heterochromatin appears black on Giemsa staining). They are counted from the centromere out toward the telomeres.
A range of loci is specified in a similar wa
Document 1:::
The Encyclopedia of Genetics () is a print encyclopedia of genetics edited by Sydney Brenner and Jeffrey H. Miller. It has four volumes and 1,700 entries. It is available online at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/9780122270802.
Genetics
Genetics literature
Document 2:::
Major gene is a gene with pronounced phenotype expression, in contrast to a modifier gene. Major gene characterizes common expression of oligogenic series, i.e. a small number of genes that determine the same trait.
Major genes control the discontinuous or qualitative characters in contrast of minor genes or polygenes with individually small effects. Major genes segregate and may be easily subject to mendelian analysis. The gene categorization into major and minor determinants is more or less arbitrary. Both of the two types are in all probability only end points in a more or less continuous series of gene action and gene interactions.
The term major gene was introduced into the science of inheritance by Keneth Mather (1941).
See also
Gene interaction
Minor gene
Gene
Document 3:::
In biology, the word gene (from , ; meaning generation or birth or gender) can have several different meanings. The Mendelian gene is a basic unit of heredity and the molecular gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that is transcribed to produce a functional RNA. There are two types of molecular genes: protein-coding genes and non-coding genes.
During gene expression, the DNA is first copied into RNA. The RNA can be directly functional or be the intermediate template for a protein that performs a function. (Some viruses have an RNA genome so the genes are made of RNA that may function directly without being copied into RNA. This is an exception to the strict definition of a gene described above.)
The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes. Genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye color or the number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, the risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that constitute life.
A gene can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a gene, which may cause different phenotypical traits. Usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair color gene") typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection / survival of the fittest and genetic drift of the alleles.
The term gene was introduced by Danish botanist, plant physiologist and geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1909. It is inspired by the Ancient Greek: γόνος, gonos, that means offspring and procreation
Document 4:::
Genetics (from Ancient Greek , “genite” and that from , “origin”), a discipline of biology, is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms.
Articles (arranged alphabetically) related to genetics include:
#
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What are genes that are close together on the same chromosome called?
A. infected genes
B. stored genes
C. linked genes
D. mutated genes
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8090
|
multiple_choice
|
What asymmetrical organ has four chambers and, in humans, is about the size of a clenched fist?
|
[
"brain",
"heart",
"liver",
"kidney"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Articles related to anatomy include:
A
abdomen
abdominal aorta
abducens nerve
abducens nucleus
abducent
abducent nerve
abduction
accessory bone
accessory cuneate nucleus
accessory nerve
accessory olivary nucleus
accommodation reflex
acetabulum
Achilles tendon
acoustic nerve
acromion
adenohypophysis
adenoids
adipose
aditus
aditus ad antrum
adrenal gland
adrenergic
afferent neuron
agger nasi
agnosia
agonist
alar ligament
albuginea
alimentary
allantois
allocortex
alpha motor neurons
alveolar artery
alveolar process
alveolus
alveus of the hippocampus
amatory anatomy
amaurosis
Ammon's horn
ampulla
Ampulla of Vater
amygdala
amygdalofugal pathway
amygdaloid
amylacea
anaesthesia
analgesia
analogous
anastomosis
anatomical pathology
anatomical position
anatomical snuffbox
anatomical terms of location
anatomical terms of motion
anatomy
Anatomy of the human heart
anconeus
angiography
angiology
angular gyrus
anhidrosis
animal morphology
anisocoria
ankle
ankle reflex
annular ligament
annulus of Zinn
anomaly
anomic aphasia
anosognosia
ansa cervicalis
ansa lenticularis
anterior cerebral artery
Anterior chamber of eyeball
anterior choroidal artery
anterior commissure
anterior communicating artery
anterior corticospinal tract
anterior cranial fossa
anterior cruciate ligament
anterior ethmoidal foramen
anterior ethmoidal nerve
anterior funiculus
anterior horn cells
anterior horn of the lateral ventricle
anterior hypothalamus
anterior inferior cerebellar artery
anterior limb of the internal capsule
anterior lobe of cerebellum
anterior nucleus of the thalamus
anterior perforated substance
anterior pituitary
anterior root
anterior spinal artery
anterior spinocerebellar tract
anterior superior alveolar artery
anterior tibial artery
anterior vertebral muscle
anterior white commissure
anterolateral region of the neck
anterolateral system
antidromic
antihelix
antrum
anulus fibrosus
anulus tendineus
anus
aorta
aortic body
aponeurosis
apophysis
appendage
appendicular skeleton
appendix
apros
Document 1:::
In anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension of an organ (as seen for example in the brain, lung, liver, or kidney) that can be determined without the use of a microscope at the gross anatomy level. This is in contrast to the much smaller lobule, which is a clear division only visible under the microscope.
Interlobar ducts connect lobes and interlobular ducts connect lobules.
Examples of lobes
The four main lobes of the brain
the frontal lobe
the parietal lobe
the occipital lobe
the temporal lobe
The three lobes of the human cerebellum
the flocculonodular lobe
the anterior lobe
the posterior lobe
The two lobes of the thymus
The two and three lobes of the lungs
Left lung: superior and inferior
Right lung: superior, middle, and inferior
The four lobes of the liver
Left lobe of liver
Right lobe of liver
Quadrate lobe of liver
Caudate lobe of liver
The renal lobes of the kidney
Earlobes
Examples of lobules
the cortical lobules of the kidney
the testicular lobules of the testis
the lobules of the mammary gland
the pulmonary lobules of the lung
the lobules of the thymus
Document 2:::
This article contains a list of organs of the human body. A general consensus is widely believed to be 79 organs (this number goes up if you count each bone and muscle as an organ on their own, which is becoming more common practice to do); however, there is no universal standard definition of what constitutes an organ, and some tissue groups' status as one is debated. Since there is no single standard definition of what an organ is, the number of organs varies depending on how one defines an organ. For example, this list contains more than 79 organs (about ~103).
It is still not clear which definition of an organ is used for all the organs in this list, it seemed that it may have been compiled based on what wikipedia articles were available on organs.
Musculoskeletal system
Skeleton
Joints
Ligaments
Muscular system
Tendons
Digestive system
Mouth
Teeth
Tongue
Lips
Salivary glands
Parotid glands
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Large intestine
Cecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Liver
Gallbladder
Mesentery
Pancreas
Anal canal
Appendix
Respiratory system
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles and smaller air passages
Lungs
Muscles of breathing
Urinary system
Kidneys
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
Reproductive systems
Female reproductive system
Internal reproductive organs
Ovaries
Fallopian tubes
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
External reproductive organs
Vulva
Clitoris
Male reproductive system
Internal reproductive organs
Testicles
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Prostate
External reproductive organs
Penis
Scrotum
Endocrine system
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Circulatory system
Circulatory system
Heart
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Lymphatic system
Lymphatic vessel
Lymph node
Bone marrow
Thymus
Spleen
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue
Tonsils
Interstitium
Nervous system
Central nervous system
Document 3:::
Splanchnology is the study of the visceral organs, i.e. digestive, urinary, reproductive and respiratory systems.
The term derives from the Neo-Latin splanchno-, from the Greek σπλάγχνα, meaning "viscera". More broadly, splanchnology includes all the components of the Neuro-Endo-Immune (NEI) Supersystem. An organ (or viscus) is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In anatomy, a viscus is an internal organ, and viscera is the plural form. Organs consist of different tissues, one or more of which prevail and determine its specific structure and function. Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ systems.
Viscera are the soft organs of the body. There are organs and systems of organs that differ in structure and development but they are united for the performance of a common function. Such functional collection of mixed organs, form an organ system. These organs are always made up of special cells that support its specific function. The normal position and function of each visceral organ must be known before the abnormal can be ascertained.
Healthy organs all work together cohesively and gaining a better understanding of how, helps to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Some functions cannot be accomplished only by one organ. That is why organs form complex systems. The system of organs is a collection of homogeneous organs, which have a common plan of structure, function, development, and they are connected to each other anatomically and communicate through the NEI supersystem.
Document 4:::
Instruments used in Anatomy dissections are as follows:
Instrument list
Image gallery
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What asymmetrical organ has four chambers and, in humans, is about the size of a clenched fist?
A. brain
B. heart
C. liver
D. kidney
Answer:
|
|
sciq-838
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the study of the interaction between matter and energy called?
|
[
"astronomy",
"chemistry",
"geology",
"climatology"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 1:::
This is a list of topics that are included in high school physics curricula or textbooks.
Mathematical Background
SI Units
Scalar (physics)
Euclidean vector
Motion graphs and derivatives
Pythagorean theorem
Trigonometry
Motion and forces
Motion
Force
Linear motion
Linear motion
Displacement
Speed
Velocity
Acceleration
Center of mass
Mass
Momentum
Newton's laws of motion
Work (physics)
Free body diagram
Rotational motion
Angular momentum (Introduction)
Angular velocity
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force
Circular motion
Tangential velocity
Torque
Conservation of energy and momentum
Energy
Conservation of energy
Elastic collision
Inelastic collision
Inertia
Moment of inertia
Momentum
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Rotational energy
Electricity and magnetism
Ampère's circuital law
Capacitor
Coulomb's law
Diode
Direct current
Electric charge
Electric current
Alternating current
Electric field
Electric potential energy
Electron
Faraday's law of induction
Ion
Inductor
Joule heating
Lenz's law
Magnetic field
Ohm's law
Resistor
Transistor
Transformer
Voltage
Heat
Entropy
First law of thermodynamics
Heat
Heat transfer
Second law of thermodynamics
Temperature
Thermal energy
Thermodynamic cycle
Volume (thermodynamics)
Work (thermodynamics)
Waves
Wave
Longitudinal wave
Transverse waves
Transverse wave
Standing Waves
Wavelength
Frequency
Light
Light ray
Speed of light
Sound
Speed of sound
Radio waves
Harmonic oscillator
Hooke's law
Reflection
Refraction
Snell's law
Refractive index
Total internal reflection
Diffraction
Interference (wave propagation)
Polarization (waves)
Vibrating string
Doppler effect
Gravity
Gravitational potential
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newtonian constant of gravitation
See also
Outline of physics
Physics education
Document 2:::
Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations.
Academic courses
Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism.
Example universities with CSE majors and departments
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
American International University-B
Document 3:::
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is an umbrella term used to group together the distinct but related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The term is typically used in the context of education policy or curriculum choices in schools. It has implications for workforce development, national security concerns (as a shortage of STEM-educated citizens can reduce effectiveness in this area), and immigration policy, with regard to admitting foreign students and tech workers.
There is no universal agreement on which disciplines are included in STEM; in particular, whether or not the science in STEM includes social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, economics, and political science. In the United States, these are typically included by organizations such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Labor's O*Net online database for job seekers, and the Department of Homeland Security. In the United Kingdom, the social sciences are categorized separately and are instead grouped with humanities and arts to form another counterpart acronym HASS (Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences), rebranded in 2020 as SHAPE (Social Sciences, Humanities and the Arts for People and the Economy). Some sources also use HEAL (health, education, administration, and literacy) as the counterpart of STEM.
Terminology
History
Previously referred to as SMET by the NSF, in the early 1990s the acronym STEM was used by a variety of educators, including Charles E. Vela, the founder and director of the Center for the Advancement of Hispanics in Science and Engineering Education (CAHSEE). Moreover, the CAHSEE started a summer program for talented under-represented students in the Washington, D.C., area called the STEM Institute. Based on the program's recognized success and his expertise in STEM education, Charles Vela was asked to serve on numerous NSF and Congressional panels in science, mathematics, and engineering edu
Document 4:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the study of the interaction between matter and energy called?
A. astronomy
B. chemistry
C. geology
D. climatology
Answer:
|
|
sciq-892
|
multiple_choice
|
What part of the heart receives the blood is pumped from veins of the systemic circuit?
|
[
"right ventricle",
"left atrium",
"right atrium",
"left ventricle"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The pulmonary circulation is a division of the circulatory system in all vertebrates. The circuit begins with deoxygenated blood returned from the body to the right atrium of the heart where it is pumped out from the right ventricle to the lungs. In the lungs the blood is oxygenated and returned to the left atrium to complete the circuit.
The other division of the circulatory system is the systemic circulation that begins with receiving the oxygenated blood from the pulmonary circulation into the left atrium. From the atrium the oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the rest of the body, returning as deoxygenated blood back to the pulmonary circulation.
The blood vessels of the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary veins.
A separate circulatory circuit known as the bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
Structure
De-oxygenated blood leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, and then enters back into the heart. De-oxygenated blood leaves through the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery. From the right atrium, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve (or right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle. Blood is then pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve and into the pulmonary artery.
Lungs
The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is picked up during respiration. Arteries are further divided into very fine capillaries which are extremely thin-walled. The pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
Veins
Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins, which return it to the left part of the heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. This blood then enters the left atrium, which pumps it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From the left ventricle, the blood passes through the aortic valve to the
Document 1:::
A ventricle is one of two large chambers toward the bottom of the heart that collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The blood pumped by a ventricle is supplied by an atrium, an adjacent chamber in the upper heart that is smaller than a ventricle. Interventricular means between the ventricles (for example the interventricular septum), while intraventricular means within one ventricle (for example an intraventricular block).
In a four-chambered heart, such as that in humans, there are two ventricles that operate in a double circulatory system: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta.
Structure
Ventricles have thicker walls than atria and generate higher blood pressures. The physiological load on the ventricles requiring pumping of blood throughout the body and lungs is much greater than the pressure generated by the atria to fill the ventricles. Further, the left ventricle has thicker walls than the right because it needs to pump blood to most of the body while the right ventricle fills only the lungs.
On the inner walls of the ventricles are irregular muscular columns called trabeculae carneae which cover all of the inner ventricular surfaces except that of the conus arteriosus, in the right ventricle. There are three types of these muscles. The third type, the papillary muscles, give origin at their apices to the chordae tendinae which attach to the cusps of the tricuspid valve and to the mitral valve.
The mass of the left ventricle, as estimated by magnetic resonance imaging, averages 143 g ± 38.4 g, with a range of 87–224 g.
The right ventricle is equal in size to the left ventricle and contains roughly 85 millilitres (3 imp fl oz; 3 US fl oz) in the adult. Its upper front surface is circled and convex, and forms much of the sternocostal surface of the heart. Its under surface is flattened, forming pa
Document 2:::
The great cardiac vein (left coronary vein) is a vein of the heart. It begins at the apex of the heart and ascends along the anterior interventricular sulcus before joining the oblique vein of the left atrium to form the coronary sinus upon the posterior surface of the heart.
Anatomy
Course
The great cardiac vein ascends along the anterior interventricular sulcus to the base of the ventricles. It then curves around the left margin of the heart to reach the posterior surface.
Fate
Upon reaching the posterior surface of the heart, the great cardiac vein merges with the oblique vein of the left atrium to form the coronary sinus. At the junction of the great cardiac vein and the coronary sinus, there is typically a valve present. This is the Vieussens valve of the coronary sinus.
Tributaries
The great cardiac vein receives tributaries from the left atrium and from both ventricles: one, the left marginal vein, is of considerable size, and ascends along the left margin of the heart.
Document 3:::
A cardiac function curve is a graph showing the relationship between right atrial pressure (x-axis) and cardiac output (y-axis).Superimposition of the cardiac function curve and venous return curve is used in one hemodynamic model.
Shape of curve
It shows a steep relationship at relatively low filling pressures and a plateau, where further stretch is not possible and so increases in pressure have little effect on output. The pressures where there is a steep relationship lie within the normal range of right atrial pressure (RAP) found in the healthy human during life. This range is about -1 to +2 mmHg. The higher pressures normally occur only in disease, in conditions such as heart failure, where the heart is unable to pump forward all the blood returning to it and so the pressure builds up in the right atrium and the great veins. Swollen neck veins are often an indicator of this type of heart failure.
At low right atrial pressures this graph serves as a graphic demonstration of the Frank–Starling mechanism, that is as more blood is returned to the heart, more blood is pumped from it without extrinsic signals.
Changes in the cardiac function curve
In vivo however, extrinsic factors such as an increase in activity of the sympathetic nerves, and a decrease in vagal tone cause the heart to beat more frequently and more forcefully. This alters the cardiac function curve, shifting it upwards. This allows the heart to cope with the required cardiac output at a relatively low right atrial pressure. We get what is known as a family of cardiac function curves, as the heart rate increases before the plateau is reached, and without the RAP having to rise dramatically to stretch the heart more and get the Starling effect.
In vivo sympathetic outflow within the myocardium is probably best described by the time honored description of the sinoatrial tree branching out to Purkinges fibers. Parasympathetic inflow within the myocardium is probably best described by influ
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The blood circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels (from Greek kardia meaning heart, and from Latin vascula meaning vessels). The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms cardiovascular system and vascular system interchangeably with the circulatory system.
The network of blood vessels are the great vessels of the heart including large elastic arteries, and large veins; other arteries, smaller arterioles, capillaries that join with venules (small veins), and other veins. The circulatory system is closed in vertebrates, which means that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. Some invertebrates such as arthropods have an open circulatory system. Diploblasts such as sponges, and comb jellies lack a circulatory system.
Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets; it is circulated around the body carrying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and collecting and disposing of waste materials. Circulated nutrients include proteins and minerals and other components include hemoglobin, hormones, and gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. These substances provide nourishment, help the immune system to fight diseases, and help maintain homeostasis by stabilizing temperature and natural pH.
In vertebrates, the lymphatic system is complementary to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system carries excess plasma (filtered from the circulatory system capillaries as interstitial fluid between cells) away from the body tissues via accessory routes that return excess fluid back to blood circulation as lymph. The lymphatic system is a subsystem that is essential for the functioning of the bloo
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What part of the heart receives the blood is pumped from veins of the systemic circuit?
A. right ventricle
B. left atrium
C. right atrium
D. left ventricle
Answer:
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|
sciq-10265
|
multiple_choice
|
What type of energy from a warm cola results in melting when it is transferred to the much colder ice?
|
[
"cyclic energy",
"gaseous energy",
"protective energy",
"thermal energy"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A phase-change material (PCM) is a substance which releases/absorbs sufficient energy at phase transition to provide useful heat or cooling. Generally the transition will be from one of the first two fundamental states of matter - solid and liquid - to the other. The phase transition may also be between non-classical states of matter, such as the conformity of crystals, where the material goes from conforming to one crystalline structure to conforming to another, which may be a higher or lower energy state.
The energy released/absorbed by phase transition from solid to liquid, or vice versa, the heat of fusion is generally much higher than the sensible heat. Ice, for example, requires 333.55 J/g to melt, but then water will rise one degree further with the addition of just 4.18 J/g. Water/ice is therefore a very useful phase change material and has been used to store winter cold to cool buildings in summer since at least the time of the Achaemenid Empire.
By melting and solidifying at the phase-change temperature (PCT), a PCM is capable of storing and releasing large amounts of energy compared to sensible heat storage. Heat is absorbed or released when the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa or when the internal structure of the material changes; PCMs are accordingly referred to as latent heat storage (LHS) materials.
There are two principal classes of phase-change material: organic (carbon-containing) materials derived either from petroleum, from plants or from animals; and salt hydrates, which generally either use natural salts from the sea or from mineral deposits or are by-products of other processes. A third class is solid to solid phase change.
PCMs are used in many different commercial applications where energy storage and/or stable temperatures are required, including, among others, heating pads, cooling for telephone switching boxes, and clothing.
By far the biggest potential market is for building heating and cooling. In this ap
Document 1:::
A continuous cooling transformation (CCT) phase diagram is often used when heat treating steel. These diagrams are used to represent which types of phase changes will occur in a material as it is cooled at different rates. These diagrams are often more useful than time-temperature-transformation diagrams because it is more convenient to cool materials at a certain rate (temperature-variable cooling), than to cool quickly and hold at a certain temperature (isothermal cooling).
Types of continuous cooling diagrams
There are two types of continuous cooling diagrams drawn for practical purposes.
Type 1: This is the plot beginning with the transformation start point, cooling with a specific transformation fraction and ending with a transformation finish temperature for all products against transformation time for each cooling curve.
Type 2: This is the plot beginning with the transformation start point, cooling with specific transformation fraction and ending with a transformation finish temperature for all products against cooling rate or bar diameter of the specimen for each type of cooling medium..
See also
Isothermal transformation
Phase diagram
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Engineering Equation Solver (EES) is a commercial software package used for solution of systems of simultaneous non-linear equations. It provides many useful specialized functions and equations for the solution of thermodynamics and heat transfer problems, making it a useful and widely used program for mechanical engineers working in these fields. EES stores thermodynamic properties, which eliminates iterative problem solving by hand through the use of code that calls properties at the specified thermodynamic properties. EES performs the iterative solving, eliminating the tedious and time-consuming task of acquiring thermodynamic properties with its built-in functions.
EES also includes parametric tables that allow the user to compare a number of variables at a time. Parametric tables can also be used to generate plots. EES can also integrate, both as a command in code and in tables. EES also provides optimization tools that minimize or maximize a chosen variable by varying a number of other variables. Lookup tables can be created to store information that can be accessed by a call in the code. EES code allows the user to input equations in any order and obtain a solution, but also can contain if-then statements, which can also be nested within each other to create if-then-else statements. Users can write functions for use in their code, and also procedures, which are functions with multiple outputs.
Adjusting the preferences allows the user choose a unit system, specify stop criteria, including the number of iterations, and also enable/disable unit checking and recommending units, among other options. Users can also specify guess values and variable limits to aid the iterative solving process and help EES quickly and successfully find a solution.
The program is developed by F-Chart Software, a commercial spin-off of Prof Sanford A Klein from Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison.
EES is included as attached software for a number
Document 3:::
Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields:
Heat transfer
Thermodynamics
Fluid mechanics
Combustion
The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids".
Heat transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer.
Sections include :
Energy transfer by heat, work and mass
Laws of thermodynamics
Entropy
Refrigeration Techniques
Properties and nature of pure substances
Applications
Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems.
Fluid mechanics
Fluid Mechanics the study of the physical forces at work during fluid flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid kinetics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid mechanics can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Some of its more interesting concepts include momentum and reactive forces in fluid flow and fluid machinery theory and performance.
Sections include:
Flu
Document 4:::
Dielectric heating, also known as electronic heating, radio frequency heating, and high-frequency heating, is the process in which a radio frequency (RF) alternating electric field, or radio wave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material. At higher frequencies, this heating is caused by molecular dipole rotation within the dielectric.
Mechanism
Molecular rotation occurs in materials containing polar molecules having an electrical dipole moment, with the consequence that they will align themselves in an electromagnetic field. If the field is oscillating, as it is in an electromagnetic wave or in a rapidly oscillating electric field, these molecules rotate continuously by aligning with it. This is called dipole rotation, or dipolar polarisation. As the field alternates, the molecules reverse direction. Rotating molecules push, pull, and collide with other molecules (through electrical forces), distributing the energy to adjacent molecules and atoms in the material. The process of energy transfer from the source to the sample is a form of radiative heating.
Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy (energy of motion) of the atoms or molecules in a material, so agitating the molecules in this way increases the temperature of the material. Thus, dipole rotation is a mechanism by which energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation can raise the temperature of an object. There are also many other mechanisms by which this conversion occurs.
Dipole rotation is the mechanism normally referred to as dielectric heating, and is most widely observable in the microwave oven where it operates most effectively on liquid water, and also, but much less so, on fats and sugars. This is because fats and sugar molecules are far less polar than water molecules, and thus less affected by the forces generated by the alternating electromagnetic fields. Outside of cooking, the effect can be used generally to heat solids, liquids, or gases, provided th
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What type of energy from a warm cola results in melting when it is transferred to the much colder ice?
A. cyclic energy
B. gaseous energy
C. protective energy
D. thermal energy
Answer:
|
|
sciq-6925
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the last step in a scientific investigation?
|
[
"communicating findings",
"documenting findings",
"retesting findings",
"verifying findings"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 1:::
Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.
The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development.
Current status of girls and women in STEM education
Overall trends in STEM education
Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle.
Learning achievement in STEM education
Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and
Document 2:::
The Investigative Biology Teaching Laboratories are located at Cornell University on the first floor Comstock Hall. They are well-equipped biology teaching laboratories used to provide hands-on laboratory experience to Cornell undergraduate students. Currently, they are the home of the Investigative Biology Laboratory Course, (BioG1500), and frequently being used by the Cornell Institute for Biology Teachers, the Disturbance Ecology course and Insectapalooza. In the past the Investigative Biology Teaching Laboratories hosted the laboratory portion of the Introductory Biology Course with the course number of Bio103-104 (renumbered to BioG1103-1104).
The Investigative Biology Teaching Laboratories house the Science Communication and Public Engagement Undergraduate Minor.
History
Bio103-104
BioG1103-1104 Biological Sciences Laboratory course was a two-semester, two-credit course. BioG1103 was offered in the spring, while 1104 was offered in the fall.
BioG1500
This course was first offered in Fall 2010. It is a one semester course, offered in the Fall, Spring and Summer for 2 credits. One credit is being awarded for the letter and one credit for the three-hour-long lab, following the SUNY system.
Document 3:::
Biology by Team in German Biologie im Team - is the first Austrian biology contest for upper secondary schools.
Students at upper secondary schools who are especially interested in biology can deepen their knowledge and
broaden their competence in experimental biology within the framework of this contest.
Each year, a team of teachers choose modules of key themes on which students work in the form of a voluntary exercise. The evaluation focuses in particular on the practical work, and, since the school year 2004/05, also on teamwork. In April, a two-day closing competition takes place, in which six groups of students from participating schools are given various problems to solve. A jury (persons from the science and corporate communities) evaluate the results and how they are presented.
The concept was developed by a team of teachers in co-operation with the AHS (Academic Secondary Schools) - Department of the Pedagogical Institute in Carinthia.
Since 2008 it is situated at the Science departement of the University College of Teacher Training Carinthia.
The first contest in the school year 2002/03 took place under the motto: Hell is loose in the ground under us.
Other themes included Beautiful but dangerous, www-worldwide water 1 and 2, Expedition forest, Relationship boxes, Mole's view, Biological timetravel, Biology at the University, Ecce Homo, Biodiversity, Death in tin cans, Sex sells, Without a trace, Biologists see more, Quo vadis biology? , Biology without limits?, Diversity instead of simplicity, Grid square, Diversity instead of simplicity 0.2, www-worldwide water 3.The theme for the year 2023/24 is I hear something you don't see.
Till now the following schools were participating:
BG/BRG Mössingerstraße Klagenfurt
Ingeborg-Bachmann-Gymnasium, Klagenfurt
BG/BRG St. Martinerstraße Villach
BG/BRG Peraustraße Villach
International school Carinthia, Velden
Österreichisches Gymnasium Prag
Europagymnasium Klagenfurt
BRG Viktring Klagenfurt
BORG Wo
Document 4:::
This is a nonexhaustive list of schools that offer degrees in quantitative psychology or related fields such as psychometrics or research methodology. Programs are typically offered in departments of psychology, educational psychology, or human development. Various organizations, including the American Psychological Association's Division 5, the Canadian Psychological Association, the National Council for Measurement in Education, and the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology have compiled lists of programs.
Graduate degree programs
Structure
Records are listed alphabetically by university in descending order. Within a given university, records are sorted by degree (doctorate, then master's). Inclusion criteria are described on the talk page.
University section
University – The university listed is the primary institution/organization which grants the degree. The link provided links to the Wikipedia page for the university.
Department – The department listed is the primary department which grants the degree. The link provided links to the department's website.
Program section
Terminal degree – This is the final degree granted to the student within that degree track. Many doctoral programs in the US have joint MA/Ph.D programs. Those degrees are listed within the same record under the final degree granted (e.g., Doctorate of Philosophy). The link provided directs to the description of the degree.
Program – This is the name of the degree program. The link typically directs to the degree requirements. Many times the Terminal Degree page and the Program page are the same.
Specialty – This subsection identifies various tracks within a degree program. Not all programs have this level of specialty. If applicable, the link directs to the primary page detailing the specialization requirements.
Faculty – This section lists the tenured/tenure-track faculty currently listed on the program's website with a primary appointment. Emeritus professors are exclud
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the last step in a scientific investigation?
A. communicating findings
B. documenting findings
C. retesting findings
D. verifying findings
Answer:
|
|
sciq-4602
|
multiple_choice
|
The temperature of the products is typically lower than the temperature of the reactants in what type of reaction?
|
[
"parabolic",
"autotrophic",
"exothermic",
"endothermic"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Thermal decomposition (or thermolysis) is a chemical decomposition caused by heat. The decomposition temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance chemically decomposes. The reaction is usually endothermic as heat is required to break chemical bonds in the compound undergoing decomposition. If decomposition is sufficiently exothermic, a positive feedback loop is created producing thermal runaway and possibly an explosion or other chemical reaction.
Decomposition temperature definition
A simple substance (like water) may exist in equilibrium with its thermal decomposition products, effectively halting the decomposition. The equilibrium fraction of decomposed molecules increases with the temperature.
Since thermal decomposition is a kinetic process, the observed temperature of its beginning in most instances will be a function of the experimental conditions and sensitivity of the experimental setup. For rigorous depiction of the process, the use of thermokinetic modeling is recommended.
Examples
Calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide when heated. The chemical reaction is as follows:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The reaction is used to make quick lime, which is an industrially important product.
Another example of thermal decomposition is 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + O2 + 4NO2.
Some oxides, especially of weakly electropositive metals decompose when heated to high enough temperature. A classical example is the decomposition of mercuric oxide to give oxygen and mercury metal. The reaction was used by Joseph Priestley to prepare samples of gaseous oxygen for the first time.
When water is heated to well over 2000 °C, a small percentage of it will decompose into OH, monatomic oxygen, monatomic hydrogen, O2, and H2.
The compound with the highest known decomposition temperature is carbon monoxide at ≈3870 °C (≈7000 °F).
Decomposition of nitrates, nitrites and ammonium compounds
Ammonium dichromate on heating yields nitro
Document 1:::
Activation energy asymptotics (AEA), also known as large activation energy asymptotics, is an asymptotic analysis used in the combustion field utilizing the fact that the reaction rate is extremely sensitive to temperature changes due to the large activation energy of the chemical reaction.
History
The techniques were pioneered by the Russian scientists Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, David A. Frank-Kamenetskii and co-workers in the 30s, in their study on premixed flames and thermal explosions (Frank-Kamenetskii theory), but not popular to western scientists until the 70s. In the early 70s, due to the pioneering work of Williams B. Bush, Francis E. Fendell, Forman A. Williams, Amable Liñán and John F. Clarke, it became popular in western community and since then it was widely used to explain more complicated problems in combustion.
Method overview
In combustion processes, the reaction rate is dependent on temperature in the following form (Arrhenius law),
where is the activation energy, and is the universal gas constant. In general, the condition is satisfied, where is the burnt gas temperature. This condition forms the basis for activation energy asymptotics. Denoting for unburnt gas temperature, one can define the Zel'dovich number and heat release parameter as follows
In addition, if we define a non-dimensional temperature
such that approaching zero in the unburnt region and approaching unity in the burnt gas region (in other words, ), then the ratio of reaction rate at any temperature to reaction rate at burnt gas temperature is given by
Now in the limit of (large activation energy) with , the reaction rate is exponentially small i.e., and negligible everywhere, but non-negligible when . In other words, the reaction rate is negligible everywhere, except in a small region very close to burnt gas temperature, where . Thus, in solving the conservation equations, one identifies two different regimes, at leading order,
Outer convective-diffusive zone
I
Document 2:::
Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields:
Heat transfer
Thermodynamics
Fluid mechanics
Combustion
The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids".
Heat transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer.
Sections include :
Energy transfer by heat, work and mass
Laws of thermodynamics
Entropy
Refrigeration Techniques
Properties and nature of pure substances
Applications
Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems.
Fluid mechanics
Fluid Mechanics the study of the physical forces at work during fluid flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid kinetics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid mechanics can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Some of its more interesting concepts include momentum and reactive forces in fluid flow and fluid machinery theory and performance.
Sections include:
Flu
Document 3:::
A reversible reaction is a reaction in which the conversion of reactants to products and the conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously.
\mathit aA{} + \mathit bB <=> \mathit cC{} + \mathit dD
A and B can react to form C and D or, in the reverse reaction, C and D can react to form A and B. This is distinct from a reversible process in thermodynamics.
Weak acids and bases undergo reversible reactions. For example, carbonic acid:
H2CO3 (l) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq).
The concentrations of reactants and products in an equilibrium mixture are determined by the analytical concentrations of the reagents (A and B or C and D) and the equilibrium constant, K. The magnitude of the equilibrium constant depends on the Gibbs free energy change for the reaction. So, when the free energy change is large (more than about 30 kJ mol−1), the equilibrium constant is large (log K > 3) and the concentrations of the reactants at equilibrium are very small. Such a reaction is sometimes considered to be an irreversible reaction, although small amounts of the reactants are still expected to be present in the reacting system. A truly irreversible chemical reaction is usually achieved when one of the products exits the reacting system, for example, as does carbon dioxide (volatile) in the reaction
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2↑
History
The concept of a reversible reaction was introduced by Claude Louis Berthollet in 1803, after he had observed the formation of sodium carbonate crystals at the edge of a salt lake (one of the natron lakes in Egypt, in limestone):
2NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaCl2
He recognized this as the reverse of the familiar reaction
Na2CO3 + CaCl2→ 2NaCl + CaCO3
Until then, chemical reactions were thought to always proceed in one direction. Berthollet reasoned that the excess of salt in the lake helped push the "reverse" reaction towards the formation of sodium carbonate.
In 1864, Peter Waage and Cato Maximilian Guldberg formulated their
Document 4:::
Thermal runaway describes a process that is accelerated by increased temperature, in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature. Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature, often leading to a destructive result. It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback.
In chemistry (and chemical engineering), thermal runaway is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise. In electrical engineering, thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation. Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering, notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled. In astrophysics, runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions, and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar-mass stars, the "helium flash".
Chemical engineering
Chemical reactions involving thermal runaway are also called thermal explosions in chemical engineering, or runaway reactions in organic chemistry. It is a process by which an exothermic reaction goes out of control: the reaction rate increases due to an increase in temperature, causing a further increase in temperature and hence a further rapid increase in the reaction rate. This has contributed to industrial chemical accidents, most notably the 1947 Texas City disaster from overheated ammonium nitrate in a ship's hold, and the 1976 explosion of zoalene, in a drier, at King's Lynn. Frank-Kamenetskii theory provides a simplified analytical model for thermal explosion. Chain branching is an additional positive feedback mechanism which may also cause temperature to skyrocket because of rapidly increasing reaction rate.
Chemical reactions are either endothermic or exothermic, as expressed by their change in enthalpy. Many reactions are highly exothermic, so ma
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The temperature of the products is typically lower than the temperature of the reactants in what type of reaction?
A. parabolic
B. autotrophic
C. exothermic
D. endothermic
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8397
|
multiple_choice
|
Strong, stable bonds between carbon atoms produce complex molecules containing chains, branches, and rings; the chemistry of these compounds is called what?
|
[
"organic chemistry",
"animal chemistry",
"nuclear chemistry",
"inorganic chemistry"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A carbon–carbon bond is a covalent bond between two carbon atoms. The most common form is the single bond: a bond composed of two electrons, one from each of the two atoms. The carbon–carbon single bond is a sigma bond and is formed between one hybridized orbital from each of the carbon atoms. In ethane, the orbitals are sp3-hybridized orbitals, but single bonds formed between carbon atoms with other hybridizations do occur (e.g. sp2 to sp2). In fact, the carbon atoms in the single bond need not be of the same hybridization. Carbon atoms can also form double bonds in compounds called alkenes or triple bonds in compounds called alkynes. A double bond is formed with an sp2-hybridized orbital and a p-orbital that is not involved in the hybridization. A triple bond is formed with an sp-hybridized orbital and two p-orbitals from each atom. The use of the p-orbitals forms a pi bond.
Chains and branching
Carbon is one of the few elements that can form long chains of its own atoms, a property called catenation. This coupled with the strength of the carbon–carbon bond gives rise to an enormous number of molecular forms, many of which are important structural elements of life, so carbon compounds have their own field of study: organic chemistry.
Branching is also common in C−C skeletons. Carbon atoms in a molecule are categorized by the number of carbon neighbors they have:
A primary carbon has one carbon neighbor.
A secondary carbon has two carbon neighbors.
A tertiary carbon has three carbon neighbors.
A quaternary carbon has four carbon neighbors.
In "structurally complex organic molecules", it is the three-dimensional orientation of the carbon–carbon bonds at quaternary loci which dictates the shape of the molecule. Further, quaternary loci are found in many biologically active small molecules, such as cortisone and morphine.
Synthesis
Carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions are organic reactions in which a new carbon–carbon bond is formed. They are important in th
Document 1:::
In chemistry, the carbon-hydrogen bond ( bond) is a chemical bond between carbon and hydrogen atoms that can be found in many organic compounds. This bond is a covalent, single bond, meaning that carbon shares its outer valence electrons with up to four hydrogens. This completes both of their outer shells, making them stable.
Carbon–hydrogen bonds have a bond length of about 1.09 Å (1.09 × 10−10 m) and a bond energy of about 413 kJ/mol (see table below). Using Pauling's scale—C (2.55) and H (2.2)—the electronegativity difference between these two atoms is 0.35. Because of this small difference in electronegativities, the bond is generally regarded as being non-polar. In structural formulas of molecules, the hydrogen atoms are often omitted. Compound classes consisting solely of bonds and bonds are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Collectively they are known as hydrocarbons.
In October 2016, astronomers reported that the very basic chemical ingredients of life—the carbon-hydrogen molecule (CH, or methylidyne radical), the carbon-hydrogen positive ion () and the carbon ion ()—are the result, in large part, of ultraviolet light from stars, rather than in other ways, such as the result of turbulent events related to supernovae and young stars, as thought earlier.
Bond length
The length of the carbon-hydrogen bond varies slightly with the hybridisation of the carbon atom. A bond between a hydrogen atom and an sp2 hybridised carbon atom is about 0.6% shorter than between hydrogen and sp3 hybridised carbon. A bond between hydrogen and sp hybridised carbon is shorter still, about 3% shorter than sp3 C-H. This trend is illustrated by the molecular geometry of ethane, ethylene and acetylene.
Reactions
The C−H bond in general is very strong, so it is relatively unreactive. In several compound classes, collectively called carbon acids, the C−H bond can be sufficiently acidic for proton removal. Unactivated C−H bonds are found in alkanes and are no
Document 2:::
In molecular geometry, bond length or bond distance is defined as the average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. It is a transferable property of a bond between atoms of fixed types, relatively independent of the rest of the molecule.
Explanation
Bond length is related to bond order: when more electrons participate in bond formation the bond is shorter. Bond length is also inversely related to bond strength and the bond dissociation energy: all other factors being equal, a stronger bond will be shorter. In a bond between two identical atoms, half the bond distance is equal to the covalent radius.
Bond lengths are measured in the solid phase by means of X-ray diffraction, or approximated in the gas phase by microwave spectroscopy. A bond between a given pair of atoms may vary between different molecules. For example, the carbon to hydrogen bonds in methane are different from those in methyl chloride. It is however possible to make generalizations when the general structure is the same.
Bond lengths of carbon with other elements
A table with experimental single bonds for carbon to other elements is given below. Bond lengths are given in picometers. By approximation the bond distance between two different atoms is the sum of the individual covalent radii (these are given in the chemical element articles for each element). As a general trend, bond distances decrease across the row in the periodic table and increase down a group. This trend is identical to that of the atomic radius.
Bond lengths in organic compounds
The bond length between two atoms in a molecule depends not only on the atoms but also on such factors as the orbital hybridization and the electronic and steric nature of the substituents. The carbon–carbon (C–C) bond length in diamond is 154 pm. It is generally considered the average length for a carbon–carbon single bond, but is also the largest bond length that exists for ordinary carbon covalent bonds. Since one atomic unit
Document 3:::
In chemistry, an open-chain compound (also spelled as open chain compound) or acyclic compound (Greek prefix "α", without and "κύκλος", cycle) is a compound with a linear structure, rather than a cyclic one.
An open-chain compound having no side groups is called a straight-chain compound (also spelled as straight chain compound). Many of the simple molecules of organic chemistry, such as the alkanes and alkenes, have both linear and ring isomers, that is, both acyclic and cyclic. For those with 4 or more carbons, the linear forms can have straight-chain or branched-chain isomers. The lowercase prefix n- denotes the straight-chain isomer; for example, n-butane is straight-chain butane, whereas i-butane is isobutane. Cycloalkanes are isomers of alkenes, not of alkanes, because the ring's closure involves a C-C bond. Having no rings (aromatic or otherwise), all open-chain compounds are aliphatic.
Typically in biochemistry, some isomers are more prevalent than others. For example, in living organisms, the open-chain isomer of glucose usually exists only transiently, in small amounts; D-glucose is the usual isomer; and L-glucose is rare.
Straight-chain molecules are often not literally straight, in the sense that their bond angles are often not 180°, but the name reflects that they are schematically straight. For example, the straight-chain alkanes are wavy or "puckered", as the models below show.
Document 4:::
A carbon–nitrogen bond is a covalent bond between carbon and nitrogen and is one of the most abundant bonds in organic chemistry and biochemistry.
Nitrogen has five valence electrons and in simple amines it is trivalent, with the two remaining electrons forming a lone pair. Through that pair, nitrogen can form an additional bond to hydrogen making it tetravalent and with a positive charge in ammonium salts. Many nitrogen compounds can thus be potentially basic but its degree depends on the configuration: the nitrogen atom in amides is not basic due to delocalization of the lone pair into a double bond and in pyrrole the lone pair is part of an aromatic sextet.
Similar to carbon–carbon bonds, these bonds can form stable double bonds, as in imines; and triple bonds, such as nitriles. Bond lengths range from 147.9 pm for simple amines to 147.5 pm for C-N= compounds such as nitromethane to 135.2 pm for partial double bonds in pyridine to 115.8 pm for triple bonds as in nitriles.
A CN bond is strongly polarized towards nitrogen (the electronegativities of C and N are 2.55 and 3.04, respectively) and subsequently molecular dipole moments can be high: cyanamide 4.27 D, diazomethane 1.5 D, methyl azide 2.17, pyridine 2.19. For this reason many compounds containing CN bonds are water-soluble. N-philes are group of radical molecules which are specifically attracted to the C=N bonds.
Carbon-nitrogen bond can be analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Depending on the bonding states the peak positions differ in N1s XPS spectra.
Nitrogen functional groups
See also
Cyanide
Other carbon bonds with group 15 elements: carbon–nitrogen bonds, carbon–phosphorus bonds
Other carbon bonds with period 2 elements: carbon–lithium bonds, carbon–beryllium bonds, carbon–boron bonds, carbon–carbon bonds, carbon–nitrogen bonds, carbon–oxygen bonds, carbon–fluorine bonds
Carbon–hydrogen bond
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Strong, stable bonds between carbon atoms produce complex molecules containing chains, branches, and rings; the chemistry of these compounds is called what?
A. organic chemistry
B. animal chemistry
C. nuclear chemistry
D. inorganic chemistry
Answer:
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sciq-4445
|
multiple_choice
|
Footprints, burrows, and waste are considered what type of fossils?
|
[
"movement fossils",
"trace fossils",
"morphology fossils",
"crater fossils"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Trace fossils are classified in various ways for different purposes. Traces can be classified taxonomically (by morphology), ethologically (by behavior), and toponomically, that is, according to their relationship to the surrounding sedimentary layers. Except in the rare cases where the original maker of a trace fossil can be identified with confidence, phylogenetic classification of trace fossils is an unreasonable proposition.
Taxonomic classification
The taxonomic classification of trace fossils parallels the taxonomic classification of organisms under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. In trace fossil nomenclature a Latin binomial name is used, just as in animal and plant taxonomy, with a genus and specific epithet. However, the binomial names are not linked to an organism, but rather just a trace fossil. This is due to the rarity of association between a trace fossil and a specific organism or group of organisms. Trace fossils are therefore included in an ichnotaxon separate from Linnaean taxonomy. When referring to trace fossils, the terms ichnogenus and ichnospecies parallel genus and species respectively.
The most promising cases of phylogenetic classification are those in which similar trace fossils show details complex enough to deduce the makers, such as bryozoan borings, large trilobite trace fossils such as Cruziana, and vertebrate footprints. However, most trace fossils lack sufficiently complex details to allow such classification.
Ethologic classification
The Seilacherian System
Adolf Seilacher was the first to propose a broadly accepted ethological basis for trace fossil classification. He recognized that most trace fossils are created by animals in one of five main behavioural activities, and named them accordingly:
Cubichnia are the traces of organisms left on the surface of a soft sediment. This behaviour may simply be resting as in the case of a starfish, but might also evidence the hiding place of prey, or even the ambus
Document 1:::
The paleopedological record is, essentially, the fossil record of soils. The paleopedological record consists chiefly of paleosols buried by flood sediments, or preserved at geological unconformities, especially plateau escarpments or sides of river valleys. Other fossil soils occur in areas where volcanic activity has covered the ancient soils.
Problems of recognition
After burial, soil fossils tend to be altered by various chemical and physical processes. These include:
Decomposition of organic matter that was once present in the old soil. This hinders the recognition of vegetation that was in the soil when it was present.
Oxidation of iron from Fe2+ to Fe3+ by O2 as the former soil becomes dry and more oxygen enters the soil.
Drying out of hydrous ferric oxides to anhydrous oxides - again due to the presence of more available O2 in the dry environment.
The keys to recognising fossils of various soils include:
Tubular structures that branch and thin irregularly downward or show the anatomy of fossilised root traces
Gradational alteration down from a sharp lithological contact like that between land surface and soil horizons
Complex patterns of cracks and mineral replacements like those of soil clods (peds) and planar cutans.
Classification
Soil fossils are usually classified by USDA soil taxonomy. With the exception of some exceedingly old soils which have a clayey, grey-green horizon that is quite unlike any present soil and clearly formed in the absence of O2, most fossil soils can be classified into one of the twelve orders recognised by this system. This is usually done by means of X-ray diffraction, which allows the various particles within the former soils to be analysed so that it can be seen to which order the soils correspond.
Other methods for classifying soil fossils rely on geochemical analysis of the soil material, which allows the minerals in the soil to be identified. This is only useful where large amounts of the ancient soil are avai
Document 2:::
A megabias, or a taphonomic megabias, is a large-scale pattern in the quality of the fossil record that affects paleobiologic analysis at provincial to global levels and at timescales usually exceeding ten million years. It can result from major shifts in intrinsic and extrinsic properties of organisms, including morphology and behaviour in relation to other organisms, or shifts in the global environment, which can cause secular or long-term cyclic changes in preservation.
Introduction
The fossil record exhibits bias at many different levels. At the most basic level, there is a global bias towards biomineralizing organisms, because biomineralized body parts are more resistant to decay and degradation. Due to the principle of uniformitarianism, there is a basic assumption in geology that the formation of rocks has occurred by the same naturalistic processes throughout history, and thus that the reach of such biases remains stable over time. A megabias is a direct contradiction of this, whereby changes occur in large scale paleobiologic patterns. This includes:
Changes in diversity and community structure over tens of millions of years
Variation in the quality of the fossil record between mass and background extinction times
Variation among different climate states, biogeographic provinces, and tectonic settings.
It is generally assumed that the quality of the fossil record decreases globally and across all taxa with increasing age, because more time is available for the diagenesis and destruction of both fossils and enclosing rocks, and thus the term "megabias" is usually used to refer to global trends in preservation. However, it has been noted that the fossil record of some taxa actually improves with greater age. Examples such as this, and other related paleobiological trends, clearly indicate the action of a megabias, but only within one particular taxon. Hence, it is necessary to define four classes of megabias related to the reach of the bias, first defined
Document 3:::
A trace fossil, also known as an ichnofossil (; from ikhnos "trace, track"), is a fossil record of biological activity by lifeforms but not the preserved remains of the organism itself. Trace fossils contrast with body fossils, which are the fossilized remains of parts of organisms' bodies, usually altered by later chemical activity or mineralization. The study of such trace fossils is ichnology and is the work of ichnologists.
Trace fossils may consist of physical impressions made on or in the substrate by an organism. For example, burrows, borings (bioerosion), urolites (erosion caused by evacuation of liquid wastes), footprints and feeding marks and root cavities may all be trace fossils.
The term in its broadest sense also includes the remains of other organic material produced by an organism; for example coprolites (fossilized droppings) or chemical markers (sedimentological structures produced by biological means; for example, the formation of stromatolites). However, most sedimentary structures (for example those produced by empty shells rolling along the sea floor) are not produced through the behaviour of an organism and thus are not considered trace fossils.
The study of traces – ichnology – divides into paleoichnology, or the study of trace fossils, and neoichnology, the study of modern traces. Ichnological science offers many challenges, as most traces reflect the behaviour – not the biological affinity – of their makers. Accordingly, researchers classify trace fossils into form genera, based on their appearance and on the implied behaviour, or ethology, of their makers.
Occurrence
Traces are better known in their fossilized form than in modern sediments. This makes it difficult to interpret some fossils by comparing them with modern traces, even though they may be extant or even common. The main difficulties in accessing extant burrows stem from finding them in consolidated sediment, and being able to access those formed in deeper water.
Trace fo
Document 4:::
Neoichnology (Greek néos „new“, íchnos „footprint“, logos „science“) is the science of footprints and traces of extant animals. Thus, it is a counterpart to paleoichnology, which investigates tracks and traces of fossil animals. Neoichnological methods are used in order to study the locomotion and the resulting tracks of both invertebrates and vertebrates. Often these methods are applied in the field of palaeobiology to gain a deeper understanding of fossilized footprints.
Neoichnological methods
Working with living animals
Typically, when working with living animals, a race track is prepared and covered with a substrate, which allows for the production of footprints, i.e. sand of varying moisture content, clay or mud. After preparation, the animal is lured or shooed over the race track. This results in the production of numerous footprints that constitute a complete track. In some cases the animal is filmed during track production in order to subsequently study the impact of the animal's velocity or its behavior on the produced track. This poses an important advantage of working with living animals: changes in speed or direction, resting, slippage or moments of fright become visible in the produced tracks. After track production and prior to reuse, the track can be photographed, drawn or molded. Changes in the experimental setup are possible throughout the experiment, i. e. regulation of the moisture content of the substrate. As an alternative, also tracks of free living animals can be studied in nature (i.e. nearby lakes) and without any special experimental setup. However, without the standardized environment of the lab, matching the tracks with the behavior of the animal during track production is undoubtedly harder.
Working with foot models or severed limbs
Another field of methods is the experimental work done with foot models or severed limbs. With these methods, the natural behavior of the animal is excluded from the analysis. In a typical experimen
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Footprints, burrows, and waste are considered what type of fossils?
A. movement fossils
B. trace fossils
C. morphology fossils
D. crater fossils
Answer:
|
|
sciq-2425
|
multiple_choice
|
In what subgroup are oligochaetes classified?
|
[
"reptiles",
"mammals",
"polychaetes",
"insects"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. As of 2022, 2.16 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are around 7.77 million animal species. Animals range in length from to . They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology.
Most living animal species are in Bilateria, a clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. The Bilateria include the protostomes, containing animals such as nematodes, arthropods, flatworms, annelids and molluscs, and the deuterostomes, containing the echinoderms and the chordates, the latter including the vertebrates. Life forms interpreted as early animals were present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Precambrian. Many modern animal phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago.
Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on ad
Document 1:::
Order () is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between family and class. In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. An immediately higher rank, superorder, is sometimes added directly above order, with suborder directly beneath order. An order can also be defined as a group of related families.
What does and does not belong to each order is determined by a taxonomist, as is whether a particular order should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing an order. Some taxa are accepted almost universally, while others are recognized only rarely.
The name of an order is usually written with a capital letter. For some groups of organisms, their orders may follow consistent naming schemes. Orders of plants, fungi, and algae use the suffix (e.g. Dictyotales). Orders of birds and fishes use the Latin suffix meaning 'having the form of' (e.g. Passeriformes), but orders of mammals and invertebrates are not so consistent (e.g. Artiodactyla, Actiniaria, Primates).
Hierarchy of ranks
Zoology
For some clades covered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, several additional classifications are sometimes used, although not all of these are officially recognized.
In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two extra levels between superorder and order: grandorder and mirorder. Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position. Michael Benton (2005) inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead. This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others.
Botany
In botany, the ranks of subclass and suborder are secondary ranks pre-defined as respectively above and below the rank of order. Any number of further ran
Document 2:::
Harvestmen (Opiliones) are an order of arachnids often confused with spiders, though the two orders are not closely related. Research on harvestman phylogeny (that is, the phylogenetic tree) is in a state of flux. While some families are clearly monophyletic, that is share a common ancestor, others are not, and the relationships between families are often not well understood.
Position in Arachnida
The relationship of harvestmen with other arachnid orders is still not sufficiently resolved.
Up until the 1980s they were thought to be closely related to mites (Acari). In 1990, Shultz proposed grouping them with scorpions, pseudoscorpions and Solifugae ("camel spiders"); he named this clade Dromopoda. This view is currently widely accepted. However, the relationships of the orders within Dromopoda are not yet sufficiently resolved. Analyses of recent taxa suggested the harvestmen to be the sister group of the three others, collectively called Novogenuata. An analysis also considering fossile taxa concluded that the harvestmen are sister to Haplocnemata (Pseudoscorpions and Solifugae), with Scorpions being the sister group of those three combined. Recent analyses have also recovered the Opiliones as sister-group to the extinct Phalangiotarbids, although this has low support, or as sister group to a pseudoscorpion and scorpion clade.
Relationship of suborders
In 1796, Pierre André Latreille erected the family "Phalangida" for the then known harvestmen, but included the genus Galeodes (Solifugae). Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell (1892) recognized the suborders Palpatores, Laniatores, Cyphophthalmi (called Anepignathi), but also included the Ricinulei as a harvestman suborder. The latter were removed from the Opiliones by Hansen and William Sørensen (1904), rendering the harvestmen monophyletic.
According to more recent theories, Cyphophthalmi, the most basal suborder, are a sister group to all other harvestmen, which are according to this system called Phalangida. The Ph
Document 3:::
Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million in total. Animals range in size from 8.5 millionths of a metre to long and have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The study of animals is called zoology.
Animals may be listed or indexed by many criteria, including taxonomy, status as endangered species, their geographical location, and their portrayal and/or naming in human culture.
By common name
List of animal names (male, female, young, and group)
By aspect
List of common household pests
List of animal sounds
List of animals by number of neurons
By domestication
List of domesticated animals
By eating behaviour
List of herbivorous animals
List of omnivores
List of carnivores
By endangered status
IUCN Red List endangered species (Animalia)
United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species
By extinction
List of extinct animals
List of extinct birds
List of extinct mammals
List of extinct cetaceans
List of extinct butterflies
By region
Lists of amphibians by region
Lists of birds by region
Lists of mammals by region
Lists of reptiles by region
By individual (real or fictional)
Real
Lists of snakes
List of individual cats
List of oldest cats
List of giant squids
List of individual elephants
List of historical horses
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
List of individual apes
List of individual bears
List of giant pandas
List of individual birds
List of individual bovines
List of individual cetaceans
List of individual dogs
List of oldest dogs
List of individual monkeys
List of individual pigs
List of w
Document 4:::
Iguania is an infraorder of squamate reptiles that includes iguanas, chameleons, agamids, and New World lizards like anoles and phrynosomatids. Using morphological features as a guide to evolutionary relationships, the Iguania are believed to form the sister group to the remainder of the Squamata, which comprise nearly 11,000 named species, roughly 2000 of which are iguanians. However, molecular information has placed Iguania well within the Squamata as sister taxa to the Anguimorpha and closely related to snakes. The order has been under debate and revisions after being classified by Charles Lewis Camp in 1923 due to difficulties finding adequate synapomorphic morphological characteristics. Most Iguanias are arboreal but there are several terrestrial groups. They usually have primitive fleshy, non-prehensile tongues, although the tongue is highly modified in chameleons. The group has a fossil record that extends back to the Early Jurassic (the oldest known member is Bharatagama, which lived about 190 million years ago in what is now India). Today they are scattered occurring in Madagascar, the Fiji and Friendly Islands and Western Hemisphere.
Classification
The Iguania currently include these extant families:
Clade Acrodonta
Family Agamidae – agamid lizards, Old World arboreal lizards
Family Chamaeleonidae – chameleons
Clade Pleurodonta – American arboreal lizards, chuckwallas, iguanas
Family Leiocephalidae
Genus Leiocephalus: curly-tailed lizards
Family Corytophanidae – helmet lizards
Family Crotaphytidae – collared lizards, leopard lizards
Family Hoplocercidae – dwarf and spinytail iguanas
Family Iguanidae – marine, Fijian, Galapagos land, spinytail, rock, desert, green, and chuckwalla iguanas
Family Tropiduridae – tropidurine lizards
subclade of Tropiduridae Tropidurini – neotropical ground lizards
Family Dactyloidae – anoles
Family Polychrotidae
subclade of Polychrotidae Polychrus
Family Phrynosomatidae – North American spiny lizards
Family Liolaem
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
In what subgroup are oligochaetes classified?
A. reptiles
B. mammals
C. polychaetes
D. insects
Answer:
|
|
sciq-2889
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the climate of a small area called?
|
[
"biome",
"microclimate",
"microevolution",
"ecosystem"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A climograph is a graphical representation of a location's basic climate. Climographs display data for two variables: (a) monthly average temperature and (b) monthly average precipitation. These are useful tools to quickly describe a location's climate.
Representation
While temperature is typically visualized using a line, some climographs opt to visualize the data using a bar. This method's advantage allows the climograph to display the average range in temperature (average minimum and average maximum temperatures) rather than a simple monthly average.
Use
The patterns in a climograph describe not just a location's climate but also provide evidence for that climate's relative geographical location. For example, a climograph with a narrow range in temperature over the year might represent a location close to the equator, or alternatively a location adjacent to a large body of water exerting a moderating effect on the temperature range. Meanwhile, a wide range in annual temperature might suggest the opposite. We could also derive information about a site's ecological conditions through a climograph. For example, if precipitation is consistently low year-round, we might suggest the location reflects a desert; if there is a noticeable seasonal pattern to the precipitation, we might suggest the location experiences a monsoon season. When combining the temperature and precipitation patterns together, we have even better clues as to the local conditions. Despite this, a number of local factors contribute to the patterns observed in a particular place; therefore, a climograph is not a foolproof tool that captures all the geographic variation that might exist.
Document 1:::
In viticulture, there are several levels of regional climates that are used to describe the terroir or immutable characteristics of an area. These levels can be as broad as a macroclimate which includes entire wine regions or as small as a microclimate which includes the unique environment around an individual grapevine. In the middle is the mesoclimate which usually describes the characteristics of a particular vineyard site.
Levels
Macroclimate, in viticulture, refers to the regional climate of a broad area such as an American Viticultural Area (AVA) or a French Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC). It can include an area on the scale of tens to hundreds of kilometers. On smaller scales are the related designations of mesoclimate and microclimate.
Mesoclimate refers to the climate of a particular vineyard site and is generally restricted to a space of tens or hundreds of meters.
Microclimate refers to the specific environment in a small restricted spaces-such as a row of vines. The more delineated term canopy microclimate refers to the environment around an individual grapevine. although many viticulturists use the term "microclimate" when talking about an individual vine and the effects of canopy management.
See also
Climate categorizations in viticulture
Document 2:::
Climatic adaptation refers to adaptations of an organism that are triggered due to the patterns of variation of abiotic factors that determine a specific climate. Annual means, seasonal variation and daily patterns of abiotic factors are properties of a climate where organisms can be adapted to. Changes in behavior, physical structure, internal mechanisms and metabolism are forms of adaptation that is caused by climate properties. Organisms of the same species that occur in different climates can be compared to determine which adaptations are due to climate and which are influenced majorly by other factors. Climatic adaptations limits to adaptations that have been established, characterizing species that live within the specific climate. It is different from climate change adaptations which refers to the ability to adapt to gradual changes of a climate. Once a climate has changed, the climate change adaptation that led to the survival of the specific organisms as a species can be seen as a climatic adaptation. Climatic adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question.
Climate patterns
The patterns of variation of abiotic factors determine a climate and thus climatic adaptation. There are many different climates around the world, each with its unique patterns. Because of this, the manner of climatic adaptation shows large differences between the climates. A subarctic climate, for instance, shows daylight time and temperature fluctuations as most important factors, while in rainforest climate, the most important factor is characterized by the stable high precipitation rate and high average temperature that doesn't fluctuate a lot. Humid continental climate is marked by seasonal temperature variances which commonly lead to seasonal climate adaptations. Because the variance of these abiotic factors differ depending on the type of climate, differences in the manner of climatic adaptation are expected.
Research
Research on climatic adaptat
Document 3:::
Bioclimatology is the interdisciplinary field of science that studies the interactions between the biosphere and the Earth's atmosphere on time scales of the order of seasons or longer (in contrast to biometeorology).
Examples of relevant processes
Climate processes largely control the distribution, size, shape and properties of living organisms on Earth. For instance, the general circulation of the atmosphere on a planetary scale broadly determines the location of large deserts or the regions subject to frequent precipitation, which, in turn, greatly determine which organisms can naturally survive in these environments. Furthermore, changes in climates, whether due to natural processes or to human interferences, may progressively modify these habitats and cause overpopulation or extinction of indigenous species.
The biosphere, for its part, and in particular continental vegetation, which constitutes over 99% of the total biomass, has played a critical role in establishing and maintaining the chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere, especially during the early evolution of the planet (See History of Earth for more details on this topic). Currently, the terrestrial vegetation exchanges some 60 billion tons of carbon with the atmosphere on an annual basis (through processes of carbon fixation and carbon respiration), thereby playing a critical role in the carbon cycle. On a global and annual basis, small imbalances between these two major fluxes, as do occur through changes in land cover and land use, contribute to the current increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Document 4:::
The Mediterranean Biogeographic Region is the biogeographic region around and including the Mediterranean Sea.
The term is defined by the European Environment Agency as applying to the land areas of Europe that border on the Mediterranean Sea, and the corresponding territorial waters.
The region is rich in biodiversity and has many endemic species.
The term may also be used in the broader sense of all the lands of the Mediterranean Basin, or in the narrow sense of just the Mediterranean Sea.
Extent
The European Commission defines the Mediterranean Biogeographic Region as consisting of the Mediterranean Sea, Greece, Malta, Cyprus, large parts of Portugal, Spain and Italy, and a smaller part of France.
The region includes 20.6% of European Union territory.
Climate
The region has cool humid winters and hot dry summers.
Wladimir Köppen divided his "Cs" mediterranean climate classification into "Csa" with a highest mean monthly temperature over and "Csb" where the mean monthly temperature was always lower than .
The region may also be subdivided into dry zones such as Alicante in Spain, and humid zones such as Cinque Terre in Italy.
Terrain
The region has generally hilly terrain and includes islands, high mountains, semi-arid steppes and thick Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub with many aromatic plants.
There are rocky shorelines and sandy beaches.
The region has been greatly affected by human activity such as livestock grazing, cultivation, forest clearance and forest fires.
In recent years tourism has put greater pressure on the shoreline environment.
Biodiversity
The Mediterranean Biogeographic Region is rich in biodiversity and has many endemic species.
The region has more plants species than all the other biogeographical regions of Europe combined.
The wildlife and vegetation are adapted to the unpredictable weather, with sudden downpours or strong winds.
Coastal wetlands are home to endemic species of insects, amphibians and fish, which provide
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the climate of a small area called?
A. biome
B. microclimate
C. microevolution
D. ecosystem
Answer:
|
|
sciq-590
|
multiple_choice
|
In moss, what becomes elongated to elevate the capsule to enhance spore dispersal?
|
[
"porta",
"sera",
"seta",
"risa"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Biology (also known as AP Bio) is an Advanced Placement biology course and exam offered by the College Board in the United States. For the 2012–2013 school year, the College Board unveiled a new curriculum with a greater focus on "scientific practices".
This course is designed for students who wish to pursue an interest in the life sciences. The College Board recommends successful completion of high school biology and high school chemistry before commencing AP Biology, although the actual prerequisites vary from school to school and from state to state. This course, nevertheless, is considered very challenging and one of the most difficult AP classes, as shown with AP Finals grade distributions.
Topic outline
The exam covers the following 8 units. The percentage indicates the portion of the multiple-choice section of the exam focused on each content area:
The course is based on and tests six skills, called scientific practices which include:
In addition to the topics above, students are required to be familiar with general lab procedure. Students should know how to collect data, analyze data to form conclusions, and apply those conclusions.
Exam
Students are allowed to use a four-function, scientific, or graphing calculator.
The exam has two sections: a 90 minute multiple choice section and a 90 minute free response section. There are 60 multiple choice questions and six free responses, two long and four short. Both sections are worth 50% of the score.
Score distribution
Commonly used textbooks
Biology, AP Edition by Sylvia Mader (2012, hardcover )
Life: The Science of Biology (Sadava, Heller, Orians, Purves, and Hillis, )
Campbell Biology AP Ninth Edition (Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, and Andrew Jackson )
See also
Glossary of biology
A.P Bio (TV Show)
Document 1:::
Phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant morphology is useful in the visual identification of plants. Recent studies in molecular biology started to investigate the molecular processes involved in determining the conservation and diversification of plant morphologies. In these studies transcriptome conservation patterns were found to mark crucial ontogenetic transitions during the plant life cycle which may result in evolutionary constraints limiting diversification.
Scope
Plant morphology "represents a study of the development, form, and structure of plants, and, by implication, an attempt to interpret these on the basis of similarity of plan and origin". There are four major areas of investigation in plant morphology, and each overlaps with another field of the biological sciences.
First of all, morphology is comparative, meaning that the morphologist examines structures in many different plants of the same or different species, then draws comparisons and formulates ideas about similarities. When structures in different species are believed to exist and develop as a result of common, inherited genetic pathways, those structures are termed homologous. For example, the leaves of pine, oak, and cabbage all look very different, but share certain basic structures and arrangement of parts. The homology of leaves is an easy conclusion to make. The plant morphologist goes further, and discovers that the spines of cactus also share the same basic structure and development as leaves in other plants, and therefore cactus spines are homologous to leaves as well. This aspect of plant morphology overlaps with the study of plant evolution and paleobotany.
Secondly, plant morphology observes both the vegetative (somatic) structures of plants, as well as the reproductive str
Document 2:::
A leptoid is a type of elongated food-conducting cell like phloem in the stems of some mosses, such as the family Polytrichaceae. They surround strands of water-conducting hydroids. They have some structural and developmental similarities to the sieve elements of seedless vascular plants. At maturity they have inclined end cell walls with small pores and degenerate nuclei. The conduction cells of mosses, leptoids and hydroids, appear similar to those of fossil protracheophytes. However they're not thought to represent an intermediate stage in the evolution of plant vascular tissues but to have had an independent evolutionary origin.
See also
Hydroid, a related water-transporting cell analogous the xylem of vascular plants
Document 3:::
The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591.
On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education.
Format
This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions.
The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test.
Preparation
The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a
Document 4:::
Suspensors are anatomical structures found in certain fungi and plants.
Fungi
In fungi, suspensors are filamentous structural formations having the function of holding a zygospore between two strains of hyphae.
Plants
In plants, suspensors are found in zygotes in angiosperms, connecting the endosperm to an embryo. Usually in dicots the suspensor cells divide transversally a few times to form a filamentous suspensor of 6-10 cells. The suspensor helps in pushing the embryo into the endosperm. The first cell of the suspensor towards the micropylar end becomes swollen and functions as a haustorium. The haustorium has wall ingrowths similar to those of a transfer cell. The last of the suspensors at the end of the embryo is known as hypophysis. Hypophysis later gives rise to the radicle and root cap. During embryo development in angiosperm seeds, normal development involves asymmetrical division of the unicellular embryo, inducing polarity. The smaller terminal cell divides to become the proembryo while the larger basal cell divides laterally to form the suspensor. The suspensor is analogous to a placental mammalian's umbilical cord.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
In moss, what becomes elongated to elevate the capsule to enhance spore dispersal?
A. porta
B. sera
C. seta
D. risa
Answer:
|
|
sciq-10150
|
multiple_choice
|
The end result of diffusion is an equal concentration, or equilibrium , of molecules on both sides of what?
|
[
"the organism",
"the membrane",
"the cell",
"the organelle"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Passive transport is a type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances across cell membranes. Instead of using cellular energy, like active transport, passive transport relies on the second law of thermodynamics to drive the movement of substances across cell membranes. Fundamentally, substances follow Fick's first law, and move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration because this movement increases the entropy of the overall system. The rate of passive transport depends on the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn, depends on the organization and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of passive transport are simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration, and/or osmosis.
Passive transport follows Fick's first law.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of material from an area of high concentration to an area with lower concentration. The difference of concentration between the two areas is often termed as the concentration gradient, and diffusion will continue until this gradient has been eliminated. Since diffusion moves materials from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, it is described as moving solutes "down the concentration gradient" (compared with active transport, which often moves material from area of low concentration to area of higher concentration, and therefore referred to as moving the material "against the concentration gradient").
However, in many cases (e.g. passive drug transport) the driving force of passive transport can not be simplified to the concentration gradient. If there are different solutions at the two sides of the membrane with different equilibrium solubility of the drug, the difference in the degree of saturation is the driving force of passive membrane transport. It is also true for supersaturated solutions which are more and more important owing to the spreading of the application of amorph
Document 1:::
Rotational diffusion is the rotational movement which acts upon any object such as particles, molecules, atoms when present in a fluid, by random changes in their orientations.
Whilst the directions and intensities of these changes are statistically random, they do not arise randomly and are instead the result of interactions between particles. One example occurs in colloids, where relatively large insoluble particles are suspended in a greater amount of fluid. The changes in orientation occur from collisions between the particle and the many molecules forming the fluid surrounding the particle, which each transfer kinetic energy to the particle, and as such can be considered random due to the varied speeds and amounts of fluid molecules incident on each individual particle at any given time.
The analogue to translational diffusion which determines the particle's position in space, rotational diffusion randomises the orientation of any particle it acts on.
Anything in a solution will experience rotational diffusion, from the microscopic scale where individual atoms may have an effect on each other, to the macroscopic scale.
Applications
Rotational diffusion has multiple applications in chemistry and physics, and is heavily involved in many biology based fields. For example, protein-protein interaction is a vital step in the communication of biological signals. In order to communicate, the proteins must both come into contact with each other and be facing the appropriate way to interact with each other's binding site, which relies on the proteins ability to rotate.
As an example concerning physics, rotational Brownian motion in astronomy can be used to explain the orientations of the orbital planes of binary stars, as well as the seemingly random spin axes of supermassive black holes.
The random re-orientation of molecules (or larger systems) is an important process for many biophysical probes. Due to the equipartition theorem, larger molecules re-orient more s
Document 2:::
Transcellular transport involves the transportation of solutes by a cell through a cell. Transcellular transport can occur in three different ways active transport, passive transport, and transcytosis.
Active Transport
Main article: Active transport
Active transport is the process of moving molecules from an area of low concentrations to an area of high concentration. There are two types of active transport, primary active transport and secondary active transport. Primary active transport uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to move specific molecules and solutes against its concentration gradient. Examples of molecules that follow this process are potassium K+, sodium Na+, and calcium Ca2+. A place in the human body where this occurs is in the intestines with the uptake of glucose. Secondary active transport is when one solute moves down the electrochemical gradient to produce enough energy to force the transport of another solute from low concentration to high concentration. An example of where this occurs is in the movement of glucose within the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).
Passive Transport
Main article: Passive transport
Passive transport is the process of moving molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without expelling any energy. There are two types of passive transport, passive diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Passive diffusion is the unassisted movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration across a permeable membrane. One example of passive diffusion is the gas exchange that occurs between the oxygen in the blood and the carbon dioxide present in the lungs. Facilitated diffusion is the movement of polar molecules down the concentration gradient with the assistance of membrane proteins. Since the molecules associated with facilitated diffusion are polar, they are repelled by the hydrophobic sections of permeable membrane, therefore they need to be assisted by the membrane proteins. Both t
Document 3:::
The Saffman–Delbrück model describes a lipid membrane as a thin layer of viscous fluid, surrounded by a less viscous bulk liquid. This picture was originally proposed to determine the diffusion coefficient of membrane proteins, but has also been used to describe the dynamics of fluid domains within lipid membranes. The Saffman–Delbrück formula is often applied to determine the size of an object embedded in a membrane from its observed diffusion coefficient, and is characterized by the weak logarithmic dependence of diffusion constant on object radius.
Origin
In a three-dimensional highly viscous liquid, a spherical object of radius a has diffusion coefficient
by the well-known Stokes–Einstein relation. By contrast, the diffusion coefficient of a circular object embedded in a two-dimensional fluid diverges; this is Stokes' paradox. In a real lipid membrane, the diffusion coefficient may be limited by:
the size of the membrane
the inertia of the membrane (finite Reynolds number)
the effect of the liquid surrounding the membrane
Philip Saffman and Max Delbrück calculated the diffusion coefficient for these three cases, and showed that Case 3 was the relevant effect.
Saffman–Delbrück formula
The diffusion coefficient of a cylindrical inclusion of radius in a membrane with thickness and viscosity , surrounded by bulk fluid with viscosity is:
where the Saffman–Delbrück length and is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Typical values of are 0.1 to 10 micrometres. This result is an approximation applicable for radii , which is appropriate for proteins ( nm), but not for micrometre-scale lipid domains.
The Saffman–Delbrück formula predicts that diffusion coefficients will only depend weakly on the size of the embedded object; for example, if , changing from 1 nm to 10 nm only reduces the diffusion coefficient by 30%.
Beyond the Saffman–Delbrück length
Hughes, Pailthorpe, and White extended the theory of Saffman and Delbrück to inclusions with any radii
Document 4:::
Transport by molecular motor proteins (Kinesin, Dynein and unconventional Myosin) is essential for cell functioning and survival. Studies of multiple motors are inspired by the fact that multiple motors are involved in many biological processes such as intra-cellular transport and mitosis. This increasing interest in modeling multiple motor transport is particularly due to improved understanding of single motor function. Several models have been proposed in recent year to understand the transport by multiple motors.
Models developed can be broadly divided into two categories (1) mean-field/steady state model and (2) stochastic model. The mean-field model is useful for describing transport by a large group of motors. In mean-field description, fluctuation in the forces that individual motors feel while pulling the cargo is ignored. In stochastic model, fluctuation in the forces that motors feel are not ignored. Steady-state/mean-field model is useful for modeling transport by a large group of motors whereas stochastic model is useful for modeling transport by few motors.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The end result of diffusion is an equal concentration, or equilibrium , of molecules on both sides of what?
A. the organism
B. the membrane
C. the cell
D. the organelle
Answer:
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|
sciq-10652
|
multiple_choice
|
Water behind a dam has potential energy. moving water, such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing river, has this?
|
[
"thermal energy",
"residual energy",
"kinetic energy",
"compression energy"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Water potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in reference conditions. Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure and matrix effects such as capillary action (which is caused by surface tension). The concept of water potential has proved useful in understanding and computing water movement within plants, animals, and soil. Water potential is typically expressed in potential energy per unit volume and very often is represented by the Greek letter ψ.
Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If the flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with dissolved salts, such as seawater or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation.
Components of water potential
Many different factors may affect the total water potential, and the sum of these potentials determines the overall water potential and the direction of water flow:
where:
is the reference correction,
is the solute or osmotic potential,
is the pressure component,
is the gravimetric component,
is the potential due to humidity, and
is the potential due to matrix effects (e.g., fluid cohesion and surface tension.)
Document 1:::
Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, and levees, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering.
Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is involved. The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and deposition. "The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water facilities for thermal power plants."
Fundamental principles
A few examples of the fundamental principles of hydraulic engineering include fluid mechanics, fluid flow, behavior of real fluids, hydrology, pipelines, open channel hydraulics, mechanics of sediment transport, physical modeling, hydraulic machines, and drainage hydraulics.
Fluid mechanics
Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest. In a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluid's surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m2, is not constant throughout the body of fluid. Pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in depth. Where the upward force on a body acts on the base and can be found by the equation:
where,
ρ = density of water
g = specific gravity
Document 2:::
In fluid dynamics, pipe network analysis is the analysis of the fluid flow through a hydraulics network, containing several or many interconnected branches. The aim is to determine the flow rates and pressure drops in the individual sections of the network. This is a common problem in hydraulic design.
Description
To direct water to many users, municipal water supplies often route it through a water supply network. A major part of this network will consist of interconnected pipes. This network creates a special class of problems in hydraulic design, with solution methods typically referred to as pipe network analysis. Water utilities generally make use of specialized software to automatically solve these problems. However, many such problems can also be addressed with simpler methods, like a spreadsheet equipped with a solver, or a modern graphing calculator.
Deterministic network analysis
Once the friction factors of the pipes are obtained (or calculated from pipe friction laws such as the Darcy-Weisbach equation), we can consider how to calculate the flow rates and head losses on the network. Generally the head losses (potential differences) at each node are neglected, and a solution is sought for the steady-state flows on the network, taking into account the pipe specifications (lengths and diameters), pipe friction properties and known flow rates or head losses.
The steady-state flows on the network must satisfy two conditions:
At any junction, the total flow into a junction equals the total flow out of that junction (law of conservation of mass, or continuity law, or Kirchhoff's first law)
Between any two junctions, the head loss is independent of the path taken (law of conservation of energy, or Kirchhoff's second law). This is equivalent mathematically to the statement that on any closed loop in the network, the head loss around the loop must vanish.
If there are sufficient known flow rates, so that the system of equations given by (1) and (2) abov
Document 3:::
A flow net is a graphical representation of two-dimensional steady-state groundwater flow through aquifers.
Construction of a flow net is often used for solving groundwater flow problems where the geometry makes analytical solutions impractical. The method is often used in civil engineering, hydrogeology or soil mechanics as a first check for problems of flow under hydraulic structures like dams or sheet pile walls. As such, a grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines is called a flow net. The flow net is an important tool in analysing two-dimensional irrotational flow problems. Flow net technique is a graphical representation method.
Basic method
The method consists of filling the flow area with stream and equipotential lines, which are everywhere perpendicular to each other, making a curvilinear grid. Typically there are two surfaces (boundaries) which are at constant values of potential or hydraulic head (upstream and downstream ends), and the other surfaces are no-flow boundaries (i.e., impermeable; for example the bottom of the dam and the top of an impermeable bedrock layer), which define the sides of the outermost streamtubes (see figure 1 for a stereotypical flow net example).
Mathematically, the process of constructing a flow net consists of contouring the two harmonic or analytic functions of potential and stream function. These functions both satisfy the Laplace equation and the contour lines represent lines of constant head (equipotentials) and lines tangent to flowpaths (streamlines). Together, the potential function and the stream function form the complex potential, where the potential is the real part, and the stream function is the imaginary part.
The construction of a flow net provides an approximate solution to the flow problem, but it can be quite good even for problems with complex geometries by following a few simple rules (initially developed by Philipp Forchheimer around 1900, and later formalized by Arthur Casagrande in
Document 4:::
Integral energy is the amount of energy required to remove water from soil with an initial water content to water content of (where ). It is calculated by integrating the water retention curve, soil water potential with respect to :
It is proposed by Minasny and McBratney (2003) as alternative to available water capacity. (AWC)
The AWC concept assumes equal availability of water between two potentials and does not consider the path along the water retention curve. Integral energy takes into the account the path or energy (characterised by water retention curve) required to dry a soil at particular soil moisture content
See also
Available water capacity
Nonlimiting water range
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Water behind a dam has potential energy. moving water, such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing river, has this?
A. thermal energy
B. residual energy
C. kinetic energy
D. compression energy
Answer:
|
|
ai2_arc-671
|
multiple_choice
|
Which type of activity would most likely be included on a weather map?
|
[
"satellite",
"seismic",
"volcanic",
"hurricane"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the field of Meteorology.
Meteorology The interdisciplinary, scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere with the primary focus being to understand, explain, and forecast weather events. Meteorology, is applied to and employed by a wide variety of diverse fields, including the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.
Essence of meteorology
Meteorology
Climate – the average and variations of weather in a region over long periods of time.
Meteorology – the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting (in contrast with climatology).
Weather – the set of all the phenomena in a given atmosphere at a given time.
Branches of meteorology
Microscale meteorology – the study of atmospheric phenomena about 1 km or less, smaller than mesoscale, including small and generally fleeting cloud "puffs" and other small cloud features
Mesoscale meteorology – the study of weather systems about 5 kilometers to several hundred kilometers, smaller than synoptic scale systems but larger than microscale and storm-scale cumulus systems, skjjoch as sea breezes, squall lines, and mesoscale convective complexes
Synoptic scale meteorology – is a horizontal length scale of the order of 1000 kilometres (about 620 miles) or more
Methods in meteorology
Surface weather analysis – a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground-based weather stations
Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting – the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location
Data collection
Pilot Reports
Weather maps
Weather map
Surface weather analysis
Forecasts and reporting of
Atmospheric pressure
Dew point
High-pressure area
Ice
Black ice
Frost
Low-pressure area
Precipitation
Document 1:::
This is a list of meteorology topics. The terms relate to meteorology, the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. (see also: List of meteorological phenomena)
A
advection
aeroacoustics
aerobiology
aerography (meteorology)
aerology
air parcel (in meteorology)
air quality index (AQI)
airshed (in meteorology)
American Geophysical Union (AGU)
American Meteorological Society (AMS)
anabatic wind
anemometer
annular hurricane
anticyclone (in meteorology)
apparent wind
Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML)
Atlantic hurricane season
atmometer
atmosphere
Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP)
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM)
(atmospheric boundary layer [ABL]) planetary boundary layer (PBL)
atmospheric chemistry
atmospheric circulation
atmospheric convection
atmospheric dispersion modeling
atmospheric electricity
atmospheric icing
atmospheric physics
atmospheric pressure
atmospheric sciences
atmospheric stratification
atmospheric thermodynamics
atmospheric window (see under Threats)
B
ball lightning
balloon (aircraft)
baroclinity
barotropity
barometer ("to measure atmospheric pressure")
berg wind
biometeorology
blizzard
bomb (meteorology)
buoyancy
Bureau of Meteorology (in Australia)
C
Canada Weather Extremes
Canadian Hurricane Centre (CHC)
Cape Verde-type hurricane
capping inversion (in meteorology) (see "severe thunderstorms" in paragraph 5)
carbon cycle
carbon fixation
carbon flux
carbon monoxide (see under Atmospheric presence)
ceiling balloon ("to determine the height of the base of clouds above ground level")
ceilometer ("to determine the height of a cloud base")
celestial coordinate system
celestial equator
celestial horizon (rational horizon)
celestial navigation (astronavigation)
celestial pole
Celsius
Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms (CAPS) (in Oklahoma in the US)
Center for the Study o
Document 2:::
The Todd Weather Folios are a collection of continental Australian synoptic charts that were published from 1879 to 1909.
The charts were created by Sir Charles Todd's office at the Adelaide Observatory. In addition to the charts, the folios include clippings of newspaper articles and telegraphic and handwritten information about the weather. The area covered is mainly the east and south-east of Australia, with occasional reference to other parts of Australasia and the world.
The maps are bound into approximately six-month folios, 63 of which cover the entire period. There are approximately 10,000 continental weather maps along with 750 rainfall maps for South Australia, 10 million printed words of news text, and innumerable handwritten observations and correspondences about the weather.
The folios are an earlier part of the National Archives of Australia listed collection series number D1384.
The History of the Folios
With the advent of the telegraph it was possible to simultaneously collect data, such as surface temperature and sea-level pressure, to draw synoptic weather charts. With Charles Todd's appointment as Postmaster General to the Colony, he trained not only his telegraph operators, but also his postmasters as weather observers. These observers provided valuable data points that, in combination with telegraphed observations from the other colonies (including New Zealand), showed the development and progress of weather activity across a large part of the Southern Hemisphere. Todd's best known feat was his construction management of the Overland Telegraph from Adelaide to Port Darwin. This line of communication was critical to his capacity to create continent-wide synoptic charts as the telegraphic observations from the Outback enabled the connection of data points on the east coast of Australia with similar data points on the west and southern coasts. These continent-scale isobaric lines allowed Todd and his staff to draw synoptic charts that in the
Document 3:::
Surface weather observations are the fundamental data used for safety as well as climatological reasons to forecast weather and issue warnings worldwide. They can be taken manually, by a weather observer, by computer through the use of automated weather stations, or in a hybrid scheme using weather observers to augment the otherwise automated weather station. The ICAO defines the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), which is the model of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity with altitude in the Earth's atmosphere, and is used to reduce a station pressure to sea level pressure. Airport observations can be transmitted worldwide through the use of the METAR observing code. Personal weather stations taking automated observations can transmit their data to the United States mesonet through the Citizen Weather Observer Program (CWOP), the UK Met Office through their Weather Observations Website (WOW), or internationally through the Weather Underground Internet site. A thirty-year average of a location's weather observations is traditionally used to determine the station's climate. In the US a network of Cooperative Observers make a daily record of summary weather and sometimes water level information.
History
Reverend John Campanius Holm is credited with taking the first systematic weather observations in Colonial America. He was a chaplain in the Swedes Fort colony near the mouth of the Delaware River. Holm recorded daily observations without instruments during 1644 and 1645. While numerous other accounts of weather events on the East Coast were documented during the 17th Century. President George Washington kept a detailed weather diary during the late 1700s at Mount Vernon, Virginia. The number of routine weather observers increased significantly during the 1800s. In 1807, Dr. B. S. Barton of the University of Pennsylvania requested members throughout the Union of the Linnaean Society of Philadelphia to maintain instrumented wea
Document 4:::
Numerical weather prediction (NWP) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions. Though first attempted in the 1920s, it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results. A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide, using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes, weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs.
Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change. The improvements made to regional models have allowed significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts; however, atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area, such as wildfires.
Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world. Even with the increasing power of supercomputers, the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days. Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts, along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves. Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics (MOS) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions.
A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that describe the atmosphere. It is impossible to solve these equations exactly, and small errors grow with time (doubling about every five days). Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to ab
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Which type of activity would most likely be included on a weather map?
A. satellite
B. seismic
C. volcanic
D. hurricane
Answer:
|
|
sciq-2140
|
multiple_choice
|
The intensity or rate of radiation emission _________ with temperature?
|
[
"randomly fluctuates",
"decreases",
"does not vary",
"increases"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 2:::
The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591.
On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education.
Format
This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions.
The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test.
Preparation
The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a
Document 3:::
GRE Subject Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology was a standardized exam provided by ETS (Educational Testing Service) that was discontinued in December 2016. It is a paper-based exam and there are no computer-based versions of it. ETS places this exam three times per year: once in April, once in October and once in November. Some graduate programs in the United States recommend taking this exam, while others require this exam score as a part of the application to their graduate programs. ETS sends a bulletin with a sample practice test to each candidate after registration for the exam. There are 180 questions within the biochemistry subject test.
Scores are scaled and then reported as a number between 200 and 990; however, in recent versions of the test, the maximum and minimum reported scores have been 760 (corresponding to the 99 percentile) and 320 (1 percentile) respectively. The mean score for all test takers from July, 2009, to July, 2012, was 526 with a standard deviation of 95.
After learning that test content from editions of the GRE® Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCM) Test has been compromised in Israel, ETS made the decision not to administer this test worldwide in 2016–17.
Content specification
Since many students who apply to graduate programs in biochemistry do so during the first half of their fourth year, the scope of most questions is largely that of the first three years of a standard American undergraduate biochemistry curriculum. A sampling of test item content is given below:
Biochemistry (36%)
A Chemical and Physical Foundations
Thermodynamics and kinetics
Redox states
Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers
Solutions and equilibria
Solute-solvent interactions
Chemical interactions and bonding
Chemical reaction mechanisms
B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics
Small molecules
Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids)
Supramolecular complexes (e.g.
Document 4:::
The transmission curve or transmission characteristic is the mathematical function or graph that describes the transmission fraction of an optical or electronic filter as a function of frequency or wavelength. It is an instance of a transfer function but, unlike the case of, for example, an amplifier, output never exceeds input (maximum transmission is 100%). The term is often used in commerce, science, and technology to characterise filters.
The term has also long been used in fields such as geophysics and astronomy to characterise the properties of regions through which radiation passes, such as the ionosphere.
See also
Electronic filter — examples of transmission characteristics of electronic filters
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The intensity or rate of radiation emission _________ with temperature?
A. randomly fluctuates
B. decreases
C. does not vary
D. increases
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3678
|
multiple_choice
|
Where does the christmas tree worm live?
|
[
"northeast coral reefs",
"Atlantic shoreline",
"rainforests",
"tropical coral reefs"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
One of the marine ecosystems found in the Virgin Islands are the coral reefs. These coral reefs can be located between the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. These coral reefs have an area of 297.9 km2, along with other marine habitats that are in between. The way these coral reefs grow are by coral larvae swimming freely and attaching themselves to hard surfaces around the islands and start to develop a skeleton on the outside of their skin to protect themselves from predators but also allow a new place for other coral larvae to attach to and grow on. These corals can form into three different structures; fringing reefs, which are reefs that are close to the shore, barrier reefs, which are reefs that are alongside the shore and is separated by deep water, and an atoll reef which is a coral reef that circles a lagoon or body of water.
Distribution
As stated, the coral reefs such as fringing reefs, deep reefs, patch reefs and spur and groove formation are distributed over three islands in the Virgin Islands which are St. Croix (Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve, Buck Island Reef National Monument), St. Thomas, and St. John (Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument). The coral reefs found offshore of St. Thomas and St. John are distributed patchily around the islands. Additionally, a developed barrier reef system surrounds St. Croix along its eastern and southern shores.
Ecology
The coral reefs as well as hard-bottom habitat accounts for 297.9 km2. The coral reefs are home to diverse species. There are over 40 species of scleractinian corals and three species of Millepora. Live scleractinian species are found throughout the Virgin Islands, but mainly around Buck Island, St. Croix and St. John. More specifically based on a survey from 2001-2006, listed are a total of 215 fishes from St. John and 202 from St. Croix. Four species of sea turtles are found within the Virgin Islands. The coral reefs are impacted by freshwa
Document 1:::
The University of Michigan Biological Station (UMBS) is a research and teaching facility operated by the University of Michigan. It is located on the south shore of Douglas Lake in Cheboygan County, Michigan. The station consists of 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land near Pellston, Michigan in the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan and 3,200 acres (13 km2) on Sugar Island in the St. Mary's River near Sault Ste. Marie, in the Upper Peninsula. It is one of only 28 Biosphere Reserves in the United States.
Overview
Founded in 1909, it has grown to include approximately 150 buildings, including classrooms, student cabins, dormitories, a dining hall, and research facilities. Undergraduate and graduate courses are available in the spring and summer terms. It has a full-time staff of 15.
In the 2000s, UMBS is increasingly focusing on the measurement of climate change. Its field researchers are gauging the impact of global warming and increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the ecosystem of the upper Great Lakes region, and are using field data to improve the computer models used to forecast further change. Several archaeological digs have been conducted at the station as well.
UMBS field researchers sometimes call the station "bug camp" amongst themselves. This is believed to be due to the number of mosquitoes and other insects present. It is also known as "The Bio-Station".
The UMBS is also home to Michigan's most endangered species and one of the most endangered species in the world: the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle. The species lives in only five locations in the world, two of which are in Emmet County. One of these, a two and a half mile stretch downstream from the Douglas Road crossing of the East Branch of the Maple River supports the only stable population of the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle, with roughly 1000 specimens. This area, though technically not part of the UMBS is largely within and along the boundary of the University of Michigan
Document 2:::
The Oyster Question: Scientists, Watermen, and the Maryland Chesapeake Bay since 1880 is a 2009 book by Christine Keiner. It examines the conflict between oystermen and scientists in the Chesapeake Bay from the end of the nineteenth century to the present, which includes the period of the so-called "Oyster Wars" and the precipitous decline of the oyster industry at the end of the twentieth century. The book engages the myth of the "Tragedy of the Commons" by examining the often fraught relationship between local politics and conservation science, arguing that for most of the period Maryland's state political system gave rural oystermen more political clout than politicians and the scientists they appointed and allowing oystermen to effectively manage the oyster bed commons. Only towards the end of the twentieth century did reapportionment bring suburban and urban interests more political power, by which time they had latched on to oystermen as elements of the area's heritage and incorporated them and the oysters into broader conservation efforts. An important theme is the "intersection[] of scientific knowledge with experiential knowledge in the context of use," in that Keiner "treats the knowledge of the Chesapeake Bay’s oystermen alongside that of biologists." "Through her analysis, Keiner effectively reframes how environmental historians have analyzed histories of common resources and provides a working model for integrating historical and ecological information to bridge the histories of science and environmental history."
Awards
The book won the 2010 Forum for the History of Science in America Prize. It shared the 2010 Maryland Historical Trust's Heritage Book Award, and received an Honorable Mention for the Frederick Jackson Turner Award from the Organization of American Historians in 2010.
Document 3:::
Carol Linda Boggs (born April 11, 1952) is an American biologist specializing in the reproductive biology, population biology, ecology, and evolution of butterflies. Boggs completed her BA in 1973 and her PhD in 1979 in zoology at the University of Texas at Austin. Since 2013, she has been a professor in the School of the Earth, Ocean and Environment and the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of South Carolina. Boggs is the author of more than 120 peer-reviewed articles and has served on editorial boards for several journals. She has been a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 2001.
Career
Boggs was a postdoctoral scholar at Stanford University from 1980 to 1985. Shortly after, Stanford hired her as a lecturer and consulting assistant professor in the Department of Biological Sciences (1986-1997). She was promoted to associate professor (teaching) (1997–2002), consulting professor (2002–2006), and finally, professor (teaching) (2006–2012). In parallel with these appointments, she was also a senior research scientist with Stanford University (1994–2006). Boggs also held administrative appointments at Stanford University such as the associate director (1994–1995) and director (1995–2006) of the Center for Conservation Biology, and the Bing Director for the Program in Human Biology (2006–2012). In 2013, Boggs moved to the University of South Carolina where she was hired as the director of the School of the Earth, Ocean and Environment (2013–2018) and as a professor in the School of the Earth, Ocean and Environment and the Department of Biological Sciences (2013–present).
Boggs has served on several editorial boards, either as a founding member or as an associate editor, for journals including Functional Ecology, Ecological Applications, Evolution, and the Journal of Insect Conservation. She has also worked with the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL), serving on the board of trustees as a member for more tha
Document 4:::
Thomas Gillespie is an American geographer and professor of geography at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).
Gillespie's main area of research is in determining the patterns of species richness within a given geography, specifically native Hawaiian flora and tropical dry forests in biodiversity hotspot such as Hawaii, Sundaland, Indo-Burma, New Caledonia and the Caribbean, through remote sensing and GIS. His research has been used to inform global conservation policies and natural resource/tropical ecology management.
Education
Gillespie received his BA in international affairs from University of Colorado Boulder in 1990 and MA in geography from California State University, Chico in 1994. He went on to receive his PhD from UCLA in 1998.
Career
A 2008 study co-authored by Gillespie suggested that ethnic violence rather than the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 was the "primary factor in reducing violence in Iraq." UCLA researchers looked at light generation at different neighborhoods in Baghdad. Before the surge, Sunni neighborhoods' consumption heavily declined. However, during the surge, their consumption did not return whereas the Shiite neighborhoods either remained the same or increased. Gillespie suggested that “If the surge had truly 'worked,' we would expect to see a steady increase in night-light output over time."
In 2009, Gillespie, along with UCLA geography professor John A. Agnew and several undergraduates, published the paper "Finding Osama bin Laden: An Application of Biogeographic Theories and Satellite Imagery" in the MIT International Review. Using remote sensing and reports of his movement, his students created a statistical model predicting where bin Laden could be based on the island biogeography theory, distance decay theory, and his "Life History Characteristics", a list of physical attributes and assumed personal preferences. The results suggested that bin Laden would be based in a tall building with several rooms, electricity,
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Where does the christmas tree worm live?
A. northeast coral reefs
B. Atlantic shoreline
C. rainforests
D. tropical coral reefs
Answer:
|
|
sciq-6765
|
multiple_choice
|
What do extensive properties depend on the amount of?
|
[
"sample temperature",
"independent variables",
"matter in a sample",
"experimental controls"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Physical or chemical properties of materials and systems can often be categorized as being either intensive or extensive, according to how the property changes when the size (or extent) of the system changes.
The terms "intensive and extensive quantities" were introduced into physics by German mathematician Georg Helm in 1898, and by American physicist and chemist Richard C. Tolman in 1917.
According to International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), an intensive property or intensive quantity is one whose magnitude is independent of the size of the system.
An intensive property is not necessarily homogeneously distributed in space; it can vary from place to place in a body of matter and radiation. Examples of intensive properties include temperature, T; refractive index, n; density, ρ; and hardness, η.
By contrast, an extensive property or extensive quantity is one whose magnitude is additive for subsystems.
Examples include mass, volume and entropy.
Not all properties of matter fall into these two categories. For example, the square root of the volume is neither intensive nor extensive. If a system is doubled in size by juxtaposing a second identical system, the value of an intensive property equals the value for each subsystem and the value of an extensive property is twice the value for each subsystem. However the property √V is instead multiplied by √2 .
Intensive properties
An intensive property is a physical quantity whose value does not depend on the amount of substance which was measured. The most obvious intensive quantities are ratios of extensive quantities. In a homogeneous system divided into two halves, all its extensive properties, in particular its volume and its mass, are divided into two halves. All its intensive properties, such as the mass per volume (mass density) or volume per mass (specific volume), must remain the same in each half.
The temperature of a system in thermal equilibrium is the same as the temperature of any part
Document 2:::
The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591.
On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education.
Format
This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions.
The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test.
Preparation
The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a
Document 3:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 4:::
GRE Subject Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology was a standardized exam provided by ETS (Educational Testing Service) that was discontinued in December 2016. It is a paper-based exam and there are no computer-based versions of it. ETS places this exam three times per year: once in April, once in October and once in November. Some graduate programs in the United States recommend taking this exam, while others require this exam score as a part of the application to their graduate programs. ETS sends a bulletin with a sample practice test to each candidate after registration for the exam. There are 180 questions within the biochemistry subject test.
Scores are scaled and then reported as a number between 200 and 990; however, in recent versions of the test, the maximum and minimum reported scores have been 760 (corresponding to the 99 percentile) and 320 (1 percentile) respectively. The mean score for all test takers from July, 2009, to July, 2012, was 526 with a standard deviation of 95.
After learning that test content from editions of the GRE® Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCM) Test has been compromised in Israel, ETS made the decision not to administer this test worldwide in 2016–17.
Content specification
Since many students who apply to graduate programs in biochemistry do so during the first half of their fourth year, the scope of most questions is largely that of the first three years of a standard American undergraduate biochemistry curriculum. A sampling of test item content is given below:
Biochemistry (36%)
A Chemical and Physical Foundations
Thermodynamics and kinetics
Redox states
Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers
Solutions and equilibria
Solute-solvent interactions
Chemical interactions and bonding
Chemical reaction mechanisms
B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics
Small molecules
Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids)
Supramolecular complexes (e.g.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What do extensive properties depend on the amount of?
A. sample temperature
B. independent variables
C. matter in a sample
D. experimental controls
Answer:
|
|
sciq-10107
|
multiple_choice
|
What term describes diseases caused by abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably?
|
[
"diabetes",
"cancer",
"radiation",
"eczema"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Hyperplasia (from ancient Greek ὑπέρ huper 'over' + πλάσις plasis 'formation'), or hypergenesis, is an enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the amount of organic tissue that results from cell proliferation. It may lead to the gross enlargement of an organ, and the term is sometimes confused with benign neoplasia or benign tumor.
Hyperplasia is a common preneoplastic response to stimulus. Microscopically, cells resemble normal cells but are increased in numbers. Sometimes cells may also be increased in size (hypertrophy). Hyperplasia is different from hypertrophy in that the adaptive cell change in hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells, whereas hyperplasia involves an increase in the number of cells.
Causes
Hyperplasia may be due to any number of causes, including proliferation of basal layer of epidermis to compensate skin loss, chronic inflammatory response, hormonal dysfunctions, or compensation for damage or disease elsewhere. Hyperplasia may be harmless and occur on a particular tissue. An example of a normal hyperplastic response would be the growth and multiplication of milk-secreting glandular cells in the breast as a response to pregnancy, thus preparing for future breast feeding.
Perhaps the most interesting and potent effect insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF) has on the human body is its ability to cause hyperplasia, which is an actual splitting of cells. By contrast, hypertrophy is what occurs, for example, to skeletal muscle cells during weight training and is simply an increase in the size of the cells. With IGF use, one is able to cause hyperplasia which actually increases the number of muscle cells present in the tissue. Weight training enables these new cells to mature in size and strength. It is theorized that hyperplasia may also be induced through specific power output training for athletic performance, thus increasing the number of muscle fibers instead of increasing the size of a single fiber.
Mechanism
Hype
Document 1:::
Dysplasia is any of various types of abnormal growth or development of cells (microscopic scale) or organs (macroscopic scale), and the abnormal histology or anatomical structure(s) resulting from such growth. Dysplasias on a mainly microscopic scale include epithelial dysplasia and fibrous dysplasia of bone. Dysplasias on a mainly macroscopic scale include hip dysplasia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and multicystic dysplastic kidney.
In one of the modern histopathological senses of the term, dysplasia is sometimes differentiated from other categories of tissue change including hyperplasia, metaplasia, and neoplasia, and dysplasias are thus generally not cancerous. An exception is that the myelodysplasias include a range of benign, precancerous, and cancerous forms. Various other dysplasias tend to be precancerous. The word's meanings thus cover a spectrum of histopathological variations.
Microscopic scale
Epithelial dysplasia
Epithelial dysplasia consists of an expansion of immature cells (such as cells of the ectoderm), with a corresponding decrease in the number and location of mature cells. Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic process. The term dysplasia is typically used when the cellular abnormality is restricted to the originating tissue, as in the case of an early, in-situ neoplasm.
Dysplasia, in which cell maturation and differentiation are delayed, can be contrasted with metaplasia, in which cells of one mature, differentiated type are replaced by cells of another mature, differentiated type.
Myelodysplastic syndrome
Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are a group of cancers in which immature blood cells in the bone marrow do not mature and therefore do not become healthy blood cells. Problems with blood cell formation result in some combination of low red blood cells, low platelets, and low white blood cells. Some types have an increase in immature blood cells, called blasts, in the bone marrow or blood.
Fibrous dysplasia of bone
Fi
Document 2:::
Pathology is the study of disease and injury. The word pathology also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in the context of modern medical treatment, the term is often used in a narrower fashion to refer to processes and tests that fall within the contemporary medical field of "general pathology", an area which includes a number of distinct but inter-related medical specialties that diagnose disease, mostly through analysis of tissue and human cell samples. Idiomatically, "a pathology" may also refer to the predicted or actual progression of particular diseases (as in the statement "the many different forms of cancer have diverse pathologies", in which case a more proper choice of word would be "pathophysiologies"), and the affix pathy is sometimes used to indicate a state of disease in cases of both physical ailment (as in cardiomyopathy) and psychological conditions (such as psychopathy). A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist.
As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses components of disease: cause, mechanisms of development (pathogenesis), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both infectious and non-infectious disease, and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, cytopathology, hematopathology, and histopathology), organs (as in renal pathology), and physiological systems (oral pathology), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with forensic pathology).
Pathology is a significant field in modern medical diagnosis and me
Document 3:::
In cellular biology, labile cells are cells that continuously multiply and divide throughout life . Labile cells replace the cells that are lost from the body. When injured, labile cells are repaired rapidly due to an aggressive TR response. This continual division of labile cells allows them to reproduce new stem cells and replace functional cells that are lost in the body. Functional cells may be lost through necrosis, which is the premature death of cells caused by environmental disturbances, such as diseases or injuries. Functional cells may also need to be replaced after undergoing apoptosis, which is the programmed death of cells that occurs normally as part of an organism's development. Labile cells continually regenerate by undergoing mitosis and are one of three types of cells that are involved in cell division, classified by their regenerative capacity. The other two cell types include stable cells and permanent cells. Each of these three cell types respond to injuries to their corresponding tissues differently. Stable cells, unlike labile cells, are typically not dividing and only do so when an injury occurs. Permanent cells are not capable of division after maturing.
Some examples of labile cells, which act as stem cells, include skin cells, such as the epidermis , the epithelia of ducts, hematopoietic stem cells, cells within the gastrointestinal tract, and some cells found within bone marrow.
Labile cells exhibit a very short G1 phase and never enter G0 phase (the resting phase), as they are continually proliferating throughout their life.
Hazards
Cells that are constantly dividing have a higher risk of dividing uncontrollably and becoming malignant, or cancerous. Muscle tissue does not consist of constantly dividing cells, which is likely why cancer of the muscle is not nearly as common as, for example, cancer of the skin.
In addition, cytotoxic drugs used in chemotherapy target dividing cells and inhibit their proliferation. The cytotoxic dru
Document 4:::
In haematology atypical localization of immature precursors (ALIP) refers to finding of atypically localized precursors (myeloblasts and promyelocytes) on bone marrow biopsy. In healthy humans, precursors are rare and are found localized near the endosteum, and consist of 1-2 cells. In some cases of myelodysplastic syndromes, immature precursors might be located in the intertrabecular region and occasionally aggregate as clusters of 3 ~ 5 cells. The presence of ALIPs is associated with worse prognosis of MDS . Recently, in bone marrow sections of patients with acute myeloid leukemia cells similar to ALIPs were defined as ALIP-like clusters. The presence of ALIP-like clusters in AML patients within remission was reported to be associated with early relapse of the disease.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What term describes diseases caused by abnormal cells in the body dividing uncontrollably?
A. diabetes
B. cancer
C. radiation
D. eczema
Answer:
|
|
sciq-458
|
multiple_choice
|
Where are aerofoils found?
|
[
"birds and airplanes",
"airplanes and plants",
"birds and cars",
"birds and busses"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 1:::
The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
Document 2:::
The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Network or STEMNET is an educational charity in the United Kingdom that seeks to encourage participation at school and college in science and engineering-related subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and (eventually) work.
History
It is based at Woolgate Exchange near Moorgate tube station in London and was established in 1996. The chief executive is Kirsten Bodley. The STEMNET offices are housed within the Engineering Council.
Function
Its chief aim is to interest children in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Primary school children can start to have an interest in these subjects, leading secondary school pupils to choose science A levels, which will lead to a science career. It supports the After School Science and Engineering Clubs at schools. There are also nine regional Science Learning Centres.
STEM ambassadors
To promote STEM subjects and encourage young people to take up jobs in these areas, STEMNET have around 30,000 ambassadors across the UK. these come from a wide selection of the STEM industries and include TV personalities like Rob Bell.
Funding
STEMNET used to receive funding from the Department for Education and Skills. Since June 2007, it receives funding from the Department for Children, Schools and Families and Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills, since STEMNET sits on the chronological dividing point (age 16) of both of the new departments.
See also
The WISE Campaign
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
National Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics
Association for Science Education
Glossary of areas of mathematics
Glossary of astronomy
Glossary of biology
Glossary of chemistry
Glossary of engineering
Glossary of physics
Document 3:::
Tech City College (Formerly STEM Academy) is a free school sixth form located in the Islington area of the London Borough of Islington, England.
It originally opened in September 2013, as STEM Academy Tech City and specialised in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) and the Creative Application of Maths and Science. In September 2015, STEM Academy joined the Aspirations Academy Trust was renamed Tech City College. Tech City College offers A-levels and BTECs as programmes of study for students.
Document 4:::
Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.
The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development.
Current status of girls and women in STEM education
Overall trends in STEM education
Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle.
Learning achievement in STEM education
Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Where are aerofoils found?
A. birds and airplanes
B. airplanes and plants
C. birds and cars
D. birds and busses
Answer:
|
|
scienceQA-4610
|
multiple_choice
|
Select the fish below.
|
[
"California newt",
"goldfish",
"red salamander",
"white stork"
] |
B
|
A goldfish is a fish. It lives underwater. It has fins, not limbs.
Goldfish are popular as pets in many countries today. They were first kept as pets by people in ancient China.
A California newt is an amphibian. It has moist skin and begins its life in water.
Some newts live in water. Other newts live on land but lay their eggs in water.
A red salamander is an amphibian. It has moist skin and begins its life in water.
Red salamanders do not have lungs. They breathe through their skin!
A white stork is a bird. It has feathers, two wings, and a beak.
Storks wade in shallow water to look for food. Storks eat fish, insects, worms, and other small animals.
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Fish intelligence is the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills" as it applies to fish.
According to Culum Brown from Macquarie University, "Fish are more intelligent than they appear. In many areas, such as memory, their cognitive powers match or exceed those of ‘higher’ vertebrates including non-human primates."
Fish hold records for the relative brain weights of vertebrates. Most vertebrate species have similar brain-to-body mass ratios. The deep sea bathypelagic bony-eared assfish has the smallest ratio of all known vertebrates. At the other extreme, the electrogenic elephantnose fish, an African freshwater fish, has one of the largest brain-to-body weight ratios of all known vertebrates (slightly higher than humans) and the highest brain-to-body oxygen consumption ratio of all known vertebrates (three times that for humans).
Brain
Fish typically have quite small brains relative to body size compared with other vertebrates, typically one-fifteenth the brain mass of a similarly sized bird or mammal. However, some fish have relatively large brains, most notably mormyrids and sharks, which have brains about as massive relative to body weight as birds and marsupials.
The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei. Instead, the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well-developed brains, such as octopuses. This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to
Document 1:::
A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animal that lacks limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of living fish species are ray-finned fish, belonging to the class Actinopterygii, with around 99% of those being teleosts.
The earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts. Fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators. The first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many (such as sharks) became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods.
Most fish are ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change, though some of the large active swimmers like white shark and tuna can hold a higher core temperature. Fish can acoustically communicate with each other, most often in the context of feeding, aggression or courtship.
Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams (e.g., char and gudgeon) to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans (e.g., cusk-eels and snailfish), although no species has yet been documented in the deepest 25% of the ocean. With 34,300 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates.
Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food. Commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean (in aquaculture). They are also caught by recreational
Document 2:::
Knowledge of fish age characteristics is necessary for stock assessments, and to develop management or conservation plans. Size is generally associated with age; however, there are variations in size at any particular age for most fish species making it difficult to estimate one from the other with precision. Therefore, researchers interested in determining a fish age look for structures which increase incrementally with age. The most commonly used techniques involve counting natural growth rings on the scales, otoliths, vertebrae, fin spines, eye lenses, teeth, or bones of the jaw, pectoral girdle, and opercular series. Even reliable aging techniques may vary among species; often, several different bony structures are compared among a population in order to determine the most accurate method.
History
Aristotle (ca. 340 B.C.) may have been the first scientist to speculate on the use of hard parts of fishes to determine age, stating in Historica Animalium that “the age of a scaly fish may be told by the size and hardness of its scales.” However, it was not until the development of the microscope that more detailed studies were performed on the structure of scales. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek developed improved lenses which he went use in his creation of microscopes. He had a wide range of interests including the structure of fish scales from the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and the burbot (Lota lota), species which were previously thought not to have scales. He observed that the scales contained “circular lines” and that each scale had the same number of these lines, and correctly inferred that the number of lines correlated to the age of the fish. He also correctly associated the darker areas of scale growth to the season of slowed growth, a characteristic he had previously observed in tree trunks. Leeuwenhoek's work went widely undiscovered by fisheries researchers, and the discovery of fish aging structures is widely credited to Hans Hederström (e.g., Ricker 19
Document 3:::
The Digital Fish Library (DFL) is a University of California San Diego project funded by the Biological Infrastructure Initiative (DBI) of the National Science Foundation (NSF). The DFL creates 2D and 3D visualizations of the internal and external anatomy of fish obtained with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods and makes these publicly available on the web.
The information core for the Digital Fish Library is generated using high-resolution MRI scanners housed at the Center for functional magnetic resonance imaging (CfMRI) multi-user facility at UC San Diego. These instruments use magnetic fields to take 3D images of animal tissues, allowing researchers to non-invasively see inside them and quantitatively describe their 3D anatomy. Fish specimens are obtained from the Marine Vertebrate Collection at Scripps Institute of Oceanography (SIO) and imaged by staff from UC San Diego's Center for Scientific Computation in Imaging (CSCI).
As of February 2010, the Digital Fish Library contains almost 300 species covering all five classes of fish, 56 of 60 orders, and close to 200 of the 521 fish families as described by Nelson, 2006. DFL imaging has also contributed to a number of published peer-reviewed scientific studies.
Digital Fish Library work has been featured in the media, including two National Geographic documentaries: Magnetic Navigator and Ultimate Shark.
Document 4:::
Fisheries science is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of limnology, oceanography, freshwater biology, marine biology, meteorology, conservation, ecology, population dynamics, economics, statistics, decision analysis, management, and many others in an attempt to provide an integrated picture of fisheries. In some cases new disciplines have emerged, as in the case of bioeconomics and fisheries law. Because fisheries science is such an all-encompassing field, fisheries scientists often use methods from a broad array of academic disciplines. Over the most recent several decades, there have been declines in fish stocks (populations) in many regions along with increasing concern about the impact of intensive fishing on marine and freshwater biodiversity.
Fisheries science is typically taught in a university setting, and can be the focus of an undergraduate, master's or Ph.D. program. Some universities offer fully integrated programs in fisheries science. Graduates of university fisheries programs typically find employment as scientists, fisheries managers of both recreational and commercial fisheries, researchers, aquaculturists, educators, environmental consultants and planners, conservation officers, and many others.
Fisheries research
Because fisheries take place in a diverse set of aquatic environments (i.e., high seas, coastal areas, large and small rivers, and lakes of all sizes), research requires different sampling equipment, tools, and techniques. For example, studying trout populations inhabiting mountain lakes requires a very different set of sampling tools than, say, studying salmon in the high seas. Ocean fisheries research vessels (FRVs) often require platforms which are capable of towing different types of fishing nets, collecting plankton or water samples from a range of depths, and carrying acoustic fish-finding equipment. Fisheries research vessels a
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Select the fish below.
A. California newt
B. goldfish
C. red salamander
D. white stork
Answer:
|
ai2_arc-846
|
multiple_choice
|
Some foods that humans eat, such as corn and peas, are actually seeds from plants. What best describes the role of humans in a food web containing these plants?
|
[
"a consumer",
"a decomposer",
"a producer",
"a scavenger"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The soil food web is the community of organisms living all or part of their lives in the soil. It describes a complex living system in the soil and how it interacts with the environment, plants, and animals.
Food webs describe the transfer of energy between species in an ecosystem. While a food chain examines one, linear, energy pathway through an ecosystem, a food web is more complex and illustrates all of the potential pathways. Much of this transferred energy comes from the sun. Plants use the sun’s energy to convert inorganic compounds into energy-rich, organic compounds, turning carbon dioxide and minerals into plant material by photosynthesis. Plant flowers exude energy-rich nectar above ground and plant roots exude acids, sugars, and ectoenzymes into the rhizosphere, adjusting the pH and feeding the food web underground.
Plants are called autotrophs because they make their own energy; they are also called producers because they produce energy available for other organisms to eat. Heterotrophs are consumers that cannot make their own food. In order to obtain energy they eat plants or other heterotrophs.
Above ground food webs
In above ground food webs, energy moves from producers (plants) to primary consumers (herbivores) and then to secondary consumers (predators). The phrase, trophic level, refers to the different levels or steps in the energy pathway. In other words, the producers, consumers, and decomposers are the main trophic levels. This chain of energy transferring from one species to another can continue several more times, but eventually ends. At the end of the food chain, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead plant and animal material into simple nutrients.
Methodology
The nature of soil makes direct observation of food webs difficult. Since soil organisms range in size from less than 0.1 mm (nematodes) to greater than 2 mm (earthworms) there are many different ways to extract them. Soil samples are often taken using a metal
Document 1:::
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food web. A food chain is a succession of organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the chain. A food web starts at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, can move to herbivores at level 2, carnivores at level 3 or higher, and typically finish with apex predators at level 4 or 5. The path along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a food "web". Ecological communities with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths.
The word trophic derives from the Greek τροφή (trophē) referring to food or nourishment.
History
The concept of trophic level was developed by Raymond Lindeman (1942), based on the terminology of August Thienemann (1926): "producers", "consumers", and "reducers" (modified to "decomposers" by Lindeman).
Overview
The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis.
Consumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plants and other animals are called omnivores.
Decomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy and nutrients into
Document 2:::
Consumer–resource interactions are the core motif of ecological food chains or food webs, and are an umbrella term for a variety of more specialized types of biological species interactions including prey-predator (see predation), host-parasite (see parasitism), plant-herbivore and victim-exploiter systems. These kinds of interactions have been studied and modeled by population ecologists for nearly a century. Species at the bottom of the food chain, such as algae and other autotrophs, consume non-biological resources, such as minerals and nutrients of various kinds, and they derive their energy from light (photons) or chemical sources. Species higher up in the food chain survive by consuming other species and can be classified by what they eat and how they obtain or find their food.
Classification of consumer types
The standard categorization
Various terms have arisen to define consumers by what they eat, such as meat-eating carnivores, fish-eating piscivores, insect-eating insectivores, plant-eating herbivores, seed-eating granivores, and fruit-eating frugivores and omnivores are meat eaters and plant eaters. An extensive classification of consumer categories based on a list of feeding behaviors exists.
The Getz categorization
Another way of categorizing consumers, proposed by South African American ecologist Wayne Getz, is based on a biomass transformation web (BTW) formulation that organizes resources into five components: live and dead animal, live and dead plant, and particulate (i.e. broken down plant and animal) matter. It also distinguishes between consumers that gather their resources by moving across landscapes from those that mine their resources by becoming sessile once they have located a stock of resources large enough for them to feed on during completion of a full life history stage.
In Getz's scheme, words for miners are of Greek etymology and words for gatherers are of Latin etymology. Thus a bestivore, such as a cat, preys on live animal
Document 3:::
Foodscaping is a modern term for the practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes. It is also referred to as edible landscaping and has been described as a crossbreed between landscaping and farming. As an ideology, foodscaping aims to show that edible plants are not only consumable but can also be appreciated for their aesthetic qualities. Foodscaping spaces are seen as multi-functional landscapes which are visually attractive and also provide edible returns. Foodscaping is a great way to provide fresh food in an affordable way.
Differing from conventional vegetable gardening, where fruits and vegetables are typically grown in separate, enclosed areas, foodscaping incorporates edible plants as a major element of a pre-existing landscaping space. This may involve adding edible plantations to an existing ornamental garden or entirely replacing the traditional, non-edible plants with food-yielding species. The designs can incorporate various kinds of vegetables, fruit trees, berry bushes, edible flowers, and herbs, along with purely ornamental species. The design strategy of foodscaping has many benefits, including increasing food security, improving the growth of nutritious food and promoting sustainable living. Edible landscaping practices may be implemented on both public and private premises. Foodscaping can be practiced by individuals, community groups, businesses, or educational institutions.
The practice of foodscaping is believed to have gained popularity in the 21st century for several reasons. Some accounts claim that the rise of foodscaping is due to the volatility of global food prices and the financial crisis of 2007–2008. However, other accounts suggest that the spike in foodscaping popularity is linked to urbanization and increasing concerns for environmental sustainability.
Origins
Overview
It is unknown who first coined the expression foodscaping. The term and ideology of foodscaping have been around since the late 20th centu
Document 4:::
Human uses of plants include both practical uses, such as for food, clothing, and medicine, and symbolic uses, such as in art, mythology and literature. The reliable provision of food through agriculture is the basis of civilization. The study of plant uses by native peoples is ethnobotany, while economic botany focuses on modern cultivated plants. Plants are used in medicine, providing many drugs from the earliest times to the present, and as the feedstock for many industrial products including timber and paper as well as a wide range of chemicals. Plants give millions of people pleasure through gardening.
In art, mythology, religion, literature and film, plants play important roles, symbolising themes such as fertility, growth, purity, and rebirth. In architecture and the decorative arts, plants provide many themes, such as Islamic arabesques and the acanthus forms carved on to classical Corinthian order column capitals.
Context
Culture consists of the social behaviour and norms found in human societies and transmitted through social learning. Cultural universals in all human societies include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept of material culture covers physical expressions such as technology, architecture and art, whereas immaterial culture includes principles of social organization, mythology, philosophy, literature, and science. This article describes the many roles played by plants in human culture.
Practical uses
As food
Humans depend on plants for food, either directly or as feed for domestic animals. Agriculture deals with the production of food crops, and has played a key role in the history of world civilizations. Agriculture includes agronomy for arable crops, horticulture for vegetables and fruit, and forestry for timber. About 7,000 species of plant have been used for food, though most of today's food is derived from only 30 species. The major s
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Some foods that humans eat, such as corn and peas, are actually seeds from plants. What best describes the role of humans in a food web containing these plants?
A. a consumer
B. a decomposer
C. a producer
D. a scavenger
Answer:
|
|
sciq-2045
|
multiple_choice
|
The cochlea is a shell-like structure that is full of fluid and lined with nerve cells called what?
|
[
"sperm cells",
"red cells",
"brain cells",
"hair cells"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN), auditory nerve fibers enter the brain via the nerve root in the VCN. The ventral cochlear nucleus is divided into the anterior ventral (anteroventral) cochlear nucleus (AVCN) and the posterior ventral (posteroventral) cochlear nucleus (PVCN). In the VCN, auditory nerve fibers bifurcate, the ascending branch innervates the AVCN and the descending branch innervates the PVCN and then continue to the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The orderly innervation by auditory nerve fibers gives the AVCN a tonotopic organization along the dorsoventral axis. Fibers that carry information from the apex of the cochlea that are tuned to low frequencies contact neurons in the ventral part of the AVCN; those that carry information from the base of the cochlea that are tuned to high frequencies contact neurons in the dorsal part of the AVCN. Several populations of neurons populate the AVCN. Bushy cells receive input from auditory nerve fibers through particularly large endings called end bulbs of Held. They contact stellate cells through more conventional boutons.
Cell types
The anterior cochlear nucleus contains several cell types, which correspond fairly well with different physiological unit types. Additionally, these cell types generally have specific projection patterns.
Bushy cells
Named due to the branching, tree-like, nature of their dendritic fields, visible using Golgi's method, they receive large end bulbs of Held from auditory nerve fibers. Bushy cells are of three subtypes that project to different target nuclei in the superior olivary complex.
Globular
Globular bushy cells project large axons to the contralateral medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB), in the superior olivary complex where they synapse onto principal cells via a single calyx of Held, and several smaller collaterals synapse ipsilaterally in the posterior (PPO) and dorsolateral periolivary (DLPO) nuclei, lateral superior olive (LSO), and lateral nucleus of the tra
Document 1:::
The stria vascularis of the cochlear duct is a capillary loop in the upper portion of the spiral ligament (the outer wall of the cochlear duct). It produces endolymph for the scala media in the cochlea.
Structure
The stria vascularis is part of the lateral wall of the cochlear duct. It is a somewhat stratified epithelium containing primarily three cell types:
marginal cells, which are involved in K+ transport, and line the endolymphatic space of the scala media.
intermediate cells, which are pigment-containing cells scattered among capillaries.
basal cells, which separate the stria vascularis from the underlying spiral ligament. They are connected to basal cells with gap junctions.
The stria vascularis also contains pericytes, melanocytes, and endothelial cells. It also contains intraepithelial capillaries - it is the only epithelial tissue that is not avascular (completely lacking blood vessels and lymphatic vessels).
Function
The stria vascularis produces endolymph for the scala media, one of the three fluid-filled compartments of the cochlea. This maintains the ion balance of the endolymph that surround inner hair cells and outer hair cells of the organ of Corti. It secretes lots of K+, and may also secrete H+.
Document 2:::
H2.00.04.4.01001: Lymphoid tissue
H2.00.05.0.00001: Muscle tissue
H2.00.05.1.00001: Smooth muscle tissue
H2.00.05.2.00001: Striated muscle tissue
H2.00.06.0.00001: Nerve tissue
H2.00.06.1.00001: Neuron
H2.00.06.2.00001: Synapse
H2.00.06.2.00001: Neuroglia
h3.01: Bones
h3.02: Joints
h3.03: Muscles
h3.04: Alimentary system
h3.05: Respiratory system
h3.06: Urinary system
h3.07: Genital system
h3.08:
Document 3:::
The reticular membrane (RM, also called reticular lamina or apical cuticular plate) is a thin, stiff lamina that extends from the outer hair cells to the Hensen's cells. The RM is composed of "minute-fiddle-shaped cuticular structures" called the phalangeal extensions of the outer hair cells, interspaced with extensions coming from the outer phalangeal cells. The RM separates endolymph in the cochlear duct from underlying corticolymph and perilymph of the scala tympani.
The hair processes of the outer hair cells emerge through and above the RM, thus immobilizing the apical pole of the outer hair cells. At the opposite basilar pole, the outer hair cells are firmly held by the phalangeal cells. The inner phalangeal cells that surround the inner hair cells reach the surface of the organ of Corti, but, even their inner-most row, are not included in the reticular membrane. Thus, the RM up to the outer edge of the tectorial membrane and does not extend unto the surface of the organ of Corti.
Additional images
Notes
External links
Diagram at une.edu
Animation at bioanim.com
Ear
Document 4:::
The cochlear nuclear (CN) complex comprises two cranial nerve nuclei in the human brainstem, the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) and the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN).
The ventral cochlear nucleus is unlayered whereas the dorsal cochlear nucleus is layered. Auditory nerve fibers, fibers that travel through the auditory nerve (also known as the cochlear nerve or eighth cranial nerve) carry information from the inner ear, the cochlea, on the same side of the head, to the nerve root in the ventral cochlear nucleus.
At the nerve root the fibers branch to innervate the ventral cochlear nucleus and the deep layer of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. All acoustic information thus enters the brain through the cochlear nuclei, where the processing of acoustic information begins. The outputs from the cochlear nuclei are received in higher regions of the auditory brainstem.
Structure
The cochlear nuclei (CN) are located at the dorso-lateral side of the brainstem, spanning the junction of the pons and medulla.
The ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) on the ventral aspect of the brain stem, ventrolateral to the inferior peduncle.
The dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), also known as the tuberculum acusticum or acoustic tubercle, curves over the VCN and wraps around the cerebellar peduncle.
The VCN is further divided by the nerve root into the posteroventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN) and the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN).
Projections to the cochlear nuclei
The major input to the cochlear nucleus is from the auditory nerve, a part of cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve). The auditory nerve fibers form a highly organized system of connections according to their peripheral innervation of the cochlea. Axons from the spiral ganglion cells of the lower frequencies innervate the ventrolateral portions of the ventral cochlear nucleus and lateral-ventral portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The axons from the higher frequency organ of corti hair cells project to the dor
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The cochlea is a shell-like structure that is full of fluid and lined with nerve cells called what?
A. sperm cells
B. red cells
C. brain cells
D. hair cells
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3121
|
multiple_choice
|
Geologists group rocks based on how they what?
|
[
"dissove",
"look",
"form",
"move"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.
Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting.
Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. Modern technology has allowed the development of new man-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete.
Study
Geology is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the
Document 2:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 3:::
Rock mechanics is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rocks and rock masses.
Compared to geology, it is the branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock and rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment.
Background
Rock mechanics is part of a much broader subject of geomechanics, which is concerned with the mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils.
Rock mechanics is concerned with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of structures built in or on rock. The structure could include many objects such as a drilling well, a mine shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a repository component, or a building. Rock mechanics is used in many engineering disciplines, but is primarily used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical, Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering.
Rock mechanics answers questions such as, "is reinforcement necessary for a rock, or will it be able to handle whatever load it is faced with?" It also includes the design of reinforcement systems, such as rock bolting patterns.
Assessing the Project Site
Before any work begins, the construction site must be investigated properly to inform of the geological conditions of the site. Field observations, deep drilling, and geophysical surveys, can all give necessary information to develop a safe construction plan and create a site geological model. The level of investigation conducted at this site depends on factors such as budget, time frame, and expected geological conditions.
The first step of the investigation is the collection of maps and aerial photos to analyze. This can provide information about potential sinkholes, landslides, erosion, etc. Maps can provide information on the rock type of the site, geological structure, and boundaries between bedrock units.
Boreholes
Creating a borehole is a technique that consists of drilling through the ground in various areas at various depths, to get a bett
Document 4:::
Dr. Nahid Khazenie is a mechanical engineer who served as president of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society from 1998 to 1999.
Khazenie completed her undergraduate education at the Michigan Technological University before going on to receive several graduate degrees from the University of Texas at Austin, including a Ph.D. in 1987 for Mechanical Engineering and Operations Research. She joined the faculty and was a research scientist, specializing in remote sensing applications in agriculture and ocean studies. Because of her work there, she became a Senior Scientist appointment to the Naval Research Laboratory and then NASA as Earth Science Enterprise Education Programs Manager.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Geologists group rocks based on how they what?
A. dissove
B. look
C. form
D. move
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8055
|
multiple_choice
|
Are cnidarians typically found in ocean or fresh water habitats?
|
[
"freshwater",
"ocean",
"rivers",
"lakes"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A cnidariologist is a zoologist specializing in Cnidaria, a group of freshwater and marine aquatic animals that include the sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish.
Examples
Edward Thomas Browne (1866-1937)
Henry Bryant Bigelow (1879-1967)
Randolph Kirkpatrick (1863–1950)
Kamakichi Kishinouye (1867-1929)
Paul Lassenius Kramp (1887-1975)
Alfred G. Mayer (1868-1922)
See also
Document 1:::
The Oyster Question: Scientists, Watermen, and the Maryland Chesapeake Bay since 1880 is a 2009 book by Christine Keiner. It examines the conflict between oystermen and scientists in the Chesapeake Bay from the end of the nineteenth century to the present, which includes the period of the so-called "Oyster Wars" and the precipitous decline of the oyster industry at the end of the twentieth century. The book engages the myth of the "Tragedy of the Commons" by examining the often fraught relationship between local politics and conservation science, arguing that for most of the period Maryland's state political system gave rural oystermen more political clout than politicians and the scientists they appointed and allowing oystermen to effectively manage the oyster bed commons. Only towards the end of the twentieth century did reapportionment bring suburban and urban interests more political power, by which time they had latched on to oystermen as elements of the area's heritage and incorporated them and the oysters into broader conservation efforts. An important theme is the "intersection[] of scientific knowledge with experiential knowledge in the context of use," in that Keiner "treats the knowledge of the Chesapeake Bay’s oystermen alongside that of biologists." "Through her analysis, Keiner effectively reframes how environmental historians have analyzed histories of common resources and provides a working model for integrating historical and ecological information to bridge the histories of science and environmental history."
Awards
The book won the 2010 Forum for the History of Science in America Prize. It shared the 2010 Maryland Historical Trust's Heritage Book Award, and received an Honorable Mention for the Frederick Jackson Turner Award from the Organization of American Historians in 2010.
Document 2:::
Aquatic science is the study of the various bodies of water that make up our planet including oceanic and freshwater environments. Aquatic scientists study the movement of water, the chemistry of water, aquatic organisms, aquatic ecosystems, the movement of materials in and out of aquatic ecosystems, and the use of water by humans, among other things. Aquatic scientists examine current processes as well as historic processes, and the water bodies that they study can range from tiny areas measured in millimeters to full oceans. Moreover, aquatic scientists work in Interdisciplinary groups. For example, a physical oceanographer might work with a biological oceanographer to understand how physical processes, such as tropical cyclones or rip currents, affect organisms in the Atlantic Ocean. Chemists and biologists, on the other hand, might work together to see how the chemical makeup of a certain body of water affects the plants and animals that reside there. Aquatic scientists can work to tackle global problems such as global oceanic change and local problems, such as trying to understand why a drinking water supply in a certain area is polluted.
There are two main fields of study that fall within the field of aquatic science. These fields of study include oceanography and limnology.
Oceanography
Oceanography refers to the study of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of oceanic environments. Oceanographers study the history, current condition, and future of the planet's oceans. They also study marine life and ecosystems, ocean circulation, plate tectonics, the geology of the seafloor, and the chemical and physical properties of the ocean.
Oceanography is interdisciplinary. For example, there are biological oceanographers and marine biologists. These scientists specialize in marine organisms. They study how these organisms develop, their relationship with one another, and how they interact and adapt to their environment. Biological oceanographers
Document 3:::
AquaMaps is a collaborative project with the aim of producing computer-generated (and ultimately, expert reviewed) predicted global distribution maps for marine species on a 0.5 x 0.5 degree grid of the oceans based on data available through online species databases such as FishBase and SeaLifeBase and species occurrence records from OBIS or GBIF and using an environmental envelope model (see niche modelling) in conjunction with expert input. The underlying model represents a modified version of the relative environmental suitability (RES) model developed by Kristin Kaschner to generate global predictions of marine mammal occurrences.
According to the AquaMaps website in August 2013, the project held standardized distribution maps for over 17,300 species of fishes, marine mammals and invertebrates.
The project is also expanding to incorporate freshwater species, with more than 600 biodiversity maps for freshwater fishes of the Americas available as at November 2009. AquaMaps predictions have been validated successfully for a number of species using independent data sets and the model was shown to perform equally well or better than other standard species distribution models, when faced with the currently existing suboptimal input data sets.
In addition to displaying individual maps per species, AquaMaps provides tools to generate species richness maps by higher taxon, plus a spatial search for all species overlapping a specified grid square. There is also the facility to create custom maps for any species via the web by modifying the input parameters and re-running the map generating algorithm in real time, and a variety of other tools including the investigation of effects of climate change on species distributions (see relevant section of the AquaMaps search page).
Coordination
The project is coordinated by Dr Rainer Froese of IFM-GEOMAR and involves contributions from other research institutes including the Evolutionary Biology and Ecology Lab, Albert-Ludwigs
Document 4:::
The University of Michigan Biological Station (UMBS) is a research and teaching facility operated by the University of Michigan. It is located on the south shore of Douglas Lake in Cheboygan County, Michigan. The station consists of 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land near Pellston, Michigan in the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan and 3,200 acres (13 km2) on Sugar Island in the St. Mary's River near Sault Ste. Marie, in the Upper Peninsula. It is one of only 28 Biosphere Reserves in the United States.
Overview
Founded in 1909, it has grown to include approximately 150 buildings, including classrooms, student cabins, dormitories, a dining hall, and research facilities. Undergraduate and graduate courses are available in the spring and summer terms. It has a full-time staff of 15.
In the 2000s, UMBS is increasingly focusing on the measurement of climate change. Its field researchers are gauging the impact of global warming and increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the ecosystem of the upper Great Lakes region, and are using field data to improve the computer models used to forecast further change. Several archaeological digs have been conducted at the station as well.
UMBS field researchers sometimes call the station "bug camp" amongst themselves. This is believed to be due to the number of mosquitoes and other insects present. It is also known as "The Bio-Station".
The UMBS is also home to Michigan's most endangered species and one of the most endangered species in the world: the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle. The species lives in only five locations in the world, two of which are in Emmet County. One of these, a two and a half mile stretch downstream from the Douglas Road crossing of the East Branch of the Maple River supports the only stable population of the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle, with roughly 1000 specimens. This area, though technically not part of the UMBS is largely within and along the boundary of the University of Michigan
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Are cnidarians typically found in ocean or fresh water habitats?
A. freshwater
B. ocean
C. rivers
D. lakes
Answer:
|
|
sciq-10392
|
multiple_choice
|
Metabolism includes both anabolic and which other reaction?
|
[
"biogenic",
"catabolic",
"enzymatic",
"organic"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The metabolome refers to the complete set of small-molecule chemicals found within a biological sample. The biological sample can be a cell, a cellular organelle, an organ, a tissue, a tissue extract, a biofluid or an entire organism. The small molecule chemicals found in a given metabolome may include both endogenous metabolites that are naturally produced by an organism (such as amino acids, organic acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, amines, sugars, vitamins, co-factors, pigments, antibiotics, etc.) as well as exogenous chemicals (such as drugs, environmental contaminants, food additives, toxins and other xenobiotics) that are not naturally produced by an organism.
In other words, there is both an endogenous metabolome and an exogenous metabolome. The endogenous metabolome can be further subdivided to include a "primary" and a "secondary" metabolome (particularly when referring to plant or microbial metabolomes). A primary metabolite is directly involved in the normal growth, development, and reproduction. A secondary metabolite is not directly involved in those processes, but usually has important ecological function. Secondary metabolites may include pigments, antibiotics or waste products derived from partially metabolized xenobiotics. The study of the metabolome is called metabolomics.
Origins
The word metabolome appears to be a blending of the words "metabolite" and "chromosome". It was constructed to imply that metabolites are indirectly encoded by genes or act on genes and gene products. The term "metabolome" was first used in 1998 and was likely coined to match with existing biological terms referring to the complete set of genes (the genome), the complete set of proteins (the proteome) and the complete set of transcripts (the transcriptome). The first book on metabolomics was published in 2003. The first journal dedicated to metabolomics (titled simply "Metabolomics") was launched in 2005 and is currently edited by Prof. Roy Goodacre. Some of the m
Document 1:::
In molecular biology, biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted into more complex products in living organisms. In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified, converted into other compounds, or joined to form macromolecules. This process often consists of metabolic pathways. Some of these biosynthetic pathways are located within a single cellular organelle, while others involve enzymes that are located within multiple cellular organelles. Examples of these biosynthetic pathways include the production of lipid membrane components and nucleotides. Biosynthesis is usually synonymous with anabolism.
The prerequisite elements for biosynthesis include: precursor compounds, chemical energy (e.g. ATP), and catalytic enzymes which may need coenzymes (e.g. NADH, NADPH). These elements create monomers, the building blocks for macromolecules. Some important biological macromolecules include: proteins, which are composed of amino acid monomers joined via peptide bonds, and DNA molecules, which are composed of nucleotides joined via phosphodiester bonds.
Properties of chemical reactions
Biosynthesis occurs due to a series of chemical reactions. For these reactions to take place, the following elements are necessary:
Precursor compounds: these compounds are the starting molecules or substrates in a reaction. These may also be viewed as the reactants in a given chemical process.
Chemical energy: chemical energy can be found in the form of high energy molecules. These molecules are required for energetically unfavorable reactions. Furthermore, the hydrolysis of these compounds drives a reaction forward. High energy molecules, such as ATP, have three phosphates. Often, the terminal phosphate is split off during hydrolysis and transferred to another molecule.
Catalysts: these may be for example metal ions or coenzymes and they catalyze a reaction by increasing the rate of the reaction and lowering the activation energy.
In the sim
Document 2:::
The term amphibolic () is used to describe a biochemical pathway that involves both catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is a degradative phase of metabolism in which large molecules are converted into smaller and simpler molecules, which involves two types of reactions. First, hydrolysis reactions, in which catabolism is the breaking apart of molecules into smaller molecules to release energy. Examples of catabolic reactions are digestion and cellular respiration, where sugars and fats are broken down for energy. Breaking down a protein into amino acids, or a triglyceride into fatty acids, or a disaccharide into monosaccharides are all hydrolysis or catabolic reactions. Second, oxidation reactions involve the removal of hydrogens and electrons from an organic molecule. Anabolism is the biosynthesis phase of metabolism in which smaller simple precursors are converted to large and complex molecules of the cell. Anabolism has two classes of reactions. The first are dehydration synthesis reactions; these involve the joining of smaller molecules together to form larger, more complex molecules. These include the formation of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. The second are reduction reactions, in which hydrogens and electrons are added to a molecule. Whenever that is done, molecules gain energy.
The term amphibolic was proposed by B. Davis in 1961 to emphasise the dual metabolic role of such pathways. These pathways are considered to be central metabolic pathways which provide, from catabolic sequences, the intermediates which form the substrate of the metabolic processes.
Reactions exist as amphibolic pathway
All the reactions associated with synthesis of biomolecule converge into the following pathway, viz., glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain, exist as an amphibolic pathway, meaning that they can function anabolically as well as catabolically.
Other important amphibolic pathways are the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, the pentos
Document 3:::
Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis which allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs, as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, which is the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena.
Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, bonding, functions, and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. They provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends upon the reactions of small molecules and ions. These can be inorganic (for example, water and metal ions) or organic (for example, the amino acids, which are used to synthesize proteins). The mechanisms used by cells to harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases. Nutrition studies how to maintain health and wellness and also the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, with the goal of improving crop cultivation, crop storage, and pest control. In recent decades, biochemical principles a
Document 4:::
This is a list of articles that describe particular biomolecules or types of biomolecules.
A
For substances with an A- or α- prefix such as
α-amylase, please see the parent page (in this case Amylase).
A23187 (Calcimycin, Calcium Ionophore)
Abamectine
Abietic acid
Acetic acid
Acetylcholine
Actin
Actinomycin D
Adenine
Adenosmeme
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Adenylate cyclase
Adiponectin
Adonitol
Adrenaline, epinephrine
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Aequorin
Aflatoxin
Agar
Alamethicin
Alanine
Albumins
Aldosterone
Aleurone
Alpha-amanitin
Alpha-MSH (Melaninocyte stimulating hormone)
Allantoin
Allethrin
α-Amanatin, see Alpha-amanitin
Amino acid
Amylase (also see α-amylase)
Anabolic steroid
Anandamide (ANA)
Androgen
Anethole
Angiotensinogen
Anisomycin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH)
Arabinose
Arginine
Argonaute
Ascomycin
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
Asparagine
Aspartic acid
Asymmetric dimethylarginine
ATP synthase
Atrial-natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Auxin
Avidin
Azadirachtin A – C35H44O16
B
Bacteriocin
Beauvericin
beta-Hydroxy beta-methylbutyric acid
beta-Hydroxybutyric acid
Bicuculline
Bilirubin
Biopolymer
Biotin (Vitamin H)
Brefeldin A
Brassinolide
Brucine
Butyric acid
C
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Metabolism includes both anabolic and which other reaction?
A. biogenic
B. catabolic
C. enzymatic
D. organic
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8830
|
multiple_choice
|
Electric current is measured in coulombs per second, also called what?
|
[
"joules",
"voltages",
"watts",
"amperes"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams.
Course content
E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are:
Electrostatics
Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics
Electric circuits
Magnetic fields
Electromagnetism.
Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class.
AP test
The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution.
Registration
The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test.
Format
The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
There are four Advanced Placement (AP) Physics courses administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program: the algebra-based Physics 1 and Physics 2 and the calculus-based Physics C: Mechanics and Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. All are intended to be at the college level. Each AP Physics course has an exam for which high-performing students may receive credit toward their college coursework.
AP Physics 1 and 2
AP Physics 1 and AP Physics 2 were introduced in 2015, replacing AP Physics B. The courses were designed to emphasize critical thinking and reasoning as well as learning through inquiry. They are algebra-based and do not require any calculus knowledge.
AP Physics 1
AP Physics 1 covers Newtonian mechanics, including:
Unit 1: Kinematics
Unit 2: Dynamics
Unit 3: Circular Motion and Gravitation
Unit 4: Energy
Unit 5: Momentum
Unit 6: Simple Harmonic Motion
Unit 7: Torque and Rotational Motion
Until 2020, the course also covered topics in electricity (including Coulomb's Law and resistive DC circuits), mechanical waves, and sound. These units were removed because they are included in AP Physics 2.
AP Physics 2
AP Physics 2 covers the following topics:
Unit 1: Fluids
Unit 2: Thermodynamics
Unit 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential
Unit 4: Electric Circuits
Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction
Unit 6: Geometric and Physical Optics
Unit 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics
AP Physics C
From 1969 to 1972, AP Physics C was a single course with a single exam that covered all standard introductory university physics topics, including mechanics, fluids, electricity and magnetism, optics, and modern physics. In 1973, the College Board split the course into AP Physics C: Mechanics and AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. The exam was also split into two separate 90-minute tests, each equivalent to a semester-length calculus-based college course. Until 2006, both exams could be taken for a single
Document 3:::
In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH.
Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid.
Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model.
Motivation
Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate
What the student can do and
What the student is ready to learn.
Model structure
Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of
Document 4:::
Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations.
Academic courses
Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism.
Example universities with CSE majors and departments
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
American International University-B
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Electric current is measured in coulombs per second, also called what?
A. joules
B. voltages
C. watts
D. amperes
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3770
|
multiple_choice
|
Transforming from a caterpillar to a butterfly requires a lot of what?
|
[
"food",
"fuel",
"Water",
"energy"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
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Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.
The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development.
Current status of girls and women in STEM education
Overall trends in STEM education
Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle.
Learning achievement in STEM education
Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and
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The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Network or STEMNET is an educational charity in the United Kingdom that seeks to encourage participation at school and college in science and engineering-related subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and (eventually) work.
History
It is based at Woolgate Exchange near Moorgate tube station in London and was established in 1996. The chief executive is Kirsten Bodley. The STEMNET offices are housed within the Engineering Council.
Function
Its chief aim is to interest children in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Primary school children can start to have an interest in these subjects, leading secondary school pupils to choose science A levels, which will lead to a science career. It supports the After School Science and Engineering Clubs at schools. There are also nine regional Science Learning Centres.
STEM ambassadors
To promote STEM subjects and encourage young people to take up jobs in these areas, STEMNET have around 30,000 ambassadors across the UK. these come from a wide selection of the STEM industries and include TV personalities like Rob Bell.
Funding
STEMNET used to receive funding from the Department for Education and Skills. Since June 2007, it receives funding from the Department for Children, Schools and Families and Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills, since STEMNET sits on the chronological dividing point (age 16) of both of the new departments.
See also
The WISE Campaign
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
National Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics
Association for Science Education
Glossary of areas of mathematics
Glossary of astronomy
Glossary of biology
Glossary of chemistry
Glossary of engineering
Glossary of physics
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The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
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Tech City College (Formerly STEM Academy) is a free school sixth form located in the Islington area of the London Borough of Islington, England.
It originally opened in September 2013, as STEM Academy Tech City and specialised in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) and the Creative Application of Maths and Science. In September 2015, STEM Academy joined the Aspirations Academy Trust was renamed Tech City College. Tech City College offers A-levels and BTECs as programmes of study for students.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Transforming from a caterpillar to a butterfly requires a lot of what?
A. food
B. fuel
C. Water
D. energy
Answer:
|
|
sciq-3479
|
multiple_choice
|
Which state of matter is characterized by molecules with minimal movement and strong forces between them?
|
[
"gas",
"liquid",
"solid",
"plasma"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a nearly constant volume independent of pressure. It is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, gas, and plasma), and is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape.
The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than that of a gas. Therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, they are both called fluids.
A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, held together by intermolecular bonds. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Unlike a gas, a liquid maintains a fairly constant density and does not disperse to fill every space of a container.
Although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is either gas (as interstellar clouds) or plasma (as stars).
Introduction
Liquid is one of the four primary states of matter, with the others being solid, gas and plasma. A liquid is a fluid. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a much greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, allowing a liquid to flow while a solid remains rigid.
A liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, and, if placed in a sealed container, will distribute applied pressure evenly to every surface in the container. If liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. Unlike a gas, a liquid is nearly incompressible, meaning that it occupies nearly a constant volume over a wide range of pressures; it does not generally expand to fill available space in a containe
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States of matter are distinguished by changes in the properties of matter associated with external factors like pressure and temperature. States are usually distinguished by a discontinuity in one of those properties: for example, raising the temperature of ice produces a discontinuity at 0°C, as energy goes into a phase transition, rather than temperature increase. The three classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. In the 20th century, however, increased understanding of the more exotic properties of matter resulted in the identification of many additional states of matter, none of which are observed in normal conditions.
Low-energy states of matter
Classical states
Solid: A solid holds a definite shape and volume without a container. The particles are held very close to each other.
Amorphous solid: A solid in which there is no far-range order of the positions of the atoms.
Crystalline solid: A solid in which atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in regular order.
Plastic crystal: A molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom.
Quasicrystal: A solid in which the positions of the atoms have long-range order, but this is not in a repeating pattern.
Liquid: A mostly non-compressible fluid. Able to conform to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure.
Liquid crystal: Properties intermediate between liquids and crystals. Generally, able to flow like a liquid but exhibiting long-range order.
Gas: A compressible fluid. Not only will a gas take the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the container.
Modern states
Plasma: Free charged particles, usually in equal numbers, such as ions and electrons. Unlike gases, plasma may self-generate magnetic fields and electric currents and respond strongly and collectively to electromagnetic forces. Plasma is very uncommon on Earth (except for the ionosphere), although it is the mo
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In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in everyday as well as scientific usage, matter generally includes atoms and anything made up of them, and any particles (or combination of particles) that act as if they have both rest mass and volume. However it does not include massless particles such as photons, or other energy phenomena or waves such as light or heat. Matter exists in various states (also known as phases). These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid, and gas – for example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam – but other states are possible, including plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.
Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding "cloud" of orbiting electrons which "take up space". However this is only somewhat correct, because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like waves as well as particles, and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms are quantum entities which do not have an inherent "size" or "volume" in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some "point particles" known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea tha
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In physics, ultradivided matter is a family of states of matter characterised by a heterogeneous mixture of two or more different materials, where the interaction energy between the suspended phase is larger than kT. The term 'ultradivided matter' encapsulates several types of substance including: soap micelles, emulsions, and suspensions of solids such as colloids.).
An ultradivided state differs from a solution. In a steady-state solution, all interactions between a solution's constituent molecules are on the order of the thermal energy kT. Thus any otherwise aggregative force between similar molecules in a solution is subordinate to thermal fluctuations, and the solution does allow flocculation of one of the constituent components. Ultradivided matter, however, is characterised by large interfacial energies where the intermolecular interactions of one or more constituents of the substance are stronger than kT. This leads to different behaviour. An intuitive example of this can be seen in the tendency of a biphasic mixture of water (a polar liquid) and oil (a non-polar liquid) to spontaneously separate into two phases. This may seem to imply a change from a state with higher disorder or higher entropy (a suspension of oil droplets in water) to a lower-entropy arrangement (a neat separation into two regions of different material). Such a transition would seem to violate the second law of thermodynamics, which is impossible. The resolution to this apparent paradox is that the interface between oil and water necessitates an ordered alignment of oil and water molecules at the interface. Minimisation of the surface area between the two phases thus correlates with an increase of the entropy of the system. The highest entropy state thus has a minimum interfacial surface area between the two phases and thus a neat separation is created, into two regions of different material.
See also
Colloid
Document 4:::
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. The others are solid, liquid, and plasma.
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture, such as air, contains a variety of pure gases. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer.
The gaseous state of matter occurs between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper-temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention.
High-density atomic gases super-cooled to very low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either Bose gases or Fermi gases. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter.
Elemental gases
The only chemical elements that are stable diatomic homonuclear molecular gases at STP are hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and two halogens: fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2). When grouped with the monatomic noble gases – helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) – these gases are referred to as "elemental gases".
Etymology
The word gas was first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van Helmont. He identified carbon dioxide, the first known gas other than air. Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Ancient Greek word – the g in Dutch being pronounced like ch in "loch" (voiceless velar fricative, ) – in which case Van Helmont was simply following the established alchemical usage first attested in the works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like .
An alternative st
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Which state of matter is characterized by molecules with minimal movement and strong forces between them?
A. gas
B. liquid
C. solid
D. plasma
Answer:
|
|
sciq-11052
|
multiple_choice
|
Salts of weak acids or bases can affect the acidity or what of their aqueous solution?
|
[
"atomicity",
"basicity",
"ductility",
"compound"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
In chemistry and biochemistry, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
relates the pH of a chemical solution of a weak acid to the numerical value of the acid dissociation constant, Ka, of acid and the ratio of the concentrations, of the acid and its conjugate base in an equilibrium.
For example, the acid may be acetic acid
The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation can be used to estimate the pH of a buffer solution by approximating the actual concentration ratio as the ratio of the analytical concentrations of the acid and of a salt, MA.
The equation can also be applied to bases by specifying the protonated form of the base as the acid. For example, with an amine,
Derivation, assumptions and limitations
A simple buffer solution consists of a solution of an acid and a salt of the conjugate base of the acid. For example, the acid may be acetic acid and the salt may be sodium acetate.
The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation relates the pH of a solution containing a mixture of the two components to the acid dissociation constant, Ka of the acid, and the concentrations of the species in solution.
To derive the equation a number of simplifying assumptions have to be made. (pdf)
Assumption 1: The acid, HA, is monobasic and dissociates according to the equations
CA is the analytical concentration of the acid and CH is the concentration the hydrogen ion that has been added to the solution. The self-dissociation of water is ignored. A quantity in square brackets, [X], represents the concentration of the chemical substance X. It is understood that the symbol H+ stands for the hydrated hydronium ion. Ka is an acid dissociation constant.
The Henderson–Hasselbalch equation can be applied to a polybasic acid only if its consecutive pK values differ by at least 3. Phosphoric acid is such an acid.
Assumption 2. The self-ionization of water can be ignored.
This assumption is not, strictly speaking, valid with pH values close to 7, half the value of pKw, the constant for self-ioniz
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In chemistry, solvent effects are the influence of a solvent on chemical reactivity or molecular associations. Solvents can have an effect on solubility, stability and reaction rates and choosing the appropriate solvent allows for thermodynamic and kinetic control over a chemical reaction.
A solute dissolves in a solvent when solvent-solute interactions are more favorable than solute-solute interaction.
Effects on stability
Different solvents can affect the equilibrium constant of a reaction by differential stabilization of the reactant or product. The equilibrium is shifted in the direction of the substance that is preferentially stabilized.
Stabilization of the reactant or product can occur through any of the different non-covalent interactions with the solvent such as H-bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, van der Waals interactions etc.
Acid-base equilibria
The ionization equilibrium of an acid or a base is affected by a solvent change. The effect of the solvent is not only because of its acidity or basicity but also because of its dielectric constant and its ability to preferentially solvate and thus stabilize certain species in acid-base equilibria. A change in the solvating ability or dielectric constant can thus influence the acidity or basicity.
In the table above, it can be seen that water is the most polar-solvent, followed by DMSO, and then acetonitrile. Consider the following acid dissociation equilibrium:
HA A− + H+
Water, being the most polar-solvent listed above, stabilizes the ionized species to a greater extent than does DMSO or Acetonitrile. Ionization - and, thus, acidity - would be greatest in water and lesser in DMSO and Acetonitrile, as seen in the table below, which shows pKa values at 25 °C for acetonitrile (ACN) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and water.
Keto–enol equilibria
Many carbonyl compounds exhibit keto–enol tautomerism. This effect is especially pronounced in 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds that can form hydrogen-bonded enols. The e
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A buffer solution (more precisely, pH buffer or hydrogen ion buffer) is an acid or a base aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or vice versa. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. In nature, there are many living systems that use buffering for pH regulation. For example, the bicarbonate buffering system is used to regulate the pH of blood, and bicarbonate also acts as a buffer in the ocean.
Principles of buffering
Buffer solutions resist pH change because of a chemical equilibrium between the weak acid HA and its conjugate base A−:
When some strong acid is added to an equilibrium mixture of the weak acid and its conjugate base, hydrogen ions (H+) are added, and the equilibrium is shifted to the left, in accordance with Le Chatelier's principle. Because of this, the hydrogen ion concentration increases by less than the amount expected for the quantity of strong acid added.
Similarly, if strong alkali is added to the mixture, the hydrogen ion concentration decreases by less than the amount expected for the quantity of alkali added. In Figure 1, the effect is illustrated by the simulated titration of a weak acid with pKa = 4.7. The relative concentration of undissociated acid is shown in blue, and of its conjugate base in red. The pH changes relatively slowly in the buffer region, pH = pKa ± 1, centered at pH = 4.7, where [HA] = [A−]. The hydrogen ion concentration decreases by less than the amount expected because most of the added hydroxide ion is consumed in the reaction
and only a little is consumed in the neutralization reaction (which is the reaction that results in an increase in pH)
Once the acid is more than 95% deprotonated, the pH rises rapidly because most of the added alkali is consumed in the neutralization reaction.
Buffer capacity
Buffer
Document 3:::
In chemistry, an acid dissociation constant (also known as acidity constant, or acid-ionization constant; denoted ) is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction
HA <=> A^- + H^+
known as dissociation in the context of acid–base reactions. The chemical species HA is an acid that dissociates into , the conjugate base of the acid and a hydrogen ion, . The system is said to be in equilibrium when the concentrations of its components will not change over time, because both forward and backward reactions are occurring at the same rate.
The dissociation constant is defined by
or
where quantities in square brackets represent the concentrations of the species at equilibrium. As a simple example for a weak acid with Ka = 10−5, log Ka is the exponent which is -5, so that pKa = 5. And for acetic acid with Ka = 1.8 x 10−5, pKa is close to 5. A higher Ka corresponds to a stronger acid which is more dissociated at equilibrium. For the more convenient logarithmic scale, a lower pKa means a stronger acid.
Theoretical background
The acid dissociation constant for an acid is a direct consequence of the underlying thermodynamics of the dissociation reaction; the pKa value is directly proportional to the standard Gibbs free energy change for the reaction. The value of the pKa changes with temperature and can be understood qualitatively based on Le Châtelier's principle: when the reaction is endothermic, Ka increases and pKa decreases with increasing temperature; the opposite is true for exothermic reactions.
The value of pKa also depends on molecular structure of the acid in many ways. For example, Pauling proposed two rules: one for successive pKa of polyprotic acids (see Polyprotic acids below), and one to estimate the pKa of oxyacids based on the number of =O and −OH groups (see Factors that affect pKa values below). Other structural factors that influence the magnitude of the acid dissociation constan
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An ICE table or RICE box or RICE chart is a tabular system of keeping track of changing concentrations in an equilibrium reaction. ICE stands for initial, change, equilibrium. It is used in chemistry to keep track of the changes in amount of substance of the reactants and also organize a set of conditions that one wants to solve with. Some sources refer to a RICE table (or box or chart) where the added R stands for the reaction to which the table refers. Others simply call it a concentration table (for the acid–base equilibrium).
Example
To illustrate the processes, consider the case of dissolving a weak acid, HA, in water. The pH can be calculated using an ICE table. Note that in this example, we are assuming that the acid is not very weak, and that the concentration is not very dilute, so that the concentration of [OH−] ions can be neglected. This is equivalent to the assumption that the final pH will be below about 6 or so. See pH calculations for more details.
First write down the equilibrium expression.
HA <=> {A^-} + {H+}
The columns of the table correspond to the three species in equilibrium.
The first row shows the reaction, which some authors label R and some leave blank.
The second row, labeled I, has the initial conditions: the nominal concentration of acid is Ca and it is initially undissociated, so the concentrations of A− and H+ are zero.
The third row, labeled C, specifies the change that occurs during the reaction. When the acid dissociates, its concentration changes by an amount , and the concentrations of A− and H+ both change by an amount . This follows from consideration of mass balance (the total number of each atom/molecule must remain the same) and charge balance (the sum of the electric charges before and after the reaction must be zero).
Note that the coefficients in front of the "x" correlate to the mole ratios of the reactants to the product. For example, if the reaction equation had 2 H+ ions in the product, then the "change"
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Salts of weak acids or bases can affect the acidity or what of their aqueous solution?
A. atomicity
B. basicity
C. ductility
D. compound
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8705
|
multiple_choice
|
The force that blood exerts upon the walls of the blood vessels or upon the chambers of the heart is known as blood what?
|
[
"squeeze",
"vaccuum",
"pressure",
"push"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Compliance is the ability of a hollow organ (vessel) to distend and increase volume with increasing transmural pressure or the tendency of a hollow organ to resist recoil toward its original dimensions on application of a distending or compressing force. It is the reciprocal of "elastance", hence elastance is a measure of the tendency of a hollow organ to recoil toward its original dimensions upon removal of a distending or compressing force.
Blood vessels
The terms elastance and compliance are of particular significance in cardiovascular physiology and respiratory physiology. In compliance, an increase in volume occurs in a vessel when the pressure in that vessel is increased. The tendency of the arteries and veins to stretch in response to pressure has a large effect on perfusion and blood pressure. This physically means that blood vessels with a higher compliance deform easier than lower compliance blood vessels under the same pressure and volume conditions.
Venous compliance is approximately 30 times larger than arterial compliance.
Compliance is calculated using the following equation, where ΔV is the change in volume (mL), and ΔP is the change in pressure (mmHg):
Physiologic compliance is generally in agreement with the above and adds dP/dt as a common academic physiologic measurement of both pulmonary and cardiac tissues. Adaptation of equations initially applied to rubber and latex allow modeling of the dynamics of pulmonary and cardiac tissue compliance.
Veins have a much higher compliance than arteries (largely due to their thinner walls.) Veins which are abnormally compliant can be associated with edema. Pressure stockings are sometimes used to externally reduce compliance, and thus keep blood from pooling in the legs.
Vasodilation and vasoconstriction are complex phenomena; they are functions not merely of the fluid mechanics of pressure and tissue elasticity but also of active homeostatic regulation with hormones and cell signaling, in which
Document 1:::
Hemodynamics or haemodynamics are the dynamics of blood flow. The circulatory system is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms of autoregulation, just as hydraulic circuits are controlled by control systems. The hemodynamic response continuously monitors and adjusts to conditions in the body and its environment. Hemodynamics explains the physical laws that govern the flow of blood in the blood vessels.
Blood flow ensures the transportation of nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide throughout the body to maintain cell-level metabolism, the regulation of the pH, osmotic pressure and temperature of the whole body, and the protection from microbial and mechanical harm.
Blood is a non-Newtonian fluid, and is most efficiently studied using rheology rather than hydrodynamics. Because blood vessels are not rigid tubes, classic hydrodynamics and fluids mechanics based on the use of classical viscometers are not capable of explaining haemodynamics.
The study of the blood flow is called hemodynamics, and the study of the properties of the blood flow is called hemorheology.
Blood
Blood is a complex liquid. Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements. The plasma contains 91.5% water, 7% proteins and 1.5% other solutes. The formed elements are platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells. The presence of these formed elements and their interaction with plasma molecules are the main reasons why blood differs so much from ideal Newtonian fluids.
Viscosity of plasma
Normal blood plasma behaves like a Newtonian fluid at physiological rates of shear. Typical values for the viscosity of normal human plasma at 37 °C is 1.4 mN·s/m2. The viscosity of normal plasma varies with temperature in the same way as does that of its solvent water; a 5 °C increase of temperature in the physiological range reduces plasma viscosity by about 10%.
Osmotic pressure of plasma
The osmotic pressure of solution is determined by the number of particles present
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The blood circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart and blood vessels (from Greek kardia meaning heart, and from Latin vascula meaning vessels). The circulatory system has two divisions, a systemic circulation or circuit, and a pulmonary circulation or circuit. Some sources use the terms cardiovascular system and vascular system interchangeably with the circulatory system.
The network of blood vessels are the great vessels of the heart including large elastic arteries, and large veins; other arteries, smaller arterioles, capillaries that join with venules (small veins), and other veins. The circulatory system is closed in vertebrates, which means that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. Some invertebrates such as arthropods have an open circulatory system. Diploblasts such as sponges, and comb jellies lack a circulatory system.
Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets; it is circulated around the body carrying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and collecting and disposing of waste materials. Circulated nutrients include proteins and minerals and other components include hemoglobin, hormones, and gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. These substances provide nourishment, help the immune system to fight diseases, and help maintain homeostasis by stabilizing temperature and natural pH.
In vertebrates, the lymphatic system is complementary to the circulatory system. The lymphatic system carries excess plasma (filtered from the circulatory system capillaries as interstitial fluid between cells) away from the body tissues via accessory routes that return excess fluid back to blood circulation as lymph. The lymphatic system is a subsystem that is essential for the functioning of the bloo
Document 3:::
In biomechanics, the Moens–Korteweg equation models the relationship between wave speed or pulse wave velocity (PWV) and the incremental elastic modulus of the arterial wall or its distensibility. The equation was derived independently by Adriaan Isebree Moens and Diederik Korteweg. It is derived from Newton's second law of motion, using some simplifying assumptions, and reads:
The Moens–Korteweg equation states that PWV is proportional to the square root of the incremental elastic modulus, (Einc), of the vessel wall given constant ratio of wall thickness, h, to vessel radius, r, and blood density, ρ, assuming that the artery wall is isotropic and experiences isovolumetric change with pulse pressure.
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Afterload is the pressure that the heart must work against to eject blood during systole (ventricular contraction). Afterload is proportional to the average arterial pressure. As aortic and pulmonary pressures increase, the afterload increases on the left and right ventricles respectively. Afterload changes to adapt to the continually changing demands on an animal's cardiovascular system. Afterload is proportional to mean systolic blood pressure and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
Hemodynamics
Afterload is a determinant of cardiac output. Cardiac output is the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Afterload is a determinant of stroke volume (in addition to preload, and strength of myocardial contraction).
Following Laplace's law, the tension upon the muscle fibers in the heart wall is the pressure within the ventricle multiplied by the volume within the ventricle divided by the wall thickness (this ratio is the other factor in setting the afterload). Therefore, when comparing a normal heart to a heart with a dilated left ventricle, if the aortic pressure is the same in both hearts, the dilated heart must create a greater tension to overcome the same aortic pressure to eject blood because it has a larger internal radius and volume. Thus, the dilated heart has a greater total load (tension) on the myocytes, i.e., has a higher afterload. This is also true in the eccentric hypertrophy consequent to high-intensity aerobic training. Conversely, a concentrically hypertrophied left ventricle may have a lower afterload for a given aortic pressure. When contractility becomes impaired and the ventricle dilates, the afterload rises and limits output. This may start a vicious circle, in which cardiac output is reduced as oxygen requirements are increased.
Afterload can also be described as the pressure that the chambers of the heart must generate to eject blood from the heart, and this is a consequence of aortic pressure (for the left ventricle) and pul
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The force that blood exerts upon the walls of the blood vessels or upon the chambers of the heart is known as blood what?
A. squeeze
B. vaccuum
C. pressure
D. push
Answer:
|
|
sciq-5167
|
multiple_choice
|
What are materials that have a low resistance to electrical current called?
|
[
"electrical conductors",
"resistors",
"fast conductors",
"electrons"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the flow of electric current. Its reciprocal quantity is , measuring the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S) (formerly called the 'mho' and then represented by ).
The resistance of an object depends in large part on the material it is made of. Objects made of electrical insulators like rubber tend to have very high resistance and low conductance, while objects made of electrical conductors like metals tend to have very low resistance and high conductance. This relationship is quantified by resistivity or conductivity. The nature of a material is not the only factor in resistance and conductance, however; it also depends on the size and shape of an object because these properties are extensive rather than intensive. For example, a wire's resistance is higher if it is long and thin, and lower if it is short and thick. All objects resist electrical current, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it to current through it, while the conductance is the reciprocal:
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, and are directly proportional to each other, and therefore and are constants (although they will depend on the size and shape of the object, the material it is made of, and other factors like temperature or strain). This proportionality is called Ohm's law, and materials that satisfy it are called ohmic materials.
In other cases, such as a transformer, diode or battery, and are not directly proportional. The ratio is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a chordal resistance or static resistance, since it corresponds to the inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an – curve. In
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams.
Course content
E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are:
Electrostatics
Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics
Electric circuits
Magnetic fields
Electromagnetism.
Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class.
AP test
The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution.
Registration
The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test.
Format
The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with
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Electrical resistivity
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Sheet resistance, is the resistance of a square piece of a thin material with contacts made to two opposite sides of the square. It is usually a measurement of electrical resistance of thin films that are uniform in thickness. It is commonly used to characterize materials made by semiconductor doping, metal deposition, resistive paste printing, and glass coating. Examples of these processes are: doped semiconductor regions (e.g., silicon or polysilicon), and the resistors that are screen printed onto the substrates of thick-film hybrid microcircuits.
The utility of sheet resistance as opposed to resistance or resistivity is that it is directly measured using a four-terminal sensing measurement (also known as a four-point probe measurement) or indirectly by using a non-contact eddy-current-based testing device. Sheet resistance is invariable under scaling of the film contact and therefore can be used to compare the electrical properties of devices that are significantly different in size.
Calculations
Sheet resistance is applicable to two-dimensional systems in which thin films are considered two-dimensional entities. When the term sheet resistance is used, it is implied that the current is along the plane of the sheet, not perpendicular to it.
In a regular three-dimensional conductor, the resistance can be written as
where
is material resistivity,
is the length,
is the cross-sectional area, which can be split into:
width ,
thickness .
Upon combining the resistivity with the thickness, the resistance can then be written as
where is the sheet resistance. If the film thickness is known, the bulk resistivity (in Ω·m) can be calculated by multiplying the sheet resistance by the film thickness in m:
Units
Sheet resistance is a special case of resistivity for a uniform sheet thickness. Commonly, resistivity (also known as bulk resistivity, specific electrical resistivity, or volume resistivity) is in units of Ω·m, which is more completely stated in un
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What are materials that have a low resistance to electrical current called?
A. electrical conductors
B. resistors
C. fast conductors
D. electrons
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9616
|
multiple_choice
|
Where do polychaete worms live?
|
[
"the ocean floor",
"garden soil",
"lakes",
"digestive tract"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses. Today, courses available look at a broader area, including companion animals, like dogs and cats, and many exotic species. Degrees in Animal Science are offered at a number of colleges and universities. Animal science degrees are often offered at land-grant universities, which will often have on-campus farms to give students hands-on experience with livestock animals.
Education
Professional education in animal science prepares students for careers in areas such as animal breeding, food and fiber production, nutrition, animal agribusiness, animal behavior, and welfare. Courses in a typical Animal Science program may include genetics, microbiology, animal behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Courses in support areas, such as genetics, soils, agricultural economics and marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are offered.
Bachelor degree
At many universities, a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in Animal Science allows emphasis in certain areas. Typical areas are species-specific or career-specific. Species-specific areas of emphasis prepare students for a career in dairy management, beef management, swine management, sheep or small ruminant management, poultry production, or the horse industry. Other career-specific areas of study include pre-veterinary medicine studies, livestock business and marketing, animal welfare and behavior, animal nutrition science, animal reproduction science, or genetics. Youth programs are also an important part of animal science programs.
Pre-veterinary emphasis
Many schools that offer a degree option in Animal Science also offer a pre-veterinary emphasis such as Iowa State University, th
Document 1:::
Endoparasites
Protozoan organisms
Helminths (worms)
Helminth organisms (also called helminths or intestinal worms) include:
Tapeworms
Flukes
Roundworms
Other organisms
Ectoparasites
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Konstanty Stanisław Janicki (November 16, 1876 – October 25, 1932) was a Polish zoologist who specialized in parasitology. An influential teacher and professor at the University of Warsaw, he is considered as the founder of parasitology research in Poland.
Biography
Janicki was born in Moscow. His mother Emilia née Pellizzaro was of Italian origin and his father Stanisław was a noted engineer. After graduating from the Wojciech Górski Real School in Warsaw he went to Lepzig in 1894 and graduated in the natural sciences in 1898. He was influenced by Rudolf Leuckart. He then went to Freiburg im Breisgau and attended the lectures of August Weismann. In 1901 he worked in Basel under Friedrich Zschokke on tapeworms and received a doctorate in 1906. In 1908 he worked in Rome under Giovanni Battista Grassi. From 1911 he worked in Basel examining development in the Cestodes. He became a professor of zoology in 1919 at the University of Warsaw. With Feliks Rosen he studied the life cycle of Diphyllobothrium latum. They suggested that copepods carried an intermediate stage. He also studied stages of parasites in fish, travelling twice to the Volga to examine the tapeworms of sturgeon (Amphilina foliacea) suggesting that they developed by neoteny. He studied the life history of Cystopsis acipenseri along with Karel Rašin. He also began to study protozoan parasites and described what he called the parabasal apparatus.
Major works
Janicki's influential publications included:
Janicki C., 1908. Contribuzione alla conesceza di alcuni protozoi parassiti della Periplaneta ortientalis (Lophomonas blattarum Stein: L. striata Butschli; Amoeba blattae Butschli). Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei, Rendiconti delle Classe di Scienze Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali, Roma 17, 140–151.
Janicki C., 1909. Uber Kern und Kernteilung bei Entamoeba blattae Butschli. Biologisches Centrablatt 29, 381–393.
Janicki C., 1910. Untersuchungen an parasitichen Flagellaten. I. Lophomonas blattarum
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A polyp in zoology is one of two forms found in the phylum Cnidaria, the other being the medusa. Polyps are roughly cylindrical in shape and elongated at the axis of the vase-shaped body. In solitary polyps, the aboral (opposite to oral) end is attached to the substrate by means of a disc-like holdfast called a pedal disc, while in colonies of polyps it is connected to other polyps, either directly or indirectly. The oral end contains the mouth, and is surrounded by a circlet of tentacles.
Classes
In the class Anthozoa, comprising the sea anemones and corals, the individual is always a polyp; in the class Hydrozoa, however, the individual may be either a polyp or a medusa, with most species undergoing a life cycle with both a polyp stage and a medusa stage. In class Scyphozoa, the medusa stage is dominant, and the polyp stage may or may not be present, depending on the family. In those scyphozoans that have the larval planula metamorphose into a polyp, the polyp, also called a "scyphistoma," grows until it develops a stack of plate-like medusae that pinch off and swim away in a process known as strobilation. Once strobilation is complete, the polyp may die, or regenerate itself to repeat the process again later. With Cubozoans, the planula settles onto a suitable surface, and develops into a polyp. The cubozoan polyp then eventually metamorphoses directly into a Medusa.
Anatomy
The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a sac, the wall of which is composed of two layers of cells. The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm, the inner layer as the endoderm (or gastroderm). Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of structureless gelatinous substance termed mesoglea, secreted by the cell layers of the body wall. The mesoglea can be thinner than the endoderm or ectoderm or comprise the bulk of the body as in larger jellyfish. The mesoglea can contain skeletal elements derived from cells migrated from ectoderm.
Th
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Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research.
Americas
Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970)
Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government.
Human and Social Biology (Caribbean)
Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment.
Human Biology Program at University of Toronto
The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications.
Asia
BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002)
BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Where do polychaete worms live?
A. the ocean floor
B. garden soil
C. lakes
D. digestive tract
Answer:
|
|
sciq-1059
|
multiple_choice
|
A switch in a circuit controls the flow of what, specifically, within the circuit?
|
[
"resistance",
"density",
"current",
"pressure"
] |
C
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 1:::
Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics.
Mathematics in electronics
Electronics engineering careers usually include courses in calculus (single and multivariable), complex analysis, differential equations (both ordinary and partial), linear algebra and probability. Fourier analysis and Z-transforms are also subjects which are usually included in electrical engineering programs. Laplace transform can simplify computing RLC circuit behaviour.
Basic applications
A number of electrical laws apply to all electrical networks. These include
Faraday's law of induction: Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil.
Gauss's Law: The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.
Kirchhoff's current law: the sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the sum of all currents leaving the node or the sum of total current at a junction is zero
Kirchhoff's voltage law: the directed sum of the electrical potential differences around a circuit must be zero.
Ohm's law: the voltage across a resistor is the product of its resistance and the current flowing through it.at constant temperature.
Norton's theorem: any two-terminal collection of voltage sources and resistors is electrically equivalent to an ideal current source in parallel with a single resistor.
Thévenin's theorem: any two-terminal combination of voltage sources and resistors is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source in series with a single resistor.
Millman's theorem: the voltage on the ends of branches in parallel is equal to the sum of the currents flowing in every branch divided by the total equivalent conductance.
See also Analysis of resistive circuits.
Circuit analysis is the study of methods to solve linear systems for an unknown variable.
Circuit analysis
Components
There are many electronic components currently used and they all have thei
Document 2:::
In electrical engineering, electrical terms are associated into pairs called duals. A dual of a relationship is formed by interchanging voltage and current in an expression. The dual expression thus produced is of the same form, and the reason that the dual is always a valid statement can be traced to the duality of electricity and magnetism.
Here is a partial list of electrical dualities:
voltage – current
parallel – serial (circuits)
resistance – conductance
voltage division – current division
impedance – admittance
capacitance – inductance
reactance – susceptance
short circuit – open circuit
Kirchhoff's current law – Kirchhoff's voltage law.
Thévenin's theorem – Norton's theorem
History
The use of duality in circuit theory is due to Alexander Russell who published his ideas in 1904.
Examples
Constitutive relations
Resistor and conductor (Ohm's law)
Capacitor and inductor – differential form
Capacitor and inductor – integral form
Voltage division — current division
Impedance and admittance
Resistor and conductor
Capacitor and inductor
See also
Duality (electricity and magnetism)
Duality (mechanical engineering)
Dual impedance
Dual graph
Mechanical–electrical analogies
List of dualities
Document 3:::
Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations.
Academic courses
Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism.
Example universities with CSE majors and departments
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
American International University-B
Document 4:::
This is a list of topics that are included in high school physics curricula or textbooks.
Mathematical Background
SI Units
Scalar (physics)
Euclidean vector
Motion graphs and derivatives
Pythagorean theorem
Trigonometry
Motion and forces
Motion
Force
Linear motion
Linear motion
Displacement
Speed
Velocity
Acceleration
Center of mass
Mass
Momentum
Newton's laws of motion
Work (physics)
Free body diagram
Rotational motion
Angular momentum (Introduction)
Angular velocity
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force
Circular motion
Tangential velocity
Torque
Conservation of energy and momentum
Energy
Conservation of energy
Elastic collision
Inelastic collision
Inertia
Moment of inertia
Momentum
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Rotational energy
Electricity and magnetism
Ampère's circuital law
Capacitor
Coulomb's law
Diode
Direct current
Electric charge
Electric current
Alternating current
Electric field
Electric potential energy
Electron
Faraday's law of induction
Ion
Inductor
Joule heating
Lenz's law
Magnetic field
Ohm's law
Resistor
Transistor
Transformer
Voltage
Heat
Entropy
First law of thermodynamics
Heat
Heat transfer
Second law of thermodynamics
Temperature
Thermal energy
Thermodynamic cycle
Volume (thermodynamics)
Work (thermodynamics)
Waves
Wave
Longitudinal wave
Transverse waves
Transverse wave
Standing Waves
Wavelength
Frequency
Light
Light ray
Speed of light
Sound
Speed of sound
Radio waves
Harmonic oscillator
Hooke's law
Reflection
Refraction
Snell's law
Refractive index
Total internal reflection
Diffraction
Interference (wave propagation)
Polarization (waves)
Vibrating string
Doppler effect
Gravity
Gravitational potential
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newtonian constant of gravitation
See also
Outline of physics
Physics education
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
A switch in a circuit controls the flow of what, specifically, within the circuit?
A. resistance
B. density
C. current
D. pressure
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8644
|
multiple_choice
|
What make us sick when they become human parasites?
|
[
"larvae",
"protozoa",
"detritus",
"viruses"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology.
Fields
The study of these diverse organisms means that the subject is often broken up into simpler, more focused units, which use common techniques, even if they are not studying the same organisms or diseases. Much research in parasitology falls somewhere between two or more of these definitions. In general, the study of prokaryotes falls under the field of bacteriology rather than parasitology.
Medical
The parasitologist F. E. G. Cox noted that "Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived from our primate ancestors and some acquired from the animals we have domesticated or come in contact with during our relatively short history on Earth".
One of the largest fields in parasitology, medical parasitology is the subject that deals with the parasites that infect humans, the diseases caused by them, clinical picture and the response generated by humans against them. It is also concerned with the various methods of their diagnosis, treatment and finally their prevention & control.
A parasite is an organism that live on or within another organism called the host.
These include organisms such as:
Plasmodium spp., the protozoan parasite which causes malaria. The four species infective to humans are P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax and P. ovale.
Leishmania, unicellular organisms which cause leishmaniasis
Entamoeba and Giardia, which cause intestinal infections (dysentery and diarrhoea)
Multicellular organisms and intestinal worms (helminths) such as Schistosoma spp., Wuchereri
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Helminthology is the study of parasitic worms (helminths). The field studies the taxonomy of helminths and their effects on their hosts.
The origin of the first compound of the word is the Greek ἕλμινς - helmins, meaning "worm".
In the 18th and early 19th century there was wave of publications on helminthology; this period has been described as the science's "Golden Era". During that period the authors Félix Dujardin, William Blaxland Benham, Peter Simon Pallas, Marcus Elieser Bloch, Otto Friedrich Müller, Johann Goeze, Friedrich Zenker, Charles Wardell Stiles, Carl Asmund Rudolphi, Otto Friedrich Bernhard von Linstow
and Johann Gottfried Bremser started systematic scientific studies of the subject.
The Japanese parasitologist Satyu Yamaguti was one of the most active helminthologists of the 20th century; he wrote the six-volume Systema Helminthum.
See also
Nematology
Document 2:::
Founded in 1924, the American Society of Parasitologists comprises a diverse group of about 700 scientists from academia, industry, and government involved in the study and teaching of the scientific discipline of parasitology.
Society members contribute to the development of parasitology as a discipline, as well as to primary research in behavior, biochemistry, ecology, immunology, medicine, molecular biology, physiology, systematics, and other related fields of science.
Notable members of the society include William C. Campbell, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015.
The Mission of the American Society of Parasitologists is to constantly improve understanding of parasites, parasitic diseases, and parasitism on a global basis and to disseminate this knowledge worldwide. This mission is achieved by providing opportunities for all scientists to publish their original findings in the Society's bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal, the Journal of Parasitology., and to present and discuss new information at the Society's annual meeting, in the ASP's Newsletter, through the ASP's Public Advocacy Network, or in discussion groups on the internet. ASP aims to educate parasitologists via their Web Page and other educational media produced by the Society. To meet the goal of remaining a strong focus of scientific exchange across the broad discipline of parasitology, ASP actively seeks and supports new research areas and new members, and strives to retain current members, as well as encourage and support the continued existence of highly specialized areas of research in parasitology.
Recognizing that parasitism is the most common form of existence, and that parasites and the diseases they can cause affect the health, development, and evolution of free-living animals and plants, the American Society of Parasitologists seeks to foster the advancement of knowledge in all areas of parasitism. Understanding the value of this knowledge and the r
Document 3:::
Pathogen avoidance, also referred to as, parasite avoidance or pathogen disgust, refers to the theory that the disgust response, in humans, is an adaptive system that guides behavior to avoid infection caused by parasites such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, helminth worms, arthropods and social parasites. Pathogen avoidance is a psychological mechanism associated with the behavioral immune system. Pathogen avoidance has been discussed as one of the three domains of disgust which also include sexual and moral disgust.
Evolutionary significance
In nature, controlling or the avoidance of pathogens is an essential fitness strategy because disease-causing agents are ever-present. Pathogens reproduce rapidly at the expense of their hosts' fitness, this creates a coevolutionary arms race between pathogen transmission and host avoidance. For a pathogen to move to a new host, it must exploit regions of the body that serve as points of contact between current and future hosts such as the mouth, the skin, the anus and the genitals. To avoid the cost of infection, organisms require counteradaptations to prevent pathogen transmission, by defending entry points such as the mouth and skin and avoiding other individual's exit points and the substances exiting these points such as feces and sneeze droplets. Pathogen avoidance provides the first line of defense by physically avoiding conspecifics, other species, objects or locations that could increase vulnerability to pathogens.
The pathogen avoidance theory of disgust predicts that behavior that reduces contact with pathogens, will have been under strong selection throughout the evolution of free-living organisms and should be prevalent throughout the Animalia kingdom. Compared to the alternative, facing the infectious threat, avoidance likely provides a reduction in exposure to pathogens and in energetic costs associated with activation of the physiological immune response. These behaviors are found throughout the anima
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Archaeoparasitology, a multi-disciplinary field within paleopathology, is the study of parasites in archaeological contexts. It includes studies of the protozoan and metazoan parasites of humans in the past, as well as parasites which may have affected past human societies, such as those infesting domesticated animals.
Reinhard suggested that the term "archaeoparasitology" be applied to "... all parasitological remains excavated from archaeological contexts ... derived from human activity" and that "the term 'paleoparasitology' be applied to studies of nonhuman, paleontological material." (p. 233) Paleoparasitology includes all studies of ancient parasites outside of archaeological contexts, such as those found in amber, and even dinosaur parasites.
The first archaeoparasitology report described calcified eggs of Bilharzia haematobia (now Schistosoma haematobium) from the kidneys of an ancient Egyptian mummy. Since then, many fundamental archaeological questions have been answered by integrating our knowledge of the hosts, life cycles and basic biology of parasites, with the archaeological, anthropological and historical contexts in which they are found.
Parasitology basics
Parasites are organisms which live in close association with another organism, called the host, in which the parasite benefits from the association, to the detriment of the host. Many other kinds of associations may exist between two closely allied organisms, such as commensalism or mutualism.
Endoparasites (such as protozoans and helminths), tend to be found inside the host, while ectoparasites (such as ticks, lice and fleas) live on the outside of the host body. Parasite life cycles often require that different developmental stages pass sequentially through multiple host species in order to successfully mature and reproduce. Some parasites are very host-specific, meaning that only one or a few species of hosts are capable of perpetuating their life cycle. Others are not host-spec
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What make us sick when they become human parasites?
A. larvae
B. protozoa
C. detritus
D. viruses
Answer:
|
|
sciq-8732
|
multiple_choice
|
What are oil in folded layers of rock called?
|
[
"anticlines",
"oscillations",
"macroparticle",
"dendrites"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Bitumen (, ) is an immensely viscous constituent of petroleum. Depending on its exact composition it can be a sticky, black liquid or an apparently solid mass that behaves as a liquid over very large time scales. In the U.S., the material is commonly referred to as asphalt. Whether found in natural deposits or refined from petroleum, the substance is classed as a pitch. Prior to the 20th century the term asphaltum was in general use. The word derives from the ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos, which referred to natural bitumen or pitch. The largest natural deposit of bitumen in the world, estimated to contain 10 million tons, is the Pitch Lake of southwest Trinidad.
70% of annual bitumen production destined for road construction, its primary use. In this application bitumen is used to bind aggregate particles like gravel and forms a substance referred to as asphalt concrete, which is colloquially termed asphalt. Its other main uses lie in bituminous waterproofing products, such as roofing felt and roof sealant.
In material sciences and engineering the terms "asphalt" and "bitumen" are often used interchangeably and refer both to natural and manufactured forms of the substance, although there is regional variation as to which term is most common. Worldwide, geologists tend to favor the term "bitumen" for the naturally occurring material. For the manufactured material, which is a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils, "bitumen" is the prevalent term in much of the world; however, in American English, "asphalt" is more commonly used. To help avoid confusion, the phrases "liquid asphalt", "asphalt binder", or "asphalt cement" are used in the U.S. Colloquially, various forms of asphalt are sometimes referred to as "tar", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits.
Naturally occurring bitumen is sometimes specified by the term "crude bitumen". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the fractional di
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Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles (sediment), typically due to a combination of gravity acting on the sediment, and the movement of the fluid in which the sediment is entrained. Sediment transport occurs in natural systems where the particles are clastic rocks (sand, gravel, boulders, etc.), mud, or clay; the fluid is air, water, or ice; and the force of gravity acts to move the particles along the sloping surface on which they are resting. Sediment transport due to fluid motion occurs in rivers, oceans, lakes, seas, and other bodies of water due to currents and tides. Transport is also caused by glaciers as they flow, and on terrestrial surfaces under the influence of wind. Sediment transport due only to gravity can occur on sloping surfaces in general, including hillslopes, scarps, cliffs, and the continental shelf—continental slope boundary.
Sediment transport is important in the fields of sedimentary geology, geomorphology, civil engineering, hydraulic engineering and environmental engineering (see applications, below). Knowledge of sediment transport is most often used to determine whether erosion or deposition will occur, the magnitude of this erosion or deposition, and the time and distance over which it will occur.
Mechanisms
Aeolian
Aeolian or eolian (depending on the parsing of æ) is the term for sediment transport by wind. This process results in the formation of ripples and sand dunes. Typically, the size of the transported sediment is fine sand (<1 mm) and smaller, because air is a fluid with low density and viscosity, and can therefore not exert very much shear on its bed.
Bedforms are generated by aeolian sediment transport in the terrestrial near-surface environment. Ripples and dunes form as a natural self-organizing response to sediment transport.
Aeolian sediment transport is common on beaches and in the arid regions of the world, because it is in these environments that vegetation does not prevent the presence and motion
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In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.
Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting.
Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. Modern technology has allowed the development of new man-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete.
Study
Geology is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the
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Shale Gouge Ratio (typically abbreviated to SGR) is a mathematical algorithm that aims to predict the fault rock types for simple fault zones developed in sedimentary sequences dominated by sandstone and shale.
The parameter is widely used in the oil and gas exploration and production industries to enable quantitative predictions to be made regarding the hydrodynamic behavior of faults.
Definition
At any point on a fault surface, the shale gouge ratio is equal to the net shale/clay content of the rocks that have slipped past that point.
The SGR algorithm assumes complete mixing of the wall-rock components in any particular 'throw interval'. The parameter is a measure of the 'upscaled' composition of the fault zone.
Application to hydrocarbon exploration
Hydrocarbon exploration involves identifying and defining accumulations of hydrocarbons that are trapped in subsurface structures. These structures are often segmented by faults. For a thorough trap evaluation, it is necessary to predict whether the fault is sealing or leaking to hydrocarbons and also to provide an estimate of how 'strong' the fault seal might be. The 'strength' of a fault seal can be quantified in terms of subsurface pressure, arising from the buoyancy forces within the hydrocarbon column, that the fault can support before it starts to leak. When acting on a fault zone this subsurface pressure is termed capillary threshold pressure.
For faults developed in sandstone and shale sequences, the first order control on capillary threshold pressure is likely to be the composition, in particular the shale or clay content, of the fault-zone material. SGR is used to estimate the shale content of the fault zone.
In general, fault zones with higher clay content, equivalent to higher SGR values, can support higher capillary threshold pressures. On a broader scale, other factors also exert a control on the threshold pressure, such as depth of the rock sequence at the time of faulting, and the maxim
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The geologic record in stratigraphy, paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata. That is, deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus (clays, sands etc.). This includes all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth: its past climate, geography, geology and the evolution of life on its surface. According to the law of superposition, sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other. They harden over time to become a solidified (competent) rock column, that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events.
Correlating the rock record
At a certain locality on the Earth's surface, the rock column provides a cross section of the natural history in the area during the time covered by the age of the rocks. This is sometimes called the rock history and gives a window into the natural history of the location that spans many geological time units such as ages, epochs, or in some cases even multiple major geologic periods—for the particular geographic region or regions. The geologic record is in no one place entirely complete for where geologic forces one age provide a low-lying region accumulating deposits much like a layer cake, in the next may have uplifted the region, and the same area is instead one that is weathering and being torn down by chemistry, wind, temperature, and water. This is to say that in a given location, the geologic record can be and is quite often interrupted as the ancient local environment was converted by geological forces into new landforms and features. Sediment core data at the mouths of large riverine drainage basins, some of which go deep thoroughly support the law of superposition.
However using broadly occurring deposited layers trapped within differently located rock columns, geologists have pieced together a system of units covering most of the geologic time scale
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What are oil in folded layers of rock called?
A. anticlines
B. oscillations
C. macroparticle
D. dendrites
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9653
|
multiple_choice
|
The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion is called what?
|
[
"isolation",
"inertia",
"kenetic force",
"stabilization"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
For a rigid object in contact with a fixed environment and acted upon by gravity in the vertical direction, its support polygon is a horizontal region over which the center of mass must lie to achieve static stability. For example, for an object resting on a horizontal surface (e.g. a table), the support polygon is the convex hull of its "footprint" on the table.
The support polygon succinctly represents the conditions necessary for an object to be at equilibrium under gravity. That is, if the object's center of mass lies over the support polygon, then there exist a set of forces over the region of contact that exactly counteracts the forces of gravity. Note that this is a necessary condition for stability, but not a sufficient one.
Derivation
Let the object be in contact at a finite number of points . At each point , let be the set of forces that can be applied on the object at that point. Here, is known as the friction cone, and for the Coulomb model of friction, is actually a cone with apex at the origin, extending to infinity in the normal direction of the contact.
Let be the (unspecified) forces at the contact points. To balance the object in static equilibrium, the following Newton-Euler equations must be met on :
for all
where is the force of gravity on the object, and is its center of mass. The first two equations are the Newton-Euler equations, and the third requires all forces to be valid. If there is no set of forces that meet all these conditions, the object will not be in equilibrium.
The second equation has no dependence on the vertical component of the center of mass, and thus if a solution exists for one , the same solution works for all . Therefore, the set of all that have solutions to the above conditions is a set that extends infinitely in the up and down directions. The support polygon is simply the projection of this set on the horizontal plane.
These results can easily be extended to different friction models and
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Linear motion, also called rectilinear motion, is one-dimensional motion along a straight line, and can therefore be described mathematically using only one spatial dimension. The linear motion can be of two types: uniform linear motion, with constant velocity (zero acceleration); and non-uniform linear motion, with variable velocity (non-zero acceleration). The motion of a particle (a point-like object) along a line can be described by its position , which varies with (time). An example of linear motion is an athlete running a 100-meter dash along a straight track.
Linear motion is the most basic of all motion. According to Newton's first law of motion, objects that do not experience any net force will continue to move in a straight line with a constant velocity until they are subjected to a net force. Under everyday circumstances, external forces such as gravity and friction can cause an object to change the direction of its motion, so that its motion cannot be described as linear.
One may compare linear motion to general motion. In general motion, a particle's position and velocity are described by vectors, which have a magnitude and direction. In linear motion, the directions of all the vectors describing the system are equal and constant which means the objects move along the same axis and do not change direction. The analysis of such systems may therefore be simplified by neglecting the direction components of the vectors involved and dealing only with the magnitude.
Background
Displacement
The motion in which all the particles of a body move through the same distance in the same time is called translatory motion. There are two types of translatory motions: rectilinear motion; curvilinear motion. Since linear motion is a motion in a single dimension, the distance traveled by an object in particular direction is the same as displacement. The SI unit of displacement is the metre. If is the initial position of an object and is the final position, then mat
Document 2:::
Velocity is the speed in combination with the direction of motion of an object. Velocity is a fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of bodies.
Velocity is a physical vector quantity: both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called , being a coherent derived unit whose quantity is measured in the SI (metric system) as metres per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar, whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or both, then the object is said to be undergoing an acceleration.
Constant velocity vs acceleration
To have a constant velocity, an object must have a constant speed in a constant direction. Constant direction constrains the object to motion in a straight path thus, a constant velocity means motion in a straight line at a constant speed.
For example, a car moving at a constant 20 kilometres per hour in a circular path has a constant speed, but does not have a constant velocity because its direction changes. Hence, the car is considered to be undergoing an acceleration.
Difference between speed and velocity
While the terms speed and velocity are often colloquially used interchangeably to connote how fast an object is moving, in scientific terms they are different. Speed, the scalar magnitude of a velocity vector, denotes only how fast an object is moving, while velocity indicates both an objects speed and direction.
Equation of motion
Average velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of position with respect to time, which may also be referred to as the instantaneous velocity to emphasize the distinction from the average velocity. In some applications the average velocity of an object might be needed, that is to say, the constant velocity that would provide the same resultant displacement as a variable velocity in the same time interval, , over some
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As described by the third of Newton's laws of motion of classical mechanics, all forces occur in pairs such that if one object exerts a force on another object, then the second object exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the first. The third law is also more generally stated as: "To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts." The attribution of which of the two forces is the action and which is the reaction is arbitrary. Either of the two can be considered the action, while the other is its associated reaction.
Examples
Interaction with ground
When something is exerting force on the ground, the ground will push back with equal force in the opposite direction. In certain fields of applied physics, such as biomechanics, this force by the ground is called 'ground reaction force'; the force by the object on the ground is viewed as the 'action'.
When someone wants to jump, he or she exerts additional downward force on the ground ('action'). Simultaneously, the ground exerts upward force on the person ('reaction'). If this upward force is greater than the person's weight, this will result in upward acceleration. When these forces are perpendicular to the ground, they are also called a normal force.
Likewise, the spinning wheels of a vehicle attempt to slide backward across the ground. If the ground is not too slippery, this results in a pair of friction forces: the 'action' by the wheel on the ground in backward direction, and the 'reaction' by the ground on the wheel in forward direction. This forward force propels the vehicle.
Gravitational forces
The Earth, among other planets, orbits the Sun because the Sun exerts a gravitational pull that acts as a centripetal force, holding the Earth to it, which would otherwise go shooting off into space. If the Sun's pull is considered an action, then Earth simultaneously exerts a reaction as a gravi
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Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones.
This glossary of mechanical engineering terms pertains specifically to mechanical engineering and its sub-disciplines. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering.
A
Abrasion – is the process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive. Abrasion can be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements.
Absolute zero – is the lowest possible temperature of a system, defined as zero kelvin or −273.15 °C. No experiment has yet measured a temperature of absolute zero.
Accelerated life testing – is the process of testing a product by subjecting it to conditions (stress, strain, temperatures, voltage, vibration rate, pressure etc.) in excess of its normal service parameters in an effort to uncover faults and potential modes of failure in a short amount of time. By analyzing the product's response to such tests, engineers can make predictions about the service life and maintenance intervals of a product.
Acceleration – In physics, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's Second Law. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law. As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and its acceleration.
Accelerometer – is a device that measures proper acceleration. Proper acceleration, being
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
The tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion is called what?
A. isolation
B. inertia
C. kenetic force
D. stabilization
Answer:
|
|
sciq-9661
|
multiple_choice
|
What is the double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus?
|
[
"nuclear envelope",
"energy fold",
"nuclear fold",
"energy envelope"
] |
A
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
The nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, is the type of protoplasm that makes up the cell nucleus, the most prominent organelle of the eukaryotic cell. It is enclosed by the nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane. The nucleoplasm resembles the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell in that it is a gel-like substance found within a membrane, although the nucleoplasm only fills out the space in the nucleus and has its own unique functions. The nucleoplasm suspends structures within the nucleus that are not membrane-bound and is responsible for maintaining the shape of the nucleus. The structures suspended in the nucleoplasm include chromosomes, various proteins, nuclear bodies, the nucleolus, nucleoporins, nucleotides, and nuclear speckles.
The soluble, liquid portion of the nucleoplasm is called the karyolymph nucleosol, or nuclear hyaloplasm.
History
The existence of the nucleus, including the nucleoplasm, was first documented as early as 1682 by the Dutch microscopist Leeuwenhoek and was later described and drawn by Franz Bauer. However, the cell nucleus was not named and described in detail until Robert Brown's presentation to the Linnean Society in 1831.
The nucleoplasm, while described by Bauer and Brown, was not specifically isolated as a separate entity until its naming in 1882 by Polish-German scientist Eduard Strasburger, one of the most famous botanists of the 19th century, and the first person to discover mitosis in plants.
Role
Many important cell functions take place in the nucleus, more specifically in the nucleoplasm. The main function of the nucleoplasm is to provide the proper environment for essential processes that take place in the nucleus, serving as the suspension substance for all organelles inside the nucleus, and storing the structures that are used in these processes. 34% of proteins encoded in the human genome are ones that localize to the nucleoplasm. These proteins take part in RNA transcription and gene regulation in the n
Document 1:::
Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism. Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure.
General characteristics
There are two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes were the first of the two to develop and do not have a self-contained nucleus. Their mechanisms are simpler than later-evolved eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus that envelops the cell's DNA and some organelles.
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes have DNA located in an area called the nucleoid, which is not separated from other parts of the cell by a membrane. There are two domains of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes have fewer organelles than eukaryotes. Both have plasma membranes and ribosomes (structures that synthesize proteins and float free in cytoplasm). Two unique characteristics of prokaryotes are fimbriae (finger-like projections on the surface of a cell) and flagella (threadlike structures that aid movement).
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is contained. They are usually larger than prokaryotes and contain many more organelles. The nucleus, the feature of a eukaryote that distinguishes it from a prokaryote, contains a nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin. In cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesizes membranes and performs other metabolic activities. There are two types, rough ER (containing ribosomes) and smooth ER (lacking ribosomes). The Golgi apparatus consists of multiple membranous sacs, responsible for manufacturing and shipping out materials such as proteins. Lysosomes are structures that use enzymes to break down substances through phagocytosis, a process that comprises endocytosis and exocytosis. In the mitochondria, metabolic processes such as cellular respiration occur. The cytoskeleton is made of fibers that support the str
Document 2:::
The outer nuclear layer (or layer of outer granules or external nuclear layer), is one of the layers of the vertebrate retina, the light-detecting portion of the eye. Like the inner nuclear layer, the outer nuclear layer contains several strata of oval nuclear bodies; they are of two kinds, viz.: rod and cone granules, so named on account of their being respectively connected with the rods and cones of the next layer.
Rod granules
The spherical rod granules are much more numerous, and are placed at different levels throughout the layer.
Their nuclei present a peculiar cross-striped appearance, and prolonged from either extremity of each cell is a fine process; the outer process is continuous with a single rod of the layer of rods and cones; the inner ends in the outer plexiform layer in an enlarged extremity, and is imbedded in the tuft into which the outer processes of the rod bipolar cells break up.
In its course it presents numerous varicosities.
Cone granules
The stem-like cone granules, fewer in number than the rod granules, are placed close to the membrana limitans externa, through which they are continuous with the cones of the layer of rods and cones.
They do not present any cross-striation, but contain a pyriform nucleus, which almost completely fills the cell.
From the inner extremity of the granule a thick process passes into the outer plexiform layer, and there expands into a pyramidal enlargement or foot plate, from which are given off numerous fine fibrils, that come in contact with the outer processes of the cone bipolars.
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H2.00.04.4.01001: Lymphoid tissue
H2.00.05.0.00001: Muscle tissue
H2.00.05.1.00001: Smooth muscle tissue
H2.00.05.2.00001: Striated muscle tissue
H2.00.06.0.00001: Nerve tissue
H2.00.06.1.00001: Neuron
H2.00.06.2.00001: Synapse
H2.00.06.2.00001: Neuroglia
h3.01: Bones
h3.02: Joints
h3.03: Muscles
h3.04: Alimentary system
h3.05: Respiratory system
h3.06: Urinary system
h3.07: Genital system
h3.08:
Document 4:::
A laminar organization describes the way certain tissues, such as bone membrane, skin, or brain tissues, are arranged in layers.
Types
Embryo
The earliest forms of laminar organization are shown in the diploblastic and triploblastic formation of the germ layers in the embryo. In the first week of human embryogenesis two layers of cells have formed, an external epiblast layer (the primitive ectoderm), and an internal hypoblast layer (primitive endoderm). This gives the early bilaminar disc. In the third week in the stage of gastrulation epiblast cells invaginate to form endoderm, and a third layer of cells known as mesoderm. Cells that remain in the epiblast become ectoderm. This is the trilaminar disc and the epiblast cells have given rise to the three germ layers.
Brain
In the brain a laminar organization is evident in the arrangement of the three meninges, the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. These membranes are the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater has two layers a periosteal layer near to the bone of the skull, and a meningeal layer next to the other meninges.
The cerebral cortex, the outer neural sheet covering the cerebral hemispheres can be described by its laminar organization, due to the arrangement of cortical neurons into six distinct layers.
Eye
The eye in mammals has an extensive laminar organization. There are three main layers – the outer fibrous tunic, the middle uvea, and the inner retina. These layers have sublayers with the retina having ten ranging from the outer choroid to the inner vitreous humor and including the retinal nerve fiber layer.
Skin
The human skin has a dense laminar organization. The outer epidermis has four or five layers.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What is the double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus?
A. nuclear envelope
B. energy fold
C. nuclear fold
D. energy envelope
Answer:
|
|
sciq-10689
|
multiple_choice
|
Smog is one example of what type of pollution?
|
[
"sound",
"air",
"energy",
"light"
] |
B
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field.
Overview
The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion.
With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies.
Example programs
The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University.
A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes
Document 1:::
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in
Document 2:::
Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women.
The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development.
Current status of girls and women in STEM education
Overall trends in STEM education
Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle.
Learning achievement in STEM education
Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and
Document 3:::
The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields.
Description
The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions.
The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.”
Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers.
Current efforts
The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo
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The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Network or STEMNET is an educational charity in the United Kingdom that seeks to encourage participation at school and college in science and engineering-related subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and (eventually) work.
History
It is based at Woolgate Exchange near Moorgate tube station in London and was established in 1996. The chief executive is Kirsten Bodley. The STEMNET offices are housed within the Engineering Council.
Function
Its chief aim is to interest children in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Primary school children can start to have an interest in these subjects, leading secondary school pupils to choose science A levels, which will lead to a science career. It supports the After School Science and Engineering Clubs at schools. There are also nine regional Science Learning Centres.
STEM ambassadors
To promote STEM subjects and encourage young people to take up jobs in these areas, STEMNET have around 30,000 ambassadors across the UK. these come from a wide selection of the STEM industries and include TV personalities like Rob Bell.
Funding
STEMNET used to receive funding from the Department for Education and Skills. Since June 2007, it receives funding from the Department for Children, Schools and Families and Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills, since STEMNET sits on the chronological dividing point (age 16) of both of the new departments.
See also
The WISE Campaign
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
National Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics
Association for Science Education
Glossary of areas of mathematics
Glossary of astronomy
Glossary of biology
Glossary of chemistry
Glossary of engineering
Glossary of physics
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
Smog is one example of what type of pollution?
A. sound
B. air
C. energy
D. light
Answer:
|
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sciq-2668
|
multiple_choice
|
What branch of biology uses fossils to study life’s history?
|
[
"morphology",
"entomology",
"gerontology",
"paleontology"
] |
D
|
Relavent Documents:
Document 0:::
Paleobiology (or palaeobiology) is an interdisciplinary field that combines the methods and findings found in both the earth sciences and the life sciences. Paleobiology is not to be confused with geobiology, which focuses more on the interactions between the biosphere and the physical Earth.
Paleobiological research uses biological field research of current biota and of fossils millions of years old to answer questions about the molecular evolution and the evolutionary history of life. In this scientific quest, macrofossils, microfossils and trace fossils are typically analyzed. However, the 21st-century biochemical analysis of DNA and RNA samples offers much promise, as does the biometric construction of phylogenetic trees.
An investigator in this field is known as a paleobiologist.
Important research areas
Paleobotany applies the principles and methods of paleobiology to flora, especially green land plants, but also including the fungi and seaweeds (algae). See also mycology, phycology and dendrochronology.
Paleozoology uses the methods and principles of paleobiology to understand fauna, both vertebrates and invertebrates. See also vertebrate and invertebrate paleontology, as well as paleoanthropology.
Micropaleontology applies paleobiologic principles and methods to archaea, bacteria, protists and microscopic pollen/spores. See also microfossils and palynology.
Paleovirology examines the evolutionary history of viruses on paleobiological timescales.
Paleobiochemistry uses the methods and principles of organic chemistry to detect and analyze molecular-level evidence of ancient life, both microscopic and macroscopic.
Paleoecology examines past ecosystems, climates, and geographies so as to better comprehend prehistoric life.
Taphonomy analyzes the post-mortem history (for example, decay and decomposition) of an individual organism in order to gain insight on the behavior, death and environment of the fossilized organism.
Paleoichnology analyzes the tracks, bo
Document 1:::
Paleobiology is a scientific journal promoting the integration of biology and conventional paleontology, with emphasis placed on biological or paleobiological processes and patterns. It attracts papers of interest to more than one discipline, and occasionally publishes research on recent organisms when this is of interest to paleontologists.
Paleontology journals
Academic journals published by learned and professional societies
Academic journals established in 1975
Quarterly journals
English-language journals
Paleobiology
Cambridge University Press academic journals
Document 2:::
Paleoecology (also spelled palaeoecology) is the study of interactions between organisms and/or interactions between organisms and their environments across geologic timescales. As a discipline, paleoecology interacts with, depends on and informs a variety of fields including paleontology, ecology, climatology and biology.
Paleoecology emerged from the field of paleontology in the 1950s, though paleontologists have conducted paleoecological studies since the creation of paleontology in the 1700s and 1800s. Combining the investigative approach of searching for fossils with the theoretical approach of Charles Darwin and Alexander von Humboldt, paleoecology began as paleontologists began examining both the ancient organisms they discovered and the reconstructed environments in which they lived. Visual depictions of past marine and terrestrial communities have been considered an early form of paleoecology. The term "paleo-ecology" was coined by Frederic Clements in 1916.
Overview of paleoecological approaches
Classic paleoecology uses data from fossils and subfossils to reconstruct the ecosystems of the past. It involves the study of fossil organisms and their associated remains (such as shells, teeth, pollen, and seeds), which can help in the interpretation of their life cycle, living interactions, natural environment, communities, and manner of death and burial. Such interpretations aid the reconstruction of past environments (i.e., paleoenvironments). Paleoecologists have studied the fossil record to try to clarify the relationship animals have to their environment, in part to help understand the current state of biodiversity. They have identified close links between vertebrate taxonomic and ecological diversity, that is, between the diversity of animals and the niches they occupy. Classical paleoecology is a primarily reductionist approach: scientists conduct detailed analysis of relatively small groups of organisms within shorter geologic timeframes.
Evolutio
Document 3:::
Paleomycology is the study of fossil fungi. A paleomycologist is someone who works in this field. Paleomycology is considered a subdiscipline of paleobotany. While most fossils of mushrooms are discovered in amber, a great diversity of fossil fungi have been documented throughout the Phanerozoic.
See also
Evolution of fungi
Mycology
Paleontology
Document 4:::
Vertebrate zoology is the biological discipline that consists of the study of Vertebrate animals, i.e., animals with a backbone, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Many natural history museums have departments named Vertebrate Zoology. In some cases whole museums bear this name, e.g. the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California, Berkeley.
Subdivisions
This subdivision of zoology has many further subdivisions, including:
Ichthyology - the study of fishes.
Mammalogy - the study of mammals.
Chiropterology - the study of bats.
Primatology - the study of primates.
Ornithology - the study of birds.
Herpetology - the study of reptiles.
Batrachology - the study of amphibians.
These divisions are sometimes further divided into more specific specialties.
The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses.
What branch of biology uses fossils to study life’s history?
A. morphology
B. entomology
C. gerontology
D. paleontology
Answer:
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