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sciq-2120	multiple_choice	What percentage of all species that ever lived on earth have gone extinct?	[ "99%", "93 %", "50%", "25%" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Global biodiversity is the measure of biodiversity on planet Earth and is defined as the total variability of life forms. More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 2 million to 1 trillion, but most estimates are around 11 million species or fewer. About 1.74 million species were databased as of 2018, and over 80 percent have not yet been described. The total amount of DNA base pairs on Earth, as a possible approximation of global biodiversity, is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon). In other related studies, around 1.9 million extant species are believed to have been described currently, but some scientists believe 20% are synonyms, reducing the total valid described species to 1.5 million. In 2013, a study published in Science estimated there to be 5 ± 3 million extant species on Earth although that is disputed. Another study, published in 2011 by PLoS Biology, estimated there to be 8.7 million ± 1.3 million eukaryotic species on Earth. Some 250,000 valid fossil species have been described, but this is believed to be a small proportion of all species that have ever lived. Global biodiversity is affected by extinction and speciation. The background extinction rate varies among taxa but it is estimated that there is approximately one extinction per million species years. Mammal species, for example, typically persist for 1 million years. Biodiversity has grown and shrunk in earth's past due to (presumably) abiotic factors such as extinction events caused by geologically rapid changes in climate. Climate change 299 million years ago was one such event. A cooling and drying resulted in catastrophic rainforest collapse and subsequently a great loss of diversity, especially of amphibians. Drivers that affect biodiversity and h Document 1::: Extinction is the termination of a taxon by the death of its last member. A taxon may become functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to reproduce and recover. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. More than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to have died out. It is estimated that there are currently around 8.7 million species of eukaryote globally, and possibly many times more if microorganisms, like bacteria, are included. Notable extinct animal species include non-avian dinosaurs, saber-toothed cats, dodos, mammoths, ground sloths, thylacines, trilobites, and golden toads. Through evolution, species arise through the process of speciation—where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche—and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established. A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance, although some species, called living fossils, survive with little to no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years. Mass extinctions are relatively rare events; however, isolated extinctions of species and clades are quite common, and are a natural part of the evolutionary process. Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions. Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented. Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal Document 2::: Endemixit is a project that studies the effects of reduced population size in five Italian endemic species at risk of extinction. The final objective is to estimate the risk of extinction from genomic data and contribute to the preservation of these species. The project was funded by the MUR (Italian Ministry for Research) and coordinated by the Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology of the University of Ferrara with the involvement of five other Italian universities: Ancona, Florence, Padua, Rome Tor Vergata and Trieste. Species under study The species considered are all classified in danger or in critical danger of extinction in the IUCN Red List: Podarcis raffonei (Aeolian wall lizard), a lizard with a current range restricted to three Aeolian Islands and subdivided into isolated and relatively distant populations. Hipparchia sbordonii (Ponza grayling), currently only found on some Pontine Islands. Acipenser naccarii (Adriatic sturgeon), once widespread in the Northern Adriatic Sea and in many rivers of Northern Italy, but today almost extinct in nature. Bombina pachypus (Apennine yellow-bellied toad), an endemic and endangered species of the Italian Peninsula closely related to the most common European yellow-bellied toad (B. variegata). Ursus arctos marsicanus (Marsican, or Apennine, brown bear), a subspecies of brown bear (U. arctos), present exclusively in a small region of the central Apennines Mountains. Applications and innovative aspects Endemixit is a genomic project applied to the conservation of biodiversity. Five reference genomes will be produced (one for each endemic species/subspecies), and 20 to 30 individuals per species will be re-sequenced (whole genomes at intermediate coverage). Population genomics analyses will be used to reconstruct past demographic processes and to estimate the genetic load possibly accumulated due to genetic drift. The results will be theoretically important to understand the genetic load dynamic. Practic Document 3::: Future Evolution is a book written by paleontologist Peter Ward and illustrated by Alexis Rockman. He addresses his own opinion of future evolution and compares it with Dougal Dixon's After Man: A Zoology of the Future and H. G. Wells's The Time Machine. According to Ward, humanity may exist for a long time. Nevertheless, we are impacting our planet. He splits his book in different chronologies, starting with the near future (the next 1,000 years). Humanity would be struggling to support a massive population of 11 billion. Global warming raises sea levels. The ozone layer weakens. Most of the available land is devoted to agriculture due to the demand for food. Despite all this, the oceanic wildlife remains untethered by most of these impacts, specifically the commercial farmed fish. This is, according to Ward, an era of extinction that would last about 10 million years (note that many human-caused extinctions have already occurred). After that, Earth gets stranger. Ward labels the species that have the potential to survive in a human-infested world. These include dandelions, raccoons, owls, pigs, cattle, rats, snakes, and crows to name but a few. In the human-infested ecosystem, those preadapted to live amongst man survived and prospered. Ward describes garbage dumps 10 million years in the future infested with multiple species of rats, a snake with a sticky frog-like tongue to snap up rodents, and pigs with snouts specialized for rooting through garbage. The story's time traveller who views this new refuse-covered habitat is gruesomely attacked by ravenous flesh-eating crows. Ward then questions the potential for humanity to evolve into a new species. According to him, this is incredibly unlikely. For this to happen a human population must isolate itself and interbreed until it becomes a new species. Then he questions if humanity would survive or extinguish itself by climate change, nuclear war, disease, or the posing threat of nanotechnology as terrorist weapon Document 4::: This article is a list of biological species, subspecies, and evolutionary significant units that are known to have become extinct during the Holocene, the current geologic epoch, ordered by their known or approximate date of disappearance from oldest to most recent. The Holocene is considered to have started with the Holocene glacial retreat around 11650 years Before Present ( BC). It is characterized by a general trend towards global warming, the expansion of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) to all emerged land masses, the appearance of agriculture and animal husbandry, and a reduction in global biodiversity. The latter, dubbed the sixth mass extinction in Earth history, is largely attributed to increased human population and activity, and may have started already during the preceding Pleistocene epoch with the demise of the Pleistocene megafauna. The following list is incomplete by necessity, since the majority of extinctions are thought to be undocumented, and for many others there isn't a definitive, widely accepted last, or most recent record. According to the species-area theory, the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year. 10th millennium BC 9th millennium BC 8th millennium BC 7th millennium BC 6th millennium BC 5th millennium BC 4th millennium BC 3rd millennium BC 2nd millennium BC 1st millennium BC 1st millennium CE 1st–5th centuries 6th–10th centuries 2nd millennium CE 11th-12th century 13th-14th century 15th-16th century 17th century 18th century 19th century 1800s-1820s 1830s-1840s 1850s-1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 20th century 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 3rd millennium CE 21st century 2000s 2010s See also List of extinct animals Extinction event Quaternary extinction event Holocene extinction Timeline of the evolutionary history of life Timeline of environmental history Index of environmental articles List of environmental issues The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What percentage of all species that ever lived on earth have gone extinct? A. 99% B. 93 % C. 50% D. 25% Answer:
sciq-7749	multiple_choice	What is only effective if ventilation is matched to blood flow through alveolar capillaries?	[ "assisted breathing", "iron lung", "breathing control", "blood pressur control" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The control of ventilation is the physiological mechanisms involved in the control of breathing, which is the movement of air into and out of the lungs. Ventilation facilitates respiration. Respiration refers to the utilization of oxygen and balancing of carbon dioxide by the body as a whole, or by individual cells in cellular respiration. The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and balancing of the carbon dioxide levels. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate. The peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are located in the arterial aortic bodies and the carotid bodies. Central chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to changes in the pH of the blood, (resulting from changes in the levels of carbon dioxide) and they are located on the medulla oblongata near to the medullar respiratory groups of the respiratory center. Information from the peripheral chemoreceptors is conveyed along nerves to the respiratory groups of the respiratory center. There are four respiratory groups, two in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups in the pons are known as the pontine respiratory group. Dorsal respiratory group – in the medulla Ventral respiratory group – in the medulla Pneumotaxic center – various nuclei of the pons Apneustic center – nucleus of the pons From the respiratory center, the muscles of respiration, in particular the diaphragm, are activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs. Control of respiratory rhythm Ventilatory pattern Breathing is normally an unconscious, involuntary, automatic process. The pattern of motor stimuli during breathing can be divided into an inhalation stage and an exhalation stage. Inhalation shows a sudden, ramped increase in motor discharge to the respiratory muscles (and the pharyngeal constrictor muscles). Before the end of inh Document 1::: An artificial lung (AL) is a prosthetic device that provides oxygenation of blood and removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. The AL is intended to take over some of the functionality of biological lungs. It is different from a heart-lung machine in that it is external and designed to take over the functions of the lungs for long periods of time rather than on a temporary basis. The heart-lung machine inspired the design of AL devices, however, modern ALs are optimised to minimize patient trauma. Following the development of the heart-lung machine, Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO), using a membrane oxygenator, was developed. This was intended to be used as a bridge to lung transplant (BTT), for patients too sick to wait until a donor lung was available. Mechanical Ventilation (MV) has also been used, however, it is damaging to the patient's lungs if used for extended periods of time. Both these therapies are expensive and are associated with poor quality of life, in part due to complex blood circuits required for these techniques to work. Recent developments include simplifying the ECMO system, and devices that use 380 micron wide hollow fibers to simulate the function of alveoli have been developed. Several research groups, notably, the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Michigan, University of Maryland and Boston based groups are developing AL devices to bridge patients to lung transplant. See also Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation Heart-lung machine Lung transplantation Medical ventilator Document 2::: The Alveolar–arterial gradient (A-, or A–a gradient), is a measure of the difference between the alveolar concentration (A) of oxygen and the arterial (a) concentration of oxygen. It is a useful parameter for narrowing the differential diagnosis of hypoxemia. The A–a gradient helps to assess the integrity of the alveolar capillary unit. For example, in high altitude, the arterial oxygen is low but only because the alveolar oxygen () is also low. However, in states of ventilation perfusion mismatch, such as pulmonary embolism or right-to-left shunt, oxygen is not effectively transferred from the alveoli to the blood which results in an elevated A-a gradient. In a perfect system, no A-a gradient would exist: oxygen would diffuse and equalize across the capillary membrane, and the pressures in the arterial system and alveoli would be effectively equal (resulting in an A-a gradient of zero). However even though the partial pressure of oxygen is about equilibrated between the pulmonary capillaries and the alveolar gas, this equilibrium is not maintained as blood travels further through pulmonary circulation. As a rule, is always higher than by at least 5–10 mmHg, even in a healthy person with normal ventilation and perfusion. This gradient exists due to both physiological right-to-left shunting and a physiological V/Q mismatch caused by gravity-dependent differences in perfusion to various zones of the lungs. The bronchial vessels deliver nutrients and oxygen to certain lung tissues, and some of this spent, deoxygenated venous blood drains into the highly oxygenated pulmonary veins, causing a right-to-left shunt. Further, the effects of gravity alter the flow of both blood and air through various heights of the lung. In the upright lung, both perfusion and ventilation are greatest at the base, but the gradient of perfusion is steeper than that of ventilation so V/Q ratio is higher at the apex than at the base. This means that blood flowing through capillaries at th Document 3::: In acid base physiology, the Davenport diagram is a graphical tool, developed by Horace W. Davenport, that allows a clinician or investigator to describe blood bicarbonate concentrations and blood pH following a respiratory and/or metabolic acid-base disturbance. The diagram depicts a three-dimensional surface describing all possible states of chemical equilibria between gaseous carbon dioxide, aqueous bicarbonate and aqueous protons at the physiologically complex interface of the alveoli of the lungs and the alveolar capillaries. Although the surface represented in the diagram is experimentally determined, the Davenport diagram is rarely used in the clinical setting, but allows the investigator to envision the effects of physiological changes on blood acid-base chemistry. For clinical use there are two recent innovations: an Acid-Base Diagram which provides Text Descriptions for the abnormalities and a High Altitude Version that provides text descriptions appropriate for the altitude. Derivation When a sample of blood is exposed to air, either in the alveoli of the lung or in an in vitro laboratory experiment, carbon dioxide in the air rapidly enters into equilibrium with carbon dioxide derivatives and other species in the aqueous solution. Figure 1 illustrates the most important equilibrium reactions of carbon dioxide in blood relating to acid-base physiology: Note that in this equation, the HB/B- buffer system represents all non-bicarbonate buffers present in the blood, such as hemoglobin in its various protonated and deprotonated states. Because many different non-bicarbonate buffers are present in human blood, the final equilibrium state reached at any given pCO2 is highly complex and cannot be readily predicted using theory alone. By depicting experimental results, the Davenport diagram provides a simple approach to describing the behavior of this complex system. Figure 2 shows a Davenport diagram as commonly depicted in textbooks and the literature. To un Document 4::: The surfactant–albumin ratio is a test for assessing fetal lung maturity. The test, though no longer commercially available, used an automatic analyzer to measure the polarized fluorescent light emitted from a sample of amniotic fluid that had been challenged with a fluorescent probe that interacted competitively with both lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) and albumin in such a way that direct quantitative measurements of both substances could be attained. Higher amounts of lecithin – in reference to albumin – is indicative of lung maturity (and thus survival of the baby). When this test was still used in practice, the Standards of Laboratory Practice set the threshold for lung maturity at 55 mg of lecithin per gram of albumin. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is only effective if ventilation is matched to blood flow through alveolar capillaries? A. assisted breathing B. iron lung C. breathing control D. blood pressur control Answer:
sciq-1378	multiple_choice	What is measured using units pascal, bar, atmosphere or mmhg?	[ "pressure", "push", "fuel", "Muscle" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: This article gives a list of conversion factors for several physical quantities. A number of different units (some only of historical interest) are shown and expressed in terms of the corresponding SI unit. Conversions between units in the metric system are defined by their prefixes (for example, 1 kilogram = 1000 grams, 1 milligram = 0.001 grams) and are thus not listed in this article. Exceptions are made if the unit is commonly known by another name (for example, 1 micron = 10−6 metre). Within each table, the units are listed alphabetically, and the SI units (base or derived) are highlighted. The following quantities are considered: length, area, volume, plane angle, solid angle, mass, density, time, frequency, velocity, volumetric flow rate, acceleration, force, pressure (or mechanical stress), torque (or moment of force), energy, power (or heat flow rate), action, dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, electric current, electric charge, electric dipole, electromotive force (or electric potential difference), electrical resistance, capacitance, magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, inductance, temperature, information entropy, luminous intensity, luminance, luminous flux, illuminance, radiation. Length Area Volume Plane angle Solid angle Mass Notes: See Weight for detail of mass/weight distinction and conversion. Avoirdupois is a system of mass based on a pound of 16 ounces, while Troy weight is the system of mass where 12 troy ounces equals one troy pound. The symbol is used to denote standard gravity in order to avoid confusion with the (upright) g symbol for gram. Density Time Frequency Speed or velocity A velocity consists of a speed combined with a direction; the speed part of the velocity takes units of speed. Flow (volume) Acceleration Force Pressure or mechanical stress Torque or moment of force Energy Power or heat flow rate Action Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity Electric current Electric charge Electric dipole Elec Document 2::: Quantity calculus is the formal method for describing the mathematical relations between abstract physical quantities. Its roots can be traced to Fourier's concept of dimensional analysis (1822). The basic axiom of quantity calculus is Maxwell's description of a physical quantity as the product of a "numerical value" and a "reference quantity" (i.e. a "unit quantity" or a "unit of measurement"). De Boer summarized the multiplication, division, addition, association and commutation rules of quantity calculus and proposed that a full axiomatization has yet to be completed. Measurements are expressed as products of a numeric value with a unit symbol, e.g. "12.7 m". Unlike algebra, the unit symbol represents a measurable quantity such as a meter, not an algebraic variable. A careful distinction needs to be made between abstract quantities and measurable quantities. The multiplication and division rules of quantity calculus are applied to SI base units (which are measurable quantities) to define SI derived units, including dimensionless derived units, such as the radian (rad) and steradian (sr) which are useful for clarity, although they are both algebraically equal to 1. Thus there is some disagreement about whether it is meaningful to multiply or divide units. Emerson suggests that if the units of a quantity are algebraically simplified, they then are no longer units of that quantity. Johansson proposes that there are logical flaws in the application of quantity calculus, and that the so-called dimensionless quantities should be understood as "unitless quantities". How to use quantity calculus for unit conversion and keeping track of units in algebraic manipulations is explained in the handbook Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry. Notes Document 3::: Barrer is a non-SI unit of gas permeability (specifically, gas permeability) used in the membrane technology and contact lens industry. It is named after Richard Barrer. Definition Here the 'cm3STP' is standard cubic centimeter, which is a unit of amount of gas rather than a unit of volume. It represents the number of gas molecules or moles that would occupy one cubic centimeter at standard temperature and pressure, as calculated via the ideal gas law. The cm corresponds in the permeability equations to the thickness of the material whose permeability is being evaluated, the cm3STPcm−2s−1 to the flux of gas through the material, and the cmHg to the pressure drop across the material. That is, it measures the rate of fluid flow passing through an area of material with a thickness driven by a given pressure. See Darcy's Law. In SI unit Barrer can be expressed as: To convert to CGS permeability unit, one must use the following: Where M is the molecular weight of the penetrant gas (g/mol). Another commonly expressed unit is Gas Permeance Unit (GPU). It is used in the measurement of gas permeance. Permeance can be expressed as the ratio of the permeability with the thickness of membrane. Or in SI units: Document 4::: A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind of quantity. Any other quantity of that kind can be expressed as a multiple of the unit of measurement. For example, a length is a physical quantity. The metre (symbol m) is a unit of length that represents a definite predetermined length. For instance, when referencing "10 metres" (or 10 m), what is actually meant is 10 times the definite predetermined length called "metre". The definition, agreement, and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in human endeavour from early ages up to the present. A multitude of systems of units used to be very common. Now there is a global standard, the International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system. In trade, weights and measures are often a subject of governmental regulation, to ensure fairness and transparency. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) is tasked with ensuring worldwide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI). Metrology is the science of developing nationally and internationally accepted units of measurement. In physics and metrology, units are standards for measurement of physical quantities that need clear definitions to be useful. Reproducibility of experimental results is central to the scientific method. A standard system of units facilitates this. Scientific systems of units are a refinement of the concept of weights and measures historically developed for commercial purposes. Science, medicine, and engineering often use larger and smaller units of measurement than those used in everyday life. The judicious selection of the units of measurement can aid researchers in problem solving (see, for example, dimensional analysis). In the social sciences, there are no standard units of measurement and the theory and practice of m The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is measured using units pascal, bar, atmosphere or mmhg? A. pressure B. push C. fuel D. Muscle Answer:
sciq-9408	multiple_choice	What is produced by the sebaceous glands?	[ "sperm", "pheromone", "sebum", "progesterone" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A sebaceous gland, or oil gland, is a microscopic exocrine gland in the skin that opens into a hair follicle to secrete an oily or waxy matter, called sebum, which lubricates the hair and skin of mammals. In humans, sebaceous glands occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp, but also on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. In the eyelids, meibomian glands, also called tarsal glands, are a type of sebaceous gland that secrete a special type of sebum into tears. Surrounding the female nipple, areolar glands are specialized sebaceous glands for lubricating the nipple. Fordyce spots are benign, visible, sebaceous glands found usually on the lips, gums and inner cheeks, and genitals. Structure Location Sebaceous glands are found throughout all areas of the skin, except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. There are two types of sebaceous glands, those connected to hair follicles and those that exist independently. Sebaceous glands are found in hair-covered areas, where they are connected to hair follicles. One or more glands may surround each hair follicle, and the glands themselves are surrounded by arrector pili muscles, forming a pilosebaceous unit. The glands have an acinar structure (like a many-lobed berry), in which multiple glands branch off a central duct. The glands deposit sebum on the hairs and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft. The structure, consisting of hair, hair follicle, arrector pili muscles, and sebaceous gland, is an epidermal invagination known as a pilosebaceous unit. Sebaceous glands are also found in hairless areas (glabrous skin) of the eyelids, nose, penis, labia minora, the inner mucosal membrane of the cheek, and nipples. Some sebaceous glands have unique names. Sebaceous glands on the lip and mucosa of the cheek, and on the genitalia, are known as Fordyce spots, and glands on the eyelids are known as meibomian glands. Sebaceous glands of the breast are also known as Document 1::: Uterine glands or endometrial glands are tubular glands, lined by a simple columnar epithelium, found in the functional layer of the endometrium that lines the uterus. Their appearance varies during the menstrual cycle. During the proliferative phase, uterine glands appear long due to estrogen secretion by the ovaries. During the secretory phase, the uterine glands become very coiled with wide lumens and produce a glycogen-rich secretion known as histotroph or uterine milk. This change corresponds with an increase in blood flow to spiral arteries due to increased progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum. During the pre-menstrual phase, progesterone secretion decreases as the corpus luteum degenerates, which results in decreased blood flow to the spiral arteries. The functional layer of the uterus containing the glands becomes necrotic, and eventually sloughs off during the menstrual phase of the cycle. They are of small size in the unimpregnated uterus, but shortly after impregnation become enlarged and elongated, presenting a contorted or waved appearance. Function Hormones produced in early pregnancy stimulate the uterine glands to secrete a number of substances to give nutrition and protection to the embryo and fetus, and the fetal membranes. These secretions are known as histiotroph, alternatively histotroph, and also as uterine milk. Important uterine milk proteins are glycodelin-A, and osteopontin. Some secretory components from the uterine glands are taken up by the secondary yolk sac lining the exocoelomic cavity during pregnancy, and may thereby assist in providing fetal nutrition. Additional images Document 2::: Serous glands secrete serous fluid. They contain serous acini, a grouping of serous cells that secrete serous fluid, isotonic with blood plasma, that contains enzymes such as alpha-amylase. Serous glands are most common in the parotid gland and lacrimal gland but are also present in the submandibular gland and, to a far lesser extent, the sublingual gland. Document 3::: Spermatozoa develop in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. During their development the spermatogonia proceed through meiosis to become spermatozoa. Many changes occur during this process: the DNA in nuclei becomes condensed; the acrosome develops as a structure close to the nucleus. The acrosome is derived from the Golgi apparatus and contains hydrolytic enzymes important for fusion of the spermatozoon with an egg cell. During spermiogenesis the nucleus condenses and changes shape. Abnormal shape change is a feature of sperm in male infertility. The acroplaxome is a structure found between the acrosomal membrane and the nuclear membrane. The acroplaxome contains structural proteins including keratin 5, F-actin and profilin IV. Document 4::: Reproductive biology includes both sexual and asexual reproduction. Reproductive biology includes a wide number of fields: Reproductive systems Endocrinology Sexual development (Puberty) Sexual maturity Reproduction Fertility Human reproductive biology Endocrinology Human reproductive biology is primarily controlled through hormones, which send signals to the human reproductive structures to influence growth and maturation. These hormones are secreted by endocrine glands, and spread to different tissues in the human body. In humans, the pituitary gland synthesizes hormones used to control the activity of endocrine glands. Reproductive systems Internal and external organs are included in the reproductive system. There are two reproductive systems including the male and female, which contain different organs from one another. These systems work together in order to produce offspring. Female reproductive system The female reproductive system includes the structures involved in ovulation, fertilization, development of an embryo, and birth. These structures include: Ovaries Oviducts Uterus Vagina Mammary Glands Estrogen is one of the sexual reproductive hormones that aid in the sexual reproductive system of the female. Male reproductive system The male reproductive system includes testes, rete testis, efferent ductules, epididymis, sex accessory glands, sex accessory ducts and external genitalia. Testosterone, an androgen, although present in both males and females, is relatively more abundant in males. Testosterone serves as one of the major sexual reproductive hormones in the male reproductive system However, the enzyme aromatase is present in testes and capable of synthesizing estrogens from androgens. Estrogens are present in high concentrations in luminal fluids of the male reproductive tract. Androgen and estrogen receptors are abundant in epithelial cells of the male reproductive tract. Animal Reproductive Biology Animal reproduction oc The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is produced by the sebaceous glands? A. sperm B. pheromone C. sebum D. progesterone Answer:
sciq-6928	multiple_choice	Unlike wood and glass, steel is an example of a material that responds to what force?	[ "thermal", "electromagnetic", "kinetic", "magnetic" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to understand how different materials resist and support loads. Common structural materials are: Iron Wrought iron Wrought iron is the simplest form of iron, and is almost pure iron (typically less than 0.15% carbon). It usually contains some slag. Its uses are almost entirely obsolete, and it is no longer commercially produced. Wrought iron is very poor in fires. It is ductile, malleable and tough. It does not corrode as easily as steel. Cast iron Cast iron is a brittle form of iron which is weaker in tension than in compression. It has a relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability and wear resistance. Though almost entirely replaced by steel in building structures, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts. Cast iron retains high strength in fires, despite its low melting point. It is usually around 95% iron, with between 2.1% and 4% carbon and between 1% and 3% silicon. It does not corrode as easily as steel. Steel Steel is an iron alloy with controlled level of carbon (between 0.0 and 1.7% carbon). Steel is used extremely widely in all types of structures, due to its relatively low cost, high strength-to-weight ratio and speed of construction. Steel is a ductile material, which will behave elastically until it reaches yield (point 2 on the stress–strain curve), when it becomes plastic and will fail in a ductile manner (large strains, or extensions, before fracture at point 3 on the curve). Steel is equally strong in tension and compression. Steel is weak in fires, and must be protected in most buildings. Despite its high strength to weight ratio, steel buildings have as much thermal mass as similar concrete buildings. The elastic modulus of steel is approximately 205 GPa. Steel is very prone to corrosion (rust). Stainless steel Stainless st Document 1::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 2::: The Handle-o-Meter is a testing machine developed by Johnson & Johnson and now manufactured by Thwing-Albert that measures the "handle" of sheeted materials: a combination of its surface friction and flexibility. Originally, it was used to test the durability and flexibility of toilet paper and paper towels. The test sample is placed over an adjustable slot. The resistance encountered by the penetrator blade as it is moved into the slot by a pivoting arm is measured by the machine. Details The data collected when such nonwovens, tissues, toweling, film and textiles are tested has been shown to correlate well with the actual performance of these specific material's performance as a finished product. Materials are simply placed over the slot that extends across the instrument platform, and then the tester hits test. There are three different test modes which can be applied to the material: single, double, and quadruple. The average is automatically calculated for double or quadruple tests. Features Adjustable slot openings Interchangeable beams Auto-ranging 2 x 40 LCD display Statistical Analysis RS-232 Output and Serial Port Industry Standards: ASTM D2923, D6828-02 TAPPI T498 INDA IST 90.3 Document 3::: In materials science, hardness (antonym: softness) is a measure of the resistance to plastic deformation, such as an indentation (over an area) or a scratch (linear), induced mechanically either by pressing or abrasion. In general, different materials differ in their hardness; for example hard metals such as titanium and beryllium are harder than soft metals such as sodium and metallic tin, or wood and common plastics. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, hardness can be measured in different ways, such as scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness. Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity. Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter. Measures There are three main types of hardness measurements: scratch, indentation, and rebound. Within each of these classes of measurement there are individual measurement scales. For practical reasons conversion tables are used to convert between one scale and another. Scratch hardness Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. The principle is that an object made of a harder material will scratch an object made of a softer material. When testing coatings, scratch hardness refers to the force necessary to cut through the film to the substrate. The most common test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. One tool to make this measurement is the sclerometer. Another tool used to make these tests is the pocket hardness tester. This tool consists of a scale arm with graduated markings attached to a four-wheeled carriage. A scratch tool with a sharp rim is mounted at a predetermined angle to the testing surface. In order to Document 4::: Tyndall's bar breaker is a physical demonstration experiment to demonstrate the forces created by thermal expansion and shrinkage. It was demonstrated 1867 by the Irish scientist John Tyndall in his Christmas lectures for a "juvenile auditory". Setup The bar breaker experiment comprises a very rigid frame (d) and a massive connecting rod (b). The rod is held on one side by a cast iron bar (c) that is going to be broken in the experiment and, at the other end, by a nut (a) that is used to compensate the thermal expansion. Procedure During the experiment the steel rod (b) is heated with a flame (e) up to red heat temperature. During the heating phase the thermal expansion of the rod (b) is compensated by tightly fastening the nut (a). Taking away the flame starts the cooling phase. Typically the bar (c) breaks within a few minutes with a loud bang or it is at least deformed significantly. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Unlike wood and glass, steel is an example of a material that responds to what force? A. thermal B. electromagnetic C. kinetic D. magnetic Answer:
sciq-9919	multiple_choice	What is the pair of bean-shaped organs that filters blood and produces urine?	[ "kidneys", "arteries", "heart", "lungs" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The organs of Bojanus or Bojanus organs are excretory glands that serve the function of kidneys in some of the molluscs. In other words, these are metanephridia that are found in some molluscs, for example in the bivalves. Some other molluscs have another type of organ for excretion called Keber's organ. The Bojanus organ is named after Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus, who first described it. The excretory system of a bivalve consists of a pair of kidneys called the organ of bojanus. These are situated one of each side of the body below the pericardium. Each kidney consist of 2 part (1)- glandular part (2)- a thin walled ciliated urinary bladder. Document 1::: In a multicellular organism, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to act together in a function. Tissues of different types combine to form an organ which has a specific function. The intestinal wall for example is formed by epithelial tissue and smooth muscle tissue. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system. An organ's tissues can be broadly categorized as parenchyma, the functional tissue, and stroma, the structural tissue with supportive, connective, or ancillary functions. For example, the gland's tissue that makes the hormones is the parenchyma, whereas the stroma includes the nerves that innervate the parenchyma, the blood vessels that oxygenate and nourish it and carry away its metabolic wastes, and the connective tissues that provide a suitable place for it to be situated and anchored. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, such as arising from the same germ layer. Organs exist in most multicellular organisms. In single-celled organisms such as members of the eukaryotes, the functional analogue of an organ is known as an organelle. In plants, there are three main organs. The number of organs in any organism depends on the definition used. By one widely adopted definition, 79 organs have been identified in the human body. Animals Except for placozoans, multicellular animals including humans have a variety of organ systems. These specific systems are widely studied in human anatomy. The functions of these organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The sam Document 2::: The Starling principle holds that extracellular fluid movements between blood and tissues are determined by differences in hydrostatic pressure and colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure between plasma inside microvessels and interstitial fluid outside them. The Starling Equation, proposed many years after the death of Starling, describes that relationship in mathematical form and can be applied to many biological and non-biological semipermeable membranes. The classic Starling principle and the equation that describes it have in recent years been revised and extended. Every day around 8 litres of water (solvent) containing a variety of small molecules (solutes) leaves the blood stream of an adult human and perfuses the cells of the various body tissues. Interstitial fluid drains by afferent lymph vessels to one of the regional lymph node groups, where around 4 litres per day is reabsorbed to the blood stream. The remainder of the lymphatic fluid is rich in proteins and other large molecules and rejoins the blood stream via the thoracic duct which empties into the great veins close to the heart. Filtration from plasma to interstitial (or tissue) fluid occurs in microvascular capillaries and post-capillary venules. In most tissues the micro vessels are invested with a continuous internal surface layer that includes a fibre matrix now known as the endothelial glycocalyx whose interpolymer spaces function as a system of small pores, radius circa 5 nm. Where the endothelial glycocalyx overlies a gap in the junction molecules that bind endothelial cells together (inter endothelial cell cleft), the plasma ultrafiltrate may pass to the interstitial space, leaving larger molecules reflected back into the plasma. A small number of continuous capillaries are specialised to absorb solvent and solutes from interstitial fluid back into the blood stream through fenestrations in endothelial cells, but the volume of solvent absorbed every day is small. Discontinuous capillaries as Document 3::: The endothelium (: endothelia) is a single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Endothelial cells form the barrier between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into and out of a tissue. Endothelial cells in direct contact with blood are called vascular endothelial cells whereas those in direct contact with lymph are known as lymphatic endothelial cells. Vascular endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system, from the heart to the smallest capillaries. These cells have unique functions that include fluid filtration, such as in the glomerulus of the kidney, blood vessel tone, hemostasis, neutrophil recruitment, and hormone trafficking. Endothelium of the interior surfaces of the heart chambers is called endocardium. An impaired function can lead to serious health issues throughout the body. Structure The endothelium is a thin layer of single flat (squamous) cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. Endothelium is of mesodermal origin. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells called a monolayer. In straight sections of a blood vessel, vascular endothelial cells typically align and elongate in the direction of fluid flow. Terminology The foundational model of anatomy, an index of terms used to describe anatomical structures, makes a distinction between endothelial cells and epithelial cells on the basis of which tissues they develop from, and states that the presence of vimentin rather than keratin filaments separates these from epithelial cells. Many considered the endothelium a specialized epithelial tissue. Function The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. This forms a barrier between v Document 4::: The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body. The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them through sweating. Only the organs specifically used for the excretion are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term refers to the urinary system. However, as excretion involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system. Breaking down of one of more of the systems is a serious health condition, for example kidney failure. Systems Urinary system The kidneys are large, bean-shaped organs which are present on each side of the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Humans have two kidneys and each kidney is supplied with blood from the renal artery. The kidneys remove from the blood the nitrogenous wastes such as urea, as well as salts and excess water, and excrete them in the form of urine. This is done with the help of millions of nephrons present in the kidney. The filtrated blood is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein (or kidney vein). The urine from the kidney is collected by the ureter (or excretory tubes), one from each kidney, and is passed to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder collects and stores the urine until urination. The urine collected in the bladder is passed into the external environment from the body through an opening called The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the pair of bean-shaped organs that filters blood and produces urine? A. kidneys B. arteries C. heart D. lungs Answer:
ai2_arc-615	multiple_choice	Which of the following characteristics of an individual wolf is most affected by its environment?	[ "the size of its feet", "the color of its eyes", "the shape of its ears", "the condition of its fur" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Comparative cognition is the comparative study of the mechanisms and origins of cognition in various species, and is sometimes seen as more general than, or similar to, comparative psychology. From a biological point of view, work is being done on the brains of fruit flies that should yield techniques precise enough to allow an understanding of the workings of the human brain on a scale appreciative of individual groups of neurons rather than the more regional scale previously used. Similarly, gene activity in the human brain is better understood through examination of the brains of mice by the Seattle-based Allen Institute for Brain Science (see link below), yielding the freely available Allen Brain Atlas. This type of study is related to comparative cognition, but better classified as one of comparative genomics. Increasing emphasis in psychology and ethology on the biological aspects of perception and behavior is bridging the gap between genomics and behavioral analysis. In order for scientists to better understand cognitive function across a broad range of species they can systematically compare cognitive abilities between closely and distantly related species Through this process they can determine what kinds of selection pressure has led to different cognitive abilities across a broad range of animals. For example, it has been hypothesized that there is convergent evolution of the higher cognitive functions of corvids and apes, possibly due to both being omnivorous, visual animals that live in social groups. The development of comparative cognition has been ongoing for decades, including contributions from many researchers worldwide. Additionally, there are several key species used as model organisms in the study of comparative cognition. Methodology The aspects of animals which can reasonably be compared across species depend on the species of comparison, whether that be human to animal comparisons or comparisons between animals of varying species but near Document 1::: The evolution of cognition is the process by which life on Earth has gone from organisms with little to no cognitive function to a greatly varying display of cognitive function that we see in organisms today. Animal cognition is largely studied by observing behavior, which makes studying extinct species difficult. The definition of cognition varies by discipline; psychologists tend define cognition by human behaviors, while ethologists have widely varying definitions. Ethological definitions of cognition range from only considering cognition in animals to be behaviors exhibited in humans, while others consider anything action involving a nervous system to be cognitive. Methods of study Studying the evolution of cognition is accomplished through a comparative cognitive approach where a cognitive ability and comparing it between closely related species and distantly related species. For example, a researcher may want to analyze the connection between spatial memory and food caching behavior. By examining two closely related animals (chickadees and jays) and/or two distantly related animals (jays and chipmunks), hypotheses could be generated about when and how this cognitive ability evolved. Another way cognition has been studied in animals, specifically insects, is through a cognitive test battery. This method measures "intelligence directly with a battery of cognitive tests rather than relying on proxies like relative brain size." Animals with high levels of cognition Higher cognitive processes have evolved in many closely and distantly related animals. Some of these examples are considered convergent evolution, while others most likely shared a common ancestor that possessed higher cognitive function. For example, apes humans, and cetaceans most likely had a common ancestor with high levels of cognition, and as these species diverged they all possessed this trait. Corvids (the crow family) and apes show similar cognitive abilities in some areas such as tool us Document 2::: Personality in animals has been investigated across a variety of different scientific fields including agricultural science, animal behaviour, anthropology, psychology, veterinary medicine, and zoology. Thus, the definition for animal personality may vary according to the context and scope of study. However, there is recent consensus in the literature for a broad definition that describes animal personality as individual differences in behaviour that are consistent across time and ecological context. Here, consistency refers to the repeatability of behavioural differences between individuals and not a trait that presents itself the same way in varying environments. Animal personality traits are measurable and are described in over 100 species. Personality in animals has also been referred to as animal disposition, coping style, and temperament. There are also personality norms through the species, often found between genders. The diversity of animal personality can be compared in cross-species studies, demonstrating its pervasiveness in the evolutionary process of animals. Research on animal personality variation has been burgeoning since the mid 1990s. Recent studies have focused on its proximate causation and the ecological and evolutionary significance of personality in animals. Animal personality vs. human personality The extent of personality phenomena considered when examining animal personality is significantly reduced compared to those studied in humans. Concepts such as personal objects, identity, attitudes and life stories are not considered relevant in animals. Similarly, any approach that requires the subject to explain motives, beliefs or feelings is not applicable to the study of animal behaviour. The study of animal personality is largely based on the observation and investigation of behavioural traits. In an ecological context, traits or ‘characters’ are attributes of an organism that are shared by members of a species. Traits can be shared by Document 3::: Wolves are sometimes kept as exotic pets, and in some rarer occasions, as working animals. Although closely related to domesticated dogs, wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans, and generally, a greater amount of effort is required in order to obtain the same amount of reliability. Wolves also need much more space than dogs, about 25 to 40 square kilometres (10 to 15 sq mi) so they can exercise. Rearing Captive wolf puppies are usually taken from their mother at the age of 14 days, preferably no later than 21 days. Wolf pups require more socialisation than dog pups, and will typically stop responding to socialisation at the age of 19 days, as opposed to dogs which can still be socialised at the age of 16 weeks. For the first four months of their lives, wolf pups need to be kept isolated from adult canines, except for a few brief visits per week, in order for them to properly imprint on humans. Pups will typically develop behavioural abnormalities if raised without another member of their own kind. Because wolf milk contains more arginine than can be found in puppy milk substitutes, an arginine supplement is needed when feeding pups below the weaning age. Failure to do so can result in the pups developing cataracts. Temperament Captive wolves are generally shy and avoid eye contact with humans other than their primary human companion, as well as not listening to any commands made by any other humans. They usually vacate rooms or hide when a new person enters the establishment. Even seemingly friendly wolves need to be treated with caution, as captive wolves tend to view and treat people as other wolves, and will thus bite or dominate people in the same situation in which they would other wolves. Ordinary pet food is inadequate, as an adult wolf needs 1–2.5 kg (2–5 lbs) of meat daily along with bones, skin and fur to meet its nutritional requirements. Wolves may defend their food against people, and react violently to people t Document 4::: Eric Michael Johnson (20 March 2014). The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us From Other Animals, by Thomas Suddendorf. The Times Higher Education. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Which of the following characteristics of an individual wolf is most affected by its environment? A. the size of its feet B. the color of its eyes C. the shape of its ears D. the condition of its fur Answer:
sciq-9582	multiple_choice	Organisms cannot live alone, needing other organisms to survive; what is this relationship called?	[ "independence", "interdependence", "dominance", "coexistence" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Microbial population biology is the application of the principles of population biology to microorganisms. Distinguishing from other biological disciplines Microbial population biology, in practice, is the application of population ecology and population genetics toward understanding the ecology and evolution of bacteria, archaebacteria, microscopic fungi (such as yeasts), additional microscopic eukaryotes (e.g., "protozoa" and algae), and viruses. Microbial population biology also encompasses the evolution and ecology of community interactions (community ecology) between microorganisms, including microbial coevolution and predator-prey interactions. In addition, microbial population biology considers microbial interactions with more macroscopic organisms (e.g., host-parasite interactions), though strictly this should be more from the perspective of the microscopic rather than the macroscopic organism. A good deal of microbial population biology may be described also as microbial evolutionary ecology. On the other hand, typically microbial population biologists (unlike microbial ecologists) are less concerned with questions of the role of microorganisms in ecosystem ecology, which is the study of nutrient cycling and energy movement between biotic as well as abiotic components of ecosystems. Microbial population biology can include aspects of molecular evolution or phylogenetics. Strictly, however, these emphases should be employed toward understanding issues of microbial evolution and ecology rather than as a means of understanding more universal truths applicable to both microscopic and macroscopic organisms. The microorganisms in such endeavors consequently should be recognized as organisms rather than simply as molecular or evolutionary reductionist model systems. Thus, the study of RNA in vitro evolution is not microbial population biology and nor is the in silico generation of phylogenies of otherwise non-microbial sequences, even if aspects of either may Document 1::: Hierarchy theory is a means of studying ecological systems in which the relationship between all of the components is of great complexity. Hierarchy theory focuses on levels of organization and issues of scale, with a specific focus on the role of the observer in the definition of the system. Complexity in this context does not refer to an intrinsic property of the system but to the possibility of representing the systems in a plurality of non-equivalent ways depending on the pre-analytical choices of the observer. Instead of analyzing the whole structure, hierarchy theory refers to the analysis of hierarchical levels, and the interactions between them. See also Biological organisation Timothy F. H. Allen Deep history Big history Deep time Deep ecology Infrastructure-based development World-systems theory Structuralist economics Dependency theory Document 2::: In ecology, a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, or long-term, both often strongly influence the adaptation and evolution of the species involved. Biological interactions range from mutualism, beneficial to both partners, to competition, harmful to both partners. Interactions can be direct when physical contact is established or indirect, through intermediaries such as shared resources, territories, ecological services, metabolic waste, toxins or growth inhibitors. This type of relationship can be shown by net effect based on individual effects on both organisms arising out of relationship. Several recent studies have suggested non-trophic species interactions such as habitat modification and mutualisms can be important determinants of food web structures. However, it remains unclear whether these findings generalize across ecosystems, and whether non-trophic interactions affect food webs randomly, or affect specific trophic levels or functional groups. History Although biological interactions, more or less individually, were studied earlier, Edward Haskell (1949) gave an integrative approach to the thematic, proposing a classification of "co-actions", later adopted by biologists as "interactions". Close and long-term interactions are described as symbiosis; symbioses that are mutually beneficial are called mutualistic. The term symbiosis was subject to a century-long debate about whether it should specifically denote mutualism, as in lichens or in parasites that benefit themselves. This debate created two different classifications for biotic interactions, one based on the time (long-term and short-term interactions), and other based on the magnitud of interaction force (competition/mutualism) or effect of individual fitness, accordi Document 3::: This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms. It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Glossary of genetics, Glossary of evolutionary biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science and Glossary of scientific naming, or any of the organism-specific glossaries in :Category:Glossaries of biology. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W X Y Z Related to this search Index of biology articles Outline of biology Glossaries of sub-disciplines and related fields: Glossary of botany Glossary of ecology Glossary of entomology Glossary of environmental science Glossary of genetics Glossary of ichthyology Glossary of ornithology Glossary of scientific naming Glossary of speciation Glossary of virology Document 4::: Biological organisation is the organisation of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach. The traditional hierarchy, as detailed below, extends from atoms to biospheres. The higher levels of this scheme are often referred to as an ecological organisation concept, or as the field, hierarchical ecology. Each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organisational complexity, with each "object" being primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit. The basic principle behind the organisation is the concept of emergence—the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and irrelevant at the lower levels. The biological organisation of life is a fundamental premise for numerous areas of scientific research, particularly in the medical sciences. Without this necessary degree of organisation, it would be much more difficult—and likely impossible—to apply the study of the effects of various physical and chemical phenomena to diseases and physiology (body function). For example, fields such as cognitive and behavioral neuroscience could not exist if the brain was not composed of specific types of cells, and the basic concepts of pharmacology could not exist if it was not known that a change at the cellular level can affect an entire organism. These applications extend into the ecological levels as well. For example, DDT's direct insecticidal effect occurs at the subcellular level, but affects higher levels up to and including multiple ecosystems. Theoretically, a change in one atom could change the entire biosphere. Levels The simple standard biological organisation scheme, from the lowest level to the highest level, is as follows: More complex schemes incorporate many more levels. For example, a molecule can be viewed as a grouping of elements, and an atom can be further divided into subatomic particles (these levels are outside the scope of biological organisation). Each level can The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Organisms cannot live alone, needing other organisms to survive; what is this relationship called? A. independence B. interdependence C. dominance D. coexistence Answer:
sciq-1400	multiple_choice	Graded potentials are temporary changes in what, the characteristics of which depend on the size of the stimuli?	[ "organic voltage", "components voltage", "membrane voltage", "organism voltage" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In physiology, electrotonus refers to the passive spread of charge inside a neuron and between cardiac muscle cells or smooth muscle cells. Passive means that voltage-dependent changes in membrane conductance do not contribute. Neurons and other excitable cells produce two types of electrical potential: Electrotonic potential (or graded potential), a non-propagated local potential, resulting from a local change in ionic conductance (e.g. synaptic or sensory that engenders a local current). When it spreads along a stretch of membrane, it becomes exponentially smaller (decrement). Action potential, a propagated impulse. Electrotonic potentials represent changes to the neuron's membrane potential that do not lead to the generation of new current by action potentials. However, all action potentials are begun by electrotonic potentials depolarizing the membrane above the threshold potential which converts the electrotonic potential into an action potential. Neurons which are small in relation to their length, such as some neurons in the brain, have only electrotonic potentials (starburst amacrine cells in the retina are believed to have these properties); longer neurons utilize electrotonic potentials to trigger the action potential. Electrotonic potentials have an amplitude that is usually 5-20 mV and they can last from 1 ms up to several seconds long. In order to quantify the behavior of electrotonic potentials there are two constants that are commonly used: the membrane time constant τ, and the membrane length constant λ. The membrane time constant measures the amount of time for an electrotonic potential to passively fall to 1/e or 37% of its maximum. A typical value for neurons can be from 1 to 20 ms. The membrane length constant measures how far it takes for an electrotonic potential to fall to 1/e or 37% of its amplitude at the place where it began. Common values for the length constant of dendrites are from .1 to 1 mm. Electrotonic potentials are conducted fa Document 1::: Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential that vary in size, as opposed to being all-or-none. They include diverse potentials such as receptor potentials, electrotonic potentials, subthreshold membrane potential oscillations, slow-wave potential, pacemaker potentials, and synaptic potentials, which scale with the magnitude of the stimulus. They arise from the summation of the individual actions of ligand-gated ion channel proteins, and decrease over time and space. They do not typically involve voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels. These impulses are incremental and may be excitatory or inhibitory. They occur at the postsynaptic dendrite in response to presynaptic neuron firing and release of neurotransmitter, or may occur in skeletal, smooth, or cardiac muscle in response to nerve input. The magnitude of a graded potential is determined by the strength of the stimulus. EPSPs Graded potentials that make the membrane potential less negative or more positive, thus making the postsynaptic cell more likely to have an action potential, are called excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). Depolarizing local potentials sum together, and if the voltage reaches the threshold potential, an action potential occurs in that cell. EPSPs are caused by the influx of Na+ or Ca2+ from the extracellular space into the neuron or muscle cell. When the presynaptic neuron has an action potential, Ca2+ enters the axon terminal via voltage-dependent calcium channels and causes exocytosis of synaptic vesicles, causing neurotransmitter to be released. The transmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and activates ligand-gated ion channels that mediate the EPSP. The amplitude of the EPSP is directly proportional to the number of synaptic vesicles that were released. If the EPSP is not large enough to trigger an action potential, the membrane subsequently repolarizes to its resting membrane potential. This shows the temporary and reversible nature of graded potentials. Document 2::: Spike directivity is a vector that quantifies changes in transient charge density during action potential propagation. The digital-like uniformity of action potentials is contradicted by experimental data. Electrophysiologists have observed that the shape of recorded action potentials changes in time. Recent experimental evidence has shown that action potentials in neurons are subject to waveform modulation while they travel down axons or dendrites. The action potential waveform can be modulated by neuron geometry, local alterations in the ion conductance, and other biophysical properties including neurotransmitter release. See also Cellular neuroscience Neuron NeuroElectroDynamics Document 3::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 4::: Neural coding (or neural representation) is a neuroscience field concerned with characterising the hypothetical relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses and the relationship among the electrical activity of the neurons in the ensemble. Based on the theory that sensory and other information is represented in the brain by networks of neurons, it is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog information. Overview Neurons have an ability uncommon among the cells of the body to propagate signals rapidly over large distances by generating characteristic electrical pulses called action potentials: voltage spikes that can travel down axons. Sensory neurons change their activities by firing sequences of action potentials in various temporal patterns, with the presence of external sensory stimuli, such as light, sound, taste, smell and touch. Information about the stimulus is encoded in this pattern of action potentials and transmitted into and around the brain. Beyond this, specialized neurons, such as those of the retina, can communicate more information through graded potentials. This differs from action potentials because information about the strength of a stimulus directly correlates with the strength of the neurons output. The signal decays much faster for graded potentials, necessitating short inter-neuron distances and high neuronal density. The advantage of graded potentials are higher information rates capable of encoding more states (i.e. higher fidelity) than spiking neurons. Although action potentials can vary somewhat in duration, amplitude and shape, they are typically treated as identical stereotyped events in neural coding studies. If the brief duration of an action potential (about 1ms) is ignored, an action potential sequence, or spike train, can be characterized simply by a series of all-or-none point events in time. The lengths of interspike intervals (ISIs) between two successive spikes in a spi The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Graded potentials are temporary changes in what, the characteristics of which depend on the size of the stimuli? A. organic voltage B. components voltage C. membrane voltage D. organism voltage Answer:
sciq-7898	multiple_choice	Normally, only traces of protein are found in urine, and when higher amounts are found, damage to what is the likely cause?	[ "aeration", "occidentalis", "Hypothyroid", "glomeruli" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Tubular proteinuria is proteinuria (excessive protein in the urine) caused by renal tubular dysfunction. Proteins of low molecular weight are normally filtered at the glomerulus of the kidney and are then normally reabsorbed by the tubular cells, so that less than 150 mg per day should appear in the urine. Low-molecular-weight proteins' appearing in larger quantities than this is tubular proteinuria, which points to failure of reabsorption by damaged tubular cells. Tubular proteinuria is a laboratory sign, not a disease; as a sign it appears in various syndromes and diseases, such as Fanconi syndrome. Urine Document 1::: Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates many by-products that are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These by-products are expelled from the body during urination, which is the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body. A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body. Urine plays an important role in the earth's nitrogen cycle. In balanced ecosystems, urine fertilizes the soil and thus helps plants to grow. Therefore, urine can be used as a fertilizer. Some animals use it to mark their territories. Historically, aged or fermented urine (known as lant) was also used for gunpowder production, household cleaning, tanning of leather and dyeing of textiles. Human urine and feces are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta, and are managed via sanitation systems. Livestock urine and feces also require proper management if the livestock population density is high. Physiology Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea, removed by perspiration. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing from the body. Duration Research looking at the duration Document 2::: Urophagia is the consumption of urine. Urine was used in several ancient cultures for various health, healing, and cosmetic purposes; urine drinking is still practiced today. In extreme cases, people may drink urine if no other fluids are available, although numerous credible sources (including the US Army Field Manual) advise against using it. Urine may also be consumed as a sexual activity. Reasons for urophagia As an emergency survival technique Survival guides such as the US Army Field Manual, the SAS Survival Handbook, and others generally advise against drinking urine for survival. These guides state that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when no other fluid is available. In one incident, Aron Ralston drank urine when trapped for several days with his arm under a boulder. Survivalist television host Bear Grylls drank urine and encouraged others to do so on several episodes on his TV shows. Folk medicine In various cultures, alternative medicine applications exist of urine from humans, or animals such as camels or cattle, for medicinal or cosmetic purposes, including drinking of one's own urine, but no evidence supports their use. Health warnings The World Health Organization has found that the pathogens contained in urine rarely pose a health risk. However, it does caution that in areas where Schistosoma haematobium is prevalent, it can be transmitted from person to person. Document 3::: Urine flow rate or urinary flow rate is the volumetric flow rate of urine during urination. It is a measure of the quantity of urine excreted in a specified period of time (per second or per minute). It is measured with uroflowmetry, a type of flow measurement. The letters "V" (for volume) and "Q" (a conventional symbol for flow rate) are both used as a symbol for urine flow rate. The V often has a dot (overdot), that is, V̇ ("V-dot"). Qmax indicates the maximum flow rate. Qmax is used as an indicator for the diagnosis of enlarged prostate. A lower Qmax may indicate that the enlarged prostate puts pressure on the urethra, partially occluding it. Uroflowmetry is performed by urinating into a special urinal, toilet, or disposable device that has a measuring device built in. The average rate changes with age. Clinical usage Changes in the urine flow rate can be indicative of kidney, prostate or other renal disorders. Similarly, by measuring urine flow rate, it is possible to calculate the clearance of metabolites that are used as clinical markers for disease. The urinary flow rate in males with benign prostate hyperplasia is influenced, although not statistically by voiding position. In a meta-analysis on the influence of voiding position in males on urodynamics, males with this condition showed an improvement of 1.23 ml/s in the sitting position. Healthy, young males were not influenced by changing voiding position. See also Urodynamics Document 4::: Reference ranges for urine tests are described below: See also Reference range Reference ranges for blood tests The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Normally, only traces of protein are found in urine, and when higher amounts are found, damage to what is the likely cause? A. aeration B. occidentalis C. Hypothyroid D. glomeruli Answer:
ai2_arc-523	multiple_choice	Manuel wants an area in the yard to wash the dog without making mud puddles. He wants to put something on the ground that water passes through easily. Which of these materials would be the best for him to use?	[ "clay", "plastic", "soil", "pebbles" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: The Géotechnique lecture is an biennial lecture on the topic of soil mechanics, organised by the British Geotechnical Association named after its major scientific journal Géotechnique. This should not be confused with the annual BGA Rankine Lecture. List of Géotechnique Lecturers See also Named lectures Rankine Lecture Terzaghi Lecture External links ICE Géotechnique journal British Geotechnical Association Document 2::: In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH. Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid. Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model. Motivation Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate What the student can do and What the student is ready to learn. Model structure Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of Document 3::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 4::: Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations. Academic courses Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism. Example universities with CSE majors and departments APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University American International University-B The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Manuel wants an area in the yard to wash the dog without making mud puddles. He wants to put something on the ground that water passes through easily. Which of these materials would be the best for him to use? A. clay B. plastic C. soil D. pebbles Answer:
sciq-6240	multiple_choice	What happens if a catalyst runs out?	[ "reaction slows", "variety slows", "reaction increases", "variety increases" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The limiting reagent (or limiting reactant or limiting agent) in a chemical reaction is a reactant that is totally consumed when the chemical reaction is completed. The amount of product formed is limited by this reagent, since the reaction cannot continue without it. If one or more other reagents are present in excess of the quantities required to react with the limiting reagent, they are described as excess reagents or excess reactants (sometimes abbreviated as "xs"), or to be in abundance. The limiting reagent must be identified in order to calculate the percentage yield of a reaction since the theoretical yield is defined as the amount of product obtained when the limiting reagent reacts completely. Given the balanced chemical equation, which describes the reaction, there are several equivalent ways to identify the limiting reagent and evaluate the excess quantities of other reagents. Method 1: Comparison of reactant amounts This method is most useful when there are only two reactants. One reactant (A) is chosen, and the balanced chemical equation is used to determine the amount of the other reactant (B) necessary to react with A. If the amount of B actually present exceeds the amount required, then B is in excess and A is the limiting reagent. If the amount of B present is less than required, then B is the limiting reagent. Example for two reactants Consider the combustion of benzene, represented by the following chemical equation: 2 C6H6(l) + 15 O2(g) -> 12 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l) This means that 15 moles of molecular oxygen (O2) is required to react with 2 moles of benzene (C6H6) The amount of oxygen required for other quantities of benzene can be calculated using cross-multiplication (the rule of three). For example, if 1.5 mol C6H6 is present, 11.25 mol O2 is required: If in fact 18 mol O2 are present, there will be an excess of (18 - 11.25) = 6.75 mol of unreacted oxygen when all the benzene is consumed. Benzene is then the limiting reagent. This concl Document 1::: The Weisz–Prater criterion is a method used to estimate the influence of pore diffusion on reaction rates in heterogeneous catalytic reactions. If the criterion is satisfied, pore diffusion limitations are negligible. The criterion is Where is the reaction rate per volume of catalyst, is the catalyst particle radius, is the reactant concentration at the particle surface, and is the effective diffusivity. Diffusion is usually in the Knudsen regime when average pore radius is less than 100 nm. For a given effectiveness factor,, and reaction order, n, the quantity is defined by the equation: for small values of beta this can be approximated using the binomial theorem: Assuming with a reaction order gives value of equal to 0.1. Therefore, for many conditions, if then pore diffusion limitations can be excluded. Document 2::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 3::: Conversion and its related terms yield and selectivity are important terms in chemical reaction engineering. They are described as ratios of how much of a reactant has reacted (X — conversion, normally between zero and one), how much of a desired product was formed (Y — yield, normally also between zero and one) and how much desired product was formed in ratio to the undesired product(s) (S — selectivity). There are conflicting definitions in the literature for selectivity and yield, so each author's intended definition should be verified. Conversion can be defined for (semi-)batch and continuous reactors and as instantaneous and overall conversion. Assumptions The following assumptions are made: The following chemical reaction takes place: , where and are the stoichiometric coefficients. For multiple parallel reactions, the definitions can also be applied, either per reaction or using the limiting reaction. Batch reaction assumes all reactants are added at the beginning. Semi-Batch reaction assumes some reactants are added at the beginning and the rest fed during the batch. Continuous reaction assumes reactants are fed and products leave the reactor continuously and in steady state. Conversion Conversion can be separated into instantaneous conversion and overall conversion. For continuous processes the two are the same, for batch and semi-batch there are important differences. Furthermore, for multiple reactants, conversion can be defined overall or per reactant. Instantaneous conversion Semi-batch In this setting there are different definitions. One definition regards the instantaneous conversion as the ratio of the instantaneously converted amount to the amount fed at any point in time: . with as the change of moles with time of species i. This ratio can become larger than 1. It can be used to indicate whether reservoirs are built up and it is ideally close to 1. When the feed stops, its value is not defined. In semi-batch polymerisation, Document 4::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What happens if a catalyst runs out? A. reaction slows B. variety slows C. reaction increases D. variety increases Answer:
sciq-5305	multiple_choice	Somatosensation refers to what of the five senses?	[ "thought", "touch", "balance", "sight" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH. Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid. Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model. Motivation Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate What the student can do and What the student is ready to learn. Model structure Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of Document 1::: The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory neurons (including the sensory receptor cells), neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception and interoception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell, balance and visceral sensation. Sense organs are transducers that convert data from the outer physical world to the realm of the mind where people interpret the information, creating their perception of the world around them. The receptive field is the area of the body or environment to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. Receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system. Stimulus Organisms need information to solve at least three kinds of problems: (a) to maintain an appropriate environment, i.e., homeostasis; (b) to time activities (e.g., seasonal changes in behavior) or synchronize activities with those of conspecifics; and (c) to locate and respond to resources or threats (e.g., by moving towards resources or evading or attacking threats). Organisms also need to transmit information in order to influence another's behavior: to identify themselves, warn conspecifics of danger, coordinate activities, or deceive. Sensory systems code for four aspects of a stimulus; type (modality), intensity, location, and duration. Arrival time of a sound pulse and phase differences of continuous sound are used for sound localization. Certain receptors are sensitive to certain types of stimuli (for example, different mechanoreceptors respond best to different kinds of touch stimuli, like sharp or blunt objects). Receptors send impulses in certain patterns to send information about the intensity of a stimul Document 2::: The Force Concept Inventory is a test measuring mastery of concepts commonly taught in a first semester of physics developed by Hestenes, Halloun, Wells, and Swackhamer (1985). It was the first such "concept inventory" and several others have been developed since for a variety of topics. The FCI was designed to assess student understanding of the Newtonian concepts of force. Hestenes (1998) found that while "nearly 80% of the [students completing introductory college physics courses] could state Newton's Third Law at the beginning of the course, FCI data showed that less than 15% of them fully understood it at the end". These results have been replicated in a number of studies involving students at a range of institutions (see sources section below), and have led to greater recognition in the physics education research community of the importance of students' "active engagement" with the materials to be mastered. The 1995 version has 30 five-way multiple choice questions. Example question (question 4): Gender differences The FCI shows a gender difference in favor of males that has been the subject of some research in regard to gender equity in education. Men score on average about 10% higher. Document 3::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 4::: Sensory neuroscience is a subfield of neuroscience which explores the anatomy and physiology of neurons that are part of sensory systems such as vision, hearing, and olfaction. Neurons in sensory regions of the brain respond to stimuli by firing one or more nerve impulses (action potentials) following stimulus presentation. How is information about the outside world encoded by the rate, timing, and pattern of action potentials? This so-called neural code is currently poorly understood and sensory neuroscience plays an important role in the attempt to decipher it. Looking at early sensory processing is advantageous since brain regions that are "higher up" (e.g. those involved in memory or emotion) contain neurons which encode more abstract representations. However, the hope is that there are unifying principles which govern how the brain encodes and processes information. Studying sensory systems is an important stepping stone in our understanding of brain function in general. Typical experiments A typical experiment in sensory neuroscience involves the presentation of a series of relevant stimuli to an experimental subject while the subject's brain is being monitored. This monitoring can be accomplished by noninvasive means such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or electroencephalography (EEG), or by more invasive means such as electrophysiology, the use of electrodes to record the electrical activity of single neurons or groups of neurons. fMRI measures changes in blood flow which related to the level of neural activity and provides low spatial and temporal resolution, but does provide data from the whole brain. In contrast, Electrophysiology provides very high temporal resolution (the shapes of single spikes can be resolved) and data can be obtained from single cells. This is important since computations are performed within the dendrites of individual neurons. Single neuron experiments In most of the central nervous system, neurons communicate ex The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Somatosensation refers to what of the five senses? A. thought B. touch C. balance D. sight Answer:
sciq-1549	multiple_choice	Algae is a promising alternative to traditional crops for what type of fuels?	[ "biofuel", "non-renewable", "fossil", "fertilizer" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The European Algae Biomass Association (EABA), established on 2 June 2009, is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies. EABA was founded during its inaugural conference on 1–2 June 2009 at Villa La Pietra in Florence. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy. History The first EABA's President, Prof. Dr. Mario Tredici, served a 2-year term since his election on 2 June 2009. The EABA Vice-presidents were Mr. Claudio Rochietta, (Oxem, Italy), Prof. Patrick Sorgeloos (University of Ghent, Belgium) and Mr. Marc Van Aken (SBAE Industries, Belgium). The EABA Executive Director was Mr. Raffaello Garofalo. EABA had 58 founding members and the EABA reached 79 members in 2011. The last election occurred on 3 December 2018 in Amsterdam. The EABA's President is Mr. Jean-Paul Cadoret (Algama / France). The EABA Vice-presidents are Prof. Dr. Sammy Boussiba (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev / Israel), Prof. Dr. Gabriel Acien (University of Almeria / Spain) and Dr. Alexandra Mosch (Germany). The EABA General Manager is Dr. Vítor Verdelho (A4F AlgaFuel, S.A. / Portugal) and Prof. Dr. Mario Tredici (University of Florence / Italy) is elected as Honorary President. Cooperation with other organisations ART Fuels Forum European Society of Biochemical Engineering Sciences Algae Biomass Organization Document 1::: Bioproducts engineering or bioprocess engineering refers to engineering of bio-products from renewable bioresources. This pertains to the design and development of processes and technologies for the sustainable manufacture of bioproducts (materials, chemicals and energy) from renewable biological resources. Bioproducts engineers harness the molecular building blocks of renewable resources to design, develop and manufacture environmentally friendly industrial and consumer products. From biofuels, renewable energy, and bioplastics to paper products and "green" building materials such as bio-based composites, Bioproducts engineers are developing sustainable solutions to meet the world's growing materials and energy demand. Conventional bioproducts and emerging bioproducts are two broad categories used to categorize bioproducts. Examples of conventional bio-based products include building materials, pulp and paper, and forest products. Examples of emerging bioproducts or biobased products include biofuels, bioenergy, starch-based and cellulose-based ethanol, bio-based adhesives, biochemicals, biodegradable plastics, etc. Bioproducts Engineers play a major role in the design and development of "green" products including biofuels, bioenergy, biodegradable plastics, biocomposites, building materials, paper and chemicals. Bioproducts engineers also develop energy efficient, environmentally friendly manufacturing processes for these products as well as effective end-use applications. Bioproducts engineers play a critical role in a sustainable 21st century bio-economy by using renewable resources to design, develop, and manufacture the products we use every day. The career outlook for bioproducts engineers is very bright with employment opportunities in a broad range of industries, including pulp and paper, alternative energy, renewable plastics, and other fiber, forest products, building materials and chemical-based industries. Commonly referred to as bioprocess engineerin Document 2::: Wageningen UR (University & Research centre) has constructed AlgaePARC (Algae Production And Research Centre) at the Wageningen Campus. The goal of AlgaePARC is to fill the gap between fundamental research on algae and full-scale algae production facilities. This will be done by setting up flexible pilot scale facilities to perform applied research and obtain direct practical experience. It is a joined initiative of BioProcess Engineering and Food & Biobased Research of the Wageningen University. AlgaePARC facility AlgaePARC uses four different photobioreactors comprising 24 m2 ground surface: an open pond, two types of tubular reactors and a plastic film bioreactor, and a number of smaller systems for the testing of new technologies. This facility is unique, because it is the first facility in which the productivity of four different production systems can be compared during the year under identical conditions. At the same time, knowledge is gained for the development of new photobioreactors and the design of systems on a production scale. For the construction of the facility 2.25 M€ has been made available by the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (1.5 M€) and the Provincie Gelderland (0.75 M€). Microalgae Microalgae are currently seen by some persons as a promising source of biodiesel and chemical building blocks, which can be used in paint and plastics. Biomass from algae offers a sustainable alternative to products and fuels from the petrochemical industry. When fully developed this contributes to a biobased economy as algae help to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and make the economy less dependent on fossil fuels. AlgaePARC research The costs of biomass produced from algae for biofuels are still ten times too high to be able to compete with today’s other fuels. Within the business community, the question being asked is how it could be produced more cheaply, making it economically viable. Companies within the energy, food, oil an Document 3::: A biorefinery is a refinery that converts biomass to energy and other beneficial byproducts (such as chemicals). The International Energy Agency Bioenergy Task 42 defined biorefining as "the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of bio-based products (food, feed, chemicals, materials) and bioenergy (biofuels, power and/or heat)". As refineries, biorefineries can provide multiple chemicals by fractioning an initial raw material (biomass) into multiple intermediates (carbohydrates, proteins, triglycerides) that can be further converted into value-added products. Each refining phase is also referred to as a "cascading phase". The use of biomass as feedstock can provide a benefit by reducing the impacts on the environment, as lower pollutants emissions and reduction in the emissions of hazard products. In addition, biorefineries are intended to achieve the following goals: Supply the current fuels and chemical building blocks Supply new building blocks for the production of novel materials with disruptive characteristics Creation of new jobs, including rural areas Valorization of waste (agricultural, urban, and industrial waste) Achieve the ultimate goal of reducing GHG emissions Classification of biorefinery systems Biorefineries can be classified based in four main features: Platforms: Refers to key intermediates between raw material and final products. The most important intermediates are: Biogas from anaerobic digestion Syngas from gasification Hydrogen from water-gas shift reaction, steam reforming, water electrolysis and fermentation C6 sugars from hydrolysis of sucrose, starch, cellulose and hemicellulose C5 sugars (e.g., xylose, arabinose: C5H10O5), from hydrolysis of hemicellulose and food and feed side streams Lignin from the processing of lignocellulosic biomass. Liquid from pyrolysis (pyrolysis oil) Products: Biorefineries can be grouped in two main categories according to the conversion of biomass in an energetic or non-energet Document 4::: Cellulosic ethanol is ethanol (ethyl alcohol) produced from cellulose (the stringy fiber of a plant) rather than from the plant's seeds or fruit. It can be produced from grasses, wood, algae, or other plants. It is generally discussed for use as a biofuel. The carbon dioxide that plants absorb as they grow offsets some of the carbon dioxide emitted when ethanol made from them is burned, so cellulosic ethanol fuel has the potential to have a lower carbon footprint than fossil fuels. Interest in cellulosic ethanol is driven by its potential to replace ethanol made from corn or sugarcane. Since these plants are also used for food products, diverting them for ethanol production can cause food prices to rise; cellulose-based sources, on the other hand, generally do not compete with food, since the fibrous parts of plants are mostly inedible to humans. Another potential advantage is the high diversity and abundance of cellulose sources; grasses, trees and algae are found in almost every environment on Earth. Even municipal solid waste components like paper could conceivably be made into ethanol. The main current disadvantage of cellulosic ethanol is its high cost of production, which is more complex and requires more steps than corn-based or sugarcane-based ethanol. Cellulosic ethanol received significant attention in the 2000s and early 2010s. The United States government in particular funded research into its commercialization and set targets for the proportion of cellulosic ethanol added to vehicle fuel. A large number of new companies specializing in cellulosic ethanol, in addition to many existing companies, invested in pilot-scale production plants. However, the much cheaper manufacturing of grain-based ethanol, along with the low price of oil in the 2010s, meant that cellulosic ethanol was not competitive with these established fuels. As a result, most of the new refineries were closed by the mid-2010s and many of the newly founded companies became insolvent. A f The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Algae is a promising alternative to traditional crops for what type of fuels? A. biofuel B. non-renewable C. fossil D. fertilizer Answer:
sciq-6021	multiple_choice	What type of animals breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults?	[ "reptiles", "mammals", "insects", "amphibians" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Aquatic respiration is the process whereby an aquatic organism exchanges respiratory gases with water, obtaining oxygen from oxygen dissolved in water and excreting carbon dioxide and some other metabolic waste products into the water. Unicellular and simple small organisms In very small animals, plants and bacteria, simple diffusion of gaseous metabolites is sufficient for respiratory function and no special adaptations are found to aid respiration. Passive diffusion or active transport are also sufficient mechanisms for many larger aquatic animals such as many worms, jellyfish, sponges, bryozoans and similar organisms. In such cases, no specific respiratory organs or organelles are found. Higher plants Although higher plants typically use carbon dioxide and excrete oxygen during photosynthesis, they also respire and, particularly during darkness, many plants excrete carbon dioxide and require oxygen to maintain normal functions. In fully submerged aquatic higher plants specialised structures such as stoma on leaf surfaces to control gas interchange. In many species, these structures can be controlled to be open or closed depending on environmental conditions. In conditions of high light intensity and relatively high carbonate ion concentrations, oxygen may be produced in sufficient quantities to form gaseous bubbles on the surface of leaves and may produce oxygen super-saturation in the surrounding water body. Animals All animals that practice truly aquatic respiration are poikilothermic. All aquatic homeothermic animals and birds including cetaceans and penguins are air breathing despite a fully aquatic life-style. Echinoderms Echinoderms have a specialised water vascular system which provides a number of functions including providing the hydraulic power for tube feet but also serves to convey oxygenated sea water into the body and carry waste water out again. In many genera, the water enters through a madreporite, a sieve like structure on the upper surfac Document 1::: Amphibious fish are fish that are able to leave water for extended periods of time. About 11 distantly related genera of fish are considered amphibious. This suggests that many fish genera independently evolved amphibious traits, a process known as convergent evolution. These fish use a range of terrestrial locomotory modes, such as lateral undulation, tripod-like walking (using paired fins and tail), and jumping. Many of these locomotory modes incorporate multiple combinations of pectoral-, pelvic-, and tail-fin movement. Many ancient fish had lung-like organs, and a few, such as the lungfish and bichir, still do. Some of these ancient "lunged" fish were the ancestors of tetrapods. In most recent fish species, though, these organs evolved into the swim bladders, which help control buoyancy. Having no lung-like organs, modern amphibious fish and many fish in oxygen-poor water use other methods, such as their gills or their skin to breathe air. Amphibious fish may also have eyes adapted to allow them to see clearly in air, despite the refractive index differences between air and water. List of amphibious fish Lung breathers Lungfish (Dipnoi): Six species have limb-like fins, and can breathe air. Some are obligate air breathers, meaning they will drown if not given access to breathe air. All but one species bury in the mud when the body of water they live in dries up, surviving up to two years until water returns. Bichir (Polypteridae): These 12 species are the only ray-finned fish to retain lungs. They are facultative air breathers, requiring access to surface air to breathe in poorly oxygenated water. Various other "lunged" fish: now extinct, a few of this group were ancestors of the stem tetrapods that led to all tetrapods: Lissamphibia, sauropsids and mammals. Gill or skin breathers Rockskippers: These blennies are found on islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. They come onto land to catch prey and escape aquatic predators, often for 20 minutes or more. Document 2::: Fish gills are organs that allow fish to breathe underwater. Most fish exchange gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide using gills that are protected under gill covers (operculum) on both sides of the pharynx (throat). Gills are tissues that are like short threads, protein structures called filaments. These filaments have many functions including the transfer of ions and water, as well as the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, acids and ammonia. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. Within the gill filaments, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing counter-current exchange. The gills push the oxygen-poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx. Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called the operculum. Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians. Previously, the evolution of gills was thought to have occurred through two diverging lines: gills formed from the endoderm, as seen in jawless fish species, or those form by the ectoderm, as seen in jawed fish. However, recent studies on gill formation of the little skate (Leucoraja erinacea) has shown potential evidence supporting the claim that gills from all current fish species have in fact evolved from a common ancestor. Breathing with gills Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, are obligated to breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish Hypostomus plecostomus, only breathe air if they need to and can otherwise rely on their gills f Document 3::: Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. As of 2022, 2.16 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are around 7.77 million animal species. Animals range in length from to . They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology. Most living animal species are in Bilateria, a clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. The Bilateria include the protostomes, containing animals such as nematodes, arthropods, flatworms, annelids and molluscs, and the deuterostomes, containing the echinoderms and the chordates, the latter including the vertebrates. Life forms interpreted as early animals were present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Precambrian. Many modern animal phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago. Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on ad Document 4::: Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1 million are insects—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million in total. Animals range in size from 8.5 millionths of a metre to long and have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The study of animals is called zoology. Animals may be listed or indexed by many criteria, including taxonomy, status as endangered species, their geographical location, and their portrayal and/or naming in human culture. By common name List of animal names (male, female, young, and group) By aspect List of common household pests List of animal sounds List of animals by number of neurons By domestication List of domesticated animals By eating behaviour List of herbivorous animals List of omnivores List of carnivores By endangered status IUCN Red List endangered species (Animalia) United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered species By extinction List of extinct animals List of extinct birds List of extinct mammals List of extinct cetaceans List of extinct butterflies By region Lists of amphibians by region Lists of birds by region Lists of mammals by region Lists of reptiles by region By individual (real or fictional) Real Lists of snakes List of individual cats List of oldest cats List of giant squids List of individual elephants List of historical horses List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses List of individual apes List of individual bears List of giant pandas List of individual birds List of individual bovines List of individual cetaceans List of individual dogs List of oldest dogs List of individual monkeys List of individual pigs List of w The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What type of animals breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults? A. reptiles B. mammals C. insects D. amphibians Answer:
sciq-1990	multiple_choice	What type of species have a large effect on the balance of organisms in an ecosystem?	[ "keystone", "decomposers", "producers", "secondary consumers" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Molecular ecology is a field of evolutionary biology that is concerned with applying molecular population genetics, molecular phylogenetics, and more recently genomics to traditional ecological questions (e.g., species diagnosis, conservation and assessment of biodiversity, species-area relationships, and many questions in behavioral ecology). It is virtually synonymous with the field of "Ecological Genetics" as pioneered by Theodosius Dobzhansky, E. B. Ford, Godfrey M. Hewitt, and others. These fields are united in their attempt to study genetic-based questions "out in the field" as opposed to the laboratory. Molecular ecology is related to the field of conservation genetics. Methods frequently include using microsatellites to determine gene flow and hybridization between populations. The development of molecular ecology is also closely related to the use of DNA microarrays, which allows for the simultaneous analysis of the expression of thousands of different genes. Quantitative PCR may also be used to analyze gene expression as a result of changes in environmental conditions or different responses by differently adapted individuals. Molecular ecology uses molecular genetic data to answer ecological question related to biogeography, genomics, conservation genetics, and behavioral ecology. Studies mostly use data based on deoxyribonucleic acid sequences (DNA). This approach has been enhanced over a number of years to allow researchers to sequence thousands of genes from a small amount of starting DNA. Allele sizes are another way researchers are able to compare individuals and populations which allows them to quantify the genetic diversity within a population and the genetic similarities among populations. Bacterial diversity Molecular ecological techniques are used to study in situ questions of bacterial diversity. Many microorganisms are not easily obtainable as cultured strains in the laboratory, which would allow for identification and characterization. I Document 1::: Ecological stoichiometry (more broadly referred to as biological stoichiometry) considers how the balance of energy and elements influences living systems. Similar to chemical stoichiometry, ecological stoichiometry is founded on constraints of mass balance as they apply to organisms and their interactions in ecosystems. Specifically, how does the balance of energy and elements affect and how is this balance affected by organisms and their interactions. Concepts of ecological stoichiometry have a long history in ecology with early references to the constraints of mass balance made by Liebig, Lotka, and Redfield. These earlier concepts have been extended to explicitly link the elemental physiology of organisms to their food web interactions and ecosystem function. Most work in ecological stoichiometry focuses on the interface between an organism and its resources. This interface, whether it is between plants and their nutrient resources or large herbivores and grasses, is often characterized by dramatic differences in the elemental composition of each part. The difference, or mismatch, between the elemental demands of organisms and the elemental composition of resources leads to an elemental imbalance. Consider termites, which have a tissue carbon:nitrogen ratio (C:N) of about 5 yet consume wood with a C:N ratio of 300–1000. Ecological stoichiometry primarily asks: why do elemental imbalances arise in nature? how is consumer physiology and life-history affected by elemental imbalances? and what are the subsequent effects on ecosystem processes? Elemental imbalances arise for a number of physiological and evolutionary reasons related to the differences in the biological make up of organisms, such as differences in types and amounts of macromolecules, organelles, and tissues. Organisms differ in the flexibility of their biological make up and therefore in the degree to which organisms can maintain a constant chemical composition in the face of variations in their Document 2::: Ecosystem diversity deals with the variations in ecosystems within a geographical location and its overall impact on human existence and the environment. Ecosystem diversity addresses the combined characteristics of biotic properties (biodiversity) and abiotic properties (geodiversity). It is a variation in the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over the whole planet. Ecological diversity includes the variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ecological diversity can also take into account the variation in the complexity of a biological community, including the number of different niches, the number of and other ecological processes. An example of ecological diversity on a global scale would be the variation in ecosystems, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands and oceans. Ecological diversity is the largest scale of biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is a great deal of both species and genetic diversity. Impact Diversity in the ecosystem is significant to human existence for a variety of reasons. Ecosystem diversity boosts the availability of oxygen via the process of photosynthesis amongst plant organisms domiciled in the habitat. Diversity in an aquatic environment helps in the purification of water by plant varieties for use by humans. Diversity increases plant varieties which serves as a good source for medicines and herbs for human use. A lack of diversity in the ecosystem produces an opposite result. Examples Some examples of ecosystems that are rich in diversity are: Deserts Forests Large marine ecosystems Marine ecosystems Old-growth forests Rainforests Tundra Coral reefs Marine Ecosystem diversity as a result of evolutionary pressure Ecological diversity around the world can be directly linked to the evolutionary and selective pressures that constrain the diversity outcome of the ecosystems within different niches. Tundras, Rainforests, coral reefs and deciduous forests all are form Document 3::: Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems is a 2006 higher education textbook on general ecology written by Michael Begon, Colin R. Townsend and John L. Harper. Published by Blackwell Publishing, it is now in its fourth edition. The first three editions were published by Blackwell Science under the title Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities. Since it first became available it has had a positive reception, and has long been one of the leading textbooks on ecology. Background and history The book is written by Michael Begon of the University of Liverpool's School of Biosciences, Colin Townsend, from the Department of Zoology of New Zealand's University of Otago, and the University of Exeter's John L. Harper. The first edition was published in 1986. This was followed in 1990 with a second edition. The third edition became available in 1996. The most recent edition appeared in 2006 under the new subtitle From Individuals to Ecosystems. One of the book's authors, John L. Harper, is now deceased. The fourth edition cover is an image of a mural on a Wellington street created by Christopher Meech and a group of urban artists to generate thought about the topic of environmental degradation. It reads "we did not inherit the earth from our ancestors, we borrowed it from our children." Contents Part 1. ORGANISMS 1. Organisms in their environments: the evolutionary backdrop 2. Conditions 3. Resources 4. Life, death and life histories 5. Intraspecific competition 6. Dispersal, dormancy and metapopulations 7. Ecological applications at the level of organisms and single-species populations Part 2. SPECIES INTERACTIONS 8. Interspecific competition 9. The nature of predation 10. The population dynamics of predation 11. Decomposers and detritivores 12. Parasitism and disease 13. Symbiosis and mutualism 14. Abundance 15. Ecological applications at the level of population interactions Part 3. COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS 16. The nature of the community 17. Document 4::: The Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED) is one of the ten research institutes of the Faculty of Science of the Universiteit van Amsterdam. IBED employs more than 100 researchers, with PhD students and Postdocs forming a majority, and 30 supporting staff. The total annual budget is around 10 m€, of which more than 40 per cent comes from external grants and contracts. The main output consist of publications in peer reviewed journals and books (on average 220 per year). Each year around 15 PhD students defend their thesis and obtain their degree from the Universiteit van Amsterdam. The institute is managed by a general director appointed by the Dean of the Faculty for a period of five years, assisted by a business manager. Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics is to increase our insights in the functioning and biodiversity of ecosystems in all their complexity. Knowledge of the interactions between living organisms and processes in their physical and chemical environment is essential for a better understanding of the dynamics of ecosystems at different temporal and spatial scales. Organization of IBED Research IBED research is organized in the following three themes: Theme I: Biodiversity and Evolution The main question of Theme I research is how patterns in biodiversity can be explained from underlying processes: speciation and extinction, dispersal and the (dis)appearance of geographical barriers, reproductive isolation and hybridisation of taxa. Modern reconstructions of the history of life on earth rely heavily on analyses of DNA data that contain the footprints of the past. Research related to human-made effects on biodiversity includes the identification of endangered biodiversity hotspots affected by global change, potential risks of an escape of transgenes from crops to wild species, and the consequences of habitat fragmentation for the viability and genetic diversity of populations and The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What type of species have a large effect on the balance of organisms in an ecosystem? A. keystone B. decomposers C. producers D. secondary consumers Answer:
sciq-3657	multiple_choice	Trichomoniasis is cause by what type of pathogen?	[ "bacteria", "protozoa", "virus", "worm" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ. The term pathogen came into use in the 1880s. Typically, the term pathogen is used to describe an infectious microorganism or agent, such as a virus, bacterium, protozoan, prion, viroid, or fungus. Small animals, such as helminths and insects, can also cause or transmit disease. However, these animals are usually referred to as parasites rather than pathogens. The scientific study of microscopic organisms, including microscopic pathogenic organisms, is called microbiology, while parasitology refers to the scientific study of parasites and the organisms that host them. There are several pathways through which pathogens can invade a host. The principal pathways have different episodic time frames, but soil has the longest or most persistent potential for harboring a pathogen. Diseases in humans that are caused by infectious agents are known as pathogenic diseases. Not all diseases are caused by pathogens, such as black lung from exposure to the pollutant coal dust, genetic disorders like sickle cell disease, and autoimmune diseases like lupus. Pathogenicity Pathogenicity is the potential disease-causing capacity of pathogens, involving a combination of infectivity (pathogen's ability to infect hosts) and virulence (severity of host disease). Koch's postulates are used to establish causal relationships between microbial pathogens and diseases. Whereas meningitis can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens, cholera is only caused by some strains of Vibrio cholerae. Additionally, some pathogens may only cause disease in hosts with an immunodeficiency. These opportunistic infections often involve hospital-acquired infections among patients already combating another condition. Infectivity involves path Document 1::: MicrobeLibrary is a permanent collection of over 1400 original peer-reviewed resources for teaching undergraduate microbiology. It is provided by the American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC, United States. Contents include curriculum activities; images and animations; reviews of books, websites and other resources; and articles from Focus on Microbiology Education, Microbiology Education and Microbe. Around 40% of the materials are free to educators and students, the remainder require a subscription. the service is suspended with the message to: "Please check back with us in 2017". External links MicrobeLibrary Microbiology Document 2::: Germ theory denialism is the pseudoscientific belief that germs do not cause infectious disease, and that the germ theory of disease is wrong. It usually involves arguing that Louis Pasteur's model of infectious disease was wrong, and that Antoine Béchamp's was right. In fact, its origins are rooted in Béchamp's empirically disproven (in the context of disease) theory of pleomorphism. Another obsolete variation is known as terrain theory and postulates that the state of the internal environment determines if germs cause disease rather than germs being the sole cause of it. History Germ theory denialism (GTD) is as old as germ theory itself, beginning with the rivalry of Pasteur and Béchamp. Pasteur's work in preventing beverage contamination led him to discover that it was due to microorganisms and led him to become the first scientist to prove the validity of the theory and to popularize it in Europe. Before him, scientists such as Girolamo Fracastoro (who had the idea that fomites could harbor the seeds of contagion), Agostino Bassi (who discovered that the muscardine disease of silkworms was caused by a fungus that was named Beauveria bassiana), Friedrich Henle (who developed the concepts of contagium vivum and contagium animatum), and others had proposed ideas similar to germ theory. Béchamp strongly contested Pasteur's view, proposing a competing idea known as the pleomorphic theory of disease. This theory says that all life is based on forms that a certain class of organisms take during stages of their life cycles and that germs are attracted to the environment of diseased tissue rather than being the cause of it. Proponents of this idea insist that microbes that live in an organism go through the same stages of their development. According to Günther Enderlein, the stages are as follows: colloid – microbe (primitive phase) bacteria (middle phase) fungus (end phase) Terrain theory The terrain theory is a variation of Béchamp's ideas that is also an Document 3::: Host factor (sometimes known as risk factor) is a medical term referring to the traits of an individual person or animal that affect susceptibility to disease, especially in comparison to other individuals. The term arose in the context of infectious disease research, in contrast to "organism factors", such as the virulence and infectivity of a microbe. Host factors that may vary in a population and affect disease susceptibility can be innate or acquired. Some examples: general health psychological characteristics and attitude nutritional state social ties previous exposure to the organism or related antigens haplotype or other specific genetic differences of immune function substance abuse race The term is now used in oncology and many other medical contexts related to individual differences of disease vulnerability. See also Vulnerability index Epidemiology Immunology Document 4::: A panzootic (from Greek παν all + ζόιον animal) is an epizootic (an outbreak of an infectious disease of animals) that spreads across a large region (for example a continent), or even worldwide. The equivalent in human populations is called a pandemic. A panzootic can start when three conditions have been met: the emergence of a disease new to the population. the agent infects a species and causes serious illness. the agent spreads easily and sustainably among animals. A disease or condition is not a panzootic merely because it is widespread or kills a large number of animals; it must also be infectious. For example, cancer is responsible for a large number of deaths but is not considered a panzootic because the disease is, generally speaking, not infectious. Unlike an epizootic, a panzootic covers all or nearly all species over a large surface area (ex. rabies, anthrax). Typically an enzootic or an epizootic, or their cause, may act as a potential preparatory factor . Causes of Spread and Environmental Influences Contagion and infection by far play the biggest role in the dissemination and spread of epizootic and panzootic diseases. These include virulent (ex. Cattle Plague), septic (can be caused in the change in food quality), parasitic (ex. Malaria), and miasmatic infections (ex. Typhoid Fever). Many claim that an accidental morbific cause, which infects a great number of animals which ceases activity after a prolonged time period. Certain factors come into play in the spread of certain panzootic diseases, as can be seen with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. This infection seems to be sensitive to external conditions, particularly the environments temperature and moisture. These factors leads to limitations on where the diseases can thrive, acting almost as its ‘climate niche’. Examples Persistence of H5N1 Avian Influenza Influenza A virus subtype H5N1, the highly pathogenic strain of influenza, was first detected in the goose population of Guangdon The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Trichomoniasis is cause by what type of pathogen? A. bacteria B. protozoa C. virus D. worm Answer:
sciq-7192	multiple_choice	Comparisons of amino acid sequences can shed light on the evolutionary divergence of what?	[ "birds", "related species", "mammals", "dinosaurs" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to determine the processes by which diversity among species has been achieved. The result of a molecular phylogenetic analysis is expressed in a phylogenetic tree. Molecular phylogenetics is one aspect of molecular systematics, a broader term that also includes the use of molecular data in taxonomy and biogeography. Molecular phylogenetics and molecular evolution correlate. Molecular evolution is the process of selective changes (mutations) at a molecular level (genes, proteins, etc.) throughout various branches in the tree of life (evolution). Molecular phylogenetics makes inferences of the evolutionary relationships that arise due to molecular evolution and results in the construction of a phylogenetic tree. History The theoretical frameworks for molecular systematics were laid in the 1960s in the works of Emile Zuckerkandl, Emanuel Margoliash, Linus Pauling, and Walter M. Fitch. Applications of molecular systematics were pioneered by Charles G. Sibley (birds), Herbert C. Dessauer (herpetology), and Morris Goodman (primates), followed by Allan C. Wilson, Robert K. Selander, and John C. Avise (who studied various groups). Work with protein electrophoresis began around 1956. Although the results were not quantitative and did not initially improve on morphological classification, they provided tantalizing hints that long-held notions of the classifications of birds, for example, needed substantial revision. In the period of 1974–1986, DNA-DNA hybridization was the dominant technique used to measure genetic difference. Theoretical background Early attempts at molecular systematics were also termed chemotaxonomy and made use of proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates, and other molecules that were separated and characterized using t Document 1::: Molecular evolution is the process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins across generations. The field of molecular evolution uses principles of evolutionary biology and population genetics to explain patterns in these changes. Major topics in molecular evolution concern the rates and impacts of single nucleotide changes, neutral evolution vs. natural selection, origins of new genes, the genetic nature of complex traits, the genetic basis of speciation, the evolution of development, and ways that evolutionary forces influence genomic and phenotypic changes. History The history of molecular evolution starts in the early 20th century with comparative biochemistry, and the use of "fingerprinting" methods such as immune assays, gel electrophoresis, and paper chromatography in the 1950s to explore homologous proteins. The field of molecular evolution came into its own in the 1960s and 1970s, following the rise of molecular biology. The advent of protein sequencing allowed molecular biologists to create phylogenies based on sequence comparison, and to use the differences between homologous sequences as a molecular clock to estimate the time since the last universal common ancestor. In the late 1960s, the neutral theory of molecular evolution provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock, though both the clock and the neutral theory were controversial, since most evolutionary biologists held strongly to panselectionism, with natural selection as the only important cause of evolutionary change. After the 1970s, nucleic acid sequencing allowed molecular evolution to reach beyond proteins to highly conserved ribosomal RNA sequences, the foundation of a reconceptualization of the early history of life. Forces in molecular evolution The content and structure of a genome is the product of the molecular and population genetic forces which act upon that genome. Novel genetic variants will arise through mutation and Document 2::: Comparative biology uses natural variation and disparity to understand the patterns of life at all levels—from genes to communities—and the critical role of organisms in ecosystems. Comparative biology is a cross-lineage approach to understanding the phylogenetic history of individuals or higher taxa and the mechanisms and patterns that drives it. Comparative biology encompasses Evolutionary Biology, Systematics, Neontology, Paleontology, Ethology, Anthropology, and Biogeography as well as historical approaches to Developmental biology, Genomics, Physiology, Ecology and many other areas of the biological sciences. The comparative approach also has numerous applications in human health, genetics, biomedicine, and conservation biology. The biological relationships (phylogenies, pedigree) are important for comparative analyses and usually represented by a phylogenetic tree or cladogram to differentiate those features with single origins (Homology) from those with multiple origins (Homoplasy). See also Cladistics Comparative Anatomy Evolution Evolutionary Biology Systematics Bioinformatics Neontology Paleontology Phylogenetics Genomics Evolutionary biology Comparisons Document 3::: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of evolutionary biology and phylogenetics. The journal is edited by E.A. Zimmer. Indexing The journal is indexed in: EMBiology Journal Citation Reports Scopus Web of Science External links Elsevier academic journals Evolutionary biology journals Phylogenetics Molecular biology Academic journals established in 1992 Monthly journals Document 4::: The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend; for example, it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms. More recently evolved organisms, such as mammals, appear to be much more complex than organisms, such as bacteria, which have existed for a much longer period of time. However, there are theoretical and empirical problems with this claim. From a theoretical perspective, it appears that there is no reason to expect evolution to result in any largest-scale trends, although small-scale trends, limited in time and space, are expected (Gould, 1997). From an empirical perspective, it is difficult to measure complexity and, when it has been measured, the evidence does not support a largest-scale trend (McShea, 1996). History Many of the founding figures of evolution supported the idea of Evolutionary progress which has fallen from favour, but the work of Francisco J. Ayala and Michael Ruse suggests is still influential. Hypothetical largest-scale trends McShea (1998) discusses eight features of organisms that might indicate largest-scale trends in evolution: entropy, energy intensiveness, evolutionary versatility, developmental depth, structural depth, adaptedness, size, complexity. He calls these "live hypotheses", meaning that trends in these features are currently being considered by evolutionary biologists. McShea observes that the most popular hypothesis, among scientists, is that there is a largest-scale trend towards increasing complexity. Evolutionary theorists agree that there are local trends in evolution, such as increasing brain size in hominids, but these directional changes do not persist indefinitely, and trends in opposite directions also occur (Gould, 1997). Evolution causes organisms to adapt to their local environment; when the environment changes, the direction of the trend may change. The question of whether there is evolutionary progress is better formulated as the question of whether The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Comparisons of amino acid sequences can shed light on the evolutionary divergence of what? A. birds B. related species C. mammals D. dinosaurs Answer:
sciq-4251	multiple_choice	What are the building blocks of dna?	[ "peptides", "prokaryotes", "nucleotides", "genes" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: What Is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell is a 1944 science book written for the lay reader by physicist Erwin Schrödinger. The book was based on a course of public lectures delivered by Schrödinger in February 1943, under the auspices of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, where he was Director of Theoretical Physics, at Trinity College, Dublin. The lectures attracted an audience of about 400, who were warned "that the subject-matter was a difficult one and that the lectures could not be termed popular, even though the physicist’s most dreaded weapon, mathematical deduction, would hardly be utilized." Schrödinger's lecture focused on one important question: "how can the events in space and time which take place within the spatial boundary of a living organism be accounted for by physics and chemistry?" In the book, Schrödinger introduced the idea of an "aperiodic crystal" that contained genetic information in its configuration of covalent chemical bonds. In the 1950s, this idea stimulated enthusiasm for discovering the chemical basis of genetic inheritance. Although the existence of some form of hereditary information had been hypothesized since 1869, its role in reproduction and its helical shape were still unknown at the time of Schrödinger's lecture. In retrospect, Schrödinger's aperiodic crystal can be viewed as a well-reasoned theoretical prediction of what biologists should have been looking for during their search for genetic material. In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick jointly proposed the double helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) on the basis of, amongst other theoretical insights, X-ray diffraction experiments conducted by Rosalind Franklin. They both credited Schrödinger's book with presenting an early theoretical description of how the storage of genetic information would work, and each independently acknowledged the book as a source of inspiration for their initial researches. Background The book, published i Document 1::: DNA: The Story of Life is a four-part Channel 4 documentary series on the discovery of DNA, broadcast in 2003. The series was broadcast to celebrate fifty years since the 1953 discovery. The first episode was broadcast on Saturday March 8 2003 at 7pm. Episodes Episode 1 - The Secret of Life It covered the discovery of DNA in 1953. Maurice Wilkins and his involvement with the Manhattan Project, speaking in his university office in London; Linus Pauling's son Peter, of Caltech, now lived in Wales; Linus Pauling approached the discovery of the structure of DNA in a much more methodical rigid manner, perhaps in a plodding way, and Pauling was never one to take the same un-thought-through reckless gambles that Watson and Crick would take; but those ambitious reckless gambles of Watson and Crick would find the structure of DNA; the 1974 BBC documentary The Race for the Double Helix; Watson attended a lecture on the latest X-ray data on DNA in London in November 1951, with the project in Cambridge later producing their first DNA model on 28 November 1951; Sir John Randall, head of the London project, telephoned Lawrence Bragg in Cambridge, with his displeasure at how Watson and Crick had borrowed London's DNA structure X-ray data, which resulted in Watson and Crick being chastened, and removed from their work on DNA structure at Cambridge; but at the London project, events were being often undermined by frosty wooden relationships, and a complete lack of human empathy, as believed Raymond Gosling; at Cambridge, biochemist Erwin Chargaff, of Columbia University, had dinner with Watson and Crick, and although he largely disliked the pair, he explained his Chargaff's rules to them, where equal amounts of adenine and thymine had been found, which had applied to all living cells; Linus Pauling writes to Wilkins, asking for recent X-ray photographs, but is unlucky; on 6 May 1952, the London project takes Photo 51, which indicated a helix structure; in December 1952, Linus Pa Document 2::: In molecular biology, a library is a collection of DNA fragments that is stored and propagated in a population of micro-organisms through the process of molecular cloning. There are different types of DNA libraries, including cDNA libraries (formed from reverse-transcribed RNA), genomic libraries (formed from genomic DNA) and randomized mutant libraries (formed by de novo gene synthesis where alternative nucleotides or codons are incorporated). DNA library technology is a mainstay of current molecular biology, genetic engineering, and protein engineering, and the applications of these libraries depend on the source of the original DNA fragments. There are differences in the cloning vectors and techniques used in library preparation, but in general each DNA fragment is uniquely inserted into a cloning vector and the pool of recombinant DNA molecules is then transferred into a population of bacteria (a Bacterial Artificial Chromosome or BAC library) or yeast such that each organism contains on average one construct (vector + insert). As the population of organisms is grown in culture, the DNA molecules contained within them are copied and propagated (thus, "cloned"). Terminology The term "library" can refer to a population of organisms, each of which carries a DNA molecule inserted into a cloning vector, or alternatively to the collection of all of the cloned vector molecules. cDNA libraries A cDNA library represents a sample of the mRNA purified from a particular source (either a collection of cells, a particular tissue, or an entire organism), which has been converted back to a DNA template by the use of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. It thus represents the genes that were being actively transcribed in that particular source under the physiological, developmental, or environmental conditions that existed when the mRNA was purified. cDNA libraries can be generated using techniques that promote "full-length" clones or under conditions that generate shorter f Document 3::: Biomolecular structure is the intricate folded, three-dimensional shape that is formed by a molecule of protein, DNA, or RNA, and that is important to its function. The structure of these molecules may be considered at any of several length scales ranging from the level of individual atoms to the relationships among entire protein subunits. This useful distinction among scales is often expressed as a decomposition of molecular structure into four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. The scaffold for this multiscale organization of the molecule arises at the secondary level, where the fundamental structural elements are the molecule's various hydrogen bonds. This leads to several recognizable domains of protein structure and nucleic acid structure, including such secondary-structure features as alpha helixes and beta sheets for proteins, and hairpin loops, bulges, and internal loops for nucleic acids. The terms primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure were introduced by Kaj Ulrik Linderstrøm-Lang in his 1951 Lane Medical Lectures at Stanford University. Primary structure The primary structure of a biopolymer is the exact specification of its atomic composition and the chemical bonds connecting those atoms (including stereochemistry). For a typical unbranched, un-crosslinked biopolymer (such as a molecule of a typical intracellular protein, or of DNA or RNA), the primary structure is equivalent to specifying the sequence of its monomeric subunits, such as amino acids or nucleotides. The primary structure of a protein is reported starting from the amino N-terminus to the carboxyl C-terminus, while the primary structure of DNA or RNA molecule is known as the nucleic acid sequence reported from the 5' end to the 3' end. The nucleic acid sequence refers to the exact sequence of nucleotides that comprise the whole molecule. Often, the primary structure encodes sequence motifs that are of functional importance. Some examples of such motif Document 4::: A nucleic acid sequence is a succession of bases within the nucleotides forming alleles within a DNA (using GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule. This succession is denoted by a series of a set of five different letters that indicate the order of the nucleotides. By convention, sequences are usually presented from the 5' end to the 3' end. For DNA, with its double helix, there are two possible directions for the notated sequence; of these two, the sense strand is used. Because nucleic acids are normally linear (unbranched) polymers, specifying the sequence is equivalent to defining the covalent structure of the entire molecule. For this reason, the nucleic acid sequence is also termed the primary structure. The sequence represents biological information. Biological deoxyribonucleic acid represents the information which directs the functions of an organism. Nucleic acids also have a secondary structure and tertiary structure. Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "primary sequence". However there is no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence. Nucleotides Nucleic acids consist of a chain of linked units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a phosphate group and a sugar (ribose in the case of RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) make up the backbone of the nucleic acid strand, and attached to the sugar is one of a set of nucleobases. The nucleobases are important in base pairing of strands to form higher-level secondary and tertiary structures such as the famed double helix. The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand – adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine – covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5' to 3' direction. With regards to transcription, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What are the building blocks of dna? A. peptides B. prokaryotes C. nucleotides D. genes Answer:
sciq-1958	multiple_choice	If an abnormal cell is not prevented from dividing and it divides uncontrollably, what forms?	[ "inflammation", "tumor", "edema", "cyst" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In haematology atypical localization of immature precursors (ALIP) refers to finding of atypically localized precursors (myeloblasts and promyelocytes) on bone marrow biopsy. In healthy humans, precursors are rare and are found localized near the endosteum, and consist of 1-2 cells. In some cases of myelodysplastic syndromes, immature precursors might be located in the intertrabecular region and occasionally aggregate as clusters of 3 ~ 5 cells. The presence of ALIPs is associated with worse prognosis of MDS . Recently, in bone marrow sections of patients with acute myeloid leukemia cells similar to ALIPs were defined as ALIP-like clusters. The presence of ALIP-like clusters in AML patients within remission was reported to be associated with early relapse of the disease. Document 1::: In cellular biology, labile cells are cells that continuously multiply and divide throughout life . Labile cells replace the cells that are lost from the body. When injured, labile cells are repaired rapidly due to an aggressive TR response. This continual division of labile cells allows them to reproduce new stem cells and replace functional cells that are lost in the body. Functional cells may be lost through necrosis, which is the premature death of cells caused by environmental disturbances, such as diseases or injuries. Functional cells may also need to be replaced after undergoing apoptosis, which is the programmed death of cells that occurs normally as part of an organism's development. Labile cells continually regenerate by undergoing mitosis and are one of three types of cells that are involved in cell division, classified by their regenerative capacity. The other two cell types include stable cells and permanent cells. Each of these three cell types respond to injuries to their corresponding tissues differently. Stable cells, unlike labile cells, are typically not dividing and only do so when an injury occurs. Permanent cells are not capable of division after maturing. Some examples of labile cells, which act as stem cells, include skin cells, such as the epidermis , the epithelia of ducts, hematopoietic stem cells, cells within the gastrointestinal tract, and some cells found within bone marrow. Labile cells exhibit a very short G1 phase and never enter G0 phase (the resting phase), as they are continually proliferating throughout their life. Hazards Cells that are constantly dividing have a higher risk of dividing uncontrollably and becoming malignant, or cancerous. Muscle tissue does not consist of constantly dividing cells, which is likely why cancer of the muscle is not nearly as common as, for example, cancer of the skin. In addition, cytotoxic drugs used in chemotherapy target dividing cells and inhibit their proliferation. The cytotoxic dru Document 2::: Lymph node stromal cells are essential to the structure and function of the lymph node whose functions include: creating an internal tissue scaffold for the support of hematopoietic cells; the release of small molecule chemical messengers that facilitate interactions between hematopoietic cells; the facilitation of the migration of hematopoietic cells; the presentation of antigens to immune cells at the initiation of the adaptive immune system; and the homeostasis of lymphocyte numbers. Stromal cells originate from multipotent mesenchymal stem cells. Structure Lymph nodes are enclosed in an external fibrous capsule, from which thin walls of sinew called trabeculae penetrate into the lymph node, partially dividing it. Beneath the external capsule and along the courses of the trabeculae, are peritrabecular and subcapsular sinuses. These sinuses are cavities containing macrophages (specialised cells which help to keep the extracellular matrix in order). The interior of the lymph node has two regions: the cortex and the medulla. In the cortex, lymphoid tissue is organized into nodules. In the nodules, T lymphocytes are located in the T cell zone. B lymphocytes are located in the B cell follicle. The primary B cell follicle matures in germinal centers. In the medulla are hematopoietic cells (which contribute to the formation of the blood) and stromal cells. Near the medulla is the hilum of lymph node. This is the place where blood vessels enter and leave the lymph node and lymphatic vessels leave the lymph node. Lymph vessels entering the node do so along the perimeter (outer surface). Function The lymph nodes, the spleen and Peyer's patches, together are known as secondary lymphoid organs. Lymph nodes are found between lymphatic ducts and blood vessels. Afferent lymphatic vessels bring lymph fluid from the peripheral tissues to the lymph nodes. The lymph tissue in the lymph nodes consists of immune cells (95%), for example lymphocytes, and stromal cells (1% to Document 3::: Cell proliferation is the process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two daughter cells. Cell proliferation leads to an exponential increase in cell number and is therefore a rapid mechanism of tissue growth. Cell proliferation requires both cell growth and cell division to occur at the same time, such that the average size of cells remains constant in the population. Cell division can occur without cell growth, producing many progressively smaller cells (as in cleavage of the zygote), while cell growth can occur without cell division to produce a single larger cell (as in growth of neurons). Thus, cell proliferation is not synonymous with either cell growth or cell division, despite these terms sometimes being used interchangeably. Stem cells undergo cell proliferation to produce proliferating "transit amplifying" daughter cells that later differentiate to construct tissues during normal development and tissue growth, during tissue regeneration after damage, or in cancer. The total number of cells in a population is determined by the rate of cell proliferation minus the rate of cell death. Cell size depends on both cell growth and cell division, with a disproportionate increase in the rate of cell growth leading to production of larger cells and a disproportionate increase in the rate of cell division leading to production of many smaller cells. Cell proliferation typically involves balanced cell growth and cell division rates that maintain a roughly constant cell size in the exponentially proliferating population of cells. Cell proliferation occurs by combining cell growth with regular "G1-S-M-G2" cell cycles to produce many diploid cell progeny. In single-celled organisms, cell proliferation is largely responsive to the availability of nutrients in the environment (or laboratory growth medium). In multicellular organisms, the process of cell proliferation is tightly controlled by gene regulatory networks encoded in the genome and executed mainly Document 4::: A promegakaryocyte is a precursor cell for a megakaryocyte. It arises from a megakaryoblast, into a promegakaryocyte and then into a megakaryocyte, which will eventually break off and become a platelet. The developmental stages of the megakaryocyte are: CFU-Me (pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell or hemocytoblast) → megakaryoblast → promegakaryocyte → megakaryocyte. When the megakaryoblast matures into the promegakaryocyte, it undergoes endoreduplication and forms a promegakaryocyte which has multiple nuclei, azurophilic granules, and a basophilic cytoplasm. The promegakaryocyte has rotary motion, but no forward migration. Promegakaryocytes and other precursor cells to megakaryocytes arise from pluripotential hematopoietic progenitors. The megakaryoblast is then produced, followed by the promegakaryocyte, the granular megakaryocyte, and then the mature megakaryocyte. When it is in its promegakaryocyte stage, it is considered an undifferentiated cell. Megakaryocyte pieces will eventually break off and begin circulating the body as platelets. Platelets are very important because of their role in blood clotting, immune response, and the formation of new blood vessels. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. If an abnormal cell is not prevented from dividing and it divides uncontrollably, what forms? A. inflammation B. tumor C. edema D. cyst Answer:
sciq-7176	multiple_choice	What is the term for geological activity that occurs within a plate?	[ "intraplate activity", "perennials activity", "deformation activity", "disruption activity" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The term dynamic topography is used in geodynamics to refer the elevation differences caused by the flow within Earth's mantle. Definition In geodynamics, dynamic topography refers to topography generated by the motion of zones of differing degrees of buoyancy (convection) in Earth's mantle. It is also seen as the residual topography obtained by removing the isostatic contribution from the observed topography (i.e., the topography that cannot be explained by an isostatic equilibrium of the crust or the lithosphere resting on a fluid mantle) and all observed topography due to post-glacial rebound. Elevation differences due to dynamic topography are frequently on the order of a few hundred meters to a couple of kilometers. Large scale surface features due to dynamic topography are mid-ocean ridges and oceanic trenches. Other prominent examples include areas overlying mantle plumes such as the African superswell. The mid-ocean ridges are high due to dynamic topography because the upwelling hot material underneath them pushes them up above the surrounding seafloor. This provides an important driving force in plate tectonics called ridge push: the increased gravitational potential energy of the mid-ocean ridge due to its dynamic uplift causes it to extend and push the surrounding lithosphere away from the ridge axis. Dynamic topography and mantle density variations can explain 90% of the long-wavelength geoid after the hydrostatic ellipsoid is subtracted out. Dynamic topography is the reason why the geoid is high over regions of low-density mantle. If the mantle were static, these low-density regions would be geoid lows. However, these low-density regions move upwards in a mobile, convecting mantle, elevating density interfaces such as the core-mantle boundary, 440 and 670 kilometer discontinuities, and the Earth's surface. Since both the density and the dynamic topography provide approximately the same magnitude of change in the geoid, the resultant geoid is a relati Document 1::: The geologic record in stratigraphy, paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata. That is, deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus (clays, sands etc.). This includes all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth: its past climate, geography, geology and the evolution of life on its surface. According to the law of superposition, sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other. They harden over time to become a solidified (competent) rock column, that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events. Correlating the rock record At a certain locality on the Earth's surface, the rock column provides a cross section of the natural history in the area during the time covered by the age of the rocks. This is sometimes called the rock history and gives a window into the natural history of the location that spans many geological time units such as ages, epochs, or in some cases even multiple major geologic periods—for the particular geographic region or regions. The geologic record is in no one place entirely complete for where geologic forces one age provide a low-lying region accumulating deposits much like a layer cake, in the next may have uplifted the region, and the same area is instead one that is weathering and being torn down by chemistry, wind, temperature, and water. This is to say that in a given location, the geologic record can be and is quite often interrupted as the ancient local environment was converted by geological forces into new landforms and features. Sediment core data at the mouths of large riverine drainage basins, some of which go deep thoroughly support the law of superposition. However using broadly occurring deposited layers trapped within differently located rock columns, geologists have pieced together a system of units covering most of the geologic time scale Document 2::: In structural geology, a suture is a joining together along a major fault zone, of separate terranes, tectonic units that have different plate tectonic, metamorphic and paleogeographic histories. The suture is often represented on the surface by an orogen or mountain range. Overview In plate tectonics, sutures are the remains of subduction zones, and the terranes that are joined together are interpreted as fragments of different palaeocontinents or tectonic plates. Outcrops of sutures can vary in width from a few hundred meters to a couple of kilometers. They can be networks of mylonitic shear zones or brittle fault zones, but are usually both. Sutures are usually associated with igneous intrusions and tectonic lenses with varying kinds of lithologies from plutonic rocks to ophiolitic fragments. An example from Great Britain is the Iapetus Suture which, though now concealed beneath younger rocks, has been determined by geophysical means to run along a line roughly parallel with the Anglo-Scottish border and represents the joint between the former continent of Laurentia to the north and the former micro-continent of Avalonia to the south. Avalonia is in fact a plain which dips steeply northwestwards through the crust, underthrusting Laurentia. Paleontological use When used in paleontology, suture can also refer to fossil exoskeletons, as in the suture line, a division on a trilobite between the free cheek and the fixed cheek; this suture line allowed the trilobite to perform ecdysis (the shedding of its skin). Document 3::: Rock mechanics is a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rocks and rock masses. Compared to geology, it is the branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock and rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment. Background Rock mechanics is part of a much broader subject of geomechanics, which is concerned with the mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils. Rock mechanics is concerned with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of structures built in or on rock. The structure could include many objects such as a drilling well, a mine shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a repository component, or a building. Rock mechanics is used in many engineering disciplines, but is primarily used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical, Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering. Rock mechanics answers questions such as, "is reinforcement necessary for a rock, or will it be able to handle whatever load it is faced with?" It also includes the design of reinforcement systems, such as rock bolting patterns. Assessing the Project Site Before any work begins, the construction site must be investigated properly to inform of the geological conditions of the site. Field observations, deep drilling, and geophysical surveys, can all give necessary information to develop a safe construction plan and create a site geological model. The level of investigation conducted at this site depends on factors such as budget, time frame, and expected geological conditions. The first step of the investigation is the collection of maps and aerial photos to analyze. This can provide information about potential sinkholes, landslides, erosion, etc. Maps can provide information on the rock type of the site, geological structure, and boundaries between bedrock units. Boreholes Creating a borehole is a technique that consists of drilling through the ground in various areas at various depths, to get a bett Document 4::: Tectonophysics, a branch of geophysics, is the study of the physical processes that underlie tectonic deformation. This includes measurement or calculation of the stress- and strain fields on Earth’s surface and the rheologies of the crust, mantle, lithosphere and asthenosphere. Overview Tectonophysics is concerned with movements in the Earth's crust and deformations over scales from meters to thousands of kilometers. These govern processes on local and regional scales and at structural boundaries, such as the destruction of continental crust (e.g. gravitational instability) and oceanic crust (e.g. subduction), convection in the Earth's mantle (availability of melts), the course of continental drift, and second-order effects of plate tectonics such as thermal contraction of the lithosphere. This involves the measurement of a hierarchy of strains in rocks and plates as well as deformation rates; the study of laboratory analogues of natural systems; and the construction of models for the history of deformation. History Tectonophysics was adopted as the name of a new section of AGU on April 19, 1940, at AGU's 21st Annual Meeting. According to the AGU website (https://tectonophysics.agu.org/agu-100/section-history/), using the words from Norman Bowen, the main goal of the tectonophysics section was to “designate this new borderline field between geophysics, physics and geology … for the solution of problems of tectonics.” Consequently, the claim below that the term was defined in 1954 by Gzolvskii is clearly incorrect. Since 1940 members of AGU had been presenting papers at AGU meetings, the contents of which defined the meaning of the field. Tectonophysics was defined as a field in 1954 when Mikhail Vladimirovich Gzovskii published three papers in the journal Izvestiya Akad. Nauk SSSR, Sireya Geofizicheskaya: "On the tasks and content of tectonophysics", "Tectonic stress fields", and "Modeling of tectonic stress fields". He defined the main goals of tectonophysica The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the term for geological activity that occurs within a plate? A. intraplate activity B. perennials activity C. deformation activity D. disruption activity Answer:
sciq-6079	multiple_choice	Ionic bonds are what kind of attraction between ions?	[ "nuclear", "kinetic", "magnetic", "electrostatic" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: An intramolecular force (or primary forces) is any force that binds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound, not to be confused with intermolecular forces, which are the forces present between molecules. The subtle difference in the name comes from the Latin roots of English with inter meaning between or among and intra meaning inside. Chemical bonds are considered to be intramolecular forces which are often stronger than intermolecular forces present between non-bonding atoms or molecules. Types The classical model identifies three main types of chemical bonds — ionic, covalent, and metallic — distinguished by the degree of charge separation between participating atoms. The characteristics of the bond formed can be predicted by the properties of constituent atoms, namely electronegativity. They differ in the magnitude of their bond enthalpies, a measure of bond strength, and thus affect the physical and chemical properties of compounds in different ways. % of ionic character is directly proportional difference in electronegitivity of bonded atom. Ionic bond An ionic bond can be approximated as complete transfer of one or more valence electrons of atoms participating in bond formation, resulting in a positive ion and a negative ion bound together by electrostatic forces. Electrons in an ionic bond tend to be mostly found around one of the two constituent atoms due to the large electronegativity difference between the two atoms, generally more than 1.9, (greater difference in electronegativity results in a stronger bond); this is often described as one atom giving electrons to the other. This type of bond is generally formed between a metal and nonmetal, such as sodium and chlorine in NaCl. Sodium would give an electron to chlorine, forming a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively charged chloride ion. Covalent bond In a true covalent bond, the electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms of the bond; there is little or no charge separa Document 1::: Molecular binding is an attractive interaction between two molecules that results in a stable association in which the molecules are in close proximity to each other. It is formed when atoms or molecules bind together by sharing of electrons. It often, but not always, involves some chemical bonding. In some cases, the associations can be quite strong—for example, the protein streptavidin and the vitamin biotin have a dissociation constant (reflecting the ratio between bound and free biotin) on the order of 10−14—and so the reactions are effectively irreversible. The result of molecular binding is sometimes the formation of a molecular complex in which the attractive forces holding the components together are generally non-covalent, and thus are normally energetically weaker than covalent bonds. Molecular binding occurs in biological complexes (e.g., between pairs or sets of proteins, or between a protein and a small molecule ligand it binds) and also in abiologic chemical systems, e.g. as in cases of coordination polymers and coordination networks such as metal-organic frameworks. Types Molecular binding can be classified into the following types: Non-covalent – no chemical bonds are formed between the two interacting molecules hence the association is fully reversible Reversible covalent – a chemical bond is formed, however the free energy difference separating the noncovalently-bonded reactants from bonded product is near equilibrium and the activation barrier is relatively low such that the reverse reaction which cleaves the chemical bond easily occurs Irreversible covalent – a chemical bond is formed in which the product is thermodynamically much more stable than the reactants such that the reverse reaction does not take place. Bound molecules are sometimes called a "molecular complex"—the term generally refers to non-covalent associations. Non-covalent interactions can effectively become irreversible; for example, tight binding inhibitors of enzymes Document 2::: Ioliomics (from a portmanteau of ions and liquids) is the study of ions in liquids (or liquid phases) and stipulated with fundamental differences of ionic interactions. Ioliomics covers a broad research area concerning structure, properties and applications of ions involved in various biological and chemical systems. The concept of this research discipline is related to other comprehensive research fields, such as genomics, proteomics, glycomics, petroleomics, etc., where the suffix -omics is used for describing the comprehensiveness of data. Fundamental nature The nature of chemical reactions and their description is one of the most fundamental problems in chemistry. The concepts of covalent and ionic bonds which emerged in the beginning of the 20th century specify the profound differences between their electronic structures. These differences, in turn, lead to dramatically different behavior of covalent and ionic compounds both in the solution and solid phase. In the solid phase, ionic compounds, e.g. salts, are prone to formation of crystal lattices; in polar solvents, they dissociate into ions surrounded by solvate shells, thus rendering the solution highly ionic conductive. In contrast to covalent bonds, ionic interactions demonstrate flexible, dynamic behavior, which allows tuning ionic compounds to obtain desired properties. Importance Ionic compounds interact strongly with the solvent medium; therefore, their impact on chemical and biochemical processes involving ions can be significant. Even in the case of simplest ions and solvents, the presence of the former can lead to rearrangement and restructuring of the latter. It is established that ionic reactions are involved in numerous phenomena at the scales of whole galaxies or single living cells. To name a few, in living cells, metal ions bind to metalloenzymes and other proteins therefore modulating their activity; ions are involved in the control of neuronal functioning during sleep – wakefulness cy Document 3::: Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams. Course content E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are: Electrostatics Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics Electric circuits Magnetic fields Electromagnetism. Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class. AP test The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution. Registration The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test. Format The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with Document 4::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Ionic bonds are what kind of attraction between ions? A. nuclear B. kinetic C. magnetic D. electrostatic Answer:
sciq-373	multiple_choice	Baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses monitor what level in the body?	[ "hunger", "air intake", "blood pressure", "temperature" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Baroreceptors (or archaically, pressoreceptors) are sensors located in the carotid sinus (at the bifurcation of common carotid artery into external and internal carotids) and in the aortic arch. They sense the blood pressure and relay the information to the brain, so that a proper blood pressure can be maintained. Baroreceptors are a type of mechanoreceptor sensory neuron that are excited by a stretch of the blood vessel. Thus, increases in the pressure of blood vessel triggers increased action potential generation rates and provides information to the central nervous system. This sensory information is used primarily in autonomic reflexes that in turn influence the heart cardiac output and vascular smooth muscle to influence vascular resistance. Baroreceptors act immediately as part of a negative feedback system called the baroreflex, as soon as there is a change from the usual mean arterial blood pressure, returning the pressure toward a normal level. These reflexes help regulate short-term blood pressure. The solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata of the brain recognizes changes in the firing rate of action potentials from the baroreceptors, and influences cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance. Baroreceptors can be divided into two categories based on the type of blood vessel in which they are located: high-pressure arterial baroreceptors and low-pressure baroreceptors (also known as cardiopulmonary or volume receptors). Arterial baroreceptors Arterial baroreceptors are stretch receptors that are stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall when pressure changes. The baroreceptors can identify the changes in both the average blood pressure or the rate of change in pressure with each arterial pulse. Action potentials triggered in the baroreceptor ending are then directly conducted to the brainstem where central terminations (synapses) transmit this information to neurons within the solitary nucleus which lies in the medulla. Reflex responses from Document 1::: Low pressure baroreceptors are baroreceptors that relay information derived from blood pressure within the autonomic nervous system. They are stimulated by stretching of the vessel wall. They are located in large systemic veins and in the walls of the atria of the heart, and pulmonary vasculature. Low pressure baroreceptors are also referred to as volume receptors and cardiopulmonary baroreceptors. Structure There are two types of cardiopulmonary baroreceptors. Type A receptors and Type B receptors are both within the atria of the heart. Type A receptors are activated by wall tension, which develops by atrial contraction during ventricular diastole. Type B receptors are activated by wall stretch, which develops by atrial filling during ventricular systole. In the right atrium, the stretch receptors occur at the junction of the venae cavae. In the left atrium, the junction is at the pulmonary veins. Function Low pressure baroreceptors are involved in regulation of the blood volume. The blood volume determines the mean pressure throughout the system, especially venous side where most of the blood is held. Low pressure baroreceptors have both circulatory and renal effects, which produce changes in hormone secretion. These secretions can effect the retention of salt and water as well as influencing the intake of salt and water within the kidneys. The renal will allow the receptors to change the longer-term mean pressure. Through the vagal nerve, impulses transmits from the atria to the vagal center of the medulla. This causes a reduction in the sympathetic outflow the kidney, which results in decreased renal blood flow and decreased urine output. This same sympathetic outflow is increased to the sinus node in the atria, which causes increased heart rate/cardiac output. These cardiopulmonary receptors also inhibits vagal stimulation in the vasoconstrictor center of the medulla resulting in decreased release of angiotensin, aldosterone, and vasopressin.[1] See also Document 2::: Glomus cells are the cell type mainly located in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies. Glomus type I cells are peripheral chemoreceptors which sense the oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels of the blood. When there is a decrease in the blood's pH, a decrease in oxygen (pO2), or an increase in carbon dioxide (pCO2), the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies signal the dorsal respiratory group in the medulla oblongata to increase the volume and rate of breathing. The glomus cells have a high metabolic rate and good blood perfusion and thus are sensitive to changes in arterial blood gas tension. Glomus type II cells are sustentacular cells having a similar supportive function to glial cells. Structure The signalling within the chemoreceptors is thought to be mediated by the release of neurotransmitters by the glomus cells, including dopamine, noradrenaline, acetylcholine, substance P, vasoactive intestinal peptide and enkephalins. Vasopressin has been found to inhibit the response of glomus cells to hypoxia, presumably because the usual response to hypoxia is vasodilation, which in case of hypovolemia should be avoided. Furthermore, glomus cells are highly responsive to angiotensin II through AT1 receptors, providing information about the body's fluid and electrolyte status. Function Glomus type I cells are chemoreceptors which monitor arterial blood for the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) and pH. Glomus type I cells are secretory sensory neurons that release neurotransmitters in response to hypoxemia (low pO2), hypercapnia (high pCO2) or acidosis (low pH). Signals are transmitted to the afferent nerve fibers of the sinus nerve and may include dopamine, acetylcholine, and adenosine. This information is sent to the respiratory center and helps the brain to regulate breathing. Innervation The glomus type I cells of the carotid body are innervated by the sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the glossopharynge Document 3::: Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the cardiovascular system, specifically addressing the physiology of the heart ("cardio") and blood vessels ("vascular"). These subjects are sometimes addressed separately, under the names cardiac physiology and circulatory physiology. Although the different aspects of cardiovascular physiology are closely interrelated, the subject is still usually divided into several subtopics. Heart Cardiac output (= heart rate * stroke volume. Can also be calculated with Fick principle, palpating method.) Stroke volume (= end-diastolic volume − end-systolic volume) Ejection fraction (= stroke volume / end-diastolic volume) Cardiac output is mathematically ` to systole Inotropic, chronotropic, and dromotropic states Cardiac input (= heart rate * suction volume Can be calculated by inverting terms in Fick principle) Suction volume (= end-systolic volume + end-diastolic volume) Injection fraction (=suction volume / end-systolic volume) Cardiac input is mathematically ` to diastole Electrical conduction system of the heart Electrocardiogram Cardiac marker Cardiac action potential Frank–Starling law of the heart Wiggers diagram Pressure volume diagram Regulation of blood pressure Baroreceptor Baroreflex Renin–angiotensin system Renin Angiotensin Juxtaglomerular apparatus Aortic body and carotid body Autoregulation Cerebral Autoregulation Hemodynamics Under most circumstances, the body attempts to maintain a steady mean arterial pressure. When there is a major and immediate decrease (such as that due to hemorrhage or standing up), the body can increase the following: Heart rate Total peripheral resistance (primarily due to vasoconstriction of arteries) Inotropic state In turn, this can have a significant impact upon several other variables: Stroke volume Cardiac output Pressure Pulse pressure (systolic pressure - diastolic pressure) Mean arterial pressure (usually approximated with diastolic pressure + Document 4::: The cardiovascular centre is a part of the human brain which regulates heart rate through the nervous and endocrine systems. It is considered one of the vital centres of the medulla oblongata. Structure The cardiovascular centre, or cardiovascular center, is part of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. Normally, the heart beats without nervous control. In some situations, such as exercise, and major trauma, the cardiovascular centre is responsible for altering heart rate. It also mediates respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Function The cardiovascular centre responds to a variety of types of sensory information, such as: change of blood pH, detected by central chemoreceptors. change of blood pH, detected by peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies and in the carotid bodies. change of blood pressure , detected by arterial baroreceptors in the aortic arch and the carotid sinuses. various other inputs from the hypothalamus, thalamus, and cerebral cortex. The cardiovascular centre affects changes to the heart rate by sending a nerve impulse to the cardiac pacemaker via two sets of nerves: sympathetic fibres, part of the autonomic nervous system, to make heart rate faster. the vagus nerve, part of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, to lower heart rate. The cardiovascular centre also increases the stroke volume of the heart (that is, the amount of blood it pumps). These two changes help to regulate the cardiac output, so that a sufficient amount of blood reaches tissues. This function is so significant to normal functioning of the circulatory system that the cardiovascular centre is considered a vital centre of the medulla oblongata. Hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine can affect the cardiovascular centre and cause it to increase the rate of impulses sent to the sinoatrial node, resulting in faster and stronger cardiac muscle contraction. This increases heart rate. Clinical significance Many anaesthetics depress the acti The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses monitor what level in the body? A. hunger B. air intake C. blood pressure D. temperature Answer:
sciq-1214	multiple_choice	Are valence electrons attracted more or less strongly when they are farther from the nucleus?	[ "less strongly", "differently", "equally", "more strongly" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In chemistry and physics, valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outermost shell is not closed. In a single covalent bond, a shared pair forms with both atoms in the bond each contributing one valence electron. The presence of valence electrons can determine the element's chemical properties, such as its valence—whether it may bond with other elements and, if so, how readily and with how many. In this way, a given element's reactivity is highly dependent upon its electronic configuration. For a main-group element, a valence electron can exist only in the outermost electron shell; for a transition metal, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell. An atom with a closed shell of valence electrons (corresponding to a noble gas configuration) tends to be chemically inert. Atoms with one or two valence electrons more than a closed shell are highly reactive due to the relatively low energy to remove the extra valence electrons to form a positive ion. An atom with one or two electrons fewer than a closed shell is reactive due to its tendency either to gain the missing valence electrons and form a negative ion, or else to share valence electrons and form a covalent bond. Similar to a core electron, a valence electron has the ability to absorb or release energy in the form of a photon. An energy gain can trigger the electron to move (jump) to an outer shell; this is known as atomic excitation. Or the electron can even break free from its associated atom's shell; this is ionization to form a positive ion. When an electron loses energy (thereby causing a photon to be emitted), then it can move to an inner shell which is not fully occupied. Overview Electron configuration The electrons that determine valence – how an atom reacts chemically – are those with the highest energy. For a main-group element, the valence electrons are defined as those electrons residing in the e Document 1::: This page deals with the electron affinity as a property of isolated atoms or molecules (i.e. in the gas phase). Solid state electron affinities are not listed here. Elements Electron affinity can be defined in two equivalent ways. First, as the energy that is released by adding an electron to an isolated gaseous atom. The second (reverse) definition is that electron affinity is the energy required to remove an electron from a singly charged gaseous negative ion. The latter can be regarded as the ionization energy of the –1 ion or the zeroth ionization energy. Either convention can be used. Negative electron affinities can be used in those cases where electron capture requires energy, i.e. when capture can occur only if the impinging electron has a kinetic energy large enough to excite a resonance of the atom-plus-electron system. Conversely electron removal from the anion formed in this way releases energy, which is carried out by the freed electron as kinetic energy. Negative ions formed in these cases are always unstable. They may have lifetimes of the order of microseconds to milliseconds, and invariably autodetach after some time. Molecules The electron affinities Eea of some molecules are given in the table below, from the lightest to the heaviest. Many more have been listed by . The electron affinities of the radicals OH and SH are the most precisely known of all molecular electron affinities. Second and third electron affinity Bibliography . . Updated values can be found in the NIST chemistry webbook for around three dozen elements and close to 400 compounds. Specific molecules Document 2::: Core electrons are the electrons in an atom that are not valence electrons and do not participate in chemical bonding. The nucleus and the core electrons of an atom form the atomic core. Core electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus. Therefore, unlike valence electrons, core electrons play a secondary role in chemical bonding and reactions by screening the positive charge of the atomic nucleus from the valence electrons. The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group of the element (see valence electron): For main-group elements, the number of valence electrons ranges from 1 to 8 (ns and np orbitals). For transition metals, the number of valence electrons ranges from 3 to 12 (ns and (n−1)d orbitals). For lanthanides and actinides, the number of valence electrons ranges from 3 to 16 (ns, (n−2)f and (n−1)d orbitals). All other non-valence electrons for an atom of that element are considered core electrons. Orbital theory A more complex explanation of the difference between core and valence electrons can be described with atomic orbital theory. In atoms with a single electron the energy of an orbital is determined exclusively by the principle quantum number n. The n = 1 orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. For large n, the energy increases so much that the electron can easily escape from the atom. In single electron atoms, all energy levels with the same principle quantum number are degenerate, and have the same energy. In atoms with more than one electron, the energy of an electron depends not only on the properties of the orbital it resides in, but also on its interactions with the other electrons in other orbitals. This requires consideration of the ℓ quantum number. Higher values of ℓ are associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2p state is higher than the 2s state. When ℓ = 2, the increase in energy of the orbital becomes large enough to push the energy of orbital above the energy Document 3::: When an atom has more than one electron there will be some electrostatic repulsion between those electrons. The amount of repulsion varies from atom to atom, depending upon the number and spin of the electrons and the orbitals they occupy. The total repulsion can be expressed in terms of three parameters A, B and C which are known as the Racah parameters after Giulio Racah, who first described them. They are generally obtained empirically from gas-phase spectroscopic studies of atoms. They are often used in transition-metal chemistry to describe the repulsion energy associated with an electronic term. For example, the interelectronic repulsion of a 3P term is A + 7B, and of a 3F term is A - 8B, and the difference between them is therefore 15B. Definition The Racah parameters are defined as where are Slater integrals and are the Slater-Condon parameters where is the normalized radial part of an electron orbital, and . See also Tanabe–Sugano diagram Nephelauxetic effect Document 4::: In quantum chemistry, Slater's rules provide numerical values for the effective nuclear charge in a many-electron atom. Each electron is said to experience less than the actual nuclear charge, because of shielding or screening by the other electrons. For each electron in an atom, Slater's rules provide a value for the screening constant, denoted by s, S, or σ, which relates the effective and actual nuclear charges as The rules were devised semi-empirically by John C. Slater and published in 1930. Revised values of screening constants based on computations of atomic structure by the Hartree–Fock method were obtained by Enrico Clementi et al. in the 1960s. Rules Firstly, the electrons are arranged into a sequence of groups in order of increasing principal quantum number n, and for equal n in order of increasing azimuthal quantum number l, except that s- and p- orbitals are kept together. [1s] [2s,2p] [3s,3p] [3d] [4s,4p] [4d] [4f] [5s, 5p] [5d] etc. Each group is given a different shielding constant which depends upon the number and types of electrons in those groups preceding it. The shielding constant for each group is formed as the sum of the following contributions: An amount of 0.35 from each other electron within the same group except for the [1s] group, where the other electron contributes only 0.30. If the group is of the [ns, np] type, an amount of 0.85 from each electron with principal quantum number (n–1), and an amount of 1.00 for each electron with principal quantum number (n–2) or less. If the group is of the [d] or [f], type, an amount of 1.00 for each electron "closer" to the nucleus than the group. This includes both i) electrons with a smaller principal quantum number than n and ii) electrons with principal quantum number n and a smaller azimuthal quantum number l. In tabular form, the rules are summarized as: Example An example provided in Slater's original paper is for the iron atom which has nuclear charge 26 and electronic configuration The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Are valence electrons attracted more or less strongly when they are farther from the nucleus? A. less strongly B. differently C. equally D. more strongly Answer:
sciq-7058	multiple_choice	What is the process whereby excess water and waste is removed from the body?	[ "diffusion", "exhalation", "filtration", "excretion" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body. The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them through sweating. Only the organs specifically used for the excretion are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term refers to the urinary system. However, as excretion involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system. Breaking down of one of more of the systems is a serious health condition, for example kidney failure. Systems Urinary system The kidneys are large, bean-shaped organs which are present on each side of the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Humans have two kidneys and each kidney is supplied with blood from the renal artery. The kidneys remove from the blood the nitrogenous wastes such as urea, as well as salts and excess water, and excrete them in the form of urine. This is done with the help of millions of nephrons present in the kidney. The filtrated blood is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein (or kidney vein). The urine from the kidney is collected by the ureter (or excretory tubes), one from each kidney, and is passed to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder collects and stores the urine until urination. The urine collected in the bladder is passed into the external environment from the body through an opening called Document 1::: Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates many by-products that are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These by-products are expelled from the body during urination, which is the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body. A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body. Urine plays an important role in the earth's nitrogen cycle. In balanced ecosystems, urine fertilizes the soil and thus helps plants to grow. Therefore, urine can be used as a fertilizer. Some animals use it to mark their territories. Historically, aged or fermented urine (known as lant) was also used for gunpowder production, household cleaning, tanning of leather and dyeing of textiles. Human urine and feces are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta, and are managed via sanitation systems. Livestock urine and feces also require proper management if the livestock population density is high. Physiology Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea, removed by perspiration. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing from the body. Duration Research looking at the duration Document 2::: Wet Processing Engineering is one of the major streams in Textile Engineering or Textile manufacturing which refers to the engineering of textile chemical processes and associated applied science. The other three streams in textile engineering are yarn engineering, fabric engineering, and apparel engineering. The processes of this stream are involved or carried out in an aqueous stage. Hence, it is called a wet process which usually covers pre-treatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing. The wet process is usually done in the manufactured assembly of interlacing fibers, filaments and yarns, having a substantial surface (planar) area in relation to its thickness, and adequate mechanical strength to give it a cohesive structure. In other words, the wet process is done on manufactured fiber, yarn and fabric. All of these stages require an aqueous medium which is created by water. A massive amount of water is required in these processes per day. It is estimated that, on an average, almost 50–100 liters of water is used to process only 1 kilogram of textile goods, depending on the process engineering and applications. Water can be of various qualities and attributes. Not all water can be used in the textile processes; it must have some certain properties, quality, color and attributes of being used. This is the reason why water is a prime concern in wet processing engineering. Water Water consumption and discharge of wastewater are the two major concerns. The textile industry uses a large amount of water in its varied processes especially in wet operations such as pre-treatment, dyeing, and printing. Water is required as a solvent of various dyes and chemicals and it is used in washing or rinsing baths in different steps. Water consumption depends upon the application methods, processes, dyestuffs, equipment/machines and technology which may vary mill to mill and material composition. Longer processing sequences, processing of extra dark colors and reprocessing lead Document 3::: Drinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth, proboscis, or elsewhere. Humans drink by swallowing, completed by peristalsis in the esophagus. The physiological processes of drinking vary widely among other animals. Most animals drink water to maintain bodily hydration, although many can survive on the water gained from their food. Water is required for many physiological processes. Both inadequate and (less commonly) excessive water intake are associated with health problems. Methods of drinking In humans When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid through the esophagus to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a spoon. Infants employ a method of suction wherein the lips are pressed tight around a source, as in breastfeeding: a combination of breath and tongue movement creates a vacuum which draws in liquid. In other land mammals By necessity, terrestrial animals in captivity become accustomed to drinking water, but most free-roaming animals stay hydrated through the fluids and moisture in fresh food, and learn to actively seek foods with high fluid content. When conditions impel them to drink from bodies of water, the methods and motions differ greatly among species. Cats, canines, and ruminants all lower the neck and lap in water with their powerful tongues. Cats and canines lap up water with the tongue in a spoon-like shape. Canines lap water by scooping it into their mouth with a tongue which has taken the shape of a ladle. However, with cats, only the tip of their tongue (which is smooth) touches the water, and then the cat quickly pulls its tongue back into its mouth which soon closes; this results in a column of liquid being pulled into the ca Document 4::: Metabolic wastes or excrements are substances left over from metabolic processes (such as cellular respiration) which cannot be used by the organism (they are surplus or toxic), and must therefore be excreted. This includes nitrogen compounds, water, CO2, phosphates, sulphates, etc. Animals treat these compounds as excretes. Plants have metabolic pathways which transforms some of them (primarily the oxygen compounds) into useful substances.. All the metabolic wastes are excreted in a form of water solutes through the excretory organs (nephridia, Malpighian tubules, kidneys), with the exception of CO2, which is excreted together with the water vapor throughout the lungs. The elimination of these compounds enables the chemical homeostasis of the organism. Nitrogen wastes The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes () or nitrogen wastes. They are ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. All of these substances are produced from protein metabolism. In many animals, the urine is the main route of excretion for such wastes; in some, it is the feces. Ammonotelism Ammonotelism is the excretion of ammonia and ammonium ions. Ammonia (NH3) forms with the oxidation of amino groups.(-NH2), which are removed from the proteins when they convert into carbohydrates. It is a very toxic substance to tissues and extremely soluble in water. Only one nitrogen atom is removed with it. A lot of water is needed for the excretion of ammonia, about 0.5 L of water is needed per 1 g of nitrogen to maintain ammonia levels in the excretory fluid below the level in body fluids to prevent toxicity. Thus, the marine organisms excrete ammonia directly into the water and are called ammonotelic. Ammonotelic animals include crustaceans, platyhelminths, cnidarians, poriferans, echinoderms, and other aquatic invertebrates. Ureotelism The excretion of urea is called ureotelism. Land animals, mainly amphibians and mammals, convert The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the process whereby excess water and waste is removed from the body? A. diffusion B. exhalation C. filtration D. excretion Answer:
sciq-2437	multiple_choice	The human body regulates the use and storage of what simple sugar, a major cellular fuel?	[ "secretion", "glucose", "carbohydrate", "insulin" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria. It is the main storage form of glucose in the human body. Glycogen functions as one of three regularly used forms of energy reserves, creatine phosphate being for very short-term, glycogen being for short-term and the triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat) being for long-term storage. Protein, broken down into amino acids, is seldom used as a main energy source except during starvation and glycolytic crisis (see bioenergetic systems). In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle. In the liver, glycogen can make up 5–6% of the organ's fresh weight: the liver of an adult, weighing 1.5 kg, can store roughly 100–120 grams of glycogen. In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1–2% of the muscle mass): the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg stores roughly 400 grams of glycogen. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells, white blood cells, and glial cells in the brain. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo. The amount of glycogen stored in the body mostly depends on oxidative type 1 fibres, physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Different levels of resting muscle glycogen are reached by changing the number of glycogen particles, rather than increasing the size of existing particles though most glycogen particles at rest are smaller than their theoretical maximum. Approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times; in fasting individuals, blood glucose is maintained constant at this level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogen stores in skeletal muscle serve as a form of energy storage for the muscle itself; however, the breakdown of muscle glycogen impedes muscle Document 1::: Biochemistry or biological chemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis which allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs, as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, which is the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, bonding, functions, and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. They provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends upon the reactions of small molecules and ions. These can be inorganic (for example, water and metal ions) or organic (for example, the amino acids, which are used to synthesize proteins). The mechanisms used by cells to harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases. Nutrition studies how to maintain health and wellness and also the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, with the goal of improving crop cultivation, crop storage, and pest control. In recent decades, biochemical principles a Document 2::: Relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Human bodily processes, including the brain, all require both macronutrients, as well as micronutrients. Insufficient intake of selected vitamins, or certain metabolic disorders, may affect cognitive processes by disrupting the nutrient-dependent processes within the body that are associated with the management of energy in neurons, which can subsequently affect synaptic plasticity, or the ability to encode new memories. Macronutrients The human brain requires nutrients obtained from the diet to develop and sustain its physical structure and cognitive functions. Additionally, the brain requires caloric energy predominately derived from the primary macronutrients to operate. The three primary macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Each macronutrient can impact cognition through multiple mechanisms, including glucose and insulin metabolism, neurotransmitter actions, oxidative stress and inflammation, and the gut-brain axis. Inadequate macronutrient consumption or proportion could impair optimal cognitive functioning and have long-term health implications. Carbohydrates Through digestion, dietary carbohydrates are broken down and converted into glucose, which is the sole energy source for the brain. Optimal brain function relies on adequate carbohydrate consumption, as carbohydrates provide the quickest source of glucose for the brain. Glucose deficiencies such as hypoglycaemia reduce available energy for the brain and impair all cognitive processes and performance. Additionally, situations with high cognitive demand, such as learning a new task, increase brain glucose utilization, depleting blood glucose stores and initiating the need for supplementation. Complex carbohydrates, especially those with high d Document 3::: Bioenergetics is a field in biochemistry and cell biology that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic and enzymatic processes that lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules. That is, the goal of bioenergetics is to describe how living organisms acquire and transform energy in order to perform biological work. The study of metabolic pathways is thus essential to bioenergetics. Overview Bioenergetics is the part of biochemistry concerned with the energy involved in making and breaking of chemical bonds in the molecules found in biological organisms. It can also be defined as the study of energy relationships and energy transformations and transductions in living organisms. The ability to harness energy from a variety of metabolic pathways is a property of all living organisms. Growth, development, anabolism and catabolism are some of the central processes in the study of biological organisms, because the role of energy is fundamental to such biological processes. Life is dependent on energy transformations; living organisms survive because of exchange of energy between living tissues/ cells and the outside environment. Some organisms, such as autotrophs, can acquire energy from sunlight (through photosynthesis) without needing to consume nutrients and break them down. Other organisms, like heterotrophs, must intake nutrients from food to be able to sustain energy by breaking down chemical bonds in nutrients during metabolic processes such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Importantly, as a direct consequence of the First Law of Thermodynamics, autotrophs and heterotrophs participate in a universal metabolic network—by eating autotrophs (plants), heterotrophs ha Document 4::: The glucose paradox was the observation that the large amount of glycogen in the liver was not explained by the small amount of glucose absorbed. The explanation was that the majority of glycogen is made from a number of substances other than glucose. The glucose paradox was first formulated by biochemists J. Denis McGarry and Joseph Katz in 1984. The glucose paradox demonstrates the importance of the chemical compound lactate in the biochemical process of carbohydrate metabolism. The paradox is that the large amount of glycogen (10%) found in the liver cannot be explained by the liver's small absorption of glucose. After the body's digestion of carbohydrates and the entering the circulatory system in the form of glucose, some will be absorbed directly into the muscle tissue and will be converted into lactic acid throughout the anaerobic energy system, rather than going directly to the liver and being converted into glycogen. The lactate is then taken and converted by the liver, forming the material for liver glycogen. The majority of the body's liver glycogen is produced indirectly, rather than directly from glucose in the blood. Under normal physiological conditions, glucose is a poor precursor compound and use by the liver is limited. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. The human body regulates the use and storage of what simple sugar, a major cellular fuel? A. secretion B. glucose C. carbohydrate D. insulin Answer:
sciq-6188	multiple_choice	What process can occur when atoms are exposed to high levels of radiation or when atoms transfer electrons to or from other atoms?	[ "diffusion", "fusion", "ionization", "oxidation" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Radiation chemistry is a subdivision of nuclear chemistry which studies the chemical effects of ionizing radiation on matter. This is quite different from radiochemistry, as no radioactivity needs to be present in the material which is being chemically changed by the radiation. An example is the conversion of water into hydrogen gas and hydrogen peroxide. Radiation interactions with matter As ionizing radiation moves through matter its energy is deposited through interactions with the electrons of the absorber. The result of an interaction between the radiation and the absorbing species is removal of an electron from an atom or molecular bond to form radicals and excited species. The radical species then proceed to react with each other or with other molecules in their vicinity. It is the reactions of the radical species that are responsible for the changes observed following irradiation of a chemical system. Charged radiation species (α and β particles) interact through Coulombic forces between the charges of the electrons in the absorbing medium and the charged radiation particle. These interactions occur continuously along the path of the incident particle until the kinetic energy of the particle is sufficiently depleted. Uncharged species (γ photons, x-rays) undergo a single event per photon, totally consuming the energy of the photon and leading to the ejection of an electron from a single atom. Electrons with sufficient energy proceed to interact with the absorbing medium identically to β radiation. An important factor that distinguishes different radiation types from one another is the linear energy transfer (LET), which is the rate at which the radiation loses energy with distance traveled through the absorber. Low LET species are usually low mass, either photons or electron mass species (β particles, positrons) and interact sparsely along their path through the absorber, leading to isolated regions of reactive radical species. High LET species are usuall Document 1::: Ionization (or ionisation) is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule is called an ion. Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after collisions with subatomic particles, collisions with other atoms, molecules and ions, or through the interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Heterolytic bond cleavage and heterolytic substitution reactions can result in the formation of ion pairs. Ionization can occur through radioactive decay by the internal conversion process, in which an excited nucleus transfers its energy to one of the inner-shell electrons causing it to be ejected. Uses Everyday examples of gas ionization are such as within a fluorescent lamp or other electrical discharge lamps. It is also used in radiation detectors such as the Geiger-Müller counter or the ionization chamber. The ionization process is widely used in a variety of equipment in fundamental science (e.g., mass spectrometry) and in industry (e.g., radiation therapy). It is also widely used for air purification, though studies have shown harmful effects of this application. Production of ions Negatively charged ions are produced when a free electron collides with an atom and is subsequently trapped inside the electric potential barrier, releasing any excess energy. The process is known as electron capture ionization. Positively charged ions are produced by transferring an amount of energy to a bound electron in a collision with charged particles (e.g. ions, electrons or positrons) or with photons. The threshold amount of the required energy is known as ionization potential. The study of such collisions is of fundamental importance with regard to the few-body problem, which is one of the major unsolved problems in physics. Kinematically complete experiments, i.e. experiments in which the complete momentum vect Document 2::: Atomic energy or energy of atoms is energy carried by atoms. The term originated in 1903 when Ernest Rutherford began to speak of the possibility of atomic energy. H. G. Wells popularized the phrase "splitting the atom", before discovery of the atomic nucleus. Atomic energy includes: Nuclear binding energy, the energy required to split a nucleus of an atom. Nuclear potential energy, the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus. Nuclear reaction, a process in which nuclei or nuclear particles interact, resulting in products different from the initial ones; see also nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Radioactive decay, the set of various processes by which unstable atomic nuclei (nuclides) emit subatomic particles. The energy of inter-atomic or chemical bonds, which holds atoms together in compounds. Atomic energy is the source of nuclear power, which uses sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. It is also the source of the explosive force of an atomic bomb. Document 3::: Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms. It is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term atom includes ions. The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics—which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons—and nuclear physics, which studies nuclear reactions and special properties of atomic nuclei. As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified. Isolated atoms Atomic physics primarily considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus that may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical), nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. It is concerned with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons or collisions with atomic particles. While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that are generally considered. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation, as the vast majority of the time they are. By this consideration, atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics, even though Document 4::: In particle physics, a radiative process refers to one elementary particle emitting another and continuing to exist. This typically happens when a fermion emits a boson such as a gluon or photon. See also Bremsstrahlung Radiation Particle physics The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What process can occur when atoms are exposed to high levels of radiation or when atoms transfer electrons to or from other atoms? A. diffusion B. fusion C. ionization D. oxidation Answer:
sciq-5572	multiple_choice	Carbon-14 dating is a method of what kind of dating?	[ "radiometric", "orbital", "stratigraphy", "metamorphic" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Radiocarbon is a scientific journal devoted to the topic of radiocarbon dating. It was founded in 1959 as a supplement to the American Journal of Science, and is an important source of data and information about radiocarbon dating. It publishes many radiocarbon results, and since 1979 it has published the proceedings of the international conferences on radiocarbon dating. The journal is published six times per year. it is published by Cambridge University Press. See also Carbon-14 Document 1::: The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591. On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education. Format This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions. The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test. Preparation The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a Document 2::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 3::: GRE Subject Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology was a standardized exam provided by ETS (Educational Testing Service) that was discontinued in December 2016. It is a paper-based exam and there are no computer-based versions of it. ETS places this exam three times per year: once in April, once in October and once in November. Some graduate programs in the United States recommend taking this exam, while others require this exam score as a part of the application to their graduate programs. ETS sends a bulletin with a sample practice test to each candidate after registration for the exam. There are 180 questions within the biochemistry subject test. Scores are scaled and then reported as a number between 200 and 990; however, in recent versions of the test, the maximum and minimum reported scores have been 760 (corresponding to the 99 percentile) and 320 (1 percentile) respectively. The mean score for all test takers from July, 2009, to July, 2012, was 526 with a standard deviation of 95. After learning that test content from editions of the GRE® Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCM) Test has been compromised in Israel, ETS made the decision not to administer this test worldwide in 2016–17. Content specification Since many students who apply to graduate programs in biochemistry do so during the first half of their fourth year, the scope of most questions is largely that of the first three years of a standard American undergraduate biochemistry curriculum. A sampling of test item content is given below: Biochemistry (36%) A Chemical and Physical Foundations Thermodynamics and kinetics Redox states Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers Solutions and equilibria Solute-solvent interactions Chemical interactions and bonding Chemical reaction mechanisms B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics Small molecules Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids) Supramolecular complexes (e.g. Document 4::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Carbon-14 dating is a method of what kind of dating? A. radiometric B. orbital C. stratigraphy D. metamorphic Answer:
sciq-2050	multiple_choice	Internal metabolism and the external environment are the sources of heat for what?	[ "thermoregulation", "optimization", "bioaccumulation", "hemeostasis" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: An energy budget is a balance sheet of energy income against expenditure. It is studied in the field of Energetics which deals with the study of energy transfer and transformation from one form to another. Calorie is the basic unit of measurement. An organism in a laboratory experiment is an open thermodynamic system, exchanging energy with its surroundings in three ways - heat, work and the potential energy of biochemical compounds. Organisms use ingested food resources (C=consumption) as building blocks in the synthesis of tissues (P=production) and as fuel in the metabolic process that power this synthesis and other physiological processes (R=respiratory loss). Some of the resources are lost as waste products (F=faecal loss, U=urinary loss). All these aspects of metabolism can be represented in energy units. The basic model of energy budget may be shown as: P = C - R - U - F or P = C - (R + U + F) or C = P + R + U + F All the aspects of metabolism can be represented in energy units (e.g. joules (J);1 calorie = 4.2 kJ). Energy used for metabolism will be R = C - (F + U + P) Energy used in the maintenance will be R + F + U = C - P Endothermy and ectothermy Energy budget allocation varies for endotherms and ectotherms. Ectotherms rely on the environment as a heat source while endotherms maintain their body temperature through the regulation of metabolic processes. The heat produced in association with metabolic processes facilitates the active lifestyles of endotherms and their ability to travel far distances over a range of temperatures in the search for food. Ectotherms are limited by the ambient temperature of the environment around them but the lack of substantial metabolic heat production accounts for an energetically inexpensive metabolic rate. The energy demands for ectotherms are generally one tenth of that required for endotherms. Document 1::: In biology, energy homeostasis, or the homeostatic control of energy balance, is a biological process that involves the coordinated homeostatic regulation of food intake (energy inflow) and energy expenditure (energy outflow). The human brain, particularly the hypothalamus, plays a central role in regulating energy homeostasis and generating the sense of hunger by integrating a number of biochemical signals that transmit information about energy balance. Fifty percent of the energy from glucose metabolism is immediately converted to heat. Energy homeostasis is an important aspect of bioenergetics. Definition In the US, biological energy is expressed using the energy unit Calorie with a capital C (i.e. a kilocalorie), which equals the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 °C (about 4.18 kJ). Energy balance, through biosynthetic reactions, can be measured with the following equation: Energy intake (from food and fluids) = Energy expended (through work and heat generated) + Change in stored energy (body fat and glycogen storage) The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed. But energy can be converted from one form of energy to another. So, when a calorie of food energy is consumed, one of three particular effects occur within the body: a portion of that calorie may be stored as body fat, triglycerides, or glycogen, transferred to cells and converted to chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP – a coenzyme) or related compounds, or dissipated as heat. Energy Intake Energy intake is measured by the amount of calories consumed from food and fluids. Energy intake is modulated by hunger, which is primarily regulated by the hypothalamus, and choice, which is determined by the sets of brain structures that are responsible for stimulus control (i.e., operant conditioning and classical conditioning) and cognitive control of eating behavior. Hunger is regulated in part by the act Document 2::: Burn: The Misunderstood Science of Metabolism is a 2022 book written by Herman Pontzer in which he discusses metabolism, human health and use of energy in the human body. The book examines research and proposes a constrained approach to total energy expenditure. Document 3::: Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields: Heat transfer Thermodynamics Fluid mechanics Combustion The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids". Heat transfer Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. Sections include : Energy transfer by heat, work and mass Laws of thermodynamics Entropy Refrigeration Techniques Properties and nature of pure substances Applications Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems. Fluid mechanics Fluid Mechanics the study of the physical forces at work during fluid flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid kinetics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid mechanics can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Some of its more interesting concepts include momentum and reactive forces in fluid flow and fluid machinery theory and performance. Sections include: Flu Document 4::: Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate of energy expenditure per unit time by endothermic animals at rest. It is reported in energy units per unit time ranging from watt (joule/second) to ml O2/min or joule per hour per kg body mass J/(h·kg). Proper measurement requires a strict set of criteria to be met. These criteria include being in a physically and psychologically undisturbed state and being in a thermally neutral environment while in the post-absorptive state (i.e., not actively digesting food). In bradymetabolic animals, such as fish and reptiles, the equivalent term standard metabolic rate (SMR) applies. It follows the same criteria as BMR, but requires the documentation of the temperature at which the metabolic rate was measured. This makes BMR a variant of standard metabolic rate measurement that excludes the temperature data, a practice that has led to problems in defining "standard" rates of metabolism for many mammals. Metabolism comprises the processes that the body needs to function. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy per unit of time that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. In humans, BMR typically declines by 1–2% per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of fat-free mass, although the variability between individuals is high. Description The body's generation of heat is known as thermogenesis and it can be measured to determine the amount of energy expended. BMR generally decreases with age, and with the decrease in lean body mass (as may happen with aging). Increasing muscle mass has the ef The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Internal metabolism and the external environment are the sources of heat for what? A. thermoregulation B. optimization C. bioaccumulation D. hemeostasis Answer:
ai2_arc-97	multiple_choice	Data in tables may also be presented in graphs. Which type of data would best be displayed on a circle graph?	[ "the distance of the planets from the sun", "the depths of the major oceans on Earth", "the amount of rainfall each day for a month", "the percent of various materials in solid waste" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women. The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development. Current status of girls and women in STEM education Overall trends in STEM education Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle. Learning achievement in STEM education Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and Document 2::: In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH. Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid. Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model. Motivation Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate What the student can do and What the student is ready to learn. Model structure Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of Document 3::: Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations. Academic courses Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism. Example universities with CSE majors and departments APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University American International University-B Document 4::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Data in tables may also be presented in graphs. Which type of data would best be displayed on a circle graph? A. the distance of the planets from the sun B. the depths of the major oceans on Earth C. the amount of rainfall each day for a month D. the percent of various materials in solid waste Answer:
sciq-10336	multiple_choice	What is it called when crystals form from magma?	[ "transpiration", "crystallization", "vulcanism", "sedimentation" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. Modern technology has allowed the development of new man-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete. Study Geology is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the Document 1::: A solid solution, a term popularly used for metals, is a homogeneous mixture of two different kinds of atoms in solid state and having a single crystal structure. Many examples can be found in metallurgy, geology, and solid-state chemistry. The word "solution" is used to describe the intimate mixing of components at the atomic level and distinguishes these homogeneous materials from physical mixtures of components. Two terms are mainly associated with solid solutions – solvents and solutes, depending on the relative abundance of the atomic species. In general if two compounds are isostructural then a solid solution will exist between the end members (also known as parents). For example sodium chloride and potassium chloride have the same cubic crystal structure so it is possible to make a pure compound with any ratio of sodium to potassium (Na1-xKx)Cl by dissolving that ratio of NaCl and KCl in water and then evaporating the solution. A member of this family is sold under the brand name Lo Salt which is (Na0.33K0.66)Cl, hence it contains 66% less sodium than normal table salt (NaCl). The pure minerals are called halite and sylvite; a physical mixture of the two is referred to as sylvinite. Because minerals are natural materials they are prone to large variations in composition. In many cases specimens are members for a solid solution family and geologists find it more helpful to discuss the composition of the family than an individual specimen. Olivine is described by the formula (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, which is equivalent to (Mg1−xFex)2SiO4. The ratio of magnesium to iron varies between the two endmembers of the solid solution series: forsterite (Mg-endmember: Mg2SiO4) and fayalite (Fe-endmember: Fe2SiO4) but the ratio in olivine is not normally defined. With increasingly complex compositions the geological notation becomes significantly easier to manage than the chemical notation. Nomenclature The IUPAC definition of a solid solution is a "solid in which components ar Document 2::: In mineralogy, crystal habit is the characteristic external shape of an individual crystal or aggregate of crystals. The habit of a crystal is dependent on its crystallographic form and growth conditions, which generally creates irregularities due to limited space in the crystallizing medium (commonly in rocks). Crystal forms Recognizing the habit can aid in mineral identification and description, as the crystal habit is an external representation of the internal ordered atomic arrangement. Most natural crystals, however, do not display ideal habits and are commonly malformed. Hence, it is also important to describe the quality of the shape of a mineral specimen: Euhedral: a crystal that is completely bounded by its characteristic faces, well-formed. Synonymous terms: idiomorphic, automorphic; Subhedral: a crystal partially bounded by its characteristic faces and partially by irregular surfaces. Synonymous terms: hypidiomorphic, hypautomorphic; Anhedral: a crystal that lacks any of its characteristic faces, completely malformed. Synonymous terms: allotriomorphic, xenomorphic. Altering factors Factors influencing habit include: a combination of two or more crystal forms; trace impurities present during growth; crystal twinning and growth conditions (i.e., heat, pressure, space); and specific growth tendencies such as growth striations. Minerals belonging to the same crystal system do not necessarily exhibit the same habit. Some habits of a mineral are unique to its variety and locality: For example, while most sapphires form elongate barrel-shaped crystals, those found in Montana form stout tabular crystals. Ordinarily, the latter habit is seen only in ruby. Sapphire and ruby are both varieties of the same mineral: corundum. Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the original's habit, i.e. pseudomorphous replacement. A classic example is tiger's eye quartz, crocidolite asbestos replaced by silica. While quartz typically forms prism Document 3::: Euhedral crystals (also known as idiomorphic or automorphic crystals) are those that are well-formed, with sharp, easily recognised faces. The opposite is anhedral (also known as xenomorphic or allotriomorphic): a rock with an anhedral texture is composed of mineral grains that have no well-formed crystal faces or cross-section shape in thin section. Anhedral crystal growth occurs in a competitive environment with no free space for the formation of crystal faces. An intermediate texture with some crystal face-formation is termed subhedral (also known as hypidiomorphic or hypautomorphic). Crystals that grow from cooling liquid magma typically do not form smooth faces or sharp crystal outlines. As magma cools, the crystals grow and eventually touch each other, preventing crystal faces from forming properly or at all. When snowflakes crystallize, they do not touch each other. Thus, snowflakes form euhedral, six-sided twinned crystals. In rocks, the presence of euhedral crystals may signify that they formed early in the crystallization of liquid magma or perhaps crystallized in a cavity or vug, without steric hindrance, or spatial restrictions, from other crystals. Etymology "Euhedral" is derived from the Greek eu meaning "well, good" and hedron meaning a seat or a face of a solid. Relation of face orientation to microscopic structure Euhedral crystals have flat faces with sharp angles. The flat faces (also called facets) are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal: They are planes of relatively low Miller index. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower surface energy). As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces. Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces. (See diagram on right.) See also Xenom Document 4::: A symplectite (or symplektite) is a material texture: a micrometre-scale or submicrometre-scale intergrowth of two or more crystals. Symplectites form from the breakdown of unstable phases, and may be composed of minerals, ceramics, or metals. Fundamentally, their formation is the result of slow grain-boundary diffusion relative to interface propagation rate. If a material undergoes a change in temperature, pressure or other physical conditions (e.g., fluid composition or activity), one or more phases may be rendered unstable and recrystallize to more stable constituents. If the recrystallized minerals are fine grained and intergrown, this may be termed a symplectite. A cellular precipitation reaction, in which a reactant phase decomposes to a product phase with the same structure as the parent phase and a second phase with a different structure, can form a symplectite. Eutectoid reactions, involving the breakdown of a single phase to two or more phases, neither of which is structurally or compositionally identical to the parent phase, can also form symplectites. Symplectites may be formed by reaction between adjacent phases or to decomposition of a single phase. The intergrown phases may be planar or rodlike, depending on the volume proportions of the phases, their interfacial free energies, the rate of reaction, the Gibbs free energy change, and the degree of recrystallization. Lamellar symplectites are common in retrogressed eclogite. Kelyphite is a symplectite formed from the decomposition of garnet. Myrmekite is a globular or bulbous symplectite of quartz in plagioclase. Examples of symplectites formed in Earth materials include dolomite + calcite, aragonite + calcite, and magnetite + clinopyroxene. Symplectite formation is important in metallurgy: bainite or pearlite formation from the decomposition of austenite, for example. See also Granophyre Micrographic texture The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is it called when crystals form from magma? A. transpiration B. crystallization C. vulcanism D. sedimentation Answer:
sciq-818	multiple_choice	What does every star emit that humans cannot see?	[ "dust", "radiation", "sound", "light" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Astrophysics is a science that employs the methods and principles of physics and chemistry in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena. As one of the founders of the discipline, James Keeler, said, Astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space–what they are, rather than where they are." Among the subjects studied are the Sun (solar physics), other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background. Emissions from these objects are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists apply concepts and methods from many disciplines of physics, including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, black holes, and other celestial bodies; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe. Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity, special relativity, quantum and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics. History Astronomy is an ancient science, long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the Aristotelian worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging spheres whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthl Document 1::: Starspots are stellar phenomena, so-named by analogy with sunspots. Spots as small as sunspots have not been detected on other stars, as they would cause undetectably small fluctuations in brightness. The commonly observed starspots are in general much larger than those on the Sun: up to about 30% of the stellar surface may be covered, corresponding to starspots 100 times larger than those on the Sun. Detection and measurements To detect and measure the extent of starspots one uses several types of methods. For rapidly rotating stars – Doppler imaging and Zeeman-Doppler imaging. With the Zeeman-Doppler imaging technique the direction of the magnetic field on stars can be determined since spectral lines are split according to the Zeeman effect, revealing the direction and magnitude of the field. For slowly rotating stars – Line Depth Ratio (LDR). Here one measures two different spectral lines, one sensitive to temperature and one which is not. Since starspots have a lower temperature than their surroundings the temperature-sensitive line changes its depth. From the difference between these two lines the temperature and size of the spot can be calculated, with a temperature accuracy of 10K. For eclipsing binary stars – Eclipse mapping produces images and maps of spots on both stars. For giant binary stars - Very-long-baseline interferometry For stars with transiting extrasolar planets – Light curve variations. Temperature Observed starspots have a temperature which is in general 500–2000 kelvins cooler than the stellar photosphere. This temperature difference could give rise to a brightness variation up to 0.6 magnitudes between the spot and the surrounding surface. There also seems to be a relation between the spot temperature and the temperature for the stellar photosphere, indicating that starspots behave similarly for different types of stars (observed in G–K dwarfs). Lifetimes The lifetime for a starspot depends on its size. For small spots the lifetim Document 2::: Astronomy education or astronomy education research (AER) refers both to the methods currently used to teach the science of astronomy and to an area of pedagogical research that seeks to improve those methods. Specifically, AER includes systematic techniques honed in science and physics education to understand what and how students learn about astronomy and determine how teachers can create more effective learning environments. Education is important to astronomy as it impacts both the recruitment of future astronomers and the appreciation of astronomy by citizens and politicians who support astronomical research. Astronomy has been taught throughout much of recorded human history, and has practical application in timekeeping and navigation. Teaching astronomy contributes to an understanding of physics and the origin of the world around us, a shared cultural background, and a sense of wonder and exploration. It includes education of the general public through planetariums, books, and instructive presentations, plus programs and tools for amateur astronomy, and University-level degree programs for professional astronomers. Astronomy organizations provide educational functions and societies in about 100 nation states around the world. In schools, particularly at the collegiate level, astronomy is aligned with physics and the two are often combined to form a Department of Physics and Astronomy. Some parts of astronomy education overlap with physics education, however, astronomy education has its own arenas, practitioners, journals, and research. This can be demonstrated in the identified 20-year lag between the emergence of AER and physics education research. The body of research in this field are available through electronic sources such as the Searchable Annotated Bibliography of Education Research (SABER) and the American Astronomical Society's database of the contents of their journal "Astronomy Education Review" (see link below). The National Aeronautics and Document 3::: Cosmic dustalso called extraterrestrial dust, space dust, or star dustis dust that occurs in outer space or has fallen onto Earth. Most cosmic dust particles measure between a few molecules and , such as micrometeoroids. Larger particles are called meteoroids. Cosmic dust can be further distinguished by its astronomical location: intergalactic dust, interstellar dust, interplanetary dust (as in the zodiacal cloud), and circumplanetary dust (as in a planetary ring). There are several methods to obtain space dust measurement. In the Solar System, interplanetary dust causes the zodiacal light. Solar System dust includes comet dust, planetary dust (like from Mars), asteroidal dust, dust from the Kuiper belt, and interstellar dust passing through the Solar System. Thousands of tons of cosmic dust are estimated to reach Earth's surface every year, with most grains having a mass between 10−16 kg (0.1 pg) and 10−4 kg (0.1 g). The density of the dust cloud through which the Earth is traveling is approximately 10−6 dust grains/m3. Cosmic dust contains some complex organic compounds (amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic–aliphatic structure) that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars. A smaller fraction of dust in space is "stardust" consisting of larger refractory minerals that condensed as matter left by stars. Interstellar dust particles were collected by the Stardust spacecraft and samples were returned to Earth in 2006. Study and importance Cosmic dust was once solely an annoyance to astronomers, as it obscures objects they wished to observe. When infrared astronomy began, the dust particles were observed to be significant and vital components of astrophysical processes. Their analysis can reveal information about phenomena like the formation of the Solar System. For example, cosmic dust can drive the mass loss when a star is nearing the end of its life, play a part in the early stages of star formation, and form planets. In the Solar System, Document 4::: A red dwarf is the smallest and coolest kind of star on the main sequence. Red dwarfs are by far the most common type of star in the Milky Way, at least in the neighborhood of the Sun. However, as a result of their low luminosity, individual red dwarfs cannot be easily observed. From Earth, not one star that fits the stricter definitions of a red dwarf is visible to the naked eye. Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf, as are fifty of the sixty nearest stars. According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way. The coolest red dwarfs near the Sun have a surface temperature of about and the smallest have radii about 9% that of the Sun, with masses about 7.5% that of the Sun. These red dwarfs have spectral types of L0 to L2. There is some overlap with the properties of brown dwarfs, since the most massive brown dwarfs at lower metallicity can be as hot as and have late M spectral types. Definitions and usage of the term "red dwarf" vary on how inclusive they are on the hotter and more massive end. One definition is synonymous with stellar M dwarfs (M-type main sequence stars), yielding a maximum temperature of and . One includes all stellar M-type main-sequence and all K-type main-sequence stars (K dwarf), yielding a maximum temperature of and . Some definitions include any stellar M dwarf and part of the K dwarf classification. Other definitions are also in use. Many of the coolest, lowest mass M dwarfs are expected to be brown dwarfs, not true stars, and so those would be excluded from any definition of red dwarf. Stellar models indicate that red dwarfs less than are fully convective. Hence, the helium produced by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen is constantly remixed throughout the star, avoiding helium buildup at the core, thereby prolonging the period of fusion. Low-mass red dwarfs therefore develop very slowly, maintaining a constant luminosity and spectral type for trillions of years, The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What does every star emit that humans cannot see? A. dust B. radiation C. sound D. light Answer:
sciq-2251	multiple_choice	Equal and oppositely directed forces produce what kind of acceleration?	[ "no acceleration", "greater acceleration", "faster acceleration", "steady acceleration" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object's acceleration, as described by Newton's Second Law, is the combined effect of two causes: the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object — magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force; that object's mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made — magnitude is inversely proportional to the object's mass. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (, ). For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft. Bot Document 1::: As described by the third of Newton's laws of motion of classical mechanics, all forces occur in pairs such that if one object exerts a force on another object, then the second object exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the first. The third law is also more generally stated as: "To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts." The attribution of which of the two forces is the action and which is the reaction is arbitrary. Either of the two can be considered the action, while the other is its associated reaction. Examples Interaction with ground When something is exerting force on the ground, the ground will push back with equal force in the opposite direction. In certain fields of applied physics, such as biomechanics, this force by the ground is called 'ground reaction force'; the force by the object on the ground is viewed as the 'action'. When someone wants to jump, he or she exerts additional downward force on the ground ('action'). Simultaneously, the ground exerts upward force on the person ('reaction'). If this upward force is greater than the person's weight, this will result in upward acceleration. When these forces are perpendicular to the ground, they are also called a normal force. Likewise, the spinning wheels of a vehicle attempt to slide backward across the ground. If the ground is not too slippery, this results in a pair of friction forces: the 'action' by the wheel on the ground in backward direction, and the 'reaction' by the ground on the wheel in forward direction. This forward force propels the vehicle. Gravitational forces The Earth, among other planets, orbits the Sun because the Sun exerts a gravitational pull that acts as a centripetal force, holding the Earth to it, which would otherwise go shooting off into space. If the Sun's pull is considered an action, then Earth simultaneously exerts a reaction as a gravi Document 2::: Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Mechanics (also known as AP Mechanics) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a one-semester calculus-based university course in mechanics. The content of Physics C: Mechanics overlaps with that of AP Physics 1, but Physics 1 is algebra-based, while Physics C is calculus-based. Physics C: Mechanics may be combined with its electricity and magnetism counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams. Course content Intended to be equivalent to an introductory college course in mechanics for physics or engineering majors, the course modules are: Kinematics Newton's laws of motion Work, energy and power Systems of particles and linear momentum Circular motion and rotation Oscillations and gravitation. Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a Calculus I class. This course is often compared to AP Physics 1: Algebra Based for its similar course material involving kinematics, work, motion, forces, rotation, and oscillations. However, AP Physics 1: Algebra Based lacks concepts found in Calculus I, like derivatives or integrals. This course may be combined with AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism to make a unified Physics C course that prepares for both exams. AP test The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution. Registration The AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test. Format The exam is typically administered on a Monday aftern Document 3::: The Force Concept Inventory is a test measuring mastery of concepts commonly taught in a first semester of physics developed by Hestenes, Halloun, Wells, and Swackhamer (1985). It was the first such "concept inventory" and several others have been developed since for a variety of topics. The FCI was designed to assess student understanding of the Newtonian concepts of force. Hestenes (1998) found that while "nearly 80% of the [students completing introductory college physics courses] could state Newton's Third Law at the beginning of the course, FCI data showed that less than 15% of them fully understood it at the end". These results have been replicated in a number of studies involving students at a range of institutions (see sources section below), and have led to greater recognition in the physics education research community of the importance of students' "active engagement" with the materials to be mastered. The 1995 version has 30 five-way multiple choice questions. Example question (question 4): Gender differences The FCI shows a gender difference in favor of males that has been the subject of some research in regard to gender equity in education. Men score on average about 10% higher. Document 4::: There are four Advanced Placement (AP) Physics courses administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program: the algebra-based Physics 1 and Physics 2 and the calculus-based Physics C: Mechanics and Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. All are intended to be at the college level. Each AP Physics course has an exam for which high-performing students may receive credit toward their college coursework. AP Physics 1 and 2 AP Physics 1 and AP Physics 2 were introduced in 2015, replacing AP Physics B. The courses were designed to emphasize critical thinking and reasoning as well as learning through inquiry. They are algebra-based and do not require any calculus knowledge. AP Physics 1 AP Physics 1 covers Newtonian mechanics, including: Unit 1: Kinematics Unit 2: Dynamics Unit 3: Circular Motion and Gravitation Unit 4: Energy Unit 5: Momentum Unit 6: Simple Harmonic Motion Unit 7: Torque and Rotational Motion Until 2020, the course also covered topics in electricity (including Coulomb's Law and resistive DC circuits), mechanical waves, and sound. These units were removed because they are included in AP Physics 2. AP Physics 2 AP Physics 2 covers the following topics: Unit 1: Fluids Unit 2: Thermodynamics Unit 3: Electric Force, Field, and Potential Unit 4: Electric Circuits Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction Unit 6: Geometric and Physical Optics Unit 7: Quantum, Atomic, and Nuclear Physics AP Physics C From 1969 to 1972, AP Physics C was a single course with a single exam that covered all standard introductory university physics topics, including mechanics, fluids, electricity and magnetism, optics, and modern physics. In 1973, the College Board split the course into AP Physics C: Mechanics and AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism. The exam was also split into two separate 90-minute tests, each equivalent to a semester-length calculus-based college course. Until 2006, both exams could be taken for a single The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Equal and oppositely directed forces produce what kind of acceleration? A. no acceleration B. greater acceleration C. faster acceleration D. steady acceleration Answer:
sciq-5885	multiple_choice	In a medium, the closer the distribution of the material gets to what state, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes?	[ "gas", "elastic", "erosion", "equilibrium" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Anomalous diffusion is a diffusion process with a non-linear relationship between the mean squared displacement (MSD), , and time. This behavior is in stark contrast to Brownian motion, the typical diffusion process described by Einstein and Smoluchowski, where the MSD is linear in time (namely, with d being the number of dimensions and D the diffusion coefficient). It has been found that equations describing normal diffusion are not capable of characterizing some complex diffusion processes, for instance, diffusion process in inhomogeneous or heterogeneous medium, e.g. porous media. Fractional diffusion equations were introduced in order to characterize anomalous diffusion phenomena. Examples of anomalous diffusion in nature have been observed in ultra-cold atoms, harmonic spring-mass systems, scalar mixing in the interstellar medium, telomeres in the nucleus of cells, ion channels in the plasma membrane, colloidal particle in the cytoplasm, moisture transport in cement-based materials, and worm-like micellar solutions. Classes of anomalous diffusion Unlike typical diffusion, anomalous diffusion is described by a power law, where is the so-called generalized diffusion coefficient and is the elapsed time. The classes of anomalous diffusions are classified as follows: α < 1: subdiffusion. This can happen due to crowding or walls. For example, a random walker in a crowded room, or in a maze, is able to move as usual for small random steps, but cannot take large random steps, creating subdiffusion. This appears for example in protein diffusion within cells, or diffusion through porous media. Subdiffusion has been proposed as a measure of macromolecular crowding in the cytoplasm. α = 1: Brownian motion. : superdiffusion. Superdiffusion can be the result of active cellular transport processes or due to jumps with a heavy-tail distribution. α = 2: ballistic motion. The prototypical example is a particle moving at constant velocity: . : hyperballistic. It h Document 1::: Dispersive mass transfer, in fluid dynamics, is the spreading of mass from highly concentrated areas to less concentrated areas. It is one form of mass transfer. Dispersive mass flux is analogous to diffusion, and it can also be described using Fick's first law: where c is mass concentration of the species being dispersed, E is the dispersion coefficient, and x is the position in the direction of the concentration gradient. Dispersion can be differentiated from diffusion in that it is caused by non-ideal flow patterns (i.e. deviations from plug flow) and is a macroscopic phenomenon, whereas diffusion is caused by random molecular motions (i.e. Brownian motion) and is a microscopic phenomenon. Dispersion is often more significant than diffusion in convection-diffusion problems. The dispersion coefficient is frequently modeled as the product of the fluid velocity, U, and some characteristic length scale, α: Transport phenomena Document 2::: The convection–diffusion equation is a combination of the diffusion and convection (advection) equations, and describes physical phenomena where particles, energy, or other physical quantities are transferred inside a physical system due to two processes: diffusion and convection. Depending on context, the same equation can be called the advection–diffusion equation, drift–diffusion equation, or (generic) scalar transport equation. Equation General The general equation is where is the variable of interest (species concentration for mass transfer, temperature for heat transfer), is the diffusivity (also called diffusion coefficient), such as mass diffusivity for particle motion or thermal diffusivity for heat transport, is the velocity field that the quantity is moving with. It is a function of time and space. For example, in advection, might be the concentration of salt in a river, and then would be the velocity of the water flow as a function of time and location. Another example, might be the concentration of small bubbles in a calm lake, and then would be the velocity of bubbles rising towards the surface by buoyancy (see below) depending on time and location of the bubble. For multiphase flows and flows in porous media, is the (hypothetical) superficial velocity. describes sources or sinks of the quantity . For example, for a chemical species, means that a chemical reaction is creating more of the species, and means that a chemical reaction is destroying the species. For heat transport, might occur if thermal energy is being generated by friction. represents gradient and represents divergence. In this equation, represents concentration gradient. Understanding the terms involved The right-hand side of the equation is the sum of three contributions. The first, , describes diffusion. Imagine that is the concentration of a chemical. When concentration is low somewhere compared to the surrounding areas (e.g. a local minimum of concentration), t Document 3::: Rheometry () generically refers to the experimental techniques used to determine the rheological properties of materials, that is the qualitative and quantitative relationships between stresses and strains and their derivatives. The techniques used are experimental. Rheometry investigates materials in relatively simple flows like steady shear flow, small amplitude oscillatory shear, and extensional flow. The choice of the adequate experimental technique depends on the rheological property which has to be determined. This can be the steady shear viscosity, the linear viscoelastic properties (complex viscosity respectively elastic modulus), the elongational properties, etc. For all real materials, the measured property will be a function of the flow conditions during which it is being measured (shear rate, frequency, etc.) even if for some materials this dependence is vanishingly low under given conditions (see Newtonian fluids). Rheometry is a specific concern for smart fluids such as electrorheological fluids and magnetorheological fluids, as it is the primary method to quantify the useful properties of these materials. Rheometry is considered useful in the fields of quality control, process control, and industrial process modelling, among others. For some, the techniques, particularly the qualitative rheological trends, can yield the classification of materials based on the main interactions between different possible elementary components and how they qualitatively affect the rheological behavior of the materials. Novel applications of these concepts include measuring cell mechanics in thin layers, especially in drug screening contexts. Of non-Newtonian fluids The viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid is defined by a power law: where η is the viscosity after shear is applied, η0 is the initial viscosity, γ is the shear rate, and if , the fluid is shear thinning, , the fluid is shear thickening, , the fluid is Newtonian. In rheometry, shear forces are applied t Document 4::: A transport coefficient measures how rapidly a perturbed system returns to equilibrium. The transport coefficients occur in transport phenomenon with transport laws where: is a flux of the property the transport coefficient of this property , the gradient force which acts on the property . Transport coefficients can be expressed via a Green–Kubo relation: where is an observable occurring in a perturbed Hamiltonian, is an ensemble average and the dot above the A denotes the time derivative. For times that are greater than the correlation time of the fluctuations of the observable the transport coefficient obeys a generalized Einstein relation: In general a transport coefficient is a tensor. Examples Diffusion constant, relates the flux of particles with the negative gradient of the concentration (see Fick's laws of diffusion) Thermal conductivity (see Fourier's law) Ionic conductivity Mass transport coefficient Shear viscosity , where is the viscous stress tensor (see Newtonian fluid) Electrical conductivity Transport coefficients of higher order For strong gradients the transport equation typically has to be modified with higher order terms (and higher order Transport coefficients). See also Linear response theory Onsager reciprocal relations The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. In a medium, the closer the distribution of the material gets to what state, the slower the rate of diffusion becomes? A. gas B. elastic C. erosion D. equilibrium Answer:
sciq-6726	multiple_choice	Life probably began where?	[ "oceans", "rocks", "caves", "the Sun" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary information encoded in genes, which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life. Energy processing is also important to life as it allows organisms to move, grow, and reproduce. Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own internal environments. Biologists are able to study life at multiple levels of organization, from the molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology, each defined by the nature of their research questions and the tools that they use. Like other scientists, biologists use the scientific method to make observations, pose questions, generate hypotheses, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them. Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago, is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify the various forms of life, from prokaryotic organisms such as archaea and bacteria to eukaryotic organisms such as protists, fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the biodiversity of an ecosystem, where they play specialized roles in the cycling of nutrients and energy through their biophysical environment. History The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions shaped ancient Greek natural philosophy. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor, Theophrastus, began the scienti Document 1::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 2::: The history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms evolved, from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago (abbreviated as Ga, for gigaannum) and evidence suggests that life emerged prior to 3.7 Ga. Although there is some evidence of life as early as 4.1 to 4.28 Ga, it remains controversial due to the possible non-biological formation of the purported fossils. The similarities among all known present-day species indicate that they have diverged through the process of evolution from a common ancestor. Only a very small percentage of species have been identified: one estimate claims that Earth may have 1 trillion species. However, only 1.75–1.8 million have been named and 1.8 million documented in a central database. These currently living species represent less than one percent of all species that have ever lived on Earth. The earliest evidence of life comes from biogenic carbon signatures and stromatolite fossils discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from western Greenland. In 2015, possible "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. In March 2017, putative evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life on Earth was reported in the form of fossilized microorganisms discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada, that may have lived as early as 4.28 billion years ago, not long after the oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment. The evolution of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria, around 3.5 Ga, eventually led to a buildup of its waste product, oxygen, in the ocean and then the atmosphere after depleting all available Document 3::: This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. This science is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro-scale (e.g. molecular biology, biochemistry) other on larger scales (e.g. cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mindneuroscience. Life sciences discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, it has provided information on certain diseases which has overall aided in the understanding of human health. Basic life science branches Biology – scientific study of life Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans Astrobiology – the study of the formation and presence of life in the universe Bacteriology – study of bacteria Biotechnology – study of combination of both the living organism and technology Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level Bioinformatics – developing of methods or software tools for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data to generate useful biological knowledge Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language. Biological anthropology – the study of humans, non-hum Document 4::: Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research. Americas Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970) Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government. Human and Social Biology (Caribbean) Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment. Human Biology Program at University of Toronto The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications. Asia BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002) BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Life probably began where? A. oceans B. rocks C. caves D. the Sun Answer:
sciq-7487	multiple_choice	What does cartilage lack compared to bones, making it softer and less rigid?	[ "protein", "calcium", "potassium", "magnesium" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Outline h1.00: Cytology h2.00: General histology H2.00.01.0.00001: Stem cells H2.00.02.0.00001: Epithelial tissue H2.00.02.0.01001: Epithelial cell H2.00.02.0.02001: Surface epithelium H2.00.02.0.03001: Glandular epithelium H2.00.03.0.00001: Connective and supportive tissues H2.00.03.0.01001: Connective tissue cells H2.00.03.0.02001: Extracellular matrix H2.00.03.0.03001: Fibres of connective tissues H2.00.03.1.00001: Connective tissue proper H2.00.03.1.01001: Ligaments H2.00.03.2.00001: Mucoid connective tissue; Gelatinous connective tissue H2.00.03.3.00001: Reticular tissue H2.00.03.4.00001: Adipose tissue H2.00.03.5.00001: Cartilage tissue H2.00.03.6.00001: Chondroid tissue H2.00.03.7.00001: Bone tissue; Osseous tissue H2.00.04.0.00001: Haemotolymphoid complex H2.00.04.1.00001: Blood cells H2.00.04.1.01001: Erythrocyte; Red blood cell H2.00.04.1.02001: Leucocyte; White blood cell H2.00.04.1.03001: Platelet; Thrombocyte H2.00.04.2.00001: Plasma H2.00.04.3.00001: Blood cell production H2.00.04.4.00001: Postnatal sites of haematopoiesis H2.00.04.4.01001: Lymphoid tissue H2.00.05.0.00001: Muscle tissue H2.00.05.1.00001: Smooth muscle tissue Document 1::: The territorial matrix is the tissue surrounding chondrocytes (cells which produce cartilage) in cartilage. Chondrocytes are inactive cartilage cells, so they don't make cartilage components. The territorial matrix is basophilic (attracts basic compounds and dyes due to its anionic/acidic nature), because there is a higher concentration of proteoglycans, so it will color darker when it's colored and viewed under a microscope. In other words, it stains metachromatically (dyes change color upon binding) due to the presence of proteoglycans (compound molecules composed of proteins and sugars). Document 2::: Chondrin is a bluish-white gelatin-like substance, being a protein-carbohydrate complex and can be obtained by boiling cartilage in water. The cartilage is a connective tissue that contains cells embedded in a matrix of chondrin. Chondrin is made up of two proteins chondroalbunoid and chondromucoid. See also Chondroitin External links Charles Darwin - Insectivorous Plants Page 56 Animal products Edible thickening agents Proteins Document 3::: Alpha collagen is specifically designed to deliver specific ratios of α- chain peptides as building blocks. The targeted cells can process the α- chain peptides to form triple helix collagen, and replenish the collagen in the targeted site. Scientists believe that Alpha collagen can help to deliver specific ratios of peptides to benefit the targeted cells. Alpha collagen is designed to be used as a supplement for osteoarthritis, based on the theory of the different environments of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM of joint cartilage comprises many classes of macromolecules; collagen (type I, II, VI, X collagen fibrils) and proteoglycans. The ratio and the proportion of collagen play an important role in the tensile and compressive strength, as well as the elasticity of the tissue. The content of collagen in cartilage is different between joints and soft tissue structures. For example, cartilage in the knee has a different structure to the ankle. Cartilage, skin, and spinal discs are subject to continuous regeneration during which anabolic and catabolic processes are in equilibrium. Any imbalance in this equilibrium between matrix degeneration and regeneration results in a decrease in the components of the ECM, and leads to loss of chondral damage. Therefore, it is important to tackle the degenerative process before the inflammatory metalloproteases set in by replenishing the collagen in the ECM. Collagen supplementation has been shown in research studies (in vitro and in vivo) to increase the thickness or volume of the cartilage tissue. Collagen can stimulate chondrocytes, which are responsible for the metabolic maintenance of the ECM. Different types of Alpha Collagen Collagen, type I, alpha 1 Collagen, type II, alpha 1 Collagen, type III, alpha 1 Collagen, type IV, alpha 1 Collagen, type V, alpha 1 Collagen, type VI, alpha 1 Collagen, type VII, alpha 1 Collagen, type VIII, alpha 1 Collagen, type IX, alpha 1 Collagen, type X, alpha 1 And many further type Document 4::: Elastic cartilage, fibroelastic cartilage or yellow fibrocartilage is a type of cartilage present in the pinnae (auricles) of the ear giving it shape, provides shape for the lateral region of the external auditory meatus, medial part of the auditory canal Eustachian tube, corniculate and cuneiform laryneal cartilages, and the epiglottis. It contains elastic fiber networks and collagen type II fibers. The principal protein is elastin. Structure Elastic cartilage is histologically similar to hyaline cartilage but contains many yellow elastic fibers lying in a solid matrix. These fibers form bundles that appear dark under a microscope. The elastic fibers require special staining since when it is stained using haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain it appears the same as hyaline cartilage. Verhoeff van Geison stains are used (giving the elastic fibers a black color), but aldehyde fuchsin stains, Weigert's elastic stains, and orcein stains also work. These fibers give elastic cartilage great flexibility so that it is able to withstand repeated bending. Similarly to hyaline one or multiple chondrocytes lie between the spaces (or lacunea) in the fibres. The chondrocytes only make up 2% of the tissue's volume. Chondrocytes and the extracellular matrix are contained in an outerlayer named the perichondrium (which is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds cartilage which is independent of the joint). It is found in the epiglottis (part of the larynx), and the pinnae (the external ear flaps of many mammals). Elastin fibers stain dark purple/black with Verhoeff's stain. The extracellular matrix contains Elastin, fibrillin, glycoproteins, collagen types II, IX, X, and XI, and the proteoglycan aggrecan. the components within the extracellular matrix are produced by the chondroblasts located within the edges of the perichondrium. Elastic fibers within the extracellular matrix are made up of elastin proteins which co-polymerize with fibrillin forming fiber-li The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What does cartilage lack compared to bones, making it softer and less rigid? A. protein B. calcium C. potassium D. magnesium Answer:
scienceQA-12698	multiple_choice	Select the invertebrate.	[ "jumping spider", "asp viper", "sheep", "harbor seal" ]	A	Like other spiders, a jumping spider is an invertebrate. It does not have a backbone. It has an exoskeleton. A sheep is a mammal. Like other mammals, a sheep is a vertebrate. It has a backbone. An asp viper is a reptile. Like other reptiles, an asp viper is a vertebrate. It has a backbone. A harbor seal is a mammal. Like other mammals, a harbor seal is a vertebrate. It has a backbone.	Relavent Documents: Document 0::: International Society for Invertebrate Morphology (ISIM) was founded during the 1st International Congress on Invertebrate Morphology, in Copenhagen, August 2008. The objectives of the society are to promote international collaboration and provide educational opportunities and training on invertebrate morphology, and to organize and promote the international congresses of invertebrate morphology, international meetings and other forms of scientific exchange. The ISIM has its own Constitution ISIM board 2014-2017 Gerhard Scholtz (President) Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany. https://www.biologie.hu-berlin.de/de/gruppenseiten/compzool/people/gerhard_scholtz_page Natalia Biserova (President-Elect) Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia. Gonzalo Giribet (Past-President) Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Julia Sigwart (Secretary) Katrina Worsaae (Treasurer) Greg Edgecombe (2nd term) Andreas Hejnol (2nd term) Sally Leys (2nd term) Fernando Pardos (2nd term) Katharina Jörger (1st term) Marymegan Daly (1st term) Georg Mayer (1st term) ISIM board 2017-2020 Natalia Biserova (President), Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation http://invert.bio.msu.ru/en/staff-en/33-biserova-en . Andreas Wanninger (President-elect), Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria. Gerhard Scholtz (Past-president), Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany. Julia Sigwart (Secretary), School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, UK. Katrine Worsaae (Treasurer), Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Advisory Council: Ariel Chipman (Israel) D. Bruce Conn (USA) Conrad Helm (Germany) Xiaoya Ma (UK) Pedro Martinez (Spain) Ana Riesgo (Spain) Nadezhda Rimskaya-Korsakova (Russia) Elected 23-08-2017, Moscow Former meetings ICIM 1 (2008) University of Copenhagen, Denmark ICIM 2 (2011) H Document 1::: Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. As of 2022, 2.16 million living animal species have been described—of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are around 7.77 million animal species. Animals range in length from to . They have complex interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology. Most living animal species are in Bilateria, a clade whose members have a bilaterally symmetric body plan. The Bilateria include the protostomes, containing animals such as nematodes, arthropods, flatworms, annelids and molluscs, and the deuterostomes, containing the echinoderms and the chordates, the latter including the vertebrates. Life forms interpreted as early animals were present in the Ediacaran biota of the late Precambrian. Many modern animal phyla became clearly established in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, which began around 539 million years ago. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago. Historically, Aristotle divided animals into those with blood and those without. Carl Linnaeus created the first hierarchical biological classification for animals in 1758 with his Systema Naturae, which Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular Metazoa (now synonymous with Animalia) and the Protozoa, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on ad Document 2::: Invertebrate zoology is the subdiscipline of zoology that consists of the study of invertebrates, animals without a backbone (a structure which is found only in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals). Invertebrates are a vast and very diverse group of animals that includes sponges, echinoderms, tunicates, numerous different phyla of worms, molluscs, arthropods and many additional phyla. Single-celled organisms or protists are usually not included within the same group as invertebrates. Subdivisions Invertebrates represent 97% of all named animal species, and because of that fact, this subdivision of zoology has many further subdivisions, including but not limited to: Arthropodology - the study of arthropods, which includes Arachnology - the study of spiders and other arachnids Entomology - the study of insects Carcinology - the study of crustaceans Myriapodology - the study of centipedes, millipedes, and other myriapods Cnidariology - the study of Cnidaria Helminthology - the study of parasitic worms. Malacology - the study of mollusks, which includes Conchology - the study of Mollusk shells. Limacology - the study of slugs. Teuthology - the study of cephalopods. Invertebrate paleontology - the study of fossil invertebrates These divisions are sometimes further divided into more specific specialties. For example, within arachnology, acarology is the study of mites and ticks; within entomology, lepidoptery is the study of butterflies and moths, myrmecology is the study of ants and so on. Marine invertebrates are all those invertebrates that exist in marine habitats. History Early Modern Era In the early modern period starting in the late 16th century, invertebrate zoology saw growth in the number of publications made and improvement in the experimental practices associated with the field. (Insects are one of the most diverse groups of organisms on Earth. They play important roles in ecosystems, including pollination, natural enemies, saprophytes, and Document 3::: Arachnology is the scientific study of arachnids, which comprise spiders and related invertebrates such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and harvestmen. Those who study spiders and other arachnids are arachnologists. More narrowly, the study of spiders alone (order Araneae) is known as araneology. The word "arachnology" derives from Greek , arachnē, "spider"; and , -logia, "the study of a particular subject". Arachnology as a science Arachnologists are primarily responsible for classifying arachnids and studying aspects of their biology. In the popular imagination, they are sometimes referred to as spider experts. Disciplines within arachnology include naming species and determining their evolutionary relationships to one another (taxonomy and systematics), studying how they interact with other members of their species and/or their environment (behavioural ecology), or how they are distributed in different regions and habitats (faunistics). Other arachnologists perform research on the anatomy or physiology of arachnids, including the venom of spiders and scorpions. Others study the impact of spiders in agricultural ecosystems and whether they can be used as biological control agents. Subdisciplines Arachnology can be broken down into several specialties, including: acarology – the study of ticks and mites araneology – the study of spiders scorpiology – the study of scorpions Arachnological societies Arachnologists are served by a number of scientific societies, both national and international in scope. Their main roles are to encourage the exchange of ideas between researchers, to organise meetings and congresses, and in a number of cases, to publish academic journals. Some are also involved in science outreach programs, such as the European spider of the year, which raise awareness of these animals among the general public. International International Society of Arachnology (ISA) website Africa African Arachnological Society (AFRAS) website Asia Arach Document 4::: History of Animals (, Ton peri ta zoia historion, "Inquiries on Animals"; , "History of Animals") is one of the major texts on biology by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who had studied at Plato's Academy in Athens. It was written in the fourth century BC; Aristotle died in 322 BC. Generally seen as a pioneering work of zoology, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the what (the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the why (the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the natural world. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all birds have feathers, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a universal. The History of Animals contains many accurate eye-witness observations, in particular of the marine biology around the island of Lesbos, such as that the octopus had colour-changing abilities and a sperm-transferring tentacle, that the young of a dogfish grow inside their mother's body, or that the male of a river catfish guards the eggs after the female has left. Some of these were long considered fanciful before being rediscovered in the nineteenth century. Aristotle has been accused of making errors, but some are due to misinterpretation of his text, and others may have been based on genuine observation. He did however make somewhat uncritical use of evidence from other people, such as travellers and beekeepers. The History of Animals had a powerful influence on zoology for some two thousand years. It continued to be a primary source of knowledge until zoologists in the sixteenth century, such as Conrad Gessner, all influenced by Aristotle, wrote their own studies of the subject. Context Aristotle (384–322 BC) studied at Plat The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Select the invertebrate. A. jumping spider B. asp viper C. sheep D. harbor seal Answer:
sciq-2896	multiple_choice	What did roots evolve from that plants used for aborption?	[ "oomycetes", "seeds", "rhizoids", "leguminous" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Rhizoids are protuberances that extend from the lower epidermal cells of bryophytes and algae. They are similar in structure and function to the root hairs of vascular land plants. Similar structures are formed by some fungi. Rhizoids may be unicellular or multicellular. Evolutionary development Plants originated in aquatic environments and gradually migrated to land during their long course of evolution. In water or near it, plants could absorb water from their surroundings, with no need for any special absorbing organ or tissue. Additionally, in the primitive states of plant development, tissue differentiation and division of labor was minimal, thus specialized water absorbing tissue was not required. The development of specialized tissues to absorb water efficiently and anchor themselves to the ground enabled the spread of plants to the land. Description Rhizoids absorb water mainly by capillary action, in which water moves up between threads of rhizoids and not through each of them as it does in roots, but some species of bryophytes do have the ability to take up water inside their rhizoids. Land plants In land plants, rhizoids are trichomes that anchor the plant to the ground. In the liverworts, they are absent or unicellular, but multicellular in mosses. In vascular plants they are often called root hairs, and may be unicellular or multicellular. Algae In certain algae, there is an extensive rhizoidal system that allows the alga to anchor itself to a sandy substrate from which it can absorb nutrients. Microscopic free-floating species, however, do not have rhizoids at all. Fungi In fungi, rhizoids are small branching hyphae that grow downwards from the stolons that anchor the fungus to the substrate, where they release digestive enzymes and absorb digested organic material. That is why fungí are called heterotrophs by absorption. See also Rhizine, the equivalent structure in lichens Document 1::: A dimorphic root system is a plant root system with two distinct root forms, which are adapted to perform different functions. One of the most common manifestations is in plants with both a taproot, which grows straight down to the water table, from which it obtains water for the plant; and a system of lateral roots, which obtain nutrients from superficial soil layers near the surface. Many plants with dimorphic root systems adapt the levels of rainfall in the surrounding area, growing many surface roots when there is heavy rainfall, and relying on a taproot when rain is scarce. Because of their adaptability to water levels in the surrounding area, most plants with dimorphic root systems live in arid climates with common wet and dry periods. Document 2::: Plant–fungus horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genetic material between individuals in the plant and fungus kingdoms. Horizontal gene transfer is universal in fungi, viruses, bacteria, and other eukaryotes. Horizontal gene transfer research often focuses on prokaryotes because of the abundant sequence data from diverse lineages, and because it is assumed not to play a significant role in eukaryotes. Most plant–fungus horizontal gene transfer events are ancient and rare, but they may have provided important gene functions leading to wider substrate use and habitat spread for plants and fungi. Since these events are rare and ancient, they have been difficult to detect and remain relatively unknown. Plant–fungus interactions could play a part in a multi-horizontal gene transfer pathway among many other organisms. Mechanisms Fungus–plant-mediated horizontal gene transfer can occur via phagotrophic mechanisms (mediated by phagotrophic eukaryotes) and nonphagotropic mechanisms. Nonphagotrophic mechanisms have been seen in the transmission of transposable elements, plastid-derived endosymbiotic gene transfer, prokaryote-derived gene transfer, Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated DNA transfer, cross-species hybridization events, and gene transfer between mitochondrial genes. Horizontal gene transfer could bypass eukaryotic barrier features like linear chromatin-based chromosomes, intron–exon gene structures, and the nuclear envelope. Horizontal gene transfer occurs between microorganisms sharing overlapping ecological niches and associations like parasitism or symbiosis. Ecological association can facilitate horizontal gene transfer in plants and fungi and is an unstudied factor in shared evolutionary histories. Most horizontal gene transfers from fungi into plants predate the rise of land plants. A greater genomic inventory of gene family and taxon sampling has been identified as a desirable prerequisite for identifying further plant–fungus events. Indicators Document 3::: Hairy root culture, also called transformed root culture, is a type of plant tissue culture that is used to study plant metabolic processes or to produce valuable secondary metabolites or recombinant proteins, often with plant genetic engineering. A naturally occurring soil bacterium Agrobacterium rhizogenes that contains root-inducing plasmids (also called Ri plasmids) can infect plant roots and cause them to produce a food source for the bacterium, opines, and to grow abnormally. The abnormal roots are particularly easy to culture in artificial media because hormones are not needed in contrast to adventitious roots, and they are neoplastic, with indefinite growth. The neoplastic roots produced by A. rhizogenes infection have a high growth rate (compared to untransformed adventitious roots), as well as genetic and biochemical stability. Currently the main constraint for commercial utilization of hairy root culture is the development and up-scaling of appropriate (bioreactors) vessels for the delicate and sensitive hairy roots. Some of the applied research on utilization of hairy root cultures has been and is conducted at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd. Other labs working on hairy roots are the phytotechnology lab of Amiens University and the Arkansas Biosciences Institute. Metabolic studies Hairy root cultures can be used for phytoremediation, and are particularly valuable for studies of the metabolic processes involved in phytoremediation. Further applications include detailed studies of fundamental molecular, genetic and biochemical aspects of genetic transformation and of hairy root induction. Genetically transformed cultures The Ri plasmids can be engineered to also contain T-DNA, used for genetic transformation (biotransformation) of the plant cells. The resulting genetically transformed root cultures can produce high levels of secondary metabolites, comparable or even higher than those of intact plants. Use in plant propagation Hairy Document 4::: Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans as food. Although botany distinguishes true roots (such as taproots and tuberous roots) from non-roots (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, although some contain both hypocotyl and taproot tissue), the term "root vegetable" is applied to all these types in agricultural and culinary usage (see terminology of vegetables). Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They differ in the concentration and the balance among starches, sugars, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch; starchy root vegetables are important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of Central Africa, West Africa and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make foods such as fufu or poi. Many root vegetables keep well in root cellars, lasting several months. This is one way of storing food for use long after harvest, which is especially important in nontropical latitudes, where winter is traditionally a time of little to no harvesting. There are also season extension methods that can extend the harvest throughout the winter, mostly through the use of polytunnels. List of root vegetables The following list classifies root vegetables organized by their roots' anatomy. Modified plant stem Corm Amorphophallus konjac (konjac) Colocasia esculenta (taro) Eleocharis dulcis (Chinese water chestnut) Ensete spp. (enset) Nymphaea spp. (waterlily) Pteridium esculentum Sagittaria spp. (arrowhead or wapatoo) Typha spp. Xanthosoma spp. (malanga, cocoyam, tannia, yautia and other names) Colocasia antiquorum (eddoe or Japanese potato) Bulb Allium cepa (onion) Allium sativum (garlic) Camassia quamash (blue camas) Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) Rhizome Curcuma longa (turmeric) Panax ginseng (ginseng) Arthropodium spp. ( The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What did roots evolve from that plants used for aborption? A. oomycetes B. seeds C. rhizoids D. leguminous Answer:
sciq-2711	multiple_choice	What is it called when individual organisms work together with one another?	[ "cooperation", "dualism", "competition", "continuation" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A heterarchy is a system of organization where the elements of the organization are unranked (non-hierarchical) or where they possess the potential to be ranked a number of different ways. Definitions of the term vary among the disciplines: in social and information sciences, heterarchies are networks of elements in which each element shares the same "horizontal" position of power and authority, each playing a theoretically equal role. In biological taxonomy, however, the requisite features of heterarchy involve, for example, a species sharing, with a species in a different family, a common ancestor which it does not share with members of its own family. This is theoretically possible under principles of "horizontal gene transfer". A heterarchy may be parallel to a hierarchy, subsumed to a hierarchy, or it may contain hierarchies; the two kinds of structure are not mutually exclusive. In fact, each level in a hierarchical system is composed of a potentially heterarchical group which contains its constituent elements. The concept of heterarchy was first employed in a modern context by cybernetician Warren McCulloch in 1945. As Carole L. Crumley has summarised, "[h]e examined alternative cognitive structure(s), the collective organization of which he termed heterarchy. He demonstrated that the human brain, while reasonably orderly was not organized hierarchically. This understanding revolutionized the neural study of the brain and solved major problems in the fields of artificial intelligence and computer design." General principles, operationalization, and evidence In a group of related items, heterarchy is a state wherein any pair of items is likely to be related in two or more differing ways. Whereas hierarchies sort groups into progressively smaller categories and subcategories, heterarchies divide and unite groups variously, according to multiple concerns that emerge or recede from view according to perspective. Crucially, no one way of dividing a heterarchica Document 1::: Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research. Americas Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970) Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government. Human and Social Biology (Caribbean) Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment. Human Biology Program at University of Toronto The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications. Asia BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002) BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New Document 2::: Biology by Team in German Biologie im Team - is the first Austrian biology contest for upper secondary schools. Students at upper secondary schools who are especially interested in biology can deepen their knowledge and broaden their competence in experimental biology within the framework of this contest. Each year, a team of teachers choose modules of key themes on which students work in the form of a voluntary exercise. The evaluation focuses in particular on the practical work, and, since the school year 2004/05, also on teamwork. In April, a two-day closing competition takes place, in which six groups of students from participating schools are given various problems to solve. A jury (persons from the science and corporate communities) evaluate the results and how they are presented. The concept was developed by a team of teachers in co-operation with the AHS (Academic Secondary Schools) - Department of the Pedagogical Institute in Carinthia. Since 2008 it is situated at the Science departement of the University College of Teacher Training Carinthia. The first contest in the school year 2002/03 took place under the motto: Hell is loose in the ground under us. Other themes included Beautiful but dangerous, www-worldwide water 1 and 2, Expedition forest, Relationship boxes, Mole's view, Biological timetravel, Biology at the University, Ecce Homo, Biodiversity, Death in tin cans, Sex sells, Without a trace, Biologists see more, Quo vadis biology? , Biology without limits?, Diversity instead of simplicity, Grid square, Diversity instead of simplicity 0.2, www-worldwide water 3.The theme for the year 2023/24 is I hear something you don't see. Till now the following schools were participating: BG/BRG Mössingerstraße Klagenfurt Ingeborg-Bachmann-Gymnasium, Klagenfurt BG/BRG St. Martinerstraße Villach BG/BRG Peraustraße Villach International school Carinthia, Velden Österreichisches Gymnasium Prag Europagymnasium Klagenfurt BRG Viktring Klagenfurt BORG Wo Document 3::: Competition is an interaction between organisms or species in which both require a resource that is in limited supply (such as food, water, or territory). Competition lowers the fitness of both organisms involved since the presence of one of the organisms always reduces the amount of the resource available to the other. In the study of community ecology, competition within and between members of a species is an important biological interaction. Competition is one of many interacting biotic and abiotic factors that affect community structure, species diversity, and population dynamics (shifts in a population over time). There are three major mechanisms of competition: interference, exploitation, and apparent competition (in order from most direct to least direct). Interference and exploitation competition can be classed as "real" forms of competition, while apparent competition is not, as organisms do not share a resource, but instead share a predator. Competition among members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition. According to the competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources must either adapt or die out, although competitive exclusion is rarely found in natural ecosystems. According to evolutionary theory, competition within and between species for resources is important in natural selection. More recently, however, researchers have suggested that evolutionary biodiversity for vertebrates has been driven not by competition between organisms, but by these animals adapting to colonize empty livable space; this is termed the 'Room to Roam' hypothesis. Interference competition During interference competition, also called contest competition, organisms interact directly by fighting for scarce resources. For example, large aphids defend feeding sites on cottonwood leaves by ejecting smaller aphids from better sites. Document 4::: Sociophysiology is the "interplay between society and physical functioning" (Freund 1988: 856) involving "collaboration of two neighboring sciences: physiology and sociology" (Mauss 1936: 373). In other words, sociophysiology is physiological sociology, a special science that studies the physiological side of human (and other animals') interrelations (Zeliony 1912: 405–406). Interdisciplinary field of research In addition to having been termed an "interdisciplinary area for research, an area which demonstrates the concomitant relationship between physiology and social behavior" (Di Mascio et al. 1955: 4), sociophysiology may also be described as "social ethology" and "social energetics" (Waxweiler 1906: 62). That is, the "physiology of reactive phenomena caused by the mutual excitations of individuals of the same species" (Waxweiler 1906: 62). The interdisciplinary nature of sociophysiology largely entails a "synthesis of psychophysiology and social interaction" (Adler 2002: 884) such that a "socio-psycho-biological study" (Mauss 1936: 386) of "biologico-sociological phenomena" (Mauss 1936: 385) may ensue. Such "socio-psycho-biological study" has uncovered a "sharing of physiology between people involved in a meaningful interaction" (Adler 2002: 884), as well as "mutually responsive physiologic engagement having normative function in maintaining social cohesion and well-being in higher social animals" (Adler 2002: 885). This "mutually responsive physiologic engagement" brings into play the "close links uniting social phenomena to the biological phenomena from which they immediately derive" (Solvay 1906: 26). Interpersonal physiology Furthermore, sociophysiology explores the "intimate relationship and mutual regulation between social and physiological systems that is especially vital in human groups" (Barchas 1986: 210). In other words, sociophysiology studies the "physio- and psycho-energetic phenomena at the basis of social groupings" (Solvay 1906: 25). Along th The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is it called when individual organisms work together with one another? A. cooperation B. dualism C. competition D. continuation Answer:
sciq-11373	multiple_choice	Isothermal expansion is a process occurring without a change in?	[ "variation", "weight", "precipitation", "temperature" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields: Heat transfer Thermodynamics Fluid mechanics Combustion The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids". Heat transfer Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. Sections include : Energy transfer by heat, work and mass Laws of thermodynamics Entropy Refrigeration Techniques Properties and nature of pure substances Applications Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems. Fluid mechanics Fluid Mechanics the study of the physical forces at work during fluid flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid kinetics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid mechanics can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Some of its more interesting concepts include momentum and reactive forces in fluid flow and fluid machinery theory and performance. Sections include: Flu Document 2::: The energy systems language, also referred to as energese, or energy circuit language, or generic systems symbols, is a modelling language used for composing energy flow diagrams in the field of systems ecology. It was developed by Howard T. Odum and colleagues in the 1950s during studies of the tropical forests funded by the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Design intent The design intent of the energy systems language was to facilitate the generic depiction of energy flows through any scale system while encompassing the laws of physics, and in particular, the laws of thermodynamics (see energy transformation for an example). In particular H.T. Odum aimed to produce a language which could facilitate the intellectual analysis, engineering synthesis and management of global systems such as the geobiosphere, and its many subsystems. Within this aim, H.T. Odum had a strong concern that many abstract mathematical models of such systems were not thermodynamically valid. Hence he used analog computers to make system models due to their intrinsic value; that is, the electronic circuits are of value for modelling natural systems which are assumed to obey the laws of energy flow, because, in themselves the circuits, like natural systems, also obey the known laws of energy flow, where the energy form is electrical. However Odum was interested not only in the electronic circuits themselves, but also in how they might be used as formal analogies for modeling other systems which also had energy flowing through them. As a result, Odum did not restrict his inquiry to the analysis and synthesis of any one system in isolation. The discipline that is most often associated with this kind of approach, together with the use of the energy systems language is known as systems ecology. General characteristics When applying the electronic circuits (and schematics) to modeling ecological and economic systems, Odum believed that generic categories, or characteristic modules, could Document 3::: In thermodynamics, an isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a process remains constant. An isochoric process is exemplified by the heating or the cooling of the contents of a sealed, inelastic container: The thermodynamic process is the addition or removal of heat; the isolation of the contents of the container establishes the closed system; and the inability of the container to deform imposes the constant-volume condition. Formalism An isochoric thermodynamic quasi-static process is characterized by constant volume, i.e., . The process does no pressure-volume work, since such work is defined by where is pressure. The sign convention is such that positive work is performed by the system on the environment. If the process is not quasi-static, the work can perhaps be done in a volume constant thermodynamic process. For a reversible process, the first law of thermodynamics gives the change in the system's internal energy: Replacing work with a change in volume gives Since the process is isochoric, , the previous equation now gives Using the definition of specific heat capacity at constant volume, , where is the mass of the gas, we get Integrating both sides yields where is the specific heat capacity at constant volume, is the initial temperature and is the final temperature. We conclude with: On a pressure volume diagram, an isochoric process appears as a straight vertical line. Its thermodynamic conjugate, an isobaric process would appear as a straight horizontal line. Ideal gas If an ideal gas is used in an isochoric process, and the quantity of gas stays constant, then the increase in energy is proportional to an increase in temperature and pressure. For example a gas heated in a rigid container: the pressure and temperature of the gas will increase, but the volume will remain the same. Ideal Document 4::: In thermodynamics, a temperature–entropy (T–s) diagram is a thermodynamic diagram used to visualize changes to temperature () and specific entropy () during a thermodynamic process or cycle as the graph of a curve. It is a useful and common tool, particularly because it helps to visualize the heat transfer during a process. For reversible (ideal) processes, the area under the T–s curve of a process is the heat transferred to the system during that process. Working fluids are often categorized on the basis of the shape of their T–s diagram. An isentropic process is depicted as a vertical line on a T–s diagram, whereas an isothermal process is a horizontal line. See also Carnot cycle Pressure–volume diagram Rankine cycle Saturation vapor curve Working fluid Working fluid selection The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Isothermal expansion is a process occurring without a change in? A. variation B. weight C. precipitation D. temperature Answer:
sciq-10403	multiple_choice	What is it called when two species evolve matching traits?	[ "spontaneous mutation", "interconnection", "coevolution", "Allopatric speciation" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. Evolution holds that all species are related and gradually change over generations. In a population, the genetic variations affect the phenotypes (physical characteristics) of an organism. These changes in the phenotypes will be an advantage to some organisms, which will then be passed onto their offspring. Some examples of evolution in species over many generations are the peppered moth and flightless birds. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics, and paleontology. The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. Moreover, the newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryogenesis is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis. Subfields Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of biological organization, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by perceived taxonomic group, with fields such as zoology, botany, and microbiology, reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution, and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with evolution Document 1::: Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups. The cladistic term for the same phenomenon is homoplasy. The recurrent evolution of flight is a classic example, as flying insects, birds, pterosaurs, and bats have independently evolved the useful capacity of flight. Functionally similar features that have arisen through convergent evolution are analogous, whereas homologous structures or traits have a common origin but can have dissimilar functions. Bird, bat, and pterosaur wings are analogous structures, but their forelimbs are homologous, sharing an ancestral state despite serving different functions. The opposite of convergence is divergent evolution, where related species evolve different traits. Convergent evolution is similar to parallel evolution, which occurs when two independent species evolve in the same direction and thus independently acquire similar characteristics; for instance, gliding frogs have evolved in parallel from multiple types of tree frog. Many instances of convergent evolution are known in plants, including the repeated development of C4 photosynthesis, seed dispersal by fleshy fruits adapted to be eaten by animals, and carnivory. Convergent evolution is also observed in non-biological structures. Overview In morphology, analogous traits arise when different species live in similar ways and/or a similar environment, and so face the same environmental factors. When occupying similar ecological niches (that is, a distinctive way of life) similar problems can lead to similar solutions. The British anatomist Richard Owen was the first to identify the fundamental difference between analogies and homologies. In biochemistry, physical and chemical constraints on mechanisms have caused some active site arrangements such a Document 2::: Adaptive type – in evolutionary biology – is any population or taxon which have the potential for a particular or total occupation of given free of underutilized home habitats or position in the general economy of nature. In evolutionary sense, the emergence of new adaptive type is usually a result of adaptive radiation certain groups of organisms in which they arise categories that can effectively exploit temporary, or new conditions of the environment. Such evolutive units with its distinctive – morphological and anatomical, physiological and other characteristics, i.e. genetic and adjustments (feature) have a predisposition for an occupation certain home habitats or position in the general nature economy. Simply, the adaptive type is one group organisms whose general biological properties represent a key to open the entrance to the observed adaptive zone in the observed natural ecological complex. Adaptive types are spatially and temporally specific. Since the frames of general biological properties these types of substantially genetic are defined between, in effect the emergence of new adaptive types of the corresponding change in population genetic structure and eternal contradiction between the need for optimal adapted well the conditions of living environment, while maintaining genetic variation for survival in a possible new circumstances. For example, the specific place in the economy of nature existed millions of years before the appearance of human type. However, just when the process of evolution of primates (order Primates) reached a level that is able to occupy that position, it is open, and then (in leaving world) an unprecedented acceleration increasingly spreading. Culture, in the broadest sense, is a key adaptation of adaptive type type of Homo sapiens the occupation of existing adaptive zone through work, also in the broadest sense of the term. Document 3::: Homoplasy, in biology and phylogenetics, is the term used to describe a feature that has been gained or lost independently in separate lineages over the course of evolution. This is different from homology, which is the term used to characterize the similarity of features that can be parsimoniously explained by common ancestry. Homoplasy can arise from both similar selection pressures acting on adapting species, and the effects of genetic drift. Most often, homoplasy is viewed as a similarity in morphological characters. However, homoplasy may also appear in other character types, such as similarity in the genetic sequence, life cycle types or even behavioral traits. Etymology The term homoplasy was first used by Ray Lankester in 1870. The corresponding adjective is either homoplasic or homoplastic. It is derived from the two Ancient Greek words (), meaning "similar, alike, the same", and (), meaning "to shape, to mold". Parallelism and convergence Parallel and convergent evolution lead to homoplasy when different species independently evolve or gain apparently identical features, which are different from the feature inferred to have been present in their common ancestor. When the similar features are caused by an equivalent developmental mechanism, the process is referred to as parallel evolution. The process is called convergent evolution when the similarity arises from different developmental mechanisms. These types of homoplasy may occur when different lineages live in comparable ecological niches that require similar adaptations for an increase in fitness. An interesting example is that of the marsupial moles (Notoryctidae), golden moles (Chrysochloridae) and northern moles (Talpidae). These are mammals from different geographical regions and lineages, and have all independently evolved very similar burrowing characteristics (such as cone-shaped heads and flat frontal claws) to live in a subterranean ecological niche. Reversion In contrast, reversal ( Document 4::: A behaviour mutation is a genetic mutation that alters genes that control the way in which an organism behaves, causing their behavioural patterns to change. A mutation is a change or error in the genomic sequence of a cell. It can occur during meiosis or replication of DNA, as well as due to ionizing or UV radiation, transposons, mutagenic chemicals, viruses and a number of other factors. Mutations usually (but not always) result in a change in an organism's fitness. These changes are largely deleterious, having a negative effect on fitness; however, they can also be neutral and even advantageous. It is theorized that these mutations, along with genetic recombination, are the raw material upon which natural selection can act to form evolutionary processes. This is due to selection's tendency to "pick and choose" mutations which are advantageous and pass them on to an organism's offspring, while discarding deleterious mutations. In asexual lineages, these mutations will always be passed on, causing them to become a crucial factor in whether the lineage will survive or go extinct. One way that mutations manifest themselves is behaviour mutation. Some examples of this could be variations in mating patterns, increasingly aggressive or passive demeanor, how an individual learns and the way an individual interacts and coordinates with others. Behaviour mutations have important implications on the nature of the evolution of animal behaviour. They can help us understand how different forms of behaviour evolve, especially behaviour which can seem strange or out of place. In other cases, they can help us understand how important patterns of behaviour were able to arise – on the back of a simple gene mutation. Finally, they can help provide key insight on the nature of speciation events which can occur when a behaviour mutation changes the courtship methods and manner of mating in sexually reproducing species. History Ethology, the study of animal behaviour, has been a The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is it called when two species evolve matching traits? A. spontaneous mutation B. interconnection C. coevolution D. Allopatric speciation Answer:
ai2_arc-1114	multiple_choice	Which change would most likely increase the number of salamanders?	[ "flood", "drought", "fire", "landslide" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The University of Michigan Biological Station (UMBS) is a research and teaching facility operated by the University of Michigan. It is located on the south shore of Douglas Lake in Cheboygan County, Michigan. The station consists of 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land near Pellston, Michigan in the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan and 3,200 acres (13 km2) on Sugar Island in the St. Mary's River near Sault Ste. Marie, in the Upper Peninsula. It is one of only 28 Biosphere Reserves in the United States. Overview Founded in 1909, it has grown to include approximately 150 buildings, including classrooms, student cabins, dormitories, a dining hall, and research facilities. Undergraduate and graduate courses are available in the spring and summer terms. It has a full-time staff of 15. In the 2000s, UMBS is increasingly focusing on the measurement of climate change. Its field researchers are gauging the impact of global warming and increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the ecosystem of the upper Great Lakes region, and are using field data to improve the computer models used to forecast further change. Several archaeological digs have been conducted at the station as well. UMBS field researchers sometimes call the station "bug camp" amongst themselves. This is believed to be due to the number of mosquitoes and other insects present. It is also known as "The Bio-Station". The UMBS is also home to Michigan's most endangered species and one of the most endangered species in the world: the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle. The species lives in only five locations in the world, two of which are in Emmet County. One of these, a two and a half mile stretch downstream from the Douglas Road crossing of the East Branch of the Maple River supports the only stable population of the Hungerford's Crawling Water Beetle, with roughly 1000 specimens. This area, though technically not part of the UMBS is largely within and along the boundary of the University of Michigan Document 1::: Climate change and invasive species refers to the process of the environmental destabilization caused by climate change. This environmental change facilitates the spread of invasive species — species that are not historically found in a certain region, and often bring about a negative impact to that region's native species. This complex relationship is notable because climate change and invasive species are also considered by the USDA to be two of the top four causes of global biodiversity loss. Human-caused climate change and the rise in invasive species are directly linked to changing of ecosystems. The destabilization of climate factors in these ecosystems can lead to the creation of a more hospitable habitat for invasive species, thus allowing them to spread beyond their original geographic boundaries. Climate change broadens the invasion pathway that enables the spread of species. Not all invasive species benefit from climate change, but most observations show an acceleration of invasive populations. Examples of invasive species that have benefited from climate change include insects (such as the Western corn rootworm and other crop pests), pathogens (such as cinnamon fungus), freshwater and marine species (such as the brook trout), and plants (such as the umbrella tree). There are many ways to manage the impact of invasive species. Prevention, early detection, climate forecasting and genetic control are some ways communities can mitigate the risks of invasive species and climate change. Although the accuracy of models that study the complex patterns of species populations are difficult to assess, many predict range shifts for species as climates change. Background Climate change has a cascading effect on the plants and animals of affected regions and habitats. Impacts may include an increase in CO2, a change in the pH of water, and possibly death of species. These factors often lead to physiological stress and challenges to native organisms in an ecosystem Document 2::: Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of humankind". It can also be described as the production and management of farm animals. Historically, the degree was called animal husbandry and the animals studied were livestock species, like cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and horses. Today, courses available look at a broader area, including companion animals, like dogs and cats, and many exotic species. Degrees in Animal Science are offered at a number of colleges and universities. Animal science degrees are often offered at land-grant universities, which will often have on-campus farms to give students hands-on experience with livestock animals. Education Professional education in animal science prepares students for careers in areas such as animal breeding, food and fiber production, nutrition, animal agribusiness, animal behavior, and welfare. Courses in a typical Animal Science program may include genetics, microbiology, animal behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Courses in support areas, such as genetics, soils, agricultural economics and marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are offered. Bachelor degree At many universities, a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in Animal Science allows emphasis in certain areas. Typical areas are species-specific or career-specific. Species-specific areas of emphasis prepare students for a career in dairy management, beef management, swine management, sheep or small ruminant management, poultry production, or the horse industry. Other career-specific areas of study include pre-veterinary medicine studies, livestock business and marketing, animal welfare and behavior, animal nutrition science, animal reproduction science, or genetics. Youth programs are also an important part of animal science programs. Pre-veterinary emphasis Many schools that offer a degree option in Animal Science also offer a pre-veterinary emphasis such as Iowa State University, th Document 3::: Biodiversity loss includes the worldwide extinction of different species, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat, resulting in a loss of biological diversity. The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, depending on whether the environmental degradation that leads to the loss is reversible through ecological restoration/ecological resilience or effectively permanent (e.g. through land loss). The current global extinction (frequently called the sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene extinction), has resulted in a biodiversity crisis being driven by human activities which push beyond the planetary boundaries and so far has proven irreversible. The main direct threats to conservation (and thus causes for biodiversity loss) fall in eleven categories: Residential and commercial development; farming activities; energy production and mining; transportation and service corridors; biological resource usages; human intrusions and activities that alter, destroy, disturb habitats and species from exhibiting natural behaviors; natural system modification; invasive and problematic species, pathogens and genes; pollution; catastrophic geological events, climate change, and so on. Numerous scientists and the IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services assert that human population growth and overconsumption are the primary factors in this decline. However other scientists have criticized this, saying that loss of habitat is caused mainly by "the growth of commodities for export" and that population has very little to do with overall consumption, due to country wealth disparities. Climate change is another threat to global biodiversity. For example, coral reefs – which are biodiversity hotspots – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate. However, habitat destruction e.g. for the expansion of agriculture, is currently the more significant driver of contemporary biodiversity lo Document 4::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Which change would most likely increase the number of salamanders? A. flood B. drought C. fire D. landslide Answer:
ai2_arc-112	multiple_choice	A student is investigating changes in the states of matter. The student fills a graduated cylinder with 50 milliliters of packed snow. The graduated cylinder has a mass of 50 grams when empty and 95 grams when filled with the snow. The packed snow changes to liquid water when the snow is put in a warm room. Which statement best describes this process?	[ "Cooling causes the snow to melt.", "Cooling causes the snow to freeze.", "Heating causes the snow to freeze.", "Heating causes the snow to melt." ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into chemical elements or simpler compounds. Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change that does not change their chemical composition. This contrasts with the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible using physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered by allowing the water to evaporate. A physical change involves a change in physical properties. Examples of physical properties include melting, transition to a gas, change of strength, change of durability, changes to crystal form, textural change, shape, size, color, volume and density. An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to form a knife blade. A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered which changes the hardness of the steel, its flexibility and its ability to maintain a sharp edge. Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change. Examples Heating and cooling Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled. Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from solid to gas in a process called sublimation. Magnetism Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is reve Document 2::: Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields: Heat transfer Thermodynamics Fluid mechanics Combustion The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids". Heat transfer Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. Sections include : Energy transfer by heat, work and mass Laws of thermodynamics Entropy Refrigeration Techniques Properties and nature of pure substances Applications Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems. Fluid mechanics Fluid Mechanics the study of the physical forces at work during fluid flow. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of fluid motion, and fluid kinetics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid mechanics can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Some of its more interesting concepts include momentum and reactive forces in fluid flow and fluid machinery theory and performance. Sections include: Flu Document 3::: In materials science, liquefaction is a process that generates a liquid from a solid or a gas or that generates a non-liquid phase which behaves in accordance with fluid dynamics. It occurs both naturally and artificially. As an example of the latter, a "major commercial application of liquefaction is the liquefaction of air to allow separation of the constituents, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases." Another is the conversion of solid coal into a liquid form usable as a substitute for liquid fuels. Geology In geology, soil liquefaction refers to the process by which water-saturated, unconsolidated sediments are transformed into a substance that acts like a liquid, often in an earthquake. Soil liquefaction was blamed for building collapses in the city of Palu, Indonesia in October 2018. In a related phenomenon, liquefaction of bulk materials in cargo ships may cause a dangerous shift in the load. Physics and chemistry In physics and chemistry, the phase transitions from solid and gas to liquid (melting and condensation, respectively) may be referred to as liquefaction. The melting point (sometimes called liquefaction point) is the temperature and pressure at which a solid becomes a liquid. In commercial and industrial situations, the process of condensing a gas to liquid is sometimes referred to as liquefaction of gases. Coal Coal liquefaction is the production of liquid fuels from coal using a variety of industrial processes. Dissolution Liquefaction is also used in commercial and industrial settings to refer to mechanical dissolution of a solid by mixing, grinding or blending with a liquid. Food preparation In kitchen or laboratory settings, solids may be chopped into smaller parts sometimes in combination with a liquid, for example in food preparation or laboratory use. This may be done with a blender, or liquidiser in British English. Irradiation Liquefaction of silica and silicate glasses occurs on electron beam irradiation of nanos Document 4::: The Stefan flow, occasionally called Stefan's flow, is a transport phenomenon concerning the movement of a chemical species by a flowing fluid (typically in the gas phase) that is induced to flow by the production or removal of the species at an interface. Any process that adds the species of interest to or removes it from the flowing fluid may cause the Stefan flow, but the most common processes include evaporation, condensation, chemical reaction, sublimation, ablation, adsorption, absorption, and desorption. It was named after the Slovenian physicist, mathematician, and poet Josef Stefan for his early work on calculating evaporation rates. The Stefan flow is distinct from diffusion as described by Fick's law, but diffusion almost always also occurs in multi-species systems that are experiencing the Stefan flow. In systems undergoing one of the species addition or removal processes mentioned previously, the addition or removal generates a mean flow in the flowing fluid as the fluid next to the interface is displaced by the production or removal of additional fluid by the processes occurring at the interface. The transport of the species by this mean flow is the Stefan flow. When concentration gradients of the species are also present, diffusion transports the species relative to the mean flow. The total transport rate of the species is then given by a summation of the Stefan flow and diffusive contributions. An example of the Stefan flow occurs when a droplet of liquid evaporates in air. In this case, the vapor/air mixture surrounding the droplet is the flowing fluid, and liquid/vapor boundary of the droplet is the interface. As heat is absorbed by the droplet from the environment, some of the liquid evaporates into vapor at the surface of the droplet, and flows away from the droplet as it is displaced by additional vapor evaporating from the droplet. This process causes the flowing medium to move away from the droplet at some mean speed that is dependent on The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. A student is investigating changes in the states of matter. The student fills a graduated cylinder with 50 milliliters of packed snow. The graduated cylinder has a mass of 50 grams when empty and 95 grams when filled with the snow. The packed snow changes to liquid water when the snow is put in a warm room. Which statement best describes this process? A. Cooling causes the snow to melt. B. Cooling causes the snow to freeze. C. Heating causes the snow to freeze. D. Heating causes the snow to melt. Answer:
sciq-42	multiple_choice	What is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery called?	[ "ganglion", "organism", "gangism", "crystals" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: H2.00.04.4.01001: Lymphoid tissue H2.00.05.0.00001: Muscle tissue H2.00.05.1.00001: Smooth muscle tissue H2.00.05.2.00001: Striated muscle tissue H2.00.06.0.00001: Nerve tissue H2.00.06.1.00001: Neuron H2.00.06.2.00001: Synapse H2.00.06.2.00001: Neuroglia h3.01: Bones h3.02: Joints h3.03: Muscles h3.04: Alimentary system h3.05: Respiratory system h3.06: Urinary system h3.07: Genital system h3.08: Document 1::: A laminar organization describes the way certain tissues, such as bone membrane, skin, or brain tissues, are arranged in layers. Types Embryo The earliest forms of laminar organization are shown in the diploblastic and triploblastic formation of the germ layers in the embryo. In the first week of human embryogenesis two layers of cells have formed, an external epiblast layer (the primitive ectoderm), and an internal hypoblast layer (primitive endoderm). This gives the early bilaminar disc. In the third week in the stage of gastrulation epiblast cells invaginate to form endoderm, and a third layer of cells known as mesoderm. Cells that remain in the epiblast become ectoderm. This is the trilaminar disc and the epiblast cells have given rise to the three germ layers. Brain In the brain a laminar organization is evident in the arrangement of the three meninges, the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. These membranes are the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The dura mater has two layers a periosteal layer near to the bone of the skull, and a meningeal layer next to the other meninges. The cerebral cortex, the outer neural sheet covering the cerebral hemispheres can be described by its laminar organization, due to the arrangement of cortical neurons into six distinct layers. Eye The eye in mammals has an extensive laminar organization. There are three main layers – the outer fibrous tunic, the middle uvea, and the inner retina. These layers have sublayers with the retina having ten ranging from the outer choroid to the inner vitreous humor and including the retinal nerve fiber layer. Skin The human skin has a dense laminar organization. The outer epidermis has four or five layers. Document 2::: Cytoarchitecture (Greek κύτος= "cell" + ἀρχιτεκτονική= "architecture"), also known as cytoarchitectonics, is the study of the cellular composition of the central nervous system's tissues under the microscope. Cytoarchitectonics is one of the ways to parse the brain, by obtaining sections of the brain using a microtome and staining them with chemical agents which reveal where different neurons are located. The study of the parcellation of nerve fibers (primarily axons) into layers forms the subject of myeloarchitectonics (<Gk. μυελός=marrow + ἀρχιτεκτονική=architecture), an approach complementary to cytoarchitectonics. History of the cerebral cytoarchitecture Defining cerebral cytoarchitecture began with the advent of histology—the science of slicing and staining brain slices for examination. It is credited to the Viennese psychiatrist Theodor Meynert (1833–1892), who in 1867 noticed regional variations in the histological structure of different parts of the gray matter in the cerebral hemispheres. Paul Flechsig was the first to present the cytoarchitecture of the human brain into 40 areas. Alfred Walter Campbell then divided it into 14 areas. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith (1871–1937), a New South Wales native working in Cairo, identified 50 areas. Korbinian Brodmann worked on the brains of diverse mammalian species and developed a division of the cerebral cortex into 52 discrete areas (of which 44 in the human, and the remaining 8 in non-human primate brain). Brodmann used numbers to categorize the different architectural areas, now referred to as a Brodmann Area, and he believed that each of these regions served a unique functional purpose. Constantin von Economo and Georg N. Koskinas, two neurologists in Vienna, produced a landmark work in brain research by defining 107 cortical areas on the basis of cytoarchitectonic criteria. They used letters to categorize the architecture, e.g., "F" for areas of the frontal lobe. The Nissl staining technique The Nissl stain Document 3::: The ovarian cortex is the outer portion of the ovary. The ovarian follicles are located within the ovarian cortex. The ovarian cortex is made up of connective tissue. Ovarian cortex tissue transplant has been performed to treat infertility. Document 4::: In anatomy and zoology, the cortex (: cortices) is the outermost (or superficial) layer of an organ. Organs with well-defined cortical layers include kidneys, adrenal glands, ovaries, the thymus, and portions of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, the best-known of all cortices. Etymology The word is of Latin origin and means bark, rind, shell or husk. Notable examples The renal cortex, between the renal capsule and the renal medulla; assists in ultrafiltration The adrenal cortex, situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland; mediates the stress response through the production of various hormones The thymic cortex, mainly composed of lymphocytes; functions as a site for somatic recombination of T cell receptors, and positive selection The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the cerebrum, plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language, and consciousness. Cortical bone is the hard outer layer of bone; distinct from the spongy, inner cancellous bone tissue Ovarian cortex is the outer layer of the ovary and contains the follicles. The lymph node cortex is the outer layer of the lymph node. Cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex is typically described as comprising three parts: the sensory, motor, and association areas. These sensory areas receive and process information from the senses. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, the primary auditory cortex, and primary somatosensory cortex. The cerebellar cortex is the thin gray surface layer of the cerebellum, consisting of an outer molecular layer or stratum moleculare, a single layer of Purkinje cells (the ganglionic layer), and an inner granular layer or stratum granulosum. The cortex is the outer surface of the cerebrum and is composed of gray matter. The motor areas are located in both hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Two areas of the cortex are commonly referred to as motor: the primary motor cortex, which executes v The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery called? A. ganglion B. organism C. gangism D. crystals Answer:
sciq-11643	multiple_choice	What resource is considered nonrewable for human purposes, because it takes so long to form and is depleted by farming and other activities?	[ "acid", "soil", "sunshine", "water" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption. An example is carbon-based fossil fuels. The original organic matter, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual elements are always conserved (except in nuclear reactions, nuclear decay or atmospheric escape). Conversely, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans as well. Earth minerals and metal ores Earth minerals and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's crust, and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal recycling. The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in manufacturing, particularly for the electronics industry. Fossil fuels Natural resources such as coal, petroleum(crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and Document 1::: Biotic material or biological derived material is any material that originates from living organisms. Most such materials contain carbon and are capable of decay. The earliest life on Earth arose at least 3.5 billion years ago. Earlier physical evidences of life include graphite, a biogenic substance, in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland, as well as, "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. Earth's biodiversity has expanded continually except when interrupted by mass extinctions. Although scholars estimate that over 99 percent of all species of life (over five billion) that ever lived on Earth are extinct, there are still an estimated 10–14 million extant species, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86% have not yet been described. Examples of biotic materials are wood, straw, humus, manure, bark, crude oil, cotton, spider silk, chitin, fibrin, and bone. The use of biotic materials, and processed biotic materials (bio-based material) as alternative natural materials, over synthetics is popular with those who are environmentally conscious because such materials are usually biodegradable, renewable, and the processing is commonly understood and has minimal environmental impact. However, not all biotic materials are used in an environmentally friendly way, such as those that require high levels of processing, are harvested unsustainably, or are used to produce carbon emissions. When the source of the recently living material has little importance to the product produced, such as in the production of biofuels, biotic material is simply called biomass. Many fuel sources may have biological sources, and may be divided roughly into fossil fuels, and biofuel. In soil science, biotic material is often referred to as organic matter. Biotic materials in soil include glomalin, Dopplerite and humic acid. Some biotic material may not be considered to be organic matte Document 2::: Genetic resources are genetic material of actual or potential value, where genetic material means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity. Genetic resources is one of the three levels of biodiversity defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity in Rio, 1992. Examples Animal genetic resources for food and agriculture Forest genetic resources Germplasm, genetic resources that are preserved for various purposes such as breeding, preservation, and research Plant genetic resources See also Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources, a strategy to preserve genetic resources cryogenically Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, the only permanent intergovernmental body that addresses biological diversity for food and agriculture International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, an international agreement to promote sustainable use of the world's plant genetic resources Gene bank, a type of biorepository which preserves genetic material Genetic diversity The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Document 3::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 4::: The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields. Description The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions. The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.” Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers. Current efforts The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What resource is considered nonrewable for human purposes, because it takes so long to form and is depleted by farming and other activities? A. acid B. soil C. sunshine D. water Answer:
sciq-2917	multiple_choice	What part of a mature plant cell is responsible for storing substances like water, enzymes, and salts?	[ "large vacuole", "central vacuole", "second vacuole", "little vacuole" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Plant stem cells Plant stem cells are innately undifferentiated cells located in the meristems of plants. Plant stem cells serve as the origin of plant vitality, as they maintain themselves while providing a steady supply of precursor cells to form differentiated tissues and organs in plants. Two distinct areas of stem cells are recognised: the apical meristem and the lateral meristem. Plant stem cells are characterized by two distinctive properties, which are: the ability to create all differentiated cell types and the ability to self-renew such that the number of stem cells is maintained. Plant stem cells never undergo aging process but immortally give rise to new specialized and unspecialized cells, and they have the potential to grow into any organ, tissue, or cell in the body. Thus they are totipotent cells equipped with regenerative powers that facilitate plant growth and production of new organs throughout lifetime. Unlike animals, plants are immobile. As plants cannot escape from danger by taking motion, they need a special mechanism to withstand various and sometimes unforeseen environmental stress. Here, what empowers them to withstand harsh external influence and preserve life is stem cells. In fact, plants comprise the oldest and the largest living organisms on earth, including Bristlecone Pines in California, U.S. (4,842 years old), and the Giant Sequoia in mountainous regions of California, U.S. (87 meters in height and 2,000 tons in weight). This is possible because they have a modular body plan that enables them to survive substantial damage by initiating continuous and repetitive formation of new structures and organs such as leaves and flowers. Plant stem cells are also characterized by their location in specialized structures called meristematic tissues, which are located in root apical meristem (RAM), shoot apical meristem (SAM), and vascular system ((pro)cambium or vascular meristem.) Research and development Traditionally, plant stem ce Document 1::: In botany, a cortex is an outer layer of a stem or root in a vascular plant, lying below the epidermis but outside of the vascular bundles. The cortex is composed mostly of large thin-walled parenchyma cells of the ground tissue system and shows little to no structural differentiation. The outer cortical cells often acquire irregularly thickened cell walls, and are called collenchyma cells. Plants Stems and branches In the three dimensional structure of herbaceous stems, the epidermis, cortex and vascular cambium form concentric cylinders around the inner cylindrical core of pith. Some of the outer cortical cells may contain chloroplasts, giving them a green color. They can therefore produce simple carbohydrates through photosynthesis. In woody plants, the cortex is located between the periderm (bark) and the vascular tissue (phloem, in particular). It is responsible for the transportation of materials into the central cylinder of the root through diffusion and may also be used for storage of food in the form of starch. Roots In the roots of vascular plants, the cortex occupies a larger portion of the organ's volume than in herbaceous stems. The loosely packed cells of root cortex allow movement of water and oxygen in the intercellular spaces. One of the main functions of the root cortex is to serve as a storage area for reserve foods. The innermost layer of the cortex in the roots of vascular plants is the endodermis. The endodermis is responsible for storing starch as well as regulating the transport of water, ions and plant hormones. Lichen On a lichen, the cortex is also the surface layer or "skin" of the nonfruiting part of the body of some lichens. It is the "skin", or outer layer of tissue, that covers the undifferentiated cells of the . Fruticose lichens have one cortex encircling the branches, even flattened, leaf-like forms. Foliose lichens have different upper and lower cortices. Crustose, placodioid, and squamulose lichens have an upper cor Document 2::: A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. It supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, photosynthesis takes place here, stores nutrients, and produces new living tissue. The stem can also be called halm or haulm or culms. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes: The nodes are the points of attachment for leaves and can hold one or more leaves. There are sometimes axillary buds between the stem and leaf which can grow into branches (with leaves, conifer cones, or flowers). Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes. Vines may produce tendrils from nodes. The internodes distance one node from another. The term "shoots" is often confused with "stems"; "shoots" generally refers to new fresh plant growth, including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers. In most plants, stems are located above the soil surface, but some plants have underground stems. Stems have several main functions: Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers, and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits. Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem. Storage of nutrients. Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue. Photosynthesis. Stems have two pipe-like tissues called xylem and phloem. The xylem tissue arises from the cell facing inside and transports water by the action of transpiration pull, capillary action, and root pressure. The phloem tissue arises from the cell facing outside and consists of sieve tubes and their companion cells. The function of phloem tissue is to distribute food from photosynthetic tissue to other tissues. The two tissues are separated by cambium, a tis Document 3::: Ergastic substances are non-protoplasmic materials found in cells. The living protoplasm of a cell is sometimes called the bioplasm and distinct from the ergastic substances of the cell. The latter are usually organic or inorganic substances that are products of metabolism, and include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds that can aid the organism in defense, maintenance of cellular structure, or just substance storage. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell wall. Carbohydrates Reserve carbohydrate of plants are the derivatives of the end products of photosynthesis. Cellulose and starch are the main ergastic substances of plant cells. Cellulose is the chief component of the cell wall, and starch occurs as a reserve material in the protoplasm. Starch, as starch grains, arise almost exclusively in plastids, especially leucoplasts and amyloplasts. Proteins Although proteins are the main component of living protoplasm, proteins can occur as inactive, ergastic bodies—in an amorphous or crystalline (or crystalloid) form. A well-known amorphous ergastic protein is gluten. Fats and oils Fats (lipids) and oils are widely distributed in plant tissues. Substances related to fats—waxes, suberin, and cutin—occur as protective layers in or on the cell wall. Crystals Animals eliminate excess inorganic materials; plants mostly deposit such material in their tissues. Such mineral matter is mostly salts of calcium and anhydrides of silica. Raphides are a type of elongated crystalline form of calcium oxalate aggregated in bundles within a plant cell. Because of the needle-like form, large numbers in the tissue of, say, a leaf can render the leaf unpalatable to herbivores (see Dieffenbachia and taro). Druse Cystolith Document 4::: A hydroid is a type of vascular cell that occurs in certain bryophytes. In some mosses such as members of the Polytrichaceae family, hydroids form the innermost layer of cells in the stem. At maturity they are long, colourless, thin walled cells of small diameter, containing water but no living protoplasm. Collectively, hydroids function as a conducting tissue, known as the hydrome, transporting water and minerals drawn from the soil. They are surrounded by bundles of living cells known as leptoids which carry sugars and other nutrients in solution. The hydroids are analogous to the tracheids of vascular plants but there is no lignin present in the cell walls to provide structural support. Hydroids have been found in some fossilised plants from the Rhynie chert, including Aglaophyton, where they were initially mistaken for xylem tracheids. See also Leptoid, a related sucrose-transporting vessel analogous to the phloem of vascular plants The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What part of a mature plant cell is responsible for storing substances like water, enzymes, and salts? A. large vacuole B. central vacuole C. second vacuole D. little vacuole Answer:
sciq-7955	multiple_choice	What do body cells use for energy?	[ "sugars", "mixtures", "solvents", "chlorophyll" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA, double stranded macromolecule that carries the hereditary information of the cell and found in all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence. Examples include macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, biomolecular complexes such as a ribosome, and structures such as membranes, and organelles. While the majority of cellular components are located within the cell itself, some may exist in extracellular areas of an organism. Cellular components may also be called biological matter or biological material. Most biological matter has the characteristics of soft matter, being governed by relatively small energies. All known life is made of biological matter. To be differentiated from other theoretical or fictional life forms, such life may be called carbon-based, cellular, organic, biological, or even simply living – as some definitions of life exclude hypothetical types of biochemistry. See also Cell (biology) Cell biology Biomolecule Organelle Tissue (biology) External links https://web.archive.org/web/20130918033010/http://bioserv.fiu.edu/~walterm/FallSpring/review1_fall05_chap_cell3.htm Document 1::: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life. Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from the Latin word meaning 'small room'. Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell. Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms. The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology. Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago. Discovery With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology became advanced enough to discover cells. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, known as cell biology. When observing a piece of cork under the scope, he was able to see pores. This was shocking at the time as i Document 2::: The School of Biological Sciences is a School within the Faculty Biology, Medicine and Health at The University of Manchester. Biology at University of Manchester and its precursor institutions has gone through a number of reorganizations (see History below), the latest of which was the change from a Faculty of Life Sciences to the current School. Academics Research The School, though unitary for teaching, is divided into a number of broadly defined sections for research purposes, these sections consist of: Cellular Systems, Disease Systems, Molecular Systems, Neuro Systems and Tissue Systems. Research in the School is structured into multiple research groups including the following themes: Cell-Matrix Research (part of the Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research) Cell Organisation and Dynamics Computational and Evolutionary Biology Developmental Biology Environmental Research Eye and Vision Sciences Gene Regulation and Cellular Biotechnology History of Science, Technology and Medicine Immunology and Molecular Microbiology Molecular Cancer Studies Neurosciences (part of the University of Manchester Neurosciences Research Institute) Physiological Systems & Disease Structural and Functional Systems The School hosts a number of research centres, including: the Manchester Centre for Biophysics and Catalysis, the Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, the Centre of Excellence in Biopharmaceuticals, the Centre for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine, the Centre for Integrative Mammalian Biology, and the Healing Foundation Centre for Tissue Regeneration. The Manchester Collaborative Centre for Inflammation Research is a joint endeavour with the Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences of Manchester University and industrial partners. Research Assessment Exercise (2008) The faculty entered research into the units of assessment (UOA) for Biological Sciences and Pre-clinical and Human Biological Sciences. In Biological Sciences 20% of outputs Document 3::: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biophysics: Biophysics – interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics to study biological systems. Nature of biophysics Biophysics is An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. A biological science – concerned with the study of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. A branch of physics – concerned with the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. An interdisciplinary field – field of science that overlaps with other sciences Scope of biophysics research Biomolecular scale Biomolecule Biomolecular structure Organismal scale Animal locomotion Biomechanics Biomineralization Motility Environmental scale Biophysical environment Biophysics research overlaps with Agrophysics Biochemistry Biophysical chemistry Bioengineering Biogeophysics Nanotechnology Systems biology Branches of biophysics Astrobiophysics – field of intersection between astrophysics and biophysics concerned with the influence of the astrophysical phenomena upon life on planet Earth or some other planet in general. Medical biophysics – interdisciplinary field that applies me Document 4::: This is a list of topics in molecular biology. See also index of biochemistry articles. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What do body cells use for energy? A. sugars B. mixtures C. solvents D. chlorophyll Answer:
sciq-7381	multiple_choice	What are the specfic types of proteins that determine your blood type called?	[ "Globulins", "antibodies", "Plasma", "antigens" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A blood type (also known as a blood group) is a classification of blood, based on the presence and absence of antibodies and inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or an alternative version of a gene) and collectively form a blood group system. Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents of an individual. a total of 44 human blood group systems are recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important blood group systems are ABO and Rh; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB, and O, with + or − denoting RhD status) for suitability in blood transfusion. Blood group systems A complete blood type would describe each of the 44 blood groups, and an individual's blood type is one of many possible combinations of blood-group antigens. Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or autoimmune disease. Another more common cause of blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone marrow from someone of a different ABO type (e.g., a type O patient receives a type A bone marrow), the patient's blood type should eventually become the donor's type, as the patient's hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are destroyed, either by ablation of the bone marrow or by the donor's T-cells. Once all the patient's original red blood cells have died, they will have been fully replaced by new cells derived from the donor HSCs. Provided the donor had Document 1::: Animal erythrocytes have cell surface antigens that undergo polymorphism and give rise to blood types. Antigens from the human ABO blood group system are also found in apes and Old World monkeys, and the types trace back to the origin of humanoids. Other animal blood sometimes agglutinates (to varying levels of intensity) with human blood group reagents, but the structure of the blood group antigens in animals is not always identical to those typically found in humans. The classification of most animal blood groups therefore uses different blood typing systems to those used for classification of human blood. Simian blood groups Two categories of blood groups, human-type and simian-type, have been found in apes and monkeys, and they can be tested by methods established for grouping human blood. Data is available on blood groups of common chimpanzees, baboons, and macaques. Rh blood group The Rh system is named after the rhesus monkey, following experiments by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener, which showed that rabbits, when immunised with rhesus monkey red cells, produce an antibody that also agglutinates the red blood cells of many humans. Chimpanzee and Old World monkey blood group systems Two complex chimpanzee blood group systems, V-A-B-D and R-C-E-F systems, proved to be counterparts of the human MNS and Rh blood group systems, respectively. Two blood group systems have been defined in Old World monkeys: the Drh system of macaques and the Bp system of baboons, both linked by at least one species shared by either of the blood group systems. Canine blood groups Over 13 canine blood groups have been described. Eight DEA (dog erythrocyte antigen) types are recognized as international standards. Of these DEA types, DEA 4 and DEA 6 appear on the red blood cells of ~98% of dogs. Dogs with only DEA 4 or DEA 6 can thus serve as blood donors for the majority of the canine population. Any of these DEA types may stimulate an immune response in a recipient of Document 2::: The following is a partial list of the "D" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM). This list covers blood proteins. For other protein-related codes, see List of MeSH codes (D12.776). Codes before these are found at List of MeSH codes (D12.776.097). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (D12.776.157). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes. The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM. – blood proteins – acute-phase proteins – alpha 1-antichymotrypsin – alpha 1-antitrypsin – alpha-macroglobulins – c-reactive protein – ceruloplasmin – complement c3 – fibrinogen – fibrinogens, abnormal – haptoglobins – hemopexin – orosomucoid – serum albumin – serum amyloid a protein – serum amyloid p-component – transferrin – trypsin inhibitor, kazal pancreatic – ankyrins – anion exchange protein 1, erythrocyte – blood coagulation factors – beta-thromboglobulin – factor v – factor va – factor vii – factor viia – factor viii – factor viiia – factor ix – factor ixa – factor x – factor xa – factor xi – factor xia – factor xii – factor xiia – factor xiii – factor xiiia – fibrinogen – fibrinogens, abnormal – fibrinopeptide a – fibrinopeptide b – kallikreins – prekallikrein – kininogens – kininogen, high-molecular-weight – kininogen, low-molecular-weight – plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 – plasminogen activator inhibitor 2 – plasminogen activators – streptokinase – anistreplase – streptodornase and streptokinase – tissue plasminogen activator – urinary plasminogen activator – platelet factor 3 – platelet factor 4 – prothrombin – thrombin – thromboplastin – von willebrand factor – fibrin – fibrin fibrinogen degradation products Document 3::: A splenocyte can be any one of the different white blood cell types as long as it is situated in the spleen or purified from splenic tissue. Splenocytes consist of a variety of cell populations such as T and B lymphocytes, dendritic cells and macrophages, which have different immune functions. Document 4::: – platelet factor 3 – platelet factor 4 – prothrombin – thrombin – thromboplastin – von willebrand factor – fibrin – fibrin fibrinogen degradation products – fibrin foam – fibrin tissue adhesive – fibrinopeptide a – fibrinopeptide b – glycophorin – hemocyanin – hemoglobins – carboxyhemoglobin – erythrocruorins – fetal hemoglobi The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What are the specfic types of proteins that determine your blood type called? A. Globulins B. antibodies C. Plasma D. antigens Answer:
sciq-7279	multiple_choice	Snippet 3: the diploid cells resulting from karyogamy are short-lived and undergo meiosis, producing what?	[ "stunted spores", "hyperactive spores", "haploid spores", "binary spores" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Karyogamy is the final step in the process of fusing together two haploid eukaryotic cells, and refers specifically to the fusion of the two nuclei. Before karyogamy, each haploid cell has one complete copy of the organism's genome. In order for karyogamy to occur, the cell membrane and cytoplasm of each cell must fuse with the other in a process known as plasmogamy. Once within the joined cell membrane, the nuclei are referred to as pronuclei. Once the cell membranes, cytoplasm, and pronuclei fuse, the resulting single cell is diploid, containing two copies of the genome. This diploid cell, called a zygote or zygospore can then enter meiosis (a process of chromosome duplication, recombination, and division, to produce four new haploid cells), or continue to divide by mitosis. Mammalian fertilization uses a comparable process to combine haploid sperm and egg cells (gametes) to create a diploid fertilized egg. The term karyogamy comes from the Greek karyo- (from κάρυον karyon) 'nut' and γάμος gamos 'marriage'. Importance in haploid organisms Haploid organisms such as fungi, yeast, and algae can have complex cell cycles, in which the choice between sexual or asexual reproduction is fluid, and often influenced by the environment. Some organisms, in addition to their usual haploid state, can also exist as diploid for a short time, allowing genetic recombination to occur. Karyogamy can occur within either mode of reproduction: during the sexual cycle or in somatic (non-reproductive) cells. Thus, karyogamy is the key step in bringing together two sets of different genetic material which can recombine during meiosis. In haploid organisms that lack sexual cycles, karyogamy can also be an important source of genetic variation during the process of forming somatic diploid cells. Formation of somatic diploids circumvents the process of gamete formation during the sexual reproduction cycle and instead creates variation within the somatic cells of an already developed organ Document 1::: Microgametogenesis is the process in plant reproduction where a microgametophyte develops in a pollen grain to the three-celled stage of its development. In flowering plants it occurs with a microspore mother cell inside the anther of the plant. When the microgametophyte is first formed inside the pollen grain four sets of fertile cells called sporogenous cells are apparent. These cells are surrounded by a wall of sterile cells called the tapetum, which supplies food to the cell and eventually becomes the cell wall for the pollen grain. These sets of sporogenous cells eventually develop into diploid microspore mother cells. These microspore mother cells, also called microsporocytes, then undergo meiosis and become four microspore haploid cells. These new microspore cells then undergo mitosis and form a tube cell and a generative cell. The generative cell then undergoes mitosis one more time to form two male gametes, also called sperm. See also Gametogenesis Document 2::: Brachymeiosis was a hypothesized irregularity in the sexual reproduction of ascomycete fungi, a variant of meiosis following an "extra" karyogamy (nuclear fusion) step. The hypothesized process would have transformed four diploid nuclei into eight haploid ones. The current scientific consensus is that brachymeiosis does not occur in any fungi. According to the current understanding, ascomycetes reproduce by forming male and female organs (antheridia/spermatia and ascogonia), transferring haploid nuclei from the antheridium to the ascogonium, and growing a dikaryotic ascus containing both nuclei. Karyogamy then occurs in the ascus to form a diploid nucleus, followed by meiosis and mitosis to form eight haploid nuclei in the ascospores. In 1895, the botanist R.A. Harper reported the observation of a second karyogamy event in the ascogonium prior to ascogeny. This would imply the creation of a tetraploid nucleus in the ascus, rather than a diploid one; in order to produce the observed haploid ascospores, a second meiotic reduction in chromosome count would then be necessary. The second reduction was hypothesized to occur during the second or third mitotic division in the ascus, even though chromosome reduction does not typically occur during mitosis. This supposed form of meiosis was termed “brachymeiosis” in 1908 by H. C. I. Fraser. The existence of brachymeiosis was controversial throughout the first half of the twentieth century, with many conflicting results published. Then, research with improved staining techniques established clearly that only one reductive division occurs in the asci of all examined species, including some which had been believed to undergo brachymeiosis. As a result of these studies, the theories of double fusion and subsequent brachymeiosis were discarded around 1950. Document 3::: Haploidisation is the process of halving the chromosomal content of a cell, producing a haploid cell. Within the normal reproductive cycle, haploidisation is one of the major functional consequences of meiosis, the other being a process of chromosomal crossover that mingles the genetic content of the parental chromosomes. Usually, haploidisation creates a monoploid cell from a diploid progenitor, or it can involve halving of a polyploid cell, for example to make a diploid potato plant from a tetraploid lineage of potato plants. If haploidisation is not followed by fertilisation, the result is a haploid lineage of cells. For example, experimental haploidisation may be used to recover a strain of haploid Dictyostelium from a diploid strain. It sometimes occurs naturally in plants when meiotically reduced cells (usually egg cells) develop by parthenogenesis. Haploidisation was one of the procedures used by Japanese researchers to produce Kaguya, a mouse which had same-sex parents; two haploids were then combined to make the diploid mouse. Haploidisation commitment is a checkpoint in meiosis which follows the successful completion of premeiotic DNA replication and recombination commitment. See also Polyploidy Ploidy Document 4::: A karyotype is the general appearance of the complete set of chromosomes in the cells of a species or in an individual organism, mainly including their sizes, numbers, and shapes. Karyotyping is the process by which a karyotype is discerned by determining the chromosome complement of an individual, including the number of chromosomes and any abnormalities. A karyogram or idiogram is a graphical depiction of a karyotype, wherein chromosomes are generally organized in pairs, ordered by size and position of centromere for chromosomes of the same size. Karyotyping generally combines light microscopy and photography in the metaphase of the cell cycle, and results in a photomicrographic (or simply micrographic) karyogram. In contrast, a schematic karyogram is a designed graphic representation of a karyotype. In schematic karyograms, just one of the sister chromatids of each chromosome is generally shown for brevity, and in reality they are generally so close together that they look as one on photomicrographs as well unless the resolution is high enough to distinguish them. The study of whole sets of chromosomes is sometimes known as karyology. Karyotypes describe the chromosome count of an organism and what these chromosomes look like under a light microscope. Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, banding pattern, any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics. The basic number of chromosomes in the somatic cells of an individual or a species is called the somatic number and is designated 2n. In the germ-line (the sex cells) the chromosome number is n (humans: n = 23).p28 Thus, in humans 2n = 46. So, in normal diploid organisms, autosomal chromosomes are present in two copies. There may, or may not, be sex chromosomes. Polyploid cells have multiple copies of chromosomes and haploid cells have single copies. Karyotypes can be used for The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Snippet 3: the diploid cells resulting from karyogamy are short-lived and undergo meiosis, producing what? A. stunted spores B. hyperactive spores C. haploid spores D. binary spores Answer:
sciq-1574	multiple_choice	The central vacuole maintains turgor pressure against what?	[ "the cell move", "the cell wall", "the cell multiplication", "the cell addition" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Turgor pressure is the force within the cell that pushes the plasma membrane against the cell wall. It is also called hydrostatic pressure, and is defined as the pressure in a fluid measured at a certain point within itself when at equilibrium. Generally, turgor pressure is caused by the osmotic flow of water and occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria. The phenomenon is also observed in protists that have cell walls. This system is not seen in animal cells, as the absence of a cell wall would cause the cell to lyse when under too much pressure. The pressure exerted by the osmotic flow of water is called turgidity. It is caused by the osmotic flow of water through a selectively permeable membrane. Movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a volume with a low solute concentration to one with a higher solute concentration is called osmotic flow. In plants, this entails the water moving from the low concentration solute outside the cell into the cell's vacuole. Etymology 1610s, from Latin turgidus "swollen, inflated, distended," from turgere "to swell," of unknown origin. Figurative use in reference to prose is from 1725. Related: Turgidly; turgidness. Mechanism Osmosis is the process in which water flows from a volume with a low solute concentration (osmolarity), to an adjacent region with a higher solute concentration until equilibrium between the two areas is reached. It is usually accompanied by a favorable increase in the entropy of the solvent. All cells are surrounded by a lipid bi-layer cell membrane which permits the flow of water into and out of the cell while limiting the flow of solutes. When the cell is in a hypertonic solution, water flows out of the cell, which decreases the cell's volume. When in a hypotonic solution, water flows into the membrane and increases the cell's volume, while in an isotonic solution, water flows in and out of the cell at an equal rate. Turgidity is the point at which the cell's membrane pushes against the cell Document 1::: Cell biomechanics a branch of biomechanics that involves single molecules, molecular interactions, or cells as the system of interest. Cells generate and maintain mechanical forces within their environment as a part of their physiology. Cell biomechanics deals with how mRNA, protein production, and gene expression is affected by said environment and with mechanical properties of isolated molecules or interaction of proteins that make up molecular motors. It is known that minor alterations in mechanical properties of cells can be an indicator of an infected cell. By studying these mechanical properties, greater insight will be gained in regards to disease. Thus, the goal of understanding cell biomechanics is to combine theoretical, experimental, and computational approaches to construct a realistic description of cell mechanical behaviors to provide new insights on the role of mechanics in disease. History In the late seventeenth century, English polymath Robert Hooke and Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek looked into ciliate Vorticella with extreme fluid and cellular motion using a simple optical microscope. In 1702 on Christmas day, van Leeuwenhoek described his observations, “In structure these little animals were fashioned like a bell, and at the round opening they made such a stir, that the particles in the water thereabout were set in motion thereby…which sight I found mightily diverting” in a letter. Prior to this, Brownian motion of particles and organelles within living cells had been discovered as well as theories to measure viscosity. However, there were not enough accessible technical tools to perform these accurate experiments at the time. Thus, mechanical properties within cells were only supported qualitatively by observation. With these new discoveries, the role of mechanical forces within biology was not always naturally accepted. In 1850, English physician William Benjamin Carpenter wrote “many of the actions taking place in the living bod Document 2::: Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism. Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure. General characteristics There are two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes were the first of the two to develop and do not have a self-contained nucleus. Their mechanisms are simpler than later-evolved eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus that envelops the cell's DNA and some organelles. Prokaryotes Prokaryotes have DNA located in an area called the nucleoid, which is not separated from other parts of the cell by a membrane. There are two domains of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes have fewer organelles than eukaryotes. Both have plasma membranes and ribosomes (structures that synthesize proteins and float free in cytoplasm). Two unique characteristics of prokaryotes are fimbriae (finger-like projections on the surface of a cell) and flagella (threadlike structures that aid movement). Eukaryotes Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is contained. They are usually larger than prokaryotes and contain many more organelles. The nucleus, the feature of a eukaryote that distinguishes it from a prokaryote, contains a nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin. In cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesizes membranes and performs other metabolic activities. There are two types, rough ER (containing ribosomes) and smooth ER (lacking ribosomes). The Golgi apparatus consists of multiple membranous sacs, responsible for manufacturing and shipping out materials such as proteins. Lysosomes are structures that use enzymes to break down substances through phagocytosis, a process that comprises endocytosis and exocytosis. In the mitochondria, metabolic processes such as cellular respiration occur. The cytoskeleton is made of fibers that support the str Document 3::: Like the nucleus, whether to include the vacuole in the protoplasm concept is controversial. Terminology Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows: Urschleim (Oken, 1802, 1809), Protoplasma (Purkinje, 1840, von Mohl, 1846), Primordialschlauch (primordial utricle, von Mohl, 1846), sarcode (Dujardin, 1835, 1841), Cytoplasma (Kölliker, 1863), Hautschicht/Körnerschicht (ectoplasm/endoplasm, Pringsheim, 1854; Hofmeister, 1867), Grundsubstanz (ground substance, Cienkowski, 1863), metaplasm/protoplasm (Hanstein, 1868), deutoplasm/protoplasm (van Beneden, 1870), bioplasm (Beale, 1872), paraplasm/protoplasm (Kupffer, 1875), inter-filar substance theory (Velten, 1876) Hyaloplasma (Pfeffer, 1877), Protoplast (Hanstein, 1880), Enchylema/Hyaloplasma (Hanstein, 1880), Kleinkörperchen or Mikrosomen (small bodies or microsomes, Hanstein, 1882), paramitome (Flemming, 1882), Idioplasma (Nageli, 1884), Zwischensu Document 4::: This lecture, named in memory of Keith R. Porter, is presented to an eminent cell biologist each year at the ASCB Annual Meeting. The ASCB Program Committee and the ASCB President recommend the Porter Lecturer to the Porter Endowment each year. Lecturers Source: ASCB See also List of biology awards The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. The central vacuole maintains turgor pressure against what? A. the cell move B. the cell wall C. the cell multiplication D. the cell addition Answer:
sciq-1834	multiple_choice	Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is what?	[ "atrophied", "tissue", "striated", "cylindrical" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Cardiac muscle (also called heart muscle or myocardium) is one of three types of vertebrate muscle tissues, with the other two being skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the wall of the heart. The cardiac muscle (myocardium) forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the pericardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual cardiac muscle cells joined by intercalated discs, and encased by collagen fibers and other substances that form the extracellular matrix. Cardiac muscle contracts in a similar manner to skeletal muscle, although with some important differences. Electrical stimulation in the form of a cardiac action potential triggers the release of calcium from the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The rise in calcium causes the cell's myofilaments to slide past each other in a process called excitation-contraction coupling. Diseases of the heart muscle known as cardiomyopathies are of major importance. These include ischemic conditions caused by a restricted blood supply to the muscle such as angina, and myocardial infarction. Structure Gross anatomy Cardiac muscle tissue or myocardium forms the bulk of the heart. The heart wall is a three-layered structure with a thick layer of myocardium sandwiched between the inner endocardium and the outer epicardium (also known as the visceral pericardium). The inner endocardium lines the cardiac chambers, covers the cardiac valves, and joins with the endothelium that lines the blood vessels that connect to the heart. On the outer aspect of the myocardium is the epicardium which forms part of the pericardial sac that surrounds, protects, and lubricates the heart. Within the myocardium, there are several sheets of cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes. The sheets of muscle that wrap around the left ventricle clos Document 1::: Cardiophysics is an interdisciplinary science that stands at the junction of cardiology and medical physics, with researchers using the methods of, and theories from, physics to study cardiovascular system at different levels of its organisation, from the molecular scale to whole organisms. Being formed historically as part of systems biology, cardiophysics designed to reveal connections between the physical mechanisms, underlying the organization of the cardiovascular system, and biological features of its functioning. Zbigniew R. Struzik seems to be a first author who used the term in a scientific publication in 2004. One can use interchangeably also the terms cardiovascular physics. See also Medical physics Important publications in medical physics Biomedicine Biomedical engineering Physiome Nanomedicine Document 2::: The Frank–Starling law of the heart (also known as Starling's law and the Frank–Starling mechanism) represents the relationship between stroke volume and end diastolic volume. The law states that the stroke volume of the heart increases in response to an increase in the volume of blood in the ventricles, before contraction (the end diastolic volume), when all other factors remain constant. As a larger volume of blood flows into the ventricle, the blood stretches cardiac muscle, leading to an increase in the force of contraction. The Frank-Starling mechanism allows the cardiac output to be synchronized with the venous return, arterial blood supply and humoral length, without depending upon external regulation to make alterations. The physiological importance of the mechanism lies mainly in maintaining left and right ventricular output equality. Physiology The Frank-Starling mechanism occurs as the result of the length-tension relationship observed in striated muscle, including for example skeletal muscles, arthropod muscle and cardiac (heart) muscle. As striated muscle is stretched, active tension is created by altering the overlap of thick and thin filaments. The greatest isometric active tension is developed when a muscle is at its optimal length. In most relaxed skeletal muscle fibers, passive elastic properties maintain the muscle fibers length near optimal, as determined usually by the fixed distance between the attachment points of tendons to the bones (or the exoskeleton of arthropods) at either end of the muscle. In contrast, the relaxed sarcomere length of cardiac muscle cells, in a resting ventricle, is lower than the optimal length for contraction. There is no bone to fix sarcomere length in the heart (of any animal) so sarcomere length is very variable and depends directly upon blood filling and thereby expanding the heart chambers. In the human heart, maximal force is generated with an initial sarcomere length of 2.2 micrometers, a length which is rare Document 3::: The bidomain model is a mathematical model to define the electrical activity of the heart. It consists in a continuum (volume-average) approach in which the cardiac microstructure is defined in terms of muscle fibers grouped in sheets, creating a complex three-dimensional structure with anisotropical properties. Then, to define the electrical activity, two interpenetrating domains are considered, which are the intracellular and extracellular domains, representing respectively the space inside the cells and the region between them. The bidomain model was first proposed by Schmitt in 1969 before being formulated mathematically in the late 1970s. Since it is a continuum model, rather than describing each cell individually, it represents the average properties and behaviour of group of cells organized in complex structure. Thus, the model results to be a complex one and can be seen as a generalization of the cable theory to higher dimensions and, going to define the so-called bidomain equations. Many of the interesting properties of the bidomain model arise from the condition of unequal anisotropy ratios. The electrical conductivity in anisotropic tissues is not unique in all directions, but it is different in parallel and perpendicular direction with respect to the fiber one. Moreover, in tissues with unequal anisotropy ratios, the ratio of conductivities parallel and perpendicular to the fibers are different in the intracellular and extracellular spaces. For instance, in cardiac tissue, the anisotropy ratio in the intracellular space is about 10:1, while in the extracellular space it is about 5:2. Mathematically, unequal anisotropy ratios means that the effect of anisotropy cannot be removed by a change in the distance scale in one direction. Instead, the anisotropy has a more profound influence on the electrical behavior. Three examples of the impact of unequal anisotropy ratios are the distribution of transmembrane potential during unipolar stimulation of a she Document 4::: Endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) is an invasive procedure used routinely to obtain small samples of heart muscle, primarily for detecting rejection of a donor heart following heart transplantation. It is also used as a diagnostic tool in some heart diseases. A bioptome is used to gain access to the heart via a sheath inserted into the right internal jugular or less commonly the femoral vein. Monitoring during the procedure consists of performing ECGs and blood pressures. Guidance and confirmation of correct positioning of the bioptome is made by echocardiography or fluoroscopy. The risk of complications is less than 1% when performed by an experienced physician in a specialist centre. Serious complications include perforation of the heart with pericardial tamponade, haemopericardium, AV block, tricuspid regurgitation and pneumothorax. EMB, sampling myocardium was first pioneered in Japan by S. Sakakibra and S. Konno in 1962. Indications The main reason for performing an EMB is to assess allograft rejection following heart transplantation and sometimes to evaluate cardiomyopathy, some heart disease research and ventricular arrhythmias, or unexplained ventricular dysfunction. Transplant monitoring Visualising the microscopic appearance of the heart muscle allows the detection of cell-mediated or antibody-mediated rejection and is recommended episodically during the first year after heart transplantation. Occasionally, monitoring continues beyond one year. The use of EMB in heart transplant rejection surveillance remains the gold standard test, although the pre-test predictors of rejection cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) and gene expression profiling, are increasingly used. Myocardial diseases EMB has a role in the diagnosis of viral myocarditis and inflammatory myocarditis. Procedure EMB of the right ventricle via the internal jugular vein is standard after heart transplant. A bioptome is used to gain access to the heart via a sheath inserted into the rig The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle is what? A. atrophied B. tissue C. striated D. cylindrical Answer:
sciq-10921	multiple_choice	Mixtures that have the same composition throughout are known as what kinds of mixtures?	[ "contiguous", "heterogeneous", "homogeneous", "zygomatic" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more different chemical substances which are not chemically bonded. A mixture is the physical combination of two or more substances in which the identities are retained and are mixed in the form of solutions, suspensions and colloids. Mixtures are one product of mechanically blending or mixing chemical substances such as elements and compounds, without chemical bonding or other chemical change, so that each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and makeup. Despite the fact that there are no chemical changes to its constituents, the physical properties of a mixture, such as its melting point, may differ from those of the components. Some mixtures can be separated into their components by using physical (mechanical or thermal) means. Azeotropes are one kind of mixture that usually poses considerable difficulties regarding the separation processes required to obtain their constituents (physical or chemical processes or, even a blend of them). Characteristics of mixtures All mixtures can be characterized as being separable by mechanical means (e.g. purification, distillation, electrolysis, chromatography, heat, filtration, gravitational sorting, centrifugation). Mixtures differ from chemical compounds in the following ways: the substances in a mixture can be separated using physical methods such as filtration, freezing, and distillation. there is little or no energy change when a mixture forms (see Enthalpy of mixing). The substances in a mixture keep its separate properties. In the example of sand and water, neither one of the two substances changed in any way when they are mixed. Although the sand is in the water it still keeps the same properties that it had when it was outside the water. mixtures have variable compositions, while compounds have a fixed, definite formula. when mixed, individual substances keep their properties in a mixture, while if they form a compound their properties Document 1::: In physics, a dynamical system is said to be mixing if the phase space of the system becomes strongly intertwined, according to at least one of several mathematical definitions. For example, a measure-preserving transformation T is said to be strong mixing if whenever A and B are any measurable sets and μ is the associated measure. Other definitions are possible, including weak mixing and topological mixing. The mathematical definition of mixing is meant to capture the notion of physical mixing. A canonical example is the Cuba libre: suppose one is adding rum (the set A) to a glass of cola. After stirring the glass, the bottom half of the glass (the set B) will contain rum, and it will be in equal proportion as it is elsewhere in the glass. The mixing is uniform: no matter which region B one looks at, some of A will be in that region. A far more detailed, but still informal description of mixing can be found in the article on mixing (mathematics). Every mixing transformation is ergodic, but there are ergodic transformations which are not mixing. Physical mixing The mixing of gases or liquids is a complex physical process, governed by a convective diffusion equation that may involve non-Fickian diffusion as in spinodal decomposition. The convective portion of the governing equation contains fluid motion terms that are governed by the Navier–Stokes equations. When fluid properties such as viscosity depend on composition, the governing equations may be coupled. There may also be temperature effects. It is not clear that fluid mixing processes are mixing in the mathematical sense. Small rigid objects (such as rocks) are sometimes mixed in a rotating drum or tumbler. The 1969 Selective Service draft lottery was carried out by mixing plastic capsules which contained a slip of paper (marked with a day of the year). See also Miscibility Document 2::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 3::: In chemistry, solubility is the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with another substance, the solvent. Insolubility is the opposite property, the inability of the solute to form such a solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is generally measured as the concentration of the solute in a saturated solution, one in which no more solute can be dissolved. At this point, the two substances are said to be at the solubility equilibrium. For some solutes and solvents, there may be no such limit, in which case the two substances are said to be "miscible in all proportions" (or just "miscible"). The solute can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas, while the solvent is usually solid or liquid. Both may be pure substances, or may themselves be solutions. Gases are always miscible in all proportions, except in very extreme situations, and a solid or liquid can be "dissolved" in a gas only by passing into the gaseous state first. The solubility mainly depends on the composition of solute and solvent (including their pH and the presence of other dissolved substances) as well as on temperature and pressure. The dependency can often be explained in terms of interactions between the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) of the two substances, and of thermodynamic concepts such as enthalpy and entropy. Under certain conditions, the concentration of the solute can exceed its usual solubility limit. The result is a supersaturated solution, which is metastable and will rapidly exclude the excess solute if a suitable nucleation site appears. The concept of solubility does not apply when there is an irreversible chemical reaction between the two substances, such as the reaction of calcium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid; even though one might say, informally, that one "dissolved" the other. The solubility is also not the same as the rate of solution, which is how fast a solid solute dissolves in a liquid solvent. This property de Document 4::: A heteroazeotrope is an azeotrope where the vapour phase coexists with two liquid phases. Sketch of a T-x/y equilibrium curve of a typical heteroazeotropic mixture Examples of heteroazeotropes Benzene - Water NBP 69.2 °C Dichloromethane - Water NBP 38.5 °C n-Butanol - Water NBP 93.5 °C Toluene - Water NBP 82 °C Continuous heteroazeotropic distillation Heterogeneous distillation means that during the distillation the liquid phase of the mixture is immiscible. In this case on the plates can be two liquid phases and the top vapour condensate splits in two liquid phases, which can be separated in a decanter. The simplest case of continuous heteroazeotropic distillation is the separation of a binary heterogeneous azeotropic mixture. In this case the system contains two columns and a decanter. The fresh feed (A-B) is added into the first column. (The feed may also be added into the decanter directly or into the second column depending on the composition of the mixture). From the decanter the A-rich phase is withdrawn as reflux into the first column while the B-rich phase is withdrawn as reflux into the second column. This mean the first column produces "A" and the second column produces "B" as a bottoms product. In industry the butanol-water mixture is separated with this technique. At the previous case the binary system forms already a heterogeneous azeotrope. The other application of the heteroazeotropic distillation is the separation of a binary system (A-B) forming a homogeneous azeotrope. In this case an entrainer or solvent is added to the mixture in order to form an heteroazeotrope with one or both of the components in order to help the separation of the original A-B mixture. Batch heteroazeotropic distillation Batch heteroazeotropic distillation is an efficient method for the separation of azeotropic and low relative volatility (low α) mixtures. A third component (entrainer, E) is added to the binary A-B mixture, which makes the separation of A and B poss The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Mixtures that have the same composition throughout are known as what kinds of mixtures? A. contiguous B. heterogeneous C. homogeneous D. zygomatic Answer:
sciq-6639	multiple_choice	What according to scientists is the major cause of depression?	[ "low serotonin levels", "low thyroid levels", "high serotonin levels", "high fat diets" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Scientific studies have found that different brain areas show altered activity in humans with major depressive disorder (MDD), and this has encouraged advocates of various theories that seek to identify a biochemical origin of the disease, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Factors spanning these causative groups include nutritional deficiencies in magnesium, vitamin D, and tryptophan with situational origin but biological impact. Several theories concerning the biologically based cause of depression have been suggested over the years, including theories revolving around monoamine neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, inflammation and the circadian rhythm. Physical illnesses, including hypothyroidism and mitochondrial disease, can also trigger depressive symptoms. Neural circuits implicated in depression include those involved in the generation and regulation of emotion, as well as in reward. Abnormalities are commonly found in the lateral prefrontal cortex whose putative function is generally considered to involve regulation of emotion. Regions involved in the generation of emotion and reward such as the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and striatum are frequently implicated as well. These regions are innervated by a monoaminergic nuclei, and tentative evidence suggests a potential role for abnormal monoaminergic activity. Genetic factors Difficulty of gene studies Historically, candidate gene studies have been a major focus of study. However, as the number of genes reduces the likelihood of choosing a correct candidate gene, Type I errors (false positives) are highly likely. Candidate genes studies frequently possess a number of flaws, including frequent genotyping errors and being statistically underpowered. These effects are compounded by the usual assessment of genes without regard for gene-gene interactions. These limitations are reflected in the fact that no candid Document 1::: Acute tryptophan depletion (ATD) is a technique used extensively to study the effect of low serotonin in the brain. This experimental approach reduces the availability of tryptophan, an amino acid which serves as the precursor to serotonin. The lack of mood-lowering effects after ATD in healthy subjects seems to contradict a direct causal relationship between acutely decreased serotonin levels and depression, although mood-lowering effects are observed in certain vulnerable individuals. Document 2::: Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists to use the theory of evolution to shed light on the problem of mood disorders within the perspective of evolutionary psychiatry. Depression is generally thought of as dysfunction or a mental disorder, but its prevalence does not increase with age the way dementia and other organic dysfunction commonly does. Some researchers have surmised that the disorder may have evolutionary roots, in the same way that others suggest evolutionary contributions to schizophrenia, sickle cell anemia, psychopathy and other disorders. Psychology and psychiatry have not generally embraced evolutionary explanations for behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial. Background Major depression (also called "major depressive disorder", "clinical depression" or often simply "depression") is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and in 2000 was the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease (measured in DALYs); it is also an important risk factor for suicide. It is understandable, then, that clinical depression is thought to be a pathology—a major dysfunction of the brain. In most cases, rates of organ dysfunction increase with age, with low rates in adolescents and young adults, and the highest rates in the elderly. These patterns are consistent with evolutionary theories of aging which posit that selection against dysfunctional traits decreases with age (because there is a decreasing probability of surviving to later ages). In contrast to these patterns, prevalence of clinical depression is high in all age categories, including otherwise healthy adolescents and young adults. In one study of the US population, for example, the 12 month prevalence for a major depression episode was highest in the youngest age category (15- to 24-year-olds). The high prevalence of unipolar depression (excluding depression associated bipolar disorder) is also a Document 3::: A depression rating scale is a psychometric instrument (tool), usually a questionnaire whose wording has been validated with experimental evidence, having descriptive words and phrases that indicate the severity of depression for a time period. When used, an observer may make judgements and rate a person at a specified scale level with respect to identified characteristics. Rather than being used to diagnose depression, a depression rating scale may be used to assign a score to a person's behaviour where that score may be used to determine whether that person should be evaluated more thoroughly for a depressive disorder diagnosis. Several rating scales are used for this purpose. Scales completed by clinicians, researchers, and workers Some depression rating scales are completed by clinicians or researchers. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale includes 21 questions with between 3 and 5 possible responses which reflect increasing or decreasing severity. The clinician must choose the possible responses to each question by interviewing the patient and by observing the patient's symptoms. Designed by psychiatrist Max Hamilton in 1960, the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale is one of the two most commonly used among those completed by clinicians and researchers in assessing the effects of drug therapy. Alternatively, the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale ((MADRS) has ten items to be completed for the purpose of assessing the effects of drug therapy. The MADRS is the other of the two most commonly used scales by clinicians and researchers who are involved with patients. Another scale is the Raskin Depression Rating Scale; which rates the severity of the patients' symptoms in three areas: verbal reports, behavior, and secondary symptoms of depression. Finally, the Occupational Depression Inventory specifically focuses on depressive symptoms that people attribute to their jobs. Scales completed by patients The two questions on the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PH Document 4::: The Finno-Ugrian suicide hypothesis proposes to link genetic ties originating among Finno-Ugric peoples to high rate of suicide, claiming an allele common among them is responsible. Mari and Udmurts have been found to have a three times higher suicide rate than Finns and Hungarians. It has been thus theorized that such a possible allele may have arisen in those populations. However, contrary to the hypothesis, available contemporary (1990–1994) suicide rates in the United States were uniformly negatively associated with the proportion of the population comprising people of self-reported Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish, Russian, Slovakian, or Ukrainian descent. The findings of this first test outside Europe are therefore conflicting. A proposal based on the geographical study approach is offered to further the progress of investigations into the genetics of suicide. See also Human genetic variation Finnish heritage disease Gloomy Sunday List of countries by suicide rate The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What according to scientists is the major cause of depression? A. low serotonin levels B. low thyroid levels C. high serotonin levels D. high fat diets Answer:
ai2_arc-884	multiple_choice	A wetland habitat can continue to support the birds and fish that live there if people ___.	[ "drain the water away", "flood the highest parts of the land", "leave the land alone", "use the land for planting crops" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A converted wetland is one that has been drained, dredged, filled, leveled, or otherwise altered for the production of an agricultural commodity. The definition is part of The Highly Erodible Land Conservation and Wetland Conservation Compliance provisions (Swampbuster) introduced in the 1985 Farm Bill (also known as The Food Security Act of 1985). The provisions aim to reduce soil loss on erosion-prone lands and to protect wetlands for the multiple benefits they provide. Description Under the swampbuster program, converted wetlands are wetlands that were drained or altered to improve agricultural production after December 23, 1985, the date swampbuster was enacted. On lands with this designation, no drainage maintenance and no additional drainage are allowed. Lands converted before December 23, 1985, are called prior converted wetlands, and alterations to these lands are subject to less stringent requirements. Under swampbuster, there are no restrictions on either drainage maintenance or additional drainage on prior converted wetlands, which are estimated to total more than . Approximately 48 US states have lost an estimated 53 percent of their original wetlands in the past 200 years. It is estimated that 87 percent of wetland conversions from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s were due to agricultural conversion. The wetland conservation provisions have reduced wetland conversions and have helped preserve the environmental functions of wetlands, such as flood control, sediment control, groundwater recharge, water quality, wildlife habitat, to name a few. See also Agricultural expansion Groundwater-dependent ecosystems Wetland conservation Document 1::: A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia (DIWA) is a list of wetlands of national importance to Australia published by the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Intended to augment the list of wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention, it was formerly published in report form, but is now essentially an online publication. Wetlands that appear in the Directory are commonly referred to as "DIWA wetlands" or "Directory wetlands". Criteria for determining wetland importance Using criteria agreed in 1994, a wetland can be considered “nationally important” if it satisfies at least one of the following criteria: It is a good example of a wetland type occurring within a biogeographic region in Australia. It is a wetland which plays an important ecological or hydrological role in the natural functioning of a major wetland system/complex. It is a wetland which is important as the habitat for animal taxa at a vulnerable stage in their life cycles, or provides a refuge when adverse conditions such as drought prevail. The wetland supports 1% or more of the national populations of any native plant or animal taxa. The wetland supports native plant or animal taxa or communities which are considered endangered or vulnerable at the national level. The wetland is of outstanding historical or cultural significance. Types of wetlands The directory uses a classification system consisting of the following three categories (i.e. A, B and C) which are further sub-divided into a total of 40 different wetland types: A. Marine and Coastal Zone wetlands, which consists of 12 wetland types B. Inland wetlands, which consists of 19 wetland types C. Human-made wetlands, which consists of 9 wetland types. See also List of Ramsar sites in Australia Wetland classification Document 2::: The Everglades Nutrient Removal Project (ENRP) was a demonstration-scale wetland project proposed by the Everglades Forever Act. Functioning as a prototype for the much larger scale Everglades Construction Project, the ENRP was designed to model the process of using Stormwater treatment areas (STAs) to remove nutrients, especially phosphorus, from agricultural runoff entering the Everglades. Description Changes in the biotic integrity of the Everglades ecosystem has been largely attributed to the introduction of nutrient-rich runoff from the Everglades Agricultural Area. In 1994, The Everglades Forever Act authorized a 40,000-acre construction project (the Everglades Construction Program) that would use STAs as a way to clean water headed for Everglades National Park of nutrients that would throw the fragile ecosystem out of balance. Never before had a project of that size been managed and so the ENRP was created as an opportunity to gain perspective in the construction and operation of wetlands for nutrient removal. It was designed using 3,815 acres of land as opposed to the 40,000+ acres proposed for the final project. Its primary goal was to reduce the levels of phosphorus entering Water Conservation Area 1 (WCA-1) and to offer critical data and insight into the design and operation of the much larger scale project to come. Management The South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) conducted construction, research and monitoring of the project. This required building structural elements like levees and pump stations and also establishing vegetation. Particular emergent plants such as cattails were employed for their ability to uptake phosphorus out of the water as a means of short term removal, as well as absorbing nutrients into dead plant matter and soil particles for long term removal. Information gained from the experiment allowed for SFWMD to both anticipate potential problems and ensure that optimized phosphorus retention results could be achieved b Document 3::: The Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection and Restoration Act (CWPPRA) was passed by Congress in 1990 to fund wetland enhancement. In cooperation with multiple government agencies, CWPPRA is moving forward to restore the lost wetlands of the Gulf Coast, as well as protecting the wetlands from future deterioration. The scope of the mission is not simply for the restoration of Louisiana's Wetlands, but also the research and implementation of preventative measures for wetlands preservation. CWPPRA is a partnership between the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the NOAA- National Marine Fisheries Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Services, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the State of Louisiana. Introduction Like most deltaic systems, the Louisiana coast is sinking. The natural occurrence of subsidence was historically offset by new sediment from the annual overflow of the Mississippi River. With construction of the river levees, this overflow was cut off, leaving the wetlands to continue sinking with no source of renourishment. Since the early 1900s, storms and anthropogenic impacts have compounded with subsidence to cause drastic land loss in coastal Louisiana. In the 20th century, Louisiana has lost more than 1 million acres from its coast, 24 square miles annually, because of both human and natural factors that have disrupted ecological and economic stability. Billions of dollars in seafood production, oil and gas revenue, and commercial shipping will be lost without Louisiana's coastal wetlands, which provide the basis and support for these industries. In terms of human life, the value of these wetlands is beyond estimation. Healthy marsh provides a buffer against storms, and its ability to absorb high water and slow wind is key to survival for coastal communities. As land is lost, hurricanes and tropical storms hit shore ever closer to the two million people who live near the coast. Every year as wetlands lo Document 4::: Flooded grasslands and savannas is a terrestrial biome of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) biogeographical system, consisting of large expanses or complexes of flooded grasslands. These areas support numerous plants and animals adapted to the unique hydrologic regimes and soil conditions. Large congregations of migratory and resident waterbirds may be found in these regions. The relative importance of these habitat types for these birds as well as more vagile taxa typically varies as the availability of water and productivity annually and seasonally shifts among complexes of smaller and larger wetlands throughout a region. This habitat type is found on four of the continents on Earth. Some globally outstanding flooded savannas and grasslands occur in the Everglades, Pantanal, Lake Chad flooded savanna, Zambezian flooded grasslands, and the Sudd. The Everglades, with an area of , are the world's largest rain-fed flooded grassland on a limestone substrate, and feature some 11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25 varieties of orchids, 300 bird species, and 150 fish species. The Pantanal, with an area of , is the largest flooded grassland on Earth, supporting over 260 species of fish, 700 birds, 90 mammals, 160 reptiles, 45 amphibians, 1,000 butterflies, and 1,600 species of plants. The flooded savannas and grasslands are generally the largest complexes in each region. See also Coniferous swamp Dambo Fen Flood-meadow Freshwater swamp forest Mangroves Marsh Marsh gas Muck (soil) Peat Peat swamp forest Salt marsh Shrub swamp Water-meadow Wet meadow The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. A wetland habitat can continue to support the birds and fish that live there if people ___. A. drain the water away B. flood the highest parts of the land C. leave the land alone D. use the land for planting crops Answer:
sciq-11036	multiple_choice	What is produced by leydig cells in the embryonic testis and stimulates the development of male sexual organs?	[ "testosterone", "androgen", "insulin", "estrogen" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Reproductive biology includes both sexual and asexual reproduction. Reproductive biology includes a wide number of fields: Reproductive systems Endocrinology Sexual development (Puberty) Sexual maturity Reproduction Fertility Human reproductive biology Endocrinology Human reproductive biology is primarily controlled through hormones, which send signals to the human reproductive structures to influence growth and maturation. These hormones are secreted by endocrine glands, and spread to different tissues in the human body. In humans, the pituitary gland synthesizes hormones used to control the activity of endocrine glands. Reproductive systems Internal and external organs are included in the reproductive system. There are two reproductive systems including the male and female, which contain different organs from one another. These systems work together in order to produce offspring. Female reproductive system The female reproductive system includes the structures involved in ovulation, fertilization, development of an embryo, and birth. These structures include: Ovaries Oviducts Uterus Vagina Mammary Glands Estrogen is one of the sexual reproductive hormones that aid in the sexual reproductive system of the female. Male reproductive system The male reproductive system includes testes, rete testis, efferent ductules, epididymis, sex accessory glands, sex accessory ducts and external genitalia. Testosterone, an androgen, although present in both males and females, is relatively more abundant in males. Testosterone serves as one of the major sexual reproductive hormones in the male reproductive system However, the enzyme aromatase is present in testes and capable of synthesizing estrogens from androgens. Estrogens are present in high concentrations in luminal fluids of the male reproductive tract. Androgen and estrogen receptors are abundant in epithelial cells of the male reproductive tract. Animal Reproductive Biology Animal reproduction oc Document 1::: Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. This process starts with the mitotic division of the stem cells located close to the basement membrane of the tubules. These cells are called spermatogonial stem cells. The mitotic division of these produces two types of cells. Type A cells replenish the stem cells, and type B cells differentiate into primary spermatocytes. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically (Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte divides into two equal haploid spermatids by Meiosis II. The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by the process of spermiogenesis. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells. Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa and four haploid cells. Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually reproducing organisms. Thus, spermatogenesis is the male version of gametogenesis, of which the female equivalent is oogenesis. In mammals it occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the male testes in a stepwise fashion. Spermatogenesis is highly dependent upon optimal conditions for the process to occur correctly, and is essential for sexual reproduction. DNA methylation and histone modification have been implicated in the regulation of this process. It starts during puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death, although a slight decrease can be discerned in the quantity of produced sperm with increase in age (see Male infertility). Spermatogenesis starts in the bottom part of seminiferous tubes and, progressively, cells go deeper into tubes and moving along it until mature spermatozoa reaches the lumen, where mature spermatozoa are deposited. The division happens asynchronically; if the tube is cut transversally one could observe different Document 2::: Gonadal dysgenesis is classified as any congenital developmental disorder of the reproductive system in humans. It is atypical development of gonads in an embryo,. One type of gonadal dysgenesis is the development of functionless, fibrous tissue, termed streak gonads, instead of reproductive tissue. Streak gonads are a form of aplasia, resulting in hormonal failure that manifests as sexual infantism and infertility, with no initiation of puberty and secondary sex characteristics. Gonadal development is a process, which is primarily controlled genetically by the chromosomal sex (XX or XY), which directs the formation of the gonad (ovary or testicle). Differentiation of the gonads requires a tightly regulated cascade of genetic, molecular and morphogenic events. At the formation of the developed gonad, steroid production influences local and distant receptors for continued morphological and biochemical changes. This results in the phenotype corresponding to the karyotype (46,XX for females and 46,XY for males). Gonadal dysgenesis arises from a difference in signalling in this tightly regulated process during early foetal development. Manifestations of gonadal dysgenesis are dependent on the aetiology and severity of the underlying causes. Causes Pure gonadal dysgenesis 46,XX also known as XX gonadal dysgenesis Pure gonadal dysgenesis 46,XY also known as XY gonadal dysgenesis Mixed gonadal dysgenesis also known as partial gonadal dysgenesis, and 45,X/46,XY mosaicism Turner syndrome also known as 45,X or 45,X0 Endocrine disruptions Pathogenesis 46,XX gonadal dysgenesis 46,XX gonadal dysgenesis is characteristic of female hypogonadism with a karyotype of 46,XX. Streak ovaries are present with non-functional tissues unable to produce the required sex steroid oestrogen. Low levels of oestrogen effect the HPG axis with no feedback to the anterior pituitary to inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH. FSH and LH are secreted at elevated levels. Increased levels of Document 3::: Sexual differentiation in humans is the process of development of sex differences in humans. It is defined as the development of phenotypic structures consequent to the action of hormones produced following gonadal determination. Sexual differentiation includes development of different genitalia and the internal genital tracts and body hair plays a role in sex identification. The development of sexual differences begins with the XY sex-determination system that is present in humans, and complex mechanisms are responsible for the development of the phenotypic differences between male and female humans from an undifferentiated zygote. Females typically have two X chromosomes, and males typically have a Y chromosome and an X chromosome. At an early stage in embryonic development, both sexes possess equivalent internal structures. These are the mesonephric ducts and paramesonephric ducts. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of the testes in males, and the subsequent release of hormones which cause the paramesonephric ducts to regress. In females, the mesonephric ducts regress. Divergent sexual development, known as intersex, can be a result of genetic and hormonal factors. Sex determination Most mammals, including humans, have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. In the absence of a Y chromosome, the fetus will undergo female development. This is because of the presence of the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome, also known as the SRY gene. Thus, male mammals typically have an X and a Y chromosome (XY), while female mammals typically have two X chromosomes (XX). Chromosomal sex is determined at the time of fertilization; a chromosome from the sperm cell, either X or Y, fuses with the X chromosome in the egg cell. Gonadal sex refers to the gonads, that is the testis or ovaries, depending on which genes are expressed. Phenotypic sex refers to the struct Document 4::: Ectoplasmic specializations are actin-related cell–cell junctions present in the testicular seminiferous epithelium and occur during spermatogenesis. These junctions are located at the Sertoli–Sertoli cell interface and Sertoli-elongating spermatid interface, which occur during the seminiferous epithelial cycle of spermatogenesis. There must be vast reconstructing of the anchoring junctions such as the ectoplasmic specializations within the testies. The reconstruction of these junctions is important because it facilitates the migration of the developing germ cells across the seminiferous epithelium The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is produced by leydig cells in the embryonic testis and stimulates the development of male sexual organs? A. testosterone B. androgen C. insulin D. estrogen Answer:
sciq-4569	multiple_choice	Prokaryotes are successful because of the ________ of reproduction in favorable environments	[ "order", "cycle", "volume", "speed" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: MicrobeLibrary is a permanent collection of over 1400 original peer-reviewed resources for teaching undergraduate microbiology. It is provided by the American Society for Microbiology, Washington DC, United States. Contents include curriculum activities; images and animations; reviews of books, websites and other resources; and articles from Focus on Microbiology Education, Microbiology Education and Microbe. Around 40% of the materials are free to educators and students, the remainder require a subscription. the service is suspended with the message to: "Please check back with us in 2017". External links MicrobeLibrary Microbiology Document 1::: Advanced Placement (AP) Biology (also known as AP Bio) is an Advanced Placement biology course and exam offered by the College Board in the United States. For the 2012–2013 school year, the College Board unveiled a new curriculum with a greater focus on "scientific practices". This course is designed for students who wish to pursue an interest in the life sciences. The College Board recommends successful completion of high school biology and high school chemistry before commencing AP Biology, although the actual prerequisites vary from school to school and from state to state. This course, nevertheless, is considered very challenging and one of the most difficult AP classes, as shown with AP Finals grade distributions. Topic outline The exam covers the following 8 units. The percentage indicates the portion of the multiple-choice section of the exam focused on each content area: The course is based on and tests six skills, called scientific practices which include: In addition to the topics above, students are required to be familiar with general lab procedure. Students should know how to collect data, analyze data to form conclusions, and apply those conclusions. Exam Students are allowed to use a four-function, scientific, or graphing calculator. The exam has two sections: a 90 minute multiple choice section and a 90 minute free response section. There are 60 multiple choice questions and six free responses, two long and four short. Both sections are worth 50% of the score. Score distribution Commonly used textbooks Biology, AP Edition by Sylvia Mader (2012, hardcover ) Life: The Science of Biology (Sadava, Heller, Orians, Purves, and Hillis, ) Campbell Biology AP Ninth Edition (Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, and Andrew Jackson ) See also Glossary of biology A.P Bio (TV Show) Document 2::: GRE Subject Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology was a standardized exam provided by ETS (Educational Testing Service) that was discontinued in December 2016. It is a paper-based exam and there are no computer-based versions of it. ETS places this exam three times per year: once in April, once in October and once in November. Some graduate programs in the United States recommend taking this exam, while others require this exam score as a part of the application to their graduate programs. ETS sends a bulletin with a sample practice test to each candidate after registration for the exam. There are 180 questions within the biochemistry subject test. Scores are scaled and then reported as a number between 200 and 990; however, in recent versions of the test, the maximum and minimum reported scores have been 760 (corresponding to the 99 percentile) and 320 (1 percentile) respectively. The mean score for all test takers from July, 2009, to July, 2012, was 526 with a standard deviation of 95. After learning that test content from editions of the GRE® Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology (BCM) Test has been compromised in Israel, ETS made the decision not to administer this test worldwide in 2016–17. Content specification Since many students who apply to graduate programs in biochemistry do so during the first half of their fourth year, the scope of most questions is largely that of the first three years of a standard American undergraduate biochemistry curriculum. A sampling of test item content is given below: Biochemistry (36%) A Chemical and Physical Foundations Thermodynamics and kinetics Redox states Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers Solutions and equilibria Solute-solvent interactions Chemical interactions and bonding Chemical reaction mechanisms B Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics Small molecules Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids) Supramolecular complexes (e.g. Document 3::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 4::: Biology by Team in German Biologie im Team - is the first Austrian biology contest for upper secondary schools. Students at upper secondary schools who are especially interested in biology can deepen their knowledge and broaden their competence in experimental biology within the framework of this contest. Each year, a team of teachers choose modules of key themes on which students work in the form of a voluntary exercise. The evaluation focuses in particular on the practical work, and, since the school year 2004/05, also on teamwork. In April, a two-day closing competition takes place, in which six groups of students from participating schools are given various problems to solve. A jury (persons from the science and corporate communities) evaluate the results and how they are presented. The concept was developed by a team of teachers in co-operation with the AHS (Academic Secondary Schools) - Department of the Pedagogical Institute in Carinthia. Since 2008 it is situated at the Science departement of the University College of Teacher Training Carinthia. The first contest in the school year 2002/03 took place under the motto: Hell is loose in the ground under us. Other themes included Beautiful but dangerous, www-worldwide water 1 and 2, Expedition forest, Relationship boxes, Mole's view, Biological timetravel, Biology at the University, Ecce Homo, Biodiversity, Death in tin cans, Sex sells, Without a trace, Biologists see more, Quo vadis biology? , Biology without limits?, Diversity instead of simplicity, Grid square, Diversity instead of simplicity 0.2, www-worldwide water 3.The theme for the year 2023/24 is I hear something you don't see. Till now the following schools were participating: BG/BRG Mössingerstraße Klagenfurt Ingeborg-Bachmann-Gymnasium, Klagenfurt BG/BRG St. Martinerstraße Villach BG/BRG Peraustraße Villach International school Carinthia, Velden Österreichisches Gymnasium Prag Europagymnasium Klagenfurt BRG Viktring Klagenfurt BORG Wo The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Prokaryotes are successful because of the ________ of reproduction in favorable environments A. order B. cycle C. volume D. speed Answer:
sciq-10136	multiple_choice	Cephalopods have three hearts that pump blood of what color?	[ "Red", "purple", "Green", "blue" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Advanced Placement (AP) Biology (also known as AP Bio) is an Advanced Placement biology course and exam offered by the College Board in the United States. For the 2012–2013 school year, the College Board unveiled a new curriculum with a greater focus on "scientific practices". This course is designed for students who wish to pursue an interest in the life sciences. The College Board recommends successful completion of high school biology and high school chemistry before commencing AP Biology, although the actual prerequisites vary from school to school and from state to state. This course, nevertheless, is considered very challenging and one of the most difficult AP classes, as shown with AP Finals grade distributions. Topic outline The exam covers the following 8 units. The percentage indicates the portion of the multiple-choice section of the exam focused on each content area: The course is based on and tests six skills, called scientific practices which include: In addition to the topics above, students are required to be familiar with general lab procedure. Students should know how to collect data, analyze data to form conclusions, and apply those conclusions. Exam Students are allowed to use a four-function, scientific, or graphing calculator. The exam has two sections: a 90 minute multiple choice section and a 90 minute free response section. There are 60 multiple choice questions and six free responses, two long and four short. Both sections are worth 50% of the score. Score distribution Commonly used textbooks Biology, AP Edition by Sylvia Mader (2012, hardcover ) Life: The Science of Biology (Sadava, Heller, Orians, Purves, and Hillis, ) Campbell Biology AP Ninth Edition (Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, and Andrew Jackson ) See also Glossary of biology A.P Bio (TV Show) Document 1::: Edward Brinton (January 12, 1924 – January 13, 2010) was a professor of oceanography and research biologist. His particular area of expertise was Euphausiids or krill, small shrimp-like creatures found in all the oceans of the world. Early life Brinton was born on January 12, 1924, in Richmond, Indiana to a Quaker couple, Howard Brinton and Anna Shipley Cox Brinton. Much of his childhood was spent on the grounds of Mills College where his mother was Dean of Faculty and his father was a professor. The family later moved to the Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation, in Pennsylvania where his father and mother became directors. Academic career Brinton attended High School at Westtown School in Chester County, Pennsylvania. He studied at Haverford College and graduated in 1949 with a bachelor's degree in biology. He enrolled at Scripps Institution of Oceanography as a graduate student in 1950 and was awarded a Ph.D. in 1957. He continued on as a research biologist in the Marine Life Research Group, part of the CalCOFI program. He soon turned his dissertation into a major publication, The Distribution of Pacific Euphausiids. In this large monograph, he laid out the major biogeographic provinces of the Pacific (and part of the Atlantic), large-scale patterns of pelagic diversity and one of the most rational hypotheses for the mechanism of sympatric, oceanic speciation. In all of these studies the role of physical oceanography and circulation played a prominent part. His work has since been validated by others and continues, to this day, to form the basis for our attempts to understand large-scale pelagic ecology and the role of physics of the movement of water in the regulation of pelagic ecosystems. In addition to these studies he has led in the studies of how climatic variations have led to the large variations in the California Current, and its populations and communities. He has described several new species and, in collaboration with Margaret K Document 2::: Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research. Americas Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970) Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government. Human and Social Biology (Caribbean) Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment. Human Biology Program at University of Toronto The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications. Asia BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002) BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New Document 3::: This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings. This science is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro-scale (e.g. molecular biology, biochemistry) other on larger scales (e.g. cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mindneuroscience. Life sciences discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, it has provided information on certain diseases which has overall aided in the understanding of human health. Basic life science branches Biology – scientific study of life Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans Astrobiology – the study of the formation and presence of life in the universe Bacteriology – study of bacteria Biotechnology – study of combination of both the living organism and technology Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level Bioinformatics – developing of methods or software tools for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data to generate useful biological knowledge Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language. Biological anthropology – the study of humans, non-hum Document 4::: The SAT Subject Test in Biology was the name of a one-hour multiple choice test given on biology by the College Board. A student chose whether to take the test depending upon college entrance requirements for the schools in which the student is planning to apply. Until 1994, the SAT Subject Tests were known as Achievement Tests; and from 1995 until January 2005, they were known as SAT IIs. Of all SAT subject tests, the Biology E/M test was the only SAT II that allowed the test taker a choice between the ecological or molecular tests. A set of 60 questions was taken by all test takers for Biology and a choice of 20 questions was allowed between either the E or M tests. This test was graded on a scale between 200 and 800. The average for Molecular is 630 while Ecological is 591. On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Biology E/M. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education. Format This test had 80 multiple-choice questions that were to be answered in one hour. All questions had five answer choices. Students received one point for each correct answer, lost ¼ of a point for each incorrect answer, and received 0 points for questions left blank. The student's score was based entirely on his or her performance in answering the multiple-choice questions. The questions covered a broad range of topics in general biology. There were more specific questions related respectively on ecological concepts (such as population studies and general Ecology) on the E test and molecular concepts such as DNA structure, translation, and biochemistry on the M test. Preparation The College Board suggested a year-long course in biology at the college preparatory level, as well as a one-year course in algebra, a The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Cephalopods have three hearts that pump blood of what color? A. Red B. purple C. Green D. blue Answer:
sciq-5247	multiple_choice	What is the name of the relatively large gland in the neck that secretes thyroxin?	[ "Thyroid", "thyroid", "Pituitary", "Pancreas" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Zuckerkandl's tubercle is a pyramidal extension of the thyroid gland, present at the most posterior side of each lobe. Emil Zuckerkandl described it in 1902 as the processus posterior glandulae thyreoideae. Although the structure is named after Zuckerkandl, it was discovered first by Otto Madelung in 1867 as the posterior horn of the thyroid. The structure is important in thyroid surgery as it is closely related to the recurrent laryngeal nerve, the inferior thyroid artery, Berry's ligament and the parathyroid glands. The structure is subject to an important amount of anatomic variation, and therefore a size classification is proposed by Pelizzo et al. Document 1::: The lymph glands of the thorax may be divided into parietal and visceral — the former being situated in the thoracic wall, the latter in relation to the viscera. Document 2::: Thyroid's secretory capacity (GT, also referred to as thyroid's incretory capacity, maximum thyroid hormone output, T4 output or, if calculated from serum levels of thyrotropin and thyroxine, as SPINA-GT) is the maximum stimulated amount of thyroxine that the thyroid can produce in a given time-unit (e.g. one second). How to determine GT Experimentally, GT can be determined by stimulating the thyroid with a high thyrotropin concentration (e.g. by means of rhTSH, i.e. recombinant human thyrotropin) and measuring its output in terms of T4 production, or by measuring the serum concentration of protein-bound iodine-131 after administration of radioiodine. These approaches are, however, costly and accompanied by significant exposure to radiation. In vivo, GT can also be estimated from equilibrium levels of TSH and T4 or free T4. In this case it is calculated with or [TSH]: Serum thyrotropin concentration (in mIU/L or μIU/mL) [FT4]: Serum free T4 concentration (in pmol/L) [TT4]: Serum total T4 concentration (in nmol/L) : Theoretical (apparent) secretory capacity (SPINA-GT) : Dilution factor for T4 (reciprocal of apparent volume of distribution, 0.1 L−1) : Clearance exponent for T4 (1.1e-6 sec−1), i. e., reaction rate constant for degradation K41: Binding constant T4-TBG (2e10 L/mol) K42: Binding constant T4-TBPA (2e8 L/mol) DT: EC50 for TSH (2.75 mU/L) The method is based on mathematical models of thyroid homeostasis. Calculating the secretory capacity with one of these equations is an inverse problem. Therefore, certain conditions (e.g. stationarity) have to be fulfilled to deliver a reliable result. Specific secretory capacity The ratio of SPINA-GT and thyroid volume VT (as determined e.g. by ultrasonography) , i.e. or Document 3::: Uterine glands or endometrial glands are tubular glands, lined by a simple columnar epithelium, found in the functional layer of the endometrium that lines the uterus. Their appearance varies during the menstrual cycle. During the proliferative phase, uterine glands appear long due to estrogen secretion by the ovaries. During the secretory phase, the uterine glands become very coiled with wide lumens and produce a glycogen-rich secretion known as histotroph or uterine milk. This change corresponds with an increase in blood flow to spiral arteries due to increased progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum. During the pre-menstrual phase, progesterone secretion decreases as the corpus luteum degenerates, which results in decreased blood flow to the spiral arteries. The functional layer of the uterus containing the glands becomes necrotic, and eventually sloughs off during the menstrual phase of the cycle. They are of small size in the unimpregnated uterus, but shortly after impregnation become enlarged and elongated, presenting a contorted or waved appearance. Function Hormones produced in early pregnancy stimulate the uterine glands to secrete a number of substances to give nutrition and protection to the embryo and fetus, and the fetal membranes. These secretions are known as histiotroph, alternatively histotroph, and also as uterine milk. Important uterine milk proteins are glycodelin-A, and osteopontin. Some secretory components from the uterine glands are taken up by the secondary yolk sac lining the exocoelomic cavity during pregnancy, and may thereby assist in providing fetal nutrition. Additional images Document 4::: The inferior thyroid artery is an artery in the neck. It arises from the thyrocervical trunk and passes upward, in front of the vertebral artery and longus colli muscle. It then turns medially behind the carotid sheath and its contents, and also behind the sympathetic trunk, the middle cervical ganglion resting upon the vessel. Reaching the lower border of the thyroid gland it divides into two branches, which supply the postero-inferior parts of the gland, and anastomose with the superior thyroid artery, and with the corresponding artery of the opposite side. Structure The branches of the inferior thyroid artery are the inferior laryngeal, the oesophageal, the tracheal, the ascending cervical and the pharyngeal arteries. Branches Inferior laryngeal artery The inferior laryngeal artery - accompanied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve - passes superior-ward upon the trachea deep to the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle to reach the posterior surface of the larynx. At the inferior border of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle, the artery enters the larynx. The artery supplies the muscles and mucosa of the larynx. It forms anastomoses with its contralateral partner, and the superior laryngeal branch of the superior thyroid artery. Tracheal branches The tracheal branches are distributed on the trachea, and anastomose inferiorly with the bronchial arteries. Esophageal branches The esophageal branches supply the esophagus, and anastomose with the esophageal branches of the thoracic aorta. Ascending cervical artery The ascending cervical artery is a small branch which arises from the inferior thyroid artery as it turns medial-ward posterior to the carotid sheath. The artery ascends upon the anterior tubercles of the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae between the anterior scalene muscle and longus capitis muscle. The ascending cervical artery gives twigs to the neck muscles and these anastomose with branches of the vertebral arteries. On The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the name of the relatively large gland in the neck that secretes thyroxin? A. Thyroid B. thyroid C. Pituitary D. Pancreas Answer:
sciq-10080	multiple_choice	What is the main makeup of the cell membrane?	[ "filaments", "glucose", "antibodies", "phospholipids" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Cell theory has its origins in seventeenth century microscopy observations, but it was nearly two hundred years before a complete cell membrane theory was developed to explain what separates cells from the outside world. By the 19th century it was accepted that some form of semi-permeable barrier must exist around a cell. Studies of the action of anesthetic molecules led to the theory that this barrier might be made of some sort of fat (lipid), but the structure was still unknown. A series of pioneering experiments in 1925 indicated that this barrier membrane consisted of two molecular layers of lipids—a lipid bilayer. New tools over the next few decades confirmed this theory, but controversy remained regarding the role of proteins in the cell membrane. Eventually the fluid mosaic model was composed in which proteins “float” in a fluid lipid bilayer "sea". Although simplistic and incomplete, this model is still widely referenced today. [It is found in 1838.]] Early barrier theories Since the invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century it has been known that plant and animal tissue is composed of cells : the cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. The plant cell wall was easily visible even with these early microscopes but no similar barrier was visible on animal cells, though it stood to reason that one must exist. By the mid 19th century, this question was being actively investigated and Moritz Traube noted that this outer layer must be semipermeable to allow transport of ions. Traube had no direct evidence for the composition of this film, though, and incorrectly asserted that it was formed by an interfacial reaction of the cell protoplasm with the extracellular fluid. The lipid nature of the cell membrane was first correctly intuited by Georg Hermann Quincke in 1888, who noted that a cell generally forms a spherical shape in water and, when broken in half, forms two smaller spheres. The only other known material to exhibit this behavior was oil. He al Document 1::: The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment (the extracellular space). The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, made up of two layers of phospholipids with cholesterols (a lipid component) interspersed between them, maintaining appropriate membrane fluidity at various temperatures. The membrane also contains membrane proteins, including integral proteins that span the membrane and serve as membrane transporters, and peripheral proteins that loosely attach to the outer (peripheral) side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes to facilitate interaction with the cell's environment. Glycolipids embedded in the outer lipid layer serve a similar purpose. The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell, being selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall and the carbohydrate layer called the glycocalyx, as well as the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled. History While Robert Hooke's discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the cell theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time. Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to su Document 2::: A protocell (or protobiont) is a self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a stepping stone toward the origin of life. A central question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and how they could differ in reproductive output, thus enabling the accumulation of novel biological emergences over time, i.e. biological evolution. Although a functional protocell has not yet been achieved in a laboratory setting, the goal to understand the process appears well within reach. Overview Compartmentalization was important in the origins of life. Membranes form enclosed compartments that are separate from the external environment, thus providing the cell with functionally specialized aqueous spaces. As the lipid bilayer of membranes is impermeable to most hydrophilic molecules (dissolved by water), cells have membrane transport-systems that achieve the import of nutritive molecules as well as the export of waste. It is very challenging to construct protocells from molecular assemblies. An important step in this challenge is the achievement of vesicle dynamics that are relevant to cellular functions, such as membrane trafficking and self-reproduction, using amphiphilic molecules. On the primitive Earth, numerous chemical reactions of organic compounds produced the ingredients of life. Of these substances, amphiphilic molecules might be the first player in the evolution from molecular assembly to cellular life. A step from vesicle toward protocell might be to develop self-reproducing vesicles coupled with the metabolic system. Another approach to the notion of a protocell concerns the term "chemoton" (short for 'chemical automaton') which refers to an abstract model for the fundamental unit of life introduced by Hungarian theoretical biologist Tibor Gánti. It is the oldest known computational abstract of a protocell. Gánti conceived the basic idea in 1952 and formulated the concept in 1971 in his book The Principles of Life (orig Document 3::: The fluid mosaic model explains various characteristics regarding the structure of functional cell membranes. According to this biological model, there is a lipid bilayer (two molecules thick layer consisting primarily of amphipathic phospholipids) in which protein molecules are embedded. The phospholipid bilayer gives fluidity and elasticity to the membrane. Small amounts of carbohydrates are also found in the cell membrane. The biological model, which was devised by Seymour Jonathan Singer and Garth L. Nicolson in 1972, describes the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid that restricts the lateral diffusion of membrane components. Such domains are defined by the existence of regions within the membrane with special lipid and protein cocoon that promote the formation of lipid rafts or protein and glycoprotein complexes. Another way to define membrane domains is the association of the lipid membrane with the cytoskeleton filaments and the extracellular matrix through membrane proteins. The current model describes important features relevant to many cellular processes, including: cell-cell signaling, apoptosis, cell division, membrane budding, and cell fusion. The fluid mosaic model is the most acceptable model of the plasma membrane. In this definition of the cell membrane, its main function is to act as a barrier between the contents inside the cell and the extracellular environment. Chemical makeup Experimental evidence The fluid property of functional biological membranes had been determined through labeling experiments, x-ray diffraction, and calorimetry. These studies showed that integral membrane proteins diffuse at rates affected by the viscosity of the lipid bilayer in which they were embedded, and demonstrated that the molecules within the cell membrane are dynamic rather than static. Previous models of biological membranes included the Robertson Unit Membrane Model and the Davson-Danielli Tri-Layer model. These models had proteins present as sheets Document 4::: Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA, double stranded macromolecule that carries the hereditary information of the cell and found in all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence. Examples include macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, biomolecular complexes such as a ribosome, and structures such as membranes, and organelles. While the majority of cellular components are located within the cell itself, some may exist in extracellular areas of an organism. Cellular components may also be called biological matter or biological material. Most biological matter has the characteristics of soft matter, being governed by relatively small energies. All known life is made of biological matter. To be differentiated from other theoretical or fictional life forms, such life may be called carbon-based, cellular, organic, biological, or even simply living – as some definitions of life exclude hypothetical types of biochemistry. See also Cell (biology) Cell biology Biomolecule Organelle Tissue (biology) External links https://web.archive.org/web/20130918033010/http://bioserv.fiu.edu/~walterm/FallSpring/review1_fall05_chap_cell3.htm The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the main makeup of the cell membrane? A. filaments B. glucose C. antibodies D. phospholipids Answer:
sciq-10805	multiple_choice	Corals build hard exoskeletons that grow to become coral what?	[ "layers", "reefs", "beds", "crystals" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Network or STEMNET is an educational charity in the United Kingdom that seeks to encourage participation at school and college in science and engineering-related subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and (eventually) work. History It is based at Woolgate Exchange near Moorgate tube station in London and was established in 1996. The chief executive is Kirsten Bodley. The STEMNET offices are housed within the Engineering Council. Function Its chief aim is to interest children in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Primary school children can start to have an interest in these subjects, leading secondary school pupils to choose science A levels, which will lead to a science career. It supports the After School Science and Engineering Clubs at schools. There are also nine regional Science Learning Centres. STEM ambassadors To promote STEM subjects and encourage young people to take up jobs in these areas, STEMNET have around 30,000 ambassadors across the UK. these come from a wide selection of the STEM industries and include TV personalities like Rob Bell. Funding STEMNET used to receive funding from the Department for Education and Skills. Since June 2007, it receives funding from the Department for Children, Schools and Families and Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills, since STEMNET sits on the chronological dividing point (age 16) of both of the new departments. See also The WISE Campaign Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council National Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics Association for Science Education Glossary of areas of mathematics Glossary of astronomy Glossary of biology Glossary of chemistry Glossary of engineering Glossary of physics Document 1::: The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields. Description The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions. The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.” Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers. Current efforts The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo Document 2::: One of the marine ecosystems found in the Virgin Islands are the coral reefs. These coral reefs can be located between the islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. These coral reefs have an area of 297.9 km2, along with other marine habitats that are in between. The way these coral reefs grow are by coral larvae swimming freely and attaching themselves to hard surfaces around the islands and start to develop a skeleton on the outside of their skin to protect themselves from predators but also allow a new place for other coral larvae to attach to and grow on. These corals can form into three different structures; fringing reefs, which are reefs that are close to the shore, barrier reefs, which are reefs that are alongside the shore and is separated by deep water, and an atoll reef which is a coral reef that circles a lagoon or body of water. Distribution As stated, the coral reefs such as fringing reefs, deep reefs, patch reefs and spur and groove formation are distributed over three islands in the Virgin Islands which are St. Croix (Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve, Buck Island Reef National Monument), St. Thomas, and St. John (Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument). The coral reefs found offshore of St. Thomas and St. John are distributed patchily around the islands. Additionally, a developed barrier reef system surrounds St. Croix along its eastern and southern shores. Ecology The coral reefs as well as hard-bottom habitat accounts for 297.9 km2. The coral reefs are home to diverse species. There are over 40 species of scleractinian corals and three species of Millepora. Live scleractinian species are found throughout the Virgin Islands, but mainly around Buck Island, St. Croix and St. John. More specifically based on a survey from 2001-2006, listed are a total of 215 fishes from St. John and 202 from St. Croix. Four species of sea turtles are found within the Virgin Islands. The coral reefs are impacted by freshwa Document 3::: The School of Textile and Clothing industries (ESITH) is a Moroccan engineering school, established in 1996, that focuses on textiles and clothing. It was created in collaboration with ENSAIT and ENSISA, as a result of a public private partnership designed to grow a key sector in the Moroccan economy. The partnership was successful and has been used as a model for other schools. ESITH is the only engineering school in Morocco that provides a comprehensive program in textile engineering with internships for students at the Canadian Group CTT. Edith offers three programs in industrial engineering: product management, supply chain, and logistics, and textile and clothing Document 4::: The Inverness Campus is an area in Inverness, Scotland. 5.5 hectares of the site have been designated as an enterprise area for life sciences by the Scottish Government. This designation is intended to encourage research and development in the field of life sciences, by providing incentives to locate at the site. The enterprise area is part of a larger site, over 200 acres, which will house Inverness College, Scotland's Rural College (SRUC), the University of the Highlands and Islands, a health science centre and sports and other community facilities. The purpose built research hub will provide space for up to 30 staff and researchers, allowing better collaboration. The Highland Science Academy will be located on the site, a collaboration formed by Highland Council, employers and public bodies. The academy will be aimed towards assisting young people to gain the necessary skills to work in the energy, engineering and life sciences sectors. History The site was identified in 2006. Work started to develop the infrastructure on the site in early 2012. A virtual tour was made available in October 2013 to help mark Doors Open Day. The construction had reached halfway stage in May 2014, meaning that it is on track to open doors to receive its first students in August 2015. In May 2014, work was due to commence on a building designed to provide office space and laboratories as part of the campus's "life science" sector. Morrison Construction have been appointed to undertake the building work. Scotland's Rural College (SRUC) will be able to relocate their Inverness-based activities to the Campus. SRUC's research centre for Comparative Epidemiology and Medicine, and Agricultural Business Consultancy services could co-locate with UHI where their activities have complementary themes. By the start of 2017, there were more than 600 people working at the site. In June 2021, a new bridge opened connecting Inverness Campus to Inverness Shopping Park. It crosses the Aberdeen The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Corals build hard exoskeletons that grow to become coral what? A. layers B. reefs C. beds D. crystals Answer:
sciq-1933	multiple_choice	When what element - whose name means "light bringing" - was first isolated, scientists noted that it glowed in the dark and burned when exposed to air?	[ "neon", "mercury", "oxygen", "phosphorus" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The names for the chemical elements 104 to 106 were the subject of a major controversy starting in the 1960s, described by some nuclear chemists as the Transfermium Wars because it concerned the elements following fermium (element 100) on the periodic table. This controversy arose from disputes between American scientists and Soviet scientists as to which had first isolated these elements. The final resolution of this controversy in 1997 also decided the names of elements 107 to 109. Controversy By convention, naming rights for newly discovered chemical elements go to their discoverers. For elements 104, 105, and 106, there was a controversy between Soviet researchers at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and American researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory regarding which group had discovered them first. Both parties suggested their own names for elements 104 and 105, not recognizing the other's name. The American name of seaborgium for element 106 was also objectionable to some, because it referred to American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg who was still alive at the time this name was proposed. (Einsteinium and fermium had also been proposed as names of new elements while Einstein and Fermi were still living, but only made public after their deaths, due to Cold War secrecy.) Opponents The two principal groups which were involved in the conflict over element naming were: An American group at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. A Russian group at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna. and, as a kind of arbiter, The IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, which introduced its own proposal to the IUPAC General Assembly. The German group at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, who had (undisputedly) discovered elements 107 to 109, were dragged into the controversy when the Commission suggested that the name "hahnium", proposed for element 105 by the Americans, be used for GSI's element 108 instead. P Document 1::: In chemistry and physics, the iron group refers to elements that are in some way related to iron; mostly in period (row) 4 of the periodic table. The term has different meanings in different contexts. In chemistry, the term is largely obsolete, but it often means iron, cobalt, and nickel, also called the iron triad; or, sometimes, other elements that resemble iron in some chemical aspects. In astrophysics and nuclear physics, the term is still quite common, and it typically means those three plus chromium and manganese—five elements that are exceptionally abundant, both on Earth and elsewhere in the universe, compared to their neighbors in the periodic table. Titanium and vanadium are also produced in Type Ia supernovae. General chemistry In chemistry, "iron group" used to refer to iron and the next two elements in the periodic table, namely cobalt and nickel. These three comprised the "iron triad". They are the top elements of groups 8, 9, and 10 of the periodic table; or the top row of "group VIII" in the old (pre-1990) IUPAC system, or of "group VIIIB" in the CAS system. These three metals (and the three of the platinum group, immediately below them) were set aside from the other elements because they have obvious similarities in their chemistry, but are not obviously related to any of the other groups. The iron group and its alloys exhibit ferromagnetism. The similarities in chemistry were noted as one of Döbereiner's triads and by Adolph Strecker in 1859. Indeed, Newlands' "octaves" (1865) were harshly criticized for separating iron from cobalt and nickel. Mendeleev stressed that groups of "chemically analogous elements" could have similar atomic weights as well as atomic weights which increase by equal increments, both in his original 1869 paper and his 1889 Faraday Lecture. Analytical chemistry In the traditional methods of qualitative inorganic analysis, the iron group consists of those cations which have soluble chlorides; and are not precipitated Document 2::: The periodic table is an arrangement of the chemical elements, structured by their atomic number, electron configuration and recurring chemical properties. In the basic form, elements are presented in order of increasing atomic number, in the reading sequence. Then, rows and columns are created by starting new rows and inserting blank cells, so that rows (periods) and columns (groups) show elements with recurring properties (called periodicity). For example, all elements in group (column) 18 are noble gases that are largely—though not completely—unreactive. The history of the periodic table reflects over two centuries of growth in the understanding of the chemical and physical properties of the elements, with major contributions made by Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, John Newlands, Julius Lothar Meyer, Dmitri Mendeleev, Glenn T. Seaborg, and others. Early history Nine chemical elements – carbon, sulfur, iron, copper, silver, tin, gold, mercury, and lead, have been known since before antiquity, as they are found in their native form and are relatively simple to mine with primitive tools. Around 330 BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed that everything is made up of a mixture of one or more roots, an idea originally suggested by the Sicilian philosopher Empedocles. The four roots, which the Athenian philosopher Plato called elements, were earth, water, air and fire. Similar ideas about these four elements existed in other ancient traditions, such as Indian philosophy. A few extra elements were known in the age of alchemy: zinc, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Platinum was also known to pre-Columbian South Americans, but knowledge of it did not reach Europe until the 16th century. First categorizations The history of the periodic table is also a history of the discovery of the chemical elements. The first person in recorded history to discover a new element was Hennig Brand, a bankrupt German merchant. Brand tried to discover Document 3::: Ylem ( or ) is a hypothetical original substance or condensed state of matter, which became subatomic particles and elements as we understand them today. The term was used by George Gamow, his student Ralph Alpher, and their associates in the late 1940s, having resuscitated it from Middle English after Alpher found it in Webster's Second dictionary, where it was defined as "the first substance from which the elements were supposed to have been formed." In modern understanding, the "ylem" as described by Gamow was the primordial plasma, formed in baryogenesis, which underwent Big Bang nucleosynthesis and was opaque to radiation. Recombination of the charged plasma into neutral atoms made the universe transparent at the age of 380,000 years, and the radiation released is still observable as cosmic microwave background radiation. History The term comes from an obsolete Middle English philosophical word that Alpher said he found in Webster's dictionary. The word means something along the lines of "primordial substance from which all matter is formed" (that in ancient mythology of many different cultures was called the cosmic egg) and ultimately derives from the Greek ὕλη (hūlē, hȳlē), "matter", probably through an accusative singular form in Latin hylen, hylem. In an oral history interview in 1968 Gamow talked about ylem as an old Hebrew word (possibly from היולי, primordial, from the same Greek root). The ylem is what Gamow and colleagues presumed to exist immediately after the Big Bang. Within the ylem, there were assumed to be a large number of high-energy photons present. Alpher and Robert Herman made a scientific prediction in 1948 that we should still be able to observe these red-shifted photons today as an ambient cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) pervading all space with a temperature of about 5 kelvins (when the CMBR was actually first detected in 1965, its temperature was found to be 3 kelvins). It is now recognized that the CMBR originated at th Document 4::: Copernicium is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Cn and atomic number 112. Its known isotopes are extremely radioactive, and have only been created in a laboratory. The most stable known isotope, copernicium-285, has a half-life of approximately 30 seconds. Copernicium was first created in 1996 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt, Germany. It was named after the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. In the periodic table of the elements, copernicium is a d-block transactinide element and a group 12 element. During reactions with gold, it has been shown to be an extremely volatile element, so much so that it is possibly a gas or a volatile liquid at standard temperature and pressure. Copernicium is calculated to have several properties that differ from its lighter homologues in group 12, zinc, cadmium and mercury; due to relativistic effects, it may give up its 6d electrons instead of its 7s ones, and it may have more similarities to the noble gases such as radon rather than its group 12 homologues. Calculations indicate that copernicium may show the oxidation state +4, while mercury shows it in only one compound of disputed existence and zinc and cadmium do not show it at all. It has also been predicted to be more difficult to oxidize copernicium from its neutral state than the other group 12 elements. Predictions vary on whether solid copernicium would be a metal, semiconductor, or insulator. Copernicium is one of the heaviest elements whose chemical properties have been experimentally investigated. Introduction History Discovery Copernicium was first created on February 9, 1996, at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov et al. This element was created by firing accelerated zinc-70 nuclei at a target made of lead-208 nuclei in a heavy ion accelerator. A single atom of copernicium was produced with a mass number of 277. (A second was originally reported, but was f The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. When what element - whose name means "light bringing" - was first isolated, scientists noted that it glowed in the dark and burned when exposed to air? A. neon B. mercury C. oxygen D. phosphorus Answer:
sciq-1842	multiple_choice	When a plant has what deficiency, guard cells may lose turgor and close stomata?	[ "light", "cold", "air", "water" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Transfer cells are specialized parenchyma cells that have an increased surface area, due to infoldings of the plasma membrane. They facilitate the transport of sugars from a sugar source, mainly mature leaves, to a sugar sink, often developing leaves or fruits. They are found in nectaries of flowers and some carnivorous plants. Transfer cells are specially found in plants in the region of absorption or secretion of nutrients. The term transfer cell was coined by Brian Gunning and John Stewart Pate. Their presence is generally correlated with the existence of extensive solute influxes across the plasma membrane. Document 1::: Patricia C. Zambryski is a plant and microbial scientist known for her work on Type IV secretion and cell-to-cell transport in plants. She is also professor emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley. She was an elected member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Society for Microbiology. Education and career Zambryski received her B.S. from McGill University in 1969, and earned a Ph.D. from the University of Colorado in 1974. Research Zambryski is known for her work in the field of genetic engineering, specifically for her work with Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a bacterium she uses to track the molecular mechanisms that change plants and how plant cells communicate with each other. She has examined the structure of plant cells that have been altered by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. While working in Marc Van Montagu's lab, Zambryski determined how the Ti plasmid is identified by the bacterium, and she developed a vector that allowed the transfer of genetic material into a plant without altering the plant tissue. This advance was used to inject novel genes into plants. She has also examined plasmodesmata, which are the channels that reach across the spaces in plant cells. Selected publications Awards and honors In 2001 she was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences and a fellow of the American Society for Microbiology. In 2010 she was elected a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Document 2::: Plant stem cells Plant stem cells are innately undifferentiated cells located in the meristems of plants. Plant stem cells serve as the origin of plant vitality, as they maintain themselves while providing a steady supply of precursor cells to form differentiated tissues and organs in plants. Two distinct areas of stem cells are recognised: the apical meristem and the lateral meristem. Plant stem cells are characterized by two distinctive properties, which are: the ability to create all differentiated cell types and the ability to self-renew such that the number of stem cells is maintained. Plant stem cells never undergo aging process but immortally give rise to new specialized and unspecialized cells, and they have the potential to grow into any organ, tissue, or cell in the body. Thus they are totipotent cells equipped with regenerative powers that facilitate plant growth and production of new organs throughout lifetime. Unlike animals, plants are immobile. As plants cannot escape from danger by taking motion, they need a special mechanism to withstand various and sometimes unforeseen environmental stress. Here, what empowers them to withstand harsh external influence and preserve life is stem cells. In fact, plants comprise the oldest and the largest living organisms on earth, including Bristlecone Pines in California, U.S. (4,842 years old), and the Giant Sequoia in mountainous regions of California, U.S. (87 meters in height and 2,000 tons in weight). This is possible because they have a modular body plan that enables them to survive substantial damage by initiating continuous and repetitive formation of new structures and organs such as leaves and flowers. Plant stem cells are also characterized by their location in specialized structures called meristematic tissues, which are located in root apical meristem (RAM), shoot apical meristem (SAM), and vascular system ((pro)cambium or vascular meristem.) Research and development Traditionally, plant stem ce Document 3::: Plant Physiology is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on physiology, biochemistry, cellular and molecular biology, genetics, biophysics, and environmental biology of plants. The journal has been published since 1926 by the American Society of Plant Biologists. The current editor-in-chief is Yunde Zhao (University of California San Diego. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 8.005. Document 4::: Plant defense against herbivory or host-plant resistance (HPR) is a range of adaptations evolved by plants which improve their survival and reproduction by reducing the impact of herbivores. Plants can sense being touched, and they can use several strategies to defend against damage caused by herbivores. Many plants produce secondary metabolites, known as allelochemicals, that influence the behavior, growth, or survival of herbivores. These chemical defenses can act as repellents or toxins to herbivores or reduce plant digestibility. Another defensive strategy of plants is changing their attractiveness. To prevent overconsumption by large herbivores, plants alter their appearance by changing their size or quality, reducing the rate at which they are consumed. Other defensive strategies used by plants include escaping or avoiding herbivores at any time in any placefor example, by growing in a location where plants are not easily found or accessed by herbivores or by changing seasonal growth patterns. Another approach diverts herbivores toward eating non-essential parts or enhances the ability of a plant to recover from the damage caused by herbivory. Some plants encourage the presence of natural enemies of herbivores, which in turn protect the plant. Each type of defense can be either constitutive (always present in the plant) or induced (produced in reaction to damage or stress caused by herbivores). Historically, insects have been the most significant herbivores, and the evolution of land plants is closely associated with the evolution of insects. While most plant defenses are directed against insects, other defenses have evolved that are aimed at vertebrate herbivores, such as birds and mammals. The study of plant defenses against herbivory is important, not only from an evolutionary viewpoint, but also for the direct impact that these defenses have on agriculture, including human and livestock food sources; as beneficial 'biological control agents' in biologica The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. When a plant has what deficiency, guard cells may lose turgor and close stomata? A. light B. cold C. air D. water Answer:
sciq-11143	multiple_choice	Chemical and solar cells are devices that change chemical or light energy to what?	[ "occurring energy", "electrical energy", "cellular", "temperature energy" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Network or STEMNET is an educational charity in the United Kingdom that seeks to encourage participation at school and college in science and engineering-related subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and (eventually) work. History It is based at Woolgate Exchange near Moorgate tube station in London and was established in 1996. The chief executive is Kirsten Bodley. The STEMNET offices are housed within the Engineering Council. Function Its chief aim is to interest children in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Primary school children can start to have an interest in these subjects, leading secondary school pupils to choose science A levels, which will lead to a science career. It supports the After School Science and Engineering Clubs at schools. There are also nine regional Science Learning Centres. STEM ambassadors To promote STEM subjects and encourage young people to take up jobs in these areas, STEMNET have around 30,000 ambassadors across the UK. these come from a wide selection of the STEM industries and include TV personalities like Rob Bell. Funding STEMNET used to receive funding from the Department for Education and Skills. Since June 2007, it receives funding from the Department for Children, Schools and Families and Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills, since STEMNET sits on the chronological dividing point (age 16) of both of the new departments. See also The WISE Campaign Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council National Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics Association for Science Education Glossary of areas of mathematics Glossary of astronomy Glossary of biology Glossary of chemistry Glossary of engineering Glossary of physics Document 1::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 2::: Electrochemical energy conversion is a field of energy technology concerned with electrochemical methods of energy conversion including fuel cells and photoelectrochemical. This field of technology also includes electrical storage devices like batteries and supercapacitors. It is increasingly important in context of automotive propulsion systems. There has been the creation of more powerful, longer running batteries allowing longer run times for electric vehicles. These systems would include the energy conversion fuel cells and photoelectrochemical mentioned above. See also Bioelectrochemical reactor Chemotronics Electrochemical cell Electrochemical engineering Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide Electrofuels Electrohydrogenesis Electromethanogenesis Enzymatic biofuel cell Photoelectrochemical cell Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Notes External links International Journal of Energy Research MSAL NIST scientific journal article Georgia tech Electrochemistry Electrochemical engineering Energy engineering Energy conversion Biochemical engineering Document 3::: For description and history, see Solar cell A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage or resistance, vary when exposed to light. The following are the different types of solar cells. Amorphous Silicon solar cell (a-Si) Biohybrid solar cell Cadmium telluride solar cell (CdTe) Concentrated PV cell (CVP and HCVP) Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells (CI(G)S) Crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si) Float-zone silicon Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell (GaAs) Hybrid solar cell Luminescent solar concentrator cell (LSC) Micromorph (tandem-cell using a-Si/μc-Si) Monocrystalline solar cell (mono-Si) Multi-junction solar cell (MJ) Nanocrystal solar cell Organic solar cell (OPV) Perovskite solar cell Photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) Plasmonic solar cell Polycrystalline solar cell (multi-Si) Quantum dot solar cell Solid-state solar cell Thin-film solar cell (TFSC) Wafer solar cell, or wafer-based solar cell crystalline Non concentrated hetrogeneos PV cell Solar cells Silicon solar cells Thin-film cells Infrared solar cells Silicon forms Semiconductor materials Document 4::: The Bionic Leaf is a biomimetic system that gathers solar energy via photovoltaic cells that can be stored or used in a number of different functions. Bionic leaves can be composed of both synthetic (metals, ceramics, polymers, etc.) and organic materials (bacteria), or solely made of synthetic materials. The Bionic Leaf has the potential to be implemented in communities, such as urbanized areas to provide clean air as well as providing needed clean energy. History In 2009 at MIT, Daniel Nocera's lab first developed the "artificial leaf", a device made from silicon and an anode electrocatalyst for the oxidation of water, capable of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. In 2012, Nocera came to Harvard and The Silver Lab of Harvard Medical School joined Nocera’s team. Together the teams expanded the existing technology to create the Bionic Leaf. It merged the concept of the artificial leaf with genetically engineered bacteria that feed on the hydrogen and convert CO2 in the air into alcohol fuels or chemicals. The first version of the teams Bionic Leaf was created in 2015 but the catalyst used was harmful to the bacteria. In 2016, a new catalyst was designed to solve this issue, named the "Bionic Leaf 2.0". Other versions of artificial leaves have been developed by the California Institute of Technology and the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, the University of Waterloo, and the University of Cambridge. Mechanics Photosynthesis In natural photosynthesis, photosynthetic organisms produce energy-rich organic molecules from water and carbon dioxide by using solar radiation. Therefore, the process of photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, from the air. Artificial photosynthesis, as performed by the Bionic Leaf, is approximately 10 times more efficient than natural photosynthesis. Using a catalyst, the Bionic Leaf can remove excess carbon dioxide in the air and convert that to useful alcohol fuels, like isopropanol and isobutan The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Chemical and solar cells are devices that change chemical or light energy to what? A. occurring energy B. electrical energy C. cellular D. temperature energy Answer:
sciq-2119	multiple_choice	Technically, any redox reaction can be set up to make a what?	[ "skaht cell", "Black Cell", "voltaic cell", "blocky cell" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Classification Oxidoreductases are classified as EC 1 in the EC number classification of enzymes. Oxidoreductases can be further classified into 21 subclasses: EC 1.1 includes oxidoreductases that act on the CH-OH group of donors (alcohol oxidoreductases such as methanol dehydrogenase) EC 1.2 includes oxidoreductases that act on the aldehyde or oxo group of donors EC 1.3 includes oxidoreductases that act on the CH-CH group of donors (CH-CH oxidore Document 1::: O2•– + H+ + H2O2 → O2 + HO• + H2O (step 3: propagation) Finally, the chain is terminated when the hydroxyl radical is scavenged by a ferrous ion: Fe2+ + HO• + H+ → Fe3+ + H2O (step 4: termination) George showed in 1947 that, in water, step 3 cannot compete with the spontaneous disproportionation of superoxide Document 2::: Types As indicated in the following Biochemistry section, there are 4 types of chemically distinct eoxins that are made serially from the 15-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic Document 3::: Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have high regenerative potentials and are capable of differentiating into all blood and immune system cells. Despite this impressive potential, HSCs have limited potential to produce more multipotent stem cells. This limited self-renewal potential is protected through maintenance of a quiescent state in HSCs. Stem cells maintained in this quiescent state are known as long term HSCs (LT-HSCs). During quiescence, HSCs maintain a low level of metabolic activity and do not divide. LT-HSCs can be signaled to proliferate, producing either myeloid or lymphoid progenitors. Production of these progenitors does not come without a cost: When grown under laboratory conditions that induce proliferation, HSCs lose their ability to divide and produce new progenitors. Therefore, understanding the pathways that maintain proliferative or quiescent states in HSCs could reveal novel pathways to improve existing therapeutics involving HSCs. Background All adult stem cells can undergo two types of division: symmetric and asymmetric. When a cell undergoes symmetric division, it can either produce two differentiated cells or two new stem cells. When a cell undergoes asymmetric division, it produces one stem and one differentiated cell. Production of new stem cells is necessary to maintain this population within the body. Like all cells, hematopoietic stem cells undergo metabolic shifts to meet their bioenergetic needs throughout development. These metabolic shifts play an important role in signaling, generating biomass, and protecting the cell from damage. Metabolic shifts also guide development in HSCs and are one key factor in determining if an HSC will remain quiescent, symmetrically divide, or asymmetrically divide. As mentioned above, quiescent cells maintain a low level of oxidative phosphorylation and primarily rely on glycolysis to generate energy. Fatty acid beta-oxidation has been shown to influence fate decisions in HSCs. In contrast, proliferat Document 4::: Biochemical engineering, also known as bioprocess engineering, is a field of study with roots stemming from chemical engineering and biological engineering. It mainly deals with the design, construction, and advancement of unit processes that involve biological organisms (such as fermentation) or organic molecules (often enzymes) and has various applications in areas of interest such as biofuels, food, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and water treatment processes. The role of a biochemical engineer is to take findings developed by biologists and chemists in a laboratory and translate that to a large-scale manufacturing process. History For hundreds of years, humans have made use of the chemical reactions of biological organisms in order to create goods. In the mid-1800s, Louis Pasteur was one of the first people to look into the role of these organisms when he researched fermentation. His work also contributed to the use of pasteurization, which is still used to this day. By the early 1900s, the use of microorganisms had expanded, and was used to make industrial products. Up to this point, biochemical engineering hadn't developed as a field yet. It wasn't until 1928 when Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin that the field of biochemical engineering was established. After this discovery, samples were gathered from around the world in order to continue research into the characteristics of microbes from places such as soils, gardens, forests, rivers, and streams. Today, biochemical engineers can be found working in a variety of industries, from food to pharmaceuticals. This is due to the increasing need for efficiency and production which requires knowledge of how biological systems and chemical reactions interact with each other and how they can be used to meet these needs. Education Biochemical engineering is not a major offered by most universities and is instead an area of interest under the chemical engineering major in most cases. The following universiti The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Technically, any redox reaction can be set up to make a what? A. skaht cell B. Black Cell C. voltaic cell D. blocky cell Answer:
sciq-5345	multiple_choice	What type of simple inheritance is too simplified to explain most human traits?	[ "mendelian", "spontaneous mutation", "mitosis", "etiology" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Complex traits, also known as quantitative traits, are traits that do not behave according to simple Mendelian inheritance laws. More specifically, their inheritance cannot be explained by the genetic segregation of a single gene. Such traits show a continuous range of variation and are influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. Compared to strictly Mendelian traits, complex traits are far more common, and because they can be hugely polygenic, they are studied using statistical techniques such as quantitative genetics and quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping rather than classical genetics methods. Examples of complex traits include height, circadian rhythms, enzyme kinetics, and many diseases including diabetes and Parkinson's disease. One major goal of genetic research today is to better understand the molecular mechanisms through which genetic variants act to influence complex traits. History When Mendel's work on inheritance was rediscovered in 1900, scientists debated whether Mendel's laws could account for the continuous variation observed for many traits. One group known as the biometricians argued that continuous traits such as height were largely heritable, but could not be explained by the inheritance of single Mendelian genetic factors. Work published by Ronald Fisher in 1919 mostly resolved debate by demonstrating that the variation in continuous traits could be accounted for if multiple such factors contributed additively to each trait. However, the number of genes involved in such traits remained undetermined; until recently, genetic loci were expected to have moderate effect sizes and each explain several percent of heritability. After the conclusion of the Human Genome Project in 2001, it seemed that the sequencing and mapping of many individuals would soon allow for a complete understanding of traits' genetic architectures. However, variants discovered through genome-wide association studies (GWASs) accounted for only a small percentag Document 1::: Hard inheritance was a model of heredity that explicitly excludes any acquired characteristics, such as of Lamarckism. It is the exact opposite of soft inheritance, coined by Ernst Mayr to contrast ideas about inheritance. Hard inheritance states that characteristics of an organism's offspring (passed on through DNA) will not be affected by the actions that the parental organism performs during its lifetime. For example: a medieval blacksmith who uses only his right arm to forge steel will not sire a son with a stronger right arm than left because the blacksmith's actions do not alter his genetic code. Inheritance due to usage and non-usage is excluded. Inheritance works as described in the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology. The existence of inherited epigenetic variants has led to renewed interest in soft inheritance. Document 2::: Mendelian traits behave according to the model of monogenic or simple gene inheritance in which one gene corresponds to one trait. Discrete traits (as opposed to continuously varying traits such as height) with simple Mendelian inheritance patterns are relatively rare in nature, and many of the clearest examples in humans cause disorders. Discrete traits found in humans are common examples for teaching genetics. Mendelian model According to the model of Mendelian inheritance, alleles may be dominant or recessive, one allele is inherited from each parent, and only those who inherit a recessive allele from each parent exhibit the recessive phenotype. Offspring with either one or two copies of the dominant allele will display the dominant phenotype. Very few phenotypes are purely Mendelian traits. Common violations of the Mendelian model include incomplete dominance, codominance, genetic linkage, environmental effects, and quantitative contributions from a number of genes (see: gene interactions, polygenic inheritance, oligogenic inheritance). OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) is a comprehensive database of human genotype–phenotype links. Many visible human traits that exhibit high heritability were included in the older McKusick's Mendelian Inheritance in Man. Before the discovery of genotyping, they were used as genetic markers in medicolegal practice, including in cases of disputed paternity. Human traits with probable or uncertain simple inheritance patterns See also Polygenic inheritance Trait Gene interaction Dominance Homozygote Heterozygote Document 3::: The Bateson Lecture is an annual genetics lecture held as a part of the John Innes Symposium since 1972, in honour of the first Director of the John Innes Centre, William Bateson. Past Lecturers Source: John Innes Centre 1951 Sir Ronald Fisher - "Statistical methods in Genetics" 1953 Julian Huxley - "Polymorphic variation: a problem in genetical natural history" 1955 Sidney C. Harland - "Plant breeding: present position and future perspective" 1957 J.B.S. Haldane - "The theory of evolution before and after Bateson" 1959 Kenneth Mather - "Genetics Pure and Applied" 1972 William Hayes - "Molecular genetics in retrospect" 1974 Guido Pontecorvo - "Alternatives to sex: genetics by means of somatic cells" 1976 Max F. Perutz - "Mechanism of respiratory haemoglobin" 1979 J. Heslop-Harrison - "The forgotten generation: some thoughts on the genetics and physiology of Angiosperm Gametophytes " 1982 Sydney Brenner - "Molecular genetics in prospect" 1984 W.W. Franke - "The cytoskeleton - the insoluble architectural framework of the cell" 1986 Arthur Kornberg - "Enzyme systems initiating replication at the origin of the E. coli chromosome" 1988 Gottfried Schatz - "Interaction between mitochondria and the nucleus" 1990 Christiane Nusslein-Volhard - "Axis determination in the Drosophila embryo" 1992 Frank Stahl - "Genetic recombination: thinking about it in phage and fungi" 1994 Ira Herskowitz - "Violins and orchestras: what a unicellular organism can do" 1996 R.J.P. Williams - "An Introduction to Protein Machines" 1999 Eugene Nester - "DNA and Protein Transfer from Bacteria to Eukaryotes - the Agrobacterium story" 2001 David Botstein - "Extracting biological information from DNA Microarray Data" 2002 Elliot Meyerowitz 2003 Thomas Steitz - "The Macromolecular machines of gene expression" 2008 Sean Carroll - "Endless flies most beautiful: the role of cis-regulatory sequences in the evolution of animal form" 2009 Sir Paul Nurse - "Genetic transmission through Document 4::: Human genetics is the study of inheritance as it occurs in human beings. Human genetics encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics, cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling. Genes are the common factor of the qualities of most human-inherited traits. Study of human genetics can answer questions about human nature, can help understand diseases and the development of effective treatment and help us to understand the genetics of human life. This article describes only basic features of human genetics; for the genetics of disorders please see: medical genetics. Genetic differences and inheritance patterns Inheritance of traits for humans are based upon Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance. Mendel deduced that inheritance depends upon discrete units of inheritance, called factors or genes. Autosomal dominant inheritance Autosomal traits are associated with a single gene on an autosome (non-sex chromosome)—they are called "dominant" because a single copy—inherited from either parent—is enough to cause this trait to appear. This often means that one of the parents must also have the same trait, unless it has arisen due to an unlikely new mutation. Examples of autosomal dominant traits and disorders are Huntington's disease and achondroplasia. Autosomal recessive inheritance Autosomal recessive traits is one pattern of inheritance for a trait, disease, or disorder to be passed on through families. For a recessive trait or disease to be displayed two copies of the trait or disorder needs to be presented. The trait or gene will be located on a non-sex chromosome. Because it takes two copies of a trait to display a trait, many people can unknowingly be carriers of a disease. From an evolutionary perspective, a recessive disease or trait can remain hidden for several generations before displaying the phenotype. Examples of auto The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What type of simple inheritance is too simplified to explain most human traits? A. mendelian B. spontaneous mutation C. mitosis D. etiology Answer:
sciq-3225	multiple_choice	Coral reefs are a type of what large community and have the highest biodiversity on earth?	[ "taxon", "order", "phylum", "biome" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research. Americas Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970) Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government. Human and Social Biology (Caribbean) Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment. Human Biology Program at University of Toronto The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications. Asia BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002) BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New Document 1::: The Bachelor of Science in Aquatic Resources and Technology (B.Sc. in AQT) (or Bachelor of Aquatic Resource) is an undergraduate degree that prepares students to pursue careers in the public, private, or non-profit sector in areas such as marine science, fisheries science, aquaculture, aquatic resource technology, food science, management, biotechnology and hydrography. Post-baccalaureate training is available in aquatic resource management and related areas. The Department of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, at the Uva Wellassa University of Badulla, Sri Lanka, has the largest enrollment of undergraduate majors in Aquatic Resources and Technology, with about 200 students as of 2014. The Council on Education for Aquatic Resources and Technology includes undergraduate AQT degrees in the accreditation review of Aquatic Resources and Technology programs and schools. See also Marine Science Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development Document 2::: Conservationists, ecologists, biodiversity scientists, lawmakers, and many others rely heavily on taxonomic information to manage, conserve, use, and share our biodiversity. The world-wide shortage of this important taxonomic information, the gaps in our taxonomic knowledge, and the shortage of trained taxonomists and curators to fill this need has come to be known as the taxonomic impediment. The importance of the taxonomic impediment was recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity, signed at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, and initiatives have occurred that have not yet solved the problem. The greatest contributions of taxonomy to science and humanity are yet to come. Against formidable odds and with minimal funding, equipment, infrastructure, organization and encouragement, taxonomists have discovered, described, and classified nearly 1.8 million species. While increasing attention is being paid to making this substantial amount of accumulated taxonomic information more easily accessible, comparatively little attention has been paid to opening access to the research resources required by taxonomists themselves. Benefits associated with ease of access to museum records (e.g. Global Biodiversity Information Facility) or 'known' species (e.g. Encyclopedia of Life) are seriously restricted when such information is untested for validity or is simply unavailable, as is the case for three-quarters or more of the species on Earth. We act as if taxonomy is done but nothing could be farther from the truth. Impediments to taxonomy The causes of the current crisis in taxonomy have been ascribed to a loss of perspective in ecology and evolutionary biology as the modern evolutionary synthesis developed during the 1930s and 40s: a conflation of "pattern with process", "confusing the methods and goals of the emerging science of population genetics with those of the established science of taxonomy", which caused the traditional fundamental taxonomy to be disparaged, and con Document 3::: The Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED) is one of the ten research institutes of the Faculty of Science of the Universiteit van Amsterdam. IBED employs more than 100 researchers, with PhD students and Postdocs forming a majority, and 30 supporting staff. The total annual budget is around 10 m€, of which more than 40 per cent comes from external grants and contracts. The main output consist of publications in peer reviewed journals and books (on average 220 per year). Each year around 15 PhD students defend their thesis and obtain their degree from the Universiteit van Amsterdam. The institute is managed by a general director appointed by the Dean of the Faculty for a period of five years, assisted by a business manager. Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics is to increase our insights in the functioning and biodiversity of ecosystems in all their complexity. Knowledge of the interactions between living organisms and processes in their physical and chemical environment is essential for a better understanding of the dynamics of ecosystems at different temporal and spatial scales. Organization of IBED Research IBED research is organized in the following three themes: Theme I: Biodiversity and Evolution The main question of Theme I research is how patterns in biodiversity can be explained from underlying processes: speciation and extinction, dispersal and the (dis)appearance of geographical barriers, reproductive isolation and hybridisation of taxa. Modern reconstructions of the history of life on earth rely heavily on analyses of DNA data that contain the footprints of the past. Research related to human-made effects on biodiversity includes the identification of endangered biodiversity hotspots affected by global change, potential risks of an escape of transgenes from crops to wild species, and the consequences of habitat fragmentation for the viability and genetic diversity of populations and Document 4::: Aquatic science is the study of the various bodies of water that make up our planet including oceanic and freshwater environments. Aquatic scientists study the movement of water, the chemistry of water, aquatic organisms, aquatic ecosystems, the movement of materials in and out of aquatic ecosystems, and the use of water by humans, among other things. Aquatic scientists examine current processes as well as historic processes, and the water bodies that they study can range from tiny areas measured in millimeters to full oceans. Moreover, aquatic scientists work in Interdisciplinary groups. For example, a physical oceanographer might work with a biological oceanographer to understand how physical processes, such as tropical cyclones or rip currents, affect organisms in the Atlantic Ocean. Chemists and biologists, on the other hand, might work together to see how the chemical makeup of a certain body of water affects the plants and animals that reside there. Aquatic scientists can work to tackle global problems such as global oceanic change and local problems, such as trying to understand why a drinking water supply in a certain area is polluted. There are two main fields of study that fall within the field of aquatic science. These fields of study include oceanography and limnology. Oceanography Oceanography refers to the study of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of oceanic environments. Oceanographers study the history, current condition, and future of the planet's oceans. They also study marine life and ecosystems, ocean circulation, plate tectonics, the geology of the seafloor, and the chemical and physical properties of the ocean. Oceanography is interdisciplinary. For example, there are biological oceanographers and marine biologists. These scientists specialize in marine organisms. They study how these organisms develop, their relationship with one another, and how they interact and adapt to their environment. Biological oceanographers The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Coral reefs are a type of what large community and have the highest biodiversity on earth? A. taxon B. order C. phylum D. biome Answer:
sciq-210	multiple_choice	What forms when the spores from two parents fuse during sexual reproduction?	[ "zygospore", "monospore", "spirogyra", "xerophyte" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Sporogenesis is the production of spores in biology. The term is also used to refer to the process of reproduction via spores. Reproductive spores were found to be formed in eukaryotic organisms, such as plants, algae and fungi, during their normal reproductive life cycle. Dormant spores are formed, for example by certain fungi and algae, primarily in response to unfavorable growing conditions. Most eukaryotic spores are haploid and form through cell division, though some types are diploid sor dikaryons and form through cell fusion.we can also say this type of reproduction as single pollination Reproduction via spores Reproductive spores are generally the result of cell division, most commonly meiosis (e.g. in plant sporophytes). Sporic meiosis is needed to complete the sexual life cycle of the organisms using it. In some cases, sporogenesis occurs via mitosis (e.g. in some fungi and algae). Mitotic sporogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction. Examples are the conidial fungi Aspergillus and Penicillium, for which mitospore formation appears to be the primary mode of reproduction. Other fungi, such as ascomycetes, utilize both mitotic and meiotic spores. The red alga Polysiphonia alternates between mitotic and meiotic sporogenesis and both processes are required to complete its complex reproductive life cycle. In the case of dormant spores in eukaryotes, sporogenesis often occurs as a result of fertilization or karyogamy forming a diploid spore equivalent to a zygote. Therefore, zygospores are the result of sexual reproduction. Reproduction via spores involves the spreading of the spores by water or air. Algae and some fungi (chytrids) often use motile zoospores that can swim to new locations before developing into sessile organisms. Airborne spores are obvious in fungi, for example when they are released from puffballs. Other fungi have more active spore dispersal mechanisms. For example, the fungus Pilobolus can shoot its sporangia towards light. Plant spor Document 1::: In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa. Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions. Myxozoan spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula. In plants, spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium of a diploid sporophyte. Under favourable conditions the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a zygote, which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of generations. The spores of seed plants are produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units, the seeds and pollen grains. Definition The term spore derives from the ancient Greek word σπορά spora, meaning "seed, sowing", related to σπόρος , "sowing", and σπείρειν , "to sow". In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a "gamete" is that a spore will germinate and develop into a sporeling, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form a zygote before developing further. The main difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete for Document 2::: Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that employ a huge variety of reproductive strategies, ranging from fully asexual to almost exclusively sexual species. Most species can reproduce both sexually and asexually, alternating between haploid and diploid forms. This contrasts with many eukaryotes such as mammals, where the adults are always diploid and produce haploid gametes which combine to form the next generation. In fungi, both haploid and diploid forms can reproduce – haploid individuals can undergo asexual reproduction while diploid forms can produce gametes that combine to give rise to the next generation. Mating in fungi is a complex process governed by mating types. Research on fungal mating has focused on several model species with different behaviour. Not all fungi reproduce sexually and many that do are isogamous; thus, for many members of the fungal kingdom, the terms "male" and "female" do not apply. Homothallic species are able to mate with themselves, while in heterothallic species only isolates of opposite mating types can mate. Mating between isogamous fungi may consist only of a transfer of a nucleus from one cell to another. Vegetative incompatibility within species often prevents a fungal isolate from mating with another isolate. Isolates of the same incompatibility group do not mate or mating does not lead to successful offspring. High variation has been reported including same-chemotype mating, sporophyte to gametophyte mating and biparental transfer of mitochondria. Mating in Zygomycota A zygomycete hypha grows towards a compatible mate and they both form a bridge, called a progametangia, by joining at the hyphal tips via plasmogamy. A pair of septa forms around the merged tips, enclosing nuclei from both isolates. A second pair of septa forms two adjacent cells, one on each side. These adjacent cells, called suspensors provide structural support. The central cell, called the zygosporangium, is destined to become a spore. The zygosporang Document 3::: Microgametogenesis is the process in plant reproduction where a microgametophyte develops in a pollen grain to the three-celled stage of its development. In flowering plants it occurs with a microspore mother cell inside the anther of the plant. When the microgametophyte is first formed inside the pollen grain four sets of fertile cells called sporogenous cells are apparent. These cells are surrounded by a wall of sterile cells called the tapetum, which supplies food to the cell and eventually becomes the cell wall for the pollen grain. These sets of sporogenous cells eventually develop into diploid microspore mother cells. These microspore mother cells, also called microsporocytes, then undergo meiosis and become four microspore haploid cells. These new microspore cells then undergo mitosis and form a tube cell and a generative cell. The generative cell then undergoes mitosis one more time to form two male gametes, also called sperm. See also Gametogenesis Document 4::: Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development. While processes such as insemination or pollination which happen before the fusion of gametes are also sometimes informally referred to as fertilisation, these are technically separate processes. The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called sexual reproduction. During double fertilisation in angiosperms the haploid male gamete combines with two haploid polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus by the process of vegetative fertilisation. History In Antiquity, Aristotle conceived the formation of new individuals through fusion of male and female fluids, with form and function emerging gradually, in a mode called by him as epigenetic. In 1784, Spallanzani established the need of interaction between the female's ovum and male's sperm to form a zygote in frogs. In 1827, von Baer observed a therian mammalian egg for the first time. Oscar Hertwig (1876), in Germany, described the fusion of nuclei of spermatozoa and of ova from sea urchin. Evolution The evolution of fertilisation is related to the origin of meiosis, as both are part of sexual reproduction, originated in eukaryotes. One theory states that meiosis originated from mitosis. Fertilisation in plants The gametes that participate in fertilisation of plants are the sperm (male) and the egg (female) cell. Various families of plants have differing methods by which the gametes produced by the male and female gametophytes come together and are fertilised. In Bryophyte land plants, fertilisation of the sperm and egg takes place within the archegonium. In seed plants, the male gametophyte is called a pollen grain. After pollination, the pollen grain germinates, and a pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a tiny pore called a mic The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What forms when the spores from two parents fuse during sexual reproduction? A. zygospore B. monospore C. spirogyra D. xerophyte Answer:
sciq-470	multiple_choice	Fission is a type of radioactivity in which large nuclei spontaneously break apart into what?	[ "light nuclei", "faster nuclei", "active nuclei", "smaller nuclei" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Nucleon pair breaking in fission has been an important topic in nuclear physics for decades. "Nucleon pair" refers to nucleon pairing effects which strongly influence the nuclear properties of a nuclide. The most measured quantities in research on nuclear fission are the charge and mass fragments yields for uranium-235 and other fissile nuclides. In this sense, experimental results on charge distribution for low-energy fission of actinides present a preference to an even Z fragment, which is called odd-even effect on charge yield. The importance of these distributions is because they are the result of rearrangement of nucleons on the fission process due to the interplay between collective variables and individual particle levels; therefore they permit to understand several aspects of dynamics of fission process. The process from saddle (when nucleus begins its irreversible evolution to fragmentation) to scission point (when fragments are formed and nuclear interaction between fragments dispels), fissioning system shape changes but also promote nucleons to excited particle levels. Because, for even Z (proton number) and even N (neutron number) nuclei, there is a gap from ground state to first excited particle state—which is reached by nucleon pair breaking—fragments with even Z is expected to have a higher probability to be produced than those with odd Z. The preference even Z even N divisions is interpreted as the preservation of superfluidity during the descent from saddle to scission. The absence of odd-even effect means that process is rather viscous. Contrary to observed for charge distributions no odd-even effect on fragments mass number (A) is observed. This result is interpreted by the hypothesis that in fission process always there will be nucleon pair breaking, which may be proton pair or neutron pair breaking in low energy fission of uranium-234, uranium-236, and plutonium-240 studied by Modesto Montoya. Document 1::: Spontaneous fission (SF) is a form of radioactive decay in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei. In comparison to induced fission, there is no inciting particle to trigger the decay, it is a purely probabilistic process. Spontaneous fission is a dominant decay mode for superheavy elements, with nuclear stability generally falling as nuclear mass increases. It thus forms a practical limit to heavy element nucleon number. Heavier nuclides may be created instantaneously by physical processes, both natural (via the r-process) and artificial, though rapidly decay to more stable nuclides. As such, apart from minor decay branches in primordial radionuclides, spontaneous fission is not observed in nature. Observed fission half-lives range from 4.1 microseconds () to greater than the current age of the universe (). History Following the discovery of induced fission by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, Soviet physicists Georgy Flyorov and Konstantin Petrzhak began conducting experiments to explore the effects of incident neutron energy on uranium nuclei. Their equipment recorded fission fragments even when no neutrons were present to induce the decay, and the effect persisted even after the equipment was moved 60m underground into the tunnels of the Moscow Metro's Dinamo station in an effort to insulate it from the effects of cosmic rays. The discovery of induced fission itself had come as a surprise, and no other mechanism was known that could account for the observed decays. Such an effect could only be explained by spontaneous fission of the uranium nuclei without external influence. Mechanism Spontaneous fission arises as a result of competition between the attractive properties of the strong nuclear force and the mutual coulombic repulsion of the constituent protons. Nuclear binding energy increases in proportion to atomic mass number (A), however coulombic repulsion increases with proton number (Z) squared. Thus, at high mass an Document 2::: Ternary fission is a comparatively rare (0.2 to 0.4% of events) type of nuclear fission in which three charged products are produced rather than two. As in other nuclear fission processes, other uncharged particles such as multiple neutrons and gamma rays are produced in ternary fission. Ternary fission may happen during neutron-induced fission or in spontaneous fission (the type of radioactive decay). About 25% more ternary fission happens in spontaneous fission compared to the same fission system formed after thermal neutron capture, illustrating that these processes remain physically slightly different, even after the absorption of the neutron, possibly because of the extra energy present in the nuclear reaction system of thermal neutron-induced fission. Quaternary fission, at 1 per 10 million fissions, is also known (see below). Products The most common nuclear fission process is "binary fission." It produces two charged asymmetrical fission products with maximally probable charged product at 95±15 and 135±15 u atomic mass. However, in this conventional fission of large nuclei, the binary process happens merely because it is the most energetically probable. In anywhere from 2 to 4 fissions per 1000 in a nuclear reactor, the alternative ternary fission process produces three positively charged fragments (plus neutrons, which are not charged and not counted in this reckoning). The smallest of the charged products may range from so small a charge and mass as a single proton (Z=1), up to as large a fragment as the nucleus of argon (Z=18). Although particles as large as argon nuclei may be produced as the smaller (third) charged product in the usual ternary fission, the most common small fragments from ternary fission are helium-4 nuclei, which make up about 90% of the small fragment products. This high incidence is related to the stability (high binding energy) of the alpha particle, which makes more energy available to the reaction. The second-most common Document 3::: In nuclear engineering, prompt criticality describes a nuclear fission event in which criticality (the threshold for an exponentially growing nuclear fission chain reaction) is achieved with prompt neutrons alone and does not rely on delayed neutrons. As a result, prompt supercriticality causes a much more rapid growth in the rate of energy release than other forms of criticality. Nuclear weapons are based on prompt criticality, while nuclear reactors rely on delayed neutrons or external neutrons to achieve criticality. Criticality An assembly is critical if each fission event causes, on average, exactly one additional such event in a continual chain. Such a chain is a self-sustaining fission chain reaction. When a uranium-235 (U-235) atom undergoes nuclear fission, it typically releases between one and seven neutrons (with an average of 2.4). In this situation, an assembly is critical if every released neutron has a 1/2.4 = 0.42 = 42 % probability of causing another fission event as opposed to either being absorbed by a non-fission capture event or escaping from the fissile core. The average number of neutrons that cause new fission events is called the effective neutron multiplication factor, usually denoted by the symbols k-effective, k-eff or k. When k-effective is equal to 1, the assembly is called critical, if k-effective is less than 1 the assembly is said to be subcritical, and if k-effective is greater than 1 the assembly is called supercritical. Critical versus prompt-critical In a supercritical assembly, the number of fissions per unit time, N, along with the power production, increases exponentially with time. How fast it grows depends on the average time it takes, T, for the neutrons released in a fission event to cause another fission. The growth rate of the reaction is given by: Most of the neutrons released by a fission event are the ones released in the fission itself. These are called prompt neutrons, and strike other nuclei and cause a Document 4::: In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, the fission barrier is the activation energy required for a nucleus of an atom to undergo fission. This barrier may also be defined as the minimum amount of energy required to deform the nucleus to the point where it is irretrievably committed to the fission process. The energy to overcome this barrier can come from either neutron bombardment of the nucleus, where the additional energy from the neutron brings the nucleus to an excited state and undergoes deformation, or through spontaneous fission, where the nucleus is already in an excited and deformed state. It is important to note that efforts to understand fission processes are still an ongoing and have been a very difficult problem to solve since fission was first discovered by Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, and Fritz Strassmann in 1938. While nuclear physicists understand many aspects of the fission process, there is currently no encompassing theoretical framework that gives a satisfactory account of the basic observations. Scission The fission process can be understood when a nucleus with some equilibrium deformation absorbs energy (through neutron capture, for example), becomes excited and deforms to a configuration known as the "transition state" or "saddle point" configuration. As the nucleus deforms, the nuclear Coulomb energy decreases while the nuclear surface energy increases. At the saddle point, the rate of change of the Coulomb energy is equal to the rate of change of the nuclear surface energy. The formation and eventual decay of this transition state nucleus is the rate-determining step in the fission process and corresponds to the passage over an activation energy barrier to the fission reaction. When this occurs, the neck between the nascent fragments disappears and the nucleus divides into two fragments. The point at which this occurs is called the "scission point". Liquid drop model From the description of the beginning of the fission process to the "scis The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Fission is a type of radioactivity in which large nuclei spontaneously break apart into what? A. light nuclei B. faster nuclei C. active nuclei D. smaller nuclei Answer:
sciq-8894	multiple_choice	What is the only light that humans can see?	[ "distinct light", "bright light", "visible light", "dark light" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Cosmic ray visual phenomena, or light flashes (LF), also known as Astronaut's Eye, are spontaneous flashes of light visually perceived by some astronauts outside the magnetosphere of the Earth, such as during the Apollo program. While LF may be the result of actual photons of visible light being sensed by the retina, the LF discussed here could also pertain to phosphenes, which are sensations of light produced by the activation of neurons along the visual pathway. Possible causes Researchers believe that the LF perceived specifically by astronauts in space are due to cosmic rays (high-energy charged particles from beyond the Earth's atmosphere), though the exact mechanism is unknown. Hypotheses include Cherenkov radiation created as the cosmic ray particles pass through the vitreous humour of the astronauts' eyes, direct interaction with the optic nerve, direct interaction with visual centres in the brain, retinal receptor stimulation, and a more general interaction of the retina with radiation. Conditions under which the light flashes were reported Astronauts who had recently returned from space missions to the Hubble Space Telescope, the International Space Station and Mir Space Station reported seeing the LF under different conditions. In order of decreasing frequency of reporting in a survey, they saw the LF in the dark, in dim light, in bright light and one reported that he saw them regardless of light level and light adaptation. They were seen mainly before sleeping. Types Some LF were reported to be clearly visible, while others were not. They manifested in different colors and shapes. How often each type was seen varied across astronauts' experiences, as evident in a survey of 59 astronauts. Colors On Lunar missions, astronauts almost always reported that the flashes were white, with one exception where the astronaut observed "blue with a white cast, like a blue diamond." On other space missions, astronauts reported seeing other colors such as yellow and Document 1::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 2::: In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH. Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid. Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model. Motivation Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate What the student can do and What the student is ready to learn. Model structure Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of Document 3::: The evolution of color vision in primates is highly unusual compared to most eutherian mammals. A remote vertebrate ancestor of primates possessed tetrachromacy, but nocturnal, warm-blooded, mammalian ancestors lost two of four cones in the retina at the time of dinosaurs. Most teleost fish, reptiles and birds are therefore tetrachromatic while most mammals are strictly dichromats, the exceptions being some primates and marsupials, who are trichromats, and many marine mammals, who are monochromats. Cones and opsins While color vision is dependent on many factors, discussion of the evolution of color vision is typically simplified to two factors: the breadth of the visible spectrum (which wavelengths of light can be detected), and the dimensionality of the color gamut (e.g. dichromacy vs. tetrachromacy). In vertebrates, both of these are almost perfectly correlated to an individual's cone complement. The retina comprises several different classes of photoreceptors, including cone cells and rod cells. Rods usually do not contribute to color vision (except in mesopic conditions) and have not evolved significantly in the era of primates, so they will not be discussed here. It is the cone cells, which are used for photopic vision, that facilitate color vision. Each type - or class - of cones is defined by its opsin, a protein fundamental to the visual cycle that tunes the cell to certain wavelengths of light. The opsins present in cone cells are specifically called photopsin. The spectral sensitivities of the opsins are dependent on their genetic sequence. The most important (and often only important for discussions of opsin evolution) parameter of the spectral sensitivity is the peak wavelength, i.e. the wavelength of light to which they are most sensitive. For example, a typical human L-opsin has a peak wavelength of 560nm. The cone complement defines an individual's set of cones in their retina - usually consistent with the set of opsins in their genome. The Document 4::: In visual physiology, adaptation is the ability of the retina of the eye to adjust to various levels of light. Natural night vision, or scotopic vision, is the ability to see under low-light conditions. In humans, rod cells are exclusively responsible for night vision as cone cells are only able to function at higher illumination levels. Night vision is of lower quality than day vision because it is limited in resolution and colors cannot be discerned; only shades of gray are seen. In order for humans to transition from day to night vision they must undergo a dark adaptation period of up to two hours in which each eye adjusts from a high to a low luminescence "setting", increasing sensitivity hugely, by many orders of magnitude. This adaptation period is different between rod and cone cells and results from the regeneration of photopigments to increase retinal sensitivity. Light adaptation, in contrast, works very quickly, within seconds. Efficiency The human eye can function from very dark to very bright levels of light; its sensing capabilities reach across nine orders of magnitude. This means that the brightest and the darkest light signal that the eye can sense are a factor of roughly 1,000,000,000 apart. However, in any given moment of time, the eye can only sense a contrast ratio of 1,000. What enables the wider reach is that the eye adapts its definition of what is black. The eye takes approximately 20–30 minutes to fully adapt from bright sunlight to complete darkness and becomes 10,000 to 1,000,000 times more sensitive than at full daylight. In this process, the eye's perception of color changes as well (this is called the Purkinje effect). However, it takes approximately five minutes for the eye to adapt from darkness to bright sunlight. This is due to cones obtaining more sensitivity when first entering the dark for the first five minutes but the rods taking over after five or more minutes. Cone cells are able to regain maximum retinal sensitivity in 9 The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the only light that humans can see? A. distinct light B. bright light C. visible light D. dark light Answer:
sciq-10762	multiple_choice	What type of winds blow over a limited area?	[ "gales", "trade winds", "hurricanes", "local winds" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: The log wind profile is a semi-empirical relationship commonly used to describe the vertical distribution of horizontal mean wind speeds within the lowest portion of the planetary boundary layer. The relationship is well described in the literature. The logarithmic profile of wind speeds is generally limited to the lowest 100 m of the atmosphere (i.e., the surface layer of the atmospheric boundary layer). The rest of the atmosphere is composed of the remaining part of the planetary boundary layer (up to around 1000 m) and the troposphere or free atmosphere. In the free atmosphere, geostrophic wind relationships should be used. Definition The equation to estimate the mean wind speed () at height (meters) above the ground is: where is the friction velocity (m s−1), is the Von Kármán constant (~0.41), is the zero plane displacement (in metres), is the surface roughness (in meters), and is a stability term where is the Obukhov length from Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. Under neutral stability conditions, and drops out and the equation is simplified to, Zero-plane displacement () is the height in meters above the ground at which zero mean wind speed is achieved as a result of flow obstacles such as trees or buildings. This displacement can be approximated as 2/3 to 3/4 of the average height of the obstacles. For example, if estimating winds over a forest canopy of height 30 m, the zero-plane displacement could be estimated as d = 20 m. Roughness length () is a corrective measure to account for the effect of the roughness of a surface on wind flow. That is, the value of the roughness length depends on the terrain. The exact value is subjective and references indicate a range of values, making it difficult to give definitive values. In most cases, references present a tabular format with the value of given for certain terrain descriptions. For example, for very flat terrain (snow, desert) the roughness length may be in the range 0.001 to 0.005 m. Si Document 2::: In meteorology, wind speed, or wind flow speed, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity caused by air moving from high to low pressure, usually due to changes in temperature. Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer. Wind speed affects weather forecasting, aviation and maritime operations, construction projects, growth and metabolism rate of many plant species, and has countless other implications. Wind direction is usually almost parallel to isobars (and not perpendicular, as one might expect), due to Earth's rotation. Units The metre per second (m/s) is the SI unit for velocity and the unit recommended by the World Meteorological Organization for reporting wind speeds, and is amongst others used in weather forecasts in the Nordic countries. Since 2010 the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) also recommends meters per second for reporting wind speed when approaching runways, replacing their former recommendation of using kilometres per hour (km/h). For historical reasons, other units such as miles per hour (mph), knots (kn) or feet per second (ft/s) are also sometimes used to measure wind speeds. Historically, wind speeds have also been classified using the Beaufort scale, which is based on visual observations of specifically defined wind effects at sea or on land. Factors affecting wind speed Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations, operating on varying scales (from micro to macro scales). These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves and jet streams, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and wind direction, notably with the pressure gradient and terrain conditions. Pressure gradient is a term to describe the difference in air pressure between two points in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth. It is vital to wind speed, because the greater the difference in pressure, the faster the wind flows (from the high to low pressure) to balance out the variation. Th Document 3::: This is a list of meteorology topics. The terms relate to meteorology, the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting. (see also: List of meteorological phenomena) A advection aeroacoustics aerobiology aerography (meteorology) aerology air parcel (in meteorology) air quality index (AQI) airshed (in meteorology) American Geophysical Union (AGU) American Meteorological Society (AMS) anabatic wind anemometer annular hurricane anticyclone (in meteorology) apparent wind Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) Atlantic hurricane season atmometer atmosphere Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) (atmospheric boundary layer [ABL]) planetary boundary layer (PBL) atmospheric chemistry atmospheric circulation atmospheric convection atmospheric dispersion modeling atmospheric electricity atmospheric icing atmospheric physics atmospheric pressure atmospheric sciences atmospheric stratification atmospheric thermodynamics atmospheric window (see under Threats) B ball lightning balloon (aircraft) baroclinity barotropity barometer ("to measure atmospheric pressure") berg wind biometeorology blizzard bomb (meteorology) buoyancy Bureau of Meteorology (in Australia) C Canada Weather Extremes Canadian Hurricane Centre (CHC) Cape Verde-type hurricane capping inversion (in meteorology) (see "severe thunderstorms" in paragraph 5) carbon cycle carbon fixation carbon flux carbon monoxide (see under Atmospheric presence) ceiling balloon ("to determine the height of the base of clouds above ground level") ceilometer ("to determine the height of a cloud base") celestial coordinate system celestial equator celestial horizon (rational horizon) celestial navigation (astronavigation) celestial pole Celsius Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms (CAPS) (in Oklahoma in the US) Center for the Study o Document 4::: In fluid dynamics, a secondary circulation or secondary flow is a weak circulation that plays a key maintenance role in sustaining a stronger primary circulation that contains most of the kinetic energy and momentum of a flow. For example, a tropical cyclone's primary winds are tangential (horizontally swirling), but its evolution and maintenance against friction involves an in-up-out secondary circulation flow that is also important to its clouds and rain. On a planetary scale, Earth's winds are mostly east–west or zonal, but that flow is maintained against friction by the Coriolis force acting on a small north–south or meridional secondary circulation. See also Hough function Primitive equations Secondary flow The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What type of winds blow over a limited area? A. gales B. trade winds C. hurricanes D. local winds Answer:
sciq-8806	multiple_choice	What is the approximate population on the earth?	[ "7.3 billion", "9 trillion", "41 billion", "7 billion" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women. The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development. Current status of girls and women in STEM education Overall trends in STEM education Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle. Learning achievement in STEM education Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and Document 1::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 2::: Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations. Academic courses Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism. Example universities with CSE majors and departments APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University American International University-B Document 3::: Engineering mathematics is a branch of applied mathematics concerning mathematical methods and techniques that are typically used in engineering and industry. Along with fields like engineering physics and engineering geology, both of which may belong in the wider category engineering science, engineering mathematics is an interdisciplinary subject motivated by engineers' needs both for practical, theoretical and other considerations outside their specialization, and to deal with constraints to be effective in their work. Description Historically, engineering mathematics consisted mostly of applied analysis, most notably: differential equations; real and complex analysis (including vector and tensor analysis); approximation theory (broadly construed, to include asymptotic, variational, and perturbative methods, representations, numerical analysis); Fourier analysis; potential theory; as well as linear algebra and applied probability, outside of analysis. These areas of mathematics were intimately tied to the development of Newtonian physics, and the mathematical physics of that period. This history also left a legacy: until the early 20th century subjects such as classical mechanics were often taught in applied mathematics departments at American universities, and fluid mechanics may still be taught in (applied) mathematics as well as engineering departments. The success of modern numerical computer methods and software has led to the emergence of computational mathematics, computational science, and computational engineering (the last two are sometimes lumped together and abbreviated as CS&E), which occasionally use high-performance computing for the simulation of phenomena and the solution of problems in the sciences and engineering. These are often considered interdisciplinary fields, but are also of interest to engineering mathematics. Specialized branches include engineering optimization and engineering statistics. Engineering mathematics in tertiary educ Document 4::: The mathematical sciences are a group of areas of study that includes, in addition to mathematics, those academic disciplines that are primarily mathematical in nature but may not be universally considered subfields of mathematics proper. Statistics, for example, is mathematical in its methods but grew out of bureaucratic and scientific observations, which merged with inverse probability and then grew through applications in some areas of physics, biometrics, and the social sciences to become its own separate, though closely allied, field. Theoretical astronomy, theoretical physics, theoretical and applied mechanics, continuum mechanics, mathematical chemistry, actuarial science, computer science, computational science, data science, operations research, quantitative biology, control theory, econometrics, geophysics and mathematical geosciences are likewise other fields often considered part of the mathematical sciences. Some institutions offer degrees in mathematical sciences (e.g. the United States Military Academy, Stanford University, and University of Khartoum) or applied mathematical sciences (for example, the University of Rhode Island). See also The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the approximate population on the earth? A. 7.3 billion B. 9 trillion C. 41 billion D. 7 billion Answer:
sciq-7086	multiple_choice	What process can be triggered by a burst of ethylene production in the fruit?	[ "ripening", "drying", "hardening", "pickling" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: RediRipe is a technology created at the University of Arizona which detects the production of ethylene, a natural ripening hormone, and displaying that detection by means of a color-changing sticker that changes from white to blue. The technology was created in the lab of Mark Riley at the University of Arizona. In conjunction with the Eller College of Management's McGuire Center for Entrepreneurship, the technology was being developed into a viable business that will assist the apple and pear industries in their efforts to improve their efficiency by integrating technology into their age-old processes. Additionally, this technology has potential on other climacteric fruits which emit ethylene as they ripen. Document 1::: Generally, fleshy fruits can be divided into two groups based on the presence or absence of a respiratory increase at the onset of ripening. This respiratory increase—which is preceded, or accompanied, by a rise in ethylene—is called a climacteric, and there are marked differences in the development of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. Climacteric fruit can be either monocots or dicots and the ripening of these fruits can still be achieved even if the fruit has been harvested at the end of their growth period (prior to ripening on the parent plant). Non-climacteric fruits ripen without ethylene and respiration bursts, the ripening process is slower, and for the most part they will not be able to ripen if the fruit is not attached to the parent plant. Examples of climacteric fruits include apples, bananas, melons, apricots, tomatoes, as well as most stone fruits. Non-climacteric fruits on the other hand include citrus fruits, grapes, and strawberries (However, non-climacteric melons and apricots do exist, and grapes and strawberries harbor several active ethylene receptors.) Essentially, a key difference between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits (particularly for commercial production) is that climacteric fruits continue to ripen following their harvest, whereas non-climacteric fruits do not. The accumulation of starch over the early stages of climacteric fruit development may be a key issue, as starch can be converted to sugars after harvest. Overview The climacteric stage of fruit ripening is associated with increased ethylene production and a rise in cellular respiration and is the final physiological process that marks the end of fruit maturation and the beginning of fruit senescence. Its defining point is a sudden rise in respiration of the fruit, and normally takes place without any external influences. After the climacteric period, respiration rates (noted by carbon dioxide production) return to or dip below the pre-climacteric rates. The climacte Document 2::: Multiplex sensor is a hand-held multiparametric optical sensor developed by Force-A. The sensor is a result of 15 years of research on plant autofluorescence conducted by the CNRS (National Center for Scientific Research) and University of Paris-Sud Orsay. It provides accurate and complete information on the physiological state of the crop, allowing real-time and non-destructive measurements of chlorophyll and polyphenols contents in leaves and fruits. Technology Multiplex assesses the chlorophyll and polyphenols indices by making use of two attributes of plant fluorescence: the effect of fluorescence re-absorption by chlorophyll and screening effect of polyphenols. The sensor is an optical head which contains: Optical sources (UV, blue, green and red) Detectors (blue-green or yellow, red and far-red (NIR)) Applications Alongside with other data, Multiplex is designed to provide input for decision support systems (DSS) for a range of crops, including: Fertilization applications Crop quality assessments (nitrogen status, maturity, freshness and disease detection) As a standalone sensor, Multiplex is a tool for rapid collection of information concerning chlorophyll and flavonoids contents of the plant to be applied on ecophysiological research. Document 3::: Recalcitrant seeds are seeds that do not survive drying and freezing during ex-situ conservation. By and large, these seeds cannot resist the effects of drying or temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F); thus, they cannot be stored for long periods like orthodox seeds because they can lose their viability. Plants that produce recalcitrant seeds include avocado, mango, mangosteen, lychee, cocoa, rubber tree, some horticultural trees, aquatic plants such as Nymphaea caerulea, and several plants used in traditional medicine, such as species of Virola and Pentaclethra. Generally speaking, most tropical pioneer species have orthodox seeds but many climax species have recalcitrant or intermediate seeds. Mechanisms of damage The two main mechanisms causing damage to recalcitrant seeds are desiccation effects on the intracellular structures and metabolic damage from the formation of toxic chemicals such as free radicals. An example of the first type of damage would be found in some recalcitrant nontropical hardwood seeds, specifically the acorns of recalcitrant oaks, which can be stored in a non-frozen state for up to two years provided that precautions are taken against drying. These seeds show deterioration of cell membrane lipids and proteins after as few as 3–4 days of drying. Other recalcitrant seeds, such as those of the sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), show oxidative damage resulting from uncontrolled metabolism occurring during the drying process. Storage Preservation of recalcitrant seeds remains experimental. Some approaches include: Removal of the embryo inside for cryopreservation (liquid nitrogen). Cryopreservation of the whole seed in an anti-freezing solution. Intermediate seeds are between orthodox and recalcitrant seeds in their survivablity. They are initially identified by their inability to survive conventional dry-freezing storage while being able to survive cryopreservation as a whole. The storage guideline is to put them in refrigeration at 45–6 Document 4::: The Brussels sprout is a member of the Gemmifera cultivar group of cabbages (Brassica oleracea), grown for its edible buds. The leaf vegetables are typically 1.5–4.0 cm (0.6–1.6 in) in diameter and resemble miniature cabbages. The Brussels sprout has long been popular in Brussels, Belgium, from which it gained its name. Etymology Although native to the Mediterranean region with other cabbage species, Brussels sprouts first appeared in northern Europe during the 5th century; they were later cultivated in the 13th century near Brussels, Belgium, from which they derived their name. Its group name Gemmifera (or lowercase and italicized gemmifera as a variety name) means (bud-producing). Cultivation Forerunners to modern Brussels sprouts were probably cultivated in Ancient Rome. Brussels sprouts as they are now known were grown possibly as early as the 13th century in what is now Belgium. The first written reference dates to 1587. During the 16th century, they enjoyed a popularity in the southern Netherlands that eventually spread throughout the cooler parts of Northern Europe. Brussels sprouts grow in temperature ranges of 7–24 °C (45–75 °F), with highest yields at 15–18 °C (59–64 °F). Fields are ready for harvest 90 to 180 days after planting. The edible sprouts grow like buds in helical patterns along the side of long, thick stalks of about in height, maturing over several weeks from the lower to the upper part of the stalk. Sprouts may be picked by hand into baskets, in which case several harvests are made of five to 15 sprouts at a time, or by cutting the entire stalk at once for processing, or by mechanical harvester, depending on variety. Each stalk can produce , although the commercial yield is about per stalk. Harvest season in temperate zones of the northern latitudes is September to March, making Brussels sprouts a traditional winter-stock vegetable. In the home garden, harvest can be delayed as quality does not suffer from freezing. Sprouts are consid The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What process can be triggered by a burst of ethylene production in the fruit? A. ripening B. drying C. hardening D. pickling Answer:
sciq-9235	multiple_choice	What type of stratified deposit is formed where lakes are covered by ice in the winter?	[ "varves", "tangles", "glacier", "telomeres" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Blood Falls is an outflow of an iron oxide–tainted plume of saltwater, flowing from the tongue of Taylor Glacier onto the ice-covered surface of West Lake Bonney in the Taylor Valley of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Victoria Land, East Antarctica. Iron-rich hypersaline water sporadically emerges from small fissures in the ice cascades. The saltwater source is a subglacial pool of unknown size overlain by about of ice several kilometers from its tiny outlet at Blood Falls. The reddish deposit was found in 1911 by the Australian geologist Thomas Griffith Taylor, who first explored the valley that bears his name. The Antarctica pioneers first attributed the red color to red algae, but later it was proven to be due to iron oxides. Geochemistry Poorly soluble hydrous ferric oxides are deposited at the surface of ice after the ferrous ions present in the unfrozen saltwater are oxidized in contact with atmospheric oxygen. The more soluble ferrous ions initially are dissolved in old seawater trapped in an ancient pocket remaining from the Antarctic Ocean when a fjord was isolated by the glacier in its progression during the Miocene period, some 5 million years ago, when the sea level was higher than today. Unlike most Antarctic glaciers, the Taylor Glacier is not frozen to the bedrock, probably because of the presence of salts concentrated by the crystallization of the ancient seawater imprisoned below it. Salt cryo-concentration occurred in the deep relict seawater when pure ice crystallized and expelled its dissolved salts as it cooled down because of the heat exchange of the captive liquid seawater with the enormous ice mass of the glacier. As a consequence, the trapped seawater was concentrated in brines with a salinity two to three times that of the mean ocean water. A second mechanism sometimes also explaining the formation of hypersaline brines is the water evaporation of surface lakes directly exposed to the very dry polar atmosphere in the McMurdo Dry Valleys. Th Document 1::: Pavilion Lake is a freshwater lake located in Marble Canyon, British Columbia, Canada home to colonies of freshwater microbialites. Location and Local Communities It is located between the towns of Lillooet and Cache Creek (29.44 kilometres WNW, as the crow flies, from Cache Creek) and lies along BC Highway 99, 8.85 highway kilometres (northeast then southeast) from Pavilion, British Columbia. There is a small community of lakeshore residences, some recreational and seasonal only, located on the lake's eastern shore adjacent to the highway. The lake is overlooked by the cliffs of Marble Canyon, which is the southern buttress of the Marble Range, and the forests of the northernmost Clear Range. Also overlooking the lake is Chimney Rock (K'lpalekw in Secwepemc'tsn, "Coyote's Penis"), which like the lake and the canyon have spiritual significance to the adjoining native communities, the Tskwaylaxw people of Pavilion and the Bonaparte band of Secwepemc at Upper Hat Creek. One of the rancheries and a rodeo and pow-wow ground of the Pavilion Band is located at Marble Canyon's south entrance. The lake area and its foreshore were added to Marble Canyon Provincial Park in order to protect its special scientific and heritage values. Characteristics The lake demonstrates karst hydrology, with underground inflows from Marble Canyon creeks. The lake has generally low biological productivity, and is classified as ultraoligotrophic. It also features a high degree of water clarity. The lake gets covered with ice annually, and is dimictic, going through two thermal overturns per year. The lake reaches a maximum depth of 65 meters below the surface. It is also a hard water lake, due to its high mineral content. Microbialites and Scientific Research Part of a karst formation, the lake is most notable for being home to colonies of microbialites, a type of stromatolite. Colonies of microbialites grow from depths of 5 to 55 meters. Low sedimentation rates may allow for continued Document 2::: Martian geysers (or jets) are putative sites of small gas and dust eruptions that occur in the south polar region of Mars during the spring thaw. "Dark dune spots" and "spiders" – or araneiforms – are the two most visible types of features ascribed to these eruptions. Martian geysers are distinct from geysers on Earth, which are typically associated with hydrothermal activity. These are unlike any terrestrial geological phenomenon. The reflectance (albedo), shapes and unusual spider appearance of these features have stimulated a variety of hypotheses about their origin, ranging from differences in frosting reflectance, to explanations involving biological processes. However, all current geophysical models assume some sort of jet or geyser-like activity on Mars. Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W; this 1 meter deep carbon dioxide (CO2) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and the carbon dioxide ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. However, it would seem that multiple years would be required to carve the larger spider-like channels. There is no direct data on these features othe Document 3::: Large woody debris (LWD) are the logs, sticks, branches, and other wood that falls into streams and rivers. This debris can influence the flow and the shape of the stream channel. Large woody debris, grains, and the shape of the bed of the stream are the three main providers of flow resistance, and are thus, a major influence on the shape of the stream channel. Some stream channels have less LWD than they would naturally because of removal by watershed managers for flood control and aesthetic reasons. The study of woody debris is important for its forestry management implications. Plantation thinning can reduce the potential for recruitment of LWD into proximal streams. The presence of large woody debris is important in the formation of pools which serve as salmon habitat in the Pacific Northwest. Entrainment of the large woody debris in a stream can also cause erosion and scouring around and under the LWD. The amount of scouring and erosion is determined by the ratio of the diameter of the piece, to the depth of the stream, and the embedding and orientation of the piece. Influence on stream flow around bends Large woody debris slow the flow through a bend in the stream, while accelerating flow in the constricted area downstream of the obstruction. See also Beaver dam Coarse woody debris Driftwood Log jam Stream restoration Document 4::: The Gulf of St. Lawrence lowland forests are a temperate broadleaf and mixed forest ecoregion of Eastern Canada, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) categorization system. Setting Located on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the world's largest estuary, this ecoregion covers all of Prince Edward Island, the Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine of Quebec, most of east-central New Brunswick, the Annapolis Valley, Minas Basin and the Northumberland Strait coast of Nova Scotia. This area has a coastal climate of warm summers and cold and snowy winters with an average annual temperature of around 5 °C going up to 15 °C in summer, the coast is warmer than the islands or the sheltered inland valleys. Flora The colder climate allows more hardwood trees to grow in the Gulf of St Lawrence than in most of this part of northeast North America. Trees of the region include eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), American elm (Ulmus americana), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), red maple, (Acer rubrum) northern red oak (Quercus rubra), black spruce (Picea mariana), red spruce (Picea rubens) and white spruce (Picea glauca). Fauna The forests are home to a variety of wildlife including American black bear (Ursus americanus), moose (Alces alces), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), North American porcupine (Erithyzon dorsatum), fisher (Martes pennanti), North American beaver (Castor canadensis), bobcat (Lynx rufus), American marten (Martes americana), raccoon (Procyon lotor) and muskrat (Ondatra zibethica). The area is habitat for maritime ringlet butterflies (Coenonympha nipisiquit) and other invertebrates. Birds include many seabirds, a large colony of great blue heron (Ardea herodias), the largest remaining population of the endangered piping plover and one of the largest colonies of double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) in the world. Threats and preserva The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What type of stratified deposit is formed where lakes are covered by ice in the winter? A. varves B. tangles C. glacier D. telomeres Answer:
sciq-10770	multiple_choice	What completes the process as undigested material passes out of the digestive system?	[ "elimination", "accumulation", "culmination", "reaction" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food compounds into small water-soluble components so that they can be absorbed into the blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. Mechanical digestion takes place in the mouth through mastication and in the small intestine through segmentation contractions. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small compounds that the body can use. In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work, and electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl−, HCO−3). About 30% of starch is hydrolyzed into disaccharide in the oral cavity (mouth). After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. In infants and toddlers, gastric juice also contains rennin to digest milk proteins. As the first two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus and bicarbonates are secreted by the stomach. They provide a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damag Document 1::: The Joan Mott Prize Lecture is a prize lecture awarded annually by The Physiological Society in honour of Joan Mott. Laureates Laureates of the award have included: - Intestinal absorption of sugars and peptides: from textbook to surprises See also Physiological Society Annual Review Prize Lecture Document 2::: The large intestine, also known as the large bowel, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in tetrapods. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored in the rectum as feces before being removed by defecation. The colon is the longest portion of the large intestine, and the terms are often used interchangeably but most sources define the large intestine as the combination of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. Some other sources exclude the anal canal. In humans, the large intestine begins in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the waist, where it is joined to the end of the small intestine at the cecum, via the ileocecal valve. It then continues as the colon ascending the abdomen, across the width of the abdominal cavity as the transverse colon, and then descending to the rectum and its endpoint at the anal canal. Overall, in humans, the large intestine is about long, which is about one-fifth of the whole length of the human gastrointestinal tract. Structure The colon of the large intestine is the last part of the digestive system. It has a segmented appearance due to a series of saccules called haustra. It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which the fermentation of unabsorbed material by the gut microbiota occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day. The colon is the longest part of the large intestine and its average length in the adult human is 65 inches or 166 cm (range of 80 to 313 cm) for males, and 61 inches or 155 cm (range of 80 to 214 cm) for females. Sections In mammals, the large intestine consists of the cecum (including the appendix), colon (the longest part), rectum, and anal canal. The four sections of the colon are: the ascending colon, transverse colon, desce Document 3::: Hindgut fermentation is a digestive process seen in monogastric herbivores, animals with a simple, single-chambered stomach. Cellulose is digested with the aid of symbiotic bacteria. The microbial fermentation occurs in the digestive organs that follow the small intestine: the large intestine and cecum. Examples of hindgut fermenters include proboscideans and large odd-toed ungulates such as horses and rhinos, as well as small animals such as rodents, rabbits and koalas. In contrast, foregut fermentation is the form of cellulose digestion seen in ruminants such as cattle which have a four-chambered stomach, as well as in sloths, macropodids, some monkeys, and one bird, the hoatzin. Cecum Hindgut fermenters generally have a cecum and large intestine that are much larger and more complex than those of a foregut or midgut fermenter. Research on small cecum fermenters such as flying squirrels, rabbits and lemurs has revealed these mammals to have a GI tract about 10-13 times the length of their body. This is due to the high intake of fiber and other hard to digest compounds that are characteristic to the diet of monogastric herbivores. Unlike in foregut fermenters, the cecum is located after the stomach and small intestine in monogastric animals, which limits the amount of further digestion or absorption that can occur after the food is fermented. Large intestine In smaller hindgut fermenters of the order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas), cecotropes formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Cecotropes are surrounded by a layer of mucus which protects them from stomach acid but which does not inhibit nutrient absorption in the small intestine. Coprophagy is also practiced by some rodents, such as the capybara, guinea pig and related species, and by the marsupial common ringtail possum. This process is also beneficial in allowing for restoration of the microflora pop Document 4::: Gastrointestinal physiology is the branch of human physiology that addresses the physical function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The function of the GI tract is to process ingested food by mechanical and chemical means, extract nutrients and excrete waste products. The GI tract is composed of the alimentary canal, that runs from the mouth to the anus, as well as the associated glands, chemicals, hormones, and enzymes that assist in digestion. The major processes that occur in the GI tract are: motility, secretion, regulation, digestion and circulation. The proper function and coordination of these processes are vital for maintaining good health by providing for the effective digestion and uptake of nutrients. Motility The gastrointestinal tract generates motility using smooth muscle subunits linked by gap junctions. These subunits fire spontaneously in either a tonic or a phasic fashion. Tonic contractions are those contractions that are maintained from several minutes up to hours at a time. These occur in the sphincters of the tract, as well as in the anterior stomach. The other type of contractions, called phasic contractions, consist of brief periods of both relaxation and contraction, occurring in the posterior stomach and the small intestine, and are carried out by the muscularis externa. Motility may be overactive (hypermotility), leading to diarrhea or vomiting, or underactive (hypomotility), leading to constipation or vomiting; either may cause abdominal pain. Stimulation The stimulation for these contractions likely originates in modified smooth muscle cells called interstitial cells of Cajal. These cells cause spontaneous cycles of slow wave potentials that can cause action potentials in smooth muscle cells. They are associated with the contractile smooth muscle via gap junctions. These slow wave potentials must reach a threshold level for the action potential to occur, whereupon Ca2+ channels on the smooth muscle open and an action potential The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What completes the process as undigested material passes out of the digestive system? A. elimination B. accumulation C. culmination D. reaction Answer:
sciq-1101	multiple_choice	Single bonds allow the atoms they join to rotate freely about the what?	[ "bond axis", "electron shell", "atomic orbit", "nucleus" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: An intramolecular force (or primary forces) is any force that binds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound, not to be confused with intermolecular forces, which are the forces present between molecules. The subtle difference in the name comes from the Latin roots of English with inter meaning between or among and intra meaning inside. Chemical bonds are considered to be intramolecular forces which are often stronger than intermolecular forces present between non-bonding atoms or molecules. Types The classical model identifies three main types of chemical bonds — ionic, covalent, and metallic — distinguished by the degree of charge separation between participating atoms. The characteristics of the bond formed can be predicted by the properties of constituent atoms, namely electronegativity. They differ in the magnitude of their bond enthalpies, a measure of bond strength, and thus affect the physical and chemical properties of compounds in different ways. % of ionic character is directly proportional difference in electronegitivity of bonded atom. Ionic bond An ionic bond can be approximated as complete transfer of one or more valence electrons of atoms participating in bond formation, resulting in a positive ion and a negative ion bound together by electrostatic forces. Electrons in an ionic bond tend to be mostly found around one of the two constituent atoms due to the large electronegativity difference between the two atoms, generally more than 1.9, (greater difference in electronegativity results in a stronger bond); this is often described as one atom giving electrons to the other. This type of bond is generally formed between a metal and nonmetal, such as sodium and chlorine in NaCl. Sodium would give an electron to chlorine, forming a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively charged chloride ion. Covalent bond In a true covalent bond, the electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms of the bond; there is little or no charge separa Document 1::: Cyclohexane conformations are any of several three-dimensional shapes adopted by molecules of cyclohexane. Because many compounds feature structurally similar six-membered rings, the structure and dynamics of cyclohexane are important prototypes of a wide range of compounds. The internal angles of a regular, flat hexagon are 120°, while the preferred angle between successive bonds in a carbon chain is about 109.5°, the tetrahedral angle (the arc cosine of −). Therefore, the cyclohexane ring tends to assume non-planar (warped) conformations, which have all angles closer to 109.5° and therefore a lower strain energy than the flat hexagonal shape. Consider the carbon atoms numbered from 1 to 6 around the ring. If we hold carbon atoms 1, 2, and 3 stationary, with the correct bond lengths and the tetrahedral angle between the two bonds, and then continue by adding carbon atoms 4, 5, and 6 with the correct bond length and the tetrahedral angle, we can vary the three dihedral angles for the sequences (2,3,4), (3,4,5), and (4,5,6). The next bond, from atom 6, is also oriented by a dihedral angle, so we have four degrees of freedom. But that last bond has to end at the position of atom 1, which imposes three conditions in three-dimensional space. If the bond angle in the chain (6,1,2) should also be the tetrahedral angle then we have four conditions. In principle this means that there are no degrees of freedom of conformation, assuming all the bond lengths are equal and all the angles between bonds are equal. It turns out that, with atoms 1, 2, and 3 fixed, there are two solutions called chair, depending on whether the dihedral angle for (1,2,3,4) is positive or negative, and these two solutions are the same under a rotation. But there is also a continuum of solutions, a topological circle where angle strain is zero, including the twist boat and the boat conformations. All the conformations on this continuum have a twofold axis of symmetry running through the ring, whereas Document 2::: In chemistry, the carbon-hydrogen bond ( bond) is a chemical bond between carbon and hydrogen atoms that can be found in many organic compounds. This bond is a covalent, single bond, meaning that carbon shares its outer valence electrons with up to four hydrogens. This completes both of their outer shells, making them stable. Carbon–hydrogen bonds have a bond length of about 1.09 Å (1.09 × 10−10 m) and a bond energy of about 413 kJ/mol (see table below). Using Pauling's scale—C (2.55) and H (2.2)—the electronegativity difference between these two atoms is 0.35. Because of this small difference in electronegativities, the bond is generally regarded as being non-polar. In structural formulas of molecules, the hydrogen atoms are often omitted. Compound classes consisting solely of bonds and bonds are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Collectively they are known as hydrocarbons. In October 2016, astronomers reported that the very basic chemical ingredients of life—the carbon-hydrogen molecule (CH, or methylidyne radical), the carbon-hydrogen positive ion () and the carbon ion ()—are the result, in large part, of ultraviolet light from stars, rather than in other ways, such as the result of turbulent events related to supernovae and young stars, as thought earlier. Bond length The length of the carbon-hydrogen bond varies slightly with the hybridisation of the carbon atom. A bond between a hydrogen atom and an sp2 hybridised carbon atom is about 0.6% shorter than between hydrogen and sp3 hybridised carbon. A bond between hydrogen and sp hybridised carbon is shorter still, about 3% shorter than sp3 C-H. This trend is illustrated by the molecular geometry of ethane, ethylene and acetylene. Reactions The C−H bond in general is very strong, so it is relatively unreactive. In several compound classes, collectively called carbon acids, the C−H bond can be sufficiently acidic for proton removal. Unactivated C−H bonds are found in alkanes and are no Document 3::: Molecular binding is an attractive interaction between two molecules that results in a stable association in which the molecules are in close proximity to each other. It is formed when atoms or molecules bind together by sharing of electrons. It often, but not always, involves some chemical bonding. In some cases, the associations can be quite strong—for example, the protein streptavidin and the vitamin biotin have a dissociation constant (reflecting the ratio between bound and free biotin) on the order of 10−14—and so the reactions are effectively irreversible. The result of molecular binding is sometimes the formation of a molecular complex in which the attractive forces holding the components together are generally non-covalent, and thus are normally energetically weaker than covalent bonds. Molecular binding occurs in biological complexes (e.g., between pairs or sets of proteins, or between a protein and a small molecule ligand it binds) and also in abiologic chemical systems, e.g. as in cases of coordination polymers and coordination networks such as metal-organic frameworks. Types Molecular binding can be classified into the following types: Non-covalent – no chemical bonds are formed between the two interacting molecules hence the association is fully reversible Reversible covalent – a chemical bond is formed, however the free energy difference separating the noncovalently-bonded reactants from bonded product is near equilibrium and the activation barrier is relatively low such that the reverse reaction which cleaves the chemical bond easily occurs Irreversible covalent – a chemical bond is formed in which the product is thermodynamically much more stable than the reactants such that the reverse reaction does not take place. Bound molecules are sometimes called a "molecular complex"—the term generally refers to non-covalent associations. Non-covalent interactions can effectively become irreversible; for example, tight binding inhibitors of enzymes Document 4::: Bond order potential is a class of empirical (analytical) interatomic potentials which is used in molecular dynamics and molecular statics simulations. Examples include the Tersoff potential, the EDIP potential, the Brenner potential, the Finnis–Sinclair potentials, ReaxFF, and the second-moment tight-binding potentials. They have the advantage over conventional molecular mechanics force fields in that they can, with the same parameters, describe several different bonding states of an atom, and thus to some extent may be able to describe chemical reactions correctly. The potentials were developed partly independently of each other, but share the common idea that the strength of a chemical bond depends on the bonding environment, including the number of bonds and possibly also angles and bond lengths. It is based on the Linus Pauling bond order concept and can be written in the form This means that the potential is written as a simple pair potential depending on the distance between two atoms , but the strength of this bond is modified by the environment of the atom via the bond order . is a function that in Tersoff-type potentials depends inversely on the number of bonds to the atom , the bond angles between sets of three atoms , and optionally on the relative bond lengths , . In case of only one atomic bond (like in a diatomic molecule), which corresponds to the strongest and shortest possible bond. The other limiting case, for increasingly many number of bonds within some interaction range, and the potential turns completely repulsive (as illustrated in the figure to the right). Alternatively, the potential energy can be written in the embedded atom model form where is the electron density at the location of atom . These two forms for the energy can be shown to be equivalent (in the special case that the bond-order function contains no angular dependence). A more detailed summary of how the bond order concept can be motivated by the second-moment ap The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Single bonds allow the atoms they join to rotate freely about the what? A. bond axis B. electron shell C. atomic orbit D. nucleus Answer:
sciq-4523	multiple_choice	Because several genes, each with more than one allele, contribute to determining height in humans, height is considered what kind of trait?	[ "polygenic", "maladaptive", "epigenetic", "adaptive" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Quantitative genetics deals with quantitative traits, which are phenotypes that vary continuously (such as height or mass)—as opposed to discretely identifiable phenotypes and gene-products (such as eye-colour, or the presence of a particular biochemical). Both branches use the frequencies of different alleles of a gene in breeding populations (gamodemes), and combine them with concepts from simple Mendelian inheritance to analyze inheritance patterns across generations and descendant lines. While population genetics can focus on particular genes and their subsequent metabolic products, quantitative genetics focuses more on the outward phenotypes, and makes only summaries of the underlying genetics. Due to the continuous distribution of phenotypic values, quantitative genetics must employ many other statistical methods (such as the effect size, the mean and the variance) to link phenotypes (attributes) to genotypes. Some phenotypes may be analyzed either as discrete categories or as continuous phenotypes, depending on the definition of cut-off points, or on the metric used to quantify them. Mendel himself had to discuss this matter in his famous paper, especially with respect to his peas' attribute tall/dwarf, which actually was "length of stem". Analysis of quantitative trait loci, or QTL, is a more recent addition to quantitative genetics, linking it more directly to molecular genetics. Gene effects In diploid organisms, the average genotypic "value" (locus value) may be defined by the allele "effect" together with a dominance effect, and also by how genes interact with genes at other loci (epistasis). The founder of quantitative genetics - Sir Ronald Fisher - perceived much of this when he proposed the first mathematics of this branch of genetics. Being a statistician, he defined the gene effects as deviations from a central value—enabling the use of statistical concepts such as mean and variance, which use this idea. The central value he chose for the ge Document 1::: The Generalist Genes hypothesis of learning abilities and disabilities was originally coined in an article by Plomin & Kovas (2005). The Generalist Genes hypothesis suggests that most genes associated with common learning disabilities and abilities are generalist in three ways. Firstly, the same genes that influence common learning abilities (e.g., high reading aptitude) are also responsible for common learning disabilities (e.g., reading disability): they are strongly genetically correlated. Secondly, many of the genes associated with one aspect of a learning disability (e.g., vocabulary problems) also influence other aspects of this learning disability (e.g., grammar problems). Thirdly, genes that influence one learning disability (e.g., reading disability) are largely the same as those that influence other learning disabilities (e.g., mathematics disability). The Generalist Genes hypothesis has important implications for education, cognitive sciences and molecular genetics. Document 2::: Research on the heritability of IQ inquires into the degree of variation in IQ within a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population. There has been significant controversy in the academic community about the heritability of IQ since research on the issue began in the late nineteenth century. Intelligence in the normal range is a polygenic trait, meaning that it is influenced by more than one gene, and in the case of intelligence at least 500 genes. Further, explaining the similarity in IQ of closely related persons requires careful study because environmental factors may be correlated with genetic factors. Early twin studies of adult individuals have found a heritability of IQ between 57% and 73%, with some recent studies showing heritability for IQ as high as 80%. IQ goes from being weakly correlated with genetics for children, to being strongly correlated with genetics for late teens and adults. The heritability of IQ increases with the child's age and reaches a plateau at 14-16 years old, continuing at that level well into adulthood. However, poor prenatal environment, malnutrition and disease are known to have lifelong deleterious effects. Although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that disparities in IQ between groups have a genetic basis. The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups. Heritability and caveats Heritability is a statistic used in the fields of breeding and genetics that estimates the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population. The concept of heritability can be expressed in the form of the following question: "What is the proportion of the variation in a given trait within a population that is not explained by the environment or random chance?" Estimates of heritabi Document 3::: Genome-wide complex trait analysis (GCTA) Genome-based restricted maximum likelihood (GREML) is a statistical method for heritability estimation in genetics, which quantifies the total additive contribution of a set of genetic variants to a trait. GCTA is typically applied to common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on a genotyping array (or "chip") and thus termed "chip" or "SNP" heritability. GCTA operates by directly quantifying the chance genetic similarity of unrelated individuals and comparing it to their measured similarity on a trait; if two unrelated individuals are relatively similar genetically and also have similar trait measurements, then the measured genetics are likely to causally influence that trait, and the correlation can to some degree tell how much. This can be illustrated by plotting the squared pairwise trait differences between individuals against their estimated degree of relatedness. GCTA makes a number of modeling assumptions and whether/when these assumptions are satisfied continues to be debated. The GCTA framework has also been extended in a number of ways: quantifying the contribution from multiple SNP categories (i.e. functional partitioning); quantifying the contribution of Gene-Environment interactions; quantifying the contribution of non-additive/non-linear effects of SNPs; and bivariate analyses of multiple phenotypes to quantify their genetic covariance (co-heritability or genetic correlation). GCTA estimates have implications for the potential for discovery from Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS) as well as the design and accuracy of polygenic scores. GCTA estimates from common variants are typically substantially lower than other estimates of total or narrow-sense heritability (such as from twin or kinship studies), which has contributed to the debate over the Missing heritability problem. History Estimation in biology/animal breeding using standard ANOVA/REML methods of variance components such as heritability, Document 4::: Genetics is the study of genes and tries to explain what they are and how they work. Genes are how living organisms inherit features or traits from their ancestors; for example, children usually look like their parents because they have inherited their parents' genes. Genetics tries to identify which traits are inherited and to explain how these traits are passed from generation to generation. Some traits are part of an organism's physical appearance, such as eye color, height or weight. Other sorts of traits are not easily seen and include blood types or resistance to diseases. Some traits are inherited through genes, which is the reason why tall and thin people tend to have tall and thin children. Other traits come from interactions between genes and the environment, so a child who inherited the tendency of being tall will still be short if poorly nourished. The way our genes and environment interact to produce a trait can be complicated. For example, the chances of somebody dying of cancer or heart disease seems to depend on both their genes and their lifestyle. Genes are made from a long molecule called DNA, which is copied and inherited across generations. DNA is made of simple units that line up in a particular order within it, carrying genetic information. The language used by DNA is called genetic code, which lets organisms read the information in the genes. This information is the instructions for the construction and operation of a living organism. The information within a particular gene is not always exactly the same between one organism and another, so different copies of a gene do not always give exactly the same instructions. Each unique form of a single gene is called an allele. As an example, one allele for the gene for hair color could instruct the body to produce much pigment, producing black hair, while a different allele of the same gene might give garbled instructions that fail to produce any pigment, giving white hair. Mutations are random The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Because several genes, each with more than one allele, contribute to determining height in humans, height is considered what kind of trait? A. polygenic B. maladaptive C. epigenetic D. adaptive Answer:
sciq-1817	multiple_choice	In police radar, a radar gun sends out short bursts of which waves?	[ "microwaves", "soundwaves", "electrodes", "photons" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A radar system uses a radio-frequency electromagnetic signal reflected from a target to determine information about that target. In any radar system, the signal transmitted and received will exhibit many of the characteristics described below. In the time domain The diagram below shows the characteristics of the transmitted signal in the time domain. Note that in this and in all the diagrams within this article, the x axis is exaggerated to make the explanation clearer. Carrier The carrier is an RF signal, typically of microwave frequencies, which is usually (but not always) modulated to allow the system to capture the required data. In simple ranging radars, the carrier will be pulse modulated and in continuous wave systems, such as Doppler radar, modulation may not be required. Most systems use pulse modulation, with or without other supplementary modulating signals. Note that with pulse modulation, the carrier is simply switched on and off in sync with the pulses; the modulating waveform does not actually exist in the transmitted signal and the envelope of the pulse waveform is extracted from the demodulated carrier in the receiver. Although obvious when described, this point is often missed when pulse transmissions are first studied, leading to misunderstandings about the nature of the signal. Pulse width The pulse width () (or pulse duration) of the transmitted signal is the time, typically in microseconds, each pulse lasts. If the pulse is not a perfect square wave, the time is typically measured between the 50% power levels of the rising and falling edges of the pulse. The pulse width must be long enough to ensure that the radar emits sufficient energy so that the reflected pulse is detectable by its receiver. The amount of energy that can be delivered to a distant target is the product of two things; the peak output power of the transmitter, and the duration of the transmission. Therefore, pulse width constrains the maximum detection range of a t Document 1::: The history of radar (where radar stands for radio detection and ranging) started with experiments by Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century that showed that radio waves were reflected by metallic objects. This possibility was suggested in James Clerk Maxwell's seminal work on electromagnetism. However, it was not until the early 20th century that systems able to use these principles were becoming widely available, and it was German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer who first used them to build a simple ship detection device intended to help avoid collisions in fog (Reichspatent Nr. 165546). True radar, such as the British Chain Home early warning system provided directional information to objects over short ranges, were developed over the next two decades. The development of systems able to produce short pulses of radio energy was the key advance that allowed modern radar systems to come into existence. By timing the pulses on an oscilloscope, the range could be determined and the direction of the antenna revealed the angular location of the targets. The two, combined, produced a "fix", locating the target relative to the antenna. In the 1934–1939 period, eight nations developed independently, and in great secrecy, systems of this type: the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, the USSR, Japan, the Netherlands, France, and Italy. In addition, Britain shared their information with the United States and four Commonwealth countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa, and these countries also developed their own radar systems. During the war, Hungary was added to this list. The term RADAR was coined in 1939 by the United States Signal Corps as it worked on these systems for the Navy. Progress during the war was rapid and of great importance, probably one of the decisive factors for the victory of the Allies. A key development was the magnetron in the UK, which allowed the creation of relatively small systems with sub-meter resolution. By the end of Document 2::: Pulse-Doppler signal processing is a radar and CEUS performance enhancement strategy that allows small high-speed objects to be detected in close proximity to large slow moving objects. Detection improvements on the order of 1,000,000:1 are common. Small fast moving objects can be identified close to terrain, near the sea surface, and inside storms. This signal processing strategy is used in pulse-Doppler radar and multi-mode radar, which can then be pointed into regions containing a large number of slow-moving reflectors without overwhelming computer software and operators. Other signal processing strategies, like moving target indication, are more appropriate for benign clear blue sky environments. It is also used to measure blood flow in Doppler ultrasonography. Environment Pulse-Doppler begins with coherent pulses transmitted through an antenna or transducer. There is no modulation on the transmit pulse. Each pulse is a perfectly clean slice of a perfect coherent tone. The coherent tone is produced by the local oscillator. There can be dozens of transmit pulses between the antenna and the reflector. In a hostile environment, there can be millions of other reflections from slow moving or stationary objects. Transmit pulses are sent at the pulse repetition frequency. Energy from the transmit pulses propagate through space until they are disrupted by reflectors. This disruption causes some of the transmit energy to be reflected back to the radar antenna or transducer, along with phase modulation caused by motion. The same tone that is used to generate the transmit pulses is also used to down-convert the received signals to baseband. The reflected energy that has been down-converted to baseband is sampled. Sampling begins after each transmit pulse is extinguished. This is the quiescent phase of the transmitter. The quiescent phase is divided into equally spaced sample intervals. Samples are collected until the radar begins to fire another transmit pulse. Document 3::: Victor Henry Rumsey (November 22, 1919 – March 11, 2015) was an electrical engineer, best known for his studies of frequency-independent antennas. Rumsey was born in Devizes, Wiltshire, England, on Saint Cecilia's day, and received his BA in mathematics (1941) and Sc.D. in physics from Cambridge University. From 1941–1945 he performed radar research at the Telecommunications Research Establishment in England and the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. After three years at the Canadian Atomic Research Laboratory he became director of the Antenna Laboratory at Ohio State University. In 1954 he moved to the University of Illinois, in 1957 to the University of California, Berkeley, and in 1966 to the University of California, San Diego where he was a professor and, later, professor emeritus. Starting in the 1950s, Rumsey suggested the basic principles for frequency-independent antennas which culminated in the writing of a book on the topic (see selected works below). Rumsey is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, and has received an honorary Doctor of Engineering degree from Tohoku University, Japan, the 1962 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award, and the 2004 John Kraus Antenna Award. Selected works "Frequency-Independent Antennas", IRE National Convention Record, vol. 5, part 1, 1957, pages 114-118. Frequency Independent Antennas, New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1966. Document 4::: Monopulse radar is a radar system that uses additional encoding of the radio signal to provide accurate directional information. The name refers to its ability to extract range and direction from a single signal pulse. Monopulse radar avoids problems seen in conical scanning radar systems, which can be confused by rapid changes in signal strength. The system also makes jamming more difficult. Most radars designed since the 1960s are monopulse systems. The monopulse method is also used in passive systems, such as electronic support measures and radio astronomy. Monopulse radar systems can be constructed with reflector antennas, lens antennas or array antennas. Historically, monopulse systems have been classified as either phase-comparison monopulse or amplitude monopulse. Modern systems determine the direction from the monopulse ratio, which contain both amplitude and phase information. The monopulse method does not require that the measured signals are pulsed. The alternative name "simultaneous lobing" has therefore been suggested, but not popularized. Background Conical scan Conical scanning is not considered to be a form of monopulse radar, but the following summary provides background that can aid understanding. Conical scan systems send out a signal slightly to one side of the antenna's boresight and then rotate the feed horn to make the lobe rotate around the boresight line. A target centered on the boresight is always slightly illuminated by the lobe, and provides a strong return. If the target is to one side, it will be illuminated only when the lobe is pointed in that general direction, resulting in a weaker signal overall (or a flashing one if the rotation is slow enough). This varying signal will reach a maximum when the antenna is rotated so it is aligned in the direction of the target. By looking for this maximum and moving the antenna in that direction, a target can be automatically tracked. This is greatly eased by using two antennas, angled The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. In police radar, a radar gun sends out short bursts of which waves? A. microwaves B. soundwaves C. electrodes D. photons Answer:
sciq-1576	multiple_choice	Which electromagnetic waves are the most energetic of all electromagnetic waves?	[ "ultraviolet rays", "gamma rays", "sunlight rays", "plasma rays" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Photon energy is the energy carried by a single photon. The amount of energy is directly proportional to the photon's electromagnetic frequency and thus, equivalently, is inversely proportional to the wavelength. The higher the photon's frequency, the higher its energy. Equivalently, the longer the photon's wavelength, the lower its energy. Photon energy can be expressed using any unit of energy. Among the units commonly used to denote photon energy are the electronvolt (eV) and the joule (as well as its multiples, such as the microjoule). As one joule equals 6.24 × 1018 eV, the larger units may be more useful in denoting the energy of photons with higher frequency and higher energy, such as gamma rays, as opposed to lower energy photons as in the optical and radio frequency regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Formulas Physics Photon energy is directly proportional to frequency. where is energy (Typically in Joules) is the Planck constant is frequency (Typically in Hertz) This equation is known as the Planck–Einstein relation. Additionally, where E is photon energy λ is the photon's wavelength c is the speed of light in vacuum h is the Planck constant The photon energy at 1 Hz is equal to 6.62607015 × 10−34 J That is equal to 4.135667697 × 10−15 eV Electronvolt Energy is often measured in electronvolts. To find the photon energy in electronvolts using the wavelength in micrometres, the equation is approximately since eVm where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light in m/sec, and e is the electron charge. The photon energy of near infrared radiation at 1 μm wavelength is approximately 1.2398 eV. Examples An FM radio station transmitting at 100 MHz emits photons with an energy of about 4.1357 × 10−7 eV. This minuscule amount of energy is approximately 8 × 10−13 times the electron's mass (via mass-energy equivalence). Very-high-energy gamma rays have photon energies of 100 GeV to over 1 PeV (1011 to 1015 electronvolts) or 16 nanojo Document 1::: A high-intensity radiated field (HIRF) is radio-frequency energy of a strength sufficient to adversely affect either a living organism or the performance of a device subjected to it. A microwave oven is an example of this principle put to controlled, safe use. Radio-frequency (RF) energy is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation – its effects on tissue are through heating. Electronic components are affected via rectification of the RF and a corresponding shift in the bias points of the components in the field. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set limits for the amounts of RF energy exposure permitted in a standard work-day. History The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and industry EMC leaders have periodically met to define the adequacy of protection requirements for civil avionics from outside interference since 1980. In 1986 The FAA Technical Center contracted for a definition of the electromagnetic environment for civil aviation. This study was performed by the Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis Center (ECAC). The study has shown levels of exposure to this threat as high as four orders of magnitude (10000 times) higher than the then current civil aircraft EMC susceptibility test certification standards of 1 volt/meter (DO-160). This environment was also two orders of magnitude higher (100 times) than the then prevailing military avionics systems test standards (MIL-STD 461/462). Units of measurement An RF electromagnetic wave has both an electric and a magnetic component (electric field and magnetic field), and it is often convenient to express the intensity of the RF environment at a given location in terms of units specific to each component. For example, the unit "volts per meter" (V/m) is used to express the strength of the electric field (electric "field strength"), and the unit "amperes per meter" (A/m) is used to express the strength of the magnetic field (magnetic "field stren Document 2::: Optical radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a type of non-ionising radiation (NIR), with electromagnetic fields (EMFs). Types Optical radiation may be distinguished in: artificial optical radiation: produced by artificial sources, including coherent sources (lasers) and non-coherent sources (i.e. all the other artificial sources, such as UV lights, common light bulbs, radiant heaters, welding equipment, etc.). natural optical radiation: produced by the sun (that is a non-coherent source). It is subdivided into ultraviolet radiation (UV), the spectrum of light visible for man (VIS) and infrared radiation (IR). It ranges between wavelengths of 100 nm to 1 mm. Electromagnetic waves in this range obey the laws of optics – they can be focused and refracted with lenses, for example. Effects Exposure to optical radiation can result in negative health effects. All wavelengths across this range of the spectrum, from UV to IR, can produce thermal injury to the surface layers of the skin, including the eye. When it comes from natural sources, this sort of thermal injury might be called a sunburn. However, thermal injury from infrared radiation could also occur in a workplace, such as a foundry, where such radiation is generated by industrial processes. At the other end of this range, UV light has enough photon energy that it can cause direct effects to protein structure in tissues, and is well established as carcinogenic in humans. Occupational exposures to UV light occur in welding and brazing operations, for example. Excessive exposure to natural or artificial UV-radiation means immediate (acute) and long-term (chronic) damage to the eye and skin. Occupational exposure limits may be one of two types: rate limited or dose limited. Rate limits characterize the exposure based on effective energy (radiance or irradiance, depending on the type of radiation and the health effect of concern) per area per time, and dose limits characterize the exp Document 3::: Terahertz radiation – also known as submillimeter radiation, terahertz waves, tremendously high frequency (THF), T-rays, T-waves, T-light, T-lux or THz – consists of electromagnetic waves within the ITU-designated band of frequencies from 0.3 to 3 terahertz (THz), although the upper boundary is somewhat arbitrary and is considered by some sources as 30 THz. One terahertz is 1012 Hz or 1000 GHz. Wavelengths of radiation in the terahertz band correspondingly range from 1 mm to 0.1 mm = 100 µm. Because terahertz radiation begins at a wavelength of around 1 millimeter and proceeds into shorter wavelengths, it is sometimes known as the submillimeter band, and its radiation as submillimeter waves, especially in astronomy. This band of electromagnetic radiation lies within the transition region between microwave and far infrared, and can be regarded as either. At some frequencies, terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by the gases of the atmosphere, and in air is attenuated to zero within a few meters, so it is not practical for terrestrial radio communication at such frequencies. However, there are frequency windows in Earth's atmosphere, where the terahertz radiation could propagate up to 1 km or even longer depending on atmospheric conditions. The most important is the 0.3 THz band that will be used for 6G communications. It can penetrate thin layers of materials but is blocked by thicker objects. THz beams transmitted through materials can be used for material characterization, layer inspection, relief measurement, and as a lower-energy alternative to X-rays for producing high resolution images of the interior of solid objects. Terahertz radiation occupies a middle ground where the ranges of microwaves and infrared light waves overlap, known as the “terahertz gap”; it is called a “gap” because the technology for its generation and manipulation is still in its infancy. The generation and modulation of electromagnetic waves in this frequency range ceases to be pos Document 4::: The IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal was a science award presented by the IEEE for outstanding achievements in the field of electromagnetic waves. The medal was named in honour of German physicist Heinrich Hertz, and was first proposed in 1986 by IEEE Region 8 (Germany) as a centennial recognition of Hertz's work on electromagnetic radiation theory from 1886 to 1891. The medal was first awarded in 1988, and was presented annually until 2001. It was officially discontinued in November 2009. Recipients 1988: Hans-Georg Unger (Technical University at Brunswick, Germany) for outstanding merits in radio-frequency science, particularly the theory of dielectric wave guides and their application in modern wide-band communication. 1989: Nathan Marcuvitz (Polytechnic University of New York, United States) for fundamental theoretical and experimental contributions to the engineering formulation of electromagnetic field theory. 1990: John D. Kraus (Ohio State University, United States) for pioneering work in radio astronomy and the development of the helical antenna and the corner reflector antenna. 1991: Leopold B. Felsen (Polytechnic University of New York, United States) for highly original and significant developments in the theories of propagation, diffraction and dispersion of electromagnetic waves. 1992: James R. Wait (University of Arizona, United States) for fundamental contributions to electromagnetic theory, to the study of propagation of Hertzian waves through the atmosphere, ionosphere and the Earth, and to their applications in communications, navigation and geophysical exploration. 1993: Kenneth Budden (Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom) for major original contributions to the theory of electromagnetic waves in ionized media with applications to terrestrial and space communications. 1994: Ronald N. Bracewell (Stanford University, United States) for pioneering work in antenna aperture synthesis and image reconstruction as applied to radioast The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Which electromagnetic waves are the most energetic of all electromagnetic waves? A. ultraviolet rays B. gamma rays C. sunlight rays D. plasma rays Answer:
ai2_arc-432	multiple_choice	Which upgrade to a school will most likely reduce the school's consumption of nonrenewable resources?	[ "solar-collection panels", "high-speed computers", "wireless Internet connections", "biodegradable carpeting" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 1::: The Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Network or STEMNET is an educational charity in the United Kingdom that seeks to encourage participation at school and college in science and engineering-related subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and (eventually) work. History It is based at Woolgate Exchange near Moorgate tube station in London and was established in 1996. The chief executive is Kirsten Bodley. The STEMNET offices are housed within the Engineering Council. Function Its chief aim is to interest children in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Primary school children can start to have an interest in these subjects, leading secondary school pupils to choose science A levels, which will lead to a science career. It supports the After School Science and Engineering Clubs at schools. There are also nine regional Science Learning Centres. STEM ambassadors To promote STEM subjects and encourage young people to take up jobs in these areas, STEMNET have around 30,000 ambassadors across the UK. these come from a wide selection of the STEM industries and include TV personalities like Rob Bell. Funding STEMNET used to receive funding from the Department for Education and Skills. Since June 2007, it receives funding from the Department for Children, Schools and Families and Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills, since STEMNET sits on the chronological dividing point (age 16) of both of the new departments. See also The WISE Campaign Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council National Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics Association for Science Education Glossary of areas of mathematics Glossary of astronomy Glossary of biology Glossary of chemistry Glossary of engineering Glossary of physics Document 2::: The STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) pipeline is a critical infrastructure for fostering the development of future scientists, engineers, and problem solvers. It's the educational and career pathway that guides individuals from early childhood through to advanced research and innovation in STEM-related fields. Description The "pipeline" metaphor is based on the idea that having sufficient graduates requires both having sufficient input of students at the beginning of their studies, and retaining these students through completion of their academic program. The STEM pipeline is a key component of workplace diversity and of workforce development that ensures sufficient qualified candidates are available to fill scientific and technical positions. The STEM pipeline was promoted in the United States from the 1970s onwards, as “the push for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education appears to have grown from a concern for the low number of future professionals to fill STEM jobs and careers and economic and educational competitiveness.” Today, this metaphor is commonly used to describe retention problems in STEM fields, called “leaks” in the pipeline. For example, the White House reported in 2012 that 80% of minority groups and women who enroll in a STEM field switch to a non-STEM field or drop out during their undergraduate education. These leaks often vary by field, gender, ethnic and racial identity, socioeconomic background, and other factors, drawing attention to structural inequities involved in STEM education and careers. Current efforts The STEM pipeline concept is a useful tool for programs aiming at increasing the total number of graduates, and is especially important in efforts to increase the number of underrepresented minorities and women in STEM fields. Using STEM methodology, educational policymakers can examine the quantity and retention of students at all stages of the K–12 educational process and beyo Document 3::: Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women. The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development. Current status of girls and women in STEM education Overall trends in STEM education Gender differences in STEM education participation are already visible in early childhood care and education in science- and math-related play, and become more pronounced at higher levels of education. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Female students represent 35% of all students enrolled in STEM-related fields of study at this level globally. Differences are also observed by disciplines, with female enrollment lowest in engineering, manufacturing and construction, natural science, mathematics and statistics and ICT fields. Significant regional and country differences in female representation in STEM studies can be observed, though, suggesting the presence of contextual factors affecting girls’ and women's engagement in these fields. Women leave STEM disciplines in disproportionate numbers during their higher education studies, in their transition to the world of work and even in their career cycle. Learning achievement in STEM education Data on gender differences in learning achievement present a complex picture, depending on what is measured (subject, knowledge acquisition against knowledge application), the level of education/age of students, and Document 4::: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is an umbrella term used to group together the distinct but related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The term is typically used in the context of education policy or curriculum choices in schools. It has implications for workforce development, national security concerns (as a shortage of STEM-educated citizens can reduce effectiveness in this area), and immigration policy, with regard to admitting foreign students and tech workers. There is no universal agreement on which disciplines are included in STEM; in particular, whether or not the science in STEM includes social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, economics, and political science. In the United States, these are typically included by organizations such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Labor's O*Net online database for job seekers, and the Department of Homeland Security. In the United Kingdom, the social sciences are categorized separately and are instead grouped with humanities and arts to form another counterpart acronym HASS (Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences), rebranded in 2020 as SHAPE (Social Sciences, Humanities and the Arts for People and the Economy). Some sources also use HEAL (health, education, administration, and literacy) as the counterpart of STEM. Terminology History Previously referred to as SMET by the NSF, in the early 1990s the acronym STEM was used by a variety of educators, including Charles E. Vela, the founder and director of the Center for the Advancement of Hispanics in Science and Engineering Education (CAHSEE). Moreover, the CAHSEE started a summer program for talented under-represented students in the Washington, D.C., area called the STEM Institute. Based on the program's recognized success and his expertise in STEM education, Charles Vela was asked to serve on numerous NSF and Congressional panels in science, mathematics, and engineering edu The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Which upgrade to a school will most likely reduce the school's consumption of nonrenewable resources? A. solar-collection panels B. high-speed computers C. wireless Internet connections D. biodegradable carpeting Answer:
ai2_arc-299	multiple_choice	Sonar equipment sends waves into deep water and measures the	[ "time delay of the reflected waves.", "refraction of the transmitted waves.", "direction of the transmitted waves.", "interference of the transmitted and reflected waves." ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Acoustical intelligence (ACOUSTINT, sometimes ACINT) is an intelligence gathering discipline that collects and processes acoustic phenomena. It is a subdiscipline of MASINT (Measurement and Signature Intelligence). This uses broadband and narrowband analysis of acquired acoustic signatures from surface ships and submarines, although it can also be used for low-flying aircraft such as helicopters. Broadband analysis concerns the overall noise created by a platform, whereas narrowband analysis examines the spectra of the received energy at a more precise level. Broadband analysis is useful for identifying any vessel at a long range, whereas narrowband analysis is generally more useful for identifying the category, type and ideally the individual vessel name. The category might be for example differentiating between a commercial vessel and a warship; the type might be narrowing this down to an individual class and hence identifying nationality, and the individual name might identify the specific ship or submarine. As a simple example, narrowband analysis might identify whether a subject of interest has single or multiple propeller shafts; how many blades per shaft and other salients that may help identify the platform. This may include the fundamental or harmonic emissions based on the electric services used, the gearing between shaft and engine and also the combination of gear teeth used in the ratio(s). For nuclear vessels, necessary pump frequencies can be detected. It is possible for an expert to work out how many gears, teeth and ratios are used from engine right through to propeller; this can be used to identify a particular type. Sometimes, there are machining faults - however small - introduced at the manufacturing stage. This can help to identify individual platforms. See also Acoustic cryptanalysis Document 1::: A sound speed profile shows the speed of sound in water at different vertical levels. It has two general representations: tabular form, with pairs of columns corresponding to ocean depth and the speed of sound at that depth, respectively. a plot of the speed of sound in the ocean as a function of depth, where the vertical axis corresponds to the depth and the horizontal axis corresponds to the sound speed. By convention, the horizontal axis is placed at the top of the plot, and the vertical axis is labeled with values that increase from top to bottom, thus reproducing visually the ocean from its surface downward. Table 1 shows an example of the first representation; figure 1 shows the same information using the second representation. Although given as a function of depth, the speed of sound in the ocean does not depend solely on depth. Rather, for a given depth, the speed of sound depends on the temperature at that depth, the depth itself, and the salinity at that depth, in that order. The speed of sound in the ocean at different depths can be measured directly, e.g., by using a velocimeter, or, using measurements of temperature and salinity at different depths, it can be calculated using a number of different sound speed formulae which have been developed. Examples of such formulae include those by Wilson, Chen and Millero ,and Mackenzie. Each such formulation applies within specific limits of the independent variables. From the shape of the sound speed profile in figure 1, one can see the effect of the order of importance of temperature and depth on sound speed. Near the surface, where temperatures are generally highest, the sound speed is often highest because the effect of temperature on sound speed dominates. Further down the water column, sound speed also decreases as temperature decreases in the ocean thermocline, and sound speed also decreases. At a certain point, however, the effect of depth, i.e., pressure, begins to dominate, and the sound s Document 2::: This is a list of wave topics. 0–9 21 cm line A Abbe prism Absorption spectroscopy Absorption spectrum Absorption wavemeter Acoustic wave Acoustic wave equation Acoustics Acousto-optic effect Acousto-optic modulator Acousto-optics Airy disc Airy wave theory Alfvén wave Alpha waves Amphidromic point Amplitude Amplitude modulation Animal echolocation Antarctic Circumpolar Wave Antiphase Aquamarine Power Arrayed waveguide grating Artificial wave Atmospheric diffraction Atmospheric wave Atmospheric waveguide Atom laser Atomic clock Atomic mirror Audience wave Autowave Averaged Lagrangian B Babinet's principle Backward wave oscillator Bandwidth-limited pulse beat Berry phase Bessel beam Beta wave Black hole Blazar Bloch's theorem Blueshift Boussinesq approximation (water waves) Bow wave Bragg diffraction Bragg's law Breaking wave Bremsstrahlung, Electromagnetic radiation Brillouin scattering Bullet bow shockwave Burgers' equation Business cycle C Capillary wave Carrier wave Cherenkov radiation Chirp Ernst Chladni Circular polarization Clapotis Closed waveguide Cnoidal wave Coherence (physics) Coherence length Coherence time Cold wave Collimated light Collimator Compton effect Comparison of analog and digital recording Computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere Continuous phase modulation Continuous wave Convective heat transfer Coriolis frequency Coronal mass ejection Cosmic microwave background radiation Coulomb wave function Cutoff frequency Cutoff wavelength Cymatics D Damped wave Decollimation Delta wave Dielectric waveguide Diffraction Direction finding Dispersion (optics) Dispersion (water waves) Dispersion relation Dominant wavelength Doppler effect Doppler radar Douglas Sea Scale Draupner wave Droplet-shaped wave Duhamel's principle E E-skip Earthquake Echo (phenomenon) Echo sounding Echolocation (animal) Echolocation (human) Eddy (fluid dynamics) Edge wave Eikonal equation Ekman layer Ekman spiral Ekman transport El Niño–Southern Oscillation El Document 3::: In acoustics, dynamic aperture is analogous to aperture in photography. The arrays in side-scan sonar can be programmed to transmit just a few elements at a time or all the elements at once. The more elements transmitting, the narrower the beam and the better the resolution. The ratio of the imaging depth to the aperture size is known as the F-number. Dynamic aperture is keeping this number constant by growing the aperture with the imaging depth until the physical aperture cannot be increased. A modern medical ultrasound machine has a typical F-number of 0.5. Side Scan Sonar systems produce images by forming angular “beams”. Beam width is determined by length of the sonar array, narrower beams resolve finer detail. Longer arrays with narrower beams provide finer spatial resolution. Acoustics Document 4::: Sonar systems are generally used underwater for range finding and detection. Active sonar emits an acoustic signal, or pulse of sound, into the water. The sound bounces off the target object and returns an “echo” to the sonar transducer. Unlike active sonar, passive sonar does not emit its own signal, which is an advantage for military vessels. But passive sonar cannot measure the range of an object unless it is used in conjunction with other passive listening devices. Multiple passive sonar devices must be used for triangulation of a sound source. No matter whether active sonar or passive sonar, the information included in the reflected signal can not be used without technical signal processing. To extract the useful information from the mixed signal, some steps are taken to transfer the raw acoustic data. Active Sonar For active sonar, six steps are needed during the signal processing system. Signal generation To generate a signal pulse typical analog implementations are oscillators and voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) which are followed by modulators. Amplitude modulation is used to weight the pulse envelopes and to translate the signal spectrum up to some suitable carrier frequency for transmission. First, in sonar system, the acoustic pressure field can be represented as . The field function includes four variables: time and spatial coordinate . Thus, according to the Fourier transform, in frequency domain In the formula is temporal frequency and is spatial frequency. We often define as elemental signal, for the reason that any 4-D can be generated by taking a linear combination of elemental signals. Obviously, the direction of gives the direction of propagation of waves, and the speed of the waves is The wavelength is Temporal sampling In modern world, digital computers do contribute a lot to higher speed and efficiency in data analysis. Thus, it is necessary to convert an analog signal into a digital signal by sample the signal in time domai The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Sonar equipment sends waves into deep water and measures the A. time delay of the reflected waves. B. refraction of the transmitted waves. C. direction of the transmitted waves. D. interference of the transmitted and reflected waves. Answer:
sciq-6122	multiple_choice	What is made up of a watery substance called cytosol and contains other cell structures such as ribosomes?	[ "cytoplasm", "plasma", "cytoskeleton", "rna" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA, double stranded macromolecule that carries the hereditary information of the cell and found in all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence. Examples include macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, biomolecular complexes such as a ribosome, and structures such as membranes, and organelles. While the majority of cellular components are located within the cell itself, some may exist in extracellular areas of an organism. Cellular components may also be called biological matter or biological material. Most biological matter has the characteristics of soft matter, being governed by relatively small energies. All known life is made of biological matter. To be differentiated from other theoretical or fictional life forms, such life may be called carbon-based, cellular, organic, biological, or even simply living – as some definitions of life exclude hypothetical types of biochemistry. See also Cell (biology) Cell biology Biomolecule Organelle Tissue (biology) External links https://web.archive.org/web/20130918033010/http://bioserv.fiu.edu/~walterm/FallSpring/review1_fall05_chap_cell3.htm Document 1::: Endoplasm generally refers to the inner (often granulated), dense part of a cell's cytoplasm. This is opposed to the ectoplasm which is the outer (non-granulated) layer of the cytoplasm, which is typically watery and immediately adjacent to the plasma membrane. The nucleus is separated from the endoplasm by the nuclear envelope. The different makeups/viscosities of the endoplasm and ectoplasm contribute to the amoeba's locomotion through the formation of a pseudopod. However, other types of cells have cytoplasm divided into endo- and ectoplasm. The endoplasm, along with its granules, contains water, nucleic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, inorganic ions, lipids, enzymes, and other molecular compounds. It is the site of most cellular processes as it houses the organelles that make up the endomembrane system, as well as those that stand alone. The endoplasm is necessary for most metabolic activities, including cell division. The endoplasm, like the cytoplasm, is far from static. It is in a constant state of flux through intracellular transport, as vesicles are shuttled between organelles and to/from the plasma membrane. Materials are regularly both degraded and synthesized within the endoplasm based on the needs of the cell and/or organism. Some components of the cytoskeleton run throughout the endoplasm though most are concentrated in the ectoplasm - towards the cells edges, closer to the plasma membrane. The endoplasm's granules are suspended in cytosol. Granules The term granule refers to a small particle within the endoplasm, typically the secretory vesicles. The granule is the defining characteristic of the endoplasm, as they are typically not present within the ectoplasm. These offshoots of the endomembrane system are enclosed by a phospholipid bilayer and can fuse with other organelles as well as the plasma membrane. Their membrane is only semipermeable and allows them to house substances that could be harmful to the cell if they were allowed to flow fre Document 2::: Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism. Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure. General characteristics There are two types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes were the first of the two to develop and do not have a self-contained nucleus. Their mechanisms are simpler than later-evolved eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus that envelops the cell's DNA and some organelles. Prokaryotes Prokaryotes have DNA located in an area called the nucleoid, which is not separated from other parts of the cell by a membrane. There are two domains of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotes have fewer organelles than eukaryotes. Both have plasma membranes and ribosomes (structures that synthesize proteins and float free in cytoplasm). Two unique characteristics of prokaryotes are fimbriae (finger-like projections on the surface of a cell) and flagella (threadlike structures that aid movement). Eukaryotes Eukaryotes have a nucleus where DNA is contained. They are usually larger than prokaryotes and contain many more organelles. The nucleus, the feature of a eukaryote that distinguishes it from a prokaryote, contains a nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin. In cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) synthesizes membranes and performs other metabolic activities. There are two types, rough ER (containing ribosomes) and smooth ER (lacking ribosomes). The Golgi apparatus consists of multiple membranous sacs, responsible for manufacturing and shipping out materials such as proteins. Lysosomes are structures that use enzymes to break down substances through phagocytosis, a process that comprises endocytosis and exocytosis. In the mitochondria, metabolic processes such as cellular respiration occur. The cytoskeleton is made of fibers that support the str Document 3::: In cell biology, microtrabeculae were a hypothesised fourth element of the cytoskeleton (the other three being microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments), proposed by Keith Porter based on images obtained from high-voltage electron microscopy of whole cells in the 1970s. The images showed short, filamentous structures of unknown molecular composition associated with known cytoplasmic structures. It is now generally accepted that microtrabeculae are nothing more than an artifact of certain types of fixation treatment, although the complexity of the cell's cytoskeleton is not yet fully understood. Document 4::: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life. Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from the Latin word meaning 'small room'. Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell. Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms. The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology. Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago. Discovery With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology became advanced enough to discover cells. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, known as cell biology. When observing a piece of cork under the scope, he was able to see pores. This was shocking at the time as i The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is made up of a watery substance called cytosol and contains other cell structures such as ribosomes? A. cytoplasm B. plasma C. cytoskeleton D. rna Answer:
sciq-8044	multiple_choice	When does most amphibians' parenting end?	[ "once eggs have been laid", "after adolescence", "once offspring reach adulthood", "never" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: An associated reproductive pattern is a seasonal change in reproduction which is highly correlated with a change in gonad and associated hormone. Notable Model Organisms Parthenogenic Whiptail Lizards Document 1::: The Evolution of biparental care in tropical frogs is the evolution of the behaviour of a parental care system in frogs in which both the mother and father raise their offspring. Evolution Many tropical frogs have developed a parental care system where both the mother and father partake in raising their offspring. The evolution of biparental care, which is the joint effort of both parents, is a topic that is still under investigation. Biparentalism arose in some species of tropical frogs as a result of ecological conditions, the differences between the sexes, and their natural tendencies. Male parental care could have served as the basis for the development of biparental care. Phylogenetic evidence shows that male parental care is the ancestral strategy in Dendrobates. Currently there are Dendrobates species, such as D. ventrimaculatus and D. fantasticus, that exhibit biparental care. The trend of using males to guard or brood eggs for biparental care or paternal care can be understood from the perspective of the female. After oviposition, or when the eggs are laid, the females need to replenish their bodies that have been dedicated to nurturing the eggs before they can mate again. Brooding by the females would delay the opportunity to mate by about two to four weeks. Since this outcome would cause many males to compete for a few females that are able to mate, the males are favored for the brooding. Environment The environment can have a substantial impact on the uses of parental care. Not all tropical frogs have the ability to lay their eggs plainly on land or plants. Tropical frogs can choose from a variety of water sources, such as lakes, streams, and small puddles. There is greater risk involved with reproducing in bigger bodies of water because of the higher likelihood of fish and other aquatic predators being there. Instead, frogs can choose to place eggs in phytotelmata. However, there is a trade-off that comes with electing a smaller water source. Not m Document 2::: The common frog or grass frog (Rana temporaria), also known as the European common frog, European common brown frog, European grass frog, European Holarctic true frog, European pond frog or European brown frog, is a semi-aquatic amphibian of the family Ranidae, found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the Urals, except for most of the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, and the southern Balkans. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan. The nominative, and most common, subspecies Rana temporaria temporaria is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and can be found in Ireland, the Isle of Lewis and as far east as Japan. Common frogs metamorphose through three distinct developmental life stages — aquatic larva, terrestrial juvenile, and adult. They have corpulent bodies with a rounded snout, webbed feet and long hind legs adapted for swimming in water and hopping on land. Common frogs are often confused with the common toad (Bufo bufo), but frogs can easily be distinguished as they have longer legs, hop, and have a moist skin, whereas toads crawl and have a dry 'warty' skin. The spawn of the two species also differs, in that frog spawn is laid in clumps and toad spawn is laid in long strings. There are 3 subspecies of the common frog, R. t. temporaria, R. t. honnorati and R. t. palvipalmata. R. t. temporaria is the most common subspecies of this frog. Description The adult common frog has a body length of . In addition, its back and flanks vary in colour from olive green to grey-brown, brown, olive brown, grey, yellowish and rufous. However, it can lighten and darken its skin to match its surroundings. Some individuals have more unusual colouration—both black and red individuals have been found in Scotland, and albino frogs have been found with yellow skin and red eyes. During the mating season the male common frog tends to tu Document 3::: Amplexus (Latin "embrace") is a type of mating behavior exhibited by some externally fertilizing species (chiefly amphibians and horseshoe crabs) in which a male grasps a female with his front legs as part of the mating process, and at the same time or with some time delay, he fertilizes the eggs, as they are released from the female's body. In amphibians, females may be grasped by the head, waist, or armpits, and the type of amplexus is characteristic of some taxonomic groups. Amplexus involves direct contact between male and female, distinguished from other forms of external fertilization, such as broadcast spawning, where sperm and eggs are freely shed into water without direct contact by individuals. In order for amplexus to be initiated, male frogs must first find a mate by attracting one through calls, typically in the evening. Once a male has successfully attracted a mate, the process of amplexus begins, while the unsuccessful males are forced to continue their search for a mate through further calls. The competition for a female mate among males is considered intense, and it is not uncommon for a male amphibian to attack an already-amplexed pair of amphibians. When a male amphibian attacks an amplexed pair of amphibians, he is trying to force the other male to release its grasp of the female, so he can then mate with her. Male amphibians are also known to show mate-guarding behaviour, which is shown after amplexus, and it is the male's attempt to prevent the female amphibian from mating with other males. The duration of amplexus has been found to vary across species. In some species it may last for many days, while in others it may last a few hours. Despite the variation in the duration of amplexus across species, typically all species that exhibit this behaviour have to use their forelimb muscles for the duration of amplexus. Studies have found that this reproductive behaviour of amplexus can come with different fitness costs, due to the fact that ample Document 4::: AmphibiaWeb is an American non-profit website that provides information about amphibians. It is run by a group of universities working with the California Academy of Sciences: San Francisco State University, the University of California at Berkeley, University of Florida at Gainesville, and University of Texas at Austin. AmphibiaWeb's goal is to provide a single page for every species of amphibian in the world so research scientists, citizen scientists and conservationists can collaborate. It added its 7000th animal in 2012, a glass frog from Peru. As of 2022, it hosted more than 8,400 species located worldwide. Beginning Scientist David Wake founded AmphibiaWeb in 2000. Wake had been inspired by the decline of amphibian populations across the world. He founded it at the Digital Library Project at the University of California at Berkeley in 2000. Wake came to consider AmphibiaWeb part of his legacy. Uses AmphibiaWeb provides information to the IUCN, CalPhotos, Encyclopedia of Life and iNaturalist, and the database is cited in scientific publications. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. When does most amphibians' parenting end? A. once eggs have been laid B. after adolescence C. once offspring reach adulthood D. never Answer:
sciq-7950	multiple_choice	Copper oxide is a result of what two substances mixing?	[ "copper and oxygen", "crystal and oxygen", "copper and gas", "metal and oxygen" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Copper(II) oxide or cupric oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula CuO. A black solid, it is one of the two stable oxides of copper, the other being Cu2O or copper(I) oxide (cuprous oxide). As a mineral, it is known as tenorite. It is a product of copper mining and the precursor to many other copper-containing products and chemical compounds. Production It is produced on a large scale by pyrometallurgy, as one stage in extracting copper from its ores. The ores are treated with an aqueous mixture of ammonium carbonate, ammonia, and oxygen to give copper(I) and copper(II) ammine complexes, which are extracted from the solids. These complexes are decomposed with steam to give CuO. It can be formed by heating copper in air at around 300–800°C: 2 Cu + O2 → 2 CuO For laboratory uses, pure copper(II) oxide is better prepared by heating copper(II) nitrate, copper(II) hydroxide, or basic copper(II) carbonate: 2 Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2 CuO(s) + 4 NO2(g) + O2(g) (180°C) Cu2(OH)2CO3(s) → 2 CuO(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g) Cu(OH)2(s) → CuO(s) + H2O(g) Reactions Copper(II) oxide dissolves in mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid or nitric acid to give the corresponding copper(II) salts: CuO + 2 HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2O CuO + 2 HCl → CuCl2 + H2O CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O In presense of water It reacts with concentrated alkali to form the corresponding cuprate salts: 2 MOH + CuO + H2O → M2[Cu(OH)4] 2 NaOH + CuO + H2O → Na2[Cu(OH)4] Document 1::: Computer science and engineering (CSE) is an academic program at many universities which comprises computer science classes (e.g. data structures and algorithms) and computer engineering classes (e.g computer architecture). There is no clear division in computing between science and engineering, just like in the field of materials science and engineering. CSE is also a term often used in Europe to translate the name of engineering informatics academic programs. It is offered in both undergraduate as well postgraduate with specializations. Academic courses Academic programs vary between colleges, but typically include a combination of topics in computer science, computer engineering, and electrical engineering. Undergraduate courses usually include programming, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, operating systems, computer networks, parallel computing, embedded systems, algorithms design, circuit analysis and electronics, digital logic and processor design, computer graphics, scientific computing, software engineering, database systems, digital signal processing, virtualization, computer simulations and games programming. CSE programs also include core subjects of theoretical computer science such as theory of computation, numerical methods, machine learning, programming theory and paradigms. Modern academic programs also cover emerging computing fields like image processing, data science, robotics, bio-inspired computing, computational biology, autonomic computing and artificial intelligence. Most CSE programs require introductory mathematical knowledge, hence the first year of study is dominated by mathematical courses, primarily discrete mathematics, mathematical analysis, linear algebra, probability, and statistics, as well as the basics of electrical and electronic engineering, physics, and electromagnetism. Example universities with CSE majors and departments APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University American International University-B Document 2::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 3::: Copper(I) oxide or cuprous oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Cu2O. It is one of the principal oxides of copper, the other being or copper(II) oxide or cupric oxide (CuO). Cuprous oxide is a red-coloured solid and is a component of some antifouling paints. The compound can appear either yellow or red, depending on the size of the particles. Copper(I) oxide is found as the reddish mineral cuprite. Preparation Copper(I) oxide may be produced by several methods.<ref>H. Wayne Richardson "Copper Compounds in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. </ref> Most straightforwardly, it arises via the oxidation of copper metal: 4 Cu + O2 → 2 Cu2O Additives such as water and acids affect the rate of this process as well as the further oxidation to copper(II) oxides. It is also produced commercially by reduction of copper(II) solutions with sulfur dioxide. Reactions Aqueous cuprous chloride solutions react with base to give the same material. In all cases, the color is highly sensitive to the procedural details. Formation of copper(I) oxide is the basis of the Fehling's test and Benedict's test for reducing sugars. These sugars reduce an alkaline solution of a copper(II) salt, giving a bright red precipitate of Cu2O. It forms on silver-plated copper parts exposed to moisture when the silver layer is porous or damaged. This kind of corrosion is known as red plague. Little evidence exists for copper(I) hydroxide CuOH, which is expected to rapidly undergo dehydration. A similar situation applies to the hydroxides of gold(I) and silver(I). Properties The solid is diamagnetic. In terms of their coordination spheres, copper centres are 2-coordinated and the oxides are tetrahedral. The structure thus resembles in some sense the main polymorphs of SiO2, but cuprous oxide's lattices interpenetrate. Copper(I) oxide dissolves in concentrated ammonia solution to form the colourless complex [Cu(NH3)2]+, which is easily o Document 4::: Advanced Placement (AP) Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism (also known as AP Physics C: E&M or AP E&M) is an introductory physics course administered by the College Board as part of its Advanced Placement program. It is intended to proxy a second-semester calculus-based university course in electricity and magnetism. The content of Physics C: E&M overlaps with that of AP Physics 2, but Physics 2 is algebra-based and covers other topics outside of electromagnetism, while Physics C is calculus-based and only covers electromagnetism. Physics C: E&M may be combined with its mechanics counterpart to form a year-long course that prepares for both exams. Course content E&M is equivalent to an introductory college course in electricity and magnetism for physics or engineering majors. The course modules are: Electrostatics Conductors, capacitors, and dielectrics Electric circuits Magnetic fields Electromagnetism. Methods of calculus are used wherever appropriate in formulating physical principles and in applying them to physical problems. Therefore, students should have completed or be concurrently enrolled in a calculus class. AP test The course culminates in an optional exam for which high-performing students may receive some credit towards their college coursework, depending on the institution. Registration The AP examination for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism is separate from the AP examination for AP Physics C: Mechanics. Before 2006, test-takers paid only once and were given the choice of taking either one or two parts of the Physics C test. Format The exam is typically administered on a Monday afternoon in May. The exam is configured in two categories: a 35-question multiple choice section and a 3-question free response section. Test takers are allowed to use an approved calculator during the entire exam. The test is weighted such that each section is worth half of the final score. This and AP Physics C: Mechanics are the shortest AP exams, with The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Copper oxide is a result of what two substances mixing? A. copper and oxygen B. crystal and oxygen C. copper and gas D. metal and oxygen Answer:
sciq-563	multiple_choice	In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations and?	[ "somatic mutations", "elective mutations", "comparative mutations", "resultant mutations" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In biology, and especially in genetics, a mutant is an organism or a new genetic character arising or resulting from an instance of mutation, which is generally an alteration of the DNA sequence of the genome or chromosome of an organism. It is a characteristic that would not be observed naturally in a specimen. The term mutant is also applied to a virus with an alteration in its nucleotide sequence whose genome is in the nuclear genome. The natural occurrence of genetic mutations is integral to the process of evolution. The study of mutants is an integral part of biology; by understanding the effect that a mutation in a gene has, it is possible to establish the normal function of that gene. Mutants arise by mutation Mutants arise by mutations occurring in pre-existing genomes as a result of errors of DNA replication or errors of DNA repair. Errors of replication often involve translesion synthesis by a DNA polymerase when it encounters and bypasses a damaged base in the template strand. A DNA damage is an abnormal chemical structure in DNA, such as a strand break or an oxidized base, whereas a mutation, by contrast, is a change in the sequence of standard base pairs. Errors of repair occur when repair processes inaccurately replace a damaged DNA sequence. The DNA repair process microhomology-mediated end joining is particularly error-prone. Etymology Although not all mutations have a noticeable phenotypic effect, the common usage of the word "mutant" is generally a pejorative term, only used for genetically or phenotypically noticeable mutations. Previously, people used the word "sport" (related to spurt) to refer to abnormal specimens. The scientific usage is broader, referring to any organism differing from the wild type. The word finds its origin in the Latin term mūtant- (stem of mūtāns), which means "to change". Mutants should not be confused with organisms born with developmental abnormalities, which are caused by errors during morphogenesis. In a devel Document 1::: Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. Evolution holds that all species are related and gradually change over generations. In a population, the genetic variations affect the phenotypes (physical characteristics) of an organism. These changes in the phenotypes will be an advantage to some organisms, which will then be passed onto their offspring. Some examples of evolution in species over many generations are the peppered moth and flightless birds. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics, and paleontology. The investigational range of current research has widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. Moreover, the newer field of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") investigates how embryogenesis is controlled, thus yielding a wider synthesis that integrates developmental biology with the fields of study covered by the earlier evolutionary synthesis. Subfields Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of biological organization, from molecular to cell, organism to population. Another way is by perceived taxonomic group, with fields such as zoology, botany, and microbiology, reflecting what was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology, experimental evolution, and paleontology. These alternative ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with evolution Document 2::: A mutant protein is the protein product encoded by a gene with mutation. Mutated protein can have single amino acid change (minor, but still in many cases significant change leading to disease) or wide-range amino acid changes by e.g. truncation of C-terminus after introducing premature stop codon. See also Site-directed mutagenesis Phi value analysis missense mutation nonsense mutation point mutation frameshift mutation silent mutation single-nucleotide polymorphism Document 3::: The genotype–phenotype map is a conceptual model in genetic architecture. Coined in a 1991 paper by Pere Alberch, it models the interdependency of genotype (an organism's full hereditary information) with phenotype (an organism's actual observed properties). Application The map visualises a relationship between genotype & phenotype which, crucially: is of greater complexity than a straightforward one-to-one mapping of genotype to/from phenotype. accommodates a parameter space, along which at different points a given phenotype is said to be more or less stable. accommodates transformational boundaries in the parameter space, which divide phenotype states from one another. accounts for different polymorphism and/or polyphenism in populations, depending on their area of parameter space they occupy. Document 4::: A mutation accumulation (MA) experiment is a genetic experiment in which isolated and inbred lines of organisms (so-called MA lines) are maintained such that the effect of natural selection is minimized, with the aim of quantitatively estimating the rates at which spontaneous mutations (mutations not caused by exogenous mutagens) occur in the studied organism. Spontaneous mutation rates may be directly estimated using molecular techniques such as DNA sequencing, or indirectly estimated using phenotypic assays (observing how an organism’s phenotype changes as mutations accumulate). The earliest mutation accumulation experiments were performed by American geneticist Hermann Joseph Muller in the 1920s, using Drosophila melanogaster. Principles and procedures All MA lines used in a MA experiment are bred from a single common ancestor, and are often propagated by single-progeny descent, where a single offspring is randomly selected to sire the next generation of organisms. This serves to prevent the loss of mutant alleles through sexual reproduction. Notably, single-progeny descent is only possible if the organism being studied is capable of asexual reproduction or self-fertilization. A control line is maintained parallel to the MA lines and under the same conditions, except organisms are allowed to reproduce sexually (they are not constrained to single-progeny descent). The assumption underlying this procedure is that the larger, sexually reproducing population of the control line will cause all spontaneous mutations to be ‘weeded out’ by sexual reproduction. Mutations that arise in MA lines are heterozygous at first, and can become fixed or lost at random in subsequent generations. Thus, the control line will be relatively free of mutations, and can be compared with the MA lines to assess the impact of the mutations that have accumulated therein. Both the MA lines and the control line are maintained under relaxed natural selection, to minimize the strain that n The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations and? A. somatic mutations B. elective mutations C. comparative mutations D. resultant mutations Answer:
scienceQA-3157	multiple_choice	How long is a basketball court?	[ "28 feet", "28 inches", "28 miles", "28 yards" ]	D	The best estimate for the length of a basketball court is 28 yards. 28 inches and 28 feet are too short. 28 miles is too long.	Relavent Documents: Document 0::: A pre-STEM program is a course of study at any two-year college that prepares a student to transfer to a four-year school to earn a bachelor's degree in a STEM field. Overview The concept of a pre-STEM program is being developed to address America's need for more college-trained professionals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It is an innovation meant to fill a gap at community colleges that do not have 'major' degree paths that students identify with on their way to earning an Associates degree. Students must complete a considerable amount of STEM coursework before transferring from a two-year school to a four-year school and earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM field. Schools with a pre-STEM program are able to identify those students and support them with STEM-specific academic and career advising, increasing the student's chances of going on to earn a STEM baccalaureate degree in a timely fashion. With over 50% of America's college-bound students starting their college career at public or private two-year school, and with a very small proportion of students who start college at a two-year school matriculating to and earning STEM degrees from four-year schools, pre-STEM programs have great potential for broadening participation in baccalaureate STEM studies. Example programs The effectiveness of pre-STEM programs is being investigated by a consortium of schools in Missouri: Moberly Area Community College, St. Charles Community College, Metropolitan Community College, and Truman State University. A larger group of schools met at the Belknap Springs Meetings in October 2009 to discuss the challenges and opportunities presented by STEM-focused partnerships between 2-year and 4-year schools. Each program represented a two-year school and a four-year school that were trying to increase the number of people who earn a baccalaureate degree in a STEM area through various means, some of which were pre-STEM programs. Other methods includes Document 1::: My SAT Coach is a game on the Nintendo DS that helps students prepare for the SAT, a common standardized college-entry exam for American high school students. The Princeton Review partnered with Ubisoft to create the game. The game features several learning exercises that progress through three stages of learning. It contains Mini-Game Drills, Personal Follow-Up and The Real Expert. The game is intended to help students improve their SAT scores. Reception IGN stated it was not too bad and that it is "simple and easy to follow;" reviewer Jack Devries's final opinion was that "If your school offers an SAT prep course, I would definitely recommend that over this title, but if you didn't plan on studying at all, then My SAT Coach is probably better than nothing." IGN gave it 6.5. Document 2::: The Worcester County Mathematics League (WOCOMAL) is a high school mathematics league composed of 32 high schools, most of which are in Worcester County, Massachusetts. It organizes seven mathematics competitions per year, four at the "varsity" level (up to grade 12) and three at the "freshman" level (up to grade nine, including middle school students). In the 2013–14 school year, WOCOMAL began allowing older students to compete in the freshman level competitions, calling this level of participation "junior varsity." Top schools from the varsity competition are selected to attend the Massachusetts Association of Math Leagues state competition. Contest format A competition consists of four, or nine rounds at the Freshman level or five rounds at the Varsity level. The team round consists of eight problems at the Freshman level and nine at the Varsity level. Regardless of level, each student competes in three of the individual rounds. In each individual round, competing students have ten minutes to answer three questions, worth one, two, and three points. The maximum meet score for a student is eighteen points. History The Worcester County Mathematics League was originally formed in 1963 as the Southern Worcester County Mathematics League (Sowocomal). The winningest school in league history is St. John's High School, with twelve league championships in the fourteen-year span between 1983–84 and 1996–97. Algonquin Regional High School won six consecutive league championships from 1998–99 to 2003–04. Current events The league currently has members from Western Middlesex Counties. In the past, it has had members from Hampshire County, Massachusetts, and Windham County, Connecticut. In the 2015–16 season, the champion of both the varsity division and the freshman division was the Advanced Math and Science Academy Charter School. League members AMSA Charter, Worcester Academy, and Mass Academy and took first, second, and third place among small-sized schools a Document 3::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 4::: Advanced Placement (AP) Statistics (also known as AP Stats) is a college-level high school statistics course offered in the United States through the College Board's Advanced Placement program. This course is equivalent to a one semester, non-calculus-based introductory college statistics course and is normally offered to sophomores, juniors and seniors in high school. One of the College Board's more recent additions, the AP Statistics exam was first administered in May 1996 to supplement the AP program's math offerings, which had previously consisted of only AP Calculus AB and BC. In the United States, enrollment in AP Statistics classes has increased at a higher rate than in any other AP class. Students may receive college credit or upper-level college course placement upon passing the three-hour exam ordinarily administered in May. The exam consists of a multiple-choice section and a free-response section that are both 90 minutes long. Each section is weighted equally in determining the students' composite scores. History The Advanced Placement program has offered students the opportunity to pursue college-level courses while in high school. Along with the Educational Testing Service, the College Board administered the first AP Statistics exam in May 1997. The course was first taught to students in the 1996-1997 academic year. Prior to that, the only mathematics courses offered in the AP program included AP Calculus AB and BC. Students who didn't have a strong background in college-level math, however, found the AP Calculus program inaccessible and sometimes declined to take a math course in their senior year. Since the number of students required to take statistics in college is almost as large as the number of students required to take calculus, the College Board decided to add an introductory statistics course to the AP program. Since the prerequisites for such a program doesn't require mathematical concepts beyond those typically taught in a second-year al The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. How long is a basketball court? A. 28 feet B. 28 inches C. 28 miles D. 28 yards Answer:
ai2_arc-16	multiple_choice	A chemical property of a mineral is evident if the mineral	[ "breaks easily when struck with a hammer", "bubbles when acid is placed on it", "is easily scratched by a fingernail", "reflects light from its surface" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: Mineral tests are several methods which can help identify the mineral type. This is used widely in mineralogy, hydrocarbon exploration and general mapping. There are over 4000 types of minerals known with each one with different sub-classes. Elements make minerals and minerals make rocks so actually testing minerals in the lab and in the field is essential to understand the history of the rock which aids data, zonation, metamorphic history, processes involved and other minerals. The following tests are used on specimen and thin sections through polarizing microscope. Color Color of the mineral. This is not mineral specific. For example quartz can be almost any color, shape and within many rock types. Streak Color of the mineral's powder. This can be found by rubbing the mineral onto a concrete. This is more accurate but not always mineral specific. Lustre This is the way light reflects from the mineral's surface. A mineral can be metallic (shiny) or non-metallic (not shiny). Transparency The way light travels through minerals. The mineral can be transparent (clear), translucent (cloudy) or opaque (none). Specific gravity Ratio between the weight of the mineral relative to an equal volume of water. Mineral habitat The shape of the crystal and habitat. Magnetism Magnetic or nonmagnetic. Can be tested by using a magnet or a compass. This does not apply to all ion minerals (for example, pyrite). Cleavage Number, behaviour, size and way cracks fracture in the mineral. UV fluorescence Many minerals glow when put under a UV light. Radioactivity Is the mineral radioactive or non-radioactive? This is measured by a Geiger counter. Taste This is not recommended. Is the mineral salty, bitter or does it have no taste? Bite Test This is not recommended. This involves biting a mineral to see if its generally soft or hard. This was used in early gold exploration to tell the difference between pyrite (fools gold, hard) and gold (soft). Hardness The Mohs Hardn Document 2::: Materials science has shaped the development of civilizations since the dawn of mankind. Better materials for tools and weapons has allowed mankind to spread and conquer, and advancements in material processing like steel and aluminum production continue to impact society today. Historians have regarded materials as such an important aspect of civilizations such that entire periods of time have defined by the predominant material used (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age). For most of recorded history, control of materials had been through alchemy or empirical means at best. The study and development of chemistry and physics assisted the study of materials, and eventually the interdisciplinary study of materials science emerged from the fusion of these studies. The history of materials science is the study of how different materials were used and developed through the history of Earth and how those materials affected the culture of the peoples of the Earth. The term "Silicon Age" is sometimes used to refer to the modern period of history during the late 20th to early 21st centuries. Prehistory In many cases, different cultures leave their materials as the only records; which anthropologists can use to define the existence of such cultures. The progressive use of more sophisticated materials allows archeologists to characterize and distinguish between peoples. This is partially due to the major material of use in a culture and to its associated benefits and drawbacks. Stone-Age cultures were limited by which rocks they could find locally and by which they could acquire by trading. The use of flint around 300,000 BCE is sometimes considered the beginning of the use of ceramics. The use of polished stone axes marks a significant advance, because a much wider variety of rocks could serve as tools. The innovation of smelting and casting metals in the Bronze Age started to change the way that cultures developed and interacted with each other. Starting around 5,500 BCE, Document 3::: The Force Concept Inventory is a test measuring mastery of concepts commonly taught in a first semester of physics developed by Hestenes, Halloun, Wells, and Swackhamer (1985). It was the first such "concept inventory" and several others have been developed since for a variety of topics. The FCI was designed to assess student understanding of the Newtonian concepts of force. Hestenes (1998) found that while "nearly 80% of the [students completing introductory college physics courses] could state Newton's Third Law at the beginning of the course, FCI data showed that less than 15% of them fully understood it at the end". These results have been replicated in a number of studies involving students at a range of institutions (see sources section below), and have led to greater recognition in the physics education research community of the importance of students' "active engagement" with the materials to be mastered. The 1995 version has 30 five-way multiple choice questions. Example question (question 4): Gender differences The FCI shows a gender difference in favor of males that has been the subject of some research in regard to gender equity in education. Men score on average about 10% higher. Document 4::: A touchstone is a small tablet of dark stone such as slate or lydite, used for assaying precious metal alloys. It has a finely grained surface on which soft metals leave a visible trace. History The touchstone was used during the Harappa period of the Indus Valley civilization ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals. It was also used in Ancient Greece. The touchstone allowed anyone to easily and quickly determine the purity of a metal sample. This, in turn, led to the widespread adoption of gold as a standard of exchange. Although mixing gold with less expensive materials was common in coinage, using a touchstone one could easily determine the quantity of gold in the coin, and thereby calculate its intrinsic worth. Operation Drawing a line with gold on a touchstone will leave a visible trace. Because different alloys of gold have different colours (see gold), the unknown sample can be compared to samples of known purity. This method has been used since ancient times. In modern times, additional tests can be done. The trace will react in different ways to specific concentrations of nitric acid or aqua regia, thereby identifying the quality of the gold: 24 karat gold is not affected but 14 karat gold will show chemical activity. See also Litmus test Spot analysis Streak test The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. A chemical property of a mineral is evident if the mineral A. breaks easily when struck with a hammer B. bubbles when acid is placed on it C. is easily scratched by a fingernail D. reflects light from its surface Answer:
ai2_arc-42	multiple_choice	Where is the biological magnification of pollutants most likely to be the greatest?	[ "in an estuary", "in an open ocean", "at an intertidal zone", "at a hydrothermal vent" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The Bachelor of Science in Aquatic Resources and Technology (B.Sc. in AQT) (or Bachelor of Aquatic Resource) is an undergraduate degree that prepares students to pursue careers in the public, private, or non-profit sector in areas such as marine science, fisheries science, aquaculture, aquatic resource technology, food science, management, biotechnology and hydrography. Post-baccalaureate training is available in aquatic resource management and related areas. The Department of Animal Science and Export Agriculture, at the Uva Wellassa University of Badulla, Sri Lanka, has the largest enrollment of undergraduate majors in Aquatic Resources and Technology, with about 200 students as of 2014. The Council on Education for Aquatic Resources and Technology includes undergraduate AQT degrees in the accreditation review of Aquatic Resources and Technology programs and schools. See also Marine Science Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development Document 1::: Lake 227 is one of 58 lakes located in the Experimental Lakes Area (ELA) in the Kenora District of Ontario, Canada. Lake 227 is one of only 5 lakes in the Experimental Lakes Area currently involved in long-term research projects, and is of particular note for its importance in long term lake eutrophication studies. The relative absence human activity and pollution makes Lake 227 ideal for limnological research, and the nature of the ELA makes it one of the only places in the world accessible for full lake experiments. At its deepest, Lake 227 is 10 meters deep, and the area of the lake is approximately 5 hectares. Funding and governmental permissions for access to Lake 227 have been unstable in recent years, as control of the ELA was handed off by the Canadian government to the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Ecology Lake 227 is a freshwater lake. The ELA region is home to a variety of native fish, many of which are planktivorous. Fathead minnows, Fine-scale Dace, and Pearl Dace are all examples of fish that can be found in the lake. The presence of planktivorous fish reduces the relative abundance of larger zooplankton species in the lake, as species like the fathead minnow primarily feed on them. The fish populations in Lake 227 were removed in the 1990s, this resulted in a noticeable increase in the Chaoborus and daphnia populations, in the absence of predation. The removal of fish from the lake negates the top-down effect that repressed larger species of zooplankton and aquatic larvae. Research The research in lake 227 is mainly focused on the effects of manipulated nutrients on the interrelated independent variables of microorganism activity and eutrophication. Lake 227 was home to the longest running experiment ever to take place in the ELA. Lake eutrophication and nutrient factors Lake 227 has been used as a real life model for the study of the connection between nutrient input and lake eutrophication. The results of these Document 2::: Several universities have designed interdisciplinary courses with a focus on human biology at the undergraduate level. There is a wide variation in emphasis ranging from business, social studies, public policy, healthcare and pharmaceutical research. Americas Human Biology major at Stanford University, Palo Alto (since 1970) Stanford's Human Biology Program is an undergraduate major; it integrates the natural and social sciences in the study of human beings. It is interdisciplinary and policy-oriented and was founded in 1970 by a group of Stanford faculty (Professors Dornbusch, Ehrlich, Hamburg, Hastorf, Kennedy, Kretchmer, Lederberg, and Pittendrigh). It is a very popular major and alumni have gone to post-graduate education, medical school, law, business and government. Human and Social Biology (Caribbean) Human and Social Biology is a Level 4 & 5 subject in the secondary and post-secondary schools in the Caribbean and is optional for the Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) which is equivalent to Ordinary Level (O-Level) under the British school system. The syllabus centers on structure and functioning (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry) of human body and the relevance to human health with Caribbean-specific experience. The syllabus is organized under five main sections: Living organisms and the environment, life processes, heredity and variation, disease and its impact on humans, the impact of human activities on the environment. Human Biology Program at University of Toronto The University of Toronto offers an undergraduate program in Human Biology that is jointly offered by the Faculty of Arts & Science and the Faculty of Medicine. The program offers several major and specialist options in: human biology, neuroscience, health & disease, global health, and fundamental genetics and its applications. Asia BSc (Honours) Human Biology at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi (1980–2002) BSc (honours) Human Biology at AIIMS (New Document 3::: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biophysics: Biophysics – interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics to study biological systems. Nature of biophysics Biophysics is An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. A biological science – concerned with the study of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. A branch of physics – concerned with the study of matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. An interdisciplinary field – field of science that overlaps with other sciences Scope of biophysics research Biomolecular scale Biomolecule Biomolecular structure Organismal scale Animal locomotion Biomechanics Biomineralization Motility Environmental scale Biophysical environment Biophysics research overlaps with Agrophysics Biochemistry Biophysical chemistry Bioengineering Biogeophysics Nanotechnology Systems biology Branches of biophysics Astrobiophysics – field of intersection between astrophysics and biophysics concerned with the influence of the astrophysical phenomena upon life on planet Earth or some other planet in general. Medical biophysics – interdisciplinary field that applies me Document 4::: Aquatic science is the study of the various bodies of water that make up our planet including oceanic and freshwater environments. Aquatic scientists study the movement of water, the chemistry of water, aquatic organisms, aquatic ecosystems, the movement of materials in and out of aquatic ecosystems, and the use of water by humans, among other things. Aquatic scientists examine current processes as well as historic processes, and the water bodies that they study can range from tiny areas measured in millimeters to full oceans. Moreover, aquatic scientists work in Interdisciplinary groups. For example, a physical oceanographer might work with a biological oceanographer to understand how physical processes, such as tropical cyclones or rip currents, affect organisms in the Atlantic Ocean. Chemists and biologists, on the other hand, might work together to see how the chemical makeup of a certain body of water affects the plants and animals that reside there. Aquatic scientists can work to tackle global problems such as global oceanic change and local problems, such as trying to understand why a drinking water supply in a certain area is polluted. There are two main fields of study that fall within the field of aquatic science. These fields of study include oceanography and limnology. Oceanography Oceanography refers to the study of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of oceanic environments. Oceanographers study the history, current condition, and future of the planet's oceans. They also study marine life and ecosystems, ocean circulation, plate tectonics, the geology of the seafloor, and the chemical and physical properties of the ocean. Oceanography is interdisciplinary. For example, there are biological oceanographers and marine biologists. These scientists specialize in marine organisms. They study how these organisms develop, their relationship with one another, and how they interact and adapt to their environment. Biological oceanographers The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Where is the biological magnification of pollutants most likely to be the greatest? A. in an estuary B. in an open ocean C. at an intertidal zone D. at a hydrothermal vent Answer:
sciq-951	multiple_choice	Supersaturated solutions of most solids in water are prepared by cooling what?	[ "saturated solutions", "dense solutions", "mineral solutions", "plasma solutions" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In physical chemistry, supersaturation occurs with a solution when the concentration of a solute exceeds the concentration specified by the value of solubility at equilibrium. Most commonly the term is applied to a solution of a solid in a liquid, but it can also be applied to liquids and gases dissolved in a liquid. A supersaturated solution is in a metastable state; it may return to equilibrium by separation of the excess of solute from the solution, by dilution of the solution by adding solvent, or by increasing the solubility of the solute in the solvent. History Early studies of the phenomenon were conducted with sodium sulfate, also known as Glauber's Salt because, unusually, the solubility of this salt in water may decrease with increasing temperature. Early studies have been summarised by Tomlinson. It was shown that the crystallization of a supersaturated solution does not simply come from its agitation, (the previous belief) but from solid matter entering and acting as a "starting" site for crystals to form, now called "seeds". Expanding upon this, Gay-Lussac brought attention to the kinematics of salt ions and the characteristics of the container having an impact on the supersaturation state. He was also able to expand upon the number of salts with which a supersaturated solution can be obtained. Later Henri Löwel came to the conclusion that both nuclei of the solution and the walls of the container have a catalyzing effect on the solution that cause crystallization. Explaining and providing a model for this phenomenon has been a task taken on by more recent research. Désiré Gernez contributed to this research by discovering that nuclei must be of the same salt that is being crystallized in order to promote crystallization. Occurrence and examples Solid precipitate, liquid solvent A solution of a chemical compound in a liquid will become supersaturated when the temperature of the saturated solution is changed. In most cases solubility decreases wit Document 1::: Superheated water is liquid water under pressure at temperatures between the usual boiling point, and the critical temperature, . It is also known as "subcritical water" or "pressurized hot water". Superheated water is stable because of overpressure that raises the boiling point, or by heating it in a sealed vessel with a headspace, where the liquid water is in equilibrium with vapour at the saturated vapor pressure. This is distinct from the use of the term superheating to refer to water at atmospheric pressure above its normal boiling point, which has not boiled due to a lack of nucleation sites (sometimes experienced by heating liquids in a microwave). Many of water's anomalous properties are due to very strong hydrogen bonding. Over the superheated temperature range the hydrogen bonds break, changing the properties more than usually expected by increasing temperature alone. Water becomes less polar and behaves more like an organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol. Solubility of organic materials and gases increases by several orders of magnitude and the water itself can act as a solvent, reagent, and catalyst in industrial and analytical applications, including extraction, chemical reactions and cleaning. Change of properties with temperature All materials change with temperature, but superheated water exhibits greater changes than would be expected from temperature considerations alone. Viscosity and surface tension of water drop and diffusivity increases with increasing temperature. Self-ionization of water increases with temperature, and the pKw of water at 250 °C is closer to 11 than the more familiar 14 at 25 °C. This means the concentration of hydronium ion () and the concentration of hydroxide () are increased while the pH remains neutral. Specific heat capacity at constant pressure also increases with temperature, from 4.187 kJ/kg at 25 °C to 8.138 kJ/kg at 350 °C. A significant effect on the behaviour of water at high temperatures is decreased di Document 2::: In chemistry, solubility is the ability of a substance, the solute, to form a solution with another substance, the solvent. Insolubility is the opposite property, the inability of the solute to form such a solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is generally measured as the concentration of the solute in a saturated solution, one in which no more solute can be dissolved. At this point, the two substances are said to be at the solubility equilibrium. For some solutes and solvents, there may be no such limit, in which case the two substances are said to be "miscible in all proportions" (or just "miscible"). The solute can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas, while the solvent is usually solid or liquid. Both may be pure substances, or may themselves be solutions. Gases are always miscible in all proportions, except in very extreme situations, and a solid or liquid can be "dissolved" in a gas only by passing into the gaseous state first. The solubility mainly depends on the composition of solute and solvent (including their pH and the presence of other dissolved substances) as well as on temperature and pressure. The dependency can often be explained in terms of interactions between the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) of the two substances, and of thermodynamic concepts such as enthalpy and entropy. Under certain conditions, the concentration of the solute can exceed its usual solubility limit. The result is a supersaturated solution, which is metastable and will rapidly exclude the excess solute if a suitable nucleation site appears. The concept of solubility does not apply when there is an irreversible chemical reaction between the two substances, such as the reaction of calcium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid; even though one might say, informally, that one "dissolved" the other. The solubility is also not the same as the rate of solution, which is how fast a solid solute dissolves in a liquid solvent. This property de Document 3::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 4::: A breakthrough curve in adsorption is the course of the effluent adsorptive concentration at the outlet of a fixed bed adsorber. Breakthrough curves are important for adsorptive separation technologies and for the characterization of porous materials. Importance Since almost all adsorptive separation processes are dynamic -meaning, that they are running under flow - testing porous materials for those applications for their separation performance has to be tested under flow as well. Since separation processes run with mixtures of different components, measuring several breakthrough curves results in thermodynamic mixture equilibria - mixture sorption isotherms, that are hardly accessible with static manometric sorption characterization. This enables the determination of sorption selectivities in gaseous and liquid phase. The determination of breakthrough curves is the foundation of many other processes, like the pressure swing adsorption. Within this process, the loading of one adsorber is equivalent to a breakthrough experiment. Measurement A fixed bed of porous materials (e.g. activated carbons and zeolites) is pressurized and purged with a carrier gas. After becoming stationary one or more adsorptives are added to the carrier gas, resulting in a step-wise change of the inlet concentration. This is in contrast to chromatographic separation processes, where pulse-wise changes of the inlet concentrations are used. The course of the adsorptive concentrations at the outlet of the fixed bed are monitored. Results Integration of the area above the entire breakthrough curve gives the maximum loading of the adsorptive material. Additionally, the duration of the breakthrough experiment until a certain threshold of the adsorptive concentration at the outlet can be measured, which enables the calculation of a technically usable sorption capacity. Up to this time, the quality of the product stream can be maintained. The shape of the breakthrough curves contains informat The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Supersaturated solutions of most solids in water are prepared by cooling what? A. saturated solutions B. dense solutions C. mineral solutions D. plasma solutions Answer:
sciq-3699	multiple_choice	Space telescopes avoid such problems completely since they orbit outside the what?	[ "atmosphere", "earth's crust", "ozone layer", "galaxy" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Astronomy education or astronomy education research (AER) refers both to the methods currently used to teach the science of astronomy and to an area of pedagogical research that seeks to improve those methods. Specifically, AER includes systematic techniques honed in science and physics education to understand what and how students learn about astronomy and determine how teachers can create more effective learning environments. Education is important to astronomy as it impacts both the recruitment of future astronomers and the appreciation of astronomy by citizens and politicians who support astronomical research. Astronomy has been taught throughout much of recorded human history, and has practical application in timekeeping and navigation. Teaching astronomy contributes to an understanding of physics and the origin of the world around us, a shared cultural background, and a sense of wonder and exploration. It includes education of the general public through planetariums, books, and instructive presentations, plus programs and tools for amateur astronomy, and University-level degree programs for professional astronomers. Astronomy organizations provide educational functions and societies in about 100 nation states around the world. In schools, particularly at the collegiate level, astronomy is aligned with physics and the two are often combined to form a Department of Physics and Astronomy. Some parts of astronomy education overlap with physics education, however, astronomy education has its own arenas, practitioners, journals, and research. This can be demonstrated in the identified 20-year lag between the emergence of AER and physics education research. The body of research in this field are available through electronic sources such as the Searchable Annotated Bibliography of Education Research (SABER) and the American Astronomical Society's database of the contents of their journal "Astronomy Education Review" (see link below). The National Aeronautics and Document 1::: X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects. X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. X-ray astronomy uses a type of space telescope that can see x-ray radiation which standard optical telescopes, such as the Mauna Kea Observatories, cannot. X-ray emission is expected from astronomical objects that contain extremely hot gases at temperatures from about a million kelvin (K) to hundreds of millions of kelvin (MK). Moreover, the maintenance of the E-layer of ionized gas high in the Earth's thermosphere also suggested a strong extraterrestrial source of X-rays. Although theory predicted that the Sun and the stars would be prominent X-ray sources, there was no way to verify this because Earth's atmosphere blocks most extraterrestrial X-rays. It was not until ways of sending instrument packages to high altitudes were developed that these X-ray sources could be studied. The existence of solar X-rays was confirmed early in the mid-twentieth century by V-2s converted to sounding rockets, and the detection of extra-terrestrial X-rays has been the primary or secondary mission of multiple satellites since 1958. The first cosmic (beyond the Solar System) X-ray source was discovered by a sounding rocket in 1962. Called Scorpius X-1 (Sco X-1) (the first X-ray source found in the constellation Scorpius), the X-ray emission of Scorpius X-1 is 10,000 times greater than its visual emission, whereas that of the Sun is about a million times less. In addition, the energy output in X-rays is 100,000 times greater than the total emission of the Sun in all wavelengths. Many thousands of X-ray sources have since been discovered. In addition, the intergalactic space in galaxy clusters is filled with a hot, but very dilute gas at a temperature between 100 and 1000 megakelv Document 2::: Astrophysics is a science that employs the methods and principles of physics and chemistry in the study of astronomical objects and phenomena. As one of the founders of the discipline, James Keeler, said, Astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space–what they are, rather than where they are." Among the subjects studied are the Sun (solar physics), other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background. Emissions from these objects are examined across all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists apply concepts and methods from many disciplines of physics, including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, black holes, and other celestial bodies; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe. Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity, special relativity, quantum and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics. History Astronomy is an ancient science, long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the Aristotelian worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging spheres whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthl Document 3::: The Indian Centre for Space Physics (ICSP) is an Indian non-profit research organisation dedicated to carrying out advanced research in astronomy, astrophysics and space science. It is a sister institute of the University of Calcutta and the University of Gour Banga. It is located in the southern part of the city of Kolkata. It is shifting to its new Integrated campus on the Eastern metropolitan bypass 50 meters from Jyotirindra Nandy Metro station behind Metro Cash and Carry. Its Ionospheric and Earthquake Research Centre and optical observatory (IERCOO) where a 24-inch optical telescope (Vashista) has been installed. School and college students regularly carry out sky watching using its 10-inch telescope (Arundhati). The ground floor of the Integrated Campus will have an Astronomy and Space Museum which will be inaugurated very soon. Branches There are currently three branches at several places in West Bengal where people working in different fields of astrophysics: Malda (VLF activity), Midnapore (Optical telescopes) and Bolpur (balloon facility). A full-fledged near-space balloon facility is being constructed near Suri, Birbhum. Faculties and divisions ICSP has five major departments working on several branches of astrophysics and related subjects. Optical Astronomy is done at the Sitapur campus where two faculties, namely Dr. Ashish Raj and Dr. Devendra Bisht work. Prof. Sandip Chakrabarti, Dr. Sourav Palit, Dr. Tamal Basak and Engineer Debashish Bhowmick work on the other divisions, namely, Astrobiology and Astrochemistry, High energy Astrophysics, Space Radiation, X-ray laboratories and ionospheric science. Division on Instrumentation for Space Exploration Space exploration by means of balloon borne detectors is the main concern of this Division. ICSP has pioneered in this field of low cost exploration of near earth space using light weight payloads on board weather balloons. ICSP payloads has visited the space more than 115 times and has gathered a mu Document 4::: The Space Science Institute (SSI) in Boulder, Colorado, is a nonprofit, public-benefit corporation formed in 1992. Its purpose is to create and maintain an environment where scientific research and education programs can flourish in an integrated fashion. SSI is among the four non-profit institutes in the US cited in a 2007 report by Nature, including Southwest Research Institute, Planetary Science Institute, and Eureka Scientific, which manage federal grants for non-tenure-track astronomers. Description SSI's research program encompasses the following areas: space physics, earth science, planetary science, and astrophysics. The flight operations branch manages the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft's visible camera instrument and provides spectacular images of Saturn and its moons and rings to the public. SSI participates in mission operations and is home to the Cassini Imaging Central Laboratory for OPerations (CICLOPS). The primary goal of SSI is to bring together researchers and educators to improve science education. Toward this end, the institute acts as an umbrella for researchers who wish to be independent of universities. In addition, it works with educators directly to improve teaching methods for astronomy. SSI has also produced several traveling exhibits for science museums, including Electric Space, Mars Quest, and Alien Earths. It is currently producing Giant Worlds. SSI provides management support for research scientists and principal investigators, which help them to submit proposals to major public funding agencies such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Science Foundation (NSF), Space Telescope Science Institute (STSci), Department of Energy (DOE), and Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Principal investigators are supported by SSI though proposal budget preparation, proposal submission, and project reporting tools, and have competitive negotiated overhead rates. The institute is loosely affiliated with the University The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Space telescopes avoid such problems completely since they orbit outside the what? A. atmosphere B. earth's crust C. ozone layer D. galaxy Answer:
sciq-5600	multiple_choice	What kind of cell is a cell with two chromosomes?	[ "haploid cells", "neurotic cell", "mutated cell", "diploid cell" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: This lecture, named in memory of Keith R. Porter, is presented to an eminent cell biologist each year at the ASCB Annual Meeting. The ASCB Program Committee and the ASCB President recommend the Porter Lecturer to the Porter Endowment each year. Lecturers Source: ASCB See also List of biology awards Document 1::: A cell type is a classification used to identify cells that share morphological or phenotypical features. A multicellular organism may contain cells of a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such as muscle cells and skin cells, that differ both in appearance and function yet have identical genomic sequences. Cells may have the same genotype, but belong to different cell types due to the differential regulation of the genes they contain. Classification of a specific cell type is often done through the use of microscopy (such as those from the cluster of differentiation family that are commonly used for this purpose in immunology). Recent developments in single cell RNA sequencing facilitated classification of cell types based on shared gene expression patterns. This has led to the discovery of many new cell types in e.g. mouse cortex, hippocampus, dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord. Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protists. The exact number of cell types is, however, undefined, and the Cell Ontology, as of 2021, lists over 2,300 different cell types. Multicellular organisms All higher multicellular organisms contain cells specialised for different functions. Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division). Multicellular organisms are composed of cells that fall into two fundamental types: germ cells and somatic cells. During development, somatic cells will become more specialized and form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. After formation of the three germ layers, cells will continue to special Document 2::: Aneuploidy is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, for example a human cell having 45 or 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46. It does not include a difference of one or more complete sets of chromosomes. A cell with any number of complete chromosome sets is called a euploid cell. An extra or missing chromosome is a common cause of some genetic disorders. Some cancer cells also have abnormal numbers of chromosomes. About 68% of human solid tumors are aneuploid. Aneuploidy originates during cell division when the chromosomes do not separate properly between the two cells (nondisjunction). Most cases of aneuploidy in the autosomes result in miscarriage, and the most common extra autosomal chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13. Chromosome abnormalities are detected in 1 of 160 live human births. Autosomal aneuploidy is more dangerous than sex chromosome aneuploidy, as autosomal aneuploidy is almost always lethal to embryos that cease developing because of it. Chromosomes Most cells in the human body have 23 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 46 chromosomes. (The sperm and egg, or gametes, each have 23 unpaired chromosomes, and red blood cells in bone marrow have a nucleus at first but those red blood cells that are active in blood lose their nucleus and thus they end up having no nucleus and therefore no chromosomes.) One copy of each pair is inherited from the mother and the other copy is inherited from the father. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes (called autosomes) are numbered from 1 to 22, from largest to smallest. The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes. Typical females have two X chromosomes, while typical males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. The characteristics of the chromosomes in a cell as they are seen under a light microscope are called the karyotype. During meiosis, when germ cells divide to create sperm and egg (gametes), each half should have the same number of chromosomes. But sometim Document 3::: Cytogenetics is essentially a branch of genetics, but is also a part of cell biology/cytology (a subdivision of human anatomy), that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis and meiosis. Techniques used include karyotyping, analysis of G-banded chromosomes, other cytogenetic banding techniques, as well as molecular cytogenetics such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). History Beginnings Chromosomes were first observed in plant cells by Carl Nägeli in 1842. Their behavior in animal (salamander) cells was described by Walther Flemming, the discoverer of mitosis, in 1882. The name was coined by another German anatomist, von Waldeyer in 1888. The next stage took place after the development of genetics in the early 20th century, when it was appreciated that the set of chromosomes (the karyotype) was the carrier of the genes. Levitsky seems to have been the first to define the karyotype as the phenotypic appearance of the somatic chromosomes, in contrast to their genic contents. Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: how many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism. Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid number of humans was 46 or 48, at first favoring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system of sex-determination. Considering their techniques, these results were quite remarkable. In science books, the number of human chromosomes remained at 48 for over thirty years. New techniques were needed to correct this error. Joe Hin Tjio working in Albert Levan's lab was responsible for finding the approach: Using cells in culture Pre-treating cells in a hypotonic solution, whi Document 4::: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life. Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes from the Latin word meaning 'small room'. Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility. Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell. Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals). Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms. The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology. Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago. Discovery With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology became advanced enough to discover cells. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, known as cell biology. When observing a piece of cork under the scope, he was able to see pores. This was shocking at the time as i The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What kind of cell is a cell with two chromosomes? A. haploid cells B. neurotic cell C. mutated cell D. diploid cell Answer:
sciq-6787	multiple_choice	Capillaries rejoin to form venules, which convey blood to what?	[ "glands", "arteries", "veins", "extremities" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Veins () are blood vessels in the circulatory system of humans and most other animals that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are those of the pulmonary and fetal circulations which carry oxygenated blood to the heart. In the systemic circulation arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, and veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart, in the deep veins. There are three sizes of veins, large, medium, and small. Smaller veins are called venules, and the smallest the post-capillary venules are microscopic that make up the veins of the microcirculation. Veins are often closer to the skin than arteries. Veins have less smooth muscle and connective tissue and wider internal diameters than arteries. Because of their thinner walls and wider lumens they are able to expand and hold more blood. This greater capacity gives them the term of capacitance vessels. At any time, nearly 70% of the total volume of blood in the human body is in the veins. In medium and large sized veins the flow of blood is maintained by one-way (unidirectional) venous valves to prevent backflow. In the lower limbs this is also aided by muscle pumps, also known as venous pumps that exert pressure on intramuscular veins when they contract and drive blood back to the heart. Structure There are three sizes of vein, large, medium, and small. Smaller veins are called venules. The smallest veins are the post-capillary venules. Veins have a similar three-layered structure to arteries. The layers known as tunicae have a concentric arrangement that forms the wall of the vessel. The outer layer, is a thick layer of connective tissue called the tunica externa or adventitia; this layer is absent in the post-capillary venules. The middle layer, consists of bands of smooth muscle and is known as the tunica media. The inner layer, is a thin lining of endothelium known as the tunica intima. The tunica media in the veins is mu Document 1::: The deep palmar arch, an arterial network is accompanied by a pair of venae comitantes which constitute the deep venous palmar arch. It receives the veins corresponding to the branches of the arterial arch: the palmar metacarpal veins. Document 2::: Great vessels are the large vessels that bring blood to and from the heart. These are: Superior vena cava Inferior vena cava Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins Aorta Transposition of the great vessels is a group of congenital heart defects involving an abnormal spatial arrangement of any of the great vessels. Document 3::: The endothelium (: endothelia) is a single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Endothelial cells form the barrier between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into and out of a tissue. Endothelial cells in direct contact with blood are called vascular endothelial cells whereas those in direct contact with lymph are known as lymphatic endothelial cells. Vascular endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system, from the heart to the smallest capillaries. These cells have unique functions that include fluid filtration, such as in the glomerulus of the kidney, blood vessel tone, hemostasis, neutrophil recruitment, and hormone trafficking. Endothelium of the interior surfaces of the heart chambers is called endocardium. An impaired function can lead to serious health issues throughout the body. Structure The endothelium is a thin layer of single flat (squamous) cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. Endothelium is of mesodermal origin. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells called a monolayer. In straight sections of a blood vessel, vascular endothelial cells typically align and elongate in the direction of fluid flow. Terminology The foundational model of anatomy, an index of terms used to describe anatomical structures, makes a distinction between endothelial cells and epithelial cells on the basis of which tissues they develop from, and states that the presence of vimentin rather than keratin filaments separates these from epithelial cells. Many considered the endothelium a specialized epithelial tissue. Function The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. This forms a barrier between v Document 4::: The superficial palmar venous arch consists of a pair of venae comitantes accompanying the superficial palmar arch. It receives the common palmar digital veins (the veins corresponding to the branches of the superficial arterial arch). It drains into the superficial ulnar radial and superficial radial veins, and the median antebrachial vein. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Capillaries rejoin to form venules, which convey blood to what? A. glands B. arteries C. veins D. extremities Answer:
sciq-322	multiple_choice	What is the process of action potentials in myelinated axons jumping between the nodes of ranvier called?	[ "pinworm conduction", "saltatory movement", "photoreactive conduction", "saltatory conduction" ]	D		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In neuroscience, saltatory conduction () is the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials. The uninsulated nodes of Ranvier are the only places along the axon where ions are exchanged across the axon membrane, regenerating the action potential between regions of the axon that are insulated by myelin, unlike electrical conduction in a simple circuit. Mechanism Myelinated axons only allow action potentials to occur at the unmyelinated nodes of Ranvier that occur between the myelinated internodes. It is by this restriction that saltatory conduction propagates an action potential along the axon of a neuron at rates significantly higher than would be possible in unmyelinated axons (150 m/s compared to 0.5 to 10 m/s). As sodium rushes into the node it creates an electrical force which pushes on the ions already inside the axon. This rapid conduction of electrical signal reaches the next node and creates another action potential, thus refreshing the signal. In this manner, saltatory conduction allows electrical nerve signals to be propagated long distances at high rates without any degradation of the signal. Although the action potential appears to jump along the axon, this phenomenon is actually just the rapid conduction of the signal inside the myelinated portion of the axon. If the entire surface of an axon were insulated, action potentials could not be regenerated along the axon resulting in signal degradation. Energy efficiency In addition to increasing the speed of the nerve impulse, the myelin sheath helps in reducing energy expenditure over the axon membrane as a whole, because the amount of sodium and potassium ions that need to be pumped to bring the concentrations back to the resting state following each action potential is decreased. Distribution Saltatory conduction occurs widely in the myelinated nerve fibers of vertebrates, but was later disc Document 1::: Non-spiking neurons are neurons that are located in the central and peripheral nervous systems and function as intermediary relays for sensory-motor neurons. They do not exhibit the characteristic spiking behavior of action potential generating neurons. Non-spiking neural networks are integrated with spiking neural networks to have a synergistic effect in being able to stimulate some sensory or motor response while also being able to modulate the response. Discovery Animal models There are an abundance of neurons that propagate signals via action potentials and the mechanics of this particular kind of transmission is well understood. Spiking neurons exhibit action potentials as a result of a neuron characteristic known as membrane potential. Through studying these complex spiking networks in animals, a neuron that did not exhibit characteristic spiking behavior was discovered. These neurons use a graded potential to transmit data as they lack the membrane potential that spiking neurons possess. This method of transmission has a huge effect on the fidelity, strength, and lifetime of the signal. Non-spiking neurons were identified as a special kind of interneuron and function as an intermediary point of process for sensory-motor systems. Animals have become substantial models for understanding more about non-spiking neural networks and the role they play in an animal’s ability to process information and its overall function. Animal models indicate that the interneurons modulate directional and posture coordinating behaviors. Crustaceans and arthropods such as the crawfish have created many opportunities to learn about the modulatory role that these neurons have in addition to their potential to be modulated regardless of their lack of exhibiting spiking behavior. Most of the known information about nonspiking neurons is derived from animal models. Studies focus on neuromuscular junctions and modulation of abdominal motor cells. Modulatory interneurons are neurons Document 2::: The medullary command nucleus (MCN), also called the pacemaker nucleus, is a group of nerve cells found in the bodies of weakly electric fish. It controls the function of electrocytes by regulating the frequency of electrical impulses. Signals originating in the MCN are transmitted to electrocytes, where changes in ion concentration cause electrical charges to be generated. The nucleus both sends and receives signals, thereby acting as a regulator and central processor for the electro sensors in the fish's body. Inputs into the MCN originate in the mesencephalic precommand nucleus, thalamic dorsal posterior nucleus, and toral ventroposterior nucleus. All of these nuclei have dense projections into the MCN, with the exception of the Toral Ventroposterior nucleus, which contain only a ventral edge projection. See also Electric organ Electric fish External links Electric fish Fish nervous system Document 3::: Spike potentials are one of the action potentials, which occur in electrical activity of smooth muscle contraction in animals. These are true action potentials. Examples In the human gut they occur automatically when the resting membrane potential of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle becomes more positive than about -40 millivolts (the normal resting membrane potential in the smooth muscle fibers of the gut is between -50 and -60 millivolts). The spike potentials last 10 to 40 times as long in gastrointestinal muscle as the action potentials in large nerve fibers, each gastrointestinal spike lasting as long as 10 to 20 milliseconds. Conduction of nerve impulse, depolarization is the first stage of conduction. It occurs when the permeability of the cell membrane to sodium increases past a threshold. In the resting state, the interior of the nerve fiber is negative to the exterior by approximately 70 to 90 millivolts. During cortical reaction in fertilisationof sperm with secondary oocyte spike potential reaches above +30 mv (millivolts). This causes opening of voltage gated Ca2+ channels. Document 4::: Retinal waves are spontaneous bursts of action potentials that propagate in a wave-like fashion across the developing retina. These waves occur before rod and cone maturation and before vision can occur. The signals from retinal waves drive the activity in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus (dLGN) and the primary visual cortex. The waves are thought to propagate across neighboring cells in random directions determined by periods of refractoriness that follow the initial depolarization. Retinal waves are thought to have properties that define early connectivity of circuits and synapses between cells in the retina. There is still much debate about the exact role of retinal waves. Some contend that the waves are instructional in the formation of retinogeniculate pathways, while others argue that the activity is necessary but not instructional in the formation of retinogeniculate pathways. Discovery One of the first scientists to theorize the existence of spontaneous cascades of electrical activity during retinal development was computational neurobiologist David J. Willshaw. He proposed that adjacent cells generate electrical activity in a wave-like formation through layers of interconnected pre-synaptic and postsynaptic cells. Activity propagating through a close span of pre- and postsynaptic cells is thought to result in strong electrical activity in comparison to pre- and postsynaptic cells that are farther apart, which results in weaker activity. Willshaw thought this difference in the firing strength and the location of cells was responsible for determining the activities' boundaries. The lateral movement of firing from neighboring cell to neighboring cell, starting in one random area of cells and moving throughout both the pre- and postsynaptic layers, is thought to be responsible for the formation of the retinotopic map. To simulate the cascade of electrical activity, Willshaw wrote a computer program to demonstrate the movement of electrical activity betwee The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the process of action potentials in myelinated axons jumping between the nodes of ranvier called? A. pinworm conduction B. saltatory movement C. photoreactive conduction D. saltatory conduction Answer:
sciq-8199	multiple_choice	A very small artery that leads to a capillary is known as what?	[ "arteriole", "capillary junction", "arterium", "vein" ]	A		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The internal carotid artery (Latin: arteria carotis interna) is an artery in the neck which supplies the anterior circulation of the brain. In human anatomy, the internal and external carotids arise from the common carotid arteries, where these bifurcate at cervical vertebrae C3 or C4. The internal carotid artery supplies the brain, including the eyes, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as the face, scalp, skull, and meninges. Classification Terminologia Anatomica in 1998 subdivided the artery into four parts: "cervical", "petrous", "cavernous", and "cerebral". However, in clinical settings, the classification system of the internal carotid artery usually follows the 1996 recommendations by Bouthillier, describing seven anatomical segments of the internal carotid artery, each with a corresponding alphanumeric identifier—C1 cervical, C2 petrous, C3 lacerum, C4 cavernous, C5 clinoid, C6 ophthalmic, and C7 communicating. The Bouthillier nomenclature remains in widespread use by neurosurgeons, neuroradiologists and neurologists. The segments are subdivided based on anatomical and microsurgical landmarks and surrounding anatomy, more than angiographic appearance of the artery. An alternative embryologic classification system proposed by Pierre Lasjaunias and colleagues is invaluable when it comes to explanation of many internal carotid artery variants. An older clinical classification, based on pioneering work by Fischer, is mainly of historical significance. The segments of the internal carotid artery are as follows: Cervical segment, or C1, identical to the commonly used cervical portion Petrous segment, or C2 Lacerum segment, or C3 C2 and C3 compose the commonly termed petrous portion Cavernous segment, or C4, almost identical to the commonly used cavernous portion Clinoid segment, or C5. This segment is not identified in some earlier classifications and lies between the commonly used cavernous portion and cerebral or su Document 1::: Veins () are blood vessels in the circulatory system of humans and most other animals that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are those of the pulmonary and fetal circulations which carry oxygenated blood to the heart. In the systemic circulation arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, and veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart, in the deep veins. There are three sizes of veins, large, medium, and small. Smaller veins are called venules, and the smallest the post-capillary venules are microscopic that make up the veins of the microcirculation. Veins are often closer to the skin than arteries. Veins have less smooth muscle and connective tissue and wider internal diameters than arteries. Because of their thinner walls and wider lumens they are able to expand and hold more blood. This greater capacity gives them the term of capacitance vessels. At any time, nearly 70% of the total volume of blood in the human body is in the veins. In medium and large sized veins the flow of blood is maintained by one-way (unidirectional) venous valves to prevent backflow. In the lower limbs this is also aided by muscle pumps, also known as venous pumps that exert pressure on intramuscular veins when they contract and drive blood back to the heart. Structure There are three sizes of vein, large, medium, and small. Smaller veins are called venules. The smallest veins are the post-capillary venules. Veins have a similar three-layered structure to arteries. The layers known as tunicae have a concentric arrangement that forms the wall of the vessel. The outer layer, is a thick layer of connective tissue called the tunica externa or adventitia; this layer is absent in the post-capillary venules. The middle layer, consists of bands of smooth muscle and is known as the tunica media. The inner layer, is a thin lining of endothelium known as the tunica intima. The tunica media in the veins is mu Document 2::: Collateral circulation is the alternate circulation around a blocked artery or vein via another path, such as nearby minor vessels. It may occur via preexisting vascular redundancy (analogous to engineered redundancy), as in the circle of Willis in the brain, or it may occur via new branches formed between adjacent blood vessels (neovascularization), as in the eye after a retinal embolism or in the brain when an instance of arterial constriction occurs due to Moyamoya disease. Its formation may be related by pathological conditions such as high vascular resistance or ischaemia. It is occasionally also known as accessory circulation, auxiliary circulation, or secondary circulation. It has surgically created analogues in which shunts or anastomoses are constructed to bypass circulatory problems. An example of the usefulness of collateral circulation is a systemic thromboembolism in cats. This is when a thrombotic embolus lodges above the external iliac artery (common iliac artery), blocking the external and internal iliac arteries and effectively shutting off all blood supply to the hind leg. Even though the main vessels to the leg are blocked, enough blood can get to the tissues in the leg via the collateral circulation to keep them alive. Brain Blood flow to the brain in humans and some other animals is maintained via a network of collateral arteries that anastomose (join) in the circle of Willis, which lies at the base of the brain. In the circle of Willis so-called communicating arteries exist between the front (anterior) and back (posterior) parts of the circle of Willis, as well as between the left and right side of the circle of Willis. Leptomeningeal collateral circulation is another anastomosis in the brain. Heart Another example in humans and some other animals is after an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack). Collateral circulation in the heart tissue will sometimes bypass the blockage in the main artery and supply enough oxygenated blood to enabl Document 3::: The ciliary arteries are divisible into three groups, the long posterior, short posterior, and the anterior. The short posterior ciliary arteries from six to twelve in number, arise from the ophthalmic artery as it crosses the optic nerve. The long posterior ciliary arteries, two for each eye, pierce the posterior part of the sclera at some little distance from the optic nerve. The anterior ciliary arteries are derived from the muscular branches of the ophthalmic artery. Additional images Document 4::: The deep palmar arch, an arterial network is accompanied by a pair of venae comitantes which constitute the deep venous palmar arch. It receives the veins corresponding to the branches of the arterial arch: the palmar metacarpal veins. The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. A very small artery that leads to a capillary is known as what? A. arteriole B. capillary junction C. arterium D. vein Answer:
sciq-7470	multiple_choice	What are the glands that secrete milk in a woman's breasts?	[ "lactic acids", "mammary glands", "primordial glands", "pituitary glands" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Uterine glands or endometrial glands are tubular glands, lined by a simple columnar epithelium, found in the functional layer of the endometrium that lines the uterus. Their appearance varies during the menstrual cycle. During the proliferative phase, uterine glands appear long due to estrogen secretion by the ovaries. During the secretory phase, the uterine glands become very coiled with wide lumens and produce a glycogen-rich secretion known as histotroph or uterine milk. This change corresponds with an increase in blood flow to spiral arteries due to increased progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum. During the pre-menstrual phase, progesterone secretion decreases as the corpus luteum degenerates, which results in decreased blood flow to the spiral arteries. The functional layer of the uterus containing the glands becomes necrotic, and eventually sloughs off during the menstrual phase of the cycle. They are of small size in the unimpregnated uterus, but shortly after impregnation become enlarged and elongated, presenting a contorted or waved appearance. Function Hormones produced in early pregnancy stimulate the uterine glands to secrete a number of substances to give nutrition and protection to the embryo and fetus, and the fetal membranes. These secretions are known as histiotroph, alternatively histotroph, and also as uterine milk. Important uterine milk proteins are glycodelin-A, and osteopontin. Some secretory components from the uterine glands are taken up by the secondary yolk sac lining the exocoelomic cavity during pregnancy, and may thereby assist in providing fetal nutrition. Additional images Document 1::: Milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) is a complex and unique structure composed primarily of lipids and proteins that surrounds milk fat globule secreted from the milk producing cells of humans and other mammals. It is a source of multiple bioactive compounds, including phospholipids, glycolipids, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates that have important functional roles within the brain and gut. Preclinical studies have demonstrated effects of MFGM-derived bioactive components on brain structure and function, intestinal development, and immune defense. Similarly, pediatric clinical trials have reported beneficial effects on cognitive and immune outcomes. In populations ranging from premature infants to preschool-age children, dietary supplementation with MFGM or its components has been associated with improvements in cognition and behavior, gut and oral bacterial composition, fever incidence, and infectious outcomes including diarrhea and otitis media. MFGM may also play a role in supporting cardiovascular health by modulating cholesterol and fat uptake. Clinical trials in adult populations have shown that MFGM could positively affect markers associated with cardiovascular disease including lowering serum cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels as well as blood pressure. Origin MFGM secretion process in milk Milk lipids are secreted in a unique manner by lactocytes, which are specialized epithelial cells within the alveoli of the lactating mammary gland. The process takes place in multiple stages. First, fat synthesized within the endoplasmic reticulum accumulates in droplets between the inner and outer phospholipid monolayers of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. As these droplets increase in size, the two monolayers separate further and eventually pinch off. This leads to the surrounding of the droplet in a phospholipid monolayer that allows it to disperse within the aqueous cytoplasm. In the next stage, lipid droplets then migrate to the apical surface of the cell, Document 2::: Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process naturally occurs with all sexually mature female mammals, although it may predate mammals. The process of feeding milk in all female creatures is called nursing, and in humans it is also called breastfeeding. Newborn infants often produce some milk from their own breast tissue, known colloquially as witch's milk. In most species, lactation is a sign that the female has been pregnant at some point in her life, although in humans and goats, it can happen without pregnancy. Nearly every species of mammal has nipples; except for monotremes, egg-laying mammals, which instead release milk through ducts in the abdomen. In only one species of mammal, the Dayak fruit bat from Southeast Asia, is milk production a normal male function. Galactopoiesis is the maintenance of milk production. This stage requires prolactin. Oxytocin is critical for the milk let-down reflex in response to suckling. Galactorrhea is milk production unrelated to nursing. It can occur in males and females of many mammal species as result of hormonal imbalances such as hyperprolactinaemia. Purpose The chief function of a lactation is to provide nutrition and immune protection to the young after birth. Due to lactation, the mother-young pair can survive even if food is scarce or too hard for the young to attain, expanding the environmental conditions the species can withstand. The costly investment of energy and resources into milk is outweighed by the benefit to offspring survival. In almost all mammals, lactation induces a period of infertility (in humans, lactational amenorrhea), which serves to provide the optimal birth spacing for survival of the offspring. Human Hormonal influences From the eighteenth week of pregnancy (the second and third trimesters), a woman's body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the milk duct system in the breasts: Pr Document 3::: Serous glands secrete serous fluid. They contain serous acini, a grouping of serous cells that secrete serous fluid, isotonic with blood plasma, that contains enzymes such as alpha-amylase. Serous glands are most common in the parotid gland and lacrimal gland but are also present in the submandibular gland and, to a far lesser extent, the sublingual gland. Document 4::: Delayed onset of lactation (DOL) describes the absence of copious milk secretion (onset of lactation) within the first 72 hours following childbirth. It affects around 20–40% of lactating women, the prevalence differs among distinct populations. The onset of lactation (OL), also referred to as stage II lactogenesis or secretory activation, is one of the three stages of the milk production process. OL is the stage when plentiful production of milk is initiated following the delivery of a full-term infant. It is stimulated by an abrupt withdrawal of progesterone and elevation of prolactin levels after the complete expulsion of placenta. The other two stages of milk production are stage I lactogenesis and stage III lactogenesis. Stage I lactogenesis refers to the initiation of the mammary glands' synthetic capacity, indicated by the onset of colostrum production that takes place during pregnancy. Stage III lactogenesis refers to the continuous supply of mature milk from day nine postpartum, until weaning. Late-onset of lactogenesis II can be provoked by a variety of pathophysiological, psychological, external and mixed causes. The delay of the process is associated with a range of complications such as excessive neonatal weight loss and early cessation of breastfeeding, which can lead to undesirable outcomes for the infant and the mother. These problems can be addressed by different interventions targeting the underlying cause of the delay. Diagnosis Women who experienced delayed OL reports the absence of typical onset signs, including breast swelling, breast heaviness and sense of breast milk "coming in" within the first 72 hours postpartum; nevertheless, some reports suggest that the sensation of "milk coming in (to the breasts)" is resultant of milk production overshoot instead.Clinically, obstetricians may look for biomarkers to determine the onset of lactation. Some common biomarkers for the determination of secretory activation include: A drop in progesteron The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What are the glands that secrete milk in a woman's breasts? A. lactic acids B. mammary glands C. primordial glands D. pituitary glands Answer:
sciq-9485	multiple_choice	What forces the fetus out of the uterus?	[ "biological clock", "deep breathing", "continuous strong contractions", "delayed childbirth" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: The obstetrical dilemma is a hypothesis to explain why humans often require assistance from other humans during childbirth to avoid complications, whereas most non-human primates give birth unassisted with relatively little difficulty. This occurs due to the tight fit of the fetal head to the maternal birth canal, which is additionally convoluted, meaning the head and therefore body of the infant must rotate during childbirth in order to fit, unlike in other, non-upright walking mammals. Consequently, there is a usually high incidence of cephalopelvic disproportion and obstructed labor in humans. The obstetrical dilemma claims that this difference is due to the biological trade-off imposed by two opposing evolutionary pressures in the development of the human pelvis: smaller birth canals in the mothers, and larger brains, and therefore skulls in the babies. Proponents believe bipedal locomotion (the ability to walk upright) decreased the size of the bony parts of the birth canal. They also believe that as hominids' and humans' skull and brain sizes increased over the millennia, that women needed wider hips to give birth, that these wider hips made women inherently less able to walk or run than men, and that babies had to be born earlier to fit through the birth canal, resulting in the so-called fourth trimester period for newborns (being born when the baby seems less developed than in other animals). Recent evidence has suggested bipedal locomotion is only a part of the strong evolutionary pressure constraining the expansion of the maternal birth canal. In addition to bipedal locomotion, the reduced strength of the pelvic floor due to a wider maternal pelvis also leads to fitness detriments in the mother pressuring the birth canal to remain relatively narrow. This idea was widely accepted when first published in 1960, but has since been criticized by other scientists. History The term, obstetrical dilemma, was coined in 1960, by Sherwood Larned Washburn, a pr Document 1::: Prenatal perception is the study of the extent of somatosensory and other types of perception during pregnancy. In practical terms, this means the study of fetuses; none of the accepted indicators of perception are present in embryos. Studies in the field inform the abortion debate, along with certain related pieces of legislation in countries affected by that debate. As of 2022, there is no scientific consensus on whether a fetus can feel pain. Prenatal hearing Numerous studies have found evidence indicating a fetus's ability to respond to auditory stimuli. The earliest fetal response to a sound stimulus has been observed at 16 weeks' gestational age, while the auditory system is fully functional at 25–29 weeks' gestation. At 33–41 weeks' gestation, the fetus is able to distinguish its mother's voice from others. Prenatal pain The hypothesis that human fetuses are capable of perceiving pain in the first trimester has little support, although fetuses at 14 weeks may respond to touch. A multidisciplinary systematic review from 2005 found limited evidence that thalamocortical pathways begin to function "around 29 to 30 weeks' gestational age", only after which a fetus is capable of feeling pain. In March 2010, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists submitted a report, concluding that "Current research shows that the sensory structures are not developed or specialized enough to respond to pain in a fetus of less than 24 weeks", The report specifically identified the anterior cingulate as the area of the cerebral cortex responsible for pain processing. The anterior cingulate is part of the cerebral cortex, which begins to develop in the fetus at week 26. A co-author of that report revisited the evidence in 2020, specifically the functionality of the thalamic projections into the cortical subplate, and posited "an immediate and unreflective pain experience...from as early as 12 weeks." There is a consensus among developmental neurobiologists that the Document 2::: The human reproductive system includes the male reproductive system which functions to produce and deposit sperm; and the female reproductive system which functions to produce egg cells, and to protect and nourish the fetus until birth. Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every reproductive organ, there are numerous differences in typical secondary sex characteristics. Human reproduction usually involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. In this process, the male inserts his penis into the female's vagina and ejaculates semen, which contains sperm. A small proportion of the sperm pass through the cervix into the uterus, and then into the fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Only one sperm is required to fertilize the ovum. Upon successful fertilization, the fertilized ovum, or zygote, travels out of the fallopian tube and into the uterus, where it implants in the uterine wall. This marks the beginning of gestation, better known as pregnancy, which continues for around nine months as the fetus develops. When the fetus has developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth, involving labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina. Human infants are completely dependent on their caregivers, and require high levels of parental care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food. Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding. Structure Female The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards the reproductive process. The human female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vulva, which leads to the vagina, the vaginal opening, to the uterus; the uterus, which holds the developing fetus; and the ovaries, which produce the female's o Document 3::: Maternal somatic support after brain death occurs when a brain dead patient is pregnant and their body is kept alive to deliver a fetus. It occurs very rarely internationally. Even among brain dead patients, in a U.S. study of 252 brain dead patients from 1990–96, only 5 (2.8%) cases involved pregnant women between 15 and 45 years of age. Past cases In the 28-year period between 1982 and 2010, there were "30 [reported] cases of maternal brain death (19 case reports and 1 case series)." In 12 of those cases, a viable child was delivered via cesarean section after extended somatic support. However, according to Esmaelilzadeh, et al. there is no widely accepted protocol to manage a brain dead mother "since only a few reported cases are found in the medical literature." Moreover, the mother's wishes are rarely, if ever, known, and family should be consulted in developing a care plan. Life support complications Throughout their care, brain dead patients could experience a wide range of complications, including "infection, hemodynamic instability, diabetes insipidus (DI), panhypopituitarism, poikilothermia, metabolic instability, acute respiratory distress syndrome and disseminated intravascular coagulation." Treating these complications is difficult since the effects of medication on the fetus's health are unknown. Fetus's chance of survival According to Esmaelilzadeh, et al., "[a]t present, it seems that there is no clear lower limit to the gestational age which would restrict the physician's efforts to support the brain dead mother and her fetus." However, the older a fetus is when its mother becomes brain dead, the greater its chance for survival. Research into preterm births indicates that "a fetus born before 24 weeks of gestation has a limited chance of survival. At 24, 28 and 32 weeks, a fetus has approximately a 20–30%, 80% and 98% likelihood of survival with a 40%, 10% and less than 2% chance of suffering from a severe handicap, respectively." Brain de Document 4::: The Quilligan Scholars award, named after one of the founding fathers of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Dr. Edward J. Quilligan, is a prestigious title in the field of Maternal-Fetal Medicine granted by the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine and The Pregnancy Foundation to a select group of promising residents in obstetrics and gynaecology who exhibit unparalleled potential to become future leaders in the field of perinatology. Purpose The purpose of the Quilligan Scholars Program is to identify future leaders in Perinatology early in their training and to offer them recognition, guidance, and educational opportunities to foster their careers. These individuals traditionally exhibit leadership, commitment, and interest in teaching, research, or public policy. Some of the activities provided by the program include paid attendance to the SMFM annual meeting, the provision of special courses and experiences, and the granting of personal mentorship from current leaders in the field of Maternal-fetal Medicine. History The year 2013 marked the 40th anniversary of the formal establishment of Maternal-fetal medicine (MFM) as a specialty, as 16 pioneers took the MFM boards for the first time in 1973. Amongst that group of pioneers was Dr. Edward J. Quilligan, who has gone on to dedicate decades of service to the advancement of women's health, through teaching, research, and leadership. To honour his legacy and his exemplary service to modern Obstetrics, the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine and The Pregnancy Foundation created the Quilligan Scholars program, and the first class of five recipients was inaugurated in 2014 at the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine annual meeting in New Orleans, Louisiana. Though the Quilligan Scholar title confers no monetary reward, the sponsored activities are covered by gracious donations from members of the medical community. The Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine has agreed to give matching funds to the amount raised by The Pregnancy Fou The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What forces the fetus out of the uterus? A. biological clock B. deep breathing C. continuous strong contractions D. delayed childbirth Answer:
ai2_arc-347	multiple_choice	Which of these is a property of water that allows it to transport materials through the Earth system?	[ "It expands as it solidifies.", "It is transparent.", "It dissolves many substances.", "It is a compound." ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: In hydrology, bound water, is an extremely thin layer of water surrounding mineral surfaces. Water molecules have a strong electrical polarity, meaning that there is a very strong positive charge on one side of the molecule and a strong negative charge on the other. This causes the water molecules to bond to each other and to other charged surfaces, such as soil minerals. Clay in particular has a high ability to bond with water molecules. The strong attraction between these surfaces causes an extremely thin water film (a few molecules thick) to form on the mineral surface. These water molecules are much less mobile than the rest of the water in the soil, and have significant effects on soil dielectric permittivity and freezing-thawing. In molecular biology and food science, bound water refers to the amount of water in body tissues which are bound to macromolecules or organelles. In food science this form of water is practically unavailable for microbiological activities so it would not cause quality decreases or pathogen increases. See also Adsorption Capillary action Effective porosity Surface tension Document 1::: Water potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in reference conditions. Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure and matrix effects such as capillary action (which is caused by surface tension). The concept of water potential has proved useful in understanding and computing water movement within plants, animals, and soil. Water potential is typically expressed in potential energy per unit volume and very often is represented by the Greek letter ψ. Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If the flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with dissolved salts, such as seawater or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation. Components of water potential Many different factors may affect the total water potential, and the sum of these potentials determines the overall water potential and the direction of water flow: where: is the reference correction, is the solute or osmotic potential, is the pressure component, is the gravimetric component, is the potential due to humidity, and is the potential due to matrix effects (e.g., fluid cohesion and surface tension.) Document 2::: Constrictivity is a dimensionless parameter used to describe transport processes (often molecular diffusion) in porous media. Constrictivity is viewed to depend on the ratio of the diameter of the diffusing particle to the pore diameter. The value of constrictivity is always less than 1. The constrictivity is defined not for a single pore, but as the parameter of the entire pore space considered. The resistance to transport in porous media increases because the viscosity of the fluid (which fills the pores) increases in the vicinity of the pore walls (Renkin effect; see also electroviscous effects). This effect is important in very narrow pores and in pore narrowing their diameter to the same size as the diameter of the diffusing particles. Constrictivity must be distinguished from the effects of Knudsen diffusion. Knudsen diffusion occurs when the particle interacts with the pore walls more than it does with other particles due to the large free path and narrow pores. Constrictivity, on the other hand, depends on the influence of the pore walls on the fluid filling the pores. There are a number of empirical formulas used to estimate the value of constrictivity. For simple pore geometries, constrictivity can be inferred from the geometry of the porous media. In practice, the constrictivity together with the porosity and tortuosity are often used in models as purely empirical parameters to establish the effective diffusivities in porous media. Footnotes Sources P. Grathwohl: Diffusion in natural porous media: Contaminant transport, sorption/desorption and dissolution kinetics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998, R. K. M. Thambynayagam: The Diffusion Handbook: Applied Solutions for Engineers. McGraw-Hill, 2011, van Brakel, J., Heertjes, P. M. (1974): Analysis of diffusion in macroporous media in terms of a porosity, a tortuosity and a constrictivity factor. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 17: 1093–1103 Porous media Transport phenomena Hydrogeology Document 3::: The compensatory root water uptake conductance (Kcomp) () characterizes how a plant compensates its water uptake under heterogeneous water potential. It controls the root water uptake in a soil where the water potential is not uniform. See also Standard Uptake Fraction Hydraulic conductivity Document 4::: In hydrology, pipeflow is a type of subterranean water flow where water travels along cracks in the soil or old root systems found in above ground vegetation. In such soils which have a high vegetation content water is able to travel along the 'pipes', allowing water to travel faster than throughflow. Here, water can move at speeds between 50 and 500 m/h. Hydrology Aquatic ecology The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Which of these is a property of water that allows it to transport materials through the Earth system? A. It expands as it solidifies. B. It is transparent. C. It dissolves many substances. D. It is a compound. Answer:
sciq-7701	multiple_choice	Bar, circle, and line are all types of what?	[ "theories", "graphs", "maps", "algorithms" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: In mathematical psychology and education theory, a knowledge space is a combinatorial structure used to formulate mathematical models describing the progression of a human learner. Knowledge spaces were introduced in 1985 by Jean-Paul Doignon and Jean-Claude Falmagne, and remain in extensive use in the education theory. Modern applications include two computerized tutoring systems, ALEKS and the defunct RATH. Formally, a knowledge space assumes that a domain of knowledge is a collection of concepts or skills, each of which must be eventually mastered. Not all concepts are interchangeable; some require other concepts as prerequisites. Conversely, competency at one skill may ease the acquisition of another through similarity. A knowledge space marks out which collections of skills are feasible: they can be learned without mastering any other skills. Under reasonable assumptions, the collection of feasible competencies forms the mathematical structure known as an antimatroid. Researchers and educators usually explore the structure of a discipline's knowledge space as a latent class model. Motivation Knowledge Space Theory attempts to address shortcomings of standardized testing when used in educational psychometry. Common tests, such as the SAT and ACT, compress a student's knowledge into a very small range of ordinal ranks, in the process effacing the conceptual dependencies between questions. Consequently, the tests cannot distinguish between true understanding and guesses, nor can they identify a student's particular weaknesses, only the general proportion of skills mastered. The goal of knowledge space theory is to provide a language by which exams can communicate What the student can do and What the student is ready to learn. Model structure Knowledge Space Theory-based models presume that an educational subject can be modeled as a finite set of concepts, skills, or topics. Each feasible state of knowledge about is then a subset of ; the set of Document 2::: The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many mathematics journals, which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020. Structure The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used. The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example: 53 is the classification for differential geometry 53A is the classification for classical differential geometry 53A45 is the classification for vector and tensor analysis First level At the top level, 64 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number. In addition to the typical areas of mathematical research, there are top-level categories for "History and Biography", "Mathematics Education", and for the overlap with different sciences. Physics (i.e. mathematical physics) is particularly well represented in the classification scheme with a number of different categories including: Fluid mechanics Quantum mechanics Geophysics Optics and electromagnetic theory All valid MSC classification codes must have at least the first-level identifier. Second level The second-level codes are a single letter from the Latin alphabet. These represent specific areas covered by the first-level discipline. The second-level codes vary from discipline to discipline. For example, for differential geometry, the top-level code is 53, and the second-level codes are: A for classical differential geometry B for local differential geometry C for glo Document 3::: Advanced Level (A-Level) Mathematics is a qualification of further education taken in the United Kingdom (and occasionally other countries as well). In the UK, A-Level exams are traditionally taken by 17-18 year-olds after a two-year course at a sixth form or college. Advanced Level Further Mathematics is often taken by students who wish to study a mathematics-based degree at university, or related degree courses such as physics or computer science. Like other A-level subjects, mathematics has been assessed in a modular system since the introduction of Curriculum 2000, whereby each candidate must take six modules, with the best achieved score in each of these modules (after any retake) contributing to the final grade. Most students will complete three modules in one year, which will create an AS-level qualification in their own right and will complete the A-level course the following year—with three more modules. The system in which mathematics is assessed is changing for students starting courses in 2017 (as part of the A-level reforms first introduced in 2015), where the reformed specifications have reverted to a linear structure with exams taken only at the end of the course in a single sitting. In addition, while schools could choose freely between taking Statistics, Mechanics or Discrete Mathematics (also known as Decision Mathematics) modules with the ability to specialise in one branch of applied Mathematics in the older modular specification, in the new specifications, both Mechanics and Statistics were made compulsory, with Discrete Mathematics being made exclusive as an option to students pursuing a Further Mathematics course. The first assessment opportunity for the new specification is 2018 and 2019 for A-levels in Mathematics and Further Mathematics, respectively. 2000s specification Prior to the 2017 reform, the basic A-Level course consisted of six modules, four pure modules (C1, C2, C3, and C4) and two applied modules in Statistics, Mechanics Document 4::: Advanced Placement (AP) Calculus (also known as AP Calc, Calc AB / Calc BC or simply AB / BC) is a set of two distinct Advanced Placement calculus courses and exams offered by the American nonprofit organization College Board. AP Calculus AB covers basic introductions to limits, derivatives, and integrals. AP Calculus BC covers all AP Calculus AB topics plus additional topics (including integration by parts, Taylor series, parametric equations, vector calculus, and polar coordinate functions). AP Calculus AB AP Calculus AB is an Advanced Placement calculus course. It is traditionally taken after precalculus and is the first calculus course offered at most schools except for possibly a regular calculus class. The Pre-Advanced Placement pathway for math helps prepare students for further Advanced Placement classes and exams. Purpose According to the College Board: Topic outline The material includes the study and application of differentiation and integration, and graphical analysis including limits, asymptotes, and continuity. An AP Calculus AB course is typically equivalent to one semester of college calculus. Analysis of graphs (predicting and explaining behavior) Limits of functions (one and two sided) Asymptotic and unbounded behavior Continuity Derivatives Concept At a point As a function Applications Higher order derivatives Techniques Integrals Interpretations Properties Applications Techniques Numerical approximations Fundamental theorem of calculus Antidifferentiation L'Hôpital's rule Separable differential equations AP Calculus BC AP Calculus BC is equivalent to a full year regular college course, covering both Calculus I and II. After passing the exam, students may move on to Calculus III (Multivariable Calculus). Purpose According to the College Board, Topic outline AP Calculus BC includes all of the topics covered in AP Calculus AB, as well as the following: Convergence tests for series Taylor series Parametric equations Polar functions (inclu The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Bar, circle, and line are all types of what? A. theories B. graphs C. maps D. algorithms Answer:
sciq-3405	multiple_choice	What is the most common type of capillary?	[ "channels", "continuous", "large", "ending" ]	B		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperatureincreases decreases stays the same Impossible to tell/need more information The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well. Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in Document 1::: Single Best Answer (SBA or One Best Answer) is a written examination form of multiple choice questions used extensively in medical education. Structure A single question is posed with typically five alternate answers, from which the candidate must choose the best answer. This method avoids the problems of past examinations of a similar form described as Single Correct Answer. The older form can produce confusion where more than one of the possible answers has some validity. The newer form makes it explicit that more than one answer may have elements that are correct, but that one answer will be superior. Prior to the widespread introduction of SBAs into medical education, the typical form of examination was true-false multiple choice questions. But during the 2000s, educators found that SBAs would be superior. Document 2::: Progress tests are longitudinal, feedback oriented educational assessment tools for the evaluation of development and sustainability of cognitive knowledge during a learning process. A progress test is a written knowledge exam (usually involving multiple choice questions) that is usually administered to all students in the "A" program at the same time and at regular intervals (usually twice to four times yearly) throughout the entire academic program. The test samples the complete knowledge domain expected of new graduates upon completion of their courses, regardless of the year level of the student). The differences between students’ knowledge levels show in the test scores; the further a student has progressed in the curriculum the higher the scores. As a result, these resultant scores provide a longitudinal, repeated measures, curriculum-independent assessment of the objectives (in knowledge) of the entire programme. History Since its inception in the late 1970s at both Maastricht University and the University of Missouri–Kansas City independently, the progress test of applied knowledge has been increasingly used in medical and health sciences programs across the globe. They are well established and increasingly used in medical education in both undergraduate and postgraduate medical education. They are used formatively and summatively. Use in academic programs The progress test is currently used by national progress test consortia in the United Kingdom, Italy, The Netherlands, in Germany (including Austria), and in individual schools in Africa, Saudi Arabia, South East Asia, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Finland, UK, and the USA. The National Board of Medical Examiners in the USA also provides progress testing in various countries The feasibility of an international approach to progress testing has been recently acknowledged and was first demonstrated by Albano et al. in 1996, who compared test scores across German, Dutch and Italian medi Document 3::: The endothelium (: endothelia) is a single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. Endothelial cells form the barrier between vessels and tissue and control the flow of substances and fluid into and out of a tissue. Endothelial cells in direct contact with blood are called vascular endothelial cells whereas those in direct contact with lymph are known as lymphatic endothelial cells. Vascular endothelial cells line the entire circulatory system, from the heart to the smallest capillaries. These cells have unique functions that include fluid filtration, such as in the glomerulus of the kidney, blood vessel tone, hemostasis, neutrophil recruitment, and hormone trafficking. Endothelium of the interior surfaces of the heart chambers is called endocardium. An impaired function can lead to serious health issues throughout the body. Structure The endothelium is a thin layer of single flat (squamous) cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. Endothelium is of mesodermal origin. Both blood and lymphatic capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells called a monolayer. In straight sections of a blood vessel, vascular endothelial cells typically align and elongate in the direction of fluid flow. Terminology The foundational model of anatomy, an index of terms used to describe anatomical structures, makes a distinction between endothelial cells and epithelial cells on the basis of which tissues they develop from, and states that the presence of vimentin rather than keratin filaments separates these from epithelial cells. Many considered the endothelium a specialized epithelial tissue. Function The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. This forms a barrier between v Document 4::: Capillary action (sometimes called capillarity, capillary motion, capillary rise, capillary effect, or wicking) is the process of a liquid flowing in a narrow space without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, any external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube such as a straw, in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous materials such as sand and liquefied carbon fiber, or in a biological cell. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid. Etymology Capillary comes from the Latin word capillaris, meaning "of or resembling hair." The meaning stems from the tiny, hairlike diameter of a capillary. While capillary is usually used as a noun, the word also is used as an adjective, as in "capillary action," in which a liquid is moved along — even upward, against gravity — as the liquid is attracted to the internal surface of the capillaries. History The first recorded observation of capillary action was by Leonardo da Vinci. A former student of Galileo, Niccolò Aggiunti, was said to have investigated capillary action. In 1660, capillary action was still a novelty to the Irish chemist Robert Boyle, when he reported that "some inquisitive French Men" had observed that when a capillary tube was dipped into water, the water would ascend to "some height in the Pipe". Boyle then reported an experiment in which he dipped a capillary tube into red wine and then subjected the tube to a partial vacuum. He found that the vacuum had no observable influence on the height of the liquid in the capillary, so the behavior of liquids in capillary tubes was due to some phenomenon different from that The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What is the most common type of capillary? A. channels B. continuous C. large D. ending Answer:
sciq-6406	multiple_choice	What kind of volcanoes often form along divergent plate boundaries?	[ "crest", "dome", "shield", "composite" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Maui Nui is a modern geologists' name given to a prehistoric Hawaiian island and the corresponding modern biogeographic region. Maui Nui is composed of four modern islands: Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and Kahoʻolawe. Administratively, the four modern islands comprise Maui County (and a tiny part of Molokaʻi called Kalawao County). Long after the breakup of Maui Nui, the four modern islands retained plant and animal life similar to each other. Thus, Maui Nui is not only a prehistoric island but also a modern biogeographic region. Geology Maui Nui formed and broke up during the Pleistocene Epoch, which lasted from about 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. Maui Nui is built from seven shield volcanoes. The three oldest are Penguin Bank, West Molokaʻi, and East Molokaʻi, which probably range from slightly over to slightly less than 2 million years old. The four younger volcanoes are Lāna‘i, West Maui, Kaho‘olawe, and Haleakalā, which probably formed between 1.5 and 2 million years ago. At its prime 1.2 million years ago, Maui Nui was , 50% larger than today's Hawaiʻi Island. The island of Maui Nui included four modern islands (Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and Kahoʻolawe) and landmass west of Molokaʻi called Penguin Bank, which is now completely submerged. Maui Nui broke up as rising sea levels flooded the connections between the volcanoes. The breakup was complex because global sea levels rose and fell intermittently during the Quaternary glaciation. About 600,000 years ago, the connection between Molokaʻi and the island of Lāna‘i/Maui/Kahoʻolawe became intermittent. About 400,000 years ago, the connection between Lāna‘i and Maui/Kahoʻolawe also became intermittent. The connection between Maui and Kahoʻolawe was permanently broken between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. Maui, Lāna‘i, and Molokaʻi were connected intermittently thereafter, most recently about 18,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum. Today, the sea floor between these four islands is relatively shallow Document 1::: The plate theory is a model of volcanism that attributes all volcanic activity on Earth, even that which appears superficially to be anomalous, to the operation of plate tectonics. According to the plate theory, the principal cause of volcanism is extension of the lithosphere. Extension of the lithosphere is a function of the lithospheric stress field. The global distribution of volcanic activity at a given time reflects the contemporaneous lithospheric stress field, and changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of volcanoes reflect changes in the stress field. The main factors governing the evolution of the stress field are: Changes in the configuration of plate boundaries. Vertical motions. Thermal contraction. Lithospheric extension enables pre-existing melt in the crust and mantle to escape to the surface. If extension is severe and thins the lithosphere to the extent that the asthenosphere rises, then additional melt is produced by decompression upwelling. Origins of the plate theory Developed during the late 1960s and 1970s, plate tectonics provided an elegant explanation for most of the Earth's volcanic activity. At spreading boundaries where plates move apart, the asthenosphere decompresses and melts to form new oceanic crust. At subduction zones, slabs of oceanic crust sink into the mantle, dehydrate, and release volatiles which lower the melting temperature and give rise to volcanic arcs and back-arc extensions. Several volcanic provinces, however, do not fit this simple picture and have traditionally been considered exceptional cases which require a non-plate-tectonic explanation. Just prior to the development of plate tectonics in the early 1960s, the Canadian Geophysicist John Tuzo Wilson suggested that chains of volcanic islands form from movement of the seafloor over relatively stationary hotspots in stable centres of mantle convection cells. In the early 1970s, Wilson's idea was revived by the American geophysicist W. Jason Morgan. In Document 2::: Intraplate volcanism is volcanism that takes place away from the margins of tectonic plates. Most volcanic activity takes place on plate margins, and there is broad consensus among geologists that this activity is explained well by the theory of plate tectonics. However, the origins of volcanic activity within plates remains controversial. Mechanisms Mechanisms that have been proposed to explain intraplate volcanism include mantle plumes; non-rigid motion within tectonic plates (the plate model); and impact events. It is likely that different mechanisms accounts for different cases of intraplate volcanism. Plume model A mantle plume is a proposed mechanism of convection of abnormally hot rock within the Earth's mantle. Because the plume head partly melts on reaching shallow depths, a plume is often invoked as the cause of volcanic hotspots, such as Hawaii or Iceland, and large igneous provinces such as the Deccan and Siberian traps. Some such volcanic regions lie far from tectonic plate boundaries, while others represent unusually large-volume volcanism near plate boundaries. The hypothesis of mantle plumes has required progressive hypothesis-elaboration leading to variant propositions such as mini-plumes and pulsing plumes. Concepts Mantle plumes were first proposed by J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963 and further developed by W. Jason Morgan in 1971. A mantle plume is posited to exist where hot rock nucleates at the core-mantle boundary and rises through the Earth's mantle becoming a diapir in the Earth's crust. In particular, the concept that mantle plumes are fixed relative to one another, and anchored at the core-mantle boundary, would provide a natural explanation for the time-progressive chains of older volcanoes seen extending out from some such hot spots, such as the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. However, paleomagnetic data show that mantle plumes can be associated with Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs) and do move. Two largely independent convec Document 3::: A mantle plume is a proposed mechanism of convection within the Earth's mantle, hypothesized to explain anomalous volcanism. Because the plume head partially melts on reaching shallow depths, a plume is often invoked as the cause of volcanic hotspots, such as Hawaii or Iceland, and large igneous provinces such as the Deccan and Siberian Traps. Some such volcanic regions lie far from tectonic plate boundaries, while others represent unusually large-volume volcanism near plate boundaries. Concepts Mantle plumes were first proposed by J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963 and further developed by W. Jason Morgan in 1971 and 1972. A mantle plume is posited to exist where super-heated material forms (nucleates) at the core-mantle boundary and rises through the Earth's mantle. Rather than a continuous stream, plumes should be viewed as a series of hot bubbles of material. Reaching the brittle upper Earth's crust they form diapirs. These diapirs are "hotspots" in the crust. In particular, the concept that mantle plumes are fixed relative to one another and anchored at the core-mantle boundary would provide a natural explanation for the time-progressive chains of older volcanoes seen extending out from some such hotspots, for example, the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. However, paleomagnetic data show that mantle plumes can also be associated with Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs) and do move relative to each other. The current mantle plume theory is that material and energy from Earth's interior are exchanged with the surface crust in two distinct and largely independent convective flows: as previously theorized and widely accepted, the predominant, steady state plate tectonic regime driven by upper mantle convection, mainly the sinking of cold plates of lithosphere back into the asthenosphere. the punctuated, intermittently dominant mantle overturn regime driven by plume convection that carries heat upward from the core-mantle boundary in a narrow column. This secon Document 4::: In structural geology, a suture is a joining together along a major fault zone, of separate terranes, tectonic units that have different plate tectonic, metamorphic and paleogeographic histories. The suture is often represented on the surface by an orogen or mountain range. Overview In plate tectonics, sutures are the remains of subduction zones, and the terranes that are joined together are interpreted as fragments of different palaeocontinents or tectonic plates. Outcrops of sutures can vary in width from a few hundred meters to a couple of kilometers. They can be networks of mylonitic shear zones or brittle fault zones, but are usually both. Sutures are usually associated with igneous intrusions and tectonic lenses with varying kinds of lithologies from plutonic rocks to ophiolitic fragments. An example from Great Britain is the Iapetus Suture which, though now concealed beneath younger rocks, has been determined by geophysical means to run along a line roughly parallel with the Anglo-Scottish border and represents the joint between the former continent of Laurentia to the north and the former micro-continent of Avalonia to the south. Avalonia is in fact a plain which dips steeply northwestwards through the crust, underthrusting Laurentia. Paleontological use When used in paleontology, suture can also refer to fossil exoskeletons, as in the suture line, a division on a trilobite between the free cheek and the fixed cheek; this suture line allowed the trilobite to perform ecdysis (the shedding of its skin). The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. What kind of volcanoes often form along divergent plate boundaries? A. crest B. dome C. shield D. composite Answer:
sciq-6875	multiple_choice	Which type of eruptions created the entire ocean floor?	[ "fault eruptions", "lava effusion", "fissure eruptions", "formation eruptions" ]	C		Relavent Documents: Document 0::: Maui Nui is a modern geologists' name given to a prehistoric Hawaiian island and the corresponding modern biogeographic region. Maui Nui is composed of four modern islands: Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and Kahoʻolawe. Administratively, the four modern islands comprise Maui County (and a tiny part of Molokaʻi called Kalawao County). Long after the breakup of Maui Nui, the four modern islands retained plant and animal life similar to each other. Thus, Maui Nui is not only a prehistoric island but also a modern biogeographic region. Geology Maui Nui formed and broke up during the Pleistocene Epoch, which lasted from about 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. Maui Nui is built from seven shield volcanoes. The three oldest are Penguin Bank, West Molokaʻi, and East Molokaʻi, which probably range from slightly over to slightly less than 2 million years old. The four younger volcanoes are Lāna‘i, West Maui, Kaho‘olawe, and Haleakalā, which probably formed between 1.5 and 2 million years ago. At its prime 1.2 million years ago, Maui Nui was , 50% larger than today's Hawaiʻi Island. The island of Maui Nui included four modern islands (Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and Kahoʻolawe) and landmass west of Molokaʻi called Penguin Bank, which is now completely submerged. Maui Nui broke up as rising sea levels flooded the connections between the volcanoes. The breakup was complex because global sea levels rose and fell intermittently during the Quaternary glaciation. About 600,000 years ago, the connection between Molokaʻi and the island of Lāna‘i/Maui/Kahoʻolawe became intermittent. About 400,000 years ago, the connection between Lāna‘i and Maui/Kahoʻolawe also became intermittent. The connection between Maui and Kahoʻolawe was permanently broken between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. Maui, Lāna‘i, and Molokaʻi were connected intermittently thereafter, most recently about 18,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum. Today, the sea floor between these four islands is relatively shallow Document 1::: The Alvarez hypothesis posits that the mass extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other living things during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was caused by the impact of a large asteroid on the Earth. Prior to 2013, it was commonly cited as having happened about 65 million years ago, but Renne and colleagues (2013) gave an updated value of 66 million years. Evidence indicates that the asteroid fell in the Yucatán Peninsula, at Chicxulub, Mexico. The hypothesis is named after the father-and-son team of scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez, who first suggested it in 1980. Shortly afterwards, and independently, the same was suggested by Dutch paleontologist Jan Smit. In March 2010, an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the Chicxulub impact, as being the cause of the extinction. A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism. They had determined that a space rock in diameter hurtled into earth at Chicxulub. For comparison, the Martian moon Phobos has a diameter of , and Mount Everest is just under . The collision would have released the same energy as , over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A 2016 drilling project into the peak ring of the crater strongly supported the hypothesis, and confirmed various matters that had been unclear until that point. These included the fact that the peak ring comprised granite (a rock found deep within the Earth) rather than typical sea floor rock, which had been shocked, melted, and ejected to the surface in minutes, and evidence of colossal seawater movement directly afterwards from sand deposits. Crucially, the cores also showed a near complete absence of gypsum, a sulfate-containing rock, which would have been vaporized and dispersed as an aerosol into the atmosphere, confirming the presence of a probable link between the impact a Document 2::: The Eltanin impact is thought to be an asteroid impact in the eastern part of the South Pacific Ocean that occurred around the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary approximately 2.51 ± 0.07 million years ago. The location was at the edge of the Bellingshausen Sea southwest of Chile, with a seafloor depth of approximately . The asteroid was estimated to be about in diameter. No crater associated with the impact has been discovered. The impact likely evaporated of water, generating large tsunami waves hundreds of metres high. Description The possible impact site was first discovered in 1981 as an iridium anomaly in sediment cores collected by the research vessel Eltanin, after which the site and impactor are named. Later studies were done by the vessel Polarstern. Sediment at the bottom of the deep ocean in the area had an iridium enrichment, a strong sign of extraterrestrial contamination. Possible debris from the asteroid is spread over an area of . Sediments from the Eocene and Paleocene were jumbled and deposited again chaotically. Also mixed in were melted and fragmented meteorite matter. The area near the Freeden Seamounts over has a meteorite material surface density of . Of this, 87% is melted and 13% only fragmented. This area is the region of the Earth's surface with the highest known density of meteorite material coverage. The disturbed sediment had three layers. The lowermost layer SU IV is a chaotic mixture of crumbled sediments in the form of a breccia. Above this is layer SU III consisting of layered sand, consistent with having been deposited from turbulently flowing water. Above this is SU II layer with meteorite fragments and graded silt and clay that plausibly settled out of still but dirty water. Asteroid The supposed impacting body, the Eltanin asteroid, is estimated to have been between in diameter and traveling with a speed of . The possible size of the asteroid was calculated by the amount of iridium found in the disturbed sediments. Assu Document 3::: Seafloor massive sulfide deposits or SMS deposits, are modern equivalents of ancient volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits or VMS deposits. The term has been coined by mineral explorers to differentiate the modern deposit from the ancient. SMS deposits were first recognized during the exploration of the deep oceans and the mid ocean ridge spreading centers in the early 1960s. Deep ocean research submersibles, bathyspheres and remote operated vehicles have visited and taken samples of black smoker chimneys, and it has been long recognised that such chimneys contain appreciable grades of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Au and other trace metals. SMS deposits form in the deep ocean around submarine volcanic arcs, where hydrothermal vents exhale sulfide-rich mineralising fluids into the ocean. SMS deposits are laterally extensive and consist of a central vent mound around the area where the hydrothermal circulation exits, with a wide apron of unconsolidated sulfide silt or ooze which precipitates upon the seafloor. Beginning about 2008, technologies were being developed for deepsea mining of these deposits. Minerals Mineralization in submarine magmatic-hydrothermal systems is a product of the chemical and thermal exchange between the ocean, the lithosphere, and the magmas emplaced within it. Different mineral associations precipitate during the typical stages of mineralization that characterize the life span of such systems. Minerals present in a hydrothermal system or a fossil volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit are deposited passively or reactively. Mineral associations may vary (1) in different mineralized structures, either syngenetic (namely, passive precipitation in chimneys, mounds and stratiform deposits) or epigenetic (structures that correspond to feeder channels, and replacements of host rocks or pre-existing massive sulfide bodies), or structural zonation, (2) from proximal to distal associations with respect to venting areas within the same stratigraphic horizo Document 4::: The Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis, also known as the Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis, was the first key scientific test of the seafloor spreading theory of continental drift and plate tectonics. Its key impact was that it allowed the rates of plate motions at mid-ocean ridges to be computed. It states that the Earth's oceanic crust acts as a recorder of reversals in the geomagnetic field direction as seafloor spreading takes place. History Harry Hess proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis in 1960 (published in 1962); the term "spreading of the seafloor" was introduced by geophysicist Robert S. Dietz in 1961. According to Hess, seafloor was created at mid-oceanic ridges by the convection of the earth's mantle, pushing and spreading the older crust away from the ridge. Geophysicist Frederick John Vine and the Canadian geologist Lawrence W. Morley independently realized that if Hess's seafloor spreading theory was correct, then the rocks surrounding the mid-oceanic ridges should show symmetric patterns of magnetization reversals using newly collected magnetic surveys. Both of Morley's letters to Nature (February 1963) and Journal of Geophysical Research (April 1963) were rejected, hence Vine and his PhD adviser at Cambridge University, Drummond Hoyle Matthews, were first to publish the theory in September 1963. Some colleagues were skeptical of the hypothesis because of the numerous assumptions made—seafloor spreading, geomagnetic reversals, and remanent magnetism—all hypotheses that were still not widely accepted. The Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis describes the magnetic reversals of oceanic crust. Further evidence for this hypothesis came from Allan V. Cox and colleagues (1964) when they measured the remanent magnetization of lavas from land sites. Walter C. Pitman and J. R. Heirtzler offered further evidence with a remarkably symmetric magnetic anomaly profile from the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge. Marine magnetic anomalies The Vine–Matthews-Morley hypothesis The following are multiple choice questions (with answers) about knowledge and skills in advanced master-level STEM courses. Which type of eruptions created the entire ocean floor? A. fault eruptions B. lava effusion C. fissure eruptions D. formation eruptions Answer:

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