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who played pharaoh's wife in the ten commandments | The Ten Commandments (1956 film) - Wikipedia
The Ten Commandments is a 1956 American biblical epic film produced, directed, and narrated by Cecil B. DeMille, shot in VistaVision (color by Technicolor), and released by Paramount Pictures. The film is based on Prince of Egypt by Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Pillar of Fire by J.H. Ingraham, On Eagle 's Wings by A.E. Southon, and the Book of Exodus. The Ten Commandments dramatizes the biblical story of the life of Moses, an adopted Egyptian prince who becomes the deliverer of his real brethren, the enslaved Hebrews, and therefore leads the Exodus to Mount Sinai, where he receives, from God, the Ten Commandments. The film stars Charlton Heston in the lead role, Yul Brynner as Rameses, Anne Baxter as Nefretiri, Edward G. Robinson as Dathan, Yvonne De Carlo as Sephora, Debra Paget as Lilia, and John Derek as Joshua; and features Sir Cedric Hardwicke as Sethi, Nina Foch as Bithiah, Martha Scott as Yoshebel, Judith Anderson as Memnet, and Vincent Price as Baka, among others.
Filmed on location in Egypt, Mount Sinai and the Sinai Peninsula, the film was DeMille 's last and most successful work. It is a partial remake of his 1923 silent film of the same title, and features one of the largest sets ever created for a film. The film was released to cinemas in the US on October 5, 1956 and, at the time of its release, was the most expensive film ever made.
In 1957, the film was nominated for seven Academy Awards including Best Picture, winning the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects (John P. Fulton, A.S.C.). Charlton Heston was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture (Drama) for his role as Moses. Yul Brynner won the National Board of Review Award for Best Actor for his role as Rameses and his other roles in Anastasia and The King and I. It is also one of the most financially successful films ever made, grossing approximately $122.7 million at the box office during its initial release; it was the most successful film of 1956 and the second - highest - grossing film of the decade. According to Guinness World Records, in terms of theatrical exhibition it is the seventh most successful film of all - time when the box office gross is adjusted for inflation.
In 1999, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten American film genres -- after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. The film was listed as the tenth best film in the epic genre. Network television has aired the film in prime time during the Passover / Easter season every year since 1973.
Pharaoh Rameses I of Egypt orders the death of all firstborn Hebrew males. Yoshebel saves her infant son by setting him adrift in a basket on the Nile. Bithiah, the Pharaoh 's daughter, finds the basket and decides to adopt the boy even though her servant, Memnet, recognizes the child is Hebrew. Bithiah names the baby Moses.
Prince Moses grows up to become a successful general, winning a war with Ethiopia and establishing an alliance. Moses and princess Nefretiri fall in love, but she must marry the next Pharaoh. While working on the building of a city for Pharaoh Sethi 's jubilee, Moses meets the stonecutter Joshua, who tells him of the Hebrew God. Moses saves an elderly woman from being crushed, and he reprimands the taskmaster and overseer Baka. Moses does not know that the woman is his biological mother, Yoshebel.
Moses reforms the treatment of slaves on the project, but Prince Rameses, Moses 's adoptive brother, charges him with planning an insurrection. Moses says he is making his workers more productive. Rameses wonders if Moses is the man the Hebrews are calling the Deliverer.
Nefretiri learns from Memnet that Moses is the son of Hebrew slaves. She kills Memnet but reveals the story to Moses only after he finds the piece of Levite cloth he was wrapped in as a baby, which Memnet had kept. Moses follows Bithiah to Yoshebel 's house where he meets his birth mother and family.
Moses learns more about the slaves by working with them. Nefretiri urges him to return to the palace so he may help his people when he becomes pharaoh, to which he agrees after he completes a final task. Moses saves Joshua from death by choking Baka to death while also breaking the latter 's neck in the process, telling Joshua that he too is Hebrew. The confession is witnessed by the overseer Dathan. Dathan tells Rameses, who then arrests Moses. Moses explains that he is not the Deliverer, but would free the slaves if he could. Rameses is declared the next Pharaoh. Rameses banishes Moses to the desert.
Moses makes his way across the desert to a well in Midian. After defending seven sisters from Amalekites, Moses is housed with the girls ' father Jethro, a Bedouin sheik, who worships the God of Abraham. Moses marries Jethro 's eldest daughter Sephora.
Moses finds Joshua, who has escaped hard labor. Moses sees the burning bush on the summit of Mount Sinai and hears the voice of God. Moses returns to Egypt to free the Hebrews.
Moses comes before Rameses, now pharaoh, to win the slaves ' freedom, turning his staff into a cobra. Jannes performs the same trick with his staves, but Moses 's snake is superior. Rameses prohibits straw from being provided to the Hebrews to make their bricks. Nefretiri rescues Moses from being stoned to death by the Hebrews. He tells her he is married.
Egypt is visited by plagues. Moses turns the river Nile to blood at a festival of Khnum and brings burning hail down upon Pharaoh 's palace. Moses warns him the next plague to fall upon Egypt will be summoned by Pharaoh himself. Enraged at the plagues, Rameses orders all first - born Hebrews to die. Instead, a cloud of death kills all the firstborn of Egypt, including the child of Rameses and Nefretiri. Angrily, Pharaoh exiles the Hebrews, which begins the Exodus from Egypt.
Rameses takes his army and pursues the Hebrews to the Red Sea. Moses uses God 's help to stop the Egyptians with a pillar of fire. Moses parts the Red Sea and the Hebrews struggle toward the other side. Moses releases the walls of water, drowning the Egyptian army. Rameses returns empty - handed to Nefretiri, telling her, "His god is God ''.
Moses again ascends the mountain with Joshua. Impatiently, Dathan urges the Hebrews to construct a golden calf idol as a gift for Rameses. A wild and decadent orgy is held by most of the Hebrews.
Moses sees the Ten Commandments created by God in two stone tablets. Moses descends from the mountain to the sight of decadence. He throws the tablets at the golden calf, which explodes, killing the wicked revelers.
Forty years later, an elderly Moses leads the Hebrews to Canaan. He names Joshua as leader, and walks alone out of Israel.
The final shooting script was written by Aeneas MacKenzie, Jesse L. Lasky Jr., Jack Gariss, and Fredric M. Frank. It also contained material from the books Prince of Egypt by Dorothy Clarke Wilson, Pillar of Fire by Joseph Holt Ingraham, and On Eagle 's Wings by Arthur Eustace Southon. Henry Noerdlinger, the film 's researcher, consulted ancient historical texts such as the Midrash Rabbah, Philo 's Life of Moses, and the writings of Josephus and Eusebius in order to "fill in '' the missing years of Moses ' life, and as the film 's last opening title card states, "the Holy Scriptures. ''
Charlton Heston, who had previously worked with DeMille in The Greatest Show on Earth, won the part of Moses after he impressed DeMille (at his audition) with his knowledge of ancient Egypt. Interestingly enough, William Boyd, DeMille 's first choice to be auditioned to be Moses in the film, refused the part. Heston was also chosen to be the voice of God in the form of a burning bush, toned down to a softer and lower register.
Heston 's newborn son, Fraser (born February 12, 1955), was cast by DeMille (on the suggestion of Henry Wilcoxon, who said to him "The timing 's just right. If it 's a boy, who better to play the Baby Moses? '') as soon as Heston announced to DeMille that his wife Lydia was pregnant. Fraser Heston was three months old during filming.
The part of Nefretiri, the Egyptian throne princess, was considered "the most sought after role of the year '' in 1954. Ann Blyth, Vanessa Brown, Joan Evans, Rhonda Fleming, Coleen Gray, Jane Griffiths, Audrey Hepburn, Jean Marie, Vivien Leigh, Jane Russell, and Joan Taylor were considered for the part. DeMille liked Audrey Hepburn but dismissed her because of her figure, which was considered too slim for the character 's Egyptian gowns. Anne Baxter (who was considered for the part of Moses ' wife) was cast in the role.
Judith Ames, Anne Bancroft, Anne Baxter, Shirley Booth, Diane Brewster, Peggie Castle, June Clayworth, Linda Darnell, Laura Elliot, Rhonda Fleming, Rita Gam, Grace Kelly, Jacqueline Green, Barbara Hale, Allison Hayes, Frances Lansing, Patricia Neal, Marie Palmer, Jean Peters, Ruth Roman, Barbara Rush, and Elizabeth Sellers were considered for the part of Sephora. Grace Kelly, DeMille 's first choice, was unavailable. DeMille was "very much impressed '' with Yvonne De Carlo 's performance as a "saintly type of woman '' in MGM 's Sombrero. He "sensed in her a depth, an emotional power, a womanly strength which the part of Sephora needed and which she gave it. '' Sephora is the Douay -- Rheims version of the name of Zipporah.
Merle Oberon and Claudette Colbert were considered for the role of Bithiah before DeMille chose Jayne Meadows (who declined) and finally cast Nina Foch, on the suggestion of Henry Wilcoxon, who had worked with her in Scaramouche.
For the role of Memnet, Flora Robson was considered and Bette Davis was interviewed (DeMille 's casting journal also notes Marjorie Rambeau and Marie Windsor) but DeMille chose Judith Anderson after screening Alfred Hitchcock 's Rebecca.
Henry Wilcoxon 's wife Joan Woodbury was cast as Korah 's wife in the Golden Calf sequence.
DeMille was reluctant to cast anyone who had appeared in 20th Century Fox 's The Egyptian, a rival production at the time. Several exceptions to this are the casting of John Carradine and Mimi Gibson (in credited supporting roles) and Michael Ansara and Peter Coe (in uncredited minor roles), who appeared in both films.
For the Large Crowd shots, at least 14,000 extras and 15,000 animals were used while filming this movie.
Commentary for the film 's DVD edition chronicles the historical research done by DeMille and associates. Katherine Orrison says that many details of Moses ' life left out of the Bible are present in the Quran, which was sometimes used as a source. She also presents some coincidences in production. The man who designed Moses ' distinctive rust - white - and - black - striped robe used those colors because they looked impressive, and only later discovered that these are the actual colors of the Tribe of Levi. Arnold Friberg would later state that he was the one who designed Moses ' costume. As a gift, after the production, DeMille gave Moses ' robe to Friberg, who had it in his possession until his death in 2010. Moses ' robe as worn by Charlton Heston was hand - woven by Dorothea Hulse, one of the world 's finest weavers. She also created costumes for The Robe, as well as textiles and costume fabrics for Samson and Delilah, David and Bathsheba, and others.
Jesse Lasky Jr., a co-writer on The Ten Commandments, described how DeMille would customarily spread out prints of paintings by Lawrence Alma - Tadema to inform his set designers on the look he wanted to achieve. Arnold Friberg, in addition to designing sets and costumes, also contributed the manner in which Moses ordained Joshua to his mission at the end of the film: by the laying on of hands, placing his hands on Joshua 's head. Friberg, a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, demonstrated the LDS manner of performing such ordinations, and DeMille liked it.
Pharaoh is usually shown wearing the red - and - white crown of Upper and Lower Egypt or the nemes royal headdress. For his pursuit of the Israelites, he wears the blue Khepresh helmet - crown, which the pharaohs wore for battle.
Sets, costumes and props from the film The Egyptian were bought and re-used for The Ten Commandments. As the events in The Egyptian take place 70 years before the reign of Rameses II, an unintentional sense of continuity was created.
An Egyptian wall painting was also the source for the lively dance performed by a circle of young women at Seti 's birthday gala. Their movements and costumes are based on art from the Tomb of the Sixth Dynasty Grand Vizier Mehu. Some of the film 's cast members, such as Baxter, Paget, Derek, and Foch, wore brown contact lenses, at the behest of DeMille, in order to conceal their light - colored eyes which were considered inadequate for their roles. Paget once said that, "If it had n't been for the lenses I would n't have got the part. '' However, she also said that the lenses were "awful to work in because the kleig lights heat them up ''. When DeMille cast Yvonne De Carlo as Sephora, she was worried about having to wear these contact lenses; she also believed that her gray eyes were her best feature. She asked DeMille to make an exception for her. He agreed, expressing the idea that De Carlo 's role was special, and that Moses was to fall in love with her.
The special photographic effects in The Ten Commandments were created by John P. Fulton, A.S.C. (who received an Academy Award for his effects in the film), head of the special effects department at Paramount Pictures, assisted by Paul Lerpae, A.S.C. in Optical Photography (blue screen "travelling matte '' composites) and Farciot Edouart, A.S.C., in Process Photography (rear projection effects). Fulton 's effects included the building of Sethi 's Jubilee treasure city, the Burning Bush, the fiery hail from a cloudless sky, the Angel of Death, the composites of the Exodus, the Pillar of Fire, the giving of the Ten Commandments, and the tour de force, the parting of the Red Sea. The parting of the Red Sea was considered the most difficult special effect ever performed up to that time. This effect took about six months of VistaVision filming, and combined scenes shot on the shores of the Red Sea in Egypt, with scenes filmed at Paramount Studios in Hollywood of a huge water tank split by a U-shaped trough, into which approximately 360,000 gallons of water were released from the sides, as well as the filming of a giant waterfall also built on the Paramount backlot to create the effect of the walls of the parted sea out of the turbulent backwash. All of the multiple elements of the shot were then combined in Paul Lerpae 's optical printer, and matte paintings of rocks by Jan Domela concealed the matte lines between the real elements and the special effects elements. Unlike the technique used by ILM for Raiders of the Lost Ark and Poltergeist of injecting poster paints into a glass tank containing a salt water inversion layer, the cloud effects for The Ten Commandments were formed with white Britt smoke filmed against a translucent sky backing, and colors were added optically. Striking portraits of Charlton Heston as Moses and three women in front of menacing clouds were photographed by Wallace Kelly, A.S.C. in Farciot Edouart 's process (rear projection) department, in what are still considered unforgettable scenes. DeMille used these scenes to break up the montage, framing his subjects like a Renaissance master. An abundance of blue screen spillage or "bleeding '' can be seen, particularly at the top of the superimposed walls of water, but rather than detracting from the shot, this (unintentionally) gives the scene an eerie yet spectacular appearance. The parting of the Red Sea sequence is considered by many to be one of the greatest special effects of all time.
DeMille was reluctant to discuss technical details of how the film was made, especially the optical tricks used in the parting of the Red Sea. It was eventually revealed that footage of the Red Sea was spliced with film footage (run in reverse) of water pouring from large U-shaped trip - tanks set up in the studio backlot.
The score for The Ten Commandments was composed and conducted by Elmer Bernstein. Initially, DeMille hired Bernstein, then a relatively unknown film composer, to write and record only the diegetic music required for the film 's dance sequences and other onscreen musical passages, with the intention of employing frequent collaborator Victor Young to write the score proper. However, Young turned down the assignment due to his own failing health, causing DeMille to hire Bernstein to write the underscore as well.
In total, Bernstein composed two and a half hours of music for the film, writing for a full symphony orchestra augmented with various ethnic and unusual instruments such as the shofar, the tiple, and the theremin. The score is written in a highly Romantic style, featuring unique musical leitmotifs for the film 's characters (God, Moses, Rameses, Nefretiri, etc.) used in a manner inspired, at DeMille 's direction, by the opera scores of Richard Wagner. Bernstein recorded both the diegetic music and the score at the Paramount Studios Recording Stage in sessions spread from April 1955 to August 1956.
A double - LP monaural soundtrack album was released in 1957 by Dot Records, utilizing excerpts from the original film recordings. A stereo version of the 1957 album was released in 1960 containing new recordings conducted by Bernstein, as the original film recordings, while recorded in three - channel stereo, were not properly balanced for an LP stereo release, as the intent at the time of recording had been to mix the film masters to mono for the film soundtrack itself; this recording was later issued on CD by MCA Classics in 1989. For the film 's tenth anniversary, United Artists Records released a second stereo re-recording in 1966, also conducted by Bernstein and employing different orchestral arrangements unique to this release.
For the film 's 60th anniversary, Intrada Records released a six - CD album of the score in 2016. The Intrada release contains the complete two and a half hour score as originally recorded by Bernstein, with much of it remixed in true stereo for the first time. In addition, the 2016 release contains all the diegetic music recorded for the film, the original 1957 Dot album (in mono), the 1960 Dot album (in stereo), and the 1966 United Artists album, as well a 12 - minute recording of Bernstein auditioning his thematic ideas for DeMille on the piano.
Cecil B. DeMille promoted the film by placing Ten Commandment monuments as a publicity stunt for the film in cities across the United States. The Ten Commandments premiered at New York City 's Criterion Theatre on November 8, 1956. Among those who attended the premiere were Cecil B. DeMille and his daughter Cecilia DeMille Harper, Charlton Heston and his wife Lydia Clarke, Yul Brynner, Anne Baxter, Edward G. Robinson, Yvonne De Carlo and her husband Bob Morgan, Martha Scott and her husband and son, John Wayne and his wife Pilar Pallete, Tony Curtis, Janet Leigh, and Barney Balaban. It played on a roadshow basis with reserved seating until mid-1958, when it finally entered general release. It was re-released in 1966 and 1972, and one more time in 1989. The 1972 and 1989 re-issues included 70mm and 35mm prints that reframed the picture 's aspect ratio to 2.20: 1 and 2.35: 1, respectively, cropping the top and bottom of the picture 's original 1.85: 1 aspect ratio. The Ten Commandments was released on DVD on March 30, 1999; March 9, 2004, as a Special Collector 's Edition; and March 29, 2011, as a Special edition and Standard edition.
The Ten Commandments was the highest - grossing film of 1956 and the second most successful film of the decade. By April 1957, the film had earned an unprecedented $10 million from engagements at just eighty theaters, averaging about $1 million per week, with more than seven million people paying to watch it. During its initial release, it earned theater rentals (the distributor 's share of the box office gross) of $31.3 million in North America and $23.9 million from the foreign markets, for a total of $55.2 million (equating to approximately $122.7 million in ticket sales). It was hugely profitable for its era, earning a net profit of $18,500,000, against a production budget of $13.27 million (the most a film had cost up to that point).
By the time of its withdrawal from distribution at the end of 1960, The Ten Commandments had overtaken Gone with the Wind at the box office in the North American territory, and mounted a serious challenge in the global market -- the worldwide takings for Gone with the Wind were reported to stand at $59 million at the time. Gone with the Wind would be re-released the following year as part of the American Civil War Centennial, and reasserted its supremacy at the box office by reclaiming the US record. Also at this time, Ben - Hur -- another biblical epic starring Charlton Heston released at the end of 1959 -- would go on to eclipse The Ten Commandments at the box office. A 1966 reissue earned $6,000,000, and further re-releases brought the total American theater rentals to $43 million, equivalent to gross ticket sales of $89 million at the box office. Globally, it ultimately collected $90,066,230 in revenues up to 1979.
It remains one of the most popular films ever made. Adjusted for inflation, it has earned a box office gross equivalent to $2 billion at 2011 prices, according to Guinness World Records; only Gone with the Wind (1939), Avatar (2009), Star Wars (1977), Titanic (1997), The Sound of Music (1965), and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) have generated higher grosses in constant dollars.
Bosley Crowther for The New York Times
The Ten Commandments received generally positive reviews after its release, although some reviewers noted its divergence from the biblical text. Bosley Crowther for The New York Times was among those who lauded DeMille 's work, acknowledging that "in its remarkable settings and décor, including an overwhelming facade of the Egyptian city from which the Exodus begins, and in the glowing Technicolor in which the picture is filmed -- Mr. DeMille has worked photographic wonders. '' Variety described the "scenes of the greatness that was Egypt, and Hebrews by the thousands under the whip of the taskmasters '' as "striking, '' and believed that the film "hits the peak of beauty with a sequence that is unelaborate, this being the Passover supper wherein Moses is shown with his family while the shadow of death falls on Egyptian first - borns. ''
The film 's cast was also complimented. Variety called Charlton Heston an "adaptable performer '' who, as Moses, reveals "inner glow as he is called by God to remove the chains of slavery that hold his people. '' It considered Yul Brynner "expert '' as Rameses, too. Anne Baxter 's performance as Nefretiri was criticized by Variety as leaning "close to old - school siren histrionics, '' but Crowther believed that it, along with Brynner 's, is "unquestionably apt and complementary to a lusty and melodramatic romance. '' The performances of Yvonne De Carlo and John Derek were acclaimed by Crowther as "notably good. '' He also commended the film 's "large cast of characters '' as "very good, from Sir Cedric Hardwicke as a droll and urbane Pharaoh to Edward G. Robinson as a treacherous overlord. ''
Leonard Maltin, a contemporary film critic, gave the film four out of four stars and described it as "vivid storytelling at its best... parting of the Red Sea, writing of the holy tablets are unforgettable highlights. ''
Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 33 reviews and gave the film a rating of 94 % "Certified fresh '' approval rating, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10 and the site 's consensus stating: "Bombastic and occasionally silly but extravagantly entertaining, Cecil B. DeMille 's all - star spectacular is a muscular retelling of the great Bible story. ''
Camille Paglia has called The Ten Commandments one of the ten greatest films of all time.
The Ten Commandments won the Academy Award for Best Special Effects (John P. Fulton). It was also nominated for Best Color Art Direction (art directors Hal Pereira, Walter H. Tyler, and Albert Nozaki and set decorators Sam Comer and Ray Moyer), Best Color Cinematography (Loyal Griggs), Best Color Costume Design (Edith Head, Ralph Jester, John Jensen, Dorothy Jeakins, and Arnold Friberg), Best Film Editing (Anne Bauchens), Best Motion Picture (Cecil B. DeMille) and Best Sound Recording (Paramount Studio Sound Department and sound director Loren L. Ryder). Paramount submitted the names of Yvonne De Carlo, John Derek, and Debra Paget for the supporting player categories (even though they received star billing in the film) at the 29th Academy Awards, but the actors did not receive nominations.
Charlton Heston 's performance as Moses was ranked as the 4th Best Performance by a Male Star of 1956 by The Film Daily 's Filmdom 's Famous Five Poll. Heston was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture - Drama and later won the Fotograma de Plata Award for Best Foreign Performer in 1959.
Yul Brynner won the National Board of Review Award for Best Actor for his performance as Rameses.
Cecil B. DeMille won many special awards for the film. He received, among others, the Los Angeles Examiner Award, the Boxoffice Blue Ribbon Award for the Best Picture of the Month (January 1957), the Photoplay Achievement Award, and The Christian Herald 's Reader 's Award for the Picture of the Year (1957).
The Maryland State Council of the American Jewish Congress awarded the Stephen S. Wise Medallion to DeMille for "most inspiring film of the year. '' Charlton Heston, Yul Brynner, Edward G. Robinson, Sir Cedric Hardwicke, Nina Foch, and Martha Scott also received awards for their acting.
The film was also included in several of the annual top ten film lists, such as those featured in The Film Daily and Photoplay.
The American Film Institute included the film as # 10 in the epic film category in AFI 's 10 Top 10, # 79 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Cheers, and named Moses as the # 43 hero in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains.
Critics have argued that considerable liberties were taken with the biblical story of Exodus, compromising the film 's claim to authenticity, but neither this nor its nearly four - hour length has had any effect on its popularity. In fact, many of the supposed inaccuracies were actually adopted by DeMille from extra-biblical ancient sources, such as Josephus, the Sepher ha - Yashar, and the Chronicle of Moses. Moses 's career in Ethiopia, for instance, is based on ancient midrashim. For decades, a showing of The Ten Commandments was a popular fundraiser among revivalist Christian Churches, while the film was equally treasured by film buffs for DeMille 's "cast of thousands '' approach and the heroic but antiquated early - talkie - type acting.
The Ten Commandments has been released on DVD in the United States on four occasions: the first edition (Widescreen Collection) was released on March 30, 1999 as a two - disc set, the second edition (Special Collector 's Edition) was released on March 9, 2004, as a two - disc set with commentary by Katherine Orrison, the third edition (50th Anniversary Collection) was released on March 21, 2006 as a three - disc set with the 1923 version and special features, and the fourth edition (55th Anniversary Edition) was released on DVD again in a two - disc set on March 29, 2011, and for the first time on Blu - ray in a two - disc set and a six - disc limited edition gift set with the 1923 version and DVD copies. In 2012, the limited edition gift set won the Home Media Award for Best Packaging (Paramount Pictures and JohnsByrne).
With the exception of 1999, The Ten Commandments has been broadcast annually on the ABC network since 1973, traditionally during the Passover and Easter holidays. Since 2006 the network has typically aired The Ten Commandments on the Saturday night prior to Easter, with the broadcast starting at 7: 00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones and 6: 00 p.m. Central and Mountain. The film is the only pre-scheduled ABC Saturday Movie of the Week of the year.
Unlike many lengthy films of the day, which were usually broken up into separate airings over at least two nights, ABC elected to show The Ten Commandments in one night and has done so every year it has carried the film, with one exception; in 1997, ABC elected to split the movie in two and aired half of it in its normal Easter Sunday slot, which that year was March 30, with the second half airing on Monday, March 31 as counterprogramming to the other networks ' offerings, which included CBS ' coverage of the NCAA Men 's Basketball Championship Game.
The length of the film combined with the necessary advertisement breaks has caused its broadcast window to vary over the years, and today, ABC 's total run time for The Ten Commandments stands at four hours and forty - four minutes. This requires the network to overrun into the 11: 00 pm (10: 00 pm CT / MT) timeslot that belongs to the local affiliates, thus delaying their late local news and any other programming the station may air in the overnight hours (with some stations forgoing a late newscast entirely and giving personnel the evening off). When the film has aired on Easter Sunday, affiliates are given the ability to tape delay the showing an hour ahead to 8 p.m. ET / PT to keep their schedules in line for early evening, though at the cost of delaying their local newscasts to 12: 45 a.m. (11: 45 p.m. CT / MT).
In 2010, the film was broadcast in high definition for the first time, which allowed the television audience to see it in its original VistaVision aspect ratio. In 2015, for the first time in several years, the network undertook a one - off airing of the film on Easter Sunday night, which fell on April 5.
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when did south korea separate from north korea | Division of Korea - wikipedia
The division of Korea between North and South Korea occurred after World War II, ending the Empire of Japan 's 35 - year rule over Korea in 1945. The United States and the Soviet Union each occupied a portion of the country, with the boundary between their zones of control along the 38th parallel.
With the onset of the Cold War, negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union failed to lead to an independent and unified Korea. In 1948, UN-supervised elections were held in the US - occupied south only. The anti-communist Syngman Rhee won the election while Kim Il - sung was appointed as the leader of North Korea by Joseph Stalin. This led to the establishment of the Republic of Korea in South Korea, which was promptly followed by the establishment of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea in North Korea. The United States supported the South, the Soviet Union supported the North, and each government claimed sovereignty over the whole Korean peninsula.
The subsequent Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, ended with a stalemate and has left the two Koreas separated by the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) up to the present day.
When the Russo - Japanese War ended in 1905 Korea became a nominal protectorate of Japan, and was annexed by Japan in 1910. The Korean Emperor Gojong was removed. In the following decades, nationalist and radical groups emerged, mostly in exile, to struggle for independence. Divergent in their outlooks and approaches, these groups failed to unite in one national movement. The Korean Provisional Government in China failed to obtain widespread recognition.
In November 1943, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Chiang Kai - shek met at the Cairo Conference to discuss what should happen to Japan 's colonies, and agreed that Japan should lose all the territories it had conquered by force. In the declaration after this conference, Korea was mentioned for the first time. The three powers declared that they were, "mindful of the enslavement of the people of Korea,... determined that in due course Korea shall become free and independent. '' Roosevelt floated the idea of a trusteeship over Korea, but did not obtain agreement from the other powers. Roosevelt raised the idea with Joseph Stalin at the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945. Stalin did not disagree, but advocated that the period of trusteeship be short.
At the Tehran Conference and the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War in two to three months after victory in Europe. On August 8, 1945, three months to the day after the end of hostilities in Europe, and two days after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. Soviet troops advanced rapidly, and the US government became anxious that they would occupy the whole of Korea. On August 10, 1945 two young officers -- Dean Rusk and Charles Bonesteel -- were assigned to define an American occupation zone. Working on extremely short notice and completely unprepared, they used a National Geographic map to decide on the 38th parallel. They chose it because it divided the country approximately in half but would place the capital Seoul under American control. No experts on Korea were consulted. The two men were unaware that forty years before, Japan and pre-revolutionary Russia had discussed sharing Korea along the same parallel. Rusk later said that had he known, he "almost surely '' would have chosen a different line. The division placed sixteen million Koreans in the American zone and nine million in the Soviet zone. To the surprise of the Americans, the Soviet Union immediately accepted the division. The agreement was incorporated into General Order No. 1 (approved on 17 August 1945) for the surrender of Japan.
Soviet forces began amphibious landings in Korea by August 14 and rapidly took over the north - east of the country, and on August 16 they landed at Wonsan. On August 24, the Red Army reached Pyongyang.
General Abe Nobuyuki, the last Japanese Governor - General of Korea, had established contact with a number of influential Koreans since the beginning of August 1945 to prepare the hand - over of power. Throughout August, Koreans organized people 's committee branches for the "Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence '' (CPKI, 조선 건국 준비 위원회), headed by Lyuh Woon - hyung, a left - wing politician. On September 6, 1945, a congress of representatives was convened in Seoul and founded the short - lived People 's Republic of Korea.
In December 1945, at the Moscow Conference, the Allies agreed that the Soviet Union, the US, the Republic of China, and Britain would take part in a trusteeship over Korea for up to five years in the lead - up to independence. Many Koreans demanded independence immediately; however, the Korean Communist Party, which was closely aligned with the Soviet Communist party, supported the trusteeship.
A Soviet - US Joint Commission met in 1946 and 1947 to work towards a unified administration, but failed to make progress due to increasing Cold War antagonism and to Korean opposition to the trusteeship. Meanwhile, the division between the two zones deepened. The difference in policy between the occupying powers led to a polarization of politics, and a transfer of population between North and South. In May 1946 it was made illegal to cross the 38th parallel without a permit. At the final meeting of the Joint Commission in September 1947, Soviet delegate Terentii Shtykov proposed that both Soviet and US troops withdraw and give the Korean people the opportunity to form their own government. This was rejected by the US.
With the American government fearing Soviet expansion, and the Japanese authorities in Korea warning of a power vacuum, the embarkation date of the US occupation force was brought forward three times.
On September 7, 1945, General Douglas MacArthur announced that Lieutenant General John R. Hodge was to administer Korean affairs, and Hodge landed in Incheon with his troops the next day. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, which had operated from China, sent a delegation with three interpreters to Hodge, but he refused to meet with them. Likewise, Hodge refused to recognize the newly formed People 's Republic of Korea and its People 's Committees, and outlawed it on 12 December.
In September 1946, thousands of laborers and peasants rose up against the military government. This uprising was quickly defeated, and failed to prevent scheduled October elections for the South Korean Interim Legislative Assembly.
The ardent anti-communist Syngman Rhee, who had been the first president of the Provisional Government and later worked as a pro-Korean lobbyist in the US, became the most prominent politician in the South. Rhee pressured the American government to abandon negotiations for a trusteeship and create an independent Republic of Korea in the south. On July 19, 1947, Lyuh Woon - hyung, the last senior politician committed to left - right dialogue, was assassinated by a right - winger.
The occupation government conducted a number of military campaigns against left - wing insurgents. Over the course of the next few years, between 30,000 and 100,000 people were killed.
When Soviet troops entered Pyongyang, they found a local branch of the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence operating under the leadership of veteran nationalist Cho Man - sik. The Soviet Army allowed these "People 's Committees '' (which were friendly to the Soviet Union) to function. Colonel - General Terentii Shtykov set up the Soviet Civil Administration, taking control of the committees and placing communists in key positions.
In February 1946 a provisional government called the Provisional People 's Committee was formed under Kim Il - sung, who had spent the last years of the war training with Soviet troops in Manchuria. Conflicts and power struggles ensued at the top levels of government in Pyongyang as different aspirants maneuvered to gain positions of power in the new government. In March 1946 the provisional government instituted a sweeping land - reform program: land belonging to Japanese and collaborator landowners was divided and redistributed to poor farmers. Organizing the many poor civilians and agricultural laborers under the people 's committees, a nationwide mass campaign broke the control of the old landed classes. Landlords were allowed to keep only the same amount of land as poor civilians who had once rented their land, thereby making for a far more equal distribution of land. The North Korean land reform was achieved in a less violent way than in China or in Vietnam. Official American sources stated: "From all accounts, the former village leaders were eliminated as a political force without resort to bloodshed, but extreme care was taken to preclude their return to power. '' The farmers responded positively; many collaborators and former landowners fled to the south, where some of them obtained positions in the new South Korean government. According to the U.S. military government, 400,000 northern Koreans went south as refugees.
Key industries were nationalized. The economic situation was nearly as difficult in the north as it was in the south, as the Japanese had concentrated agriculture in the south and heavy industry in the north.
Soviet forces departed in 1948.
With the failure of the Joint Commission to make progress, the US brought the problem before the United Nations in September 1947. The Soviet Union opposed UN involvement. At that time, the US had more influence over the UN than the USSR. The UN passed a resolution on November 14, 1947, declaring that free elections should be held, foreign troops should be withdrawn, and a UN commission for Korea, the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK), should be created. The Soviet Union boycotted the voting and did not consider the resolution to be binding, arguing that the UN could not guarantee fair elections. In the absence of Soviet co-operation, it was decided to hold UN-supervised elections in the south only. This was in defiance of the report of the chairman of the Commission, K.P.S. Menon, who had argued against a separate election. Some UNTCOK delegates felt that the conditions in the south gave unfair advantage to right - wing candidates, but they were overruled.
The decision to proceed with separate elections was unpopular among many Koreans, who rightly saw it as a prelude to a permanent division of the country. General strikes in protest against the decision began in February 1948. In April, Jeju islanders rose up against the looming division of the country. South Korean troops were sent to repress the rebellion. Tens of thousands of islanders were killed and by one estimate, 70 % of the villages were burned by the South Korean troops. The uprising flared up again with the outbreak of the Korean War.
In April 1948, a conference of organizations from the north and the south met in Pyongyang. The southern politicians Kim Koo and Kim Kyu - sik attended the conference and boycotted the elections in the south, as did other politicians and parties. The conference called for a united government and the withdrawal of foreign troops. Syngman Rhee and General Hodge denounced the conference. Kim Koo was assassinated the following year.
On May 10, 1948 the south held a general election. It took place amid widespread violence and intimidation, as well as a boycott by opponents of Syngman Rhee. On August 15, the "Republic of Korea '' (Daehan Minguk) formally took over power from the U.S. military, with Syngman Rhee as the first president. In the North, the "Democratic People 's Republic of Korea '' (Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk) was declared on September 9, with Kim Il - sung as prime minister.
On December 12, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly accepted the report of UNTCOK and declared the Republic of Korea to be the "only lawful government in Korea ''. However, none of the members of UNTCOK considered that the election had established a legitimate national parliament. The Australian government, which had a representative on the commission declared that it was "far from satisfied '' with the election.
Unrest continued in the South. In October 1948, the Yeosu -- Suncheon Rebellion took place, in which some regiments rejected the suppression of the Jeju uprising and rebelled against the government. In 1949, the Syngman Rhee government established the Bodo League in order to keep an eye on its political opponents. The majority of the Bodo League 's members were innocent farmers and civilians who were forced into membership. The registered members or their families were executed at the beginning of the Korean War. On December 24, 1949, South Korean Army massacred Mungyeong citizens who were suspected communist sympathizers or their family and affixed blame to communists.
This division of Korea, after more than a millennium of being unified, was seen as controversial and temporary by both regimes. From 1948 until the start of the civil war on June 25, 1950, the armed forces of each side engaged in a series of bloody conflicts along the border. In 1950, these conflicts escalated dramatically when North Korean forces invaded South Korea, triggering the Korean War. The United Nations intervened to protect the South, sending a US - led force. As it occupied the south, the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea attempted to unify Korea under its regime, initiating the nationalisation of industry, land reform, and the restoration of the People 's Committees.
While UN intervention was conceived as restoring the border at the 38th parallel, Syngman Rhee argued that the attack of the North had obliterated the boundary. Similarly UN Commander in Chief, General Douglas MacArthur stated that he intended to unify Korea, not just drive the North Korean forces back behind the border. However, the North overran 90 % of the south until a counter-attack by US - led forces. As the North Korean forces were driven from the south, South Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel on 1 October, and American and other UN forces followed a week later. This was despite warnings from the People 's Republic of China that it would intervene if American troops crossed the parallel. As it occupied the north, the Republic of Korea, in turn, attempted to unify the country under its regime, with the Korean National Police enforcing political indoctrination. As US - led forces pushed into the north, China unleashed a counter-attack which drove them back into the south.
In 1951, the front line stabilized near the 38th parallel, and both sides began to consider an armistice. Rhee, however, demanded the war continue until Korea was unified under his leadership. The Communist side supported an armistice line being based on the 38th parallel, but the United Nations supported a line based on the territory held by each side, which was militarily defensible. The UN position, formulated by the Americans, went against the consensus leading up to the negotiations. Initially, the Americans proposed a line that passed through Pyongyang, far to the north of the front line. The Chinese and North Koreans eventually agreed to a border on the military line of contact rather than the 38th parallel, but this disagreement led to a tortuous and drawn - out negotiating process.
The Korean Armistice Agreement was signed after three years of war. The two sides agreed to create a four - kilometer - wide buffer zone between the states, known as the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). This new border, reflecting the territory held by each side at the end of the war, crossed the 38th parallel diagonally. Rhee refused to accept the armistice and continued to urge the reunification of the country by force. Despite attempts by both sides to reunify the country, the war perpetuated the division of Korea and led to a permanent alliance between South Korea and the U.S., and a permanent U.S. garrison in the South.
As dictated by the terms of the Korean Armistice, a Geneva Conference was held in 1954 on the Korean question. Despite efforts by many of the nations involved, the conference ended without a declaration for a unified Korea.
The Armistice established a Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission (NNSC) which was tasked to monitor the Armistice. Since 1953, members of the Swiss and Swedish armed forces have been members of the NNSC stationed near the DMZ. Poland and Czechoslovakia were the neutral nations chosen by North Korea, but North Korea expelled their observers after those countries embraced capitalism.
Since the war, Korea has remained divided along the DMZ. North and South have remained in a state of conflict, with the opposing regimes both claiming to be the legitimate government of the whole country. Sporadic negotiations have failed to produce lasting progress towards reunification.
On April 27, 2018 North Korean leader Kim Jong - un and South Korean President Moon Jae - in met in the Demilitarized Zone. The Panmunjom Declaration signed by both leaders called for the end of longstanding military activities near the border and the reunification of Korea.
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according to hall (1977) characteristics of high context communication | High - context and low - context cultures - wikipedia
High - context culture and low - context culture are terms used to describe cultures based on how explicit the messages exchanged are and how much the context means in certain situations. These concepts were first introduced by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1976 book Beyond Culture. According to Hall, messages exchanged in a high - context culture carry implicit meanings with more information than the actually spoken parts, while in low - context cultures, the messages have a clear meaning, with nothing implied beyond the words used.
In a higher - context culture, the way words are said is more important than the words themselves, so many things are left unsaid, relying on the context of the moment and the culture as a whole to impart meaning. In a lower - context culture, it is very important for the communicator to be explicit in order to be fully understood.
A cultural context does not rank as "high '' or "low '' in an absolute sense because each message can be presented on a continuum from high to low. Likewise, a culture (French Canadian) may be of a higher context than one (English Canadian) but lower context than another (Spanish or French). Likewise, a stereotypical individual from Texas (a higher - context culture) may communicate more with a few words or use of a prolonged silence, than a stereotypical New Yorker who is being very explicit, although both being part of a culture which is lower context overall. Typically a high - context culture will be relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. They place a high value on interpersonal relationships and group members are a very close - knit community.
In one article, one sociologist from Japan and two from Finland argued that Japan and Finland are high - context cultures, although both, especially Finland, are becoming lower - context with the increased cultural influence of Western nations. The authors also described India as a relatively low - context culture, arguing that Indians ' communication style, while observant of hierarchical differences as is standard for higher - context societies, is much more explicit and verbose than those of East Asians.
While the milieu of individuals in a culture can be diverse, and not all individuals can be described by strict stereotypes, understanding the broad tendencies of predominant cultures can help inform and educate individuals on how to better facilitate communication between individuals of differing cultures. The following spectrum of levels of context in various cultures was determined in 1986 by Copeland & L. Griggs:
Although the concept of high - and low - context cultures is usually applied in the field of analyzing national cultures, it can also be used to describe scientific or corporate cultures (or other beyond national cultures) and they tend to display similar characteristics as national cultural groups. A simplified example mentioned by Hall is that scientists working in "hard science '' fields e.g., chemistry and physics, tend to have lower - context cultures comparing with scientists working with living systems, as the former fields are dealing with knowledge that is closer to the reality than the latter ones, which means higher explicitness and clarity is required in the former 's communication processes.
Higher - context cultures tend to be more common in the Asian cultures than in European, and in countries with low racial diversity. Cultures where the group / community is valued over the individual promote the in - groups and group reliance / support that favour higher - context cultures. Coexisting subcultures are also conducive to higher context situations, where the small group relies on their common background to explain the situation, rather than words. A lower - context culture tends to explain things further, and it is thought that this may be related to the need to accommodate individuals with a wide variety of backgrounds.
Low - context cultures require more explicit expression and communication, and therefore tend to be more verbose. This correlates with an increased aversion for ambiguity.
The concept of elaborated and restricted codes is introduced by sociologist Basil Bernstein in his book Class, Codes and Control. An elaborated code indicates that the speaker is expressing his / her idea by phrasing from an abundant selection of alternatives without assuming the listener shares lots of common knowledge, which allows the speaker to explain their idea explicitly. While restricted codes are phrased from more limited alternatives, usually with collapsed and shortened sentences, therefore it requires the listeners to share a great deal of common perspectives to understand the implicit meaning of the conversation.
Restricted codes are commonly used in high - context culture groups, where people share same cultural background and can easily understand the implicit meanings between lines without further elaboration. Conversely, in cultural groups with low context, where people share little common knowledge or ' value individuality above group identification ', detailed elaboration becomes essential to avoid misunderstanding.
There seems to be a positive correlation between collectivism and high - context cultures. To be more specific, more of the meaning of communication is hidden in the context in a high - context culture, thus other functions of language are amplified -- to assist and maintain relationship building, create atmosphere, etc., which fits into the requirement of successful communication in a collectivistic society, where relationship among people is more important than other business. Typical examples here would be China and India (High - context and highly collectivistic).
Similarly, low - context cultural traits are usually found in individualistic cultures. An individualistic society promotes the development of individual values and independent social groups, which assumes poor representation of others ' values. Therefore, a more explicit and elaborated way of communication is required to avoid misunderstanding, which means a low - context message would serve a smoother conversation. Representative examples include the USA and Australia (Low - context and highly individualistic).
High - context cultures tend to be more stable, as their communication is more economical, fast, efficient and satisfying, but it is gained at a price of devoting time into preprogramming cultural background, and its high stability might come with a price of a high barrier for development. Whereas low - context cultures tend to change rapidly and drastically, they allow extension to happen at an incredibly fast rate. But it also means that low - context communication may fail due to the overload of information, which makes culture lose its screening function.
Therefore, higher - context cultures tend to correlate with cultures that also have a strong sense of tradition and history, and change little over time. For example, Native Americans in the United States have higher - context cultures with a strong sense of tradition and history. The focus on tradition creates opportunities for higher context messages between individuals of each new generation, and the high - context culture feeds back to the stability hence allows the tradition to be maintained. This is in contrast to lower - context cultures in which the shared experiences upon which communication is built can change drastically from one generation to the next, creating communication gaps between parents and children, as in the United States.
Culture also affects people 's facial expression, an experiment done by the University of Glasgow shows that Western Caucasians and East Asians have different understanding in the facial expression signals of the 6 basic emotions, which are the so - called "universal language of emotion '' -- happy, surprise, fear, disgust, anger and sad. The results show that Western Caucasians tend to distribute their expressive features across the face, including eyebrows and mouth; while the East Asians tend to use their eyes to express most of the emotions, especially by changing the direction of gazing, which turns out to be far less exaggerating than the Westerners.
This phenomenon can also be explained by using the high - and low - context culture theory. By mapping the performance on facial expression and the cultural backgrounds of the participants, we can tell that more exaggerating expressions of emotion tend to correlate with relatively lower - context culture (Western Caucasian culture), while subtler facial expressions belong to higher - context culture (East Asian culture). This is because, in a low - context cultural environment, people tend to express themselves as explicit as possible, thus exaggerating facial expression becomes a complementary tool for further elaboration of the speaker 's meaning by conveying speaker 's emotion vividly and effectively avoid misunderstanding.
On the contrary, a high - context culture usually indicates an enormous amount of "taken for granted '' shared knowledge, therefore people believe that limited amount of information should be enough for successful communication, which means the "complementary tool '' function of facial expression becomes less important here. Hence people coming from high - context cultural background tend to express their emotion via facial expression more subtly, in the case of this study, the East Asians would convey most of their feeling via their eyes.
Marketing makes it clear when it comes to high and low - context cultures. If we use Japan for example, advertising is very colorful, full of images, gestures and sounds with powerful meaning behind it. The dialogue is only one more part of the advertising, but it is not central. Every vocal and non-vocal expression is explored when the consumers are part of a high - context culture, and they are very sensible to it. McDonald 's advertising are very different in places like Japan, when compared to the United States. (http://marketeer.kapost.com/marketing-to-different-cultures/) They use more colors, movements and sounds, when the American version is more straightforward. ''
The Vikaas political compass indicates how low - context and high - context attributes influence the political behaviors of said respective cultures.
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who wrote hard times come again no more | Hard Times come again no more - wikipedia
"Hard Times Come Again No More '' (sometimes, "Hard Times '') is an American parlor song written by Stephen Foster. It was published in New York by Firth, Pond & Co. in 1854 as Foster 's Melodies No. 28. Well - known and popular in its day, both in America and Europe, the song asks the fortunate to consider the plight of the less fortunate and ends with one of Foster 's favorite images: "a pale drooping maiden ''.
The first audio recording was a wax cylinder by the Edison Manufacturing Company (Edison Gold Moulded 9120) in 1905. It has been recorded and performed numerous times since. The song is Roud Folk Song Index # 2659.
A satirical version about soldier 's food was popular in the American Civil War, "Hard Tack Come Again No More ''.
1. Let us pause in life 's pleasures and count its many tears, While we all sup sorrow with the poor; There 's a song that will linger forever in our ears; Oh! Hard times come again no more. Chorus: ' Tis the song, the sigh of the weary, Hard Times, hard times, come again no more. Many days you have lingered around my cabin door; Oh! Hard times come again no more. 2. While we seek mirth and beauty and music light and gay, There are frail forms fainting at the door; Though their voices are silent, their pleading looks will say Oh! Hard times come again no more. Chorus 3. There 's a pale drooping maiden who toils her life away, With a worn heart whose better days are o'er: Though her voice would be merry, ' tis sighing all the day, Oh! Hard times come again no more. Chorus 4. ' Tis a sigh that is wafted across the troubled wave, ' Tis a wail that is heard upon the shore ' Tis a dirge that is murmured around the lowly grave Oh! Hard times come again no more. Chorus
"Hard Times Come Again No More '' has been included in the following:
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what is the territorial army in the uk | Army Reserve (United Kingdom) - wikipedia
The Army Reserve (previously known as the Territorial Force, Territorial Army (TA) and the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve (TAVR) from 1920 to 2014) is the active - duty volunteer reserve force and integrated element of the British Army. The Army Reserve was created as the Territorial Force in 1908 by the Secretary of State for War, Richard Haldane, when the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 combined the previously civilian - administered Volunteer Force, with the mounted Yeomanry (at the same time the Militia was renamed the Special Reserve). Most Volunteer infantry units had unique identities, but lost these in the reorganisation, becoming Territorial battalions of Regular Army infantry regiments. Only one infantry unit, the London Regiment, has maintained a separate identity.
Its original purpose was home defence, although the establishment of the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve in 1967 involved a restructuring and revised doctrine leading to the provision of routine support for the regular army overseas. Reservists in the past also served as constables or bailiffs, even holding positions of civic duty as overseer of their parish. The more modern Yeomen of the 18th century were cavalry - based units, which were often used to suppress riots (see the Peterloo Massacre). Several units that are now part of the Army Reserve bear the title "militia '', reflecting their origins as part of that organisation prior to the formation of the Special Reserve in 1907.
During periods of total war, the Army Reserve is incorporated by the Royal Prerogative into Regular Service under one code of Military Law for the duration of hostilities or until de-activation is decided upon. After the Second World War, for example, the Army Reserve - or Territorial Army as it was known then - was not demobilised until 1947. Army Reservists normally have a full - time civilian job or career, which in some cases provides skills and expertise that are directly transferable to a specialist military role, such as NHS employees serving in Reservist Army Medical Services units. All Army Reserve personnel have their civilian jobs protected to a limited extent by law should they be compulsorily mobilised. There is, however, no legal protection against discrimination in employment for membership of the Army Reserve in the normal course of events (i.e. when not mobilised).
The Territorial Force was originally formed by the Secretary of State for War, Richard Burdon Haldane, following the enactment of the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 which combined and re-organised the old Volunteer Force with the Yeomanry. As part of the same process, remaining units of militia were converted to the Special Reserve. The TF was formed on 1 April 1908 and contained fourteen infantry divisions, and fourteen mounted yeomanry brigades. It had an overall strength of approximately 269,000.
The individual units that made up each division or brigade were administered by County Associations, with the county 's lord lieutenant as president. The other members of the association consisted of military members (chosen from the commanding officers of the units), representative members (nominated by the county councils and county boroughs in the lieutenancy county) and co-opted members (often retired military officers). Associations took over any property vested in the volunteers or yeomanry under their administration. Each regiment or battalion had a Regular Army officer attached as full - time adjutant.
The use of the word territorial signified that the volunteers who served with the force were under no obligation to serve overseas -- in 1910, when asked to nominate for Imperial Service overseas in the event of mobilisation, less than 10 % of the Force chose to do so. In August 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, territorial units were given the option of serving in France and, by 25 August, in excess of seventy battalions had volunteered. This question over the availability of territorial divisions for overseas service was one of Lord Kitchener 's motivations for raising the New Army separately.
Territorial formations initially saw service in Egypt and British India and other Empire garrisons such as Gibraltar, thereby releasing regular units for service in France and enabling the formation of an additional five regular army divisions (for a total of eleven) by early 1915. Several reserve units were also deployed with regular formations and the first territorial unit to see action on the Western Front was the Glasgow Territorial Signallers Group, Royal Engineers at the First Battle of Ypres on 11 October 1914. The first fully Territorial division to join the fighting on the Western Front was the 46th (North Midland) Division in March 1915, with divisions later serving in Gallipoli and elsewhere. As the war progressed, and casualties mounted, the distinctive character of territorial units was diluted by the inclusion of conscript and New Army drafts. Following the Armistice all units of the Territorial Force were gradually disbanded.
New recruiting started in early 1920, and the Territorial Force was reconstituted on 7 February 1920. On 1 October 1920, the Territorial Force was renamed the Territorial Army. The 1st Line divisions (that were created in 1907 or 1908) were reconstituted in that year. However, the composition of the divisions was altered, with a reduction in the number of infantry battalions required. There was also a reduced need for cavalry, and of the 55 yeomanry regiments, only the 14 most senior retained their horses. The remaining yeomanry were converted to artillery or armoured car units or disbanded. The amalgamation of 40 pairs of infantry battalions was announced in October 1921. As part of the post-war "Geddes Axe '' financial cuts, the TA was further reduced in size in 1922: artillery batteries lost two of their six guns, the established size of infantry battalions was cut and ancillary medical, veterinary, signals and Royal Army Service Corps units were either reduced in size or abolished. The bounty was also reduced to £ 3 for trained men and £ 2.10 s 0d for recruits, which resulted in finding £ 1,175,000 of the total savings required from the army as a whole. An innovation in 1922 was the creation of two Air Defence Brigades to provide anti-aircraft defence for London.
On 29 March 1939, it was announced that the size of the TA was to be doubled by the reforming of the 2nd line units. The total strength of the TA was to be 440,000: the field force of the Territorial Army was to rise from 130,000 to 340,000, organised in 26 divisions, while an additional 100,000 all ranks would form the anti-aircraft section. When the 2nd Line was reformed, they were a little different from their First World War predecessors. They had slightly different names and the regiments assigned were different. After VJ Day in August 1945, the Territorial Army was significantly reduced, with all 2nd Line and several 1st Line Divisions once again disbanded.
The Territorial Army armoured and infantry divisions during the Second World War were:
In 1947, the TA was restructured and expanded through the reactivation of some of the 1st Line divisions that were initially disbanded after the war, keeping its former role of supplying complete divisions to the regular Army until 1967. For the first time, TA units were formed in Northern Ireland. The manoeuvre divisions established or re-established in 1947 were:
The 16th Airborne Division, a totally TA formation, was also raised at this time, under the command of Major - General Robert E. "Roy '' Urquhart. 52nd (Lowland) Division was re-established as a tenth, ' mixed ' division in March 1950.
The territorials also provided much of the anti-aircraft cover for the United Kingdom until 1956. In that year, Anti-Aircraft Command and 15 anti-aircraft regiments of the Royal Artillery were disbanded, with nine others passing into "suspended animation '' as new English Electric Thunderbird Surface to Air Missile units replaced them. On 20 December 1955, the Secretary of State for War informed the House of Commons that the armoured divisions and the ' mixed ' division were to be converted to infantry, and the 16th Airborne Division reduced to a parachute brigade group. Only two divisions (43rd and 53rd), two armoured brigades, and a parachute brigade were to remain allocated for NATO and the defence of Western Europe; the other eight divisions were placed on a lower establishment for home defence only. The territorial units of the Royal Armoured Corps were also reduced in number to nine armoured regiments and eleven reconnaissance regiments. This was effected by amalgamation of pairs of regiments, and the conversion of four RAC units to an infantry role. The new parachute brigade group become the 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group.
British forces contracted dramatically as the end of conscription in 1960 came in sight as announced in the 1957 Defence White Paper. On 20 July 1960, a reorganisation of the TA was announced in the House of Commons. The territorials were to be reduced from 266 fighting units to 195. There was to be a reduction of 46 regiments of the Royal Artillery, 18 battalions of infantry, 12 regiments of the Royal Engineers and two regiments of the Royal Corps of Signals. The reductions were carried out in 1961, mainly by amalgamation of units. Thus, on 1 May 1961, the TA divisional headquarters were merged with regular army districts, which were matched with Civil Defence Regions to aid mobilisation for war. The number of infantry brigades were reduced from 31 to 23, and the two armoured brigades were disbanded.
This was followed by a complete reorganisation announced in the 1966 Defence White Paper from 1 April 1967, when the title Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve (TAVR) was adopted, that abolished the former regimental and divisional structure of the TA. Units in the new TAVR were divided into four categories:
TAVR I and II units were known as "Volunteers '', and those in TAVR III as "Territorials ''. These terms were often incorporated into the unit titles.
The TAVR III was disbanded in 1969, with the units being reduced to eight - man "cadres ''. The cadres became part of a "sponsoring '' TAVR II unit, although continuing to wear the badges and perpetuating the traditions of their forebears. An increase in the size of the TAVR in 1971 led to the formation of a number of battalions based on these cadres.
In 1979, the Territorial Army title was restored and, in the following years, its size was somewhat increased, with the regimental system being progressively reinstated. Although, due to its decreased established size, Brigades rather than Divisions were used at a manoeuvre formation level.
The TA was thus re-roled into its modern form. Instead of supplying complete combat divisions, its function was to round out regular formations by supplying units of up to battalion size (including infantry, light artillery and formation reconnaissance), and to supply extra support functions such as engineers, medical units and military police.
After the Strategic Defence Review of 1998, the TA 's size of around 56,200 was further reduced. The Infantry suffered most, with 87 companies in 33 battalions reducing to 67 companies in 15 battalions. As of 2006, the Territorial Army has an authorised strength of 42,000 though recruiting difficulties put the actual strength of the TA significantly below that figure (manning is currently at approx 82 % across the board which equates to 34,000 while the actual strength of certain units is almost a skeleton crew, making them unsustainable without direct intervention by full - time personnel).
Army Reservists have seen service in a number of conflicts that the UK has been involved with since 1945. However, they served in particularly large numbers in two conflicts: the Korean War and the Suez Crisis; both occurred during the 1950s and, on each occasion, the entire TA was called up. Throughout the Cold War, however, the Territorial Army was never regarded as a particularly usable force overseas, either by the Government of the day or by the Regular Army. This was due to the fact that the entire Territorial Army had to be mobilised by Royal Prerogative in a wartime scenario, as occurred in the World Wars, with no flexibility to use smaller formations or specialists if required and, as a result, relied purely on territorials willing to volunteer their services. Therefore, its role was, at least unofficially, seen as home defence and, as a result, the TA was not used in conflicts such as the 1982 Falklands War and 1991 Gulf War (205 Scottish General Hospital was mobilised as a unit based in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, during the 1991 Gulf War and a number of TA staff officers and others volunteered and served during the conflict, either in supporting roles in Germany or within 1 (UK) Armoured Division in the Middle East.) Some 550 TA personnel volunteered for and deployed on Op RESOLUTE in December 1995; the UK 's contribution to the NATO mission to enforce peace in the Former Yugoslavia. The Government subsequently passed the Reserve Forces Act 1996, which enables individual Reservists to be compulsorily called up for deployment, with certain caveats exempting those in full - time education and other compassionate reasons, as well as providing protection by employment law for members ' civilian jobs should they be mobilised, which has led to the Army Reserve increasingly providing routine support for the Regular Army overseas including delivery of composite units to release regular units from standing liabilities; including Bosnia, Kosovo, Cyprus and the Falkland Islands.
In 2003, 9,500 reservists, the vast majority of them from the Reserve, were mobilised to take part in Operation TELIC, the invasion of Iraq; in contrast only some 420 Regular Reservists were called - up. Approximately 1,200 members of the Army Reserve deployed annually on tours of duty in Iraq, Operation HERRICK in Afghanistan and elsewhere, normally on six month - long roulements. They can not be used in operations for more than twelve months in any three - year period - making most of those who have already served ineligible for call up for two years afterwards, although reservists may choose to volunteer for additional deployments.
Army Reservists have a minimum commitment to serve 27 training days per annum, or 19 days for some national units. This period normally includes a two - week period of continuous training either as an Army Reserve unit, on courses or attached to a Regular unit. Army Reserve soldiers are paid at a similar rate as their regular equivalents while engaged on military activities. Soldiers of the Army Reserve are often serving alongside their regular counterparts, including operations in Afghanistan where 1,000 out of the total 10,100 deployed have been Reservists, around 10 % of the total. The annual budget of the Army Reserve is approximately £ 350 million -- around 1.3 % of the total defence budget.
Under the "Future Reserves 2020 '' (FR20) plan outlined by then Secretary of State for Defence Liam Fox on 18 July 2011, the Ministry of Defence will provide more money to train more Army Reservists with the objective of more frequently deploying entire Army Reserve units (much like United States Army Reserve and Army National Guard units). Under the reform plan, the total force will be restructured so that, by 2020, the British Army will have 120,000 soldiers, of which 84,000 will be Regulars and 35,000 Reservists (a ratio of 70 / 30). The Territorial Army was renamed under that plan, becoming the Army Reserve.
For Army Reserve soldiers, recruit training is structured into two phases: Phase 1, also known as the Common Military Syllabus (Recruit) (CMS (R)), and Phase 2, specialist training.
Phase 1
In Phase 1, recruits cover the Common Military Syllabus (Reserve) 14 (CMS (R) 14). Phase 1 A is a series of 4 training weekends at regional Army Training Units (ATUs), or the recruit could attend a consolidated Phase 1 A week long course. Phase 1 training concludes with a two - week Phase 1 B training course normally held at the Army Training Centre, Pirbright or the Army Training Regiment, Winchester, or Grantham. Recruits to the 4th Battalion, The Parachute Regiment and the Honourable Artillery Company complete their equivalent of CMS (R) within their own units.
Phase 2
Phase 1 is followed by Phase 2, a further period of specialist training specific to the type of unit the recruit is joining. This is normally conducted by the Arm or Service that the recruit is joining, for example for infantry units, Phase 2 consists of the two - week Combat Infantryman 's Course (TA) (CIC (TA)) held at the Infantry Training Centre, Catterick.
To gain a commission, Potential Officers have to pass through four modules of training, which together form the Army Reserve Commissioning Course.
Module A consists of basic field training and elementary military skills. This can be completed at either a UOTC over a number of weekends, or over 2 weeks at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (RMAS)
Module B covers training in Tactics, Leadership, Doctrine and Navigation, both in theory and in practice, with a focus on the section battle drills and the platoon combat estimate. This training can either be spread over 10 weekends at a UOTC, or 2 weeks at the RMAS.
Module C builds on the Tactics, Leadership, Doctrine and Navigation taught in Module B, with a greater focus on the theory behind these constructs. CBRN training is also added at this point, and Officer Cadets undergo a number of field exercises to test their military and leadership skills. Module C can only be undertaken at the RMAS.
Module D Once the Officer Cadet has completed their ArmyOfficer Selection Board, they can complete this final module, after which they will become commissioned officers in the British Army. Based at the RMAS, this module consists primarily of a prolonged field exercise, followed by drill training in preparation for the passing out parade.
On successful completion of Module D, the Officer Cadets receive their Commission and become Second Lieutenants. Further training that is required prior to them being considered for operational deployment and promotion to Lieutenant includes:
Post Commissioning Training (formerly known as Module 5), again run at an OTC, over 3 weekends.
Special To Arm training is specific to the type of unit the Subaltern is joining, and covers a 2 - week period. This is increasingly integrated with the tactics phase of a Regular training course. For example, the Platoon Commander 's Battle Course held at the Infantry Battle School in Brecon which is integrated within a Regular training course, or the Light Cavalry Commander 's Course held at the Reconnaissance & Armoured Tactics Division in Warminster which is run separately to Regular training courses.
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british artist and musician who won the turner prize in 2001 | List of Turner Prize winners and nominees - wikipedia
The Turner Prize is an annual prize presented to a British visual artist, organised by the Tate Gallery. Named after the painter J.M.W. Turner, it was first presented in 1984, and is one of the United Kingdom 's most prestigious, but controversial, art awards. Initially, the prize was awarded to the individual who had "made the greatest contribution to art in Britain in the previous twelve months '', but it now celebrates "a British artist under fifty for an outstanding exhibition or other presentation of their work in the twelve months preceding ''. The winner is chosen by a panel of four independent judges invited by the Tate and chaired by the director of Tate Britain. The prize is accompanied by a monetary award of £ 25,000, although the amount has varied depending on the sponsor. For example, between 2004 and 2007, while sponsored by Gordon 's, the total prize fund was £ 40,000; £ 25,000 was awarded to the winner and £ 5,000 to the losing nominees.
A shortlist of finalists is drawn up and usually published about six months before the prize is awarded in November or December each year, although shortlists were not made public in 1988 and 1990; in 1989, a list of seven "commended '' artists was published. Controversy surrounded the presentation of the inaugural prize to Malcolm Morley as some critics "questioned his relevance '' to art in Britain; he had lived and worked in the United States for the previous 20 years. Since its inception, the prize itself has received considerable criticism. In 2002, after Culture Minister Kim Howells described the Turner Prize as "conceptual bullshit '', Prince Charles wrote a letter of support to him, stating "It has contaminated the art establishment for so long ''. Since 2000, the Stuckists art group have protested against the prize; in 2008, they gave out leaflets with the message "The Turner Prize is Crap '', to protest at the lack of figurative paintings amongst the nominees ' exhibitions.
Considerable media pressure is applied to nominees and winners of the Turner Prize. The 2003 winner Grayson Perry stated that "Such media storms can be traumatising for someone who has laboured away for years in a studio, making art not news. '' Some artists, including Sarah Lucas and Julian Opie, have decided not to participate in the event, regarding a nomination as "a poisoned chalice ''. Stephen Deuchar, Director of Tate Britain suggested "We want the artists to be comfortable with media pressure. We have to shield them ''.
Several winners of the prize have won other notable awards such as the Venice Biennale, and continue to present their works at various international exhibitions. Winners ' reactions to the award range from Damien Hirst 's "A media circus to raise money for the Tate and Channel 4 '' to Jeremy Deller 's "It blew me away, people 's hunger to see what I 'd done ''. Auction prices for works by previous winners have generally increased. The award has also seen some unexpected results: Tracey Emin 's My Bed, was overlooked in 1999 despite drawing large crowds to the Tate. The Chapman brothers and Willie Doherty lost out to Grayson Perry in 2003 -- Perry accepted the award dressed as a girl while Jake Chapman described "losing the Turner prize to a grown man dressed as a small girl '' as his "most embarrassing moment ''.
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where did the original willy wonka take place | Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory - wikipedia
Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is a 1971 American musical fantasy film directed by Mel Stuart, and starring Gene Wilder as Willy Wonka. It is an adaptation of the 1964 novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl. Dahl was credited with writing the film 's screenplay; however, David Seltzer, who went uncredited in the film, was brought in to re-work Dahl 's screenplay against his wishes, making major changes to the ending and adding musical numbers. These changes and other decisions made by the director led Dahl to disown the film.
The film tells the story of Charlie Bucket (Peter Ostrum) as he receives a Golden Ticket and visits Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory with four other children from around the world. Filming took place in Munich in 1970, and the film was released by Paramount Pictures on June 30, 1971. With a budget of just $3 million, the film received generally positive reviews and earned $4 million by the end of its original run. Paramount distributed the film until 1977, and beginning in the 1980s, Warner Bros. assumed control of the rights for home entertainment purposes. The film then made an additional $21 million during its re-release by Warner Bros. under its Family Entertainment banner in 1996. The film became highly popular in part through repeated television airings and home entertainment sales. In 1972, the film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score, and Wilder was nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy, but lost both to Fiddler on the Roof. The film also introduced the song "The Candy Man '', which went on to become a popular hit when recorded by Sammy Davis Jr. In 2014, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In an unnamed town, children visit a candy shop. Charlie Bucket, a poor paperboy, stares through the window as the shop owner sings "The Candy Man ''. Walking home, he passes Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory. A mysterious tinker recites the first lines of William Allingham 's poem "The Fairies '', and tells Charlie, "Nobody ever goes in, and nobody ever comes out. '' Charlie rushes home to his widowed mother and bedridden grandparents. After telling Grandpa Joe about the tinker, Joe reveals that Wonka locked the factory because other candy makers, including rival Arthur Slugworth, sent in spies to steal his recipes. Wonka disappeared, but after three years resumed selling candy; the origin of Wonka 's labor force is unknown.
The next day, Wonka announces that he hid five "Golden Tickets '' in chocolate Wonka Bars. Finders of the tickets will receive a factory tour and a lifetime supply of chocolate. The first four tickets are found by the gluttonous Augustus Gloop, the spoiled Veruca Salt, the gum - chewing Violet Beauregarde, and the television - obsessed Mike Teevee. As each winner is announced on TV, a man whispers to them. Charlie opens two Wonka Bars but finds no Golden Ticket. The newspapers announce the fifth ticket was found by a millionaire in Paraguay causing Charlie to lose hope. The next day, Charlie finds money in a sewer and uses it to buy a Scrumdiddlyumptious bar. With the change, he buys another Wonka Bar for Joe. Walking home, as Charlie hears people reading the newspapers; revealing that the Paraguayan millionaire 's ticket is a fake, he opens the Wonka Bar and finds the fifth golden ticket. While rushing home, he is confronted by the same man seen whispering to the other winners, who introduces himself as Slugworth and offers a reward for a sample of Wonka 's latest creation, the Everlasting Gobstopper.
Charlie returns home with the Golden Ticket and chooses Grandpa Joe as his chaperone and they sing "I 've Got A Golden Ticket ''. The next day, Wonka greets the ticket winners and leads them inside where each signs a contract before the tour. The factory includes a river of chocolate, edible mushrooms, lickable wallpaper, and other sweets and inventions. As the visitors sample these, Wonka sings "Pure Imagination ''. The visitors see Wonka 's workers, small men known as Oompa - Loompas, who sing their song whenever a ticket holder disobeys Wonka. Augustus falls into the chocolate river and is sucked up a pipe to the Fudge Room. In the Inventing Room, everyone receives an Everlasting Gobstopper. Violet becomes a large blueberry after chewing an experimental gum containing a three - course meal, despite Wonka 's warnings. The group reaches the Fizzy Lifting Drinks Room, where Charlie and Grandpa Joe ignore Wonka 's warning and sample the drinks. They float and have a near - fatal encounter with an exhaust fan before burping back to the ground. In the Chocolate Eggs Room, Veruca demands a golden goose for herself before falling into a garbage chute leading to the furnace, with her father falling in trying to rescue her. The group tests out Wonka 's Wonkavision, only for Mike to teleport himself and become a few inches tall.
Only Charlie and Grandpa Joe remain, but Wonka dismisses them without the promised chocolate. When Grandpa Joe asks him why, Wonka angrily explains that they violated the contract by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and will receive nothing. An angered Grandpa Joe suggests to Charlie that he should give Slugworth the Gobstopper in revenge, but Charlie returns the candy back to Wonka. With this selfless act, Wonka declares Charlie as the winner. He reveals that Slugworth is actually "Mr. Wilkinson '', a fellow employee of Wonka, and the offer to buy the Gobstopper was a morality test which only Charlie passed. The trio enter the "Wonkavator '', a multi-directional glass elevator that flies out of the factory. Soaring over the city, Wonka reveals that his actual prize is the factory; Wonka created the contest to find an heir worthy enough, and so Charlie and his family can immediately move in. Wonka then reminds Charlie not to forget about the man who suddenly received everything he ever wanted. Charlie asks, "What happened? '' to which Wonka replies, "He lived happily ever after. ''
The idea for adapting the book into a film came about when director Mel Stuart 's ten - year - old daughter read the book and asked her father to make a film out of it, with "Uncle Dave '' (producer David L. Wolper) producing it. Stuart showed the book to Wolper, who happened to be in the midst of talks with the Quaker Oats Company regarding a vehicle to introduce a new candy bar from its Chicago - based Breaker Confections subsidiary (since renamed the Willy Wonka Candy Company and sold to Nestlé). Wolper persuaded the company, which had no previous experience in the film industry, to buy the rights to the book and finance the picture for the purpose of promoting a new Quaker Oats Wonka Bar.
It was agreed that the film would be a children 's musical, and that Dahl himself would write the screenplay. However, the title was changed to Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory.
Screenwriter David Seltzer conceived a gimmick exclusively for the film that had Wonka quoting numerous literary sources, such as Arthur O'Shaughnessy 's Ode, Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest, Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and William Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice. Seltzer also worked Slugworth (only mentioned as a rival candy maker in the book) into the plot as an actual character (only to be revealed to be Wilkinson, one of Wonka 's agents, at the end of the film).
All six members of Monty Python: Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones and Michael Palin, expressed interest in playing Wonka, but at the time they were deemed not big enough names for an international audience. Three of the members, Cleese, Idle and Palin, were later seriously considered for the same role in Tim Burton 's version.
Before Wilder was officially cast for the role, producers considered Fred Astaire, Joel Grey, Ron Moody and Jon Pertwee. Spike Milligan was Roald Dahl 's original choice to play Willy Wonka. Peter Sellers even begged Dahl for the role.
When Wilder was cast for the role, he accepted it on one condition:
When I make my first entrance, I 'd like to come out of the door carrying a cane and then walk toward the crowd with a limp. After the crowd sees Willy Wonka is a cripple, they all whisper to themselves and then become deathly quiet. As I walk toward them, my cane sinks into one of the cobblestones I 'm walking on and stands straight up, by itself; but I keep on walking, until I realize that I no longer have my cane. I start to fall forward, and just before I hit the ground, I do a beautiful forward somersault and bounce back up, to great applause.
The reason why Wilder wanted this in the film was that "from that time on, no one will know if I 'm lying or telling the truth. ''
Jean Stapleton turned down the role of Mrs. Teevee. Jim Backus was considered for the role of Sam Beauregarde. Sammy Davis, Jr. wanted to play Bill, the candy store owner, but Stuart did not like the idea because he felt that the presence of a big star in the candy store scene would break the reality. Nevertheless, Davis ' recording of the film 's opening musical number, "The Candy Man, '' would top the Billboard magazine record charts in 1972, despite the fact that Davis initially hated the song. Anthony Newley also wanted to play Bill, but Stuart also objected to this for the same reason.
Principal photography commenced on April 30, 1970, and ended on November 19, 1970. The primary shooting location was Munich, Bavaria, West Germany, because it was significantly cheaper than filming in the United States and the setting was conducive to Wonka 's factory; Stuart also liked the ambiguity and unfamiliarity of the location. External shots of the factory were filmed at the gasworks of Stadtwerke München (Emmy - Noether - Straße 10); the entrance and side buildings still exist. The exterior of Charlie Bucket 's house, which was only a set constructed for the film, was filmed at Quellenstraße in Munich, Bavaria. Charlie 's school was filmed at Katholisches Pfarramt St. Sylvester, Biedersteiner Straße 1 in Munich. Bill 's Candy Shop was filmed at Lilienstraße, Munich. The closing sequence when the Wonkavator is flying above the factory is footage of Nördlingen in Bavaria.
Munich Gasworks as it appears today (building on the left)
Munich Gasworks as it appears today
Nördlingen, the town seen from above at the end of the film
Production designer Harper Goff centered the factory on the massive Chocolate Room. According to Paris Themmen, who played Mike Teevee, "The river was made of water with food coloring. At one point, they poured some cocoa powder into it to try to thicken it but it did n't really work. When asked this question, Michael Böllner, who played Augustus Gloop, answers, ' It vas dirty, stinking vater. ' ''
When interviewed for the 30th anniversary special edition, Gene Wilder stated that he enjoyed working with most of the child actors, but said that he and the crew had some problems with Paris Themmen, claiming that he was "a handful ''.
Before its release, the film received advance publicity though TV commercials offering a "Willy Wonka candy factory kit '' for sending $1.00 and two seals from boxes of Quaker cereals such as King Vitaman, Life and any of the Cap'n Crunch brands.
Willy Wonka was released on June 30, 1971. The film was not a big success, being the 53rd highest - grossing film of the year in the U.S., earning just over $2.1 million on its opening weekend. It received positive reviews from critics such as Roger Ebert, who compared it to The Wizard of Oz. Ebert said, "All of this is preface to a simple statement: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory is probably the best film of its sort since The Wizard of Oz. It is everything that family movies usually claim to be, but are n't: Delightful, funny, scary, exciting, and, most of all, a genuine work of imagination. "Willy Wonka '' is such a surely and wonderfully spun fantasy that it works on all kinds of minds, and it is fascinating because, like all classic fantasy, it is fascinated with itself. ''
By the mid-1980s, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory had experienced a spike in popularity thanks in large part to repeated television broadcasts and home video sales. Following a 25th anniversary theatrical re-release in 1996, it was released on DVD the next year, allowing it to reach a new generation of viewers. The film was released as a remastered special edition on DVD and VHS in 2001 to commemorate the film 's 30th anniversary. In 2003, Entertainment Weekly ranked it 25th in the "Top 50 Cult Movies '' of all time.
As of 2017, the film holds a 90 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 7.7 / 10 based on 42 reviews. The site 's critical consensus states: "Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory is strange yet comforting, full of narrative detours that do n't always work but express the film 's uniqueness ''.
Willy Wonka was ranked No. 74 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments for the "scary tunnel '' scene.
Dahl disowned the film, the script of which was partially rewritten by David Seltzer after Dahl failed to meet deadlines. Dahl said he was "disappointed '' because "he thought it placed too much emphasis on Willy Wonka and not enough on Charlie '', as well as the casting of Gene Wilder instead of Spike Milligan. Dahl was also "infuriated '' by the deviations in the plot Seltzer devised in his draft of the screenplay, including the conversion of Slugworth, a minor character in the book, into a spy (so that the movie could have a villain) and the "fizzy lifting drinks '' scene along with music other than the original Oompa Loompa compositions (including "Pure Imagination '' and "The Candy Man ''), and the ending dialogue for the movie. In 1996, Dahl 's second wife Felicity commented on her husband 's objections towards the film saying "they always want to change a book 's storyline. What makes Hollywood think children want the endings changed for a film, when they accept it in a book? ''
The film made its television debut on November 23, 1975, on NBC. There was some controversy with the showing as the Oakland Raiders vs Washington Redskins (26 -- 23) football game went into overtime, and the first 40 minutes of the movie were cut. The film placed 19th in the TV Ratings for the week ending Nov 23, beating out The Streets of San Francisco and Little House on the Prairie. The next TV showing of the film was on May 2, 1976, where it placed 46th in the ratings. Some TV listings indicate the showing was part of the World of Disney time slot.
In 2017, an adaptation of the film with Tom and Jerry was released. Tom and Jerry: Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory stars JP Karliak as Willy Wonka and is dedicated to Gene Wilder, who died less than a year before the release.
The film was first released on DVD in 1997 / 1999 in a "25th anniversary edition '' as a double sided disc containing a widescreen and "standard '' version. The "standard '' version is an open matte print, where the mattes used to make the image widescreen are removed, revealing information originally intended to be hidden from viewers. VHS copies were also available, but only containing the "standard '' version.
A special edition DVD was released, celebrating the film 's 30th anniversary, on August 28, 2001, but in fullscreen only. Due to the lack of a letterboxed release, fan petitioning eventually led Warner Home Video to issue a widescreen version on November 13, 2001. It was also released on VHS, with only one of the special features (a making - of feature). Several original cast members reunited to film documentary footage for this special edition DVD release. The two editions featured restored sound, and better picture quality. In addition to the documentary, the DVD included a trailer, a gallery, and audio commentary by the cast.
In 2007, Warner Home Video released the film on HD DVD with all the bonus features from the 2001 DVD. The film was released on Blu - ray on October 20, 2009. It includes all the bonus features from the 2001 DVD and 2007 HD - DVD as well as a 38 - page book.
In 2011, a new deluxe - 40th - anniversary edition Blu - ray / DVD set was released on November 1, consisting of the film on Blu - ray Disc and DVD as well as a bonus features disc. The set also included a variety of rarities such as a Wonka Bar - designed tin, four scented pencils, a scented eraser, a book detailing the making of the film, original production papers and a Golden Ticket to win a trip to Los Angeles. The set is now out of print.
The Academy Award - nominated original score and songs were composed by Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley, and musical direction was by Walter Scharf. The soundtrack was first released by Paramount Records in 1971. On October 8, 1996, Hip - O Records (in conjunction with MCA Records, which by then owned the Paramount catalog), released the soundtrack on CD as a "25th Anniversary Edition ''.
The music and songs, in order of appearance, are:
The track listing for the soundtrack is as follows:
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folk and traditional arts and crafts of india | Indian art - wikipedia
Indian art consists of a variety of art forms, including plastic arts (e.g., pottery sculpture), visual arts (e.g., paintings), and textile arts (e.g., woven silk). Geographically, it spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and eastern Afghanistan. A strong sense of design is characteristic of Indian art and can be observed in its modern and traditional forms.
The origin of Indian art can be traced to pre-historic Hominid settlements in the 3rd millennium BC. On its way to modern times, Indian art has had cultural influences, as well as religious influences such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Islam. In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups.
In historic art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has survived the Indian climate better than other media and provides most of the best remains. Many of the most important ancient finds that are not in carved stone come from the surrounding, drier regions rather than India itself. Indian funeral and philosophic traditions exclude grave goods, which is the main source of ancient art in other cultures.
Rock art of India includes rock relief carvings, engravings and paintings. It is estimated there are about 1300 rock art sites with over a quarter of a million figures and figurines. The earliest rock carvings in India were discovered by Archibald Carlleyle, twelve years before the Cave of Altamira in Spain, although his work only came to light much later via J Cockburn (1899).
Dr. V.S. Wakankar discovered several painted rock shelters in Central India, situated around the Vindhya mountain range. Of these, the Bhimbetka rock shelters have been deemed a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The paintings in these sites commonly depicted scenes of human life alongside animals, and hunts with stone implements. Their style varied with region and age, but the most common characteristic was a red wash made using a powdered mineral called geru, which is a form of Iron Oxide (Hematite).
For further details on the rock art of India, please see South Asian Stone Age.
Despite its widespread and sophistication, the Indus Valley civilization seems to have taken no interest in public large - scale art, unlike many other early civilizations. A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some forms of dance. Additionally, the terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols. The most famous piece is the bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo - Daro, which shows remarkably advanced modeling of the human figure for this early date.
Seals have been found at Mohenjo - Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga - like pose. This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.
After the end of the Indus Valley Civilization, there is a surprising absence of art of any great degree of sophistication until the Buddhist era. It is thought that this partly reflects the use of perishable organic materials such as wood.
The north Indian Maurya Empire flourished from 322 BCE to 185 BCE, and at its maximum extent controlled all of the sub-continent except the extreme south, and introduced stone monumental sculpture to India, though probably drawing greatly on existing Indian traditions in wood, as well as influences from Ancient Persia, as shown by the Pataliputra capital.
The emperor Ashoka, who died in 232 BCE, adopted Buddhism about half - way through his 40 - year reign, and patronized several large stupas at key sites from the life of the Buddha, although very little decoration from the Mauryan period survives, and there may not have been much in the first place. There is more from various early sites of Indian rock - cut architecture. The most famous survivals are the large animals surmounting several of the Pillars of Ashoka, which showed a confident and boldly mature style, though we have very few remains showing its development. The famous detached Lion Capital of Ashoka, with four animals, was adopted as the official Emblem of India after Indian independence. Many small popular terracotta figurines are recovered in archaeology, in a range of often vigorous if somewhat crude styles.
The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period after the Mauryans, from which good quantities of sculpture survives from some key sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati, some of which remain in situ, with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved toranas or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though clearly adopting forms developed in wood. They and the walls of the stupa itself can be heavily decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life - size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, but then free - standing. Mathura was the most important centre in this development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art as well as Buddhist. The facades and interiors of rock - cut chaitya prayer halls and monastic viharas have survived better than similar free - standing structures elsewhere, which were for long mostly in wood. The caves at Ajanta, Karle, Bhaja and elsewhere contain early sculpture, often outnumbered by later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha and bodhisattvas, which are not found before 100 CE at the least.
Buddhism developed an increasing emphasis on statues of the Buddha, which greatly influenced later Hindu and Jain religious figurative art, which were also influenced by the Greco - Buddhist art of the centuries after the conquests of Alexander the Great. This fusion developed in the far north - west of India, especially Gandhara in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Buddhist Kushan Empire spread from Central Asia to include northern India in the early centuries CE, and briefly commissioned large statues that were portraits of the royal dynasty, a type of art that was otherwise wholly absent from India until the Mughal miniature.
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of north Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha - figure and Jain tirthankara figures, these last often on a very large scale. The two great centers of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the center of Greco - Buddhist art.
Although the Gupta period marked the "golden age '' of classical Hinduism, the early architectural style of Hindu temples is considered simple, consisting only of a sanctum and a porch for the worshipper. This is in stark contrast to the complex plans with multiple shikaras (towers) and mandapas (halls) of various utility that matured during the later part of this period.
Inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka mention coexistence of the northern kingdoms with the triumvirate of Chola, Chera and Pandya Tamil dynasties, situated south of the Vindhya mountains. The medieval period witnessed the rise and fall of these kingdoms, in conjunction with other kingdoms in the area. It is during the decline and resurgence of these kingdoms that Hinduism was renewed. It fostered the construction of numerous temples and sculptures.
The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram constructed by the Pallavas symbolizes early Dravidian architecture, with its monolithic rock relief and sculptures of Hindu deities. They were succeeded by Chola rulers who were prolific in their pursuit of the arts. The Great Living Chola Temples of this period are known for their maturity, grandeur and attention to detail, and have been recognized as a UNESCO Heritage Site. The Chola period is also known for its bronze sculptures, the lost - wax casting technique and fresco paintings. Thanks to the secular kings of the Chalukya dynasty, Jainism flourished alongside Hinduism, evidenced by the fourth of the Badami cave temples being Jain instead of Vedic. The kingdoms of South India continued to rule their lands until the Muslim invasions that established sultanates there.
Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Khajuraho group of monuments were constructed by the Chandela clan of the Rajput dynasties. Apart from the usual Hindu temples, 10 % of the sculptures depict twisted bodies of men and women that shed light on the everyday socio - cultural and religious practices in Medieval India. Ever since their discovery, the degree of sexuality depicted in these sculptures has drawn both negative and positive criticism from scholars, ranging from "the degeneration of the Hindu mind '' to "heavenly nymphs... elegantly beautiful, full of sexual charm and vigor ''.
The Khajuraho temples were in active use under Hindu kingdoms, until the establishment of the Delhi Sultanates of the 13th century. Under Muslim rule until the 18th century, many of Khajuraho 's monuments were destroyed, but a few ruins still remain.
Although Islamic footholds in India were made as early as the first half of the 10th century, it was n't until the Mughal Empire that one observes emperors with a patronage for the fine arts. Emperor Humayun, during his reestablishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1555, brought with him Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al - Samad, two of the finest painters from Persian Shah Tahmasp 's renowned atelier.
During the reign of Akbar (1556 -- 1605), the number of painters grew from around 30 during the creation of the Hamzanama in the mid-1560s, to around 130 by the mid 1590s. According to court historian Abu'l - Fazal, Akbar was hands - on in his interest of the arts, inspecting his painters regularly and rewarding the best. It is during this time that Persian artists were attracted to bringing their unique style to the empire. Indian elements were present in their works from the beginning, with the incorporation of local Indian flora and fauna that were otherwise absent from the traditional Persian style. The paintings of this time reflected the vibrancy and inclusion of Akbar 's kingdom, with production of Persian miniatures, the Rajput paintings (including the Kangra school) and the Pahari style of Northern India. They also influenced the Company style watercolor paintings created during the British rule many years later.
With the death of Akbar, his son Jahangir (1605 -- 1627) took the throne. He preferred each painter work on a single piece rather than the collaboration fostered during Akbar 's time. This period marks the emergence of distinct individual styles, notably Bishan Das, Manohar Das, Abu al - Hasan, Govardhan, and Daulat. The Razmnama (Persian translation of the Hindu epic Mahabharata) and an illustrated memoir of Jahangir, named Tuzuk - i Jahangiri, were created under his rule. Jahangir was succeeded by Shah Jahan (1628 -- 1658), whose most notable architectural contribution is the Taj Mahal. Paintings under his rule were more formal, featuring court scenes, in contrast to the personal styles from his predecessor 's time. Aurangzeb (1658 -- 1707), who held increasingly orthodox Sunni beliefs, forcibly took the throne from his father Shah Jahan. With a ban of music and painting in 1680, his reign saw the decline of Mughal patronage of the arts.
Meanwhile, in South - Central India, during the late fifteenth century after the Middle kingdoms, the Bahmani sultanate disintegrated into the Deccan sultanates centered at Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar. They developed unique techniques of metal casting, stone carving, and painting, as well as a distinctive architectural style with the addition of citadels and tombs. For instance, the Baridi dynasty (1504 -- 1619) of Bidar saw the invention of bidri ware, which was first cast from an alloy of zinc mixed with copper, tin, and lead and inlaid with silver or brass, then covered with a mud paste containing sal ammoniac, which turned the base metal black, highlighting the color and sheen of the inlaid metal. Only after the Mughal conquest of Ahmadnagar in 1600 did the Persian influence patronized by the Turco - Mongol Mughals begin to affect Deccan art.
British colonial rule had a great impact on Indian art. Old patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more ubiquitous as the British Empire established schools of art in major cities, e.g. the Bombay Art Society in 1888. The Company style of paintings became common, created by Indian artists working for European patrons of the East India Company. The style was mainly Romanticized, with watercolor the primary medium used to convey soft textures and tones. By 1858, the British government took over the task of administration of India under the British Raj. The fusion of Indian traditions with European style at this time is evident from Raja Ravi Varma 's oil paintings of sari - clad women in a graceful manner.
With the Swadeshi Movement gaining momentum by 1905, Indian artists attempted to resuscitate the cultural identities suppressed by the British, rejecting the Romanticized style of the Company paintings and the mannered work of Raja Ravi Varma and his followers. Thus was created what is known today as the Bengal School of Art, led by the reworked Asian styles (with an emphasis on Indian nationalism) of Abanindranath Tagore (1871 -- 1951), who has been referred to as the father of Modern Indian art. Other artists of the Tagore family, such as Rabindranath Tagore (1861 -- 1941) and Gaganendranath Tagore (1867 -- 1938) as well as new artists of the early 20th century such as Amrita Sher - Gil (1913 -- 1941) were responsible for introducing Avant - garde western styles into Indian Art. Many other artists like Jamini Roy and later S.H. Raza took inspiration from folk traditions. In 1944, K.C.S. Paniker founded the Progressive Painters ' Association (PPA) thus giving rise to the "madras movement '' in art.
In 1947, India became independent of British rule. A group of six artists - K.H. Ara, S.K. Bakre, H.A. Gade, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza and Francis Newton Souza - founded the Bombay Progressive Artists ' Group in the year 1952, to establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. Though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Almost all India 's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well - known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, V.S. Gaitonde, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, K.G. Subramanyan, A. Ramachandran, Devender Singh, Akbar Padamsee, John Wilkins, Himmat Shah and Manjit Bawa. Present - day Indian art is varied as it had been never before. Among the best - known artists of the newer generation include Bose Krishnamachari and Bikash Bhattacharya. Another prominent Pakistani modernist was Ismail Gulgee, who after about 1960 adopted an abstract idiom that combines aspects of Islamic calligraphy with an abstract expressionist (or gestural abstractionist) sensibility.
Painting and sculpture remained important in the later half of the twentieth century, though in the work of leading artists such as Nalini Malani, Subodh Gupta, Narayanan Ramachandran, Vivan Sundaram, Jitish Kallat, they often found radical new directions. Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila painting in most contemporary way and created her own style through the exercises of her own imagination, they appear fresh and unusual.
The increase in discourse about Indian art, in English as well as vernacular Indian languages, changed the way art was perceived in the art schools. Critical approach became rigorous; critics like Geeta Kapur, R. Siva Kumar, Shivaji K. Panikkar, Ranjit Hoskote, amongst others, contributed to re-thinking contemporary art practice in India.
The year 1997 bore witness to two parallel gestures of canon formation. On the one hand, the influential Baroda Group, a coalition whose original members included Vivan Sundaram, Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakhar, and Nalini Malani -- and which had left its mark on history in the form of the 1981 exhibition "Place for People '' -- was definitively historicized in 1997 with the publication of Contemporary Art in Baroda, an anthology of essays edited by Sheikh. On the other hand, the art historian R. Siva Kumar 's benchmark exhibition and related publication, A Contextual Modernism, restored the Santiniketan artists -- Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Benode Behari Mukherjee, and Ramkinkar Baij -- to their proper place as the originators of an indigenously achieved yet transcultural modernism in the 1930s, well before the Progressives composed their manifesto in the late 1940s. Of the Santiniketan artists, Siva Kumar observed that they "reviewed traditional antecedents in relation to the new avenues opened up by cross-cultural contacts. They also saw it as a historical imperative. Cultural insularity, they realized, had to give way to eclecticism and cultural impurity. ''
The idea of Contextual Modernism emerged in 1997 from R. Siva Kumar 's Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism as a postcolonial critical tool in the understanding of an alternative modernism in the visual arts of the erstwhile colonies like India, specifically that of the Santiniketan artists.
Several terms including Paul Gilroy 's counter culture of modernity and Tani Barlow 's Colonial modernity have been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that ' Contextual Modernism ' is a more suited term because "the colonial in colonial modernity does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonized situations to internalize inferiority. Santiniketan 's artist teachers ' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterized imperial Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms. ''
According to R. Siva Kumar "The Santiniketan artists were one of the first who consciously challenged this idea of modernism by opting out of both internationalist modernism and historicist indigenousness and tried to create a context sensitive modernism. '' He had been studying the work of the Santiniketan masters and thinking about their approach to art since the early 80s. The practice of subsuming Nandalal Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Ram Kinker Baij and Benode Behari Mukherjee under the Bengal School of Art was, according to Siva Kumar, misleading. This happened because early writers were guided by genealogies of apprenticeship rather than their styles, worldviews, and perspectives on art practice.
Contextual Modernism in the recent past has found its usage in other related fields of studies, specially in Architecture.
The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300 -- 1700 BC), found in sites at Mohenjo - daro and Harappa in modern - day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze male dancer. However such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad. Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of Ashoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive. Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism. Indeed, wood continued to be the main sculptural and architectural medium in Kerala throughout all historic periods until recent decades.
During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in the Greco - Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha 's life and teachings. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.
The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco - Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture. The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320 - 550) which remains a "classical '' period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves, though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later. Later large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850 -- 1250) from south India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja, with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more.
The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout many thousands of years - there are multiple locations found with prehistoric art. The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock - cut art and the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). Their use has continued in some areas into historic times. The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their landscape, an interaction that continues to this day.
The oldest surviving frescoes of the historical period have been preserved in the Ajanta Caves with Cave 10 having some from the 1st century CE, though the larger and more famous groups are from the 5th century. Despite climatic conditions that tend to work against the survival of older paintings, in total there are known more than 20 locations in India with paintings and traces of former paintings of ancient and early medieval times (up to the 8th to 10th centuries CE), although these are just a tiny fraction of what would have once existed. The most significant frescoes of the ancient and early medieval period are found in the Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora, and Sittanavasal caves, the last being Jain of the 7th - 10th centuries. Although many show evidence of being by artists mainly used to decorating palaces, no early secular wall - paintings survive.
The Chola fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory passage of the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, and are the first Chola specimens discovered. Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescoes lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Great.
Kerala mural painting has well - preserved fresco or mural or wall painting in temple walls in Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor and Aymanam and elsewhere.
Although no Indian miniatures survive from before about 1000 CE, and few from the next few centuries, there was probably a considerable tradition. Those that survive are initially illustrations for Buddhist texts, later followed by Jain and Hindu equivalents, and the decline of Buddhist as well as the vulnerable support material of the palm - leaf manuscript probably explain the rarity of early examples.
Mughal painting in miniatures on paper developed very quickly in the late 16th century from the combined influence of the existing miniature tradition and artists trained in the Persian miniature tradition imported by the Mughal Emperor 's court. New ingredients in the style were much greater realism, especially in portraits, and an interest in animals, plants and other aspects of the physical world.
Miniatures either illustrated books or were single works for muraqqas or albums of painting and Islamic calligraphy. The style gradually spread in the next two centuries to influence painting on paper in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts, developing into a number of regional styles often called "sub-Mughal '', including Kangra painting and Rajput painting, and finally Company painting, a hybrid watercolour style influenced by European art and largely patronized by the people of the British raj. From the 19th century Western - style easel paintings became increasingly painted by Indian artists trained in Government art schools.
The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery - making, with a history of over 5,000 years. Using jewellery as a store of capital remains more common in India than in most modern societies, and gold appears always to have been strongly preferred for the metal. India and the surrounding areas were important sources of high - quality gemstones, and the jewellery of the ruling class is typified by using them lavishly. One of the first to start jewellery - making were the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. Early remains are few, as they were not buried with their owners.
Wood was undoubtedly extremely important, but rarely survives long in the Indian climate. Organic animal materials such as ivory or bone were discouraged by the Dharmic religions, although Buddhist examples exist, such as the Begram ivories, many of Indian manufacture, but found in Afghanistan, and some relatively modern carved tusks. In Muslim settings they are more common.
Obscurity shrouds the period between the decline of the Harappans and the definite historic period starting with the Mauryas, and in the historical period, the earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic monuments was Buddhism. Though there may have been earlier structures in wood that have been transformed into stone structures, there are no physical evidences for these except textual references. Soon after the Buddhists initiated rock - cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram and Mughals. It appears to be a constant in Indian art that the different religions shared a very similar artistic style at any particular period and place, though naturally adapting the iconography to match the religion commissioning them. Probably the same groups of artists worked for the different religions regardless of their own affiliations.
Buddhist art first developed during the Gandhara period and Amaravati Periods around the 1st century BCE. It flourished greatly during the Gupta Periods and Pala Periods that comprise the Golden Age of India. Although the most glorious art of these Indian empires was mostly Buddhist in nature, subsequently Hindu Empires like the Pallava, Chola, Hoysala and Vijayanagara Empires developed their own styles of Hindu art as well.
There is no time line that divides the creation of rock - cut temples and free - standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free - standing structures began in the 5th century, while rock - cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century. An example of a free - standing structural temple is the Shore Temple, a part of the Mahabalipuram World Heritage Site, with its slender tower, built on the shore of the Bay of Bengal with finely carved granite rocks cut like bricks and dating from the 8th century.
Folk and tribal art in India takes on different manifestations through varied media such as pottery, painting, metalwork, paper - art, weaving and designing of objects such as jewellery and toys. These are not just aesthetic objects but in fact have an important significance in people 's lives and are tied to their beliefs and rituals. The objects can range from sculpture, masks (used in rituals and ceremonies), paintings, textiles, baskets, kitchen objects, arms and weapons, and the human body itself (Tattoos and piercings). There is a deep symbolic meaning that is attached to not only the objects themselves but also the materials and techniques used to produce them.
Often puranic gods and legends are transformed into contemporary forms and familiar images. Fairs, festivals, local heroes (mostly warriors) and local deities play a vital role in these arts. Example: Nakashi art from Telangana or Cherial Scroll Painting.
Folk art also includes the visual expressions of the wandering nomads. This is the art of people who are exposed to changing landscapes as they travel over the valleys and highlands of India. They carry with them the experiences and memories of different spaces and their art consists of the transient and dynamic pattern of life. The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads constitute the matrix of folk expression. Examples of folk arts are Warli, Madhubani Art, Manjusha Art, Tikuli Art and Gond etc...
While most tribes and traditional folk artist communities are assimilated into the familiar kind of civilised life, they still continue to practice their art. Unfortunately though, market and economic forces have ensured that the numbers of these artists are dwindling. A lot of effort is being made by various NGOs and the Government of India to preserve and protect these arts and to promote them. Several scholars in India and across the world have studied these arts and some valuable scholarship is available on them.
The folk spirit has a tremendous role to play in the development of art and in the overall consciousness of indigenous cultures.
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how many elements in the periodic table 2018 | Periodic table - wikipedia
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties, whose structure shows periodic trends. Generally, within one row (period) the elements are metals to the left, and non-metals to the right, with the elements having similar chemical behaviours placed in the same column. Table rows are commonly called periods and columns are called groups. Six groups have accepted names as well as assigned numbers: for example, group 17 elements are the halogens; and group 18 are the noble gases. Also displayed are four simple rectangular areas or blocks associated with the filling of different atomic orbitals.
The organization of the periodic table can be used to derive relationships between the various element properties, but also the predicted chemical properties and behaviours of undiscovered or newly synthesized elements. Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev was the first to publish a recognizable periodic table in 1869, developed mainly to illustrate periodic trends of the then - known elements. He also predicted some properties of unidentified elements that were expected to fill gaps within the table. Most of his forecasts proved to be correct. Mendeleev 's idea has been slowly expanded and refined with the discovery or synthesis of further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behaviour. The modern periodic table now provides a useful framework for analyzing chemical reactions, and continues to be widely used in chemistry, nuclear physics and other sciences.
All the elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) through 118 (oganesson) have been either discovered or synthesized, completing the first seven rows of the periodic table. The first 98 elements exist in nature, although some are found only in trace amounts and others were synthesized in laboratories before being found in nature. Elements 99 to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors. The synthesis of elements having higher atomic numbers is currently being pursued: these elements would begin an eighth row, and theoretical work has been done to suggest possible candidates for this extension. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally occurring elements have also been produced in laboratories.
1 (red) = Gas 3 (black) = Solid 80 (green) = Liquid 109 (gray) = Unknown Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 ° C and 1 atm)
Background color shows subcategory in the metal -- metalloid -- nonmetal trend:
Each chemical element has a unique atomic number (Z) representing the number of protons in its nucleus. Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being referred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.
In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number Z (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (period) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p - subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f - block, and to some respect in the d - block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.
As of 2016, the periodic table has 118 confirmed elements, from element 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson). Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, the most recent discoveries, were officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in December 2015. Their proposed names, nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts) and oganesson (Og) respectively, were announced by the IUPAC in June 2016 and made official in November 2016.
The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95 -- 118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements. No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has astatine (element 85); francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks, explained below. Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell. Consequently, elements in the same group tend to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number. In some parts of the periodic table, such as the d - block and the f - block, horizontal similarities can be as important as, or more pronounced than, vertical similarities.
Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases). Previously, they were known by roman numerals. In America, the roman numerals were followed by either an "A '' if the group was in the s - or p - block, or a "B '' if the group was in the d - block. The roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today 's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB, and the group 14 elements were group IVA). In Europe, the lettering was similar, except that "A '' was used if the group was before group 10, and "B '' was used for groups including and after group 10. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple - sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use, and the old group names were deprecated.
Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below, although some are rarely used. Groups 3 -- 10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their group (such as "the scandium group '' for group 3), since they display fewer similarities and / or vertical trends.
Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top - to - bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus. There are exceptions to these trends: for example, in group 11, electronegativity increases farther down the group.
A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends, there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f - block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.
Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left to right across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron, which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus. This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus. Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period), with the exception of the noble gases.
Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in which the "last '' electron notionally resides. The s - block comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p - block comprises the last six groups, which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC group numbering (3A to 8A in American group numbering) and contains, among other elements, all of the metalloids. The d - block comprises groups 3 to 12 (or 3B to 2B in American group numbering) and contains all of the transition metals. The f - block, often offset below the rest of the periodic table, has no group numbers and comprises lanthanides and actinides.
According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt - like ionic compounds with nonmetals (other than noble gases). A majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless insulating gases; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals, feature covalent bonding. In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.
Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a gradation from metallic to non-metallic properties, when going left to right in the rows. The metals may be subdivided into the highly reactive alkali metals, through the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and actinides, via the archetypal transition metals, and ending in the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Nonmetals may be simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals, being nearer to the metalloids and show some incipient metallic character; the essentially nonmetallic diatomic nonmetals, nonmetallic and the almost completely inert, monatomic noble gases. Specialized groupings such as refractory metals and noble metals, are examples of subsets of transition metals, also known and occasionally denoted.
Placing elements into categories and subcategories based just on shared properties is imperfect. There is a large disparity of properties within each category with notable overlaps at the boundaries, as is the case with most classification schemes. Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post-transition metal. Radon is classified as a nonmetallic noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is characteristic of metals. Other classification schemes are possible such as the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. Categorizing the elements in this fashion dates back to at least 1869 when Hinrichs wrote that simple boundary lines could be placed on the periodic table to show elements having shared properties, such as metals, nonmetals, or gaseous elements.
The electron configuration or organisation of electrons orbiting neutral atoms shows a recurring pattern or periodicity. The electrons occupy a series of electron shells (numbered 1, 2, and so on). Each shell consists of one or more subshells (named s, p, d, f and g). As atomic number increases, electrons progressively fill these shells and subshells more or less according to the Madelung rule or energy ordering rule, as shown in the diagram. The electron configuration for neon, for example, is 1s 2s 2p. With an atomic number of ten, neon has two electrons in the first shell, and eight electrons in the second shell; there are two electrons in the s subshell and six in the p subshell. In periodic table terms, the first time an electron occupies a new shell corresponds to the start of each new period, these positions being occupied by hydrogen and the alkali metals.
Since the properties of an element are mostly determined by its electron configuration, the properties of the elements likewise show recurring patterns or periodic behaviour, some examples of which are shown in the diagrams below for atomic radii, ionization energy and electron affinity. It is this periodicity of properties, manifestations of which were noticed well before the underlying theory was developed, that led to the establishment of the periodic law (the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals) and the formulation of the first periodic tables.
Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explainable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group. The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period. These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory.
The electrons in the 4f - subshell, which is progressively filled across the lanthanide series, are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them. Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. This is known as the lanthanide contraction. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum (element 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect. The d - block contraction, which is a similar effect between the d - block and p - block, is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar cause.
The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom, the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom, and so on. For a given atom, successive ionization energies increase with the degree of ionization. For magnesium as an example, the first ionization energy is 738 kJ / mol and the second is 1450 kJ / mol. Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal requires increasingly more energy. Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table.
Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas (complete electron shell) configuration. For magnesium again, the first two molar ionization energies of magnesium given above correspond to removing the two 3s electrons, and the third ionization energy is a much larger 7730 kJ / mol, for the removal of a 2p electron from the very stable neon - like configuration of Mg. Similar jumps occur in the ionization energies of other third - row atoms.
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons. An atom 's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus. The higher its electronegativity, the more an element attracts electrons. It was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932. In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements, while caesium is the least, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.
There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d - block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d - electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity. The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection and data availability. Methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.
The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.
Electron affinity generally increases across a period. This is caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom; a group 17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and is therefore more stable.
A trend of decreasing electron affinity going down groups would be expected. The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus. As such this electron would be less attracted to the nucleus and would release less energy when added. In going down a group, around one - third of elements are anomalous, with heavier elements having higher electron affinities than their next lighter congenors. Largely, this is due to the poor shielding by d and f electrons. A uniform decrease in electron affinity only applies to group 1 atoms.
The lower the values of ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity, the more metallic character the element has. Conversely, nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties. Given the periodic trends of these three properties, metallic character tends to decrease going across a period (or row) and, with some irregularities (mostly) due to poor screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons, and relativistic effects, tends to increase going down a group (or column or family). Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium and francium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) at the top right. The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair - shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables, and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as metalloids.
From left to right across the four blocks of the long - or 32 - column form of the periodic table are a series of linking or bridging groups of elements, located approximately between each block. These groups, like the metalloids, show properties in between, or that are a mixture of, groups to either side. Chemically, the group 3 elements, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium behave largely like the alkaline earth metals or, more generally, s block metals but have some of the physical properties of d block transition metals. Lutetium and lawrencium, at the end of the end of the f block, may constitute another linking or bridging group. Lutetium behaves chemically as a lanthanide but shows a mix of lanthanide and transition metal physical properties. Lawrencium, as an analogue of lutetium, would presumable display like characteristics. The coinage metals in group 11 (copper, silver, and gold) are chemically capable of acting as either transition metals or main group metals. The volatile group 12 metals, zinc, cadmium and mercury are sometimes regarded as linking the d block to the p block. Notionally they are d block elements but they have few transition metal properties and are more like their p block neighbors in group 13. The relatively inert noble gases, in group 18, bridge the most reactive groups of elements in the periodic table -- the halogens in group 17 and the alkali metals in group 1.
In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths. Chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads based on their chemical properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were grouped together in a triad as soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third; this became known as the Law of Triads. German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. Jean - Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various groups of metals. Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.
In 1857, German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. This concept eventually became known as valency; different elements bond with different numbers of atoms.
In 1862, Alexandre - Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, published an early form of periodic table, which he called the telluric helix or screw. He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements. With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois showed that elements with similar properties seemed to occur at regular intervals. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper also used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention until the work of Dmitri Mendeleev.
In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, published a table with 44 elements arranged by valency. The table showed that elements with similar properties often shared the same valency. Concurrently, English chemist William Odling published an arrangement of 57 elements, ordered on the basis of their atomic weights. With some irregularities and gaps, he noticed what appeared to be a periodicity of atomic weights among the elements and that this accorded with "their usually received groupings ''. Odling alluded to the idea of a periodic law but did not pursue it. He subsequently proposed (in 1870) a valence - based classification of the elements.
English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music. This so termed Law of Octaves was ridiculed by Newlands ' contemporaries, and the Chemical Society refused to publish his work. Newlands was nonetheless able to draft a table of the elements and used it to predict the existence of missing elements, such as germanium. The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev.
In 1867, Gustavus Hinrichs, a Danish born academic chemist based in America, published a spiral periodic system based on atomic spectra and weights, and chemical similarities. His work was regarded as idiosyncratic, ostentatious and labyrinthine and this may have militated against its recognition and acceptance.
Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively. Mendeleev 's table was his first published version; that of Meyer was an expanded version of his (Meyer 's) table of 1864. They both constructed their tables by listing the elements in rows or columns in order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.
The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev 's table came from two decisions he made. The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered. Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements, such as gallium and germanium. The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as tellurium and iodine, to better classify them into chemical families.
Mendeleev published in 1869, using atomic weight to organize the elements, information determinable to fair precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough to allow Mendeleev to accurately predict the properties of missing elements.
Following the discovery, in 1911, by Ernest Rutherford of the atomic nucleus, it was proposed that the integer count of the nuclear charge is identical to the sequential place of each element in the periodic table. In 1913, Henry Moseley using X-ray spectroscopy confirmed this proposal experimentally. Moseley determined the value of the nuclear charge of each element, and showed that Mendeleev 's ordering actually places the elements in sequential order by nuclear charge. Nuclear charge is identical to proton count, and determines the value of the atomic number (Z) of each element. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer - based sequence for the elements. Moseley predicted, in 1913, that the only elements still missing between aluminium (Z = 13) and gold (Z = 79) were Z = 43, 61, 72, and 75, all of which were later discovered. The atomic number is the absolute definition of an element, and gives a factual basis for the ordering of the periodic table. The periodic table is used to predict the properties of new synthetic elements before they are produced and studied.
In 1871, Mendeleev published his periodic table in a new form, with groups of similar elements arranged in columns rather than in rows, and those columns numbered I to VIII corresponding with the element 's oxidation state. He also gave detailed predictions for the properties of elements he had earlier noted were missing, but should exist. These gaps were subsequently filled as chemists discovered additional naturally occurring elements. It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as eka - caesium) in 1939. Plutonium, produced synthetically in 1940, was identified in trace quantities as a naturally occurring element in 1971.
The popular periodic table layout, also known as the common or standard form (as shown at various other points in this article), is attributable to Horace Groves Deming. In 1923, Deming, an American chemist, published short (Mendeleev style) and medium (18 - column) form periodic tables. Merck and Company prepared a handout form of Deming 's 18 - column medium table, in 1928, which was widely circulated in American schools. By the 1930s Deming 's table was appearing in handbooks and encyclopaedias of chemistry. It was also distributed for many years by the Sargent - Welch Scientific Company.
With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each period (row) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. Larger atoms have more electron sub-shells, so later tables have required progressively longer periods.
In 1945, Glenn Seaborg, an American scientist, made the suggestion that the actinide elements, like the lanthanides, were filling an f sub-level. Before this time the actinides were thought to be forming a fourth d - block row. Seaborg 's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it would most likely ruin his career. As Seaborg considered he did not then have a career to bring into disrepute, he published anyway. Seaborg 's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide elements.
Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally, they were all first discovered in laboratories. Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939. Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced. There have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements, requiring independent review to determine which party has priority, and hence naming rights. In 2010, a joint Russia -- US collaboration at Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russia, claimed to have synthesized six atoms of tennessine (element 117), making it the most recently claimed discovery. It, along with nihonium (element 113), moscovium (element 115), and oganesson (element 118), are the four most recently named elements, whose names all became official on 28 November 2016.
The modern periodic table is sometimes expanded into its long or 32 - column form by reinstating the footnoted f - block elements into their natural position between the s - and d - blocks. Unlike the 18 - column form this arrangement results in "no interruptions in the sequence of increasing atomic numbers ''. The relationship of the f - block to the other blocks of the periodic table also becomes easier to see. Jensen advocates a form of table with 32 columns on the grounds that the lanthanides and actinides are otherwise relegated in the minds of students as dull, unimportant elements that can be quarantined and ignored. Despite these advantages the 32 - column form is generally avoided by editors on account of its undue rectangular ratio (compared to a book page ratio), and the familiarity of chemists with the modern form (as introduced by Seaborg).
Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev 's table in 1869 it has been estimated that around 700 different periodic table versions were published. As well as numerous rectangular variations, other periodic table formats have been shaped, for example, like a circle, cube, cylinder, building, spiral, lemniscate, octagonal prism, pyramid, sphere, or triangle. Such alternatives are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables.
A popular alternative structure is that of Theodor Benfey (1960). The elements are arranged in a continuous spiral, with hydrogen at the centre and the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides occupying peninsulas.
Most periodic tables are two - dimensional; three - dimensional tables are known to as far back as at least 1862 (pre-dating Mendeleev 's two - dimensional table of 1869). More recent examples include Courtines ' Periodic Classification (1925), Wringley 's Lamina System (1949), Giguère 's Periodic helix (1965) and Dufour 's Periodic Tree (1996). Going one further, Stowe 's Physicist 's Periodic Table (1989) has been described as being four - dimensional (having three spatial dimensions and one colour dimension).
The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry -- physics continuum. Towards the chemistry end of the continuum can be found, as an example, Rayner - Canham 's "unruly '' Inorganic Chemist 's Periodic Table (2002), which emphasizes trends and patterns, and unusual chemical relationships and properties. Near the physics end of the continuum is Janet 's Left - Step Periodic Table (1928). This has a structure that shows a closer connection to the order of electron - shell filling and, by association, quantum mechanics. A somewhat similar approach has been taken by Alper, albeit criticized by Eric Scerri as disregarding the need to display chemical and physical periodicity. Somewhere in the middle of the continuum is the ubiquitous common or standard form of periodic table. This is regarded as better expressing empirical trends in physical state, electrical and thermal conductivity, and oxidation numbers, and other properties easily inferred from traditional techniques of the chemical laboratory. Its popularity is thought to be a result of this layout having a good balance of features in terms of ease of construction and size, and its depiction of atomic order and periodic trends.
Simply following electron configurations, hydrogen (electronic configuration 1s) and helium (1s) should be placed in groups 1 and 2, above lithium (1s 2s) and beryllium (1s 2s). While such a placement is common for hydrogen, it is rarely used for helium outside of the context of electron configurations: When the noble gases (then called "inert gases '') were first discovered around 1900, they were known as "group 0 '', reflecting no chemical reactivity of these elements known at that point, and helium was placed on the top of that group, as it did share the extreme chemical inertness seen throughout the group. As the group changed its formal number, many authors continued to assign helium directly above neon, in group 18; one of the examples of such placing is the current IUPAC table.
Hydrogen 's chemical properties are not very close to those of the alkali metals, which occupy group 1. On this basis it is sometimes placed elsewhere. A common alternative is at the top of group 17 given hydrogen 's strictly univalent and largely non-metallic chemistry, and the strictly univalent and non-metallic chemistry of fluorine (the element otherwise at the top of group 17). Sometimes, to show hydrogen has properties corresponding to both those of the alkali metals and the halogens, it is shown at the top of the two columns simultaneously. Another suggestion is above carbon in group 14: placed that way, it fits well into the trends of increasing ionization potential values and electron affinity values, and is not too far from the electronegativity trend, even though hydrogen can not show the tetravalence characteristic of the heavier group 14 elements. Finally, hydrogen is sometimes placed separately from any group; this is based on its general properties being different from those of the elements in any other group. The other period 1 element, helium, is sometimes placed separately from any group as well. The property that distinguishes helium from the rest of the noble gases (even though the extraordinary inertness of helium is extremely close to that of neon and argon) is that in its closed electron shell, helium has only two electrons in the outermost electron orbital, while the rest of the noble gases have eight.
Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3, the identity of the next two elements is not completely settled. They are commonly lanthanum and actinium, and less often lutetium and lawrencium. The two variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the f block elements start and end. It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the (periodic) system into sharply delimited blocks ''. A third variant shows the two positions below yttrium as being occupied by the lanthanides and the actinides.
Chemical and physical arguments have been made in support of lutetium and lawrencium but the majority of authors seem unconvinced. Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy. In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter.
Lanthanum and actinium are commonly depicted as the remaining group 3 members. It has been suggested that this layout originated in the 1940s, with the appearance of periodic tables relying on the electron configurations of the elements and the notion of the differentiating electron. The configurations of caesium, barium and lanthanum are (Xe) 6s, (Xe) 6s and (Xe) 5d 6s. Lanthanum thus has a 5d differentiating electron and this establishes it "in group 3 as the first member of the d - block for period 6 ''. A consistent set of electron configurations is then seen in group 3: scandium (Ar) 3d 4s, yttrium (Kr) 4d 5s and lanthanum (Xe) 5d 6s. Still in period 6, ytterbium was assigned an electron configuration of (Xe) 4f 5d 6s and lutetium (Xe) 4f 5d 6s, "resulting in a 4f differentiating electron for lutetium and firmly establishing it as the last member of the f - block for period 6 ''. Later spectroscopic work found that the electron configuration of ytterbium was in fact (Xe) 4f 6s. This meant that ytterbium and lutetium -- the latter with (Xe) 4f 5d 6s -- both had 14 f - electrons, "resulting in a d - rather than an f - differentiating electron '' for lutetium and making it an "equally valid candidate '' with (Xe) 5d 6s lanthanum, for the group 3 periodic table position below yttrium. Lanthanum has the advantage of incumbency since the 5d electron appears for the first time in its structure whereas it appears for the third time in lutetium, having also made a brief second appearance in gadolinium.
In terms of chemical behaviour, and trends going down group 3 for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium are similar to their group 1 -- 2 counterparts. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f - block elements consistently matches their position in the f - block. For example, the f - electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f - block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3.
In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members. Early techniques for chemically separating scandium, yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so - called "yttrium group '' whereas La and Ac occurred together in the "cerium group ''. Accordingly, lutetium rather than lanthanum was assigned to group 3 by some chemists in the 1920s and 30s. Several physicists in the 1950s and ' 60s favoured lutetium, in light of a comparison of several of its physical properties with those of lanthanum. This arrangement, in which lanthanum is the first member of the f - block, is disputed by some authors since lanthanum lacks any f - electrons. It has been argued that this is not valid concern given other periodic table anomalies -- thorium, for example, has no f - electrons yet is part of the f - block. As for lawrencium, its gas phase atomic electron configuration was confirmed in 2015 as (Rn) 5f 7s 7p. Such a configuration represents another periodic table anomaly, regardless of whether lawrencium is located in the f - block or the d - block, as the only potentially applicable p - block position has been reserved for nihonium with its predicted configuration of (Rn) 5f 6d 7s 7p.
Chemically, scandium, yttrium and lutetium (and presumably lawrencium) behave like trivalent versions of the group 1 -- 2 metals. On the other hand, trends going down the group for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius, are similar to those found among their group 4 -- 8 counterparts. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the gaseous forms of the f - block atoms usually matches their position in the f - block. For example, the f - electron counts for the first five f - block elements are La 0, Ce 1, Pr 3, Nd 4 and Pm 5.
A few authors position all thirty lanthanides and actinides in the two positions below yttrium (usually via footnote markers). This variant emphasizes similarities in the chemistry of the 15 lanthanide elements (La -- Lu), possibly at the expense of ambiguity as to which elements occupy the two group 3 positions below yttrium, and a 15 - column wide f block (there can only be 14 elements in any row of the f block).
The definition of a transition metal, as given by IUPAC, is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell. By this definition all of the elements in groups 3 -- 11 are transition metals. The IUPAC definition therefore excludes group 12, comprising zinc, cadmium and mercury, from the transition metals category.
Some chemists treat the categories "d - block elements '' and "transition metals '' interchangeably, thereby including groups 3 -- 12 among the transition metals. In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d electrons are not ordinarily involved in chemical bonding. The 2007 report of mercury (IV) fluoride (HgF), a compound in which mercury would use its d electrons for bonding, has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a transition metal. Other commentators, such as Jensen, have argued that the formation of a compound like HgF can occur only under highly abnormal conditions; indeed, its existence is currently disputed. As such, mercury could not be regarded as a transition metal by any reasonable interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term.
Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal. They do so on the basis that the group 3 elements do not form any ions having a partially occupied d shell and do not therefore exhibit any properties characteristic of transition metal chemistry. In this case, only groups 4 -- 11 are regarded as transition metals. Though the group 3 elements show few of the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals, they do show some of their characteristic physical properties (on account of the presence in each atom of a single d electron).
Although all elements up to oganesson have been discovered, of the elements above hassium (element 108), only copernicium (element 112), nihonium (element 113), and flerovium (element 114) have known chemical properties, and only for copernicium is there enough evidence for a conclusive categorisation at present. The other elements may behave differently from what would be predicted by extrapolation, due to relativistic effects; for example, flerovium has been predicted to possibly exhibit some noble - gas - like properties, even though it is currently placed in the carbon group. The current experimental evidence still leaves open the question of whether flerovium behaves more like a metal or a noble gas.
It is unclear whether new elements will continue the pattern of the current periodic table as period 8, or require further adaptations or adjustments. Seaborg expected the eighth period to follow the previously established pattern exactly, so that it would include a two - element s - block for elements 119 and 120, a new g - block for the next 18 elements, and 30 additional elements continuing the current f -, d -, and p - blocks, culminating in element 168, the next noble gas. More recently, physicists such as Pekka Pyykkö have theorized that these additional elements do not follow the Madelung rule, which predicts how electron shells are filled and thus affects the appearance of the present periodic table. There are currently several competing theoretical models for the placement of the elements of atomic number less than or equal to 172. In all of these it is element 172, rather than element 168, that emerges as the next noble gas after oganesson, although these must be regarded as speculative as no complete calculations have been done beyond element 122.
The number of possible elements is not known. A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911, and based on the arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row, was that elements of atomic weight greater than circa 256 (which would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern - day terms) did not exist. A higher -- more recent -- estimate is that the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability, which is expected to centre around element 126, as the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines. Other predictions of an end to the periodic table include at element 128 by John Emsley, at element 137 by Richard Feynman, and at element 155 by Albert Khazan.
The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, as any element with an atomic number greater than 137 would require 1s electrons to be travelling faster than c, the speed of light. Hence the non-relativistic Bohr model is inaccurate when applied to such an element.
The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons. For such elements, the wave function of the Dirac ground state is oscillatory rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra, as in the Klein paradox. More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons. For heavier elements, if the innermost orbital (1s) is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum, resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron. This does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled, so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the periodic table.
The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of periodic table. The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the elements has an underlying truth, effectively hard - wired into the universe, or if any such periodicity is instead the product of subjective human interpretation, contingent upon the circumstances, beliefs and predilections of human observers. An objective basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium, and the composition of group 3. Such an underlying truth, if it exists, is thought to have not yet been discovered. In its absence, the many different forms of periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity, each of which explores and emphasizes different aspects, properties, perspectives and relationships of and among the elements.
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when did the battle of the bulge start | Battle of the Bulge - Wikipedia
Allied victory
12th Army Group
Army Group B
The Battle of the Bulge (16 December 1944 -- 25 January 1945) was the last major German offensive campaign on the Western Front during World War II. It was launched through the densely forested Ardennes region of Wallonia in eastern Belgium, northeast France, and Luxembourg, towards the end of World War II. The surprise attack caught the Allied forces completely off guard. American forces bore the brunt of the attack and incurred their highest casualties of any operation during the war. The battle also severely depleted Germany 's armored forces, and they were largely unable to replace them. German personnel and, later, Luftwaffe aircraft (in the concluding stages of the engagement) also sustained heavy losses.
The Germans officially referred to the offensive as Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein ("Operation Watch on the Rhine ''), while the Allies designated it the Ardennes Counteroffensive. The phrase "Battle of the Bulge '' was coined by contemporary press to describe the bulge in German front lines on wartime news maps, and it became the most widely used name for the battle. The German offensive was intended to stop Allied use of the Belgian port of Antwerp and to split the Allied lines, allowing the Germans to encircle and destroy four Allied armies and force the Western Allies to negotiate a peace treaty in the Axis powers ' favor. Once that was accomplished, the German dictator Adolf Hitler believed he could fully concentrate on the Soviets on the Eastern Front. The offensive was planned by the German forces with utmost secrecy, with minimal radio traffic and movements of troops and equipment under cover of darkness. Intercepted German communications indicating a substantial German offensive preparation were not acted upon by the Allies.
The Germans achieved total surprise on the morning of 16 December 1944, due to a combination of Allied overconfidence, preoccupation with Allied offensive plans, and poor aerial reconnaissance. The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line, taking advantage of heavily overcast weather conditions that grounded the Allies ' overwhelmingly superior air forces. Fierce resistance on the northern shoulder of the offensive, around Elsenborn Ridge, and in the south, around Bastogne, blocked German access to key roads to the northwest and west that they counted on for success. Columns of armor and infantry that were supposed to advance along parallel routes found themselves on the same roads. This, and terrain that favored the defenders, threw the German advance behind schedule and allowed the Allies to reinforce the thinly placed troops. Improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces and supply lines, which sealed the failure of the offensive. In the wake of the defeat, many experienced German units were left severely depleted of men and equipment, as survivors retreated to the defenses of the Siegfried Line.
The Germans ' initial attack involved 410,000 men; just over 1,400 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns; 2,600 artillery pieces; 1,600 anti-tank guns; and over 1,000 combat aircraft, as well as large numbers of other AFVs. These were reinforced a couple of weeks later, bringing the offensive 's total strength to around 450,000 troops, and 1,500 tanks and assault guns. Between 67,200 and 125,000 of their men were killed, missing, or wounded in action. For the Americans, out of 610,000 troops involved in the battle, 89,000 were casualties. While some sources report that up to 19,000 were killed, Eisenhower 's personnel chief put the number at about 8,600. British historian Antony Beevor reports the number killed as 8,407. It was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in World War II.
After the breakout from Normandy at the end of July 1944 and the Allied landings in southern France on 15 August 1944, the Allies advanced toward Germany more quickly than anticipated. The Allies were faced with several military logistics issues:
General Dwight D. Eisenhower (the Supreme Allied Commander on the Western Front) and his staff chose to hold the Ardennes region which was occupied by the U.S. First Army. The Allies chose to defend the Ardennes with as few troops as possible due to the favorable terrain (a densely wooded highland with deep river valleys and a rather thin road network) and limited Allied operational objectives in the area. They also had intelligence that the Wehrmacht was using the area across the German border as a rest - and - refit area for its troops.
The speed of the Allied advance coupled with an initial lack of deep - water ports presented the Allies with enormous supply problems. Over-the - beach supply operations using the Normandy landing areas and direct landing LSTs on the beaches were unable to meet operational needs. The only deep - water port the Allies had captured was Cherbourg on the northern shore of the Cotentin peninsula and west of the original invasion beaches, but the Germans had thoroughly wrecked and mined the harbor before it could be taken. It took many months to rebuild its cargo - handling capability. The Allies captured the port of Antwerp intact in the first days of September, but it was not operational until 28 November. The estuary of the Schelde river (also called Scheldt) that controlled access to the port had to be cleared of both German troops and naval mines. The limitations led to differences between General Eisenhower and Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, commander of the Anglo - Canadian 21st Army Group, over whether Montgomery or Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, commanding the U.S. 12th Army Group, in the south would get priority access to supplies.
German forces remained in control of several major ports on the English Channel coast until May 1945. The Allies ' efforts to destroy the French railway system prior to D - Day, successful in hampering German response to the invasion, proved equally restrictive to the Allies. It took time to repair the rail network 's tracks and bridges. A trucking system nicknamed the Red Ball Express brought supplies to front - line troops, but used up five times as much fuel to reach the front line near the Belgian border as was delivered. By early October, the Allies had suspended major offensives to improve their supply lines and availability.
Montgomery and Bradley both pressed for priority delivery of supplies to their respective armies so they could continue their individual lines of advance and maintain pressure on the Germans while Eisenhower preferred a broad - front strategy. He gave some priority to Montgomery 's northern forces. This had the short - term goal of opening the urgently needed port of Antwerp and the long - term goal of capturing the Ruhr area, the biggest industrial area of Germany. With the Allies stalled, German Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) Gerd von Rundstedt was able to reorganize the disrupted German armies into a coherent defence.
Field Marshal Montgomery 's Operation Market Garden achieved only some of its objectives, while its territorial gains left the Allied supply situation stretched further than before. In October, the First Canadian Army fought the Battle of the Scheldt, opening the port of Antwerp to shipping. As a result, by the end of October the supply situation had eased somewhat.
Despite a lull along the front after the Scheldt battles, the German situation remained dire. While operations continued in the autumn, notably the Lorraine Campaign, the Battle of Aachen and fighting in the Hürtgen Forest, the strategic situation in the west had changed little. The Allies were slowly pushing towards Germany, but no decisive breakthrough was achieved. The Western Allies already had 96 divisions at or near the front, with an estimated ten more divisions en route from the United Kingdom. Additional Allied airborne units remained in England. The Germans could field a total of 55 understrength divisions.
Adolf Hitler first officially outlined his surprise counter-offensive to his astonished generals on September 16, 1944. The assault 's ambitious goal was to pierce the thinly held lines of the U.S. First Army between Monschau and Wasserbillig with Army Group B (Model) by the end of the first day, get the armor through the Ardennes by the end of the second day, reach the Meuse between Liège and Dinant by the third day, and seize Antwerp and the western bank of the Scheldt estuary by the fourth day.
Hitler initially promised his generals a total of 18 infantry and 12 armored or mechanized divisions "for planning purposes. '' The plan was to pull 13 infantry divisions, two parachute divisions and six panzer - type divisions from the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht combined German military strategic reserve. On the Eastern Front, the Soviets ' Operation Bagration during the summer had destroyed much of Germany 's Army Group Center (Heeresgruppe Mitte). The extremely swift operation ended only when the advancing Soviet Red Army forces outran their supplies. By November, it was clear that Soviet forces were preparing for a winter offensive.
Meanwhile, the Allied air offensive of early 1944 had effectively grounded the Luftwaffe, leaving the German Army with little battlefield intelligence and no way to interdict Allied supplies. The converse was equally damaging; daytime movement of German forces was rapidly noticed, and interdiction of supplies combined with the bombing of the Romanian oil fields starved Germany of oil and gasoline. This fuel shortage intensified after the Soviets overran those fields in the course of their August 1944 Jassy - Kishinev Offensive.
One of the few advantages held by the German forces in November 1944 was that they were no longer defending all of Western Europe. Their front lines in the west had been considerably shortened by the Allied offensive and were much closer to the German heartland. This drastically reduced their supply problems despite Allied control of the air. Additionally, their extensive telephone and telegraph network meant that radios were no longer necessary for communications, which lessened the effectiveness of Allied Ultra intercepts. Nevertheless, some 40 -- 50 messages per day were decrypted by Ultra. They recorded the quadrupling of German fighter forces and a term used in an intercepted Luftwaffe message -- Jägeraufmarsch (literally "Hunter Deployment '') -- implied preparation for an offensive operation. Ultra also picked up communiqués regarding extensive rail and road movements in the region, as well as orders that movements should be made on time.
Hitler felt that his mobile reserves allowed him to mount one major offensive. Although he realized nothing significant could be accomplished in the Eastern Front, he still believed an offensive against the Western Allies, whom he considered militarily inferior to the Red Army, would have some chances of success. Hitler believed he could split the Allied forces and compel the Americans and British to settle for a separate peace, independent of the Soviet Union. Success in the west would give the Germans time to design and produce more advanced weapons (such as jet aircraft, new U-boat designs and super-heavy tanks) and permit the concentration of forces in the east. After the war ended, this assessment was generally viewed as unrealistic, given Allied air superiority throughout Europe and their ability to continually disrupt German offensive operations.
Given the reduced manpower of their land forces at the time, the Germans believed the best way to seize the initiative would be to attack in the West against the smaller Allied forces rather than against the vast Soviet armies. Even the encirclement and destruction of multiple Soviet armies, as in 1941, would still have left the Soviets with a numerical superiority.
Hitler 's plan called for a classic Blitzkrieg attack through the weakly defended Ardennes, mirroring the successful German offensive there during the Battle of France in 1940 -- aimed at splitting the armies along the U.S. -- British lines and capturing Antwerp. The plan banked on unfavorable weather, including heavy fog and low - lying clouds, which would minimize the Allied air advantage. Hitler originally set the offensive for late November, before the anticipated start of the Russian winter offensive. The disputes between Montgomery and Bradley were well known, and Hitler hoped he could exploit this disunity. If the attack were to succeed in capturing Antwerp, four complete armies would be trapped without supplies behind German lines.
Several senior German military officers, including Generalfeldmarschall Walter Model and Gerd von Rundstedt, expressed concern as to whether the goals of the offensive could be realized. Model and von Rundstedt both believed aiming for Antwerp was too ambitious, given Germany 's scarce resources in late 1944. At the same time, they felt that maintaining a purely defensive posture (as had been the case since Normandy) would only delay defeat, not avert it. They thus developed alternative, less ambitious plans that did not aim to cross the Meuse River (in German and Dutch: Maas); Model 's being Unternehmen Herbstnebel (Operation Autumn Mist) and von Rundstedt 's Fall Martin ("Plan Martin ''). The two field marshals combined their plans to present a joint "small solution '' to Hitler. When they offered their alternative plans, Hitler would not listen. Rundstedt later testified that while he recognized the merit of Hitler 's operational plan, he saw from the very first that "all, absolutely all conditions for the possible success of such an offensive were lacking. ''
Model, commander of German Army Group B (Heeresgruppe B), and von Rundstedt, overall commander of the German Army Command in the West (OB West), were put in charge of carrying out the operation.
In the west supply problems began significantly to impede Allied operations, even though the opening of the port of Antwerp in late November improved the situation somewhat. The positions of the Allied armies stretched from southern France all the way north to the Netherlands. German planning for the counteroffensive rested on the premise that a successful strike against thinly manned stretches of the line would halt Allied advances on the entire Western Front.
The Wehrmacht 's code name for the offensive was Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein ("Operation Watch on the Rhine ''), after the German patriotic hymn Die Wacht am Rhein, a name that deceptively implied the Germans would be adopting a defensive posture along the Western Front. The Germans also referred to it as "Ardennenoffensive '' (Ardennes Offensive) and Rundstedt - Offensive, both names being generally used nowadays in modern Germany. The French (and Belgian) name for the operation is Bataille des Ardennes (Battle of the Ardennes). The battle was militarily defined by the Allies as the Ardennes Counteroffensive, which included the German drive and the American effort to contain and later defeat it. The phrase Battle of the Bulge was coined by contemporary press to describe the way the Allied front line bulged inward on wartime news maps.
While the Ardennes Counteroffensive is the correct term in Allied military language, the official Ardennes - Alsace campaign reached beyond the Ardennes battle region, and the most popular description in English speaking countries remains simply the Battle of the Bulge.
The OKW decided by mid-September, at Hitler 's insistence, that the offensive would be mounted in the Ardennes, as was done in 1940. In 1940 German forces had passed through the Ardennes in three days before engaging the enemy, but the 1944 plan called for battle in the forest itself. The main forces were to advance westward to the Meuse River, then turn northwest for Antwerp and Brussels. The close terrain of the Ardennes would make rapid movement difficult, though open ground beyond the Meuse offered the prospect of a successful dash to the coast.
Four armies were selected for the operation. Adolf Hitler personally selected for the counter-offensive on the northern shoulder of the western front the best troops available and officers he trusted. The lead role in the attack was given to 6th Panzer Army, commanded by SS - Oberstgruppenführer Sepp Dietrich. It included the most experienced formation of the Waffen - SS: the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler. It also contained the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend. They were given priority for supply and equipment and assigned the shortest route to the primary objective of the offensive, Antwerp, starting from the northernmost point on the intended battlefront, nearest the important road network hub of Monschau.
The Fifth Panzer Army under General Hasso von Manteuffel was assigned to the middle sector with the objective of capturing Brussels.
The Seventh Army, under General Erich Brandenberger, was assigned to the southernmost sector, near the Luxembourgish city of Echternach, with the task of protecting the flank. This Army was made up of only four infantry divisions, with no large - scale armored formations to use as a spearhead unit. As a result, they made little progress throughout the battle.
Also participating in a secondary role was the Fifteenth Army, under General Gustav - Adolf von Zangen. Recently brought back up to strength and re-equipped after heavy fighting during Operation Market Garden, it was located on the far north of the Ardennes battlefield and tasked with holding U.S. forces in place, with the possibility of launching its own attack given favorable conditions.
For the offensive to be successful, four criteria were deemed critical: the attack had to be a complete surprise; the weather conditions had to be poor to neutralize Allied air superiority and the damage it could inflict on the German offensive and its supply lines; the progress had to be rapid -- the Meuse River, halfway to Antwerp, had to be reached by day 4; and Allied fuel supplies would have to be captured intact along the way because the combined Wehrmacht forces were short on fuel. The General Staff estimated they only had enough fuel to cover one - third to one - half of the ground to Antwerp in heavy combat conditions.
The plan originally called for just under 45 divisions, including a dozen panzer and Panzergrenadier divisions forming the armored spearhead and various infantry units to form a defensive line as the battle unfolded. By this time the German Army suffered from an acute manpower shortage, and the force had been reduced to around 30 divisions. Although it retained most of its armor, there were not enough infantry units because of the defensive needs in the East. These 30 newly rebuilt divisions used some of the last reserves of the German Army. Among them were Volksgrenadier ("People 's Grenadier '') units formed from a mix of battle - hardened veterans and recruits formerly regarded as too young, too old or too frail to fight. Training time, equipment and supplies were inadequate during the preparations. German fuel supplies were precarious -- those materials and supplies that could not be directly transported by rail had to be horse - drawn to conserve fuel, and the mechanized and panzer divisions would depend heavily on captured fuel. As a result, the start of the offensive was delayed from 27 November to 16 December.
Before the offensive the Allies were virtually blind to German troop movement. During the liberation of France, the extensive network of the French resistance had provided valuable intelligence about German dispositions. Once they reached the German border, this source dried up. In France, orders had been relayed within the German army using radio messages enciphered by the Enigma machine, and these could be picked up and decrypted by Allied code - breakers headquartered at Bletchley Park, to give the intelligence known as Ultra. In Germany such orders were typically transmitted using telephone and teleprinter, and a special radio silence order was imposed on all matters concerning the upcoming offensive. The major crackdown in the Wehrmacht after the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler resulted in much tighter security and fewer leaks. The foggy autumn weather also prevented Allied reconnaissance aircraft from correctly assessing the ground situation. German units assembling in the area were even issued charcoal instead of wood for cooking fires to cut down on smoke and reduce chances of Allied observers deducing a troop buildup was underway.
For these reasons Allied High Command considered the Ardennes a quiet sector, relying on assessments from their intelligence services that the Germans were unable to launch any major offensive operations this late in the war. What little intelligence they had led the Allies to believe precisely what the Germans wanted them to believe - -- that preparations were being carried out only for defensive, not offensive, operations. The Allies relied too much on Ultra, not human reconnaissance. In fact, because of the Germans ' efforts, the Allies were led to believe that a new defensive army was being formed around Düsseldorf in the northern Rhineland, possibly to defend against British attack. This was done by increasing the number of flak (Flugabwehrkanonen, i.e., anti-aircraft cannons) in the area and the artificial multiplication of radio transmissions in the area. The Allies at this point thought the information was of no importance. All of this meant that the attack, when it came, completely surprised the Allied forces. Remarkably, the U.S. Third Army intelligence chief, Colonel Oscar Koch, the U.S. First Army intelligence chief and the SHAEF intelligence officer Brigadier General Kenneth Strong all correctly predicted the German offensive capability and intention to strike the U.S. VIII Corps area. These predictions were largely dismissed by the U.S. 12th Army Group. Strong had informed Bedell Smith in December of his suspicions. Bedell Smith sent Strong to warn Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, the commander of the 12th Army Group, of the danger. Bradley 's response was succinct: "Let them come. '' Historian Patrick K. O'Donnell writes that on 8 December 1944 U.S. Rangers at great cost took Hill 400 during the Battle of the Hürtgen Forest. The next day GIs who relieved the Rangers reported a considerable movement of German troops inside the Ardennes in the enemy 's rear, but that no one in the chain of command connected the dots.
Because the Ardennes was considered a quiet sector, considerations of economy of force led it to be used as a training ground for new units and a rest area for units that had seen hard fighting. The U.S. units deployed in the Ardennes thus were a mixture of inexperienced troops (such as the raw U.S. 99th and 106th "Golden Lions '' Divisions), and battle - hardened troops sent to that sector to recuperate (the 28th Infantry Division).
Two major special operations were planned for the offensive. By October it was decided that Otto Skorzeny, the German SS - commando who had rescued the former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, was to lead a task force of English - speaking German soldiers in "Operation Greif ''. These soldiers were to be dressed in American and British uniforms and wear dog tags taken from corpses and prisoners of war. Their job was to go behind American lines and change signposts, misdirect traffic, generally cause disruption and seize bridges across the Meuse River. By late November another ambitious special operation was added: Col. Friedrich August von der Heydte was to lead a Fallschirmjäger - Kampfgruppe (paratrooper combat group) in Operation Stösser, a night - time paratroop drop behind the Allied lines aimed at capturing a vital road junction near Malmedy.
German intelligence had set 20 December as the expected date for the start of the upcoming Soviet offensive, aimed at crushing what was left of German resistance on the Eastern Front and thereby opening the way to Berlin. It was hoped that Soviet leader Stalin would delay the start of the operation once the German assault in the Ardennes had begun and wait for the outcome before continuing.
After the 20 July attempt on Hitler 's life, and the close advance of the Red Army which would seize the site on 27 January 1945, Hitler and his staff had been forced to abandon the Wolfsschanze headquarters in East Prussia, in which they had coordinated much of the fighting on the Eastern Front. After a brief visit to Berlin, Hitler travelled on his Führersonderzug ("Special Train of the Führer '' (Leader)) to Giessen on 11 December, taking up residence in the Adlerhorst (eyrie) command complex, co-located with OB West 's base at Kransberg Castle. Believing in omens and the successes of his early war campaigns that had been planned at Kransberg, Hitler had chosen the site from which he had overseen the successful 1940 campaign against France and the Low Countries.
Von Rundstedt set up his operational headquarters near Limburg, close enough for the generals and Panzer Corps commanders who were to lead the attack to visit Adlerhorst on 11 December, travelling there in an SS - operated bus convoy. With the castle acting as overflow accommodation, the main party was settled into the Adlerhorst 's Haus 2 command bunker, including Gen. Alfred Jodl, Gen. Wilhelm Keitel, Gen. Blumentritt, von Manteuffel and SS Gen. Joseph ("Sepp '') Dietrich.
In a personal conversation on 13 December between Walter Model and Friedrich von der Heydte, who was put in charge of Operation Stösser, von der Heydte gave Operation Stösser less than a 10 % chance of succeeding. Model told him it was necessary to make the attempt: "It must be done because this offensive is the last chance to conclude the war favorably. ''
On 16 December 1944 at 05: 30, the Germans began the assault with a massive, 90 - minute artillery barrage using 1,600 artillery pieces across a 130 - kilometre (80 mi) front on the Allied troops facing the 6th Panzer Army. The Americans ' initial impression was that this was the anticipated, localized counterattack resulting from the Allies ' recent attack in the Wahlerscheid sector to the north, where the 2nd Division had knocked a sizable dent in the Siegfried Line. Heavy snowstorms engulfed parts of the Ardennes area. While having the effect of keeping the Allied aircraft grounded, the weather also proved troublesome for the Germans because poor road conditions hampered their advance. Poor traffic control led to massive traffic jams and fuel shortages in forward units.
In the center, von Manteuffel 's Fifth Panzer Army attacked towards Bastogne and St. Vith, both road junctions of great strategic importance. In the south, Brandenberger 's Seventh Army pushed towards Luxembourg in its efforts to secure the flank from Allied attacks. Only one month before, 250 members of the Waffen - SS had unsuccessfully tried to recapture the town of Vianden with its castle from the Luxembourgish resistance during the Battle of Vianden.
While the Siege of Bastogne is often credited as the central point where the German offensive was stopped, the battle for Elsenborn Ridge was actually the decisive component of the Battle of the Bulge, stopping the advance of the best equipped armored units of the German army and forcing them to reroute their troops to unfavorable alternative routes that considerably slowed their advance.
The attack on Monschau, Höfen, Krinkelt - Rocherath, and then Elsenborn Ridge was led by the units personally selected by Adolf Hitler. The 6th Panzer Army was given priority for supply and equipment and was assigned the shortest route to the ultimate objective of the offensive, Antwerp. The 6th Panzer Army included the elite of the Waffen - SS, including four Panzer divisions and five infantry divisions in three corps. SS - Obersturmbannführer Joachim Peiper led Kampfgruppe Peiper, consisting of 4,800 men and 600 vehicles, which was charged with leading the main effort. Its newest and most powerful tank, the Tiger II heavy tank, consumed 3.8 litres (1 gal) of fuel to go 800 m (. 5 mi), and the Germans had less than half the fuel they needed to reach Antwerp.
The attacks by the Sixth Panzer Army 's infantry units in the north fared badly because of unexpectedly fierce resistance by the U.S. 2nd and 99th Infantry Divisions. Kampfgruppe Peiper, at the head of the Sepp Dietrich 's Sixth Panzer Army, had been designated to take the Losheim - Losheimergraben road, a key route through the Losheim Gap, but it was closed by two collapsed overpasses that German engineers failed to repair during the first day. Peiper 's forces were rerouted through Lanzerath.
To preserve the quantity of armor available, the infantry of the 9th Fallschirmjaeger Regiment, 3rd Fallschirmjaeger Division, had been ordered to clear the village first. A single 18 - man Intelligence and Reconnaissance Platoon from the 99th Infantry Division along with four Forward Air Controllers held up the battalion of about 500 German paratroopers until sunset, about 16: 00, causing 92 casualties among the Germans.
This created a bottleneck in the German advance. Kampfgruppe Peiper did not begin his advance until nearly 16: 00, more than 16 hours behind schedule and did n't reach Bucholz Station until the early morning of 17 December. Their intention was to control the twin villages of Rocherath - Krinkelt which would clear a path to the high ground of Elsenborn Ridge. Occupation of this dominating terrain would allow control of the roads to the south and west and ensure supply to Kampfgruppe Peiper 's armored task force.
At 12: 30 on 17 December, Kampfgruppe Peiper was near the hamlet of Baugnez, on the height halfway between the town of Malmedy and Ligneuville, when they encountered elements of the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion, U.S. 7th Armored Division. After a brief battle the lightly armed Americans surrendered. They were disarmed and, with some other Americans captured earlier (approximately 150 men), sent to stand in a field near the crossroads under light guard. About fifteen minutes after Peiper 's advance guard passed through, the main body under the command of SS - Sturmbannführer Werner Pötschke arrived. Allegedly, the SS troopers suddenly opened fire on the prisoners. As soon as the firing began, the prisoners panicked. Most were shot where they stood, though some managed to flee. Accounts of the killing vary, but at least 84 of the POWs were murdered. A few survived, and news of the killings of prisoners of war spread through Allied lines. Following the end of the war, soldiers and officers of Kampfgruppe Peiper, including Joachim Peiper and SS general Sepp Dietrich, were tried for the incident at the Malmedy massacre trial.
Driving to the south - east of Elsenborn, Kampfgruppe Peiper entered Honsfeld, where they encountered one of the 99th Division 's rest centers, clogged with confused American troops. They quickly captured portions of the 3rd Battalion of the 394th Infantry Regiment. They destroyed a number of American armored units and vehicles, and took several dozen prisoners who were subsequently murdered. Peiper also captured 50,000 US gallons (190,000 l; 42,000 imp gal) of fuel for his vehicles.
Peiper advanced north - west towards Büllingen, keeping to the plan to move west, unaware that if he had turned north he had an opportunity to flank and trap the entire 2nd and 99th Divisions. Instead, intent on driving west, Peiper turned south to detour around Hünningen, choosing a route designated Rollbahn D as he had been given latitude to choose the best route west.
To the north, the 277th Volksgrenadier Division attempted to break through the defending line of the U.S. 99th and the 2nd Infantry Divisions. The 12th SS Panzer Division, reinforced by additional infantry (Panzergrenadier and Volksgrenadier) divisions, took the key road junction at Losheimergraben just north of Lanzerath and attacked the twin villages of Rocherath and Krinkelt.
Another, smaller massacre was committed in Wereth, Belgium, approximately 6.5 miles (10.5 km) northeast of Saint - Vith on 17 December 1944. Eleven black American soldiers were tortured after surrendering and then shot by men of the 1st SS Panzer Division belonging to Schnellgruppe Knittel. The perpetrators were never punished for this crime and recent research indicates that men from Third Company of the Reconnaissance Battalion were responsible.
By the evening the spearhead had pushed north to engage the U.S. 99th Infantry Division and Kampfgruppe Peiper arrived in front of Stavelot. Peiper 's forces were already behind his timetable because of the stiff American resistance and because when the Americans fell back, their engineers blew up bridges and emptied fuel dumps. Peiper 's unit was delayed and his vehicles denied critically needed fuel. They took 36 hours to advance from the Eifel region to Stavelot, while the same advance required nine hours in 1940.
Kampfgruppe Peiper attacked Stavelot on 18 December but was unable to capture the town before the Americans evacuated a large fuel depot. Three tanks attempted to take the bridge, but the lead vehicle was disabled by a mine. Following this, 60 grenadiers advanced forward but were stopped by concentrated American defensive fire. After a fierce tank battle the next day, the Germans finally entered the town when U.S. engineers failed to blow the bridge.
Capitalizing on his success and not wanting to lose more time, Peiper rushed an advance group toward the vital bridge at Trois - Ponts, leaving the bulk of his strength in Stavelot. When they reached it at 11: 30 on 18 December, retreating U.S. engineers blew it up. Peiper detoured north towards the villages of La Gleize and Cheneux. At Cheneux, the advance guard was attacked by American fighter - bombers, destroying two tanks and five halftracks, blocking the narrow road. The group began moving again at dusk at 16: 00 and was able to return to its original route at around 18: 00. Of the two bridges remaining between Kampfgruppe Peiper and the Meuse, the bridge over the Lienne was blown by the Americans as the Germans approached. Peiper turned north and halted his forces in the woods between La Gleize and Stoumont. He learned that Stoumont was strongly held and that the Americans were bringing up strong reinforcements from Spa.
To Peiper 's south, the advance of Kampfgruppe Hansen had stalled. SS - Oberführer Mohnke ordered Schnellgruppe Knittel, which had been designated to follow Hansen, to instead move forward to support Peiper. SS - Sturmbannführer Knittel crossed the bridge at Stavelot around 19: 00 against American forces trying to retake the town. Knittel pressed forward towards La Gleize, and shortly afterward the Americans recaptured Stavelot. Peiper and Knittel both faced the prospect of being cut off.
At dawn on 19 December, Peiper surprised the American defenders of Stoumont by sending infantry from the 2nd SS Panzergrenadier Regiment in an attack and a company of Fallschirmjäger to infiltrate their lines. He followed this with a Panzer attack, gaining the eastern edge of the town. An American tank battalion arrived but, after a two - hour tank battle, Peiper finally captured Stoumont at 10: 30. Knittel joined up with Peiper and reported the Americans had recaptured Stavelot to their east. Peiper ordered Knittel to retake Stavelot. Assessing his own situation, he determined that his Kampfgruppe did not have sufficient fuel to cross the bridge west of Stoumont and continue his advance. He maintained his lines west of Stoumont for a while, until the evening of 19 December when he withdrew them to the village edge. On the same evening the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division under Maj. Gen. James Gavin arrived and deployed at La Gleize and along Peiper 's planned route of advance.
German efforts to reinforce Peiper were unsuccessful. Kampfgruppe Hansen was still struggling against bad road conditions and stiff American resistance on the southern route. Schnellgruppe Knittel was forced to disengage from the heights around Stavelot. Kampfgruppe Sandig, which had been ordered to take Stavelot, launched another attack without success. Sixth Panzer Army commander Sepp Dietrich ordered Hermann Prieß, commanding officer of the I SS Panzer Corps, to increase its efforts to back Peiper 's battle group, but Prieß was unable to break through.
Small units of the U.S. 2nd Battalion, 119th Infantry Regiment, 30th Infantry Division, attacked the dispersed units of Kampfgruppe Peiper on the morning of 21 December. They failed and were forced to withdraw, and a number were captured, including battalion commander Maj. Hal McCown. Peiper learned that his reinforcements had been directed to gather in La Gleize to his east, and he withdrew, leaving wounded Americans and Germans in the Froidcourt Castle (fr). As he withdrew from Cheneux, American paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne Division engaged the Germans in fierce house - to - house fighting. The Americans shelled Kampfgruppe Peiper on 22 December, and although the Germans had run out of food and had virtually no fuel, they continued to fight. A Luftwaffe resupply mission went badly when SS - Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke insisted the grid coordinates supplied by Peiper were wrong, parachuting supplies into American hands in Stoumont.
In La Gleize, Peiper set up defenses waiting for German relief. When the relief force was unable to penetrate the Allied lines, he decided to break through the Allied lines and return to the German lines on 23 December. The men of the Kampfgruppe were forced to abandon their vehicles and heavy equipment, although most of the 800 remaining troops were able to escape.
The 99th Infantry Division as a whole, outnumbered five to one, inflicted casualties in the ratio of 18 to one. The division lost about 20 % of its effective strength, including 465 killed and 2,524 evacuated due to wounds, injuries, fatigue, or trench foot. German losses were much higher. In the northern sector opposite the 99th, this included more than 4,000 deaths and the destruction of 60 tanks and big guns. Historian John S.D. Eisenhower wrote, "... the action of the 2nd and 99th Divisions on the northern shoulder could be considered the most decisive of the Ardennes campaign. ''
The stiff American defense prevented the Germans from reaching the vast array of supplies near the Belgian cities of Liège and Spa and the road network west of the Elsenborn Ridge leading to the Meuse River. After more than 10 days of intense battle, they pushed the Americans out of the villages, but were unable to dislodge them from the ridge, where elements of the V Corps of the First U.S. Army prevented the German forces from reaching the road network to their west.
Operation Stösser was a paratroop drop into the American rear in the High Fens (French: Hautes Fagnes; German: Hohes Venn; Dutch: Hoge Venen) area. The objective was the "Baraque Michel '' crossroads. It was led by Oberst Friedrich August Freiherr von der Heydte, considered by Germans to be a hero of the Battle of Crete.
It was the German paratroopers ' only night time drop during World War II. Von der Heydte was given only eight days to prepare prior to the assault. He was not allowed to use his own regiment because their movement might alert the Allies to the impending counterattack. Instead, he was provided with a Kampfgruppe of 800 men. The II Parachute Corps was tasked with contributing 100 men from each of its regiments. In loyalty to their commander, 150 men from von der Heydte 's own unit, the 6th Parachute Regiment, went against orders and joined him. They had little time to establish any unit cohesion or train together.
The parachute drop was a complete failure. Von der Heydte ended up with a total of around 300 troops. Too small and too weak to counter the Allies, they abandoned plans to take the crossroads and instead converted the mission to reconnaissance. With only enough ammunition for a single fight, they withdrew towards Germany and attacked the rear of the American lines. Only about 100 of his weary men finally reached the German rear.
Following the Malmedy massacre, on New Year 's Day 1945, after having previously received orders to take no prisoners, American soldiers allegedly shot approximately sixty German prisoners of war near the Belgian village of Chenogne (8 km from Bastogne).
The Germans fared better in the center (the 32 km (20 mi) Schnee Eifel sector) as the Fifth Panzer Army attacked positions held by the U.S. 28th and 106th Infantry Divisions. The Germans lacked the overwhelming strength that had been deployed in the north, but still possessed a marked numerical and material superiority over the very thinly spread 28th and 106th divisions. They succeeded in surrounding two largely intact regiments (422nd and 423rd) of the 106th Division in a pincer movement and forced their surrender, a tribute to the way Manteuffel 's new tactics had been applied. One of those wounded and captured was Lieutenant Donald Prell of the Anti-Tank Company of the 422nd Infantry, 106th Division. The official U.S. Army history states: "At least seven thousand (men) were lost here and the figure probably is closer to eight or nine thousand. The amount lost in arms and equipment, of course, was very substantial. The Schnee Eifel battle, therefore, represents the most serious reverse suffered by American arms during the operations of 1944 -- 45 in the European theater. ''
In the center, the town of St. Vith, a vital road junction, presented the main challenge for both von Manteuffel 's and Dietrich 's forces. The defenders, led by the 7th Armored Division, included the remaining regiment of the 106th U.S. Infantry Division, with elements of the 9th Armored Division and 28th U.S. Infantry Division. These units, which operated under the command of Generals Robert W. Hasbrouck (7th Armored) and Alan W. Jones (106th Infantry), successfully resisted the German attacks, significantly slowing the German advance. At Montgomery 's orders, St. Vith was evacuated on 21 December; U.S. troops fell back to entrenched positions in the area, presenting an imposing obstacle to a successful German advance. By 23 December, as the Germans shattered their flanks, the defenders ' position became untenable and U.S. troops were ordered to retreat west of the Salm River. Since the German plan called for the capture of St. Vith by 18: 00 on 17 December, the prolonged action in and around it dealt a major setback to their timetable.
To protect the river crossings on the Meuse at Givet, Dinant and Namur, Montgomery ordered those few units available to hold the bridges on 19 December. This led to a hastily assembled force including rear - echelon troops, military police and Army Air Force personnel. The British 29th Armoured Brigade of British 11th Armoured Division, which had turned in its tanks for re-equipping, was told to take back their tanks and head to the area. British XXX Corps was significantly reinforced for this effort. Units of the corps which fought in the Ardennes were the 51st (Highland) and 53rd (Welsh) Infantry Divisions, the British 6th Airborne Division, the 29th and 33rd Armoured Brigades, and the 34th Tank Brigade.
Unlike the German forces on the northern and southern shoulders who were experiencing great difficulties, the German advance in the center gained considerable ground. The Fifth Panzer Army was spearheaded by the 2nd Panzer Division while the Panzer Lehr Division (Armored Training Division) came up from the south, leaving Bastogne to other units. The Ourthe River was passed at Ourtheville on 21 December. Lack of fuel held up the advance for one day, but on 23 December the offensive was resumed towards the two small towns of Hargimont and Marche - en - Famenne. Hargimont was captured the same day, but Marche - en - Famenne was strongly defended by the American 84th Division. Gen. von Lüttwitz, commander of the XXXXVII Panzer - Korps, ordered the Division to turn westwards towards Dinant and the Meuse, leaving only a blocking force at Marche - en - Famenne. Although advancing only in a narrow corridor, 2nd Panzer Division was still making rapid headway, leading to jubilation in Berlin. Headquarters now freed up the 9th Panzer Division for Fifth Panzer Army, which was deployed at Marche.
On 22 / 23 December German forces reached the woods of Foy - Nôtre - Dame, only a few kilometers ahead of Dinant. The narrow corridor caused considerable difficulties, as constant flanking attacks threatened the division. On 24 December, German forces made their furthest penetration west. The Panzer Lehr Division took the town of Celles, while a bit farther north, parts of 2nd Panzer Division were in sight of the Meuse near Dinant at Foy - Nôtre - Dame. A hastily assembled Allied blocking force on the east side of the river prevented the German probing forces from approaching the Dinant bridge. By late Christmas Eve the advance in this sector was stopped, as Allied forces threatened the narrow corridor held by the 2nd Panzer Division.
For Operation Greif ("Griffin ''), Otto Skorzeny successfully infiltrated a small part of his battalion of English - speaking Germans disguised in American uniforms behind the Allied lines. Although they failed to take the vital bridges over the Meuse, their presence caused confusion out of all proportion to their military activities, and rumors spread quickly. Even General George Patton was alarmed and, on 17 December, described the situation to General Dwight Eisenhower as "Krauts... speaking perfect English... raising hell, cutting wires, turning road signs around, spooking whole divisions, and shoving a bulge into our defenses. ''
Checkpoints were set up all over the Allied rear, greatly slowing the movement of soldiers and equipment. American MPs at these checkpoints grilled troops on things that every American was expected to know, like the identity of Mickey Mouse 's girlfriend, baseball scores, or the capital of a particular U.S. state -- though many could not remember or did not know. General Omar Bradley was briefly detained when he correctly identified Springfield as the capital of Illinois because the American MP who questioned him mistakenly believed the capital was Chicago.
The tightened security nonetheless made things very hard for the German infiltrators, and a number of them were captured. Even during interrogation, they continued their goal of spreading disinformation; when asked about their mission, some of them claimed they had been told to go to Paris to either kill or capture General Dwight Eisenhower. Security around the general was greatly increased, and Eisenhower was confined to his headquarters. Because Skorzeny 's men were captured in American uniforms, they were executed as spies. This was the standard practice of every army at the time, as many belligerents considered it necessary to protect their territory against the grave dangers of enemy spying. Skorzeny said that he was told by German legal experts that as long he did not order his men to fight in combat while wearing American uniforms, such a tactic was a legitimate ruse of war. Skorzeny and his men were fully aware of their likely fate, and most wore their German uniforms underneath their American ones in case of capture. Skorzeny was tried by an American military tribunal in 1947 at the Dachau Trials for allegedly violating the laws of war stemming from his leadership of Operation Greif, but was acquitted. He later moved to Spain and South America.
Operation Währung was carried out by a small number of German agents who infiltrated Allied lines in American uniforms. These agents were tasked with using an existing Nazi intelligence network to bribe rail and port workers to disrupt Allied supply operations. The operation was a failure.
Further south on Manteuffel 's front, the main thrust was delivered by all attacking divisions crossing the River Our, then increasing the pressure on the key road centers of St. Vith and Bastogne. The more experienced 28th Infantry Division put up a much more dogged defense than the inexperienced soldiers of the 106th Infantry Division. The 112th Infantry Regiment (the most northerly of the 28th Division 's regiments), holding a continuous front east of the Our, kept German troops from seizing and using the Our River bridges around Ouren for two days, before withdrawing progressively westwards.
The 109th and 110th Regiments of the 28th Division fared worse, as they were spread so thinly that their positions were easily bypassed. Both offered stubborn resistance in the face of superior forces and threw the German schedule off by several days. The 110th 's situation was by far the worst, as it was responsible for an 18 - kilometre (11 mi) front while its 2nd Battalion was withheld as the divisional reserve. Panzer columns took the outlying villages and widely separated strong points in bitter fighting, and advanced to points near Bastogne within four days. The struggle for the villages and American strong points, plus transport confusion on the German side, slowed the attack sufficiently to allow the 101st Airborne Division (reinforced by elements from the 9th and 10th Armored Divisions) to reach Bastogne by truck on the morning of 19 December. The fierce defense of Bastogne, in which American paratroopers particularly distinguished themselves, made it impossible for the Germans to take the town with its important road junctions. The panzer columns swung past on either side, cutting off Bastogne on 20 December but failing to secure the vital crossroads.
In the extreme south, Brandenberger 's three infantry divisions were checked by divisions of the U.S. VIII Corps after an advance of 6.4 km (4 mi); that front was then firmly held. Only the 5th Parachute Division of Brandenberger 's command was able to thrust forward 19 km (12 mi) on the inner flank to partially fulfill its assigned role. Eisenhower and his principal commanders realized by 17 December that the fighting in the Ardennes was a major offensive and not a local counterattack, and they ordered vast reinforcements to the area. Within a week 250,000 troops had been sent. General Gavin of the 82nd Airborne Division arrived on the scene first and ordered the 101st to hold Bastogne while the 82nd would take the more difficult task of facing the SS Panzer Divisions; it was also thrown into the battle north of the bulge, near Elsenborn Ridge.
By the time the senior Allied commanders met in a bunker in Verdun on 19 December, the town of Bastogne and its network of 11 hard - topped roads leading through the widely forested mountainous terrain with deep river valleys and boggy mud of the Ardennes region were to have been in German hands for several days. By the time of that meeting, two separate westbound German columns that were to have bypassed the town to the south and north, the 2nd Panzer Division and Panzer - Lehr - Division of XLVII Panzer Corps, as well as the Corps ' infantry (26th Volksgrenadier Division), coming due west had been engaged and much slowed and frustrated in outlying battles at defensive positions up to sixteen kilometres (10 mi) from the town proper -- and were gradually being forced back onto and into the hasty defenses built within the municipality. Moreover, the sole corridor that was open (to the southeast) was threatened and it had been sporadically closed as the front shifted, and there was expectation that it would be completely closed sooner than later, given the strong likelihood that the town would soon be surrounded.
Gen. Eisenhower, realizing that the Allies could destroy German forces much more easily when they were out in the open and on the offensive than if they were on the defensive, told his generals, "The present situation is to be regarded as one of opportunity for us and not of disaster. There will be only cheerful faces at this table. '' Patton, realizing what Eisenhower implied, responded, "Hell, let 's have the guts to let the bastards go all the way to Paris. Then, we 'll really cut ' em off and chew ' em up. '' Eisenhower, after saying he was not that optimistic, asked Patton how long it would take to turn his Third Army, located in northeastern France, north to counterattack. To the disbelief of the other generals present, Patton replied that he could attack with two divisions within 48 hours. Unknown to the other officers present, before he left Patton had ordered his staff to prepare three contingency plans for a northward turn in at least corps strength. By the time Eisenhower asked him how long it would take, the movement was already underway. On 20 December, Eisenhower removed the First and Ninth U.S. Armies from Gen. Bradley 's 12th Army Group and placed them under Montgomery 's 21st Army Group.
By 21 December the Germans had surrounded Bastogne, which was defended by the 101st Airborne Division, the all African American 969th Artillery Battalion, and Combat Command B of the 10th Armored Division. Conditions inside the perimeter were tough -- most of the medical supplies and medical personnel had been captured. Food was scarce, and by 22 December artillery ammunition was restricted to 10 rounds per gun per day. The weather cleared the next day and supplies (primarily ammunition) were dropped over four of the next five days.
Despite determined German attacks the perimeter held. The German commander, Generalleutnant (Lt. Gen.) Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz, requested Bastogne 's surrender. When Brig. Gen. Anthony McAuliffe, acting commander of the 101st, was told of the Nazi demand to surrender, in frustration he responded, "Nuts! '' After turning to other pressing issues, his staff reminded him that they should reply to the German demand. One officer, Lt. Col. Harry Kinnard, noted that McAuliffe 's initial reply would be "tough to beat. '' Thus McAuliffe wrote on the paper, which was typed up and delivered to the Germans, the line he made famous and a morale booster to his troops: "NUTS! '' That reply had to be explained, both to the Germans and to non-American Allies.
Both 2nd Panzer and Panzer - Lehr division moved forward from Bastogne after 21 December, leaving only Panzer - Lehr division 's 901st Regiment to assist the 26th Volksgrenadier - Division in attempting to capture the crossroads. The 26th VG received one Panzergrenadier Regiment from the 15th Panzergrenadier Division on Christmas Eve for its main assault the next day. Because it lacked sufficient troops and those of the 26th VG Division were near exhaustion, the XLVII Panzerkorps concentrated its assault on several individual locations on the west side of the perimeter in sequence rather than launching one simultaneous attack on all sides. The assault, despite initial success by its tanks in penetrating the American line, was defeated and all the tanks destroyed. On the following day of 26 December the spearhead of Gen. Patton 's 4th Armored Division, supplemented by the 26th (Yankee) Infantry Division, broke through and opened a corridor to Bastogne.
On 23 December the weather conditions started improving, allowing the Allied air forces to attack. They launched devastating bombing raids on the German supply points in their rear, and P - 47 Thunderbolts started attacking the German troops on the roads. Allied air forces also helped the defenders of Bastogne, dropping much - needed supplies -- medicine, food, blankets, and ammunition. A team of volunteer surgeons flew in by military glider and began operating in a tool room.
By 24 December the German advance was effectively stalled short of the Meuse. Units of the British XXX Corps were holding the bridges at Dinant, Givet, and Namur and U.S. units were about to take over. The Germans had outrun their supply lines, and shortages of fuel and ammunition were becoming critical. Up to this point the German losses had been light, notably in armor, with the exception of Peiper 's losses. On the evening of 24 December, General Hasso von Manteuffel recommended to Hitler 's Military Adjutant a halt to all offensive operations and a withdrawal back to the Westwall (literally Western Rampart). Hitler rejected this.
Disagreement and confusion at the Allied command prevented a strong response, throwing away the opportunity for a decisive action. In the center, on Christmas Eve, the 2nd Armored Division attempted to attack and cut off the spearheads of the 2nd Panzer Division at the Meuse, while the units from the 4th Cavalry Group kept the 9th Panzer Division at Marche busy. As result, parts of the 2nd Panzer Division were cut off. The Panzer - Lehr division tried to relieve them, but was only partially successful, as the perimeter held. For the next two days the perimeter was strengthened. On 26 and 27 December the trapped units of 2nd Panzer Division made two break - out attempts, again only with partial success, as major quantities of equipment fell into Allied hands. Further Allied pressure out of Marche finally led the German command to the conclusion that no further offensive action towards the Meuse was possible.
In the south, Patton 's Third Army was battling to relieve Bastogne. At 16: 50 on 26 December, the lead element, Company D, 37th Tank Battalion of the 4th Armored Division, reached Bastogne, ending the siege.
On 1 January, in an attempt to keep the offensive going, the Germans launched two new operations. At 09: 15, the Luftwaffe launched Unternehmen Bodenplatte (Operation Baseplate), a major campaign against Allied airfields in the Low Countries, which are nowadays called the Benelux States. Hundreds of planes attacked Allied airfields, destroying or severely damaging some 465 aircraft. The Luftwaffe lost 277 planes, 62 to Allied fighters and 172 mostly because of an unexpectedly high number of Allied flak guns, set up to protect against German V - 1 flying bomb / missile attacks and using proximity fused shells, but also by friendly fire from the German flak guns that were uninformed of the pending large - scale German air operation. The Germans suffered heavy losses at an airfield named Y - 29, losing 40 of their own planes while damaging only four American planes. While the Allies recovered from their losses within days, the operation left the Luftwaffe ineffective for the remainder of the war.
On the same day, German Army Group G (Heeresgruppe G) and Army Group Upper Rhine (Heeresgruppe Oberrhein) launched a major offensive against the thinly - stretched, 110 kilometres (70 mi) line of the Seventh U.S. Army. This offensive, known as Unternehmen Nordwind (Operation North Wind), was the last major German offensive of the war on the Western Front. The weakened Seventh Army had, at Eisenhower 's orders, sent troops, equipment, and supplies north to reinforce the American armies in the Ardennes, and the offensive left it in dire straits.
By 15 January Seventh Army 's VI Corps was fighting on three sides in Alsace. With casualties mounting, and running short on replacements, tanks, ammunition, and supplies, Seventh Army was forced to withdraw to defensive positions on the south bank of the Moder River on 21 January. The German offensive drew to a close on 25 January. In the bitter, desperate fighting of Operation Nordwind, VI Corps, which had borne the brunt of the fighting, suffered a total of 14,716 casualties. The total for Seventh Army for January was 11,609. Total casualties included at least 9,000 wounded. First, Third, and Seventh Armies suffered a total of 17,000 hospitalized from the cold.
While the German offensive had ground to a halt, they still controlled a dangerous salient in the Allied line. Patton 's Third Army in the south, centered around Bastogne, would attack north, Montgomery 's forces in the north would strike south, and the two forces planned to meet at Houffalize.
The temperature during January 1945 was extremely low. Weapons had to be maintained and truck engines run every half - hour to prevent their oil from congealing. The offensive went forward regardless.
Eisenhower wanted Montgomery to go on the counter offensive on 1 January, with the aim of meeting up with Patton 's advancing Third Army and cutting off most of the attacking Germans, trapping them in a pocket. Montgomery, refusing to risk underprepared infantry in a snowstorm for a strategically unimportant area, did not launch the attack until 3 January, by which time substantial numbers of German troops had already managed to fall back successfully, but at the cost of losing most of their heavy equipment.
At the start of the offensive, the First and Third U.S. Armies were separated by about 40 km (25 mi). American progress in the south was also restricted to about a kilometer a day. On 2 January, the Tiger IIs of German Heavy Tank Battalion 506 supported an attack by the 12th SS Hitlerjugend division against U.S. positions near Wardin and knocked out 15 Sherman tanks. The majority of the German force executed a successful fighting withdrawal and escaped the battle area, although the fuel situation had become so dire that most of the German armor had to be abandoned. On 7 January 1945 Hitler agreed to withdraw all forces from the Ardennes, including the SS - Panzer divisions, thus ending all offensive operations. Considerable fighting went on for another 3 weeks; St. Vith was recaptured by the Americans on 23 January, and the last German units participating in the offensive did not return to their start line until 25 January.
Winston Churchill, addressing the House of Commons following the Battle of the Bulge said, "This is undoubtedly the greatest American battle of the war and will, I believe, be regarded as an ever - famous American victory. ''
The plan and timing for the Ardennes attack sprang from the mind of Adolf Hitler. He believed a critical fault line existed between the British and American military commands, and that a heavy blow on the Western Front would shatter this alliance. Planning for the "Watch on the Rhine '' offensive emphasized secrecy and the commitment of overwhelming force. Due to the use of landline communications within Germany, motorized runners carrying orders, and draconian threats from Hitler, the timing and mass of the attack was not detected by ULTRA codebreakers and achieved complete surprise.
Hitler when selecting leadership for the attack, felt that the implementation of this decisive blow should be entrusted to his own Nazi Party army, the Waffen - SS. Ever since German regular Army officers attempted to assassinate him, he had increasingly trusted only the SS and its armed branch, the Waffen - SS. After the invasion of Normandy, the SS armored units had suffered significant leadership casualties. These losses included SS - Gruppenführer (Major General) Kurt Meyer, commander of the 12th SS Panzer (Armor) Division, captured by Belgian partisans on 6 September 1944. The tactical efficiency of these units were somewhat reduced. The strong right flank of the assault was therefore composed mostly of SS Divisions under the command of "Sepp '' (Joseph) Dietrich, a fanatical political disciple of Hitler, and a loyal follower from the early days of the rise of National Socialism in Germany. The leadership composition of the Sixth Panzer Division had a distinctly political nature.
None of the German field commanders entrusted with planning and executing the offensive believed it was possible to capture Antwerp. Even Sepp Dietrich, commanding the strongest arm of the attack, felt that the Ardennes was a poor area for armored warfare, and that the inexperienced and badly equipped Volksgrenadier units would clog the roads that the tanks would need for their rapid advance. In this Dietrich was proved correct. The horse drawn artillery and rocket units were a significant obstacle to the tanks. Other than making futile objections to Hitler in private, he generally stayed out of the planning for the offensive. Model and Manteuffel, the technical experts from the eastern front, took the view that a limited offensive with the goal of surrounding and crushing the American 1st Army would be the best the offensive could hope for. These revisions shared the same fate as Dietrich 's objections. In the end, the headlong drive on Elsenborn Ridge would not benefit from support from German units that had already bypassed the ridge. The decision to stop the attacks on the twin villages and change the axis of the attacks southward to the hamlet of Domäne Bütgenbach, was also made by Dietrich. This decision played into American hands, as Robertson had already decided to abandon the villages. The staff planning and organization of the attack was well done; most of the units committed to the offensive reached their jump off points undetected and were well organized and supplied for the attack.
One of the fault lines between the British and American high commands was General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's commitment to a broad front advance. This view was opposed by the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Field Marshal Alan Brooke (as well as Field Marshal Montgomery) who promoted a rapid advance on a narrow front, with the other allied armies in reserve.
British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery had differing views of how to approach the German attack with the U.S. command. His ensuing public pronouncements of opinion caused tension in the American high command. Major General Freddie de Guingand, Chief of Staff of Montgomery 's 21st Army Group, rose to the occasion, and personally smoothed over the disagreements on 30 December.
As the Ardennes crisis developed, at 10: 30 a.m. on 20 December, Eisenhower telephoned Montgomery and ordered him to assume command of the American First (Hodges) and Ninth Army (Simpson) -- which, until then, were under Bradley 's overall command. This change in command was ordered because the northern armies had not only lost all communications with Bradley, who was based in Luxembourg City, and the US command structure, but with adjacent units.
Describing the situation as he found it on 20 December, Montgomery wrote;
The First Army was fighting desperately. Having given orders to Dempsey and Crerar, who arrived for a conference at 11 am, I left at noon for the H.Q. of the First Army, where I had instructed Simpson to meet me. I found the northern flank of the bulge was very disorganized. Ninth Army had two corps and three divisions; First Army had three corps and fifteen divisions. Neither Army Commander had seen Bradley or any senior member of his staff since the battle began, and they had no directive on which to work. The first thing to do was to see the battle on the northern flank as one whole, to ensure the vital areas were held securely, and to create reserves for counter-attack. I embarked on these measures: I put British troops under command of the Ninth Army to fight alongside American soldiers, and made that Army take over some of the First Army Front. I positioned British troops as reserves behind the First and Ninth Armies until such time as American reserves could be created. Slowly but surely the situation was held, and then finally restored. Similar action was taken on the southern flank of the bulge by Bradley, with the Third Army.
Due to the news blackout imposed on the 16th, the change of leadership to Montgomery did not become known to the outside world until eventually SHAEF made a public announcement making clear that the change in command was "absolutely nothing to do with failure on the part of the three American generals ''. This resulted in headlines in British newspapers. The story was also covered in Stars and Stripes and for the first time British contribution to the fighting was mentioned.
Montgomery asked Churchill if he could give a conference to the press to explain the situation. Though some of his staff were concerned at the image it would give, the conference had been cleared by Alan Brooke, the CIGS, who was possibly the only person to whom Monty would listen.
On the same day as Hitler 's withdrawal order of 7 January, Montgomery held his press conference at Zonhoven. Montgomery started with giving credit to the "courage and good fighting quality '' of the American troops, characterizing a typical American as a "very brave fighting man who has that tenacity in battle which makes a great soldier '', and went on to talk about the necessity of Allied teamwork, and praised Eisenhower, stating, "Teamwork wins battles and battle victories win wars. On our team, the captain is General Ike. ''
Then Montgomery described the course of the battle for a half - hour. Coming to the end of his speech he said he had "employed the whole available power of the British Group of Armies; this power was brought into play very gradually... Finally it was put into battle with a bang... you thus have the picture of British troops fighting on both sides of the Americans who have suffered a hard blow. '' He stated that he (i.e., the German) was "headed off... seen off... and... written off ''. "The battle has been the most interesting, I think possibly one of the most interesting and tricky battles I have ever handled. ''.
Despite his positive remarks about American soldiers, the overall impression given by Montgomery, at least in the ears of the American military leadership, was that he had taken the lion 's share of credit for the success of the campaign, and had been responsible for rescuing the besieged Americans.
His comments were interpreted as self - promoting, particularly his claiming that when the situation "began to deteriorate, '' Eisenhower had placed him in command in the north. Patton and Eisenhower both felt this was a misrepresentation of the relative share of the fighting played by the British and Americans in the Ardennes (for every British soldier there were thirty to forty Americans in the fight), and that it belittled the part played by Bradley, Patton and other American commanders. In the context of Patton 's and Montgomery 's well - known antipathy, Montgomery 's failure to mention the contribution of any American general beside Eisenhower was seen as insulting. Indeed, General Bradley and his American commanders were already starting their counterattack by the time Montgomery was given command of 1st and 9th U.S. Armies. Focusing exclusively on his own generalship, Montgomery continued to say he thought the counteroffensive had gone very well but did not explain the reason for his delayed attack on 3 January. He later attributed this to needing more time for preparation on the northern front. According to Winston Churchill, the attack from the south under Patton was steady but slow and involved heavy losses, and Montgomery was trying to avoid this situation.
Many American officers had already grown to dislike Montgomery, who was seen by them as an overly cautious commander, arrogant, and all too willing to say uncharitable things about the Americans. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill found it necessary in a speech to Parliament to explicitly state that the Battle of the Bulge was purely an American victory.
Montgomery subsequently recognized his error and later wrote: "Not only was it probably a mistake to have held this conference at all in the sensitive state of feeling at the time, but what I said was skilfully distorted by the enemy. Chester Wilmot explained that his dispatch to the BBC about it was intercepted by the German wireless, re-written to give it an anti-American bias, and then broadcast by Arnhem Radio, which was then in Goebbels ' hands. Monitored at Bradley 's HQ, this broadcast was mistaken for a BBC transmission and it was this twisted text that started the uproar. ''
Montgomery later said, "Distorted or not, I think now that I should never have held that press conference. So great were the feelings against me on the part of the American generals that whatever I said was bound to be wrong. I should therefore have said nothing. '' Eisenhower commented in his own memoirs: "I doubt if Montgomery ever came to realize how resentful some American commanders were. They believed he had belittled them -- and they were not slow to voice reciprocal scorn and contempt. ''
Bradley and Patton both threatened to resign unless Montgomery 's command was changed. Eisenhower, encouraged by his British deputy Arthur Tedder, had decided to sack Montgomery. Intervention by Montgomery 's and Eisenhower 's Chiefs of Staff, Maj. Gen. Freddie de Guingand, and Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell Smith, moved Eisenhower to reconsider and allowed Montgomery to apologize.
The German commander of the 5th Panzer Army, Hasso von Manteuffel said of Montgomery 's leadership:
The operations of the American 1st Army had developed into a series of individual holding actions. Montgomery 's contribution to restoring the situation was that he turned a series of isolated actions into a coherent battle fought according to a clear and definite plan. It was his refusal to engage in premature and piecemeal counter-attacks which enabled the Americans to gather their reserves and frustrate the German attempts to extend their breakthrough.
Casualty estimates for the battle vary widely. According to the U.S. Department of Defense, American forces suffered 89,500 casualties including 19,000 killed, 47,500 wounded and 23,000 missing. An official report by the United States Department of the Army lists 105,102 casualties, including 19,246 killed, 62,489 wounded, and 26,612 captured or missing. A preliminary Army report restricted to the First and Third U.S. Armies listed 75,000 casualties (8,400 killed, 46,000 wounded and 21,000 missing). The Battle of the Bulge was the bloodiest battle for U.S. forces in World War II. British casualties totaled 1,400 with 200 deaths. The German Armed Forces High Command 's official figure for all German losses on the Western Front during the period 16 December 1944 -- 25 January 1945 was 81,834 German casualties, and other estimates range between 60,000 and 125,000. German historian Hermann Jung lists 67,675 casualties from 16 December 1944 to late January 1945 for the three German armies that participated in the offensive. The United States Army Center of Military History 's official numbers are 75,000 American casualties and 100,000 German casualties.
The U.S. Army lost 2,000 armored vehicles destroyed in the Ardennes in 30 days -- 900 Sherman tanks, 300 light tanks, 150 tank destroyers, 450 armored cars and 150 self - propelled guns. U.S. divisions suffered severe losses of armor. The 3rd Armored Division lost 163 tanks in 30 days, of which 125 were Shermans and 38 Stuarts. The 7th Armored Division lost 103 tanks, including 73 Shermans and 31 Stuarts, in 13 days from 17 -- 30 December 1944. The 11th Armored Division lost 86 tanks (54 Shermans and 32 Stuarts) in several weeks of high - intensity combat.
German armored losses to all causes were between 527 and 554, with 324 tanks being lost in combat. Of the German write - offs, 16 -- 20 were Tigers, 191 -- 194 Panthers, 141 -- 158 Panzer IV, 179 -- 182 tank destroyers and assault guns. The Germans lost an additional 5,000 soft - skinned and armored vehicles. German AFV losses were far fewer than the U.S., and German armored units outperformed their U.S. opponents in combat.
Although the Germans managed to begin their offensive with complete surprise and enjoyed some initial successes, they were not able to seize the initiative on the Western front. While the German command did not reach its goals, the Ardennes operation inflicted heavy losses and set back the Allied invasion of Germany by several weeks. The High Command of the Allied forces had planned to resume the offensive by early January 1945, after the wet season rains and severe frosts, but those plans had to be postponed until 29 January 1945 in connection with the unexpected changes in the front.
The Allies pressed their advantage following the battle. By the beginning of February 1945, the lines were roughly where they had been in December 1944. In early February, the Allies launched an attack all along the Western front: in the north under Montgomery toward Aachen; in the center, under Courtney Hodges; and in the south, under Patton. Montgomery 's behavior during the months of December and January, including the press conference on 7 January where he appeared to downplay the contribution of the American generals, further soured his relationship with his American counterparts through to the end of the war.
The German losses in the battle were especially critical: their last reserves were now gone, the Luftwaffe had been shattered, and remaining forces throughout the West were being pushed back to defend the Siegfried Line.
In response to the early success of the offensive, on 6 January Churchill contacted Stalin to request that the Soviets put pressure on the Germans on the Eastern Front. On 12 January, the Soviets began the massive Vistula -- Oder Offensive, originally planned for 20 January. It had been brought forward from 20 January to 12 January because meteorological reports warned of a thaw later in the month, and the tanks needed hard ground for the offensive (and the advance of the Red Army was assisted by two Panzer Armies (5th & 6th) being redeployed for the Ardennes attack).
During World War II, most U.S. black soldiers still served only in maintenance or service positions, or in segregated units. Because of troop shortages during the Battle of the Bulge, Eisenhower decided to integrate the service for the first time. This was an important step toward a desegregated United States military. More than 2,000 black soldiers had volunteered to go to the front. A total of 708 black Americans were killed in combat during World War II.
The battle around Bastogne received a great deal of media attention because in early December 1944 it was a rest and recreation area for many war correspondents. The rapid advance by the German forces who surrounded the town, the spectacular resupply operations via parachute and glider, along with the fast action of General Patton 's Third U.S. Army, all were featured in newspaper articles and on radio and captured the public 's imagination; but there were no correspondents in the area of Saint - Vith, Elsenborn, or Monschau - Höfen. The static, stubborn resistance of troops in the north, who refused to yield their ground in the cold snow and freezing rain despite the heavy German attacks, did not get a casual observer excited. The images of supply troops trying to bring ammunition and cold food, crawling through mud and snow, to front - line troops dug into frozen foxholes around Montjoie, Elseborn and Butgenbach were not exciting news.
After the war ended, the U.S. Army issued battle credit in the form of the Ardennes - Alsace campaign citation to units and individuals that took part in operations in northwest Europe. The citation covered troops in the Ardennes sector where the main battle took place, as well as units further south in the Alsace sector, including those in the northern Alsace who filled in the vacuum created by the U.S. Third Army racing north, engaged in the concurrent Operation Nordwind diversion in central and southern Alsace launched to weaken Allied response in the Ardennes, and provided reinforcements to units fighting in the Ardennes.
The battle has been depicted in numerous works of art, entertainment, and media, including:
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who said go west young man go west | Go West, young man - wikipedia
"Go West, young man '' is a phrase, the origin of which is often credited to the American author and newspaper editor Horace Greeley concerning America 's expansion westward, related to the then - popular concept of Manifest Destiny. No one has yet proven who first used this phrase in print.
In 2010, Timothy Hughes of "Rare & Early Newspapers '' (blog) examined Greeley 's writings and concluded: "Here is the Tribune of that date and I 've scoured through the issue yet never found the quote. The closest I could come is in ' The Homstead Law ' article, page 4 column 4, where he mentioned: '... We earnestly urge upon all such to turn their faces Westward and colonize the public lands... '. (See text image). ''
Some claim it was first stated by John Babsone Lane Soule in an 1851 editorial in the Terre Haute Express, "Go west young man, and grow up with the country ''; and that Greeley later used the quote in his own editorial in 1865. An analysis of this phrase in the 2007 Skagit River Journal concludes: "the primary - source historical record contains not a shred of evidence that Soule had anything to do with the phrase. ''
Greeley favored westward expansion. He saw the fertile farmland of the west as an ideal place for people willing to work hard for the opportunity to succeed. The phrase came to symbolize the idea that agriculture could solve many of the nation 's problems of poverty and unemployment characteristic of the big cities of the East. It is one of the most commonly quoted sayings from the nineteenth century and may have had some influence on the course of American history.
Some sources have claimed the phrase is derived from Greeley 's July 13, 1865 editorial in the New York Tribune, but this text does not appear in that issue of the newspaper. The actual editorial instead encourages American Civil War veterans to take advantage of the Homestead Act and colonize the public lands:
Washington is not a place to live in. The rents are high, the food is bad, the dust is disgusting and the morals are deplorable. Go West, young man, go West and grow up with the country.
The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations gives the full quotation as, "Go West, young man, and grow up with the country '', from Hints toward Reforms (1850) by Horace Greeley, but the phrase does not occur in that book.
Josiah Bushnell Grinnell claimed in his autobiography that Horace Greeley first addressed the advice to him in 1833, before sending him off to Illinois to report on the Illinois Agricultural State Fair. Grinnell reports the full conversation as:
"Go West, young man, go West. There is health in the country, and room away from our crowds of idlers and imbeciles. '' "That, '' I said, "is very frank advice, but it is medicine easier given than taken. It is a wide country, but I do not know just where to go. '' "It is all room away from the pavements. (...) ''
Many people believe Horace Greeley did not coin this phrase at all, but merely popularized it. He may have borrowed it from John B.L. Soule who may have published it in an editorial of his own in an 1851 edition of the Terre Haute Express. However, the phrase does not occur in the 1851 edition of the Terre Haute Express, and the Soule theory may date no earlier than 1890.
Author Ralph Keyes also suggests Soule as the source, offering an account in which the line originated from a bet between Soule and Indiana Congressman Richard W. Thompson over whether or not Soule could trick readers by forging a Greeley article.
Grinnell College historian Joseph Frazier Wall claims that Greeley himself denied providing that advice, and "(spent) the rest of this life vigorously protesting that he had never given this advice to Grinnell or anyone else... ''. In a footnote Wall states
For an account of the true source of "Go West, young man '' and Greeley 's disavowal of being the author of the phrase, see Evans, Bergen Dictionary of Quotations, (New York, Delacourte Press, 1968), p. 745: 2. John L. Selch, Newspaper Librarian of the Indiana State Library, in a letter to William Deminoff, 12 Dec. 1983, confirms that Soule was the source for this statement.
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when did the current name of commonwealth games start | Commonwealth Games - Wikipedia
The Commonwealth Games (known as the British Empire Games from 1930 -- 1950, the British Empire and Commonwealth Games from 1954 -- 1966, and British Commonwealth Games from 1970 -- 1974) is an international multi-sport event involving athletes from the Commonwealth of Nations. The event was first held in 1930, and, with the exception of 1942 and 1946, which were cancelled due to World War II, has taken place every four years since then. The most recent Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland in 2014.
The games are overseen by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF), which also controls the sporting programme and selects the host cities. The games movement consists of international sports federations (IFs), Commonwealth Games Associations (CGAs), and organising committees for each specific Commonwealth Games. There are several rituals and symbols, such as the Commonwealth Games flag and Queen 's Baton, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Over 5,000 athletes compete at the Commonwealth Games in more than 15 different sports and more than 250 events. The first, second, and third - place finishers in each event receive Commonwealth Games medals: gold, silver, and bronze, respectively. Apart from many Olympic sports, the games also include some sports that are played predominantly in Commonwealth countries, such as lawn bowls and netball.
Although there are 52 members of the Commonwealth of Nations, 70 teams participate in the Commonwealth Games, as a number of dependent territories compete under their own flags. The four Home Nations of the United Kingdom -- England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland -- also send separate teams.
Nine nations have hosted the Commonwealth Games. 18 cities in seven countries have hosted the event. Australia has hosted four Commonwealth Games (1938, 1962, 1982, 2006) and will host for the fifth time in 2018. Canada has hosted four Commonwealth Games (1930, 1954, 1978, 1994). Two cities have hosted Commonwealth Games more than one time: Auckland (1950, 1990) and Edinburgh (1970, 1986).
Only six countries have attended every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland, and Wales. Australia has been the highest achieving team for twelve games, England for seven, and Canada for one.
A sporting competition bringing together the members of the British Empire was first proposed by John Astley Cooper in 1891, when he wrote an article in The Times suggesting a "Pan-Britannic - Pan-Anglican Contest and Festival every four years as a means of increasing goodwill and good understanding of the British Empire ''. The John Astley Cooper Committees worldwide (e.g. Australia) helped Pierre de Coubertin to get his international Olympic Games off the ground. In 1911, the Festival of the Empire was held at The Crystal Palace in London to celebrate the coronation of George V. As part of the Festival of the Empire, an Inter-Empire Championships was held in which teams from Australasia, Canada, South Africa, and the United Kingdom competed in athletics, boxing, wrestling and swimming events.
The 1930 British Empire Games were the first of what later become known as the Commonwealth Games, and were held in Hamilton, in the province of Ontario in Canada from August 16 -- 23, 1930. In 1928, Melville Marks Robinson of Canada was asked to organise the first British Empire Games. Eleven countries sent a total of 400 athletes to the Hamilton Games. The opening and closing ceremonies as well as athletics took place at Civic Stadium. The participant nations were Australia, Bermuda, British Guyana, Canada, England, Northern Ireland, Newfoundland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. The Hamilton Games featured six sports: athletics, boxing, lawn bowls, rowing, swimming and diving and wrestling and ran at a cost of $97,973. Women competed in only the aquatic events. Canadian triple jumper Gordon Smallacombe won the first ever gold medal in the history of the Games.
The 1934 British Empire Games were the second of what is now known as the Commonwealth Games, held in London, England. The host city was London, with the main venue at Wembley Park, although the track cycling events were in Manchester. The 1934 Games had originally been awarded to Johannesburg, but were given to London instead because of the potential for prejudiced treatment of black and Asian athletes in South Africa. Seventeen national teams took part, including the Irish Free State (the only Games in which they did take part) and new participants Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Southern Rhodesia and Trinidad and Tobago.
The 1938 British Empire Games was the third British Empire Games, which were held in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. They were timed to coincide with Sydney 's sesqui - centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia). Held in the southern hemisphere for the first time, the III Games opening ceremony took place at the famed Sydney Cricket Ground in front of 40,000 spectators. Fifteen nations participated down under at the Sydney Games involving a total of 464 athletes and 43 officials. Fiji and Ceylon made their debuts. Seven sports were featured in the Sydney Games -- athletics, boxing, cycling, lawn bowls, rowing, swimming and diving and wrestling.
The 1950 British Empire Games was the fourth edition and was held in Auckland, New Zealand after a 12 - year gap from the 3rd edition of the games. The fourth games were originally awarded to Montreal, Canada and were to be held in 1942 but were cancelled due to World War II. The opening ceremony at Eden Park was attended by 40,000 spectators, whilst nearly 250,000 people attended the Auckland Games. Twelve countries sent a total of 590 athletes to Auckland. Malaya and Nigeria made their first appearances.
The 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games which were fifth edition, were held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. These were the first games since the name change from British Empire Games took effect in 1952. The 5th edition of the Games placed Vancouver on a world stage and featured memorable sporting moments as well as outstanding entertainment, technical innovation and cultural events. The ' Miracle Mile ', as it became known, saw both the gold medallist, Roger Bannister of England and silver medallist John Landy of Australia, run sub-four minute races in an event that was televised live across the world for the first time. Northern Rhodesia and Pakistan made their debuts and both performed well, winning eight and six medals respectively.
The 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Cardiff, Wales. The sixth edition of the games marked the largest sporting event ever held in Wales and it was the smallest country ever to host a British Empire and Commonwealth Games. Cardiff had to wait 12 years longer than originally scheduled to become host of the Games, as the 1946 event was cancelled because of World War II. The Cardiff Games introduced the Queen 's Baton Relay, which has been conducted as a prelude to every British Empire and Commonwealth Games ever since. Thirty - five nations sent a total of 1,122 athletes and 228 officials to the Cardiff Games and 23 countries and dependencies won medals, including for the first time, Singapore, Ghana, Kenya and the Isle of Man.
The 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Perth, Western Australia, Australia. Thirty - five countries sent a total of 863 athletes and 178 officials to Perth. Jersey was amongst the medal winners for the first time, whilst British Honduras, Dominica, Papua and New Guinea and St Lucia all made their inaugural Games appearances. Aden also competed by special invitation. Sarawak, North Borneo and Malaya competed for the last time before taking part in 1966 under the Malaysian flag. In addition, Rhodesia and Nyasaland competed in the Games as an entity for the first and only time.
The 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games were held in Kingston, Jamaica. This was the first time that the Games had been held outside the so - called White Dominions. Thirty - four nations (including South Arabia) competed in the Kingston Games sending a total of 1,316 athletes and officials.
The 1970 British Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland. This was the first time the name British Commonwealth Games was adopted, the first time metric units rather than imperial units were used in events, the first time the games were held in Scotland and also the first time that HM Queen Elizabeth II attended in her capacity as Head of the Commonwealth.
The 1974 British Commonwealth Games were held in Christchurch, New Zealand. The Games were officially named "the friendly games ''. Following the massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympics, the tenth games at Christchurch was the first multi-sport event to place the safety of participants and spectators as its uppermost requirement. Security guards surrounded the athlete 's village and there was an exceptionally high - profile police presence. Only 22 countries succeeded in winning medals from the total haul of 374 medals on offer, but first time winners included Western Samoa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
The 1978 Commonwealth Games were held in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. These games was the first to bear the current day name of the Commonwealth Games and also marked a new high as almost 1,500 athletes from 46 countries took part. They were boycotted by Nigeria, in protest of New Zealand 's sporting contacts with apartheid - era South Africa, as well as by Uganda, in protest of alleged Canadian hostility towards the government of Idi Amin.
The 1982 Commonwealth Games were held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Forty - six nations participated in the Brisbane Games with a new record total of 1,583 athletes and 571 officials. As hosts, Australia headed the medal table leading the way ahead of England, Canada, Scotland and New Zealand respectively. Zimbabwe made its first appearance at the Games, having earlier competed as Southern Rhodesia and as part of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
The 1986 Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland and were the second Games to be held in Edinburgh. Participation at the 1986 Games was affected by a boycott by 32 African, Asian and Caribbean nations in protest of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher 's refusal to condemn sporting contacts of Apartheid era South Africa in 1985, but the Games rebounded and continued to grow thereafter. Twenty - six nations did attend the second Edinburgh Games and sent a total of 1,662 athletes and 461 officials.
The 1990 Commonwealth Games were held in Auckland, New Zealand. It was the fourteenth Commonwealth Games, the third to be hosted by New Zealand and Auckland 's second. A new record of 55 nations participated in the second Auckland Games sending 2,826 athletes and officials. Pakistan returned to the Commonwealth in 1989 after withdrawing in 1972, and competed in the 1990 Games after an absence of twenty years.
The 1994 Commonwealth Games were held in Victoria, in the province of British Columbia in Canada for the fourth time. The games marked South Africa 's return to the Commonwealth Games following the apartheid era, and over 30 years since the country last competed in the Games in 1958. Namibia made its Games debut. It was also Hong Kong 's last appearance at the games before the transfer of sovereignty from Britain to China. Sixty - three nations sent 2,557 athletes and 914 officials.
The 1998 Commonwealth Games were held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. For the first time in its 68 - year history, the Commonwealth Games were held in Asia. The sixteenth games were also the first Games to feature team sports - an overwhelming success that added large numbers to both participant and TV audience numbers. A new record of 70 countries sent a total of 5,065 athletes and officials to the Kuala Lumpur Games. The top five countries in the medal standing were Australia, England, Canada, Malaysia and South Africa. Nauru also achieved an impressive haul of three gold medals. Cameroon, Mozambique and Kiribati debuted.
The 2002 Commonwealth Games were held in Manchester, England. The 2002 Games were to be hosted in England to coincide with the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II, head of the Commonwealth. In terms of sports and events, the 2002 Games were until the 2010 edition the largest Commonwealth Games in history featuring 281 events across 17 sports. The final medal tally was led by Australia, followed by host England and Canada. The 2002 Commonwealth Games set a new benchmark for hosting the Commonwealth Games and for cities wishing to bid for them with a heavy emphasis on legacy.
The 2006 Commonwealth Games were held in Melbourne, Australia. The only difference between the 2006 games and the 2002 games was the absence of Zimbabwe, which withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations. For the first time in the history of the Games the Queen 's Baton visited every single Commonwealth nation and territory taking part in the Games, a journey of 180,000 km (112,500 miles). Over 4000 athletes took part in the sporting competitions. The final medal tally was led by the host Australia, followed by England and Canada.
The 2010 Commonwealth Games were held in Delhi, India. The Games cost $11 billion and are the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever. It was the first time that the Commonwealth Games were held in India and the second time they were held in Asia after Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 1998. A total of 6,081 athletes from 71 Commonwealth nations and dependencies competed in 21 sports and 272 events. The final medal tally was led by Australia. The host nation India achieved its best performance ever in any sporting event, finishing second overall. Rwanda made its Games debut.
The 2014 Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland. It was the largest multi-sport event ever held in Scotland with around 4,950 athletes from 71 different nations and territories competing in 18 different sports, outranking the 1970 and 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, capital city of Scotland. Usain Bolt competed in the 4 × 100 metres relay of the 2014 Commonwealth Games and set a Commonwealth Games record with his teammates. The Games received acclaim for their organisation, attendance, and the public enthusiasm of the people of Scotland, with Commonwealth Games Federation chief executive Mike Hooper hailing them as "the standout games in the history of the movement ''.
The 2018 Commonwealth Games will be held in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia and the host nation will be going to host the games for the fifth time. There will be an equal number of events for men and women. This marks the first time in history that a major multi-sport event will have equality in terms of events.
The three nations to have hosted the Commonwealth Games the most times are Australia (5), Canada (4) and New Zealand (3). Furthermore, six editions have taken place in the countries within the United Kingdom (Scotland (3), England (2) and Wales (1)), twice in Asia (Malaysia (1) and India (1)) and once in the Caribbean (Jamaica (1)).
The Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were an international, multi-sport event involving athletes with a disability from the Commonwealth countries. The event was sometimes referred to as the Paraplegic Empire Games and British Commonwealth Paraplegic Games. Athletes were generally those with spinal injuries or polio. The event was first held in 1962 and disestablished in 1974. The Games were held in the country hosting the Commonwealth Games for able - bodied athletes. The countries that had hosted the Commonwealth Paraplegic Games were Australia, Jamaica, Scotland and New Zealand in 1962, 1966, 1970 and 1974 respectively. Six countries -- Australia, England, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales -- had been represented at all Commonwealth Paraplegic Games. Australia and England had been the top - ranking nation two times each: 1962, 1974 and 1966, 1970 respectively.
Athletes with a disability were then first included in exhibition events at the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia, and, at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England, they were included as full members of their national teams, making them the first fully inclusive international multi-sport games. This meant that results were included in the medal count.
During the 2007 General Assembly of the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) at Colombo, Sri Lanka, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and CGF signed a co-operative agreement to ensure a formal institutional relationship between the two bodies and secure the future participation of elite athletes with a disability (EAD) in future Commonwealth Games.
IPC President Philip Craven said during the General Assembly:
The co-operation agreement outlined the strong partnership between the IPC and the CGF. It recognized the IPC as the organization for overseeing the co-ordination and delivery of the Commonwealth Games EAD sports programme and committed both organizations to work together in supporting the growth of the Paralympic and Commonwealth Games Movements.
The Commonwealth Winter Games was a multi-sport event comprising winter sports, last held in 1966. Three editions of the Games have been staged. The Winter Games were designed as a counterbalance to the Commonwealth Games, which focuses on summer sports, to accompany the Winter Olympics and Summer Olympic Games. The winter Games were founded by T.D. Richardson. The 1958 Commonwealth Winter Games were held in St. Moritz, Switzerland and was the inaugural games for the winter edition. The 1962 Games were also held in St. Moritz, complementing the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Australia, and the 1966 event was held in St. Moritz as well, following which the idea was discontinued.
The Commonwealth Youth Games is an international multi-sport event organized by the Commonwealth Games Federation. The games are held every four years with the current Commonwealth Games format. The Commonwealth Games Federation discussed the idea of a Millennium Commonwealth Youth Games in 1997. In 1998 the concept was agreed on for the purpose of providing a Commonwealth multi-sport event for young people born in the calendar year 1986 or later. The first version was held in Edinburgh, Scotland from 10 to 14 August 2000. The age limitation of the athletes is 14 to 18.
The Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) is the international organisation responsible for the direction and control of the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games, and is the foremost authority in matters relating to the games. The headquarters of CGF are located in London, England, United Kingdom.
The Commonwealth Games Movement is made of three major elements:
English is the official language of the Commonwealth. The other language used at each Commonwealth Games is the language of the host country (or languages, if a country has more than one official language apart from English). Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these two (or more) languages, or the main depending on whether the host country is an English speaking country.
The Queen 's Baton Relay, is a relay around the world held prior to the beginning of the Commonwealth Games. The Baton carries a message from the Head of the Commonwealth, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Relay traditionally begins at Buckingham Palace in London as a part of the city 's Commonwealth Day festivities. The Queen entrusts the baton to the first relay runner. At the Opening Ceremony of the Games, the final relay runner hands the baton back to the Queen or her representative, who reads the message aloud to officially open the Games. The Queen 's Baton Relay is similar to the Olympic Torch Relay.
The Relay was introduced at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff, Wales. Up until, and including, the 1994 Games, the Relay only went through England and the host nation. The Relay for the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia was the first to travel to other nations of the Commonwealth. The Gold Coast 2018 Queen 's Baton Relay is set to be the longest in Commonwealth Games history. Covering 230,000 km over 388 days, the Baton will make its way through the six Commonwealth regions of Africa, the Americas, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia and Oceania. For the first time, the Queen 's baton was presented at the Commonwealth Youth Games during its sixth edition in 2017 which were held in Nassau, Bahamas.
Various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Commonwealth Games. This ceremony takes place before the events have occurred. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The flag of the Commonwealth Games Federation, flag of the last hosting nation and the next hosting nation are also hosted during the opening ceremony. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance and theatre representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor 's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Delhi Games reportedly cost $70 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment.
After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. The last hosting nation is traditionally the first nation to enter. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetical or continental wise with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Queen 's Baton is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final baton carrier, often a successful Commonwealth athlete from the host nation, who hands it over to the Head of the Commonwealth.
The closing ceremony of the Commonwealth Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag - bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. The president of the organizing committee and the CGF president make their closing speeches and the Games are officially closed. The CGF president also speaks about the conduct of the games. The mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers the CGF flag to the president of the CGF, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Commonwealth Games. The next host nation then also briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture. Many great artists and singers had performed at the ceremonies of the Commonwealth Games.
At the Closing Ceremony of every Commonwealth Games the CGF President makes an award and presents a trophy to one athlete who has competed with particular distinction and honour both in terms of athletic performance and overall contribution to his or her team. Athletes are nominated by their Commonwealth Games Association at the end of the final day of competition and the winner is selected by a panel comprising the CGF President and representatives from each of the six Commonwealth Regions. The ' David Dixon Award ' as it is called was introduced in Manchester 2002, after the late David Dixon, former Honorary Secretary of the CGF, in honour of his monumental contribution to Commonwealth sport for many years.
A medal ceremony is held after each event is concluded. The winner, second and third - place competitors or teams stand on top of a three - tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by a CGF member, the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallist 's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag - bearers.
Note: The 1911 Inter-Empire Championships held in London is seen as a precursor to the modern Commonwealth Games, but is not normally considered an official edition of the Games themselves.
There are a total of 22 sports (with three multi-disciplinary sports) and a further seven para-sports which are approved by the Commonwealth Games Federation. Core sports must be included on each programme. A number of optional sports may be picked by the host nation, which may include some team sports such as basketball.
Recognised sports are sports which have been approved by the Commonwealth Games Federation but which are deemed to need expansion; host nations may not pick these sports for their programme until the Federation 's requirements are fulfilled.
Only six teams have attended every Commonwealth Games: Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland and Wales. Australia has been the highest scoring team for twelve games, England for seven and Canada for one.
Participated Withdrew for political reason Not eligible to participate To be determined
Very few Commonwealth dependencies and nations have yet to take part:
The 1934 British Empire Games, originally awarded in 1930 to Johannesburg was moved to London after South Africa 's pre-apartheid government refused to allow nonwhite participants.
Nigeria boycotted the 1978 Commonwealth Games at Edmonton in protest of New Zealand 's sporting contacts with apartheid - era South Africa. Uganda also stayed away, in protest of alleged Canadian hostility towards the government of Idi Amin.
During the 1986 Commonwealth Games at Edinburgh, a majority of the Commonwealth nations staged a boycott, so that the Games appeared to be a whites - only event. Thirty two of the eligible fifty nine countries -- largely African, Asian and Caribbean states -- stayed away because of the Thatcher government 's policy of keeping Britain 's sporting links with apartheid South Africa in preference to participating in the general sporting boycott of that country. Consequently, Edinburgh 1986 witnessed the lowest number of athletes since Auckland 1950. The boycotting nations were Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Belize, Cyprus, Dominica, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, Grenada, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Sierra Leone, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Tanzania, Turks and Caicos Islands, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Bermuda was a particularly late withdrawal, as its athletes appeared in the opening ceremony and in the opening day of competition before the Bermuda Olympic Association decided to formally withdraw.
For hosting the 2010 Commonwealth Games at Delhi, the initial total budget estimated by the Indian Olympic Association in 2003 was ₹ 16.2 billion (US $250 million). In 2010, however, the official total budget soon escalated to an estimated ₹ 115 billion (US $1.8 billion), a figure which excluded non-sports - related infrastructure development. Business Today magazine estimated that the Games cost ₹ 700 billion (US $11 billion). The 2010 Commonwealth Games are reportedly the most expensive Commonwealth Games ever. Indian Businessman Azim Premji called the 2010 Commonwealth Games a "drain on public funds '' and said that hosting the high - expense Games in India is not justified given that the country had more important priorities facing it, such as education, infrastructure and public health.
Lawn bowler Willie Wood from Scotland was the first competitor to have competed in seven Commonwealth Games, from 1974 to 2002, a record equalled in 2014 by Isle of Man cyclist Andrew Roche.
Greg Yelavich, a sports shooter from New Zealand, has won 12 medals in seven games from 1986 to 2010.
Lawn Bowler Robert Weale has represented Wales in 8 Commonwealth Games, 1986 -- 2014, winning 2 gold, 3 silver and 1 bronze. He is also aiming for the selection for 9th Games in 2018.
Nauruan weightlifter Marcus Stephen won twelve medals at the Games between 1990 and 2002, of which seven gold, and was elected President of Nauru in 2007. His performance has helped place Nauru (the smallest independent state in the Commonwealth, at 21 km and with a population of fewer than 9,400 in 2011) in nineteenth place on the all - time Commonwealth Games medal table.
Ian Thorpe, Australian swimmer (now retired), has won 10 Commonwealth Games gold medals and 1 silver medal. At the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, he won 4 gold medals. At the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, he won 6 gold medals and 1 silver medal.
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where does the hydrogen fuel come from to cause a white dwarf to nova or supernova | Nova - wikipedia
A nova (plural novae or novas) or classical nova (CN or plural CNe) is a transient astronomical event that causes the sudden appearance of a bright, apparently "new '' star, that slowly fades over several weeks or many months. Novae involve an interaction between two stars that cause the flareup that is perceived as a new entity that is much brighter than the stars involved.
Causes of the dramatic appearance of a nova vary, depending on the circumstances of the two progenitor stars. All observed novae involve closely located binary stars (the progenitors), either a pair of red dwarfs in the process of merging, or a white dwarf and another star.
The main sub-classes of novae are classical novae, recurrent novae (RNe), and dwarf novae. They are all considered to be cataclysmic variable stars. Luminous red novae share the name and are also cataclysmic variables, but are a different type of event caused by a stellar merger. Also with similar names are the much more energetic supernovae (SNe) and kilonovae.
Classical nova eruptions are the most common type of nova. They are likely created in a close binary star system consisting of a white dwarf and either a main sequence, sub-giant, or red giant star. When the orbital period falls in the range of several days to one day, the white dwarf is close enough to its companion star to start drawing accreted matter onto the surface of the white dwarf, which creates a dense but shallow atmosphere. This atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and is thermally heated by the hot white dwarf, which eventually reaches a critical temperature causing rapid runaway ignition by fusion.
From the dramatic and sudden energies created, the now hydrogen - burnt atmosphere is then dramatically expelled into interstellar space, and its brightened envelope is seen as the visible light created from the nova event, and previously was mistaken as a "new '' star. A few novae produce short - lived nova remnants, lasting for perhaps several centuries. Recurrent nova processes are the same as the classical nova, except that the fusion ignition may be repetitive because the companion star can again feed the dense atmosphere of the white dwarf.
Novae most often occur in the sky along the path of the Milky Way, especially near the observed galactic centre in Sagittarius; however, they can appear anywhere in the sky. They occur far more frequently than galactic supernovae, averaging about ten per year. Most are found telescopically, perhaps only one every year to eighteen months reaching naked - eye visibility. Novae reaching first or second magnitude occur only several times per century. The last bright nova was V1369 Centauri reaching 3.3 magnitude on 14 December 2013.
During the sixteenth century, astronomer Tycho Brahe observed the supernova SN 1572 in the constellation Cassiopeia. He described it in his book De nova stella (Latin for "concerning the new star ''), giving rise to the adoption of the name nova. In this work he argued that a nearby object should be seen to move relative to the fixed stars, and that the nova had to be very far away. Although this event was a supernova and not a nova, the terms were considered interchangeable until the 1930s. After this, novae were classified as classical novae to distinguish them from supernovae, as their causes and energies were thought to be different, based solely in the observational evidence.
Ironically, despite the term "stellar nova '' meaning "new star '', novae most often take place as a result of white dwarfs: remnants of extremely old stars.
Evolution of potential novae begins with two main sequence stars in a binary system. One of the two evolves into a red giant, leaving its remnant white dwarf core in orbit with the remaining star. The second star -- which may be either a main sequence star or an aging giant -- begins to shed its envelope onto its white dwarf companion when it overflows its Roche lobe. As a result, the white dwarf steadily captures matter from the companion 's outer atmosphere in an accretion disk, and in turn, the accreted matter falls into the atmosphere. As the white dwarf consists of degenerate matter, the accreted hydrogen does not inflate, but its temperature increases. Runaway fusion occurs when the temperature of this atmospheric layer reaches ~ 20 million K, initiating nuclear burning, via the CNO cycle.
Hydrogen fusion may occur in a stable manner on the surface of the white dwarf for a narrow range of accretion rates, giving rise to a super soft X-ray source, but for most binary system parameters, the hydrogen burning is unstable thermally and rapidly converts a large amount of the hydrogen into other, heavier chemical elements in a runaway reaction, liberating an enormous amount of energy. This blows the remaining gases away from the surface of the white dwarf surface and produces an extremely bright outburst of light.
The rise to peak brightness may be very rapid, or gradual. This is related to the speed class of the nova; yet after the peak, the brightness declines steadily. The time taken for a nova to decay by around 2 or 3 magnitudes from maximum optical brightness is used for classification, via its speed class. Fast novae typically will take fewer than 25 days to decay by 2 magnitudes, while slow novae will take more than 80 days.
In spite of their violence, usually the amount of material ejected in novae is only about ⁄ of a solar mass, quite small relative to the mass of the white dwarf. Furthermore, only five percent of the accreted mass is fused during the power outburst. Nonetheless, this is enough energy to accelerate nova ejecta to velocities as high as several thousand kilometers per second -- higher for fast novae than slow ones -- with a concurrent rise in luminosity from a few times solar to 50,000 -- 100,000 times solar. In 2010 scientists using NASA 's Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope discovered that a nova also can emit gamma - rays (> 100 MeV).
Potentially, a white dwarf can generate multiple novae over time as additional hydrogen continues to accrete onto its surface from its companion star. An example is RS Ophiuchi, which is known to have flared six times (in 1898, 1933, 1958, 1967, 1985, and 2006). Eventually, the white dwarf could explode as a Type Ia supernova if it approaches the Chandrasekhar limit.
Occasionally, novae are bright enough and close enough to Earth to be conspicuous to the unaided eye. The brightest recent example was Nova Cygni 1975. This nova appeared on 29 August 1975, in the constellation Cygnus about five degrees north of Deneb, and reached magnitude 2.0 (nearly as bright as Deneb). The most recent were V1280 Scorpii, which reached magnitude 3.7 on 17 February 2007, and Nova Delphini 2013. Nova Centauri 2013 was discovered 2 December 2013 and so far, is the brightest nova of this millennium, reaching magnitude 3.3.
A helium nova (undergoing a helium flash) is a proposed category of nova events that lacks hydrogen lines in its spectrum. This may be caused by the explosion of a helium shell on a white dwarf. The theory was first proposed in 1989, and the first candidate helium nova to be observed was V445 Puppis in 2000. Since then, four other novae have been proposed as helium novae.
Astronomers estimate that the Milky Way experiences roughly 30 to 60 novae per year, but a recent examination has found the likely improved rate of about 50 ± 27. The number of novae discovered in the Milky Way each year is much lower, about 10, which likely, is explained by gas and dust absorption by the Milky Way, that is obscuring distant novae. Roughly 25 novae brighter than about the twentieth magnitude are discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy each year and smaller numbers are seen in other nearby galaxies.
Spectroscopic observation of nova ejecta nebulae has shown that they are enriched in elements such as helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, and magnesium. The contribution of novae to the interstellar medium is not great; novae supply only ⁄ as much material to the Galaxy as do supernovae, and only ⁄ as much as red giant and supergiant stars.
Recurrent novae such as RS Ophiuchi (those with periods on the order of decades), are rare. Astronomers theorize, however, that most, if not all, novae are recurrent, albeit on time scales ranging from 1,000 to 100,000 years. The recurrence interval for a nova is less dependent on the accretion rate of the white dwarf, than on its mass; with their powerful gravity, massive white dwarfs require less accretion to fuel an outburst than lower - mass ones. Consequently, the interval is shorter for high - mass white dwarfs.
Novae are classified according to the light curve development speed, so in
Novae have some promise for use as standard candle measurements of distances. For instance, the distribution of their absolute magnitude is bimodal, with a main peak at magnitude − 8.8, and a lesser one at − 7.5. Novae also have roughly the same absolute magnitude 15 days after their peak (− 5.5). Comparisons of nova - based distance estimates to various nearby galaxies and galaxy clusters with those measured with Cepheid variable stars, have shown them to be of comparable accuracy.
More than 53 novae have been registered since 1890.
Recurrent novae (RNe) are objects that have been seen to experience multiple nova eruptions. There are ten known galactic recurrent novae. The recurrent nova typically brightens by about 8.6 magnitude, whereas a classic nova brightens by more than 12 magnitude. The ten known recurrent novae are listed below.
Novae are relatively common in the Andromeda galaxy (M31). Approximately several dozen novae (brighter than about apparent magnitude 20) are discovered in M31 each year. The Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) tracks novae in M31, M33, and M81.
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who sang the national anthem at the olympics | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the then 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, known as the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of 19 semitones, it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased and its first public performance took place in October when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward, she attempted a gesture of ballplayers by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1931, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942, the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of the law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 - meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, in response to police brutality in America, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California Chapter of the NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NAACP president said: "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stanza of the anthem, which is rarely sung and few know, contains the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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season 2 amazing race where are they now | The Amazing Race 2 - wikipedia
The Amazing Race 2 is the second season of the American reality television game show, The Amazing Race. The race features eleven teams of two, with a pre-existing relationship, in a race around the world. It was premiered on March 11, 2002 and ended on May 15, 2002.
Lifelong friends Chris Luca and Alex Boylan were the winners of this Race.
The second season of The Amazing Race traveled 52,000 miles in 28 days, spanning 5 continents and 8 different countries. Filming occurred between January and February 2002. The Race visited the countries of Brazil, Namibia, Australia and New Zealand, the Chinese Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong, as well as the continents of South America and, for the first time, Oceania. It was the only season (excluding The Amazing Race 8, which was run only in North America) to non-stop in Europe.
The edition marked the debut of several Race traditions. The color scheme for all route markers and flags was changed to yellow and red after the previous season 's yellow and white. In addition, host Phil Keoghan and a local greeter welcomed all teams arriving at the Pit Stops at the end of each leg; previously, Keoghan appeared only to greet (and usually eliminate) the last - place team.
Contestant Cyndi Kalenberg claimed that there was confusion about the vehicle replacement rules in Leg 2, in which the racers were informed that if their designated jeep broke down, the racers themselves would have to pay for repairs and wait for it to be fixed. Blake and Paige, however, were provided with a new vehicle when their jeep broke down, helping them to beat Hope and Norm in a race for second - to - last place to the Pit Stop. This enabled Blake and Paige to stay in the race, while Hope and Norm were eliminated. For the next season, Race policy was changed so that a team would receive a replacement if a production - provided vehicle broke down or became unsafe to drive through no fault of the team. Teams would not be given any time credit in the event of a break down.
Towards the end of the final leg, Chris and Alex passed Tara (and later Wil) in a footrace to the finish line. This marks the closest finish in the U.S. version of The Amazing Race; the second season of the Latin American version ended with the winning team beating the second - place team by just a few yards.
Eleven teams participated in the second season of The Amazing Race. The cast featured twins, a mother / daughter duo, siblings, grandmothers, pastors, and childhood friends.
Oswald and Danny were selected to race in The Amazing Race: All - Stars among a cast of returning teams from the first ten seasons.
The season featured Heloísa Pinheiro, the real - life "Girl from Ipanema '', as the woman teams were to find on the "Beach '' Detour option in the first leg.
Alex Boylan went on to create and host the first season of Around the World For Free, in which he journeyed around the world with no money to his name, relying on the generosity and hospitality of locals to continue on.
Gary Rosen later returned to The Amazing Race to work as a story producer for the 5th season
Blake Mycoskie went on to found TOMS Shoes, a footwear company that donates a pair of shoes to children in need for every pair sold.
This season had two official sponsors: American Airlines and Royal Caribbean International. These two sponsors provided the prizes that were sometimes awarded to first place teams.
The following teams participated in the Race, each listed along with their placements in each leg and relationships as identified by the program. Note that this table is not necessarily reflective of all content broadcast on television, owing to the inclusion or exclusion of some data. Placements are listed in finishing order:
Starting with this season, episode titles are taken from quotes made by the racers in each episode. Quotes were sometimes altered slightly for humorous effect.
Individual prizes were awarded to the first team to complete certain legs.
Airdate: March 11, 2002
The Race 's first Detour was an option of Mountain or Beach. In Mountain, teams had to rappel 590 ft (180 m) down the face of Sugarloaf Mountain. At the bottom, teams would receive their next clue. In Beach, teams had to take the gondola back to the ground and proceed to Ipanema Beach to find the woman who inspired the song "The Girl from Ipanema '' (Heloísa Pinheiro) with only a photo and a specific lifeguard station for reference. Once the woman was found, she would give them their next clue.
Airdate: March 13, 2002
The Fast Forward required teams to travel to Copacabana Beach and play a volleyball game against a local team. While the participating team was allowed to use their hands, the locals they were playing against could only use their feet, as per local regulations. The leg 's Detour was a choice between Freak Out or Seek Out. In Freak Out, teams had to hang glide in tandem with a local instructor, gliding from the mountain to the beach below. Once both teammates had landed on the beach, they were immediately given their next clue. In Seek Out, teams had to travel down to the same beach and use a marked metal detector to find the next clue buried somewhere along a 1.5 miles (2.4 km) stretch of sand.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to ride a speedboat and use a map to direct the driver to Iguaçu falls. At the falls, teams then had to spot the route marker at the top of a rock formation to retrieve it, and head back to the dock.
Airdate: March 20, 2002
The Detour was a choice of Dance or Deliver. In Dance, teams had to put on a costume and sing and dance with a local troupe until they made R 25 in tips. Once the team had accomplished this task, the troupe leader took the money and gave the team the next clue. In Deliver, teams had to carry fish from a boat and transfer it to the marked scales. Once they had transferred 125 kg (276 lb) of fish, the fishmonger gave the team the next clue. At the bay, teams were also provided the option of choosing the Fast Forward, which required teams to find the Mooiberge Strawberry Field in Stellenbosch. Once there, the teams were required to look inside a "Zebra, '' (actually a large zebra - shaped scarecrow) to find the Fast Forward pass. This option did not appear on air as no team selected it.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to search through the Langa township to buy a box of Epsom salts and a "Smiley '' (a local name for a roasted sheep 's head). After finding the items, they then had to deliver the Smiley as an offering to Ndaba Sangoma, who made a bitter potion out of the salts which the team member had to drink to receive the next clue.
Airdate: March 27, 2002
The Fast Forward required teams to look "where the railway tracks used to run ''. Once teams realized that the Swakopmund Hotel had been a railway station, they then searched the hotel grounds for the Fast Forward pass, which was in the center of the pool. The Detour was a choice between Slide or Stride. In Slide, teams had to take a safety briefing from an instructor and then slide down the steep side of a dune to a route marker at the bottom, reaching speeds of up to 60 mph. In Stride, teams had to walk down the opposite side of the dune, following a path of flags to the next clue.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to buy five wood animal carvings (lion, rhino, buffalo, leopard, and elephant) for the lowest price possible, using their own money. Once this was accomplished, each team took the five woodcarvings to a bushman, who exchanged them for a carving of a large wood giraffe with the next clue attached.
Airdate: April 3, 2002
There was a Fast Forward which required teams to find the Amulet Market at Wat Ratchanadda. Here, one team member was required to have their head shaved - a Buddhist tradition. However, the Fast Forward went unaired. The Detour was a choice between Confusion Now and Confusion Later. In Confusion Now, teams had to search for a specific water taxi dock to find the correct taxi that would take them to a bird market. Once there, they simply had to buy and release a cage full of sparrows for good karma. In Confusion Later, teams had to take a taxi to Chinatown in Charoen Krung Soi 21, where they had to purchase a "car '' to burn and send to their ancestors from the Lee Ti Biew shrine. However, teams had to figure out that the "car '' they needed was one of the many small paper cars sold at multiple booths near the shrine.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to don a protective mask, gloves, and boots (due to dangerous bacterium) and venture into a nearby cave filled with millions of bats to retrieve the next clue.
Airdate: April 10, 2002
The Detour was a choice between Boat and Beast. In Boat, teams had to travel 1.5 miles (2.4 km) down the river using a bamboo raft with long wooden poles as the locals do. In Beast, teams had to ride the same 1.5 miles (2.4 km) on the back of an elephant down the path next to the river.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to wash a series of chalk decorations from a religious ceremony off an elephant using only water, some soap, and sponge. When the elephant master was satisfied, they were given their next clue.
Airdate: April 17, 2002
The Fast Forward required teams to travel to Wong Tai Sin Temple in Wong Tai Sin, where they found fortune teller Amelia Chow in the basement of the Fortune - telling and Oblation Arcade, who then gave one team member a face reading and the other a palm reading. The Detour was a choice between Wishing Tree and Herbal Tea. In Wishing Tree, teams had to take a taxi 18 miles (29 km) to Lam Tsuen and find a wishing tree. Once there, they needed to each write one wish on a scroll and throw it into the tree 's branches to receive the next clue. In Herbal Tea, teams had to walk to a nearby herbalist shop (生 生藥 行) on Reclamation Street and ask for a bitter herbal tea. Both team members then had to each drink a cup of foul - tasting tea to receive the next clue.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to climb into a crane and use the controls to lift one 2,000 lb (910 kg) shipping container off of a truck and onto the ground. The same team member then had to return the crane to its original position. Once this was done, the other team member was allowed to get the next clue from the side of the shipping container.
Airdate: April 24, 2002
The Fast Forward required teams to find Po Lin Monastery, and then climb 268 steps to the Tian Tan Buddha to find the Fast Forward award. The leg 's Detour was a choice between Dragon and Lion. In Dragon, teams had to row a dragon boat, usually suited for twelve people, through a short, marked 600 m (2,000 ft) course to receive the next clue. In Lion, teams had to carry a ceremonial lion normally made for two through a 2,400 m (7,900 ft) course through narrow markets and steep stairs to receive the next clue.
For this Roadblock, one member from each team had to follow a series of clues written in Australian slang to receive the next clue. First, they had to find: the surfie (surfer) in the lairy daks (flashy, colorful shorts) at Martin Place, then the anklebiter (child) riding a bicycle around Archibald Fountain at Hyde Park, then find a Sheila (woman, usually single and attractive) in the Aussie cozzie (swim suit) near Captain Cook Statue in Hyde Park and ask for "the good oil '', then the bushie (country person who resides in the Australian Outback) in Circular Quay. Once the slang was done, they may return to their partner.
Airdate: April 24, 2002
The Fast Forward required the teams to go to Harry 's Cafe de Wheels, where both team members had to eat a meat pie to win the Fast Forward award. The Detour was a choice between Cool Down and Heat Up. In Cool Down, teams had to find the Opal Quest mine in Coober Pedy. Once at the mining company, teams headed down into the cool tunnels and search within a large pile of dirt that hid an opal using traditional mining tools. After finding an "opal '', they returned to the surface to show the judge their opals and collect the next clue. In Heat Up, teams played three holes of golf on the driest golf course in the world. However, the holes all criss - cross each other and teams had to play in the intense heat of up to 130 ° F (54 ° C) using only a map and one ball.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to throw a boomerang from within a circle such that the boomerang would leave, return to, and land within the circle.
Airdate: May 1, 2002
The Fast Forward required the teams to make their way to Shotover River. There, they must take a boat and find a flag and grab the Fast Forward pass. The Detour was a choice between Quick Jump or Long Hike. In Quick Jump, teams had to take a tandem bungee jump 450 feet (140 m) down to the clue at the bottom of the canyon, the second - highest bungee - jump in the world at the time. In Long Hike, teams had to hike down a long trail to the bottom of the canyon to reach the clue box.
For this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to enter a pen full of sheep and separate the three black sheep from 22 white sheep to a second pen at the end of the corral. When they were finished, the team then ran to the Pit Stop nearby.
Airdate: May 8, 2002
In the last Fast Forward of the Race, one team had to perform a "scree run '' down Mount Tarawera -- a run down the loose rock walls directly into the mouth of the dormant volcano. The Detour was a choice between Drop and Climb. In Drop, teams had to descend 350 feet (110 m) into a cavern known as "The Lost World '' and then walk a short distance to Jesus Rock to receive the next clue. In Climb, teams had to climb down a 100 feet (30 m) ladder into the same cavern, then walk a much longer distance to reach the next clue.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to ride an ATV through a challenging off - road course over difficult terrain, then collect the clue at the end of the course.
Airdate: May 15, 2002
The Detour was a choice between Bike and Walk. In Bike, teams had to search the large pineapple field on a pair of bikes to find the only red plastic pineapple for the clue inside. In Walk, teams searched the same field on foot to find one of four yellow plastic pineapples also for the clue inside.
For this Roadblock, one team member had to snorkel near the sunken island and find and open one of three yellow cases chained underwater to retrieve the clue sealed inside.
Airdate: May 15, 2002
The final Roadblock of the Race required one team member used the tools picked up from the hardware store - a hammer, chisel, drill, and / or flamethrower - to retrieve the clue frozen inside a large globe of ice.
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who led american troops in the fight for independence | American Revolutionary war - wikipedia
American - Allied victory:
Thirteen Colonies (before 1776) United States (after 1776) Vermont Republic French Empire Spanish Empire
Co-belligerents:
Dutch Republic Mysore
British Empire Hanover
German mercenaries: Hesse - Kassel Hesse - Hanau Waldeck Brunswick Ansbach Anhalt - Zerbst
George Washington Thomas Chittenden Louis XVI Charles III
William V Hyder Ali † Tipu Sultan
George III Lord North Lord George Germain
United States: Army & Militia: 40,000 (average) 200,000 (total served) Navy: 5,000 sailors (peak 1779) 53 frigates and sloops (total served) State Navies: 106 ships (total served) Privateers: 55,000 sailors (total served) 1,697 ships
Allies: Army: 63,000 French and Spanish (Gibraltar) Navy: 146 ships - of - the - line (1782)
American Indian Allies:
Great Britain: Army: 48,000 (America peak) 121,000 (global 1781) 7,500 (Gibraltar) Navy: 94 ships - of - the - line (1782) 104 frigates (1781) 37 sloops (1781) 171,000 sailors
Loyalists: 25,000 (total served)
Hanoverians: 2,365 (total served)
German mercenaries: 29,875 (total served)
American Indian Allies:
United States: 25,000 -- 70,000 total dead 6,800 killed in battle 17,000 died of disease
France: at least 7,000 dead (2,112 in the United States)
Spain: 5,000 killed
Netherlands: 500 killed
Great Britain: Army: 43,633 total dead ~ 9,372 killed in battle 27,000 died of disease Navy: 1,243 killed in battle 18,500 died of disease (1776 -- 1780) 42,000 deserted
Germans: 7,774 total dead 1,800 killed in battle 4,888 deserted
Loyalists: 7,000 total dead 1,700 killed in battle 5,300 died of disease (estimated)
The American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a global war that began as a conflict between Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies which declared independence as the United States of America.
After 1765, growing philosophical and political differences strained the relationship between Great Britain and its colonies. Patriot protests against taxation without representation followed the Stamp Act and escalated into boycotts, which culminated in 1773 with the Sons of Liberty destroying a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor. Britain responded by closing Boston Harbor and passing a series of punitive measures against Massachusetts Bay Colony. Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, and they established a shadow government which wrested control of the countryside from the Crown. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, establishing committees and conventions that effectively seized power.
British attempts to disarm the Massachusetts militia at Concord in April 1775 led to open combat. Militia forces then besieged Boston, forcing a British evacuation in March 1776, and Congress appointed George Washington to command the Continental Army. Concurrently, an American attempt to invade Quebec and raise rebellion against the British failed decisively. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress voted for independence, issuing its declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe launched a British counter-offensive, capturing New York City and leaving American morale at a low ebb. However, victories at Trenton and Princeton restored American confidence. In 1777, the British launched an invasion from Quebec under John Burgoyne, intending to isolate the New England Colonies. Instead of assisting this effort, Howe took his army on a separate campaign against Philadelphia, and Burgoyne was decisively defeated at Saratoga in October 1777.
Burgoyne 's defeat had drastic consequences; France formally allied with the Americans and entered the war in 1778, and Spain joined the war the following year as an ally of France but not as an ally of the United States. In 1780, the Kingdom of Mysore attacked the British in India, and tensions between Great Britain and the Netherlands erupted into open war. In North America, the British mounted a "Southern strategy '' led by Charles Cornwallis which hinged upon a Loyalist uprising, but too few came forward. Cornwallis suffered reversals at King 's Mountain and Cowpens. He retreated to Yorktown, Virginia, intending an evacuation, but a decisive French naval victory deprived him of an escape. A Franco - American army led by the Comte de Rochambeau and Washington then besieged Cornwallis ' army and, with no sign of relief, he surrendered in October 1781.
Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tories in Parliament, and the surrender gave them the upper hand. In early 1782, Parliament voted to end all offensive operations in North America, but the war continued in Europe and India. Britain remained under siege in Gibraltar but scored a major victory over the French navy. On September 3, 1783, the belligerent parties signed the Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain agreed to recognize the sovereignty of the United States and formally end the war. French involvement had proven decisive, but France made few gains and incurred crippling debts. Spain made some minor territorial gains but failed in its primary aim of recovering Gibraltar. The Dutch were defeated on all counts and were compelled to cede territory to Great Britain. In India, the war against Mysore and its allies concluded in 1784 without any territorial changes.
In 1651, the Parliament of England sought to regulate trade in America by passing the Navigation Acts, ensuring that trade only enriched Britain. The economic effects were minimal, but they triggered serious political friction. The American colonists had fought King Philip 's War without significant assistance from the Crown, and this contributed to a growing sense of American identity separate from that of Britain. Britain continued to assert control into the 1680s, culminating in the abrogation of colonial charters and the establishment of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Colonists, however, felt that the Dominion was undermining their democratic liberty and they overthrew it in 1689; the Crown made no attempt to restore it.
The British government continued to pursue trade control, however, passing acts that taxed wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 was especially egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the local economy, and consequently they were rarely paid. Smuggling, bribery, piracy, and intimidation of customs officials became commonplace. Colonial wars were also a contributing factor. The return of Louisbourg to France in 1748 following the War of the Austrian Succession caused considerable resentment in New England, the colonists having expended great effort in subduing the fortress only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.
Britain triumphed over France and Spain in the Seven Years ' War, but this led to a financial crisis, as the national debt had doubled to £ 130 million, and the annual cost of the British civil and military establishment in America had quintupled when compared to 1749. Smuggling had been tacitly accepted, but the practice decreased British revenue, so Whitehall decided to ensure that customs duties were unavoidable by passing the Stamp Act in 1765. Colonists condemned the tax because their rights as Englishmen protected them from being taxed by a Parliament in which they had no elected representatives. Parliament argued that the colonies were "represented virtually '', an idea that was criticized throughout the Empire. Parliament did repeal the act in 1766; however, it also affirmed its right to pass laws that were binding on the colonies. From 1767, Parliament began passing legislation to raise revenue for the salaries of civil officials, ensuring their loyalty while inadvertently increasing resentment among the colonists, and opposition soon became widespread.
Enforcing the acts proved difficult. The seizure of the sloop Liberty in 1768 on suspicions of smuggling triggered a riot. In response, British troops occupied Boston, and Parliament threatened to extradite colonists to face trial in England. Tensions rose after the murder of Christopher Seider by a customs official in 1770 and escalated into outrage after British troops fired on civilians in the Boston Massacre. In 1772, colonists in Rhode Island boarded and burned a customs schooner. Parliament then repealed all taxes except the one on tea, passing the Tea Act in 1773, attempting to force colonists to buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to Parliamentary supremacy. The landing of the tea was resisted in all colonies, but the governor of Massachusetts permitted British tea ships to remain in Boston Harbor. So, the Sons of Liberty destroyed the tea chests, an incident that later became known as the "Boston Tea Party ''.
Parliament then passed punitive legislation. It closed Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for and revoked the Massachusetts Charter, taking upon themselves the right to directly appoint the Massachusetts Governor 's Council. Additionally, the royal governor was granted powers to undermine local democracy. Further measures allowed the extradition of officials for trial elsewhere in the Empire, if the governor felt that a fair trial could not be secured locally. The act 's vague reimbursement policy for travel expenses left few with the ability to testify, and colonists argued that it would allow officials to harass them with impunity. Further laws allowed the governor to billet troops in private property without permission. The colonists referred to the measures as the "Intolerable Acts '', and they argued that both their constitutional rights and their natural rights were being violated, viewing the acts as a threat to all of America. The acts were widely opposed, driving neutral parties into support of the Patriots and curtailing Loyalist sentiment.
The colonists responded by establishing the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, effectively removing Crown control of the colony outside Boston. Meanwhile, representatives from twelve colonies convened the First Continental Congress to respond to the crisis. The Congress narrowly rejected a proposal to create an American parliament to act in concert with the British Parliament; instead, they passed a compact declaring a trade boycott against Britain. The Congress also affirmed that Parliament had no authority over internal American matters, but they were willing to consent to trade regulations for the benefit of the empire, and they authorized committees and conventions to enforce the boycott. The boycott was effective, as imports from Britain dropped by 97 % in 1775 compared to 1774.
Parliament refused to yield. In 1775, it declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and enforced a blockade of the colony. It then passed legislation to limit colonial trade to the British West Indies and the British Isles. Colonial ships were barred from the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a measure which pleased Canadiens but damaged New England 's economy. These increasing tensions led to a mutual scramble for ordnance and pushed the colonies toward open war. Thomas Gage was the British Commander - in - Chief and military governor of Massachusetts, and he received orders on April 14, 1775 to disarm the local militias.
On April 18, 1775, 700 troops were sent to confiscate militia ordnance stored at Concord. Fighting broke out, forcing the regulars to conduct a fighting withdrawal to Boston. Overnight, the local militia converged on and laid siege to Boston. On March 25, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. The British seized the Charlestown peninsula on June 17 after a costly frontal assault, leading Howe to replace Gage. Many senior officers were dismayed at the attack, which had gained them little, while Gage wrote to London stressing the need for a large army to suppress the revolt. On July 3, George Washington took command of the Continental Army besieging Boston. Howe made no effort to attack, much to Washington 's surprise. A plan was rejected to assault the city, and the Americans instead fortified Dorchester Heights in early March 1776 with heavy artillery captured from a raid on Fort Ticonderoga. The British were permitted to withdraw unmolested on March 17, and they sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Washington then moved his army to New York.
Meanwhile, British officials in Quebec began lobbying Indian tribes to support them, while the Americans urged them to maintain their neutrality. In April 1775, Congress feared an Anglo - Indian attack from Canada and authorized an invasion of Quebec. Quebec had a largely Francophone population and had been under British rule for only 12 years, and the Americans expected that they would welcome being liberated from the British. The Americans attacked Quebec City on December 31 after an arduous march but were defeated. After a loose siege, the Americans withdrew on May 6. 1776. A failed counter-attack on June 8 ended American operations in Quebec. However, the British could not conduct an aggressive pursuit because of American ships on Lake Champlain. On October 11, the British defeated the American squadron, forcing them to withdraw to Ticonderoga and ending the campaign. The invasion cost the Patriots their support in British public opinion, while aggressive anti-Loyalist policies diluted Canadien support. The Patriots continued to view Quebec as a strategic aim, though no further attempts to invade were ever made.
In Virginia, Royal governor Lord Dunmore had attempted to disarm the militia as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 promising freedom for slaves who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. Dunmore 's troops were overwhelmed by Patriots at Great Bridge, and Dunmore fled to naval ships anchored off Norfolk. Subsequent negotiations broke down, so Dunmore ordered the ships to destroy the town.
Fighting broke out on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony. Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. A troop of British regulars set out to reconquer South Carolina and launched an attack on Charleston on June 28, 1776, but it failed and effectively left the South in Patriot control until 1780.
The shortage of gunpowder had led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas colony in the British West Indies in order to secure ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed after a bloodless exchange of fire, and the local militia offered no resistance. They confiscated all the supplies that they could load and sailed away on March 17. The squadron reached New London, Connecticut on April 8, after a brief skirmish with the Royal Navy frigate HMS Glasgow on April 6.
After fighting began, Congress launched a final attempt to avert war, which Parliament rejected as insincere. King George then issued a Proclamation of Rebellion on August 23, 1775, which only served to embolden the colonists in their determination to become independent. After a speech by the King, Parliament rejected coercive measures on the colonies by 170 votes. British Tories refused to compromise, while Whigs argued that current policy would drive the colonists towards independence. Despite opposition, the King himself began micromanaging the war effort. The Irish Parliament pledged to send troops to America, and Irish Catholics were allowed to enlist in the army for the first time. Irish Protestants favored the Americans, while Catholics favored the King.
The initial hostilities provided a sobering military lesson for the British, causing them to rethink their views on colonial military capability. The weak British response gave the Patriots the advantage, and the British lost control over every colony. The army had been deliberately kept small in England since 1688 to prevent abuses of power by the King. Parliament secured treaties with small German states for additional troops and sent an army of 32,000 men to America after a year, the largest that it had ever sent outside Europe at the time.
In the colonies, the success of Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense had boosted public support for independence. On July 2, Congress voted in favor of independence with twelve affirmatives and one abstention, issuing its declaration on July 4. Washington read the declaration to his men and the citizens of New York on July 9, invigorating the crowd to tear down a lead statue of the King and melting it to make bullets. British Tories criticized the signatories for not extending the same standards of equality to slaves.
Patriots followed independence with the Test Laws, requiring residents to swear allegiance to the state in which they lived, intending to root out neutrals or opponents to independence. Failure to do so meant possible imprisonment, exile, or even death. American Tories were barred from public office, forbidden from practising medicine and law, forced to pay increased taxes, or even barred from executing wills or becoming guardians to orphans. Congress enabled states to confiscate Loyalist property to fund the war. Some Quakers who remained neutral had their property confiscated. States later prevented Loyalists from collecting any debts that they were owed.
After regrouping at Halifax, William Howe determined to take the fight to the Americans. He set sail in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island on July 2. Washington split his army to positions across the city due to poor intelligence, and an informal attempt to negotiate peace was rejected by the Americans. On August 27, Howe defeated Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights. Howe restrained his subordinates from pursuit, opting to besiege Washington instead.
Washington withdrew to Manhattan without any losses in men or ordnance. Following the withdrawal, the Staten Island Peace Conference failed to negotiate peace, as the British delegates did not possess authorization to grant independence. Howe then seized control of New York on September 15, and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans the following day. He attempted to encircle Washington, but the Americans successfully withdrew. On October 28, the British fought an indecisive action against Washington, in which Howe declined to attack Washington 's army, instead concentrating his efforts upon a hill that was of no strategic value.
Washington 's retreat left his forces isolated, and the British captured an American army on November 16, taking 3,000 prisoners and amounting to what one historian terms "the most disastrous defeat of the entire war ''. Washington 's army fell back four days later. Henry Clinton then captured Newport, Rhode Island, an operation which he opposed, feeling that the 6,000 troops assigned to him could have been better employed in the pursuit of Washington. The American prisoners were then sent to the infamous prison ships in which more American soldiers and sailors died of disease and neglect than died in every battle of the war combined. Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, and Washington marched away unmolested.
The outlook of the American cause was bleak; the army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when the enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale ebbed away, and Congress abandoned Philadelphia. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in New York.
News of the campaign was well received in Britain. Festivities took place in London, public support reached a peak, and the King awarded the Order of the Bath to William Howe. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The American defeat revealed what one writer views as Washington 's strategic deficiencies, such as dividing a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misreading the situation, and his troops fleeing in disorder when fighting began. In the meantime, the British entered winter quarters and were in a good place to resume campaigning.
On December 25, 1776, Washington stealthily crossed the Delaware River, and his army overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New Jersey the following morning, taking 900 prisoners. The decisive victory rescued the army 's flagging morale and gave a new hope to the cause for independence. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but his efforts were repulsed on January 2. Washington outmanoeuvred Cornwallis that night, and defeated his rearguard the following day. The victories proved instrumental in convincing the French and Spanish that the Americans were worthwhile allies, as well as recovering morale in the army. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey on January 6, though a protracted guerrilla conflict continued. While encamped, Howe made no attempt to attack, much to Washington 's amazement.
In December 1776, John Burgoyne returned to London to set strategy with Lord George Germain. Burgoyne 's plan was to establish control of the Champlain - George - Hudson route from New York to Quebec, isolating New England. Efforts could then be concentrated on the southern colonies, where it was believed Loyalist support was in abundance. Howe instead argued capturing Philadelphia and defeating Washington was a priority. Germain approved this plan, leaving Howe unable to assist Burgoyne. Washington himself was baffled by Howe 's choices. Alden argues Howe was influenced by the idea that, upon success, he would not receive credit, but Burgoyne. Controversy persists over whether Germain approved Burgoyne 's plan after reading Howe 's, and whether he shared this information with his subordinates. Howe was not given any explicit orders to assist Burgoyne; however, a copy Germain sent to Quebec explicitly stated Howe was to assist Burgoyne 's efforts. Another letter stated Howe should launch his campaign against Philadelphia as intended, while allowing enough time to assist Burgoyne. Black argues Germain either left his generals too much latitude, or without a clear direction.
Burgoyne 's plan was to lead an army along Lake Champlain, while a strategic diversion advanced along the Mohawk River, and both would rendezvous at Albany. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, quickly capturing Ticonderoga on July 5. The hasty withdrawal of the Continental Army after little resistance outraged the American public. Burgoyne 's pursuit ran into stiff resistance at Hubbardton and Fort Anne. Leaving 1,300 men behind as a garrison, Burgoyne continued the advance. Progress was slow; the Americans blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams and denuded the area of food. Meanwhile, Barry St. Ledger 's diversionary column laid siege to Fort Stanwix. St. Ledger withdrew to Quebec on August 22 after his Indian support abandoned him. On August 16, a British foraging expedition was soundly defeated at Bennington, and more than 700 troops were captured. As a result of the defeat, the vast majority of Burgoyne 's Indian support abandoned him. Meanwhile, Howe informed Burgoyne he would launch his campaign on Philadelphia as planned, and would be unable to render aid.
Having considered his options, Burgoyne decided to continue the advance. On September 19, he attempted to flank the American position, and clashed at Freeman 's Farm. The British won, but at the cost of 600 casualties. Burgoyne then dug in, but suffered a constant haemorrhage of deserters, and critical supplies were running low. Henry Clinton did capture two key forts on October 6 to divert American resources, though he turned back ten days later. Meanwhile, the American army was growing in size daily, swelling to some 15,000 men. On October 7, a British reconnaissance in force against the American lines was repulsed with heavy losses. Burgoyne then withdrew with the Americans in pursuit, and by October 13, he was surrounded. With no hope of relief and supplies exhausted, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17, and 6,222 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The decisive success spurred France to enter the war as an ally of the United States, securing the final elements needed for victory over Britain, that of foreign assistance.
Meanwhile, Howe launched his campaign against Washington, though his initial efforts to bring him to battle in June 1777 failed. Howe declined to attack Philadelphia overland via New Jersey, or by sea via the Delaware Bay, even though both options would have enabled him to assist Burgoyne if necessary. Instead, he took his army on a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, leaving him completely unable to assist Burgoyne. This decision was so difficult to understand, Howe 's critics accused him of treason.
Howe outflanked and defeated Washington on September 11, though he failed to follow - up on the victory and destroy his army. A British victory at Willistown left Philadelphia defenceless, and Howe captured the city unopposed on September 26. Howe then moved 9,000 men to Germantown, north of Philadelphia. Washington launched a surprise attack on Howe 's garrison on October 4, which was eventually repulsed. Again, Howe did not follow - up on his victory, leaving the American army intact and able to fight. Later, after several days of probing American defences at White Marsh, Howe inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia, astonishing both sides. Howe ignored the vulnerable American rear, where an attack could have deprived Washington of his baggage and supplies. On December 19, Washington 's army entered winter quarters at Valley Forge. Poor conditions and supply problems resulted in the deaths of some 2,500 troops. Howe, only 20 miles (32 km) away, made no effort to attack, which critics observed could have ended the war.
The Continental Army was put through a new training program, supervised by Baron von Steuben, introducing the most modern Prussian methods of drilling. Meanwhile, Howe resigned and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778. Clinton received orders to abandon Philadelphia and fortify New York following France 's entry into the war. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia, with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit. The two armies fought at Monmouth Court House on June 28, with the Americans holding the field, greatly boosting morale and confidence. By July, both armies were back in the same positions they had been two years prior.
The defeat at Saratoga caused considerable anxiety in Britain over foreign intervention. The North ministry sought reconciliation with the colonies by consenting to their original demands, although Lord North refused to grant independence. No positive reply was received from the Americans.
French foreign minister the Comte de Vergennes was strongly anti-British, and he sought a casus belli to go to war with Britain following the conquest of Canada in 1763. The French had covertly supplied the Americans through neutral Dutch ports since the onset of the war, proving invaluable throughout the Saratoga campaign. The French public favored war, though Vergennes and King Louis XVI were hesitant, owing to the military and financial risk. The American victory at Saratoga convinced the French that supporting the Patriots was worthwhile, but doing so also brought major concerns. The King was concerned that Britain 's concessions would be accepted, and that she would then reconcile with the Colonies to strike at French and Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. To prevent this, France formally recognized the United States on February 6, 1778 and followed with a military alliance. France aimed to expel Britain from the Newfoundland fishery, end restrictions on Dunkirk sovereignty, regain free trade in India, recover Senegal and Dominica, and restore the Treaty of Utrecht provisions pertaining to Anglo - French trade.
Spain was wary of provoking war with Britain before she was ready, so she covertly supplied the Patriots via her colonies in New Spain. Congress hoped to persuade Spain into an open alliance, so the first American Commission met with the Count of Aranda in 1776. Spain was still reluctant to make an early commitment, owing to a lack of direct French involvement, the threat against their treasure fleets, and the possibility of war with Portugal, Spain 's neighbor and a close ally of Britain. However, Spain affirmed its desire to support the Americans the following year, hoping to weaken Britain 's empire. In the Spanish - Portuguese War (1776 - 77), the Portuguese threat was neutralized. On 12 April 1779, Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez with France and went to war against Britain. Spain sought to recover Gibraltar and Menorca in Europe, as well as Mobile and Pensacola in Florida, and also to expel the British from Central America.
Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed that Britain had made all necessary steps to avoid it and cited the British victories over France in the Seven Years ' War as a reason to remain optimistic. Britain tried in vain to find a powerful ally to engage France, leaving it isolated, preventing Britain from focusing the majority of her efforts in one theater, and forcing a major diversion of military resources from America. Despite this, the King determined never to recognize American independence and to ravage the colonies indefinitely, or until they pleaded to return to the yoke of the Crown. Mahan argues that Britain 's attempt to fight in multiple theaters simultaneously without major allies was fundamentally flawed, citing impossible mutual support, exposing the forces to defeat in detail.
Since the outbreak of the conflict, Britain had appealed to her ally, the neutral Dutch Republic, to loan her the use of the Scots Brigade for service in America, but pro-American sentiment among the Dutch public forced them to deny the request. Consequently, the British attempted to invoke several treaties for outright Dutch military support, but the Republic still refused. Moreover, American troops were being supplied with ordnance by Dutch merchants via their West Indies colonies. French supplies bound for America had also passed through Dutch ports. The Republic maintained free trade with France following France 's declaration of war on Britain, citing a prior concession by Britain on this issue. Britain responded by confiscating Dutch shipping, and even firing upon it. Consequently, the Republic joined the First League of Armed Neutrality to enforce their neutral status. The Republic had also given sanctuary to American privateers and had drafted a treaty of commerce with the Americans. Britain argued that these actions contravened the Republic 's neutral stance and declared war in December 1780.
Soon after France declared war, French and British fleets fought an indecisive action off Ushant on 27 July 1778. Spain entered the war on 12 April 1779, with a primary goal of capturing Gibraltar, Spanish troops under the Duc de Crillon laid siege to the Rock on 24 June. The naval blockade, however, was relatively weak, and the British were able to resupply the garrison. Meanwhile, a plan was formulated for a combined Franco - Spanish invasion of the British mainland, but the expedition failed due to a combination of poor planning, disease, logistical issues, and high financial expenditures. However, a diversionary Franco - American squadron did meet with some success on 23 September under John Paul Jones. On 16 January 1780, the Royal Navy under George Rodney scored a major victory over the Spanish, weakening the naval blockade of Gibraltar.
A Franco - Spanish fleet commanded by Luis de Córdova intercepted and decisively defeated a large British convoy off the Azores led by John Moutray on 9 August which was bound for the West Indies. The defeat was catastrophic for Britain, which lost 52 merchant ships, 5 East Indiamen, 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops, 294 guns, and 3,144 men, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made. The loss was valued at some £ 1.5 million (£ 181 million in today 's money), dealing a severe blow to British commerce.
The French blockaded the lucrative sugar islands of Barbados and Jamaica, intending to damage British trade. French troops led by the Marquis de Bouillé captured Dominica on 7 September 1778 in order to improve communication among French Caribbean islands and to strike a blow to privateering. The British defeated a French naval force on 15 December and captured St. Lucia on 28 December. Both fleets received reinforcements through the first half of 1779, but the French under the Comte d'Estaing had superiority in the Caribbean and began capturing British territories, seizing St. Vincent on 18 June and Grenada on 4 July. The British fleet under John Byron was tactically defeated on July 6, having pursued d'Estaing from Grenada, the worst loss that the Royal Navy had suffered since 1690. Naval skirmishes continued until 17 April 1780, when British and French fleets clashed indecisively off Martinique.
On the mainland, Louisiana Governor Bernardo de Gálvez intercepted intelligence that the British were planning to invade New Orleans, and he decided to strike first. He intended to conquer West Florida and set out with 670 men on August 27, 1779, though his force soon grew to 1,400 with the addition of local Indians. On 7 September, Fort Bute fell to the Spanish, who then marched on to Baton Rouge; they arrived on September 12 and the town fell after a nine - day siege. Galvez left a garrison there and returned to New Orleans to recruit additional troops. In early 1780, he mounted an expedition to take Mobile, setting off with 750 troops on 11 January and joined by reinforcements from Havana. They commenced siege operations on March 1, and the town fell after a 14 - day siege. Gálvez had hoped to push on to Pensacola, the British capital of West Florida; however, a hurricane devastated his expedition, stalling it till 1781.
In Central America, the defense of Guatemala was a priority for Spain. The British intended to capture the key fortress of San Fernando de Omoa and drive the Spanish from the region. After inadequate first attempts, 1,200 British troops led by William Dalrymple arrived on 16 October, and they captured the fort on 20 October. However, the British suffered terribly due to disease and were forced to abandon the fort on 29 November; Spanish troops subsequently reoccupied it. In 1780, Jamaica 's governor John Dalling planned an expedition to cut New Spain in two by capturing Granada, which would subsequently allow them full control of the San Juan River. A British expedition set out on 3 February 1780, led by John Polson and Horatio Nelson. They reached Fort San Juan on 17 March and laid siege, capturing it on 29 April. The British were ravaged by disease and were running low on food due to poor logistics. They withdrew on 8 November, the expedition having suffered a decisive defeat; some 2,500 troops had perished, making it the costliest British disaster of the war.
The British East India Company moved quickly to capture French possessions in India when they learned about the hostilities with France, and they took Pondicherry on 19 October 1778 after a two - week siege. The Company resolved to drive the French completely out of India, and they captured the Malabar port of Mahé in 1779 where French ordnance passed through.
Mahé was under the protection of Mysore 's ruler Hyder Ali (the Tipu Sultan), and tensions were already inflamed because the British had supported Malabar rebels who had risen against him; so the fall of Mahé precipitated war. Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic region in July 1780 and laid siege to Tellicherry and Arcot. A British relief force of 7,000 men under William Baille was intercepted and destroyed by the Tipu Sultan on 10 September, the worst defeat suffered by a European army in India at the time.
Ali then renewed the siege at Arcot instead of pressing on for a decisive victory against a second British army at Madras, capturing it on 3 November. The delay allowed British forces to regroup for campaigning the following year.
Henry Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia, consolidating his forces in New York following the British defeat at Saratoga and the entry of France into the war. French admiral the Comte d'Estaing had been dispatched to North America in April 1778 to assist Washington, and he arrived shortly after Clinton withdrew into New York. The Franco - American forces felt that New York 's defenses were too formidable for the French fleet, and they opted to attack Newport. This effort was launched on August 29, but it failed when the French opted to withdraw, and this displeased the Americans. The war then ground down to a stalemate, with the majority of actions fought as large skirmishes, such as those at Chestnut Neck and Little Egg Harbor. In the summer of 1779, the Americans captured British posts at Stony Point and Paulus Hook.
In July, Clinton unsuccessfully attempted to coax Washington into a decisive engagement by making a major raid into Connecticut. That month, a large American naval operation attempted to retake Maine, but it resulted in the worst American naval defeat until Pearl Harbor in 1941. The high frequency of Iroquois raids on the locals compelled Washington to mount a punitive expedition which destroyed a large number of Iroquois settlements, but the effort ultimately failed to stop the raids. During the winter of 1779 -- 80, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor; public support was being eroded by the long war; the national currency was virtually worthless; the army was plagued with supply problems; desertion was common; and whole regiments mutinied over the conditions in early 1780.
In 1780, Clinton launched an attempt to retake New Jersey. On June 7, 6,000 men invaded under Hessian general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, but they met stiff resistance from the local militia. The British held the field, but Knyphausen feared a general engagement with Washington 's main army and withdrew. Knyphausen and Clinton decided upon a second attempt two weeks later which was soundly defeated at Springfield, effectively ending British ambitions in New Jersey. Meanwhile, American general Benedict Arnold had defected to the British, and he conspired to betray the key American fortress of West Point by surrendering it to the enemy. The plot was foiled when British spy master John André was captured, so Arnold fled to British lines in New York. He attempted to justify his betrayal by appealing to Loyalist public opinion, but the Patriots strongly condemned him as a coward and turncoat.
The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. An expedition of militia was halted due to adverse weather in February 1778 which had set out to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River. Later in the year, a second campaign was undertaken to seize the Illinois Country from the British. The Americans captured Kaskaskia on July 4 and then secured Vincennes, although Vincennes was recaptured by Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In early 1779, the Americans counterattacked by undertaking a risky winter march, and they secured the surrender of the British at Vincennes, taking Hamilton prisoner.
On May 25, 1780, the British launched an expedition into Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. The expedition met with only limited success, though hundreds of settlers were killed or captured. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the Mad River in August which met with some success, but it did little to abate the Indian raids on the frontier. French militia attempted to capture Detroit, but it ended in disaster when Miami Indians ambushed and defeated the gathered troops on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate; the Americans did not have the manpower to simultaneously defeat the hostile Indian tribes and occupy their land.
The British turned their attention to conquering the South in 1778, despite their defeat at Saratoga. Prominent Loyalists with great influence in London had convinced them that Loyalist support was high in the South and that a campaign there would inspire an uprising, and the British centered their strategy upon this thinking. A southern campaign also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where it would be needed to defend lucrative colonies against the Franco - Spanish fleets.
On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from New York captured Savannah, and British troops then moved inland to recruit Loyalist support. There was a promising initial turnout in early 1779, but then a large Loyalist militia was defeated at Kettle Creek on February 14 and they had to recognize their dependence upon the British. The British, however, defeated Patriot militia at Brier Creek on March 3, and then launched an abortive assault on Charleston, South Carolina. The operation became notorious for its high degree of looting by British troops, enraging both Loyalists and Patriot colonists.
In October, a combined Franco - American effort failed to recapture Savannah. In 1780, Henry Clinton moved against Charleston, capturing it on May 12. With few losses of their own, the British took 5,266 prisoners, effectively destroying the Continental Army in the south. Organized American resistance in the region collapsed when Banastre Tarleton defeated the withdrawing Americans at Waxhaws on May 29.
Clinton returned to New York, leaving Charles Cornwallis in command in Charleston to oversee the southern war effort. In the interim, the war was carried on by Patriot militias who effectively suppressed Loyalists by winning victories in Fairfield County, Lincolnton, York County, Stanly County, and Lancaster County.
Congress appointed Horatio Gates, victor at Saratoga, to lead the American effort in the south. He suffered a major defeat at Camden on August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. The British attempted to subjugate the countryside, and Patriot militia continued to fight against them, so Cornwallis dispatched troops to raise Loyalist forces to cover his left flank as he moved north. This wing of Cornwallis ' army was virtually destroyed on October 7, irreversibly breaking Loyalist support in the Carolinas. Cornwallis subsequently aborted his advance and retreated back into South Carolina. In the interim, Washington replaced Gates with his trusted subordinate, Nathanael Greene.
Greene was unable to confront the British directly, so he dispatched a force under Daniel Morgan to recruit additional troops. Morgan then defeated the cream of the British army under Tarleton on January 17, 1781 at Cowpens. Cornwallis was criticized for having detached a substantial part of his army without adequate support, but he advanced into North Carolina despite the setbacks, gambling that he would receive substantial Loyalist support there. Greene evaded combat with Cornwallis, instead wearing his army down through a protracted war of attrition.
By March, Greene 's army had increased in size enough that he felt confident in facing Cornwallis. The two armies engaged at Guilford Courthouse on March 15; Greene was beaten, but Cornwallis ' army suffered irreplaceable casualties. Compounding this, far fewer Loyalists were joining than the British had previously expected. Cornwallis ' casualties were such that he was compelled to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement, leaving the Patriots in control of the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia.
Greene then proceeded to reclaim the South. The American troops suffered a reversal at Hobkirk 's Hill on April 25; nonetheless, they continued to dislodge strategic British posts in the area, capturing Fort Watson and Fort Motte. Augusta was the last major British outpost in the South outside of Charleston and Savannah, but the Americans reclaimed possession of it on June 6. A British force clashed with American troops at Eutaw Springs on September 8 in a final effort to stop Greene, but the British casualties were so high that they withdrew to Charleston. Minor skirmishes continued in the Carolinas until the end of the war, and British troops were effectively confined to Charleston and Savannah for the remainder of the conflict.
Cornwallis had discovered that the majority of American supplies in the Carolinas were passing through Virginia, and he had written to both Lord Germain and Clinton detailing his intentions to invade. Cornwallis believed that a successful campaign there would cut supplies to Greene 's army and precipitate a collapse of American resistance in the South. Clinton strongly opposed the plan, favoring a campaign farther north in the Chesapeake Bay region. Lord Germain wrote to Cornwallis to approve his plan and neglected to include Clinton in the decision - making, even though Clinton was Cornwallis ' superior officer, and Cornwallis then decided to move into Virginia without informing Clinton. Clinton, however, had failed to construct a coherent strategy for British operations in 1781, owing to his difficult relationship with his naval counterpart Marriot Arbuthnot.
Following the calamitous operations at Newport and Savannah, French planners realized that closer cooperation with the Americans was required to achieve success. The French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse had received discretionary orders from Paris to assist joint efforts in the north if naval support was needed. Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau discussed their options. Washington pushed for an attack on New York, while Rochambeau preferred a strike in Virginia where the British were less well - established and thus easier to defeat. Franco - American movements around New York caused Clinton a great deal of anxiety, fearing an attack on the city. His instructions were vague to Cornwallis during this time, rarely forming explicit orders. However, Clinton did instruct Cornwallis to establish a fortified naval base and to transfer troops to the north to defend New York. Cornwallis dug in at Yorktown and awaited the Royal Navy.
Washington still favored an assault on New York, but he acquiesced to the French when they opted to send their fleet to their preferred target of Yorktown. In August, the combined Franco - American army moved south to coordinate with de Grasse in defeating Cornwallis. The British lacked sufficient naval resources to effectively counter the French, but they dispatched a fleet under Thomas Graves to assist Cornwallis and attempt to gain naval dominance. On September 5, the French fleet decisively defeated Graves, giving the French control of the seas around Yorktown and cutting off Cornwallis from reinforcements and relief. Despite the continued urging of his subordinates,
Cornwallis made no attempt to break out and engage the Franco - American army before it had established siege works, expecting that reinforcements would arrive from New York, and the Franco - American army laid siege to Yorktown on September 28. Cornwallis continued to think that relief was imminent from Clinton, and he abandoned his outer defenses which were immediately occupied by American troops -- serving to hasten his subsequent defeat. The British then failed in an attempt to break out of the siege across the river at Gloucester Point when a storm hit. Cornwallis and his subordinates were under increasing bombardment and facing dwindling supplies; they agreed that their situation was untenable and negotiated a surrender on October 17, 1781, and 7,685 soldiers became prisoners of the Americans. The same day as the surrender, 6,000 troops under Clinton had departed New York, sailing to relieve Yorktown.
The North government had gained support in Parliament after the British successes at Newport and Charleston, but the decision to allow Irish Catholics to enlist in the army was deeply unpopular and triggered a massive protest in London in 1780, culminating in widespread rioting. The riots were the most destructive in London 's history, damaging the prestige of the government. On 25 November 1781, the situation worsened when news arrived in London of the surrender at Yorktown. Prime Minister Lord North is said to have repeatedly exclaimed, "Oh, God! It 's all over! '' King George III received the news with dignity, though later became depressed and considered abdication. The Whig opposition gained traction in Parliament, and a motion was proposed on December 12 to end the war which was defeated by only one vote. On 27 February 1782, the House voted against further war in America by 19 votes.
Lord Germain had overseen strategic matters in the war effort and was dismissed from office in early 1782. Soon after, a vote of no confidence was passed against the Prime Minister, forcing North 's resignation and leading to the collapse of his ministry. The Rockingham Whigs came to power soon after and began opening negotiations for peace. Prime Minister the Marquess of Rockingham died in office on 1 July 1782 and was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne, forcing the resignations of prominent Whigs Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox, with whom Shelburne had an icy relationship. Shelburne was initially hesitant to grant full American independence, instead preferring that the colonies accept dominion status, but his intentions were never realized.
Despite their defeat, the British still had 30,000 troops garrisoned in New York, Charleston, and Savannah. Henry Clinton was recalled to London after the defeat at Yorktown, and he departed America in March 1782. He was replaced by Guy Carleton who was under orders to suspend offensive operations.
After hostilities with the Dutch began in late 1780, Britain had moved quickly, enforcing a blockade across the North Sea. Within weeks, the British had captured 200 Dutch merchantmen, and 300 more were holed up in foreign ports, though political turmoil within the Republic and peace negotiations by both sides helped keep conflict to a minimum. The majority of the Dutch public favored a military alliance with France against Britain; however, the Dutch Stadtholder impeded these efforts, hoping to secure an early peace. To restore diminishing trade a Dutch squadron under Johan Zoutman escorted a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel. Zoutman 's ships were intercepted by Sir Hyde Parker, who engaged Zoutman at Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781. Though the contest was tactically inconclusive, the Dutch fleet did not leave harbor again during the war, and their merchant fleet remained crippled.
On 6 January 1781, a French attempt to capture Jersey to neutralize British privateering failed. Frustrated in their attempts to capture Gibraltar, a Franco - Spanish force of 14,000 men under the Duc de Mahon invaded Minorca on 19 August. After a long siege of St. Philip 's, the British garrison under James Murray surrendered on 5 February 1782, securing a primary war goal for the Spanish. At Gibraltar, a major Franco - Spanish assault on 13 September 1782 was repulsed with heavy casualties. On 20 October 1782, following a successful resupply of Gibraltar, British ships under Richard Howe successfully refused battle to the Franco - Spanish fleet under Luis de Córdova, denying Córdova dominance at sea. On 7 February 1783, after 1,322 days of siege, the Franco - Spanish army withdrew, decisively defeated.
In the West Indies, on 29 -- 30 April 1781, a Royal Navy squadron under Samuel Hood was narrowly defeated by the French, led by the Comte de Grasse, who continued seizing British territories: Tobago fell on 2 June; Demerara and Essequibo on 22 January 1782; St. Kitts and Nevis on 12 February, despite a British naval victory on 25 January; and Montserrat on 22 February. In 1782, the primary strategic goal of the French and Spanish was the capture of Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the Thirteen Colonies combined. On 7 April 1782, de Grasse departed Martinique to rendezvous with Franco - Spanish troops at Saint Domingue and invade Jamaica from the north. The British under Hood and George Rodney pursued and decisively defeated the French off Dominica between 9 -- 12 April. The Franco - Spanish plan to conquer Jamaica was in ruins, and the balance of naval power in the Caribbean shifted to the Royal Navy.
After the fall of Mobile to Spanish troops under Bernardo de Gálvez, an attempt to capture Pensacola was thwarted due to a hurricane. Emboldened by the disaster, John Campbell, British commander at Pensacola, decided to recapture Mobile. Campbell 's expeditionary force of around 700 men was defeated on 7 January 1781. After re-grouping at Havana, Gálvez set out for Pensacola on 13 February. Arriving on 9 March, siege operations did not begin until 24 March, owing to difficulties in bringing the ships into the bay. After a 45 - day siege, Gálvez decisively defeated the garrison, securing the conquest of West Florida. In May, Spanish troops captured the Bahamas, although the British bloodlessly recaptured the islands the following year on 18 April.
In Guatemala, Matías de Gálvez led Spanish troops in an effort to dislocate British settlements along the Gulf of Honduras. Gálvez captured Roatán on 16 March 1782, and then quickly took Black River. Following the decisive naval victory at the Saintes, Archibald Campbell, the Royal governor of Jamaica, authorized Edward Despard to re-take Black River, which he did on 22 August. However, with peace talks opening, and Franco - Spanish resources committed to the siege of Gibraltar, no further offensive operations took place.
Few operations were conducted against the Dutch, although several Dutch colonies were captured by the British in 1781. Sint Eustatius, a key supply port for the Patriots, was sacked by British forces under George Rodney on 3 February 1782, plundering the island 's wealth.
Following Dutch entry into the conflict, East India Company troops under Hector Munro captured the Dutch port of Negapatam after a three - week siege on 11 October 1781. Soon after, British Admiral Edward Hughes captured Trincomalee after a brief engagement on 11 January 1782.
In March 1781, French Admiral Bailli de Suffren was dispatched to India to assist colonial efforts. Suffren arrived off the Indian coast in February 1782, where he clashed with a British fleet under Hughes, winning a narrow tactical victory. After landing troops at Porto Novo to assist Mysore, Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again Providien on 12 April. There was no clear victor, though Hughes ' fleet came off worse, and he withdrew to the British - held port of Trincomalee. Hyder Ali wished for the French to capture Negapatam to establish naval dominance over the British, and this task fell to Suffren. Suffren 's fleet clashed with Hughes again off Negapatam on 6 July. Suffren withdrew to Cuddalore, strategically defeated, and the British remained in control of Negapatam. Intending to find a more suitable port than Cuddalore, Suffren captured Trincomalee on 1 September, and successfully engaged Hughes two days later.
Meanwhile, Ali 's troops loosely blockaded Vellore as the East India Company regrouped. Company troops under Sir Eyre Coote led a counter-offensive, defeating Ali at Porto Novo on 1 July 1781, Pollilur on 27 August, and Sholinghur on 27 September, expelling the Mysorean troops from the Carnatic. On 18 February 1782, Tipu Sultan defeated John Braithwaite near Tanjore, taking his entire 1,800 - strong force prisoner. The war had, by this point, reached an uneasy stalemate. On 7 December 1782, Hyder Ali died, and the rule of Mysore passed to his son, Tipu Sultan.
Sultan advanced along the west coast, laying siege to Mangalore on 20 May 1783. Meanwhile, on the east coast, an army under James Stuart besieged the French - held port of Cuddalore on 9 June 1783. On 20 June, key British naval support for the siege was neutralized when Suffren defeated Hughes ' fleet off Cuddalore, and though narrow, the victory gave Suffren the opportunity to displace British holdings in India. On 25 June, the Franco - Mysorean defenders made repeated sorties against British lines, though all assaults failed. On 30 June, news arrived of a preliminary peace between the belligerent powers, and the siege was effectively over when the French abandoned the siege. Mangalore remained under siege, and capitulated to Sultan on 30 January 1784. Little fighting took place thereafter, and Mysore and Britain made peace on 11 March.
Following the surrender at Yorktown, the Whig party came to power in Britain and began opening negotiations for a cessation of hostilities. While peace negotiations were being undertaken, British troops in America were restricted from launching further offensives. Prime Minister the Earl of Shelburne was reluctant to accept American independence as a prerequisite for peace, as the British were aware that the French economy was nearly bankrupt, and reinforcements sent to the West Indies could potentially reverse the situation there. He preferred that the colonies accept Dominion status within the Empire, though a similar offer had been rejected by the Americans in 1778. Negotiations soon began in Paris.
The Americans initially demanded that Quebec be ceded to them as spoils of war, a proposal that was dropped when Shelburne accepted American demands for recognition of independence. On April 19, 1782, the Dutch formally recognized the United States as a sovereign power, enhancing American leverage at the negotiations. Spain initially impeded the negotiations, refusing to enter into peace talks until Gibraltar had been captured. The Comte de Vergennes proposed that American territory be confined to the east of the Appalachians; Britain would have sovereignty over the area north of the Ohio River, below which an Indian barrier state would be established under Spanish control. The United States fiercely opposed the proposal.
The Americans skirted their allies, recognizing that more favorable terms would be found in London. They negotiated directly with Shelburne, who hoped to make Britain a valuable trading partner of America at the expense of France. To this end, Shelburne offered to cede all the land east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Quebec, while also allowing American fishermen access to the rich Newfoundland fishery. According to one historian, Shelburne was hoping to facilitate the growth of the American population, creating lucrative markets that Britain could exploit at no administrative cost to London. As Vergennes commented, "the English buy peace rather than make it ''.
Throughout the negotiations, Britain never consulted her American Indian allies, forcing them to reluctantly accept the treaty. However, the subsequent tension erupted into conflicts between the Indians and the young United States, the largest being the Northwest Indian War. Britain continued trying to create an Indian buffer state in the American Midwest as late as 1814 during the War of 1812.
Britain negotiated separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Gibraltar proved to be a stumbling block in the peace talks; Spain offered to relinquish their conquests in West Florida, Menorca, and the Bahamas in exchange for Gibraltar, terms which Shelburne steadfastly refused. Shelburne instead offered to cede East Florida, West Florida, and Menorca if Spain would relinquish the claim on Gibraltar, terms which were reluctantly accepted. However, in the long - term, the new territorial gains were of little value to Spain. France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago in the Caribbean and Senegal in Africa, after agreeing to return all other colonial conquests to British sovereignty. Britain returned Dutch Caribbean territories to Dutch sovereignty, in exchange for free trade rights in the Dutch East Indies and control of the Indian port of Negapatnam.
Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris on 30 November 1782, while preliminaries between Britain, Spain, France, and the Netherlands continued until September 1783. The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784. The war formally concluded on September 3, 1783.
The last British troops departed New York City on November 25, 1783, marking the end of British rule in the new United States.
The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America, killing 40 people in Boston alone. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington 's decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions.
Between 25,000 and 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the British, mostly in the prison ships in New York Harbor. If the upper limit of 70,000 is accepted as the total net loss for the Patriots, it would make the conflict proportionally deadlier than the American Civil War. Uncertainty arises due to the difficulties in accurately calculating the number of those who succumbed to disease, as it is estimated at least 10,000 died in 1776 alone. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000.
The French suffered approximately 7,000 total dead throughout the conflict; of those, 2,112 were killed in combat in the American theaters of war.
The Dutch suffered around 500 total killed, owing to the minor scale of their conflict with Britain.
British returns in 1783 listed 43,633 rank and file deaths across the British Armed Forces. A table from 1781 puts total British Army deaths at 9,372 soldiers killed in battle across the Americas; 6,046 in North America (1775 -- 1779), and 3,326 in the West Indies (1778 -- 1780). In 1784, a British lieutenant compiled a detailed list of 205 British officers killed in action during the war, encompassing Europe, the Caribbean and the East Indies. Extrapolations based upon this list puts British Army losses in the area of at least 4,000 killed or died of wounds. Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.
Around 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; approximately a quarter of whom had been pressed into service. Around 1,240 were killed in battle, while an estimated 18,500 died from disease (1776 -- 1780). The greatest killer at sea was scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. It was not until 1795 that scurvy was eradicated from the Royal Navy after the Admiralty declared lemon juice and sugar were to be issued among the standard daily rations of sailors. Around 42,000 sailors deserted during the war. The impact on merchant shipping was substantial; an estimated 3,386 merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war; of those, 2,283 were taken by American privateers alone.
At the start of the war, the economy of the colonies was flourishing, and the free white population enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world. The Royal Navy enforced a naval blockade during the war to financially cripple the colonies, however, this proved unsuccessful; 90 % of the population worked in farming, not in coastal trade, and, as such, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade.
Congress had immense difficulties throughout the conflict to efficiently finance the war effort. As the circulation of hard currency declined, the Americans had to rely on loans from American merchants and bankers, France, Spain and the Netherlands, saddling the young nation with crippling debts. Congress attempted to remedy this by printing vast amounts of paper money and bills of credit to raise revenue. The effect was disastrous; inflation skyrocketed, and the paper money became virtually worthless. The inflation spawned a popular phrase that anything of little value was "not worth a continental ''.
By 1791, the United States had accumulated a national debt of approximately $75.5 million. The United States finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s, when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton secured legislation by which the national government assumed all of the state debts, and, in addition, created a national bank and a funding system based on tariffs and bond issues that paid off the foreign debts.
Britain spent around £ 80 million and ended with a national debt of £ 250 million, (£ 27.1 billion in today 's money), generating a yearly interest of £ 9.5 million annually. The debts piled upon that which it had already accumulated from the Seven Years ' War. Due to wartime taxation upon the British populace, the tax for the average Briton amounted to approximately four shillings in every pound.
The French spent approximately 1.3 billion livres on aiding the Americans, accumulating a national debt of 3.315. 1 billion livres by 1783 on war costs. Unlike Britain, which had a very efficient taxation system, the French tax system was highly unstable, eventually leading to a financial crisis in 1786. The debts contributed to a worsening fiscal crisis that ultimately begat the French Revolution at the end of the century. The debt continued to spiral; on the eve of the French Revolution, the national debt had skyrocketed to 12 billion livres.
Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million in 1779. Spain more easily disposed of her debts unlike her French ally, partially due to the massive increase in silver mining in her American colonies; production increased approximately 600 % in Mexico, and by 250 % in Peru and Bolivia.
The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million, while the Thirteen Colonies held a population of some 2.8 million, including some 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, Britain had the advantage, however, many factors inhibited the procurement of a large army.
In 1775, the standing British Army, exclusive of militia, comprised 45,123 men worldwide, made up of 38,254 infantry and 6,869 cavalry. The Army had approximately eighteen regiments of foot, some 8,500 men, stationed in North America. Standing armies had played a key role in the purge of the Long Parliament in 1648, the maintenance of a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and the overthrow of James II, and, as such, the Army had been deliberately kept small in peacetime to prevent abuses of power by the King. Despite this, eighteenth century armies were not easy guests, and were regarded with scorn and contempt by the press and public of the New and Old World alike, derided as enemies of liberty. An expression ran in the Navy; "A messmate before a shipmate, a shipmate before a stranger, a stranger before a dog, a dog before a soldier ''.
Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession, one contentious issue being pay. A Private infantryman was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman, 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living, turning off potential recruits, as service was nominally for life.
To entice people to enrol, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. After the defeat at Saratoga, Parliament doubled the bounty to £ 3, and increased it again the following year, to £ 3.3 s, as well as expanding the age limit from 17 -- 45 to 16 -- 50 years of age.
Impressment, essentially conscription by the "press gang '', was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid the press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, purely to increase the difficulty in successfully deserting.
By 1781, the Army numbered approximately 121,000 men globally, 48,000 of whom were stationed throughout the Americas. Of the 171,000 sailors who served in the Royal Navy throughout the conflict, around a quarter were pressed. Interestingly, this same proportion, approximately 42,000 men, deserted during the conflict. At its height, the Navy had 94 ships - of - the - line, 104 frigates and 37 sloops in service.
In 1775, Britain unsuccessfully attempted to secure 20,000 mercenaries from Russia, and the use of the Scots Brigade from the Dutch Republic, such was the shortage of manpower. Parliament managed to negotiate treaties with the princes of German states for large sums of money, in exchange for mercenary troops. In total, 29,875 troops were hired for British service from six German states; Brunswick (5,723), Hesse - Kassel (16,992), Hesse - Hannau (2,422), Ansbach - Bayreuth (2,353), Waldeck - Pyrmont (1,225) and Anhalt - Zerbst (1,160). King George III, who also ruled Hanover as a Prince - elector of the Holy Roman Empire, was approached by Parliament to loan the government Hanoverian soldiers for service in the war. Hanover supplied 2,365 men in five battalions, however, the lease agreement permitted them to only be used in Europe.
Without any major allies, the manpower shortage became critical when France and Spain entered the war, forcing a major diversion of military resources from the Americas. Recruiting adequate numbers of Loyalist militia in America proved difficult due to high Patriot activity. To bolster numbers, the British promised freedom and grants of land to slaves who fought for them. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war, and provided some of the best troops in the British service; the British Legion, a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry commanded by Banastre Tarleton, gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies, especially in the South.
Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief of North America at the outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst, who was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Forces in 1778, refused a direct command in America, due to unwillingness to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command, stating; "I can not draw the sword in such a cause ''. The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated they were unwilling participants, and were only following orders.
As was the case in many European armies, except the Prussian Army, officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks. Despite repeated attempts by Parliament to suppress it, the practise was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied, but were usually in line with social and military prestige, for example, regiments such as the Guards commanded the highest prices. The lower ranks often regarded the treatment to high - ranking commissions by wealthier officers as "plums for (their) consumption ''. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education, or practical experience, often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. Though Royal authority had forbade the practise since 1711, it was still permitted for infants to hold commissions. Young boys, often orphans of deceased wealthy officers, were taken from their schooling and placed in positions of responsibility within regiments.
Logistical organization of eighteenth century armies was chaotic at best, and the British Army was no exception. No logistical corps existed in the modern sense; while on campaign in foreign territories such as America, horses, wagons, and drivers were frequently requisitioned from the locals, often by impressment or by hire. No centrally organized medical corps existed. It was common for surgeons to have no formal medical education, and no diploma or entry examination was required. Nurses sometimes were apprentices to surgeons, but many were drafted from the women who followed the army. Army surgeons and doctors were poorly paid and were regarded as social inferiors to other officers.
The heavy personal equipment and wool uniform of the regular infantrymen were wholly unsuitable for combat in America, and the outfit was especially ill - suited to comfort and agile movement. During the Battle of Monmouth in late June 1778, the temperature exceeded 100 ° F (37.8 ° C) and is said to have claimed more lives through heat stroke than through actual combat. The standard - issue firearm of the British Army was the Land Pattern Musket. Some officers preferred their troops to fire careful, measured shots (around two per minute), rather than rapid firing. A bayonet made firing difficult, as its cumbersome shape hampered ramming down the charge into the barrel. British troops had a tendency to fire impetuously, resulting in inaccurate fire, a trait for which John Burgoyne criticized them during the Saratoga campaign. Burgoyne instead encouraged bayonet charges to break up enemy formations, which was a preferred tactic in most European armies at the time.
Every battalion in America had organized its own rifle company by the end of the war, although rifles were not formally issued to the army until the Baker Rifle in 1801. Flintlocks were heavily dependent on the weather; high winds could blow the gunpowder from the flash pan, while heavy rain could soak the paper cartridge, ruining the powder and rendering the musket unable to fire. Furthermore, flints used in British muskets were of notoriously poor quality; they could only be fired around six times before requiring resharpening, while American flints could fire sixty. This led to a common expression among the British: "Yankee flint was as good as a glass of grog ''.
Provisioning troops and sailors proved to be an immense challenge, as the majority of food stores had to be shipped overseas from Britain. The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the Army from living off the land. Other factors also impeded this option; the countryside was too sparsely populated and the inhabitants were largely hostile or indifferent, the network of roads and bridges was poorly developed, and the area which the British controlled was so limited that foraging parties were frequently in danger of being ambushed. After France entered the war, the threat of the French navy increased the difficulty of transporting supplies to America. The food that could be bought in America was purchased at vastly inflated prices. Soldiers stationed in the West Indies perhaps suffered the worst; the garrison commander of Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua frequently complained of the near - total lack of regular supply from Britain, and the food that could be bought was so expensive that the pay of the troops was inadequate to cover the costs.
Food supplies were frequently in terrible condition, infested with mould, weevils, worms, and maggots. Provisions were frequently destroyed by rats, and their containers were too fragile to sustain a long ocean voyage or the rigors of campaigning. The climate was also against the British in the southern colonies and the Caribbean, where the intense summer heat caused food supplies to sour and spoil. British troops stationed in America were often on the verge of starvation.
Life at sea was little better. Sailors and passengers were issued a daily food ration, largely consisting of hardtack and beer. The hardtack was often infested by weevils and was so tough that it earned the nicknames "molar breakers '' and "worm castles '', and it sometimes had to be broken up with cannon shot. Meat supplies often spoiled on long voyages. The lack of fresh fruit and vegetables gave rise to scurvy, one of the biggest killers at sea. Rum was issued as part of a daily ration and was a popular drink among soldiers and sailors alike, often mixed with fresh water to make grog.
Discipline in the armed forces was harsh, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences, nor was it applied sparingly. For instance, during the Saratoga campaign, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. During the Napoleonic Wars, one soldier received 700 lashes for stealing a beehive, while another, whom had received only 175 strikes of his 400 - lash sentence, spent three weeks in hospital from his injuries. The practise could often be a contentious source of resentment; during the Battle of Quatre Bras in 1815, the commander of the 92nd Foot was shot and killed by a soldier whom he had recently flogged. Flogging was a common punishment in the Royal Navy, and came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors.
Despite the harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self - discipline pervaded all ranks. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Soldiers drank heavily, and was not exclusive to the lower ranks; William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings '' while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in the houses they had been quartered in. Despite such issues, British troops are reported to have been generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. This is contrasted by Hessian diaries, who wrote of their disapproval of British conduct towards the colonists, such as the destruction of property and the execution of prisoners.
The presence of Hessian soldiers caused considerable anxiety amongst the colonists, both Patriot and Loyalist, who viewed them as brutal mercenaries. British soldiers were often contemptuous in their treatment of Hessian troops, despite orders from General Howe that "the English should treat the Germans as brothers ''. The order only began to have any real effect when the Hessians learned to speak a minimal degree of English, which was seen as a prerequisite for the British troops to accord them any respect.
During peacetime, the Army 's idleness led to it becoming riddled with corruption and inefficiency, resulting in a myriad of administrative difficulties once campaigning began.
The British leadership soon discovered it had overestimated the capabilities of its own troops, while underestimating those of the colonists, causing a sudden re-think in British planning. The ineffective initial response of British military and civil officials to the onset of the rebellion had allowed the advantage to shift to the colonists, as British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. A microcosm of these shortcomings were evident at the Battle of Bunker Hill. It took ten hours for the British leadership to respond following the sighting of the Americans on the Charlestown Peninsula, giving the colonists ample time to reinforce their defenses. Rather than opt for a simple flanking attack that would have rapidly succeeded with minimal loss, the British decided on repeated frontal attacks. The results were telling; the British suffered 1,054 casualties of a force of around 3,000 after repeated frontal assaults. The British leadership had nevertheless remained excessively optimistic, believing that just two regiments could suppress the rebellion in Massachusetts.
Debate persists over whether a British defeat was a guaranteed outcome. Ferling argues that the odds were so long, the defeat of Britain was nothing short of a miracle. Ellis, however, considers that the odds always favored the Americans, and questions whether a British victory by any margin was realistic. Ellis argues that the British squandered their only opportunities for a decisive success in 1777, and that the strategic decisions undertaken by William Howe underestimated the challenges posed by the Americans. Ellis concludes that, once Howe failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again ''. Conversely, the United States Army 's official textbook argues that, had Britain been able to commit 10,000 fresh troops to the war in 1780, a British victory was within the realms of possibility.
Historians such as Ellis and Stewart have observed that, under William Howe 's command, the British squandered several opportunities to achieve a decisive victory over the Americans. Throughout the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, Howe made several strategic errors, errors which cost the British opportunities for a complete victory. At Long Island, Howe failed to even attempt an encirclement of Washington, and actively restrained his subordinates from mounting an aggressive pursuit of the defeated American army. At White Plains, he refused to engage Washington 's vulnerable army, and instead concentrated his efforts upon a hill which offered the British no strategic advantage. After securing control of New York, Howe dispatched Henry Clinton to capture Newport, a measure which Clinton was opposed to, on the grounds the troops assigned to his command could have been put to better use in pursuing Washington 's retreating army. Despite the bleak outlook for the revolutionary cause and the surge of Loyalist activity in the wake of Washington 's defeats, Howe made no attempt to mount an attack upon Washington while the Americans settled down into winter quarters, much to their surprise.
During planning for the Saratoga campaign, Howe was left with the choice of committing his army to support Burgoyne, or capture Philadelphia, the revolutionary capital. Howe decided upon the latter, determining that Washington was of a greater threat. The decision left Burgoyne precariously isolated, and left the Americans confounded at the decision. Alden argues Howe may have been motivated by political opportunism; if Burgoyne was successful, he would receive the credit for a decisive victory, and not Howe. However, the confusion was further compounded by the lack of explicit and contradictory instructions from London. When Howe launched his campaign, he took his army upon a time - consuming route through the Chesapeake Bay, rather than the more sensible choices of overland through New Jersey, or by sea through the Delaware Bay. The move left him unable to assist Burgoyne even if it was required of him. The decision so confused Parliament, that Howe was accused by Tories on both sides of the Atlantic of treason.
During the Philadelphia campaign, Howe failed to pursue and destroy the defeated Americans on two occasions; once after the Battle of Brandywine, and again after the Battle of Germantown. At the Battle of White Marsh, Howe failed to even attempt to exploit the vulnerable American rear, and then inexplicably ordered a retreat to Philadelphia after only minor skirmishes, astonishing both sides. While the Americans wintered only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, which critics argue could have ended the war. Following the conclusion of the campaign, Howe resigned his commission, and was replaced by Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778.
Contrary to Howe 's more hostile critics, however, there were strategic factors at play which impeded aggressive action. Howe may have been dissuaded from pursuing aggressive manoeuvres due to the memory of the grievous losses the British suffered at Bunker Hill. During the major campaigns in New York and Philadelphia, Howe often wrote of the scarcity of adequate provisions, which hampered his ability to mount effective campaigns. Howe 's tardiness in launching the New York campaign, and his reluctance to allow Cornwallis to vigorously pursue Washington 's beaten army, have both been attributed to the paucity of available food supplies.
During the winter of 1776 -- 1777, Howe split his army into scattered cantonments. This decision dangerously exposed the individual forces to defeat in detail, as the distance between them was such that they could not mutually support each other. This strategic failure allowed the Americans to achieve victory at the Battle of Trenton, and the concurrent Battle of Princeton. While a major strategic error to divide an army in such a manner, the quantity of available food supplies in New York was so low that Howe had been compelled to take such a decision. The garrisons were widely spaced so their respective foraging parties would not interfere with each other 's efforts. Howe 's difficulties during the Philadelphia campaign were also greatly exacerbated by the poor quality and quantity of available provisions.
In 1780, the primary British strategy hinged upon a Loyalist uprising in the south, for which Charles Cornwallis was chiefly responsible. After an encouraging success at Camden, Cornwallis was poised to invade North Carolina. However, any significant Loyalist support had been effectively destroyed at the Battle of Kings Mountain, and the British Legion, the cream of his army, had been decisively defeated at the Battle of Cowpens. Following both defeats, Cornwallis was fiercely criticized for detaching a significant portion of his army without adequate mutual support. Despite the defeats, Cornwallis chose to proceed into North Carolina, gambling his success upon a large Loyalist uprising which never materialized. As a result, subsequent engagements cost Cornwallis valuable troops he could not replace, as at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse, and the Americans steadily wore his army down in an exhaustive war of attrition. Cornwallis had thus left the Carolinas ripe for reconquest. The Americans had largely achieved this aim by the end of 1781, effectively confining the British to the coast, and undoing all the progress they had made in the previous year.
In a last - ditch attempt to win the war in the South, Cornwallis resolved to invade Virginia, in order to cut off the American 's supply base to the Carolinas. Henry Clinton, Cornwallis ' superior, strongly opposed the plan, believing the decisive confrontations would take place between Washington in the North. London had approved Cornwallis plan, however they had failed to include Clinton in the decision - making, despite his seniority over Cornwallis, leading to a muddled strategic direction. Cornwallis then decided to invade Virginia without informing Clinton of his intentions. Clinton, however, had wholly failed to construct a coherent strategy for British campaigning that year, owing to his fractious relationship that he shared with Mariot Arbuthnot, his naval counterpart.
As the Franco - American army approached Cornwallis at Yorktown, he made no attempt to sally out and engage before siege lines could be erected, despite the repeated urging of his subordinate officers. Expecting relief to soon arrive from Clinton, Cornwallis prematurely abandoned all of his outer defences, which were then promptly occupied by the besiegers, serving to hasten the British defeat. These factors contributed to the eventual surrender of Cornwallis ' entire army, and the end of major operations in North America.
Like Howe before him, Clinton 's efforts to campaign suffered from chronic supply issues. In 1778, Clinton wrote to Germain complaining of the lack of supplies, even after the arrival of a convoy from Ireland. That winter, the supply issue had deteriorated so badly, that Clinton expressed considerable anxiety over how the troops were going to be properly fed. Clinton was largely inactive in the North throughout 1779, launching few major campaigns. This inactivity was partially due to the shortage of food. By 1780, the situation had not improved. Clinton wrote a frustrated correspondence to Germain, voicing concern that a "fatal consequence will ensue '' if matters did not improve. By October that year, Clinton again wrote to Germain, angered that the troops in New York had not received "an ounce '' of that year 's allotted stores from Britain.
Suppressing a rebellion in America presented the British with major problems. The key issue was distance; it could take up to three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time that they arrived. The colonies had never been formally united prior to the conflict and there was no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. Traditionally, the fall of a capital city often signalled the end of a conflict, yet the war continued unabated even after the fall of major settlements such as New York, Philadelphia (which was the Patriot capital), and Charleston. Britain 's ability to project its power overseas lay chiefly in the power of the Royal Navy, allowing her to control major coastal settlements with relative ease and enforce a strong blockade of colonial ports. However, the overwhelming majority of the American population was agrarian, not urban. As a result, the American economy proved resilient enough to withstand the blockade 's effects.
The need to maintain Loyalist support prevented the British from using the harsh methods of suppressing revolts that they had used in Scotland and Ireland. For example, British troops looted and pillaged the locals during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779, enraging both Patriots and Loyalists. Neutral colonists were often driven into the ranks of the Patriots when brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs across the Carolinas in the later stages of the war. Conversely, Loyalists were often emboldened when Patriots resorted to intimidating suspected Tories, such as destroying property or tarring and feathering. The vastness of the American countryside and the limited manpower available meant that the British could never simultaneously defeat the Americans and occupy captured territory. One British statesman described the attempt as "like trying to conquer a map ''.
Wealthy Loyalists wielded great influence in London and were successful in convincing the British that the majority view in the colonies was sympathetic toward the Crown. Consequently, British planners pinned the success of their strategies on popular uprisings of Loyalists, which never transpired on the scale required. Historians have estimated that Loyalists made up only 15 -- 20 % of the population (vs. 40 - 45 % Patriots) and that they continued to deceive themselves on their level of support as late as 1780. The British discovered that any significant level of organized Loyalist activity would require the continued presence of British regulars, which presented them with a major dilemma. The manpower that the British had available was insufficient to both protect Loyalist territory and counter American advances. The vulnerability of Loyalist militias was repeatedly demonstrated in the South, where they suffered strings of defeats to their Patriot neighbors. The most crucial juncture of this was at Kings Mountain, and the victory of the Patriot partisans irreversibly crippled Loyalist military capability in the South.
Upon the entry of France and Spain into the conflict, the British were forced to severely limit the number of troops and warships that they sent to North America in order to defend other key territories and the British mainland. As a result, King George III abandoned any hope of subduing America militarily while he had a European war to contend with. The small size of Britain 's army left them unable to concentrate their resources primarily in one theater as they had done in the Seven Years ' War, leaving them at a critical disadvantage. The British were compelled to disperse troops from the Americas to Europe and the East Indies, and these forces were unable to assist one other as a result, precariously exposing them to defeat. In North America, the immediate strategic focus of the French, Spanish, and British shifted to Jamaica, whose sugar exports were more valuable to the British than the economy of the Thirteen Colonies combined.
Following the end of the war, Britain had lost some of her most populous colonies. However, the economic effects of the loss were negligible in the long - term, and she became a global superpower just 32 years after the end of the conflict.
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. The state governments were themselves brand new and officials had no administrative experience. In peacetime the colonies relied heavily on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel.
However, the Americans had multiple advantages that in the long run outweighed the initial disadvantages they faced. The Americans had a large prosperous population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British were mostly shipped in from across the ocean. The British faced a vast territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. Most of the Americans lived on farms distant from the seaports -- the British could capture any port but that did not give them control over the hinterland. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long - established system of local militia, previously used to combat the French and Native Americans, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army created by Congress.
Motivation was a major asset. The Patriots wanted to win; over 200,000 fought in the war; 25,000 died. The British expected the Loyalists to do much of the fighting, but they did much less than expected. The British also hired German mercenaries to do much of their fighting.
At the onset of the war, the Americans had no major international allies. Battles such as the Battle of Bennington, the Battles of Saratoga and even defeats such as the Battle of Germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations such as France and Spain, who moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies, to overtly supporting them militarily, moving the war to a global stage.
The new Continental Army suffered significantly from a lack of an effective training regime, and largely inexperienced officers and sergeants. The inexperience of its officers was compensated for in part by its senior officers; officers such as George Washington, Horatio Gates, Charles Lee, Richard Montgomery and Francis Marion all had military experience with the British Army during the French and Indian War. The Americans solved their training dilemma during their stint in Winter Quarters at Valley Forge, where they were relentlessly drilled and trained by General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, a veteran of the famed Prussian General Staff. He taught the Continental Army the essentials of military discipline, drills, tactics and strategy, and wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual. When the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to equally match the British troops in battle when they fought a successful strategic action at the Battle of Monmouth.
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war.
Three current branches of the United States Military trace their institutional roots to the American Revolutionary War; the United States Army comes from the Continental Army, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775. The United States Navy recognizes October 13, 1775 as the date of its official establishment, the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia that created the Continental Navy. And the United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington 's army had 20,000 men, with two - thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard privateers during the war. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.
Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable, on the American side, to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities; and, on the British side, to the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic, as well as the dependence on local supplies, which the Patriots tried to cut off. The largest force Washington commanded was certainly under 17,000, and may have been no more than 13,000 troops, and even the combined American and French forces at the siege of Yorktown amounted to only about 19,000. By comparison, Duffy notes that in an era when European rulers were generally revising their forces downward, in favor of a size that could be most effectively controlled (the very different perspective of mass conscript armies came later, during the French Revolutionary and then the Napoleonic Wars), the largest army that Frederick the Great ever led into battle was 65,000 men (at Prague in 1757), and at other times he commanded between 23,000 and 50,000 men, considering the latter the most effective number.
African Americans -- slave and free -- served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served by act of Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all - black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Some of the men promised freedom were sent back to their masters, after the war was over, out of political convenience. Another all - black unit came from Saint - Domingue with French colonial forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.
Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off in the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war. This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves belonging to Loyalists. Altogether, the British evacuated nearly 20,000 blacks at the end of the war. More than 3,000 of them were freedmen and most of these were resettled in Nova Scotia; other blacks were sold in the West Indies.
Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were on friendly terms with the other Americans, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men. The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict, whatever side they took; the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk nation fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant sided with the Americans and the British respectively, and this further exacerbated the split.
Early in July 1776, a major action occurred in the fledgling conflict when the Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the western frontier areas of North Carolina. Their defeat resulted in a splintering of the Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the Chickamauga Cherokee, bitter enemies of the Colonials who carried on a frontier war for decades following the end of hostilities with Britain.
Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown 's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah. Many Indians were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River -- mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots. The British took some 12,000 at the end of the war; of these 8000 remained in slavery. Including those who left during the war, a total of about 8000 to 10,000 slaves gained freedom. About 4000 freed slaves went to Nova Scotia and 1200 blacks remained slaves.
Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man 's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person 's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant 's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution 's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.
McDonnell (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia 's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave - owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large - scale desertion, so that Virginia 's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class division as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.
These are some of the standard works about the war in general that are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles.
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where will toy story land go in hollywood studios | Toy Story Land - wikipedia
Toy Story Land (known as Toy Story Playland at Walt Disney Studios Park) is a themed land at Walt Disney Studios Park, Hong Kong Disneyland, and soon - to - be at Disney 's Hollywood Studios and Shanghai Disneyland. The area is based on the Disney Pixar film series, Toy Story. In France, it is part of Toon Studio and opened on August 17, 2010 at a cost of 79 million euros. In Hong Kong, Toy Story Land opened on November 18, 2011. A version of Toy Story Land for Disney 's Hollywood Studios was announced on August 15, 2015 at the D23 Expo.
During Mickey 's Magical Party in 2009, information was leaked about an expansion at Walt Disney Studios Park, the resort later confirmed this. The new Pixar themed area helped promote Toy Story 3. The area is designed to "shrink the guest '' down to being the size of a toy, and to play in Andy 's Backyard with his toys. It had to do this through using highly immersive theming, using bamboo to act as giant blades of grass surrounding the area, the use of many themed props and characters from the Toy Story films such as a giant Buzz Lightyear, a giant Rex, an oversized paper plane and a large ball from the first Pixar short, Luxo Jr. The area also features numerous photo opportunities. Construction of the area started in late 2009 and was finished on time. The new area is located to the right of Walt Disney Studios Park, behind the Art of Disney Animation. It has been rumoured that the hugely popular Toy Story Midway Mania! attraction, found in Disney 's Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort, Disney California Adventure Park at the Disneyland Resort, and Tokyo DisneySea at the Tokyo Disney Resort may be built here in a few years time.
Hong Kong Disneyland features an almost identical land, named simply Toy Story Land (Traditional Chinese: 反 斗 奇兵 大本營). This expansion area is exclusive within Asia to Hong Kong for five years from the date of its opening. The land is themed identically; using bamboo to act as giant blades of grass surrounding the area, the use of many themed props and characters from the Toy Story films such as a giant Woody, a giant Rex, an oversized paper plane and also a large ball from the first Pixar short, Luxo Jr. The land opened on November 18, 2011. The land is located to the west side of Hong Kong Disneyland, behind Fantasyland. It has been rumoured that the widely popular Toy Story Midway Mania! attraction, found in Disney 's Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort, Disney California Adventure Park at the Disneyland Resort, and Tokyo DisneySea at the Tokyo Disney Resort may be built here in a few years time.
In February 6, 2013, a new shop named Andy 's Toy Box has been opened, next to RC Racer.
"Toy Story Land '' was announced for the park in November 9, 2016, when Bob Iger, chairman and chief executive officer of The Walt Disney Company, along with Bob Chapek, chairman of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, and Fan Xiping, chairman of Shanghai Shendi Group, celebrated breaking ground on the new expansion.
Toy Story Land at Shanghai Disneyland will be located between Tomorrowland and Fantasyland. The land will feature three attractions and a themed character greeting area.
Toy Story Land was announced for the park at the 2015 D23 Expo, set to be around 11 acres (4.5 ha) and feature a different attraction lineup, including a new entrance for the expanded Toy Story Midway Mania! The other attractions include a Slinky Dog themed family coaster and an attraction based around The Claw and the Little Green Men. Construction on the land began on April 3, 2016, and is scheduled to open on June 30, 2018.
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name of chief minister of all states of india 2018 | List of current Indian Chief ministers - Wikipedia
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty - nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state - level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly 's confidence, the chief minister 's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he / she can serve.
Since June 2018, the office of Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir has been vacant; Governor 's rule is in force there. Of the thirty incumbents, two are women -- Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 23 years, 216 days), Sikkim 's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Amarinder Singh (b. 1942) of Punjab is the oldest chief minister while Arunachal Pradesh 's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest. Fifteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party and three to the Indian National Congress; no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
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all james bond movies in order of release | List of James Bond films - wikipedia
James Bond is a fictional character created by novelist Ian Fleming in 1953. Bond is a British secret agent working for MI6 who also answers by his codename, 007. He has been portrayed on film by actors Sean Connery, David Niven, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig, in twenty - six productions. Only two films were not made by Eon Productions. Eon now holds the full adaptation rights to all of Fleming 's Bond novels.
In 1961 producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman joined forces to purchase the filming rights to Fleming 's novels. They founded the production company Eon Productions and, with financial backing by United Artists, began working on Dr. No, which was directed by Terence Young and featured Connery as Bond. Following Dr. No 's release in 1962, Broccoli and Saltzman created the holding company Danjaq to ensure future productions in the James Bond film series. The series currently encompasses twenty - four films, with the most recent, Spectre, released in October 2015. With a combined gross of nearly $7 billion to date, the films produced by Eon constitute the Fourth - highest - grossing film series, behind Star Wars, Harry Potter and the Marvel Cinematic Universe films. Accounting for the effects of inflation the Bond films have amassed over $14 billion at current prices. The films have won five Academy Awards: for Sound Effects (now Sound Editing) in Goldfinger (at the 37th Awards), to John Stears for Visual Effects in Thunderball (at the 38th Awards), to Per Hallberg and Karen Baker Landers for Sound Editing, and to Adele and Paul Epworth for Original Song in Skyfall (at the 85th Awards), and to Sam Smith and Jimmy Napes for Original Song in Spectre (at the 88th Awards). Additionally, several of the songs produced for the films have been nominated for Academy Awards for Original Song, including Paul McCartney 's "Live and Let Die '', Carly Simon 's "Nobody Does It Better '' and Sheena Easton 's "For Your Eyes Only ''. In 1982, Albert R. Broccoli received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.
When Broccoli and Saltzman bought the rights to existing and future Fleming titles, it did not include Casino Royale, which had already been sold to producer Gregory Ratoff, with the story having been adapted for television in 1954. After Ratoff 's death, the rights were passed on to Charles K. Feldman, who subsequently produced the satirical Bond spoof Casino Royale in 1967. A legal case ensured that the film rights to the novel Thunderball were held by Kevin McClory as he, Fleming and scriptwriter Jack Whittingham had written a film script upon which the novel was based. Although Eon Productions and McClory joined forces to produce Thunderball, McClory still retained the rights to the story and adapted Thunderball into 1983 's Never Say Never Again. The current distribution rights to both of those films are held by Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, the studio which distributes Eon 's regular series.
Strangways, the British Intelligence (SIS) Station Chief in Jamaica, is killed. In response, British agent James Bond -- also known as 007 -- is sent to Jamaica to investigate the circumstances. During his investigation Bond meets Quarrel, a Cayman fisherman, who had been working with Strangways around the nearby islands to collect mineral samples. One of the islands was Crab Key, home to the reclusive Dr. No.
Bond visits the island, where he meets a local shell diver, Honey Ryder. The three are attacked by No 's men, who kill Quarrel using a flame - throwing armoured tractor; Bond and Honey are taken prisoner. Dr. No informs them he is a member of SPECTRE, the SPecial Executive for Counter-intelligence, Terrorism, Revenge, and Extortion, and he plans to disrupt the Project Mercury space launch from Cape Canaveral with his atomic - powered radio beam. Bond and Honey escape from the island, killing No and blowing up his lair in the process.
SPECTRE 's expert planner Kronsteen devises a plot to steal a Lektor cryptographic device from the Soviets and sell it back to them while exacting revenge on Bond for killing their agent Dr. No; ex-SMERSH operative Rosa Klebb is in charge of the mission. She recruits Donald Grant as an assassin and Tatiana Romanova, a cipher clerk at the Soviet consulate in Istanbul, as the unwitting bait.
Bond travels to Turkey and meets with Ali Kerim Bey, the MI6 officer in Turkey. Between them, they obtain the Lektor, and the three escape with the device on the Orient Express. However, they are followed by Grant, who kills Kerim Bey and a Soviet security officer. Grant pretends to be another British agent and meets Bond. Over dinner Grant drugs Romanova, then overcomes Bond. Bond tricks Grant into opening Bond 's attaché case in the manner that detonates its tear gas booby trap, allowing Bond to attack and kill him. Bond and Romanova escape with the Lektor to Venice. Rosa Klebb, disguised as a hotel maid, attempts to steal the Lektor and kill Bond, but ends up being shot by Romanova.
Bond is ordered to observe bullion dealer Auric Goldfinger. He suspects Goldfinger of cheating at cards and foils his scheme by distracting his female accomplice, who is later killed by Goldfinger 's Korean manservant and henchman Oddjob after Bond seduces her. Bond is then instructed to investigate Goldfinger 's gold smuggling operation and he tails the dealer to Switzerland. Bond is captured when he reconnoitres Goldfinger 's plant and is drugged unconscious; Goldfinger then transports Bond to his Kentucky stud farm where he holds Bond captive. Bond escapes briefly to witness Goldfinger 's meeting with US mafiosi, observing secretly as Goldfinger presents to the gangsters his plans to rob Fort Knox by using materials they have smuggled to him.
Bond is recaptured after hearing the details of the operation, but he subsequently seduces Pussy Galore, Goldfinger 's private pilot and convinces her to inform the American authorities. Goldfinger 's private army break into Fort Knox and access the vault, where Bond fights and kills Oddjob, while American troops battle with Goldfinger 's army outside. Bond 's plane is hijacked by Goldfinger, but Bond struggles with him, and shoots out a window, creating an explosive decompression, killing Goldfinger.
Bond investigates the hijacking of an Avro Vulcan loaded with two atomic bombs, which had been taken by SPECTRE. The organisation demands a ransom for the return of the bombs. Bond follows a lead to the Bahamas, where he meets up with his CIA counterpart and friend Felix Leiter. The pair suspect a rich playboy, Emilio Largo, and search the area around his yacht and then the area where they think the yacht may have travelled. After finding the plane -- but without the nuclear devices on board -- the two agents arrange for Largo 's yacht to be tracked and ambushed once the bombs are being moved by Largo.
Bond is brought out of retirement to deal with SMERSH and is promoted to the head of MI6 on the death of M. He recruits baccarat player Evelyn Tremble to beat SMERSH agent Le Chiffre. Having embezzled SMERSH 's money, Le Chiffre is desperate for money to cover up his theft. Tremble stops Le Chiffre 's cheating and beats him in a game of baccarat. Tremble is captured, tortured and killed. Bond establishes that the casino is located atop a giant underground headquarters run by the evil Dr. Noah; he and Moneypenny travel there to investigate. Dr. Noah turns out to be Sir James 's nephew Jimmy Bond, who plans to use biological warfare to make all women beautiful and kill all tall men, leaving him as the "big man '' who gets all the girls. The casino is then overrun by secret agents and a battle ensues, but the building explodes, killing all inside.
007 is sent to Japan to investigate the hijacking of an American spacecraft by an unidentified spacecraft. Upon his arrival, Bond is contacted by Aki, assistant to the Japanese secret service leader Tiger Tanaka. Bond established that the mastermind behind the hijacking is Ernst Stavro Blofeld and SPECTRE, in conjunction with Osato, a local industrialist. Bond follows the trail to Blofeld 's island headquarters.
Tanaka 's ninja troops attack the island, while Bond manages to distract Blofeld and create a diversion which allows him to open the hatch, letting in the ninjas. During the battle, Osato is killed by Blofeld, who activates the base 's self - destruct system and escapes. Bond, Kissy, Tanaka, and the surviving ninjas escape through the cave tunnel before it explodes, and are rescued by submarine.
While searching for Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the head of SPECTRE, Bond saves Tracy di Vicenzo on the beach from committing suicide by drowning, and later meets her again in a casino. Bond then receives information from Marc - Ange Draco, the head of the European crime syndicate Unione Corse and Tracy 's father, about Blofeld 's Swiss solicitor. Bond breaks into the solicitors office and establishes Blofeld is corresponding with the London College of Arms. Posing as an emissary of the college, Bond meets Blofeld, who has established a clinical allergy - research institute atop Piz Gloria in the Swiss Alps. Bond soon establishes that Blofeld is brainwashing his patients to distribute bacteriological warfare agents throughout various parts of the world.
Bond escapes from the clinic after Blofeld identifies him as the British agent. Bond arranges a raid on the clinic using men from Draco 's organisation. The raid is a success, although Blofeld escapes. Bond marries Tracy, but she is murdered shortly afterwards by Irma Bunt, Blofeld 's partner.
Bond is tasked with investigating a major diamond smuggling ring which begins in Africa and runs through Holland and the UK to the United States. Disguised as professional smuggler and murderer Peter Franks, Bond travels to Amsterdam to meet contact Tiffany Case: he is given the diamonds and travels on to the US, where he is met by Felix Leiter. Bond moves through the chain, which leads to the Whyte House, a casino - hotel owned by the reclusive billionaire Willard Whyte.
Bond follows the diamonds to a pick - up by Bert Saxby, Whyte 's head of security, and then onto a research laboratory owned by Whyte, where he finds that a satellite is being built by a laser refraction specialist, Professor Dr. Metz. Suspecting Whyte, Bond tries to confront him, but instead meets Blofeld, who captures the agent and explains to him that the satellite can blow up nuclear missiles. Blofeld admits that he intends to auction it to the highest bidder. Bond escapes and frees the captive Whyte and they establish that Blofeld is using an offshore oil rig as his base. Bond attacks the rig, stopping Blofeld 's operation and dispersing his organisation.
James Bond is sent to investigate the murder of three British MI6 agents, all of whom have been killed within 24 hours. He discovers the victims were all separately investigating the operations of Dr. Kananga, the dictator of a small Caribbean island, San Monique. He also establishes that Kananga also acts as Mr. Big, a ruthless and cunning gangster.
Upon visiting San Monique, Bond determines that Kananga is producing two tons of heroin and is protecting the poppy fields by exploiting locals ' fear of voodoo and the occult. Through his alter ego, Mr. Big, Kananga plans to distribute the heroin free of charge at his Fillet of Soul restaurants, which will increase the number of addicts. Bond is captured by Kananga, but he escapes, killing Kananga and destroying the poppy crop.
After receiving a golden bullet with James Bond 's code "007 '' etched into its surface M relieves Bond of a mission locating a British scientist, Gibson, who has invented the "Solex agitator '', a device to harness solar power, thereby solving the energy crisis. The bullet signifies Bond is a target of assassin Francisco Scaramanga and Bond sets out unofficially to find him. From a spent golden bullet, Bond tracks Scaramanga to Macau, where he sees Scaramanga 's mistress collecting golden bullets at a casino. Bond follows her to Hong Kong, where he witnesses the murder of Gibson and the theft of the Solex agitator. Bond is subsequently assigned to retrieve the agitator and assassinate Scaramanga.
Bond meets with Hai Fat, a wealthy Thai entrepreneur suspected of arranging Gibson 's murder, and is captured, but subsequently escapes. He tracks Scaramanga to an island in Red Chinese waters, where the two men fight a duel: Bond kills the assassin.
Bond is tasked with investigating the disappearance of British and Soviet ballistic missile submarines and the subsequent offer to sell a submarine tracking system. Bond works alongside Major Anya Amasova of the KGB. The pair track the plans across Egypt and identify the person responsible for the thefts as shipping tycoon, scientist and anarchist Karl Stromberg.
Bond and Amasova follow a suspicious tanker owned by Stromberg and establish it is responsible for the missing submarines; the submarine in which they are travelling is also captured by Stromberg. Stromberg plans to destroy Moscow and New York, triggering nuclear war: he planned to then establish a new civilisation. Bond escapes, freeing the submariners captured from the other submarines and follows Stromberg to his headquarters, where he shoots the tycoon and a torpedo destroys the base.
A Drax Industries Moonraker space shuttle on loan is hijacked and Bond is ordered to investigate. Bond meets the owner of the company, Hugo Drax and one of Drax 's scientists, Dr. Holly Goodhead. Bond follows the trail to Venice, where he establishes that Drax is manufacturing a nerve gas deadly to humans, but harmless to animals. Bond again meets Goodhead and finds out that she is a CIA agent.
Bond travels to the Amazon looking for Drax 's research facility, where he is captured. He and Goodhead pose as pilots on one of six space shuttles being sent by Drax to a hidden space station. There Bond finds out that Drax plans to destroy all human life by launching fifty globes containing the toxin into the Earth 's atmosphere. Bond and Goodhead disable the radar jammer hiding the station from Earth and the US sends a platoon of Marines in a military space shuttle. During the battle, Bond kills Drax and his station is destroyed.
After a British spy boat sinks, a marine archaeologist, Sir Timothy Havelock, is tasked to retrieve its Automatic Targeting Attack Communicator (ATAC) communication system before the Russians do. After Havelock is murdered by Gonzales, a Cuban hit - man, Bond is ordered to find out who hired Gonzales. While investigating, Bond is captured, but Gonzales is subsequently killed by Havelock 's daughter Melina, and she and Bond escape. Bond identifies one of those present with Gonzales as Emile Leopold Locque and so follows a lead to Italy and meets his contact, Luigi Ferrara, and a well - connected Greek businessman and intelligence informant, Aris Kristatos. Kristatos tells Bond that Locque is employed by Milos Columbo, Kristatos ' former organised crime partner.
After Ferrara is murdered -- and the evidence points to Columbo -- Bond is captured by men working for Columbo. Columbo then explains that Locque was actually hired by Kristatos, who is working for the KGB to retrieve the ATAC. Bond and Melina recover the ATAC but are captured by Kristatos. They escape and follow Kristatos to Greece, where he is killed and the ATAC is destroyed by Bond.
Bond investigates the murder of 009, killed in East Berlin while dressed as a circus clown and carrying a fake Fabergé egg. An identical egg appears at auction and Bond establishes the buyer, exiled Afghan prince, Kamal Khan is working with Orlov, a renegade Soviet general, who is seeking to expand Soviet borders into Europe. Bond meets Octopussy, a wealthy woman who leads the Octopus cult. Bond finds out that Orlov has been supplying Khan with priceless Soviet treasures, replacing them with replicas, while Khan has been smuggling the real versions into the West, via Octopussy 's circus troupe.
Bond infiltrates the circus, and finds that Orlov replaced the Soviet treasures with a nuclear warhead, primed to explode at a US Air Force base in West Germany. The explosion would trigger Europe into seeking disarmament, in the belief that the bomb was an American one that was detonated by accident, leaving the West 's borders open to Soviet invasion. Bond deactivates the warhead and then he returns to India, joining an assault on Khan 's palace.
Bond investigates the hijacking of two cruise missiles with live nuclear warheads which had been taken by SPECTRE. He meets Domino Petachi, the pilot 's sister, and her lover, Maximillian Largo, a SPECTRE agent. Following them to France, Bond informs Domino of her brother 's death and subsequently finds his MI6 colleague killed by Fatima Blush, another SPECTRE agent: Bond kills her. Bond and Felix Leiter then attempt to board Largo 's motor yacht, the Flying Saucer, in search of the missing nuclear warheads. Bond becomes trapped and is taken, with Domino, to Palmyra, Largo 's base of operations in North Africa, but Bond subsequently escapes with Domino. The two agents ambush Largo while he is placing one of the bombs.
Bond investigates millionaire industrialist Max Zorin, who is trying to corner the world market in microchips. He establishes that Zorin was previously trained and financed by the KGB, but has now gone rogue. Zorin unveils to a group of investors his plan to destroy Silicon Valley which will give him a monopoly in the manufacturing of microchips.
Bond uncovers Zorin 's plan is to detonate explosives beneath the lakes along the Hayward and San Andreas faults, which will cause them to flood. A larger bomb is also on site in the mine to destroy a "geological lock '' that prevents the two faults from moving at the same time. Bond destroys the bomb, and subsequently kills Zorin.
Bond aids the defection of KGB officer General Georgi Koskov, by wounding a female KGB sniper, Kara Milovy, a cellist. During his debriefing Koskov alleges KGB 's old policy of Smert Spionam, meaning Death to Spies, has been revived by General Leonid Pushkin, the new head of the KGB. Koskov is subsequently abducted from the safe - house and Bond is ordered to kill Pushkin.
Bond tracks down Milovy and establishes she is Koskov 's girlfriend and that the defection was staged. He subsequently finds out that Koskov is a friend of the arms dealer Brad Whitaker. After meeting Pushkin and faking his assassination by Bond, Bond investigates a scheme by Koskov and Whitaker to embezzle KGB funds and use them to purchase diamonds, which they then use to purchase drugs. After Koskov purchases the drugs, Bond destroys them. Koskov is subsequently arrested by Pushkin, while Bond kills Whitaker.
Bond aids Felix Leiter in the capture of drugs lord Franz Sanchez; Sanchez escapes and maims Leiter, killing his wife. Bond swears revenge, but is ordered to return to duty by M. Bond refuses, and M revokes his licence to kill, causing Bond to become a rogue agent; although officially stripped of his status, he is unofficially given help by Q.
Bond journeys to Sanchez 's home in the Republic of Isthmus and is taken onto Sanchez 's staff, where he manages to raise Sanchez 's suspicions against a number of his employees. When Bond is taken to Sanchez 's main base and drugs refinery, he is recognised by one of Sanchez 's men and captured. He escapes, destroying the refinery in the process, and pursues Sanchez, killing him.
In 1986 Bond and Alec Trevelyan -- agent 006 -- infiltrate an illicit Soviet chemical weapons facility and plant explosive charges. Trevelyan is shot, but Bond escapes from the facility as it explodes. Nine years later, Bond witnesses the theft by criminal organisation Janus of a prototype Eurocopter Tiger helicopter that can withstand an electromagnetic pulse. Janus uses the helicopter to steal the control disk for the dual GoldenEye satellite weapons, using the GoldenEye to destroy the complex with an electromagnetic pulse; there are two survivors of the attack, a programmer, Natalya Simonova, and Boris Grishenko.
Bond investigates the attack and travels to Russia where he locates Simonova and learns that Trevelyan, who had faked his own death, was the head of Janus. Simonova tracks computer traffic to Cuba and she and Bond travel there and locate Trevelyan, who reveals his plan to steal money from the Bank of England before erasing all of its financial records with the GoldenEye, concealing the theft and destroying Britain 's economy. Bond and Simonova destroy the satellite facility, killing Trevelyan and Grishenko in the process.
Bond investigates the sinking of a British warship in Chinese waters, the theft of one of the ship 's cruise missiles -- and the shooting down of a Chinese fighter plane. He uncovers a link to media mogul Elliot Carver which suggests that Carver had purchased a GPS encoder on the black market.
Bond encounters Chinese agent Wai Lin, who is also investigating the matter and the two agree to work together. They discover that Carver had used the GPS encoder to push the British ship off course and into Chinese waters to incite a war for ratings. With the British fleet on their way to China, Bond and Wai Lin find Carver 's stealth ship, board it and prevent the firing of a British cruise missile at Beijing. They blow a hole in the ship, exposing it to radar, leading to its sinking averting war between Britain and China.
Bond recovers money for Sir Robert King, a British oil tycoon and friend of M, but the money is booby - trapped and kills King shortly afterwards. Bond traces the money to Renard, a KGB agent - turned - terrorist, who had previously kidnapped King 's daughter Elektra. MI6 believes that Renard is targeting Elektra King a second time and Bond is assigned to protect her: the pair are subsequently attacked.
Bond visits Valentin Zukovsky and is informed that Elektra 's head of security, Davidov, is in league with Renard: Bond kills Davidov and follows the trail to a Russian ICBM base in Kazakhstan. Posing as a Russian nuclear scientist, Bond meets American nuclear physicist Christmas Jones. The two witness Renard stealing the GPS locator card and a half quantity of weapons - grade plutonium from a bomb and set off an explosion, from which Bond and Jones escape. Elektra kidnaps M after she thinks Bond had been killed and Bond establishes that Elektra intends to create a nuclear explosion in a submarine in Istanbul to increase the value of her own oil pipeline. Bond frees M, kills Elektra and then disarms the bomb on the submarine where he kills Renard.
Bond investigates North Korean Colonel Tan - Sun Moon, who is illegally trading African conflict diamonds for weapons. Moon is apparently killed and Bond is captured and tortured for 14 months, after which he is exchanged for Zao, Moon 's assistant. Despite being suspended on his return, he decides to complete his mission and tracks down Zao to a gene therapy clinic, where patients can have their appearances altered through DNA restructuring. Zao escapes, but the trail leads to British billionaire Gustav Graves.
Graves unveils a mirror satellite, "Icarus '', which is able to focus solar energy on a small area and provide year - round sunshine for crop development. Bond discovers Moon has also undergone the gene therapy and has assumed the identity of Graves. Bond then exposes Moon 's plan: to use the Icarus to cut a path through the Korean Demilitarized Zone with concentrated sunlight, allowing North Korean troops to invade South Korea and reunite the countries through force. Bond disables the Icarus controls, kills Moon and stops the invasion.
A reboot of the series, with Bond winning his 00 status in the pre-credits sequence. Bond is instructed to investigate the funding of terrorism. He tracks down and kills a bomb - maker and takes his mobile phone. Searching through the phone, Bond discovers a text message which he traces to Alex Dimitrios, and then on to financer Le Chiffre. Le Chiffre 's investments involve short - selling stock in successful companies and then engineering terrorist attacks to sink their share prices. Bond foils Le Chiffre 's plan to destroy the prototype Skyfleet airliner, which forces Le Chiffre to set up a high - stakes poker tournament at the Casino Royale to recoup his fortune. Bond is instructed to beat Le Chiffre and is aided by a member of HM Treasury, Vesper Lynd.
Bond beats Le Chiffre at the poker table, but Lynd is kidnapped by Le Chiffre after the game, as is Bond, who is captured whilst pursuing them; Lynd is ransomed for the money and Bond is tortured. Le Chiffre is subsequently killed by Mr. White, a liaison between Le Chiffre and a number of his clients. Bond learns that his poker winnings were never repaid to the Treasury, which Lynd was supposed to have done, and Bond establishes that she was a double agent. Bond pursues her and is attacked by members of White 's organisation: he survives, but White takes the money and Lynd sacrifices herself in exchange for Bond 's life, as he later finds out from M. Bond subsequently finds and captures White.
Along with M, Bond interrogates Mr. White regarding his organisation, Quantum. M 's bodyguard, Mitchell, a double agent, attacks M, enabling White to escape. Bond traces the organisation to Haiti and a connection to environmentalist Dominic Greene.
Bond uncovers a plot between Greene and an exiled Bolivian General, Medrano, to put Medrano in power in Bolivia while Quantum are given a monopoly to run the water supply to the country. Bond ascertains Quantum are damming Bolivia 's supply of fresh water to force the price up. Bond attacks the hotel where Greene and Medrano are finalising their plans and leaves Greene stranded in the desert with only a tin of engine oil to drink. Bond then finds Vesper Lynd 's former lover and member of Quantum, Yusef Kabira.
After an operation in Istanbul ends in disaster, Bond is missing and presumed to be dead. In the aftermath, questions are raised over M 's ability to run the Secret Service, and she becomes the subject of a government review over her handling of the situation. The Service itself is attacked, prompting Bond 's return to London. His presence assists MI6 's investigation in uncovering a lead, and Bond is sent to Shanghai and Macau in pursuit of a mercenary named Patrice. There, he establishes a connection to Raoul Silva, a former MI6 agent who was captured and tortured by Chinese agents. Blaming M for his imprisonment, he sets in motion a plan to ruin her reputation before murdering her. Bond saves M and attempts to lure Silva into a trap, and while he is successful in repelling Silva 's assault, M is mortally wounded. Bond returns to active duty under the command of the new M, Gareth Mallory.
In the aftermath of Raoul Silva 's attack on MI6, a cryptic message sets in motion events that will see James Bond come face - to - face with the sinister organisation known as SPECTRE. As Gareth Mallory, the newly appointed M, continues fighting political pressures that threaten the future of MI6, Bond follows a trail from Mexico to Austria and Morocco as he is drawn into a confrontation with an enemy from his past; one who holds a dangerous secret that will force him to question the value of everything he has fought to protect.
The Eon - produced films have a combined gross of nearly $7 billion, and constitute the fourth - highest - grossing film series, behind Star Wars, Harry Potter films and the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
The Bond films have been nominated for a number of awards throughout their fifty - year history, with most films winning an award; these include successes at the British Academy Film Awards, Golden Globe Awards and Academy Awards. In addition, in 1982 Albert R. Broccoli received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.
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where did the red cross emblem come from | Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement - wikipedia
The emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, under the Geneva Conventions, are to be placed on humanitarian and medical vehicles and buildings, and to be worn by medical personnel and others carrying out humanitarian work, to protect them from military attack on the battlefield. There are four such emblems, three of which are in use: the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, and the Red Crystal. The Red Lion and Sun is also a recognized emblem, but is no longer in use.
There were also prior disputes concerning the use of a Red Star of David by Magen David Adom (MDA), the Israeli first - aid society; the Red Crystal was created in response to these disputes, thus enabling the admission of MDA to the movement.
In popular culture, the red cross symbol came to be a recognisable generic emblem for medicine, commonly associated with first aid, medical services, products, or professionals; it has been misused in toys, movies, and video games, outside its defined context. After objections from the Movement, derivatives and alternatives are used. Johnson & Johnson had registered the symbol for their medicinal products. The appropriation of the symbol has led to further confusion when first aid teams and ski patrols in the United States reverse the symbol -- a white cross on a red background -- thus suggesting an affiliation with Switzerland by simply re-applying the original idea of the red cross symbol, namely by reversing the red cross symbol 's colors.
The symbols described below have two distinctively different meanings. On one hand, the visual symbols of the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal serve as protection markings in armed conflicts, a denotation which is derived from and defined in the Geneva Conventions. This is called the protective use of the symbols. On the other hand, these symbols are used as distinctive logos by those organizations which are part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. This is the indicative use of the emblems, a meaning which is defined in the statutes of the International Movement and partly in the third Additional Protocol.
As a protection symbol, they are used in armed conflicts to mark persons and objects (buildings, vehicles, etc.) which are working in compliance with the rules of the Geneva Conventions. In this function, they can also be used by organizations and objects which are not part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, for example the medical services of the armed forces, civilian hospitals, and civil defense units. As protection symbols, these emblems should be used without any additional specification (textual or otherwise) and in a prominent manner which makes them as visible and observable as possible, for example by using large white flags bearing the symbol. Four of these symbols, namely the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal, are defined in the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols as symbols for protective use.
When used as an organizational logo, these symbols only indicate that persons, vehicles, buildings, etc. which bear the symbols belong to a specific organization which is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (like the ICRC, the International Federation or the national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies). In this case, they should be used with an additional specification (for example "American Red Cross '') and not be displayed as prominently as when used as protection symbols. Three of these symbols, namely the Red Cross, the Red Crescent and the Red Crystal, can be used for indicative purposes by national societies for use in their home country or abroad. In addition to that, the Red Shield of David (Star of David) can be used by the Israel society Magen David Adom for indicative purposes within Israel, and, pending the approval of the respective host country, in combination with the Red Crystal when working abroad.
The Red Cross on white background was the original protection symbol declared at the 1864 Geneva Convention. The ideas to introduce a uniform and neutral protection symbol as well as its specific design originally came from Dr. Louis Appia, a Swiss surgeon, and Swiss General Henri Dufour, founding members of the International Committee.
The red cross symbolizes as an identifier for medical personnel during wartime. The Red Cross is defined as a protection symbol in Article 7 of the 1864 Geneva Convention, Chapter VII ("The distinctive emblem '') and Article 38 of the 1949 Geneva Convention ("For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field ''). There is an unofficial agreement within the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement that the shape of the cross should be a cross composed of five squares. However, regardless of the shape, any Red Cross on white background should be valid and must be recognized as a protection symbol in conflict. Of the 190 National Societies which are currently recognized by the ICRC, 154 are using the Red Cross as their official organization emblem.
According to the ICRC, the emblem adopted was formed by reversing the colours of the Swiss flag of Switzerland. This was officially recorded in the 1906 revision of the Convention. However, according to jurist and Red Cross historian Pierre Boissier, no clear evidence of this origin has been found; the concept that the design was chosen to compliment the country in which the convention at which it was adopted was held, was also promoted later to counter the objections of Turkey that the flag was a Christian symbol. Conversely, there is no evidence that the emblem of the Red Cross was not formed by reversing the colours of the Swiss flag.
During the Russo - Turkish War from 1876 to 1878, the Ottoman Empire used a Red Crescent instead of the Red Cross because its government believed that the cross would alienate its Muslim soldiers. When asked by the ICRC in 1877, Russia committed to fully respect the sanctity of all persons and facilities bearing the Red Crescent symbol, followed by a similar commitment from the Ottoman government to respect the Red Cross. After this de facto assessment of equal validity to both symbols, the ICRC declared in 1878 that it should be possible in principle to adopt an additional official protection symbol for non-Christian countries. The Red Crescent was formally recognized in 1929 when the Geneva Conventions were amended (Article 19). After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Red Crescent was first used by its successor nation Turkey, followed by Egypt. From its official recognition to today, the Red Crescent became the organizational emblem of nearly every national society in countries with majority Muslim populations. The national societies of some countries such as Pakistan (1974), Malaysia (1975), or Bangladesh (1989) have officially changed their name and emblem from the Red Cross to the Red Crescent. The Red Crescent is used by 33 of the 190 recognized societies worldwide.
The Red Crescent is related to the flag of the Ottoman Empire.
The introduction of an additional neutral protection symbol had been under discussion for a number of years, with the Red Crystal (previously referred to as the Red Lozenge or Red Diamond) being the most popular proposal. However, amending the Geneva Conventions to add a new protection symbol requires a diplomatic conference of all 192 signatory states to the Conventions. The Swiss government organized such a conference to take place on December 5 -- 6, 2005, to adopt a third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions introducing the Red Crystal as an additional symbol with equal status to the Red Cross or Red Crescent. Following an unplanned extension of the conference until December 7, the protocol was adopted after a vote successfully achieved the required two - thirds majority. From the countries which attended the conference, 98 voted in favour and 27 against the protocol, while 10 countries abstained from voting.
In the third Protocol the new symbol is referred to as "the third Protocol emblem ''. The rules for the use of this symbol, based on the third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions, are the following:
On 22 June 2006 the ICRC announced that the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement adopted the Red Crystal as an additional emblem for use by the national societies. The ICRC also announced the recognition of the Palestine Red Crescent Society (PRCS) and the Israeli National Society, Magen David Adom (MDA). On 14 January 2007, the third additional protocol entered into force.
From 1924 to 1980, Iran used a Red Lion with Sun symbol for its national society, the Red Lion and Sun Society, based on the flag and emblem of Iran. The Red Lion with Sun was formally recognized as a protection symbol in 1929, together with the Red Crescent. Despite the country 's shift to the Red Crescent in 1980, Iran explicitly maintains the right to use the symbol.
Magen David Adom, the national society of Israel, has used the Red Shield of David as its organization emblem since its foundation. The Red Shield of David was initially proposed as an addition to the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Lion with Sun in 1931. The proposal was rejected by the ICRC, like the Mehrab - e-Ahmar (Red Archway) symbol of the national aid society of Afghanistan four years later, as well as a wide range of other proposals, due to concerns about symbol proliferation. Israel again tried to establish the emblem as a third protection symbol in the context of the Geneva Conventions, but a respective proposal was narrowly defeated when the Geneva Conventions were adopted by governments in 1949. As the Red Shield of David is not a recognized protection symbol under the Geneva Conventions, Magen David Adom 's recognition as a national society by the ICRC was long delayed.
It was not until 2006 that the ICRC officially recognized Magen David Adom. The adoption of the third protocol emblem paved the way for the recognition and admission of Magen David Adom as a full member of the International Federation, as the rules of the third protocol allow it to continue using the Red Shield of David when operating within Israel and provide a solution for its missions abroad. Though the organization only recently gained official recognition, it took part in many international activities, in cooperation with both the ICRC and the Federation, prior to its official recognition.
Various other countries have also lobbied for alternative symbols, which have been rejected because of concerns of territorialism.
In 1922, a Red Swastika Society was formed in China during the Warlord era. The swastika is used in East Asia as a symbol to represent Dharma or Buddhism in general. While the organization has organized philanthropic relief projects (both domestic and international), as a sectarian religious body it is ineligible for recognition from the International Committee. Its headquarters are now in Taiwan.
The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was Inter Arma Caritas ("In War, Charity ''). This Christian - spirited slogan was amended in 1961 with the neutral motto Per Humanitatem ad Pacem or "With humanity, towards peace ''. While Inter Arma Caritas is still the primary motto of the ICRC (as per Article 3 of the ICRC statutes), Per Humanitatem ad Pacem is the primary motto of the Federation (Article 1 of the Constitution of the Federation). Both organizations acknowledge the alternative motto, and together both slogans serve as the combined motto of the International Movement.
The mission statement of the International Movement as formulated in the "Strategy 2010 '' document of the Federation is to improve the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing the power of humanity. From 1999 to 2004, the common slogan for all activities of the International Movement was The Power of Humanity. In December 2003, the 28th International Conference in Geneva adopted the conference motto Protecting Human Dignity as the new Movement slogan.
The 16th International Conference which convened in London in 1938 officially decided to make May 8, the birthday of Henry Dunant, as the official annual commemoration and celebration day of the Movement. Since 1984, the official name of the celebration day has been "World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day ''.
In Solferino, a small museum describes the history of the Battle of Solferino and of the Risorgimento, the long and bloody Italian struggle for independence and unity. In the Ossario di Solferino (Solferino Ossuary) in close proximity to the museum, a moving display shows the horrors of war. Inside the chapel, 1,413 skulls and many more bones from thousands of French and Austrian troops who died during the battle are shown. Solferino is also host to the International Red Cross Memorial inaugurated in 1959 on the centennial of the Battle of Solferino. The memorial contains stone plaques identifying each recognized national society. In Castiglione delle Stiviere, a small town near Solferino, the International Museum of the Red Cross was also opened in 1959. Moreover, another museum, the International Red Cross Museum stands in Geneva in close proximity to the headquarters of the ICRC. Finally, in the Swiss city of Heiden, the Henry Dunant Museum was opened to preserve the memory and legacy of Dunant himself.
As specified by the Geneva Conventions, the four recognized emblems are to be used only to denote the following:
In order to ensure universal respect for the emblems, the Geneva Conventions obliged their signatories to forbid any other use of the names and emblems in wartime and peacetime.
Nevertheless, the misuse of the emblem is widespread and it is often used as a general symbol to indicate first aid, medical supplies and civilian medical services especially in walk - in clinics. Misuses appear in movies (A notable example is The Living Daylights, wherein narcotics were disguised as Red Cross care packages, as a plot device), on television, and in computer software and games. Service companies, such as those for car repair or lawn maintenance, tout themselves as service "doctors '' and incorporate medical symbols to promote themselves.
Prior to 1973, ambulances in the United States and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere were typically marked with a safety orange cross, differing from the red cross only in its hue. Toys and paintings of ambulances commonly ignored even that nuance, instead using a red cross. After protests from the American Red Cross that the safety orange cross was insufficiently distinguishable from the protected Red Cross symbol, the U.S. Department of Transportation developed the Blue Star of Life as a replacement for the safety orange cross. The blue Star of Life has since been adopted throughout much of the world on ambulances and in other related applications.
In 2006, the Canadian Red Cross issued a press release asking video game makers to stop using the red cross in their games; it is an especially common sight to see first aid kits and other items which restore the player character 's health marked with a red cross. In order to avoid this conflict, a green cross is often used as a generic alternative.
Pre-existing trademarks are protected in the implementing legislation of other countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom and its dependencies. In many countries, it is a violation of the rule of law to seize intellectual property lawfully created prior to a ban without compensating its owner through eminent domain, with limited exceptions for offensive or dangerous uses. (For example, a Red Cross on a building -- even a J&J building -- conveys a potentially false and dangerous impression of military presence in the area to enemy aircraft, although the building itself would not be attacked; thus the U.S. reservations to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, as noted below, effectively ban that use even by J&J.) In recognition of this fact, Protocol III expressly preserves most pre-2005 trademarks containing the Red Crystal, as long as they can not be confused with military uses. Of course, once implementing legislation is enacted, new trademarks bearing an emblem named in the law are banned.
The protected status of these images was established in the First Geneva Convention which states:
The Red Cross, Red Crescent, Red Crystal, and Red Lion and Sun emblems are protected under the Trade - marks Act, section 9 (1), paragraphs f, g, g. 1, and h, respectively:
The Hong Kong Red Cross Ordinance (Cap. 1129), in Section 3 (c) "Unauthorized distribution of badges and products '', states:
This restriction on the use of the emblem was added in 1995.
The use of the emblems in Singapore is governed by Geneva Conventions Act (Cap 117).
The use of the emblems in the United Kingdom are governed by Geneva Conventions Act 1957 as amended by Geneva Conventions (Amendment) Act 1995 and several Orders as Statutory Instruments. Geneva Conventions and United Nations Personnel (Protocols) Act 2009 extended the protection to the Red Crystal.
The unauthorised use of the Red Cross on a pantomime costume in Glasgow in 2011 resulted in a request for its removal.
A notable exception to this is the United States where, although the United States first ratified the Geneva Conventions in 1882, for 18 years no legislation was passed to enact treaty obligations regarding the protection of the Red Cross symbol.
On 6 June 1900, the bill to charter the American National Red Cross (ARC) was signed into law. Section 4, which ultimately was codified as 18 U.S.C. § 706, protected the Greek red cross symbol by making it a misdemeanor for any person or association to use the Red Cross name or emblem without the organization 's permission. Penalties included imprisonment not to exceed one year and a fine between $1 and $500, payable to the ARC. There had been seven trademark registrations for Greek red crosses by entities unrelated to the Red Cross at the time the ARC was incorporated. The existence of these users was recognized in congressional discussion of the act. However, lawmakers took no action to prohibit the rights of these earlier users.
In 1905, when Congress was revising the ARC 's charter, the issue of pre-existing rights to use the emblem was again raised. Lawmakers reiterated Congress ' intent that the prohibitions on use of the Red Cross name and emblem did not make unlawful the use of the Greek red cross by those with otherwise established rights. However, these sentiments were again not reflected in the Red Cross charter revision. At the time of the 1905 revision, the number of trademark registrations with a Greek red cross had grown to 61, including several by Johnson & Johnson. Concerned over potential pre-emption, commercial users lobbied for codification of their existing trademark rights.
In 1910, Congress formally established that lawful use of the Red Cross name and emblem that began prior to 5 January 1905, could continue, but only if that use was "for the same purpose and for the same class of goods. '' Later, the U.S. ratified the 1949 revisions to the Geneva Conventions with a specific reservation that pre-1905 Red Cross trademarks would not be disturbed as long as the Red Cross is not used on "aircraft, vessels, vehicles, buildings or other structures, or upon the ground '', all of which are likely to be confused with military uses.
Until 2007, U.S. law only protected the Red Cross, and only permitted its use by the ARC and U.S. armed forces; though its use by non-U.S. organizations would normally be implied by the ARC 's membership in IFRC and the standard protocols of the military and the Red Cross & Red Crescent movement, the ARC 's withholding of IFRC dues from 2000 to 2006 over the Magen David Adom (MDA) issue raised concerns. Both to implement Protocol III (which had received advice and consent from the United States Senate in 2006; the U.S. formalized its ratification in March 2007) and to address these concerns, the Geneva Distinctive Emblems Protection Act of 2006 (Public Law 109 - 481) (4) was signed into law 12 January 2007, two days before Protocol III went into effect. The law, codified as 18 U.S.C. § 706a, extended full legal protection to the Red Crescent and Red Crystal (but not the Red Lion and Sun) in the U.S., subject to private uses prior to the signing of Protocol III that can not be confused with military uses; permitted the use of all appropriate emblems under the Conventions by the ICRC, the IFRC, all national Red Cross & Red Crescent societies (including MDA by this time), and "(t) he sanitary and hospital authorities of the armed forces of State Parties to the Geneva Conventions ''; and permitted the United States Attorney General to obtain injunctions against improper use of the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Crystal in the U.S.
U.S. law still does not specifically protect the right of military chaplains to use the emblems under the Geneva Conventions; however, military chaplains that are part of their armed forces ' "sanitary and hospital authorities '' would have the right to use the emblems in the U.S. The ARC and other Red Cross & Red Crescent entities also employ chaplains; they are entitled to use the emblems through their employment.
On 9 August 2007, in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, Johnson & Johnson (J&J) filed suit against the American Red Cross alleging trademark infringement. The suit seeks to halt the placement of the Red Cross emblem on all first aid, safety and disaster preparedness products not specifically licensed by Johnson & Johnson. The suit also asks for the destruction of all currently existing non-J&J Red Cross emblem - bearing products of this type, and demands the American Red Cross pay punitive damages and J&J 's legal fees.
J&J released a statement to the public on 8 August 2007, detailing its decision to file suit, claiming prior rights to the emblem. On the same date, the American Red Cross issued a press release of its own, stating some of the reasons behind its decision to license the Red Cross emblem to first aid and disaster preparedness product manufacturers. It issued a further press release two days later, disputing several of J&J 's claims and asserting that "(t) he Red Cross has been selling first aid kits commercially in the United States since 1903. ''
In a statement, the Red Cross said it has worked since 2004 with several licensing partners to create first aid, preparedness and related products that bear the Red Cross emblem. The charity says that all money it receives from the sale of these products to consumers is reinvested in its humanitarian programs and services. "For a multi-billion dollar drug company to claim that the Red Cross violated a criminal statute that was created to protect the humanitarian mission of the Red Cross -- simply so that J&J can make more money -- is obscene, '' said Mark Everson, the chief executive of the charity. Johnson & Johnson responded, stating that the Red Cross 's commercial ventures were outside the scope of historically well - agreed usage, and were in direct violation of federal statutes.
The federal court rejected Johnson & Johnson 's position and ruled for the American Red Cross, holding that federal law authorizes the American Red Cross to use the Red Cross emblem in the sale of mission - related items like first aid and disaster preparedness kits and to license other firms to use its name and emblem to sell such products. The court noted in particular that the American Red Cross had been doing so for over a century, and that, ironically, Johnson & Johnson had once itself sought to be a licensee of the American Red Cross. After the court rejected the substance of Johnson & Johnson 's complaint, the parties ultimately settled their differences, and the American Red Cross remains free to use its emblem in the sale of life - saving, disaster preparedness, and other mission - related products.
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who sings ooh child things are going to get easier | O-o-h Child - wikipedia
"O-o-h Child '' is a 1970 single recorded by Chicago soul family group the Five Stairsteps and released on the Buddah label. The Five Stairsteps had previous peripheral success recording in Chicago with Curtis Mayfield; when Mayfield 's workload precluded his continuing to work with the group they were reassigned to Stan Vincent, an in - house producer for Buddah Records, who had recently scored a Top Ten hit with the Lou Christie single "I 'm Gonna Make You Mine ''. The Five Stairsteps ' debut collaboration with Vincent was originally formatted with the group 's rendition of "Dear Prudence '' as the A-side with Vincent 's original composition "O-o-h Child '' as B - side. However, "O-o-h Child '' broke out in the key markets of Philadelphia and Detroit to rise as high as # 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the summer of 1970. The track 's R&B chart impact was more muted with a # 14 peak, although "O-o-h Child '' is now regarded as a "soft soul '' classic. Billboard ranked the record as the No. 21 song of 1970.
The Five Stairsteps ' only pop Top 40 hit, "O-o-h Child '' would be the group 's last R&B top 40 hit (they had several top 40 R&B hits in the 1960s) until 1976 's "From Us to You ''. Included on the band 's The Stairsteps album from 1970, it has become the Stairsteps ' signature song and has inspired more than twenty covers since its release. The song featured various members, including lone female member and eldest sister Alohe, brothers Keni, Dennis, James, lead singer Clarence Burke, Jr. singing in various parts of the song, and also drummer Jerome Brailey on the original recording.
The lyrics tell the listener that "things are gon na get easier '' in times of strife. The song 's uplifting message helped it to become popular among pop and rhythm and blues audiences when it was released.
The song is ranked # 402 on the Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
The Five Stairsteps, ' O-o-h Child ' - 500 GREATEST SONGS OF ALL TIME
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map of tigranes the great's armenian empire | Tigranes the Great - wikipedia
Tigranes II, more commonly known as Tigranes the Great (Armenian: Տիգրան Մեծ, Tigran Mets; Ancient Greek: Τιγράνης ὁ Μέγας Tigránes ho Mégas; Latin: Tigranes Magnus) (140 -- 55 BC) was King of Armenia under whom the country became, for a short time, the strongest state to Rome 's east. He was a member of the Artaxiad Royal House. Under his reign, the Armenian kingdom expanded beyond its traditional boundaries, allowing Tigranes to claim the title Great King, and involving Armenia in many battles against opponents such as the Parthian and Seleucid empires, and the Roman Republic.
Tigranes had been a hostage until the age of 45 at the court of King Mithridates II of Parthia after the Armenian defeat in 105 BC. Other sources give the date as much earlier, at around 112 -- 111 BC. After the death of King Tigranes I in 95 BC, Tigranes bought his freedom, according to Strabo, by handing over "seventy valleys '' in Atropatene to the Parthians.
When he came to power, the foundation upon which Tigranes was to build his Empire was already in place, a legacy of the founder of the Artaxiad Dynasty, Artaxias I, and subsequent kings. The mountains of Armenia, however, formed natural borders between the different regions of the country and as a result, the feudalistic nakharars had significant influence over the regions or provinces in which they were based. This did not suit Tigranes, who wanted to create a centralist empire. He thus proceeded by consolidating his power within Armenia before embarking on his campaign.
He deposed Artanes, the last king of Armenian Sophene and a descendant of Zariadres.
During the First Mithridatic War (89 -- 85 BC), Tigranes supported Mithridates VI of Pontus, but was careful not to become directly involved in the war.
He rapidly built up his power and established an alliance with Mithridates VI, marrying his daughter Cleopatra. Tigranes agreed to extend his influence in the East, while Mithridates set to conquer Roman land in Asia Minor and in Europe. By creating a stronger Hellenistic state, Mithridates was to contend with the well - established Roman foothold in Europe. Mithridates executed a planned general attack on Roman and Italians in Asia Minor, tapping into local discontent with the Romans and their taxes and urging the peoples of Asia Minor to raise against foreign influence. The slaughter of 80,000 people in the province of Asia Minor was known as the Asiatic Vespers. The two kings ' attempts to control Cappadocia and then the massacres resulted in guaranteed Roman intervention. The senate decided that Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who was then one of the consuls, would command the army against Mithridates.
After the death of Mithridates II of Parthia in 88 BC, Tigranes took advantage of the fact that the Parthian Empire had been weakened by Scythian invasions and internal squabbling:
When he acquired power, he recovered these (seventy) valleys, and devastated the country of the Parthians, the territory about Ninus (Nineveh), and that about Arbela. He subjected to his authority the Atropatenians, and the Goryaeans (on the Upper Tigris); by force of arms he obtained possession also of the rest of Mesopotamia and, after crossing the Euphrates, of Syria and Phoenicea. -- Strabo
In 83 BC, after a bloody strife for the throne of Syria, governed by the Seleucids, the Syrians decided to choose Tigranes as the protector of their kingdom and offered him the crown of Syria. Magadates was appointed as his governor in Antioch. He then conquered Phoenicia and Cilicia, effectively putting an end to the last remnants of the Seleucid Empire, though a few holdout cities appear to have recognized the shadowy boy - king Seleucus VII Philometor as the legitimate king during his reign. The southern border of his domain reached as far as Ptolemais (modern Akko). Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were sent to his new metropolis of Tigranocerta.
At its height, his empire extended from the Pontic Alps (in modern north - eastern Turkey) to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean. A series of victories led him to assume the Achaemenid title of King of Kings, which even the Parthian kings did not assume, appearing on coins struck after 85 BCE. He was called "Tigranes the Great '' by many Western historians and writers, such as Plutarch. The "King of Kings '' never appeared in public without having four kings attending him. Cicero, referring to his success in the east, said that he "made the Republic of Rome tremble before the prowess of his arms. ''
Tigranes ' coin consist of tetradrachms and copper coins having on the obverse his portrait wearing a decorated Armenian tiara with ear - flaps. The reverse has a completely original design. There are the seated Tyche of Antioch and the river god Orontes at her feet.
Mithridates had found refuge in Armenian land after confronting Rome, considering the fact that Tigranes was his ally and relative. The "King of Kings '' eventually came into direct contact with Rome. The Roman commander, Lucullus, demanded the expulsion of Mithridates from Armenia -- to comply with such a demand would be, in effect, to accept the status of vassal to Rome and this Tigranes refused. Charles Rollin, in his Ancient History, says:
Tigranes, to whom Lucullus had sent an ambassador, though of no great power in the beginning of his reign, had enlarged it so much by a series of successes, of which there are few examples, that he was commonly surnamed "King of Kings. '' After having overthrown and almost ruined the family of the kings, successors of the great Seleucus; after having very often humbled the pride of the Parthians, transported whole cities of Greeks into Media, conquered all Syria and Palestine, and given laws to the Arabians called Scenites, he reigned with an authority respected by all the princes of Asia. The people paid him honors after the manners of the East, even to adoration.
Lucullus ' reaction was an attack that was so precipitate that he took Tigranes by surprise. According to Roman historians Mithrobazanes, one of Tigranes ' generals, told Tigranes of the Roman approach. Tigranes was, according to Keaveney, so impressed by Mithrobazanes ' courage that he appointed Mithrobazanes to command an army against Lucullus -- Mithrobazanes was however defeated and killed. After this defeat Tigranes withdrew north to Armenia to regroup which left Lucullus free to put Tigranocerta under siege.
When Tigranes had gathered a large army he returned to confront Lucullus. On October 6, 69 BC, Tigranes ' much larger force was decisively defeated by the Roman army under Lucullus in the Battle of Tigranocerta. Tigranes ' treatment of the inhabitants (the majority of the population had been forced to move to the city) led disgruntled city guards to open the gates of the city to the Romans. Learning of this, Tigranes hurriedly sent 6000 cavalrymen to the city in order to rescue his wives and some of his assets. Tigranes escaped capture with a small escort.
On October 6, 68 BC, the Romans approached the old capital of Artaxata. Tigranes ' and Mithridates ' combined Armeno - Pontian army of 70,000 men formed up to face them but were resoundingly defeated. Once again, both Mithridates and Tigranes evaded capture by the victorious Romans. However, the Armenian historians claim that Romans lost the battle of Artaxata and Lucullus ' following withdrawal from the Kingdom of Armenia in reality was an escape due to the above - mentioned defeat. The Armenian - Roman wars are depicted in Alexandre Dumas ' Voyage to the Caucasus.
The long campaigning and hardships that Lucullus ' troops had endured for years, combined with a perceived lack of reward in the form of plunder, led to successive mutinies among the legions in 68 -- 67. Frustrated by the rough terrain of Northern Armenia and seeing the worsening morale of his troops, Lucullus moved back south and put Nisibis under siege. Tigranes concluded (wrongly) that Nisibis would hold out and sought to regain those parts of Armenia that the Romans had captured. Despite his continuous success in battle, Lucullus could still not capture either one of the monarchs. With Lucullus ' troops now refusing to obey his commands, but agreeing to defend positions from attack, the Senate sent Gnaeus Pompey to recall Lucullus to Rome and take over his command.
In 67 BC Pompey was given the task of defeating Mithridates and Tigranes. Pompey first concentrated on attacking Mithridates while distracting Tigranes by engineering a Parthian attack on Gordyeyne. Phraates III, the Parthian king, was soon persuaded to take things a little further than an annexation of Gordyeyne when a son of Tigranes (also named Tigranes) went to join the Parthians and persuaded Phraates to invade Armenia in an attempt to replace the elder Tigranes with the younger. Tigranes decided not to meet the invasion in the field but instead ensured that his capital, Artaxata, was well defended and withdrew to the hill country. Phraates soon realized that Artaxata would not fall without a protracted siege, the time for which he could not spare due to his fear of plots at home. Once Phraates left Tigranes came back down from the hills and drove his son from Armenia. The son then fled to Pompey.
In 66 BC, Pompey advanced into Armenia with the younger Tigranes, and Tigranes the Great, now almost 75 years old, surrendered. Pompey treated him generously and allowed him to retain his kingdom shorn of his conquests in return for 6,000 talents / 180 tonnes of silver. His unfaithful son was sent back to Rome as a prisoner.
Tigranes continued to rule Armenia as an ally of Rome until his death in 55 / 54.
Over the course of his conquests, Tigranes founded four cities that bore his name, including the capital of Tigranocerta (Tigranakert).
In The Art of War (1521), Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli attributes Tigranes ' military failure to his excessive reliance on his cavalry.
According to one count, 24 operas have been composed about Tigranes the Great by European composers, including by prominent Italian and German composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (Tigrane, 1715), Antonio Vivaldi (La virtu trionfante dell'amore e dell'odio ovvero il Tigrane, 1724), Niccolò Piccinni (Tigrane, 1761), Tomaso Albinoni, Giovanni Bononcini, Francesco Gasparini, Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi, Johann Adolph Hasse, Giovanni Battista Lampugnani, Vincenzo Righini, Antonio Tozzi, and others.
According to Razmik Panossian "In a long history of defeats and persecution, Tigran the Great 's brief empire of 2,000 years ago is still a source of pride for Armenian nationalists. '' The phrase "sea to sea Armenia '' (Armenian: ծովից ծով Հայաստան, tsovits tsov Hayastan) is a popular expression used by Armenians to refer to the kingdom of Tigranes which extended from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.
Illustration of Tigranes the Great in 1898 book Illustrated Armenia and the Armenians
19th - century painting of Tigranes the Great
Obverse of the 1993 Armenian 500 dram
The Tigran the Great Order of the Republic of Armenia
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which king made the great wall of china | History of the Great Wall of China - Wikipedia
The history of the Great Wall of China began when fortifications built by various states during the Spring and Autumn (771 -- 476 BC) and Warring States periods (475 -- 221 BC) were connected by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, to protect his newly founded Qin dynasty (221 -- 206 BC) against incursions by nomads from Inner Asia. The walls were built of rammed earth, constructed using forced labour, and by 212 BC ran from Gansu to the coast of southern Manchuria.
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense. The Han (202 BC -- 220 AD), the Northern Qi (550 -- 574), the Sui (589 -- 618), and particularly the Ming (1369 -- 1644) were among those that rebuilt, re-manned, and expanded the Walls, although they rarely followed Qin 's routes. The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west, the Qi built about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of new walls, while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall - building efforts. Conversely, the Tang (618 -- 907), the Song (960 -- 1279), the Yuan (1271 -- 1368), and the Qing (1644 -- 1911) mostly did not build frontier walls, instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy.
Although a useful deterrent against raids, at several points throughout its history the Great Wall failed to stop enemies, including in 1644 when the Manchu Qing marched through the gates of Shanhai Pass and replaced the most ardent of the wall - building dynasties, the Ming, as rulers of China.
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty, as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick, often extending its line through challenging terrain. Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated, while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons, deconstructed for their building materials, or lost due to the ravages of time. For long an object of fascination for foreigners, the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination.
The conflict between the Chinese and the nomads, from which the need for the Great Wall arose, stemmed from differences in geography. The 15 '' isohyet marks the extent of settled agriculture, dividing the fertile fields of China to the south and the semi-arid grasslands of Inner Asia to the north. The climates and the topography of the two regions led to distinct modes of societal development.
According to the model by sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, the loess soils of Shaanxi made it possible for the Chinese to develop irrigated agriculture early on. Although this allowed them to expand into the lower reaches of the Yellow River valley, such extensive waterworks on an ever - increasing scale required collective labour, something that could only be managed by some form of bureaucracy. Thus the scholar - bureaucrats came to the fore to keep track of the income and expenses of the granaries. Walled cities grew up around the granaries for reasons of defence along with ease of administration; they kept invaders out and ensured that citizens remained within. These cities combined to become feudal states, which eventually united to become an empire. Likewise, according to this model, walls not only enveloped cities as time went by, but also lined the borders of the feudal states and eventually the whole Chinese empire to provide protection against raids from the agrarian northern steppes.
The steppe societies of Inner Asia, whose climate favoured a pastoral economy, stood in stark contrast to the Chinese mode of development. As animal herds are migratory by nature, communities could not afford to be stationary and therefore evolved as nomads. According to the influential Mongolist Owen Lattimore this lifestyle proved to be incompatible with the Chinese economic model. As the steppe population grew, pastoral agriculture alone could not support the population, and tribal alliances needed to be maintained by material rewards. For these needs, the nomads had to turn to the settled societies to get grains, metal tools, and luxury goods, which they could not produce by themselves. If denied trade by the settled peoples, the nomads would resort to raiding or even conquest.
Potential nomadic incursion from three main areas of Inner Asia caused concern to northern China: Mongolia to the north, Manchuria to the northeast, and Xinjiang to the northwest. Of the three, China 's chief concern since the earliest times had been Mongolia -- the home of many of the country 's fiercest enemies including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Khitans, and the Mongols. The Gobi Desert, which accounts for two - thirds of Mongolia 's area, divided the main northern and southern grazing lands and pushed the pastoral nomads to the fringes of the steppe. On the southern side (Inner Mongolia), this pressure brought the nomads into contact with China.
For the most part, barring intermittent passes and valleys (the major one being the corridor through Zhangjiakou and the Juyong Pass), the North China Plain remained shielded from the Mongolian steppe by the Yin Mountains. However, if this defence were breached, China 's flat terrain offered no protection to the cities on the plain, including the imperial capitals of Beijing, Kaifeng, and Luoyang. Heading west along the Yin Mountains, the range ends where the Yellow River circles northwards upstream in the area known as the Ordos Loop -- technically part of the steppe, but capable of irrigated agriculture. Although the Yellow River formed a theoretical natural boundary with the north, such a border so far into the steppe was difficult to maintain. The lands south of the Yellow River -- the Hetao, the Ordos Desert, and the Loess Plateau -- provided no natural barriers on the approach to the Wei River valley, the oft - called cradle of Chinese civilization where the ancient capital Xi'an lay. As such, control of the Ordos remained extremely important for the rulers of China: not only for potential influence over the steppe, but also for the security of China proper. The region 's strategic importance combined with its untenability led many dynasties to place their first walls here.
Although Manchuria is home to the agricultural lands of the Liao River valley, its location beyond the northern mountains relegated it to the relative periphery of Chinese concern. When Chinese state control became weak, at various points in history Manchuria fell under the control of the forest peoples of the area, including the Jurchens and the Manchus. The most crucial route that links Manchuria and the North China Plain is a narrow coastal strip of land, wedged between the Bohai Sea and the Yan Mountains, called the Shanhai Pass (literally the "mountain and sea pass ''). The pass gained much importance during the later dynasties, when the capital was set in Beijing, a mere 300 kilometres (190 miles) away. In addition to the Shanhai Pass, a handful of mountain passes also provide access from Manchuria into China through the Yan Mountains, chief among them the Gubeikou and Xifengkou (Chinese: 喜 峰 口).
Xinjiang, considered part of the Turkestan region, consists of an amalgamation of deserts, oases, and dry steppe barely suitable for agriculture. When influence from the steppe powers of Mongolia waned, the various Central Asian oasis kingdoms and nomadic clans like the Göktürks and Uyghurs were able to form their own states and confederations that threatened China at times. China proper is connected to this area by the Hexi Corridor, a narrow string of oases bounded by the Gobi Desert to the north and the high Tibetan Plateau to the south. In addition to considerations of frontier defence, the Hexi Corridor also formed an important part of the Silk Road trade route. Thus it was also in China 's economic interest to control this stretch of land, and hence the Great Wall 's western terminus is in this corridor -- the Yumen Pass during Han times and the Jiayu Pass during the Ming dynasty and thereafter.
One of the first mentions of a wall built against northern invaders is found in a poem, dated from the seventh century BC, recorded in the Classic of Poetry. The poem tells of a king, now identified as King Xuan (r. 827 -- 782 BC) of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 771 BC), who commanded General Nan Zhong (南仲) to build a wall in the northern regions to fend off the Xianyun. The Xianyun, whose base of power was in the Ordos region, were regarded as part of the charioteering Rong tribes, and their attacks aimed at the early Zhou capital region of Haojing were probably the reason for King Xuan 's response. Nan Zhong 's campaign was recorded as a great victory. However, only a few years later in 771 BC another branch of the Rong people, the Quanrong, responded to a summons by the renegade Marquess of Shen by over-running the Zhou defences and laying waste to the capital. The cataclysmic event killed King Xuan 's successor King You (795 -- 771 BC), forced the court to move the capital east to Chengzhou (成 周, later known as Luoyang) a year later, and thus ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 -- 256 BC). Most importantly, the fall of Western Zhou redistributed power to the states that had acknowledged Zhou 's nominal rulership. The rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was marked by bloody interstate anarchy. With smaller states being annexed and larger states waging constant war upon one another, many rulers came to feel the need to erect walls to protect their borders. Of the earliest textual reference to such a wall was the State of Chu 's wall of 656 BC, 1,400 metres (4,600 feet) of which were excavated in southern Henan province in the modern era. The State of Qi also had fortified borders up by the 7th century BC, and the extant portions in Shandong province had been christened the Great Wall of Qi. The State of Wei built two walls, the western one completed in 361 BC and the eastern in 356 BC, with the extant western wall found in Hancheng, Shaanxi. Even non-Chinese peoples built walls, such as the Di state of Zhongshan and the Yiqu Rong (義 渠), whose walls were intended to defend against the State of Qin.
Of these walls, those of the northern states Yan, Zhao, and Qin were connected by Qin Shi Huang when he united the Chinese states in 221 BC.
The State of Yan, the easternmost of the three northern states, began to erect walls after the general Qin Kai drove the Donghu people back "a thousand li '' during the reign of King Zhao (燕 昭王; r. 311 -- 279 BC). The Yan wall stretched from the Liaodong peninsula, through Chifeng, and into northern Hebei, possibly bringing its western terminus near the Zhao walls. Another Yan wall was erected to the south to defend against the Zhao; it was southwest of present - day Beijing and ran parallel to the Juma River for several dozen miles.
The Zhao walls to the north were built under King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325 -- 299 BC), whose groundbreaking introduction of nomadic cavalry into his army reshaped Chinese warfare and gave Zhao an initial advantage over his opponents. He attacked the Xiongnu tribes of Linhu (林 胡) and Loufan (樓 煩) to the north, then waged war on the state of Zhongshan until it was annexed in 296 BC. In the process, he constructed the northernmost fortified frontier deep in nomadic territory. The Zhao walls were dated in the 1960s to be from King Wuling 's reign: a southern long wall in northern Henan encompassing the Yanmen Pass; a second line of barricades encircling the Ordos Loop, extending from Zhangjiakou in the east to the ancient fortress of Gaoque (高 闕) in the Urad Front Banner; and a third, northernmost line along the southern slopes of the Yin Mountains, extending from Qinghe in the east, passing north of Hohhot, and into Baotou.
Qin was originally a state on the western fringe of the Chinese political sphere, but it grew into a formidable power in the later parts of the Warring States period when it aggressively expanded in all directions. In the north, the state of Wei and the Yiqu built walls to protect themselves from Qin aggression, but were still unable to stop Qin from eating into their territories. The Qin reformist Shang Yang forced the Wei out of their walled area west of the Yellow River in 340 BC, and King Huiwen of Qin (r. 338 -- 311 BC) took 25 Yiqu forts in a northern offensive. When King Huiwen died, his widow the Queen Dowager Xuan acted as regent because the succeeding sons were deemed too young to govern. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang (r. 306 -- 251 BC), the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the Yiqu king and gave birth to two of his sons, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager 's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the Ordos region. At this point the Qin built a wall around their new territories to defend against the true nomads even further north, incorporating the Wei walls. As a result, an estimated total of 1,775 kilometres (1,103 mi) of Qin walls (including spurts) extended from southern Gansu to the bank of the Yellow River in the Jungar Banner, close to the border with Zhao at the time.
The walls, known as Changcheng (長城) -- literally "long walls '', but often translated as "Great Wall '' -- were mostly constructed of tamped earth, with some parts built with stones. Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence, the walls were erected sparingly, but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist. Often in addition to the wall, the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall, and watchtowers outside at regular intervals. In terms of defence, the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics, but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature. Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands, and so rather than being defensive, the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions. This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls, suggesting the presence of pre-existing or conquered barbarian societies. It is entirely possible, as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest, that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period.
In 221 BC, the state of Qin completed its conquest over the other Warring States and united China under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. These conquests, combined with the Legalist reforms started by Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, transformed China from a loose confederation of feudal states to an authoritarian empire. With the transformation, Qin became able to command a far greater assembly of labourers to be used in public works than the prior feudal kingdoms. Also, once unification was achieved, Qin found itself in possession of a large professional army with no more internal enemies to fight and thus had to find a new use for them. Soon after the conquests, in the year 215 BC, the emperor sent the famed general Meng Tian to the Ordos region to drive out the Xiongnu nomads settled there, who had risen from beyond the fallen marginal states along the northern frontier. Qin 's campaign against the Xiongnu was preemptive in nature, since there was no pressing nomadic menace to be faced at the time; its aim was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders. Once the Xiongnu were chased away, Meng Tian introduced 30,000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories.
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin. General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River, effectively linking the border walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another -- contrary to the outer walls, which were built to stabilize the newly united China, the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire. In the following year, 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north. This work was completed probably by 212 BC, signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road (直道) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos. The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria.
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories, but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi-desert that the Great Wall traversed, the sparse populations of these areas, and the frigid winter climate. Although the walls were rammed earth, so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ, transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above. The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that "for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction, dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies. '' This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC:
... the land was brackish and arid, crops could not be grown on them... At the time, the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong (about 176 kilograms (388 lb)) of food supply, by the time they arrived at the destination, they merely delivered one dan (about 29 kilograms (64 lb)) of supply... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond. The orphans, the frail, the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home. People started to revolt.
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC, upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy. Before killing himself, Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls: "Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong, I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way? This then was my offense. ''
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned, and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent. Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding, resulting in "the anti-historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously '' that was doomed to fail.
In 202 BC, the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu -- Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty, becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 202 -- 195 BC) to posterity. Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means, Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu. In exchange for peace, the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs. These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin, and the terms specified that the Great Wall (determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture. In 162 BC, Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement, suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it. Sima Qian, the author of the Records of the Grand Historian, describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship: "from the chanyu downwards, all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han, coming and going along the Long Wall ''. However, Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement, as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100,000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage.
To Chinese minds, the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like "a person hanging upside down '', as the statesman Jia Yi (d. 169 BC) puts it. These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro-war faction, who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement. By the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141 -- 87 BC), the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu. After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC, the era of heqin - style appeasement was broken and the Han -- Xiongnu War went into full swing.
As the Han -- Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han, the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines. In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded the much - contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian. In this way, Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe. In addition to rebuilding the walls, archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign. The fortifications here include embankments, beacon stations, and forts, all constructed with a combination of tamped - earth cores and stone frontages. From the Ordos Loop, the sporadic and non-continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei, Zhangye, and Jiuquan, leading into the Juyan Lake Basin, and terminating in two places: the Yumen Pass in the north, or the Yang Pass to the south, both in the vicinity of Dunhuang. Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications -- further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass, about 460 kilometres (290 mi) to the east. The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian. Behind this line of fortifications, the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia, generally secure from attacks from the north.
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury, and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors. The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD, beginning a brief 15 - year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty (9 -- 23). Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300,000 men on the Great Wall, no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids. Instead, popular discontent led to banditry and, ultimately, full - scale rebellion. The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again, beginning the Eastern Han dynasty (25 -- 220).
The restorer Emperor Guangwu (r. 25 -- 57 AD) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions. Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass, with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County (present - day Datong) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County, Shanxi. By 38 AD, as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley, orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River, the southward course of the Yellow River, and the region of the former imperial capital, Chang'an. These constructions were defensive in nature, which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States. By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change: the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern (Ming dynasty) Great Wall. The Ordos region, northern Shanxi, and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu. The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty, with the Dunhuang manuscripts (discovered in 1900) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period.
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220, China disintegrated into warlord states, which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty (265 -- 316). There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall, but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising, when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China. What followed was a succession of short - lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei - led Northern Wei dynasty (386 -- 535).
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture, the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs, including passive methods of frontier defence. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) long was built to resist the Rouran; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls formed the basis of the double - layered Xuanfu -- Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi (550 -- 575) and Northern Zhou (557 -- 580). Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north, from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3,000 li (about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi)) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass. Over the course of the year 555 alone, 1.8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres (280 mi) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River. In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one. These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers. Two stretches of the stone - and - earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today, measuring 3.3 metres (11 ft) wide at their bases and 3.5 metres (11 ft) high on average. In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls. The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou, which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou. In more recent times, the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname "Red Wall ''.
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589. Sui 's founding emperor, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581 -- 604), carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks. The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400,000 archers. Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains (between Suide and Lingwu) and Inner Mongolia. In 586 as many as 150,000 men are recorded as involved in the construction. Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang (r. 604 -- 618) continued to build walls. In 607 -- 608 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang. Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) high with towers rising to double that. The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500,000 people died building the wall, adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang, the Grand Canal, and two ill - fated campaigns against Goguryeo. With the economy strained and the populace resentful, the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618.
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall - building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC, and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years.
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626 -- 649), the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall. Taizong scoffed at the suggestion, alluding to the Sui walls built in vain: "The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks, but in the end this was of no use. '' Instead of building walls, Taizong claimed he "need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle. '' Accordingly, Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier, while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons, such as the euphemistically - named "cities for accepting surrender '' (受降 城, shòuxiáng chéng) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks. As a result of this military strategy, the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires, destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan.
Nevertheless, records show that in the Kaiyuan era (713 -- 742) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign, the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li (48 kilometres (30 mi)) to the north of Huairong (懷 戎; present - day Huailai County, Hebei), although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls.
The Great Wall, or the ruins of it, features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi (邊塞 詩, "frontier verse '') written by scholar - officials assigned along the frontier. Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts, these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes, including the ruins of the now - neglected Great Wall -- a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy.
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907, the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. During this period, non-Han "conquest dynasties '' ruled the north: the Khitan Liao dynasty (907 -- 1125) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115 -- 1234) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia (1038 -- 1227) in the west, all of which had built walls against the north.
In 907, the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north, laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty. In 936, the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang, which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923. The Khitan leader, Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang, convinced Shi to found a new dynasty (the Later Jin, 936 -- 946), and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return. With the Sixteen Prefectures, the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China, including the main Great Wall line.
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe, the Khitans became semi-sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei, and started to use Chinese methods of defence. In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong'an County to the banks of the Songhua River. When the Jurchens, once Liao vassals, rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty, they continued Liao 's wall - building activities with extensive work begun before 1138. Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong, and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong.
This long period of wall - building burdened the populace and provoked controversy. Sometime between 1190 and 1196, during Zhangzong 's reign, the high official Zhang Wangong (張萬公) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought, noting: "What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms, and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them. '' However, Chancellor Wanyan Xiang (完 顏 襄) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate -- "Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash, when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it, which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash... The benefits will be everlasting '' -- and so construction continued unabated. All this work created an extensive systems of walls, which consisted of a 700 kilometres (430 mi) "outer wall '' from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) network of "inner walls '' north and northeast of Beijing. Together, they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length and 440 kilometres (270 mi) in diameter. Some of these walls had inner moats (from 10 to 60 metres (33 to 197 feet) in width), beacon towers, battlements, parapets, and outward - facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall -- features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors.
In the west, the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region, where they established the Western Xia dynasty. Although the Xia were not traditionally known for building walls, in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres (62 mi) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory. Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160. The walls were as tall as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) at places when they were discovered, and may have been around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) taller originally. They were built with mud and saxaul (a desert shrub) in one section, and dark basalt blocks in another, suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site. Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall, which suggests that the Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use.
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post-Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971. Turning to the north after this victory, in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han, ultimate successors to the Later Jin, but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty. As a result of Song 's military aggression, relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile. One of the battlegrounds in the Song -- Liao War was the Great Wall Gap (長城 口), so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory. The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979, 988 -- 989, and 1004, and a Song fortress was built there in 980. Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005, when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan. This agreement, among other things, required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao, recognized the Song and Liao as equals, and demarcated the Song -- Liao border, the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements. Several stretches of the old Great Walls, including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range, became the border between the Song and the Liao.
In the northwest, the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia, since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty. The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period, making it the Song -- Western Xia border, but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song -- Liao defences to the east. The border general Cao Wei (曹 瑋; 973 -- 1030) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack, and had a deep trench dug alongside. This trench, between 15 and 20 metres (49 and 66 feet) in width and depth, proved an effective defence, but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall. Later, in 1042, the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it, thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin (葛懷敏) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress (定 川 寨).
Despite the war with the Western Xia, the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements, as with the Liao. However, soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin -- Song wars, causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River. For the next two and a half centuries, the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics.
In the 13th century, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, once a vassal of the Jurchens, rose up against the Jin dynasty. In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications. Instead, when they could, the Mongols simply rode around the walls; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211, when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling. The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls, such as those in Gubeikou, often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them. The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass: instead of laying siege, the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates. In 1215, Genghis Khan besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (modern - day Beijing). The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234. Western Xia had already fallen in 1227, and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279.
With that, the Yuan dynasty, established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan, became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China. Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire, Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads. The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north. Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions. Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east, Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall (except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass). When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan, he did not mention a Great Wall.
In 1368, the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang, r. 1368 -- 98) ousted the Mongol - led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty. The Mongols fled back to Mongolia, but even after numerous campaigns, the Mongol problem remained.
During his early reign, Hongwu set up the "eight outer garrisons '' close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence. The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall. In 1373, as Ming forces encountered setbacks, Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's (華 雲龍) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area. More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398, and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes. These positions, however, were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily, and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time. In 1421, the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north, partly to better manage the Mongol situation. Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing, where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes. A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442. In 1467 -- 68, expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast.
Meanwhile, the outer defenses were gradually moved inward, thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone. Despite the withdrawal from the steppe, the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449, which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system. Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict, while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor. This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty, and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever after.
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory, including the crucial Ordos region, on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding. After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy, the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s.
Yu Zijun (余子 俊; 1429 -- 1489) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471, but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan. The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake (紅 鹽池) by Wang Yue (王 越) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474. This wall, a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue, stretched from present day Hengcheng (橫 城) in Lingwu (northwestern Ningxia province) to Huamachi town (花 馬 池 鎮) in Yanchi County, and from there to Qingshuiying (清水 營) in northeastern Shaanxi, a total of more than 2000 li (about 1,100 kilometres (680 mi)) long. Along its length were 800 strong points, sentry posts, beacon - fire towers, and assorted defences. 40,000 men were enlisted for this effort, which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels. This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482, when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals. This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall - building by the people of the border areas. By the mid-16th century, Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system. It contained two defence lines: Yu 's wall, called the "great border '' (大 邊, dàbiān), and a "secondary border '' (二 邊, èrbiān) built by Yang Yiqing (楊一清; 1454 -- 1530) behind it.
Following the success of the Ordos walls, Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass (四海 冶 口; in present - day Yanqing County) near the capital Beijing, running a distance of more than 1300 li (about 700 kilometres (430 mi)). The project received approval in 1485, but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year. For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation, political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project.
However, wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time. The Ordos walls underwent extension, elaboration, and repair well into the 16th century. Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material, because they offered better protection and durability. This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics, and inevitably a drastic increase in costs. Instead of being able to draw on local resources, building projects now required brick - kilns, quarries, and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site. Also, masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required. Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone.
With the Ordos now adequately fortified, the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu (宣 府; present - day Xuanhua, Hebei Province), which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built. The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point, and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence.
From 1544 to 1549, Weng Wanda (翁 萬達; 1498 -- 1552) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history. Troops were re-deployed along the outer line, new walls and beacon towers were constructed, and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines. Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time, for both defence and signalling purposes. The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548. At its height, the Xuan -- Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres (530 miles) of wall, with some sections being doubled - up with two lines of wall, some tripled or even quadrupled. The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the "outer border '' (外邊, wàibiān) that extended 380 kilometres (240 mi) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass (偏 頭 關) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province; the "inner border '' wall (內 邊, nèibiān) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres (250 mi), ending at the Pingxing Pass; a "river wall '' (河 邊, hébiān) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres (43 mi).
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos, the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan -- Da sector to less well - protected areas. In the west, Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop. The westernmost fortress of Ming China, the Jiayu Pass, saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539, and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei, where the low earthen wall split into two. The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan, where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls, while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian. The origins and the exact route of this so - called "Tibetan loop '' are still not clear.
In 1550, having once more been refused a request for trade, the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan -- Da region. However, despite several attempts, he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there. Instead of continuing to operate in the area, he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou, northeast of Beijing. From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing. According to one contemporary source, the raid took more than 60,000 lives and an additional 40,000 people became prisoners. As a response to this raid, the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan -- Da region to the Jizhou (薊 州 鎮) and Changping Defence Commands (昌平 鎮) where the breach took place. Later in the same year, the dry - stone walls of the Jizhou -- Changping area (abbreviated as "Ji - Chang '') were replaced by stone and mortar. These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper, more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts, crenelations, and peepholes. The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554, where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance.
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun, successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates, were reassigned to manage the Ji -- Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region. Under their ambitious and energetic management, 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571. These included the first large - scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall: up until this point, most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid, with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows; the Ji -- Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures, allowing soldiers interior space to live, store food and water, stockpile weapons, and take shelter from Mongol arrows.
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571, alleviating the Mongol need to raid. This, coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier, brought a period of relative peace along the border. However, minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade, prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing. Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off, leading to the well - known vistas of a stone - faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today.
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644. In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions. In addition to their conquest of Liaodong, the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629, and again in 1634, 1638, and 1642. Meanwhile, the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength. In the early months of 1644, Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi. His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall, in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons. The crucial defences of Datong, Xuanfu, and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight, and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing. At this point, the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass, where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea. Its defender Wu Sangui, wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without, decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them. The Manchus, having thus entered through the Great Wall, defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5. They eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty.
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed. Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall - building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II. However, independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall, being only part of a complex foreign policy, received "disproportionate blame '' because it was the most obvious relic of that policy.
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty, since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall: China proper, Manchuria, and Mongolia were all under Qing control. So instead, the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes. In the case of Manchuria, considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites, some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade.
Culturally, the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing, who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming. As a result, no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid-Qing dynasty, when Westerners started to show interest in the structure.
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea. The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330? -- 395?) mentioned "summits of lofty walls '' enclosing the land of Seres, the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road. In legend, the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel. Later Arab writers and travellers, such as Rashid - al - Din Hamadani (1248 -- 1318) and Ibn Battuta (1304 -- 1377), would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances. Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century. The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520 -- 70) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted, "a Wall of an hundred leagues in length. And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues. '' Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza (1550 -- 1620) reported a wall five hundred leagues long, but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man - made, with the rest natural rock formations. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552 -- 1610) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary, noting the existence of "a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long '' that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire.
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy mission offers an early account based on a first - hand encounter with the Great Wall, and mentions that in the course of the journey his embassy travelled alongside the Great Wall for ten days.
Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall. However, when the Ming Great Wall began to take on a shape still recognizable today, foreign accounts of the Wall slid into hyperbole. In the Atlas Sinensis published in 1665, the Jesuit Martino Martini described elaborate but atypical stretches of the Great Wall and generalized such fortifications across the whole northern frontier. Furthermore, Martini erroneously identified the Ming Wall as the same wall built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC, thereby exaggerating both the Wall 's antiquity and its size. This misconception was compounded by the China Illustrata of Father Athanasius Kircher (1602 -- 80), which provided pictures of the Great Wall as imagined by a European illustrator. All these and other accounts from missionaries in China contributed to the Orientalism of the eighteenth century, in which a mythical China and its exaggerated Great Wall feature prominently. The French philosopher Voltaire (1694 -- 1774), for example, frequently wrote about the Great Wall, although his feelings towards it oscillate between unreserved admiration and condemnation of it as a "monument to fear ''. The Macartney Embassy of 1793 passed through the Great Wall at Gubeikou on the way to see the Qianlong Emperor in Chengde, who was there for the annual imperial hunt. One of the embassy 's members, John Barrow, later founder of the Royal Geographical Society, spuriously calculated that the amount of stone in the Wall was equivalent to "all the dwelling houses of England and Scotland '' and would suffice to encircle the Earth at the equator twice. The illustrations of the Great Wall by Lieutenant Henry William Parish during this mission would be reproduced in influential works such as Thomas Allom 's 1845 China, in a series of views.
Exposure to such works brought many foreign visitors to the Great Wall after China opened its borders as a result of the nation 's defeat in the Opium Wars of the mid-19th century at the hands of Britain and the other Western powers. The Juyong Pass near Beijing and the "Old Dragon Head, '' where the Great Wall meets the sea at the Shanhai Pass, proved popular destinations for these wall watchers.
The travelogues of the later 19th century in turn further contributed to the elaboration and propagation of the Great Wall myth. Examples of this myth 's growth are the false but widespread belief that the Great Wall of China is visible from the Moon or Mars.
The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 forced the abdication of the last Qing Emperor Puyi and ended China 's last imperial dynasty. The revolutionaries, headed by Sun Yat - sen, were concerned with creating a modern sense of national identity in the chaotic post-imperial era. In contrast to Chinese academics such as Liang Qichao, who tried to counter the West 's fantastic version of the Great Wall, Sun Yat - sen held the view that Qin Shi Huang 's wall preserved the Chinese race, and without it Chinese culture would not have developed enough to expand to the south and assimilate foreign conquerors. Such an endorsement from the "Father of Modern China '' started to transform the Great Wall into a national symbol in the Chinese consciousness, though this transformation was hampered by conflicting views of nationalism with regard to the nascent "new China. ''
The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China 's future trajectory from its past. Naturally, the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past. For example, an influential writer of this period, Lu Xun, harshly criticized the "mighty and accursed Great Wall '' in a short essay: "In reality, it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain... (It) surrounds everyone. ''
The Sino - Japanese conflict (1931 -- 45) gave the Great Wall a new lease of life in the eyes of the Chinese. During the 1933 defence of the Great Wall, inadequately - equipped Chinese soldiers held off double their number of Japanese troops for several months. Using the cover of the Great Wall, the Chinese -- who were at times only armed with broadswords -- were able to beat off a Japanese advance that had the support of aerial bombardment. With the Chinese forces eventually overrun, the subsequent Tanggu Truce stipulated that the Great Wall was to become a demilitarized zone separating China and the newly created Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Even so, the determined defence of the Great Wall made it a symbol of Chinese patriotism and the resoluteness of the Chinese people. The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong picked up this symbol in his poetry during his "Long March '' escaping from Kuomintang prosecution. Near the end of the trek in 1935, Mao wrote the poem "Mount Liupan '' that contains the well - known line that would be carved in stone along the Great Wall in the present day: "Those who fail to reach the Great Wall are not true men '' (不 到 长城 非 好汉). Another noteworthy reference to the Great Wall is in the song "The March of the Volunteers '', whose words came from a stanza in Tian Han 's 1934 poem entitled "The Great Wall ''. The song, originally from the anti-Japanese movie Children of Troubled Times, enjoyed continued popularity in China and was selected as the provisional national anthem of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) at its establishment in 1949.
In 1952, the scholar - turned - bureaucrat Guo Moruo laid out the first modern proposal to repair the Great Wall. Five years later, the renovated Badaling became the first section to be opened to the public since the establishment of the PRC. The Badaling Great Wall has since become a staple stop for foreign dignitaries who come to China, beginning with Nepali prime minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala in 1960, and most notably the American president Richard Nixon in his historic 1972 visit to China. To date, Badaling is still the most visited stretch of the Great Wall.
Other stretches did not fare so well. During the Cultural Revolution (1966 -- 76), hundreds of kilometres of the Great Wall -- already damaged in the wars of the last century and eroded by wind and rain -- were deliberately destroyed by fervent Red Guards who regarded it as part of the "Four Olds '' to be eradicated in the new China. Quarrying machines and even dynamite were used to dismantle the Wall, and the pilfered materials were used for construction.
As China opened up in the 1980s, reformist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the "Love our China and restore our Great Wall '' campaign (爱 我 中华, 修 我 长城) to repair and preserve the Great Wall. The Great Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. However, while tourism boomed over the years, slipshod restoration methods have left sections of the Great Wall near Beijing "looking like a Hollywood set '' in the words of the National Geographic News. The less prominent stretches of the Great Wall did not get as much attention. In 2002 the New York - based World Monuments Fund put the Great Wall on its list of the World 's 100 Most Endangered Sites. In 2003 the Chinese government began to enact laws to protect the Great Wall.
In China, one of the first individuals to attempt a multi-dynastic history of the Great Wall was the 17th - century scholar Gu Yanwu. More recently, in the 1930s and 1940s, Wang Guoliang (王國良) and Shou Pengfei (壽 鵬 飛) produced exhaustive studies that culled extant literary records to date and mapped the courses of early border walls. However, these efforts were based solely on written records that contain obscure place names and elusive literary references.
The rise of modern archeology has contributed much to the study of the Great Wall, either in corroborating existing research or in refuting it. However these efforts do not yet give a full picture of the Great Wall 's history, as many wall sites dating to the Period of Disunity (220 -- 589) had been overlaid by the extant Ming Great Wall.
Western scholarship of the Great Wall was, until recently, affected by misconceptions derived from traditional accounts of the Wall. When the Jesuits brought back the first reports of the Wall to the West, European scholars were puzzled that Marco Polo had not mentioned the presumably perennial "Great Wall '' in his Travels. Some 17th - century scholars reasoned that the Wall must have been built in the Ming dynasty, after Marco Polo 's departure. This view was soon replaced by another that argued, against Polo 's own account, that the Venetian merchant had come to China from the south and so did not come into contact with the Wall. Thus, Father Martino Martini 's mistaken claim that the Wall had "lasted right up to the present time without injury or destruction '' since the time of Qin was accepted as fact by the 18th - century philosophes.
Since then, many scholars have operated under the belief that the Great Wall continually defended China 's border against the steppe nomads for two thousand years. For example, the 18th - century sinologist Joseph de Guignes assigned macrohistorical importance to such walls when he advanced the theory that the Qin construction forced the Xiongnu to migrate west to Europe and, becoming known as the Huns, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. Some have attempted to make general statements regarding Chinese society and foreign policy based on the conception of a perennial Great Wall: Karl Marx took the Wall to represent the stagnation of the Chinese society and economy, Owen Lattimore supposed that the Great Wall demonstrated a need to divide the nomadic way of life from the agricultural communities of China, and John K. Fairbank posited that the Wall played a part in upholding the Sinocentric world order.
Despite the significance that the Great Wall seemed to have, scholarly treatment of the Wall itself remained scant during the 20th century. Joseph Needham bemoaned this dearth when he was compiling the section on walls for his Science and Civilisation in China: "There is no lack of travelers ' description of the Great Wall, but studies based on modern scholarship are few and far between, whether in Chinese or Western languages. '' In 1990, Arthur Waldron published the influential The Great Wall: From History to Myth, where he challenged the notion of a unitary Great Wall maintained since antiquity, dismissing it as a modern myth. Waldron 's approach prompted a re-examination of the Wall in Western scholarship. Still, as of 2008, there is not yet a full authoritative text in any language that is devoted to the Great Wall. The reason for this, according to The New Yorker journalist Peter Hessler, is that the Great Wall fits into neither the study of political institutions (favoured by Chinese historians) nor the excavation of tombs (favoured by Chinese archeologists). Some of the void left by academia is being filled by independent research from Great Wall enthusiasts such as ex-Xinhua reporter Cheng Dalin (成 大林) and self - funded scholar David Spindler.
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west side story somewhere there's a place for us | Somewhere (song) - wikipedia
"Somewhere '', sometimes referred to as "Somewhere (There 's a Place for Us) '' or simply "There 's a Place for Us '', is a song from the 1957 Broadway musical West Side Story that was made into a film in 1961. The music is composed by Leonard Bernstein with lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and takes a phrase from the slow movement of Beethoven 's ' Emperor ' Piano Concerto, which forms the start of the melody, (actually is a quote from the cello and bass line in Tchaikovsky 's Romeo and Juliet, 17 bars from the end.) and also a longer phrase from the main theme of Pyotr Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake.
In the stage musical, the song appears in the second act of the show during the Somewhere Ballet. It is performed by an off - stage soprano singer and is later reprised by the entire company. In the original Broadway production, "Somewhere '' was sung by Reri Grist who played the role of Consuelo.
At the end of the show, when Tony is shot, Maria sings the first few lines of the song as he dies in her arms.
In late 1957, this recording was released on the album West Side Story (Original Broadway Cast).
In the 1961 film, the song occurs at a pivotal point, after the rumble in which Tony (Richard Beymer) has stabbed Maria 's brother, Bernardo (George Chakiris). Having nowhere else to go, Tony runs to Maria (Natalie Wood), who has just been told of her brother 's death and who killed him. When Tony comes to her room through the balcony window, Maria, in shock, pounds against his chest.
Realizing in spite of her anger that she still loves Tony, Maria begs him to hold her. After Maria cries out, "It 's not us... it 's everything around us. '' Tony replies, "Then I 'll take you away, where nothing can get to us. '' He then begins singing "Somewhere '' to her. His comforting voice draws her in and it becomes a duet of hope that their love will survive "somehow, someday, somewhere. ''
As in the stage show, Maria sings the first few lines of the song as Tony dies in her arms. In 2004, this version finished at # 20 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.
"Somewhere '' is the only track that is out of sequence on the original soundtrack album as it is the last track on Side 2. This is rectified on the CD as "Somewhere '' is correctly placed in sequence to the film between "The Rumble '' and "Cool. ''
In 1964, P.J. Proby released his version of "Somewhere '', which reached number 6 on the British singles chart and 7 on the Australian singles chart. The song also charted well in various European countries.
In 1965, the Supremes recorded the song for their album, There 's a Place for Us, though it went unreleased until 2004. They also used it for their debut appearance at the Copacabana nightclub in New York City and it eventually became a fixture of their nightclub acts. They also sang the song on The Ed Sullivan Show and The Hollywood Palace. In contrast to the original melody, a special dramatic monologue was incorporated, which was frequently changed in conjunction with changes in the group as well as the country 's turmoil in the late 1960s.
In the aftermath of the shooting of Martin Luther King, Jr., the monologue was changed to reflect King 's famous "I Have a Dream '' speech. When the Supremes appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson the day after King had been murdered, lead singer Diana Ross was so overcome with emotion that she practically stumbled through the speech, but got an extraordinary ovation from the studio audience. It would once again be nationally televised several months later that year when the group paired up with the Temptations for an NBC television special, TCB. The monologue for that special went as follows:
"Yes, there 's a place for each of us, And we must try to pursue this place. Where love is like a passion, that burns like a fire, Let our efforts be as determined as that of Dr. Martin Luther King, Who had a dream that all God 's children, Black men, white men, Jews, Gentiles, Protestants, and Catholics, Will join hands and sing that spiritual of all: "Free at last! Great God, we are free at last! ''
In 1985, Barbra Streisand released a version of "Somewhere '' as a single off the Grammy Award - winning The Broadway Album. In the US, it narrowly missed the Top 40 on the Hot 100, peaking at number 43, but fared better on the AC, peaking at number 5. It was a minor hit in the UK, peaking at number 88. The song itself won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal (s). In 2011, a duet was produced using scenes from Streisand 's version while Jackie Evancho performed live with David Foster at the Ringling Museum of Art. On her 2014 Partners album, she released a new recording of the song, this time as a duet with Josh Groban.
British drummer Phil Collins later covered the song in 1996 for the West Side Story cover album The Songs of West Side Story.
"Somewhere '' was released as a single by the British music group Pet Shop Boys on 23 June 1997 to promote their "Somewhere '' residency at the Savoy Theatre in London, which was named after the song, and to promote a repackage of Bilingual.
The single was another top 10 hit for the group, peaking at number 9. The single also peaked at number 25 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, roughly equivalent to 125 on the main United States Billboard Hot 100 chart. It also peaked at number 19 on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart. In the US, the song was released as a double A-side with "A Red Letter Day ''.
The Pet Shop Boys ' version also uses elements of another West Side Story song, "I Feel Pretty '', and the album version uses elements of "One Hand, One Heart '' spoken by Chris Lowe.
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what is the lifespan of a purple martin | Purple martin - wikipedia
The purple martin (Progne subis) is the largest North American swallow. These aerial acrobats have speed and agility in flight, and when approaching their housing, will dive from the sky at great speeds with their wings tucked.
Purple martins are a kind of swallow, of the genus Progne. Like other members of this genus, they are larger than most of the other swallows. The average length from bill to tail is 20 cm (7.9 in). Adults have a slightly forked tail. Adult males are entirely black with glossy steel blue sheen, the only swallow in North America with such coloration. Adult females are dark on top with some steel blue sheen, and lighter underparts. Subadult females look similar to adult females minus the steel blue sheen and browner on the back. Subadult males look very much like females, but solid black feathers emerge on their chest in a blotchy, random pattern as they molt to their adult plumage.
This species was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Hirundo subis. The current genus name refers to Procne (Πρόκνη), a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow to save her from her husband. She had killed their son to avenge the rape of her sister. The specific subis is Latin and refers to a type of bird that breaks eagles ' eggs; it may have been applied to this species because of its aggression towards birds of prey when it is nesting.
The species of this genus are very closely related, and some view the purple martin, gray - breasted martin, snowy - bellied martin, and southern martin, as a superspecies.
Purple martins ' breeding range is throughout temperate North America. Their breeding habitat is open areas across eastern North America, and also some locations on the west coast from British Columbia to Mexico. Martins make their nests in cavities, either natural or artificial. In many places, humans put up real or artificial hollow gourds, or houses for martins, especially in the east, where purple martins are almost entirely dependent on such structures. As a result, this subspecies typically breeds in colonies located in proximity to people, even within cities and towns. This makes their distribution patchy, as they are usually absent from areas where no nest sites are provided. Western birds often make use of natural cavities such as old woodpecker holes in trees or saguaro cacti.
The purple martin migrates to the Amazon basin in winter. Its winter range extends into Ecuador but does not seem to ascend far up the Andean foothills.
The first record of this species in Europe was a single bird on Lewis, Scotland, on 5 -- 6 September 2004, and the second was on the Azores on 6 September 2004.
Purple martins suffered a severe population crash in the 20th century widely linked to the release and spread of European starlings in North America. Starlings and house sparrows compete with martins for nest cavities. Where purple martins once gathered by the thousands, by the 1980s they had all but disappeared.
The population of eastern purple martins (nominate form P. s. subis) is dependent on artificial martin houses of wood or aluminum and fake plastic gourds, supplied by individuals and organizations fond of the bird. This tradition was in place even before the population crash; Native Americans are said to have hollowed out gourds and erected them for this purpose. The situation requires continual maintenance, as European starlings and house sparrows compete with martins as cavity - nesters, and will fight with martins over nest sites. Starlings have even been known to kill purple martins, especially nestling young, and house sparrows have been known to evict purple martins from their nests. Thus, unmonitored purple martin houses are often overtaken by more aggressive, non-native species. Purple martin proponents are motivated by the concern that the purple martin would likely vanish from eastern North America were it not for this assistance.
Wintering in South America, purple martins migrate to North America in spring to breed. Spring migration is somewhat staggered, with arrivals in southern areas such as Florida and Texas in January, but showing up in the northern United States in April and in Canada as late as May. Males usually arrive at a site before females.
Fall migration is also staggered, as birds head south when the breeding season is over. Some birds leave as early as July and others stay as late as October. Martins generally migrate over land, through Mexico and Central America. When not breeding, martins form large flocks and roost together in great numbers. This behavior begins just prior to the southern migration and continues on the wintering grounds.
Males arrive in breeding sites before females, and establish their territory. A territory can consist of several potential nest sites. After forming a pair, both the male and female inspect available nest sites. This process is complicated by the fact that artificial nest sites could be houses with many rooms, clustered gourds, or single gourds. The nest is made inside the cavity of such artificial structures and retains a somewhat flat appearance. The nest is a structure of primarily three levels: the first level acts as a foundation and is usually made up of twigs, mud, small pebbles and in at least a few reported cases, small river mollusk shells were used; the second level of the nest is made up of grasses, finer smaller twigs; the third level of construction composing the nest, is a small compression usually lined with fresh green leaves where the eggs are laid. Three to six eggs are laid, and the female is the main incubator, with some help from the male. Purple martins are generally known to raise only a single brood. Fledging, when the young leave the nest, occurs at about one month, after which the parents continue to feed the fledgling young.
Purple martins are aerial insectivores, meaning that they catch insects from the air. The birds are agile hunters and eat a variety of winged insects. Rarely, they will come to the ground to eat insects. They usually fly relatively high, so, contrary to popular opinion, mosquitoes do not form a large part of their diet. Recent research, however, does indicate that the Purple Martin feeds on invasive fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) and that they may make up a significant portion of their diet.
Purple martins are fairly noisy, chirping and making sounds that have been described as chortles, rattles, and croaks. The various calls are said to be "throaty and rich '' and can be rendered as tchew - wew, pew pew, choo, cher, zweet and zwrack. The males have a gurgling and guttural courtship song, a dawn song, and even a subsong used at the end of the breeding season. Tapes of purple martin song are sold to attract martins to newly established birdhouses.
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when does the united states post office observe veterans day | Federal holidays in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, a federal holiday is an authorized holiday which has been recognized by the US government. Every year on a U.S. federal holiday, non-essential federal government offices are closed, and every federal employee is paid for the holiday. Private - sector employees required to work on a legal holiday may receive holiday pay in addition to their ordinary wages.
Federal holidays are designated by the United States Congress in Title V of the United States Code (5 U.S.C. § 6103). Congress has authority to create holidays only for federal institutions (including federally owned properties) and employees, and for the District of Columbia. However, as a general rule other institutions, including banks, post offices, and schools, may be closed on those days. In various parts of the country, state and city holidays may be observed in addition to the federal holidays.
The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28, 1870, when Congress created federal holidays "to correspond with similar laws of States around the District... and... in every State of the Union. '' Although at first applicable only to federal employees in the District of Columbia, Congress extended coverage in 1885 to all federal employees.
The original four holidays were:
George Washington 's Birthday became a Federal holiday in 1880. In 1888 and 1894, respectively, Decoration Day (now Memorial Day) and Labor Day were created. In 1938, Armistice Day (now Veterans Day) was created to mark the end of World War I. The scope and the name of the holiday was expanded in 1954 to honor Americans who fought in World War II and the Korean War.
In 1968, the Monday Holiday Act of 1968 shifted several holidays to always fall on a Monday and saw the establishment of Columbus Day.
In 1983, the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. became the nation 's most recently established holiday.
Most of the ten U.S. federal holidays are also state holidays. A holiday that falls on a weekend is usually observed on the closest weekday (e.g. a holiday falling on a Saturday is observed on the preceding Friday, while a holiday falling on a Sunday is observed on the succeeding Monday). The official names came from the laws that define holidays for federal employees.
New Year 's Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day are observed on the same calendar date each year. Holidays that fall on a Saturday are observed by federal employees who work a standard Monday to Friday week on the previous Friday. Federal employees who work on Saturday will observe the holiday on Saturday; Friday will be a regular work day. Holidays that fall on a Sunday are observed by federal workers the following Monday. The other holidays always fall on a particular day of the week.
Although many states recognize most or all federal holidays as state holidays, the Federal government can not enact laws to compel them to do so. Furthermore, states can recognize other days as state holidays that are not federal holidays. For example, the State of Texas recognizes all federal holidays except Columbus Day, and in addition recognizes the Friday after Thanksgiving, Christmas Eve, and the day after Christmas as state holidays. Furthermore, Texas does not follow the federal rule of closing either the Friday before if a holiday falls on a Saturday, or the Monday after if a holiday falls on a Sunday (offices are open on those Fridays or Mondays), but does have "partial staffing holidays '' (such as March 2, which is Texas Independence Day) and "optional holidays '' (such as Good Friday).
Private employers also can not be required to observe federal or state holidays, the key exception being federally chartered banks. Some private employers, often by a union contract, pay a differential such as time - and - a-half or double - time to employees who work on some federal holidays. However, most non-unionized private sector employees only receive their standard pay for working on a federal holiday if it is not a designated holiday at their company.
Over the course of U.S. history, federal holidays were created and then abolished over time as their significance waned. Two holidays, the Eighth and Victory Day, were once celebrated. Between 1828 and 1861, "The Eighth '' was a holiday that marked the U.S. victory in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, with Tennessee 's Andrew Jackson leading a successful battle against regular British soldiers and freed slaves. Following Jackson 's election as President, the day earned official national recognition. The Eighth continued as an official national holiday from 1828 until the advent of the Civil War. Victory Day marked the "Victory over Japan '' and remained a national holiday until 1975. While both holidays remain largely forgotten by the American public, the U.S. state of Rhode Island still officially observes Victory Day, with public offices and schools being closed.
Federal law also provides for the declaration of other public holidays by the President of the United States. Generally the president will provide a reasoning behind the elevation of the day, and call on the people of the United States to observe the day "with appropriate ceremonies and activities. '' Examples of presidentially declared holidays were the days of the funerals for former Presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford; federal government offices were closed and employees given a paid holiday.
Some individuals and organizations have objected to the federal status of certain holidays, such as Martin Luther King Jr. Day and Columbus Day. In particular, Senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina opposed the creation of the federal holiday for the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1983.
Protests by the Native American community support the abolition of Columbus Day, mainly due to its ideology in forcefully conquering and converting whole populations with another and encouraging imperialism and colonization. Glenn Morris of the Denver Post wrote that Columbus Day "... is not merely a celebration of Columbus the man; it is the celebration of a racist legal and political legacy - embedded in official legal and political pronouncements of the U.S. - such as the Doctrine of Discovery and Manifest Destiny. ''
Hawaii, Alaska, Oregon, and South Dakota are U.S. states that do not recognize Columbus Day at all, though Hawaii and South Dakota mark the day with an alternative holiday or observance. South Dakota is the only state to recognize Native American Day as an alternate. Hawaii recognizes Discoverer 's Day.
Christmas Day as a federal or public holiday is also sometimes objected to by various sources, usually due to its ties with the Christian religion. In December 1999, the U.S. District Court, in the case Ganulin vs. United States, denied the charge that Christmas Day 's federal status violated the Establishment Clause of the Constitution, ruling that "the Christmas holiday has become largely secularized '', and that "by giving federal employees a paid vacation day on Christmas, the government is doing no more than recognizing the cultural significance of the holiday ''.
Many proposed federal holidays have come up over time. According to an article from CBS, federal holidays are generally "expensive '' and they only allow federal workers to take the day off. As the U.S. federal government is a large employer, the holidays are expensive. If a holiday is controversial, opposition will generally prevent bills enacting them from passing. Martin Luther King Jr. 's birthday, for example, was one that took much effort to pass. And once it did pass, it took more effort for all states to eventually recognize it.
The following list is an example of holidays that have been proposed and have reasons why they are not observed at the federal level today. Some of these holidays are observed at the state level.
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who played in the odd couple tv series | The Odd Couple (1970 TV series) - wikipedia
The Odd Couple, formally titled onscreen Neil Simon 's The Odd Couple, is an American television situation comedy broadcast from September 24, 1970, to March 7, 1975, on ABC. It stars Tony Randall as Felix Unger and Jack Klugman as Oscar Madison, and was the first of several sitcoms developed by Garry Marshall for Paramount Television. The show is based on the 1965 play of the same name, which was written by Neil Simon, as well as on the play 's 1968 film adaptation. Felix and Oscar are both divorced. They share a Manhattan apartment, and their different lifestyles inevitably lead to conflicts and laughs.
In 1997, the episodes "Password '' and "The Fat Farm '' were ranked # 5 and # 58, respectively, on TV Guide 's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. The show received three nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series. Its fourth season, from 1973 -- 74, remains the most recent nominee for a show that aired during a Friday time slot.
The success of the 1968 film version of the stage play of The Odd Couple, which starred Jack Lemmon as Felix and Walter Matthau as Oscar, served as the catalyst to bringing the characters to television. The original casting considerations for the TV show included Mickey Rooney or Martin Balsam as Oscar and Dean Martin or Art Carney as Felix (Carney had originated the role on Broadway).
Eventually Tony Randall (as Felix) and Jack Klugman (as Oscar) were hired. Both had starred in different productions of the play. Randall, who was hired first, had still wanted Mickey Rooney to play Oscar. The show 's co-executive producer, Garry Marshall, had to lobby hard to get Klugman successfully hired. Once the casting was in place, the show 's writers (Marshall, Jerry Belson, Jerry Paris, Bob Brunner, Mark Rothman and Lowell Ganz, among others) came up with a multitude of situations for Felix and Oscar to be in, while staying true to the soul of the play, which always reverted to the human tensions between the two that created the comic situations.
The show premiered September 24, 1970 on ABC. The first season was filmed using the single - camera method and a laugh track, utilizing the apartment set featured from the 1968 film version. Klugman and Randall expressed displeasure with using the laugh track without a live audience. Co-creator / executive producer Garry Marshall also disliked the practice; theatre veteran Randall particularly resented the process of having to wait several seconds between punchlines in order to allot enough space for the laughter to be inserted. The production team eventually experimented with omitting the laugh track altogether for the premiere episode "Oscar 's New Life '' (laughs were subsequently added on repeats to maintain continuity). ABC relented by the second season and the show was filmed with three cameras and performed like a stage play in front of a live studio audience, with laugh sweetening completed during post-production.
The change also required a new, larger set to be constructed within a theatre.
With an audience present, Randall and Klugman enjoyed the spontaneity that came with it; any missed or blown lines went by without stopping (they could always be re-filmed during post-production). In addition, it gave the show a certain edge that was lost in the first season, although actors had to deliver lines louder, since they were on a larger sound stage as opposed to a quiet studio with only minimal crew present.
Klugman later recalled, "We spent three days rehearsing the show. We sat around a table the first day. We tore the script apart. We took out all the jokes and put in character. The only reason we leave in any jokes is for the rotten canned laughter. I hated it. I watch the shows at home, I see Oscar come in and he says, ' Hi, ' and there is the laughter. ' Hey, ' I think, ' what the hell did I do? ' I hate it; it insults the audience. ''
Throughout its run, The Odd Couple was juggled around ABC 's programming schedule. The show struggled in the Nielsen ratings and was canceled at the end of every season. However, ABC renewed the show for each upcoming season because the ratings for the summer reruns were high. In the final first - run episode, "Felix Remarries '', Felix finally wins Gloria back and they remarry as Oscar regains the freedom of living alone again. The final scene unfolds in this way, as the two say their goodbyes:
The 114 episodes went on to syndication and home video. There were some minor changes made in the development of the series. In both TV series and play, Felix 's last name was spelled Unger but in the film it is spelled Ungar. In the stage play, Felix is a news writer for CBS (in the film he writes the news for "television ''), while in the TV series he is a commercial photographer. (His slogan, which he is quick to vocalize, is "Portraits a specialty. '') His wife is named Frances in the play and in the film, but is Gloria in the TV series.
Oscar has at least two children, including a son "Brucey '', who are referred to but not seen in the play and the film. In the series, Oscar is childless. In the film and the play, Felix has a son and a younger daughter. In the series, the children 's ages are reversed and they are named Leonard and Edna, after Tony Randall 's real first name and his own sister 's. During the first season, the show was shot on the sets used for the movie, but for the second season (partially necessitated by the switch to a three - camera setup and the addition of a studio audience), the layout of the apartment was retconned.
The Pigeon Sisters (Monica Evans as Cecily and Carole Shelley as Gwendolyn, reprising their roles from the film and stage play) made four appearances during the first third of the first season. Their characters were not seen and rarely mentioned after that. Oscar later had a girlfriend during that latter part of the first season and half of the second, Dr. Nancy Cunningham (played by Joan Hotchkis), an attractive doctor, whose colleague, Dr. Melnitz (played by Bill Quinn in several episodes), is a sarcastic physician who treats both Felix and Oscar. Felix gained a girlfriend in the third season, Miriam Welby (played by Elinor Donahue), and they lasted into the fifth season, presumably breaking up before Felix remarried Gloria in the series finale. Christopher Shea appeared in three episodes of the first season as Philip, Felix and Oscar 's 11 - year - old neighbor. Oscar 's occasional good - time girlfriend, "Crazy Rhoda Zimmerman '', is often referred to but never appears onscreen.
The TV show also featured their ex-wives. Janis Hansen played Felix 's ex, Gloria (named Frances in the play and film) and Jack Klugman 's real life wife Brett Somers as Blanche, Oscar 's ex. (The couple separated in real life during the run of the show.) There were many episodes in which Felix felt he had made a mistake by not fighting harder for Gloria, and took comically drastic measures to try to win her back. In contrast, Oscar was happy to be divorced from Blanche and she from him as the two constantly traded sarcastic barbs. The only major drawback from Oscar 's point of view was the alimony he was ordered to pay. Willie Aames and later Leif Garrett made a few appearances as Felix 's son, Leonard. Pamelyn Ferdin and later Doney Oatman appeared as Felix 's teenaged daughter, Edna.
The two other major supporting characters, Murray the Cop and Myrna Turner, Oscar 's secretary, were played by Al Molinaro and Penny Marshall (Garry 's sister) respectively. Alice Ghostley played Murray 's wife Mimi in one episode of the first season when Felix quickly outstays his welcome after he moves out of Oscar 's apartment following a falling - out. She appeared once in the second season as played by Jane Dulo. Garry Walberg, Ryan McDonald and Larry Gelman played Oscar 's poker cronies Homer "Speed '' Deegan, Roy, and the bald, bespectacled Vinnie Barella, rounding out the rest of the regulars. Ryan McDonald left the show after the seventh of the first season 's eight episodes in which there was a poker game, and the character of Roy was rarely mentioned and never seen again.
Garry Walberg (who later appeared with Klugman on the series Quincy M.E., and Larry Gelman each made a handful of scattered guest appearances after the first season. Richard Stahl appeared in nine episodes as, among other things, a pet - shop owner, a florist, a psychiatrist, and a non-denominational monk, never playing the same role twice. Actor Herbie Faye appeared five times on the series in different roles. Oscar 's mother appeared in two different episodes, played once by Elvia Allman, and once by Jane Dulo, both veteran actresses.
The show often had celebrity guest stars, who reflected the cultural leanings either of Oscar or Felix, often playing themselves or occasionally fictional characters. For Oscar, country guitar legend Roy Clark played an old practical joke - playing friend, who nonetheless, has enormous musical talent, as even Felix acknowledges. Sportscaster Howard Cosell (2 episodes) and then ABC television producer Roone Arledge (1 episode) played themselves.
Pop singer Jaye P. Morgan played herself as one of Oscar 's many girlfriends. For Felix, Marilyn Horne played a shy, mousy co-worker of Oscar (named "Jackie ''). Opera singers Martina Arroyo and Richard Fredricks appeared as themselves, as did Edward Villella, Monty Hall, Richard Dawson, Wolfman Jack, David Steinberg, Hugh Hefner, Rodney Allen Rippy, John Simon, Bubba Smith, Deacon Jones, and Allen Ludden and Betty White (married in real life). In one episode, noted tennis frenemies and one - time real life competitors Bobby Riggs and Billie Jean King appeared as themselves.
In one episode singer - songwriter Paul Williams appears when Felix 's daughter Edna wants to run away to follow Williams on tour. (Williams dissuades her.) Dick Clark appeared as himself, a radio disc jockey who calls Oscar in a contest, where he wins a new car ("The New Car '', episode 76). Neil Simon (the man who wrote the play for which the series is based on) makes an uncredited appearance in the fifth season episode "'' Two on the Aisle ".
During its original run the show had mediocre ratings at best (the show was never among the Top 30 programs on the Nielsen ratings list during its entire run). Nonetheless, both actors were nominated for Emmy Awards in each year of the show 's run. Jack Klugman won two Emmy Awards for his work (in 1971 and 1973), and Tony Randall won an Emmy as well (in 1975, in which, upon acceptance of the award, he commented on the fact that he wished he "had a job '', since the show had recently been cancelled).
Klugman was nominated for a Golden Globe in 1972 and won one in 1974. The show itself was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in the years 1971, 1972 and 1974. To date, these are the last Emmy nominations to a sitcom airing on a Friday night.
"On November 13, Felix Unger was asked to remove himself from his place of residence. (Unger 's unseen wife slams door, only to reopen it and angrily hand Felix his saucepan) That request came from his wife. Deep down, he knew she was right, but he also knew that someday, he would return to her. With nowhere else to go, he appeared at the home of his childhood friend, Oscar Madison. Sometime earlier, Madison 's wife had thrown him out, requesting that he never return. Can two divorced men share an apartment without driving each other crazy? ''
This opening narration was featured during the show 's first and second seasons (in the U.S. DVD release, it is also used in the third season set). It was narrated by voice actor Bill Woodson. The "childhood friend '' reference was only used during the first season and was later changed to simply "friend '' (in fact, the "childhood friend '' reference was added partway through the first season, as the fourth episode explains that Felix and Oscar met during jury duty. And, in a 1973 episode, the two were in the Army together, with Felix being Oscar 's superior, at the time Oscar and wife Blanche (Brett Somers) married. There was a flashback episode where Blanche and Oscar lived in the apartment Oscar now shares with Felix. Such inconsistencies in continuity were common for the show) Also, "sometime earlier '' was changed to "several years earlier '' followed by Madison 's wife throwing him out, requesting that he never return.
The opening credit sequence consisted of Felix and Oscar in various humorous situations around New York City such as cavorting around a Maypole. In later seasons, the opening sequence featured highlights from past episodes mixed with the previous footage. The closing credit sequences for the first four years of the show consisted of more of the duo 's zany antics or a scene where Felix meets Oscar by a big fountain in New York City 's Columbus Circle: Oscar throws a cigar butt in the fountain, Felix barks at him to pick it up, and Oscar scoops it up with his shoe then places the wet and soiled cigar butt in Felix 's pocket. Towards the end of the introduction title sequence the duo can be seen sitting on a park bench at W58th and 5th Ave in front of the Grand Army Plaza Monuments, Pulitzer Fountain, where Oscar throws his lunch wrapper on the ground and Felix beckons him to pick it up. In later seasons, another clip was incorporated into the credits (a re-taping of a scene from an actual episode) in which Oscar washes his hands in the kitchen sink and begins to dry them on the curtains; Felix protests this, and so Oscar instead dries his hands on Felix ' shirt. For the final season, the credits were shown against a blue background.
Klugman and Randall did a series of commercials for different products as Felix and Oscar. In 1972, they appeared in TV commercials for Yoplait yogurt. (Klugman also did commercials without Randall for the product in the early 1980s.) In 1974 they appeared in ads for the game Challenge Yahtzee; for a while, their likenesses also appeared on the game 's packaging, with the slogan "You play your way -- I 'll play mine! '' In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Klugman and Randall reprised their characters in a series of commercials for Eagle Snacks, although they called each other by their real names.
They also reprised their roles as Felix and Oscar in regional productions, this time performing the original Neil Simon play, from the late 1980s until the mid-1990s. They had also performed the Simon play on a few road shows during the TV version 's off season during the summer in the early to mid-1970s. In 1997, they appeared in a Broadway revival of another Simon play, The Sunshine Boys.
In the 1980s, while starring in the NBC drama Quincy, M.E., Klugman did commercials for Canon copiers. Minolta countered by hiring Randall, then on the NBC sitcom Love, Sidney, to do a commercial where he channeled his Felix role, mentioning that he "can change copy colors without getting that disgusting black powder all over my hands! '' He closed by saying "But that does n't mean I 'm a neat freak. Of course, I 'm not a slob, either, like, uh... '' and waved his hand, to suggest Klugman as Oscar.
Klugman and Randall reunited in the 1993 television movie, The Odd Couple: Together Again to a mixed reception. Klugman had lost a vocal cord to throat cancer and this struggle was included in the script. In the film, Felix tries to help Oscar recover. He also becomes overly involved in Edna 's upcoming wedding, much to her and Gloria (Barbara Barrie) 's dismay.
A cartoon version of The Odd Couple premiered on September 6, 1975 on ABC titled The Oddball Couple during their Saturday morning kids ' programming block, Funshine Saturday. Although authorized by Neil Simon (who received a "based on '' credit) completely different characters were created: "Spiffy '' (a cat voiced by Frank Nelson) and "Fleabag '' (a dog voiced by Paul Winchell) who live together in a house that is half sloppy and rundown and half pristine and tidy along with a matching car. It was directed and produced by the same team that produced the Pink Panther cartoons: David DePatie and Friz Freleng were executive producers, Gerry Chiniquy, and Robert McKimson among others, directed several episodes. The characters ' professions in this version were reversed from the original series, with the fastidious Spiffy working as a reporter and the rumpled Fleabag a photographer, often working together. The show was canceled in 1977.
In 1982, as a hedge against the 1981 Writers Guild of America strike, ABC aired a new version of The Odd Couple, this time with two African - Americans, Ron Glass as Felix and Demond Wilson as Oscar. It was called The New Odd Couple, and initially used eight previously - filmed scripts from the original series; when the strike ended during the series ' production, union writers returned and original episodes were written from then on. It ran less than half a season.
A Chilean version titled Una Pareja Dispareja began airing in January 2009 on TVN. This version takes several of its cues from Two and a Half Men, a Chuck Lorre - created sitcom with a similar premise to The Odd Couple. Some of the details taken from Two and a Half Men include Felix and Oscar being siblings instead of friends, as well as Felix being a doctor and Oscar a musician.
Another American remake, also called The Odd Couple, aired on CBS for three seasons from 2015 to 2017. This version, a multi-camera sitcom, was co-created and co-produced by Matthew Perry, who played Oscar, while Thomas Lennon played Felix.
The Complete First Season of The Odd Couple was released on DVD in Region 1 on August 18, 2006 by Time Life Video under license from Paramount Home Entertainment (Paramount Television was the program 's original distributor). Some episodes, mainly from the first season, were available on a VHS videotape set during the 1990s, and distributed by Columbia House.
Each episode on the First Season DVDs contain an introduction from the show 's producer Garry Marshall. Also included as extras are Emmy Awards speeches, bloopers, TV interviews with the show 's stars and a clip of The Odd Couple on Broadway.
Paramount / CBS DVD have since released the remaining seasons (two through five) of The Odd Couple on DVD in Region 1. Season 1 was released in Region 2 on April 28, 2008. While the Time / Life Season 1 DVD release contained only unedited episodes as originally broadcast, CBS Home Entertainment opted to edit their DVDs of seasons two through five, removing short segments or occasionally entire scenes which included music sung by Felix or some other character. A notable example of this can be seen in the Season 5 episode "Strike Up the Band or Else '' where, in the epilogue, guest star Pernell Roberts ' character is going to sing, and the episode abruptly ends and closing credits roll. Fans and critics alike lambasted CBS / Paramount for the shoddy treatment The Odd Couple DVD releases received, concluding that the studio has misled consumers by labeling their DVD sets as "complete '' when they have been intentionally edited to avoid paying royalties required by the music publishers. To date, there are no plans to re-release the series utilizing the uncut master prints.
On June 16, 2015, CBS DVD released The Odd Couple - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1, albeit with the same edits and removal of scenes with music.
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who sings nessun dorma in sum of all fears | Nessun dorma - wikipedia
"Nessun dorma '' (Italian: (nesˈsun ˈdɔrma); English: "None shall sleep '') is an aria from the final act of Giacomo Puccini 's opera Turandot and one of the best - known tenor arias in all opera. It is sung by Calaf, il principe ignoto (the unknown prince), who falls in love at first sight with the beautiful but cold Princess Turandot. However, any man who wishes to wed Turandot must first answer her three riddles; if he fails, he will be beheaded. In the aria, Calaf expresses his triumphant assurance that he will win the princess.
Although "Nessun dorma '' has long been a staple of operatic recitals, Luciano Pavarotti popularized the piece beyond the opera world in the 1990s following his performance of it for the 1990 World Cup. Both Pavarotti and Plácido Domingo released singles of the aria that topped charts in the United Kingdom, and it appeared on the best selling classical album of all time, The Three Tenors in Concert. Since that time, many crossover artists have performed and recorded it. The aria has been sung often in movies and on television.
In the act before this aria, Calaf has correctly answered the three riddles put to all of Princess Turandot 's prospective suitors. Nonetheless, she recoils at the thought of marriage to him. Calaf offers her another chance by challenging her to guess his name by dawn. As he kneels before her, the "Nessun dorma '' theme makes a first appearance, to his words, "Il mio nome non sai! '' (My name you do not know!). She can execute him if she correctly guesses his name; but if she does not, she must marry him. The cruel and emotionally cold princess then decrees that none of her subjects shall sleep that night until his name is discovered. If they fail, all will be killed.
As the final act opens, it is now night. Calaf is alone in the moonlit palace gardens. In the distance, he hears Turandot 's heralds proclaiming her command. His aria begins with an echo of their cry and a reflection on Princess Turandot:
Nessun dorma! Nessun dorma! Tu pure, o Principessa, nella tua fredda stanza, guardi le stelle che tremano d'amore, e di speranza!
None shall sleep! None shall sleep! Not even you, oh Princess, in your cold bedroom, watching the stars that tremble with love and with hope!
Ma il mio mistero è chiuso in me; il nome mio nessun saprà! No, No! Sulla tua bocca lo dirò quando la luce splenderà!
But my secret is hidden within me; no one will know my name! No, no! On your mouth I will say it when the light shines!
Ed il mio bacio scioglierà il silenzio che ti fa mia!
And my kiss will dissolve the silence that makes you mine!
Just before the climactic end of the aria, a chorus of women is heard singing in the distance:
Il nome suo nessun saprà, E noi dovrem, ahimè, morir, morir!
No one will know his name, and we will have to, alas, die, die!
Calaf, now certain of victory, sings:
Dilegua, o notte! Tramontate, stelle! Tramontate, stelle! All'alba vincerò! Vincerò! Vincerò!
Vanish, o night! Fade, you stars! Fade, you stars! At dawn, I will win! I will win! I will win!
In performance, the final "Vincerò! '' features a sustained B, followed by the final note, an A sustained even longer -- although Puccini 's score did not explicitly specify that either note be sustained. In the original score, the B is written as a sixteenth note while the A is a whole note. Both are high notes in the tenor range. The only recording to follow Puccini 's score exactly was the very first, sung by Gina Cigna and Francesco Merli, conducted by Franco Ghione.
In Alfano 's completion of act 3, the "Nessun dorma '' theme makes a final triumphal appearance at the end of the opera. The theme also makes a concluding reappearance in Luciano Berio 's later completion (this having been an expressed intention of Puccini 's), but in a more subdued orchestration.
"Nessun dorma '', sung by some of the most famous interpreters of Calaf, appears on the following compilation recordings. (For full - length recordings of the opera, see Turandot discography.)
"Nessun dorma '' achieved pop status after Luciano Pavarotti 's 1972 recording of it was used as the theme song of BBC television 's coverage of the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. It subsequently reached # 2 on the UK Singles Chart. Although Pavarotti rarely sang the role of Calaf on stage, "Nessun dorma '' became his signature aria and a sporting anthem in its own right, especially for football. Pavarotti notably sang the aria during the first Three Tenors concert on the eve of the 1990 World Cup final. For an encore, he performed the aria again, taking turns with José Carreras and Plácido Domingo. The album of the concert achieved triple platinum record status in the United States alone and went on to outsell all other classical recordings worldwide. The number became a regular feature of subsequent Three Tenors concerts.
Pavarotti gave a rendition of "Nessun dorma '' at his final performance, the finale of the Opening Ceremony of the 2006 Torino Winter Olympics, although it was later revealed that he had lip - synched the specially pre-recorded performance (at the time of his Winter Olympics appearance, Pavarotti was physically incapable of performing as he was suffering from pancreatic cancer, to which he succumbed the following year). His Decca recording of the aria was played at his funeral during the flypast by the Italian Air Force. In 2013, the track was certified gold by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry.
On 7 May 2016 Andrea Bocelli sang "Nessun dorma '' in the King Power Stadium, home of Leicester City Football Club, before Leicester City 's final home match of the 2015 -- 16 Premier League season against Everton F.C.. Leicester 's manager Claudio Ranieri stood beside Bocelli for the performance. After the game, Leicester were presented with the Premier League trophy for the first time in their history.
"Nessun dorma '' (often in adapted versions of the score) has been performed by many pop and crossover singers and instrumentalists.
"Nessun dorma '' has been used in many films, often appearing at a central moment in the film -- sometimes with the aria 's moment of musical resolution aligned with the film 's narrative climax, giving symbolic meaning to the aria 's rich emotional impact. Films in which the aria plays a significant role in the soundtrack include The Killing Fields, New York Stories, Mar adentro, The Sum of All Fears, The Mirror Has Two Faces, Bend It Like Beckham, No Reservations, and Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation (with the scene set within a performance of Turandot itself). It was sung by Pavarotti himself as part of his fictional role in the film Yes, Giorgio. "Nessun dorma '' is also the title of a short film by Ken Russell included in the 1987 film Aria.
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where did the story of the tortoise and the hare originate from | The Tortoise and the Hare - wikipedia
"The Tortoise and the Hare '' is one of Aesop 's Fables and is numbered 226 in the Perry Index. The account of a race between unequal partners has attracted conflicting interpretations. It is itself a variant of a common folktale theme in which ingenuity and trickery (rather than doggedness) are employed to overcome a stronger opponent.
The story concerns a Hare who ridicules a slow - moving Tortoise. Tired of the Hare 's arrogant behavior, the Tortoise challenges him to a race. The hare soon leaves the tortoise behind and, confident of winning, takes a nap midway through the race. When the Hare awakes however, he finds that his competitor, crawling slowly but steadily, has arrived before him. The later version of the story in La Fontaine 's Fables (VI. 10), while more long - winded, differs hardly at all from Aesop 's.
As in several other fables by Aesop, the lesson it is teaching appears ambiguous. In Classical times it was not the Tortoise 's plucky conduct in taking on a bully that was emphasised but the Hare 's foolish over-confidence. An old Greek source comments that ' many people have good natural abilities which are ruined by idleness; on the other hand, sobriety, zeal and perseverance can prevail over indolence '. When the fable entered the European emblem tradition, the precept to ' hasten slowly ' (festina lente) was recommended to lovers by Otto van Veen in his Emblemata Amorum (1608), using a relation of the story. There the infant figure of Eros is shown passing through a landscape and pointing to the tortoise as it overtakes the sleeping hare under the motto "perseverance winneth. '' Later interpreters too have asserted that the fable 's moral is the proverbial ' the more haste, the worse speed ' (Samuel Croxall) or have applied to it the biblical observation that ' the race is not to the swift ' (Ecclesiastes 9.11).
In the 19th century and after the fable was given satirical interpretations. In the social commentary of Charles H. Bennett 's The Fables of Aesop translated into Human Nature (1857), the hare is changed to a thoughtful craftsman prostrate under the foot of a capitalist entrepreneur. Lord Dunsany brings out another view in his "The True History of the Tortoise and the Hare '' (1915). There the hare realises the stupidity of the challenge and refuses to proceed any further. The obstinate tortoise continues to the finishing line and is proclaimed the swiftest by his backers. But, continues Dunsany,
In Classical times the story was annexed to a philosophical problem by Zeno of Elea in one of many demonstrations that movement is impossible to define satisfactorily. The second of Zeno 's paradoxes is that of Achilles and the Tortoise, in which the hero gives the Tortoise a head start in a race. The argument attempts to show that even though Achilles runs faster than the Tortoise, he will never catch up with her because, when Achilles reaches the point at which the Tortoise started, the Tortoise has advanced some distance beyond; when Achilles arrives at the point where the Tortoise was when Achilles arrived at the point where the Tortoise started, the Tortoise has again moved forward. Hence Achilles can never catch the Tortoise, no matter how fast he runs, since the Tortoise will always be moving ahead.
The only satisfactory refutation has been mathematical and since then the name of the fable has been applied to the function described in Zeno 's paradox. In mathematics and computer science, the tortoise and the hare algorithm is an alternative name for Floyd 's cycle - finding algorithm.
There is a Greek version of the fable but no early Latin version. For this reason it did not begin to appear in printed editions of Aesop 's fables until the 16th century, one of the earliest being Bernard Salomon 's Les Fables d'Esope Phrygien, mises en Ryme Francoise (1547). Versions followed from the Netherlands (in Dutch, 1567) and Flanders (in French, 1578) but none in English before Francis Barlow 's edition of 1667.
Among the many illustrations of the fable, that by the French caricaturist Jean Grandville is novel in portraying the tortoise as running upright. This is also how he is shown in the Walt Disney cartoon version of "The Tortoise and the Hare '' (1935). Another departure from the ordinary in Grandville 's etching is the choice of a mole (complete with dark glasses) rather than, as usual, a fox as the judge at the finishing line. Auguste Delierre makes the judge a monkey in the 1883 edition of La Fontaine 's fables that he illustrated. La Fontaine says in his rhyme that it does not matter who the judge is; his interpreters have taken him at his word.
Outside of book production, there is an early 17th - century oil painting of the fable by the Flemish landscape artist Jan Wildens. The hare enters on the left, racing over an upland road as dawn breaks; the tortoise is nowhere in sight. In the mid-19th century, the French animal painter Philibert Léon Couturier also devoted an oil painting to the fable in which, as in Grandville 's illustration, the tortoise is shown racing upright. In modern times there have been two pieces of popular sculpture aimed at children. Nancy Schön 's was made to commemorate the centenary of the Boston Marathon in 1996 and is sited in Copley Square, the finishing line for the race. The tortoise is shown determinedly stumping forward while the hare has paused to scratch behind its ear. In the following year a painted steel sculpture by Michael Browne and Stuart Smith was set up near the cross-country finish line at Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx. The hare is mounted on the tortoise 's shell and appears to be trying to leap over him.
The fable has also been illustrated on stamps from several countries. These include:
Many allusions to the fable in musical titles are of limited or no relevance, but two instrumental versions may be noted. The one by Yellow Jackets jazz quartet was recorded on their Politics album in 1988 The Anglo - Irish band Flook 's title is on their Haven album (2005)
There have also been several musical settings of Aesop 's fable:
There have been a number of film versions of the fable, although many have taken considerable liberties with the original story line. They include animated cartoons in France (1920), and the US (1921), Silly Symphonies cartoons during the 1930s and by Merrie Melodies during the 1940s. Encyclopædia Britannica Films followed with a dramatized version of Aesop 's fable starring live animals, including an owl, a fox, a goose, a rooster, a raccoon, and a hare. This was a 1947 production in black and white with narrated voice - over. Later divergent versions that referenced the fable appeared in Filmation 's Aesop 's Fables (1971), Sesame Street (1973),, and the Japanese TV series Manga Aesop Monogotari (1983).
In 1952, the model animator Ray Harryhausen began a version of the fable, before moving over to more lucrative work on monster movies. Young enthusiasts Seamus Walsh and Mark Caballero later helped Harryhausen complete "The Story of the Tortoise and the Hare '', having refurbished the original puppets and, under Harryhausen 's guidance, completed the film in 2002. A feature in this, is that the hare drops off to sleep as a result of taking a big meal near the end of the race, thus allowing the tortoise to win. The same situation had appeared in Georges de la Grandière 's 1960 's cartoon version of the fable, Le Lièvre et la tortue.
The many other variants of the story in oral folk tradition appear worldwide and are classed as Aarne - Thompson - Uther type 275. In most of these there is a race between unequal partners but most often brain is matched against brawn and the race is won by means of trickery. Broadly this is of two types: either the slower animal jumps on the other 's back or tail and hops off at the end when the creature turns round to see where his challenger has got to, or else he is deceived by lookalikes substituting themselves along the course.
Tales with a similar theme emphasizing doggedness have been recorded in Native American culture. Hummingbird and Crane agree to race from one ocean to the other. Though Hummingbird flies faster, he stops at night to sleep. Crane, however, flies overnight and is overtaken by Hummingbird later and later during the day, at length coming in first. The ultimate prize differs between versions and includes choice of habitat, the love of a girl, or the right to cut the other down to size.
Media related to The Tortoise and the Hare at Wikimedia Commons
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when did tokyo become the capital of japan | Capital of Japan - wikipedia
The current capital of Japan is Tokyo. In the course of history, the national capital has been in many locations other than Tokyo.
Traditionally, the home of the Emperor is considered the capital. From 794 through 1868, the Emperor lived in Heian - kyō, modern - day Kyoto. After 1868, the seat of the Government of Japan and the location of the Emperor 's home was moved to Tokyo.
In 1941, the Ministry of Education published the "designation of Tokyo as capital '' (東京 奠 都, Tōkyō - tento).
While no laws have designated Tokyo as the Japanese capital, many laws have defined a "capital area '' (首都 圏, shuto - ken) that incorporates Tokyo. Article 2 of the Capital Area Consolidation Law (首都 圏 整備 法) of 1956 states: "In this Act, the term ' capital area ' shall denote a broad region comprising both the territory of Tokyo Metropolis as well as outlying regions designated by cabinet order. '' This clearly implies that the government has designated Tokyo as the capital of Japan, although (again) it is not explicitly stated, and the definition of the "capital area '' is purposely restricted to the terms of that specific law.
Other laws referring to this "capital area '' include the Capital Expressway Public Corporation Law (首都 高速 道路 公団 法) and the Capital Area Greenbelt Preservation Law (首都 圏 近郊 緑地 保全 法).
This term for capital was never used to refer to Kyoto. Indeed, shuto came into use during the 1860s as a gloss of the English term "capital ''.
The Ministry of Education published a book called "History of the Restoration '' in 1941. This book referred to "designating Tokyo as capital '' (東京 奠 都, Tōkyō - tento) without talking about "relocating the capital to Tokyo '' (東京 遷都, Tōkyō - sento). A contemporary history textbook states that the Meiji government "moved the capital (shuto) from Kyoto to Tokyo '' without using the sento term.
As of 2007, there is a movement to transfer the government functions of the capital from Tokyo while retaining Tokyo as the de jure capital, with the Gifu - Aichi region, the Mie - Kio region and other regions submitting bids for a de facto capital. Officially, the relocation is referred to as "capital functions relocation '' instead of "capital relocation '', or as "relocation of the Diet and other organizations ''.
This list of legendary capitals of Japan begins with the reign of Emperor Jimmu. The names of the Imperial palaces are in parentheses.
This list of capitals includes the Imperial palaces names in parentheses.
Kofun period
Asuka period
Nara period
Heian period
Medieval Japan and Early modern period (see also: History of Japan)
Modern Japan (see also: History of Japan)
Media related to Capital of Japan at Wikimedia Commons
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what's the difference between thanksgiving and independence day | Thanksgiving (United States) - wikipedia
Thanksgiving, or Thanksgiving Day, is a public holiday celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States. It originated as a harvest festival. Thanksgiving has been celebrated nationally on and off since 1789, after Congress requested a proclamation by George Washington. It has been celebrated as a federal holiday every year since 1863, when, during the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln proclaimed a national day of "Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens, '' to be celebrated on the last Thursday in November. Together with Christmas and the New Year, Thanksgiving is a part of the broader fall / winter holiday season in the U.S.
The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving '' was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days, and -- as accounted by attendee Edward Winslow -- it was attended by 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims. The New England colonists were accustomed to regularly celebrating "thanksgivings '' -- days of prayer thanking God for blessings such as military victory or the end of a drought.
Setting aside time to give thanks for one 's blessings, along with holding feasts to celebrate a harvest, are both practices that long predate the European settlement of North America. The first documented thanksgiving services in territory currently belonging to the United States were conducted by Spaniards and the French in the 16th century. Wisdom practices such as expressing gratitude, sharing, and giving away, are integral to many indigenous cultures and communities.
Thanksgiving services were routine in what became the Commonwealth of Virginia as early as 1607, with the first permanent settlement of Jamestown, Virginia holding a thanksgiving in 1610. In 1619, 38 English settlers arrived at Berkeley Hundred in Charles City County, Virginia. The group 's London Company charter specifically required "that the day of our ships arrival at the place assigned... in the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God. '' Three years later, after the Indian massacre of 1622, the Berkeley Hundred site and other outlying locations were abandoned and colonists moved their celebration to Jamestown and other more secure spots.
Americans also trace the Thanksgiving holiday to a 1621 celebration at the Plymouth Plantation, where the settlers held a harvest feast after a successful growing season. Autumn or early winter feasts continued sporadically in later years, first as an impromptu religious observance and later as a civil tradition.
Squanto, a Patuxet Native American who resided with the Wampanoag tribe, taught the Pilgrims how to catch eel and grow corn and served as an interpreter for them. Squanto had learned the English language during his enslavement in England. The Wampanoag leader Massasoit had given food to the colonists during the first winter when supplies brought from England were insufficient.
The Pilgrims celebrated at Plymouth for three days after their first harvest in 1621. The exact time is unknown, but James Baker, the Plimoth Plantation vice president of research, stated in 1996, "The event occurred between Sept. 21 and Nov. 11, 1621, with the most likely time being around Michaelmas (Sept. 29), the traditional time. '' Seventeenth - century accounts do not identify this as a Thanksgiving observance, rather it followed the harvest. It included 50 persons who were on the Mayflower (all who remained of the 100 who had landed) and 90 Native Americans. The feast was cooked by the four adult Pilgrim women who survived their first winter in the New World (Eleanor Billington, Elizabeth Hopkins, Mary Brewster, and Susanna White), along with young daughters and male and female servants.
Two colonists gave personal accounts of the 1621 feast in Plymouth. The Pilgrims, most of whom were Separatists (English Dissenters), are not to be confused with Puritans, who established their own Massachusetts Bay Colony on the Shawmut Peninsula (current day Boston) in 1630. Both groups were strict Calvinists, but differed in their views regarding the Church of England. Puritans wished to remain in the Anglican Church and reform it, while the Pilgrims wanted complete separation from the church.
William Bradford, in Of Plymouth Plantation wrote:
They began now to gather in the small harvest they had, and to fit up their houses and dwellings against winter, being all well recovered in health and strength and had all things in good plenty. For as some were thus employed in affairs abroad, others were exercised in fishing, about cod and bass and other fish, of which they took good store, of which every family had their portion. All the summer there was no want; and now began to come in store of fowl, as winter approached, of which this place did abound when they can be used (but afterward decreased by degrees). And besides waterfowl there was great store of wild turkeys, of which they took many, besides venison, etc. Besides, they had about a peck a meal a week to a person, or now since harvest, Indian corn to the proportion. Which made many afterwards write so largely of their plenty here to their friends in England, which were not feigned but true reports.
Edward Winslow, in Mourt 's Relation wrote:
Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruits of our labor. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which we brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.
The Pilgrims held a true Thanksgiving celebration in 1623 following a fast, and a refreshing 14 - day rain which resulted in a larger harvest. William DeLoss Love calculates that this thanksgiving was made on Wednesday, July 30, 1623, a day before the arrival of a supply ship with more colonists, but before the fall harvest. In Love 's opinion this 1623 thanksgiving was significant because the order to recognize the event was from civil authority (Governor Bradford), and not from the church, making it likely the first civil recognition of Thanksgiving in New England.
Referring to the 1623 harvest after the nearly catastrophic drought, Bradford wrote:
And afterwards the Lord sent them such seasonable showers, with interchange of fair warm weather as, through His blessing, caused a fruitful and liberal harvest, to their no small comfort and rejoicing. For which mercy, in time convenient, they also set apart a day of thanksgiving... By this time harvest was come, and instead of famine now God gave them plenty... for which they blessed God. And the effect of their particular planting was well seen, for all had... pretty well... so as any general want or famine had not been amongst them since to this day.
These firsthand accounts do not appear to have contributed to the early development of the holiday. Bradford 's "Of Plymouth Plantation '' was not published until the 1850s. While the booklet "Mourt 's Relation '' was summarized by other publications without the now - familiar thanksgiving story. By the eighteenth century the original booklet appeared to be lost or forgotten. A copy was rediscovered in Philadelphia in 1820, with the first full reprinting in 1841. In a footnote the editor, Alexander Young, was the first person to identify the 1621 feast as the first Thanksgiving.
According to historian James Baker, debates over where any "first Thanksgiving '' took place on modern American territory are a "tempest in a beanpot ''. Jeremy Bang claims, "Local boosters in Virginia, Florida, and Texas promote their own colonists, who (like many people getting off a boat) gave thanks for setting foot again on dry land. '' Baker claims, "the American holiday 's true origin was the New England Calvinist Thanksgiving. Never coupled with a Sabbath meeting, the Puritan observances were special days set aside during the week for thanksgiving and praise in response to God 's providence. ''
Nevertheless, President John F. Kennedy, in an attempt to strike a compromise between the regional claims, issued Proclamation 3560 on November 5, 1963 stating, "Over three centuries ago, our forefathers in Virginia and in Massachusetts, far from home in a lonely wilderness, set aside a time of thanksgiving. On the appointed day, they gave reverent thanks for their safety, for the health of their children, for the fertility of their fields, for the love which bound them together and for the faith which united them with their God. ''
During the American Revolutionary War the Continental Congress appointed one or more thanksgiving days each year, each time recommending to the executives of the various states the observance of these days in their states.
The First National Proclamation of Thanksgiving was given by the Continental Congress in 1777 from its temporary location in York, Pennsylvania, while the British occupied the national capital at Philadelphia. Delegate Samuel Adams created the first draft. Congress then adapted the final version:
For as much as it is the indispensable Duty of all Men to adore the superintending Providence of Almighty God; to acknowledge with Gratitude their Obligation to him for Benefits received, and to implore such farther Blessings as they stand in Need of: And it having pleased him in his abundant Mercy, not only to continue to us the innumerable Bounties of his common Providence; but also to smile upon us in the Prosecution of a just and necessary War, for the Defense and Establishment of our unalienable Rights and Liberties; particularly in that he hath been pleased, in so great a Measure, to prosper the Means used for the Support of our Troops, and to crown our Arms with most signal success:
It is therefore recommended to the legislative or executive Powers of these United States to set apart Thursday, the eighteenth Day of December next, for Solemn Thanksgiving and Praise: That at one Time and with one Voice, the good People may express the grateful Feelings of their Hearts, and consecrate themselves to the Service of their Divine Benefactor; and that, together with their sincere Acknowledgments and Offerings, they may join the penitent Confession of their manifold Sins, whereby they had forfeited every Favor; and their humble and earnest Supplication that it may please God through the Merits of Jesus Christ, mercifully to forgive and blot them out of Remembrance; That it may please him graciously to afford his Blessing on the Governments of these States respectively, and prosper the public Council of the whole: To inspire our Commanders, both by Land and Sea, and all under them, with that Wisdom and Fortitude which may render them fit Instruments, under the Providence of Almighty God, to secure for these United States, the greatest of all human Blessings, Independence and Peace: That it may please him, to prosper the Trade and Manufactures of the People, and the Labor of the Husbandman, that our Land may yield its Increase: To take Schools and Seminaries of Education, so necessary for cultivating the Principles of true Liberty, Virtue and Piety, under his nurturing Hand; and to prosper the Means of Religion, for the promotion and enlargement of that Kingdom, which consisteth "in Righteousness, Peace and Joy in the Holy Ghost.
And it is further recommended, That servile Labor, and such Recreation, as, though at other Times innocent, may be unbecoming the Purpose of this Appointment, be omitted on so solemn an Occasion.
George Washington, leader of the revolutionary forces in the American Revolutionary War, proclaimed a Thanksgiving in December 1777 as a victory celebration honoring the defeat of the British at Saratoga.
The Continental - Confederation Congress, the legislative body that governed the United States from 1774 to 1789, issued several "national days of prayer, humiliation, and thanksgiving '', a practice that was continued by Presidents Washington and Adams under the Constitution, and has manifested itself in the established American observances of Thanksgiving and the National Day of Prayer today. This proclamation was published in The Independent Gazetteer, or the Chronicle of Freedom, on November 5, 1782, the first being observed on November 28, 1782:
By the United States in Congress assembled, PROCLAMATION.
It being the indispensable duty of all nations, not only to offer up their supplications to Almighty God, the giver of all good, for His gracious assistance in a time of distress, but also in a solemn and public manner, to give Him praise for His goodness in general, and especially for great and signal interpositions of His Providence in their behalf; therefore, the United States in Congress assembled, taking into their consideration the many instances of Divine goodness to these States in the course of the important conflict, in which they have been so long engaged, -- the present happy and promising state of public affairs, and the events of the war in the course of the year now drawing to a close; particularly the harmony of the public Councils which is so necessary to the success of the public cause, -- the perfect union and good understanding which has hitherto subsisted between them and their allies, notwithstanding the artful and unwearied attempts of the common enemy to divide them, -- the success of the arms of the United States and those of their allies, -- and the acknowledgment of their Independence by another European power, whose friendship and commerce must be of great and lasting advantage to these States; Do hereby recommend it to the inhabitants of these States in general, to observe and request the several states to interpose their authority, in appointing and commanding the observation of THURSDAY the TWENTY - EIGHTH DAY OF NOVEMBER next as a day of SOLEMN THANKSGIVING to GOD for all His mercies; and they do further recommend to all ranks to testify their gratitude to God for His goodness by a cheerful obedience to His laws and by promoting, each in his station, and by his influence, the practice of true and undefiled religion, which is the great foundation of public prosperity and national happiness.
Done in Congress at Philadelphia, the eleventh day of October, in the year of our LORD, one thousand seven hundred and eighty - two, and of our Sovereignty and Independence, the seventh.
JOHN HANSON, President. CHARLES THOMSON, Secretary.
On Thursday, September 24, 1789, the first House of Representatives voted to recommend the First Amendment of the newly drafted Constitution to the states for ratification. The next day, Congressman Elias Boudinot from New Jersey proposed that the House and Senate jointly request of President Washington to proclaim a day of thanksgiving for "the many signal favors of Almighty God ''. Boudinot said that he "could not think of letting the session pass over without offering an opportunity to all the citizens of the United States of joining, with one voice, in returning to Almighty God their sincere thanks for the many blessings he had poured down upon them. ''
As President, on October 3, 1789, George Washington made the following proclamation and created the first Thanksgiving Day designated by the national government of the United States of America:
Whereas it is the duty of all Nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey his will, to be grateful for his benefits, and humbly to implore his protection and favor, and whereas both Houses of Congress have by their joint Committee requested me "to recommend to the People of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many signal favors of Almighty God especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness. ''
Now therefore I do recommend and assign Thursday the 26th day of November next to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, who is the beneficent Author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be. That we may then all unite in rendering unto him our sincere and humble thanks, for his kind care and protection of the People of this Country previous to their becoming a Nation, for the signal and manifold mercies, and the favorable interpositions of his providence, which we experienced in the course and conclusion of the late war, for the great degree of tranquility, union, and plenty, which we have since enjoyed, for the peaceable and rational manner, in which we have been enabled to establish constitutions of government for our safety and happiness, and particularly the national One now lately instituted, for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed; and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and in general for all the great and various favors which he hath been pleased to confer upon us.
And also that we may then unite in most humbly offering our prayers and supplications to the great Lord and Ruler of Nations and beseech him to pardon our national and other transgressions, to enable us all, whether in public or private stations, to perform our several and relative duties properly and punctually, to render our national government a blessing to all the people, by constantly being a Government of wise, just, and constitutional laws, discreetly and faithfully executed and obeyed, to protect and guide all Sovereigns and Nations (especially such as have shown kindness unto us) and to bless them with good government, peace, and concord. To promote the knowledge and practice of true religion and virtue, and the encrease of science among them and Us, and generally to grant unto all Mankind such a degree of temporal prosperity as he alone knows to be best.
Given under my hand at the City of New York the third day of October in the year of our Lord 1789.
George Washington again proclaimed a Thanksgiving in 1795.
President John Adams declared Thanksgivings in 1798 and 1799. No Thanksgiving proclamations were issued by Thomas Jefferson but James Madison renewed the tradition in 1814, in response to resolutions of Congress, at the close of the War of 1812. Caleb Strong, Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, declared the holiday in 1813, "for a day of public thanksgiving and prayer '' for Thursday, the 25th of November of that year.
Madison also declared the holiday twice in 1815; however, none of these were celebrated in autumn. In 1816, Governor Plumer of New Hampshire appointed Thursday, November 14 to be observed as a day of Public Thanksgiving and Governor Brooks of Massachusetts appointed Thursday, November 28 to be "observed throughout that State as a day of Thanksgiving ''.
A thanksgiving day was annually appointed by the governor of New York from 1817. By 1858 proclamations appointing a day of thanksgiving were issued by the governors of 25 states and two territories.
In the middle of the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln, prompted by a series of editorials written by Sarah Josepha Hale, proclaimed a national Thanksgiving Day, to be celebrated on the 26th, the final Thursday of November 1863. The document, written by Secretary of State William H. Seward, reads as follows:
The year that is drawing towards its close, has been filled with the blessings of fruitful fields and healthful skies. To these bounties, which are so constantly enjoyed that we are prone to forget the source from which they come, others have been added, which are of so extraordinary a nature, that they can not fail to penetrate and soften even the heart which is habitually insensible to the ever watchful providence of Almighty God. In the midst of a civil war of unequalled magnitude and severity, which has sometimes seemed to foreign States to invite and to provoke their aggression, peace has been preserved with all nations, order has been maintained, the laws have been respected and obeyed, and harmony has prevailed everywhere except in the theatre of military conflict; while that theatre has been greatly contracted by the advancing armies and navies of the Union. Needful diversions of wealth and of strength from the fields of peaceful industry to the national defence, have not arrested the plough, the shuttle, or the ship; the axe had enlarged the borders of our settlements, and the mines, as well of iron and coal as of the precious metals, have yielded even more abundantly than heretofore. Population has steadily increased, notwithstanding the waste that has been made in the camp, the siege and the battle - field; and the country, rejoicing in the consciousness of augmented strength and vigor, is permitted to expect continuance of years, with large increase of freedom.
No human counsel hath devised nor hath any mortal hand worked out these great things. They are the gracious gifts of the Most High God, who, while dealing with us in anger for our sins, hath nevertheless remembered mercy.
It has seemed to me fit and proper that they should be solemnly, reverently and gratefully acknowledged as with one heart and voice by the whole American people. I do therefore invite my fellow citizens in every part of the United States, and also those who are at sea and those who are sojourning in foreign lands, to set apart and observe the last Thursday of November next, as a day of Thanksgiving and Praise to our beneficent Father who dwelleth in the Heavens. And I recommend to them that while offering up the ascriptions justly due to Him for such singular deliverances and blessings, they do also, with humble penitence for our national perverseness and disobedience, commend to his tender care all those who have become widows, orphans, mourners or sufferers in the lamentable civil strife in which we are unavoidably engaged, and fervently implore the interposition of the Almighty Hand to heal the wounds of the nation and to restore it as soon as may be consistent with the Divine purposes to the full enjoyment of peace, harmony, tranquility and Union.
In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the city of Washington, this third day of October, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty - three, and of the independence of the United States the eighty - eighth. ''
Proclamation of President Abraham Lincoln, October 3, 1863.
Since 1863, Thanksgiving has been observed annually in the United States.
During the second half of the 19th century, Thanksgiving traditions in America varied from region to region. A traditional New England Thanksgiving, for example, consisted of a raffle held on Thanksgiving Eve (in which the prizes were mainly geese or turkeys), a shooting match on Thanksgiving morning (in which turkeys and chickens were used as targets), church services -- and then the traditional feast, which consisted of some familiar Thanksgiving staples such as turkey and pumpkin pie, and some not - so - familiar dishes such as pigeon pie. The earliest high school football rivalries took root in the late 19th century in Massachusetts, stemming from games played on Thanksgiving; professional football took root as a Thanksgiving staple during the sport 's genesis in the 1890s, and the tradition of Thanksgiving football both at the high school and professional level continues to this day. In New York City, people would dress up in fanciful masks and costumes and roam the streets in merry - making mobs. By the beginning of the 20th century, these mobs had morphed into Ragamuffin parades consisting mostly of children dressed as "ragamuffins '' in costumes of old and mismatched adult clothes and with deliberately smudged faces, but by the late 1950s the tradition had diminished enough to only exist in a few communities around New York.
Abraham Lincoln 's successors as president followed his example of annually declaring the final Thursday in November to be Thanksgiving. But in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt broke with this tradition. November had five Thursdays that year (instead of the more - common four), Roosevelt declared the fourth Thursday as Thanksgiving rather than the fifth one. Although many popular histories state otherwise, he made clear that his plan was to establish the holiday on the next - to - last Thursday in the month instead of the last one. With the country still in the midst of The Great Depression, Roosevelt thought an earlier Thanksgiving would give merchants a longer period to sell goods before Christmas. Increasing profits and spending during this period, Roosevelt hoped, would help bring the country out of the Depression. At the time, advertising goods for Christmas before Thanksgiving was considered inappropriate. Fred Lazarus, Jr., founder of the Federated Department Stores (later Macy 's), is credited with convincing Roosevelt to push Thanksgiving to a week earlier to expand the shopping season, and within two years the change passed through Congress into law.
Republicans decried the change, calling it an affront to the memory of Lincoln. People began referring to November 30 as the "Republican Thanksgiving '' and November 23 as the "Democratic Thanksgiving '' or "Franksgiving ''. Regardless of the politics, many localities had made a tradition of celebrating on the last Thursday, and many football teams had a tradition of playing their final games of the season on Thanksgiving; with their schedules set well in advance, they could not change. Since a presidential declaration of Thanksgiving Day was not legally binding, Roosevelt 's change was widely disregarded. Twenty - three states went along with Roosevelt 's recommendation, 22 did not, and some, like Texas, could not decide and took both days as government holidays.
In 1940 and 1941, years in which November had four Thursdays, Roosevelt declared the third one as Thanksgiving. As in 1939, some states went along with the change while others retained the traditional last - Thursday date.
On October 6, 1941, both houses of the U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution fixing the traditional last - Thursday date for the holiday beginning in 1942. However, in December of that year the Senate passed an amendment to the resolution that split the difference by requiring that Thanksgiving be observed annually on the fourth Thursday of November, which was usually the last Thursday and sometimes (two years out of seven, on average) the next to last. The amendment also passed the House, and on December 26, 1941, President Roosevelt signed this bill, for the first time making the date of Thanksgiving a matter of federal law and fixing the day as the fourth Thursday of November.
For several years some states continued to observe the last - Thursday date in years with five November Thursdays (the next such year being 1944), with Texas doing so as late as 1956.
The poor are often provided with food at Thanksgiving time. Most communities have annual food drives that collect non-perishable packaged and canned foods, and corporations sponsor charitable distributions of staple foods and Thanksgiving dinners. The Salvation Army enlists volunteers to serve Thanksgiving dinners to hundreds of people in different locales. Additionally, pegged to be five days after Thanksgiving is Giving Tuesday, a celebration of charitable giving.
U.S. tradition compares the holiday with a meal held in 1621 by the Wampanoag and the Pilgrims who settled at Plymouth Plantation. It is continued in modern times with the Thanksgiving dinner, traditionally featuring turkey, playing a central role in the celebration of Thanksgiving.
In the United States, certain kinds of food are traditionally served at Thanksgiving meals. Turkey, usually roasted and stuffed (but sometimes deep - fried instead), is typically the featured item on any Thanksgiving feast table, so much so that Thanksgiving is colloquially known as "Turkey Day. '' In fact, 45 million turkeys were consumed on Thanksgiving Day alone in 2015. With 85 percent of Americans partaking in the meal, that 's an estimated 276 million Americans dining on the festive poultry, spending an expected $1.05 billion on turkeys for Thanksgiving in 2016.
Mashed potatoes with gravy, stuffing, sweet potatoes, cranberry sauce, sweet corn, various fall vegetables, squash, brussels sprouts and pumpkin pie are commonly associated with Thanksgiving dinner. Green bean casserole was introduced in 1955 and remains a favorite. All of these are actually native to the Americas or were introduced as a new food source to the Europeans when they arrived. Turkey may be an exception. In his book Mayflower, Nathaniel Philbrick suggests that the Pilgrims might already have been familiar with turkey in England, even though the bird is native to the Americas. The Spaniards had brought domesticated turkeys back from Central America in the early 17th century, and the birds soon became popular fare all over Europe, including England, where turkey (as an alternative to the traditional goose) became a "fixture at English Christmases ''. The Pilgrims did not observe Christmas.
As a result of the size of Thanksgiving dinner, Americans eat more food on Thanksgiving than on any other day of the year.
Thanksgiving was founded as a religious observance for all the members of the community to give thanks to God for a common purpose. Historic reasons for community thanksgivings are: the 1541 thanksgiving mass after the expedition of Francisco Vásquez de Coronado safely crossing the high plains of Texas and finding game, and the 1777 thanksgiving after the victory in the Revolutionary War Battle of Saratoga. In his 1789 National Thanksgiving Proclamation, President Washington gave many noble reasons for a national Thanksgiving, including "for the civil and religious liberty '', for "useful knowledge '', and for God 's "kind care '' and "His Providence ''. After President Washington delivered this message, the "Episcopal Church, of which President Washington was a member, announced that the first Thursday in November would become its regular day for giving thanks ''. After Washington, the only presidents to express a specifically Christian perspective in their proclamation have been Grover Cleveland in 1896, and William McKinley in 1900. Several other presidents have cited the Judeo - Christian tradition.
The tradition of giving thanks to God is continued today in many forms, most notably the attendance of religious services, as well as the saying of a mealtime prayer before Thanksgiving dinner. Many houses of worship offer worship services and events on Thanksgiving themes the weekend before, the day of, or the weekend after Thanksgiving. At home, it is a holiday tradition in many families to begin the Thanksgiving dinner by saying grace (a prayer before or after a meal). The custom is portrayed in the photograph "Family Holding Hands and Praying Before a Thanksgiving Meal ''. Before praying, it is a common practice at the dining table for "each person (to) tell one specific reason they 're thankful to God that year. '' While grace is said, many families hold hands until the prayer concludes, often indicated with an "Amen ''. Traditionally, grace was led by the hostess or host, though in later times it is usual for others to contribute.
Joy Fisher, a Baptist Christian writer, states that "this holiday takes on a spiritual emphasis and includes recognition of the source of the blessings they enjoy year round -- a loving God. '' In the same vein, Hesham A. Hassaballa, an American Muslim scholar and physician, has written that Thanksgiving "is wholly consistent with Islamic principles '' and that "few things are more Islamic than thanking God for His blessings ''. Similarly many Sikh Americans also celebrate the holiday by "giving thanks to Almighty ''.
Since 1924, in New York City, the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade is held annually every Thanksgiving Day from the Upper West Side of Manhattan to Macy 's flagship store in Herald Square, and televised nationally by NBC. The parade features parade floats with specific themes, scenes from Broadway plays, large balloons of cartoon characters, TV personalities, and high school marching bands. The float that traditionally ends the Macy 's Parade is the Santa Claus float, the arrival of which is an unofficial sign of the beginning of the Christmas season. It is billed as the world 's largest parade.
The oldest Thanksgiving Day parade is the Philadelphia 's Thanksgiving Day Parade, which launched in 1920 and takes place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Philadelphia 's parade was long associated with Gimbels, a prominent Macy 's rival, until that store closed in 1986. Its current sponsors are WPVI - TV, the channel 6 ABC affiliate in Philadelphia; and Dunkin ' Donuts donut chain.
Founded in 1924, the same year as the Macy 's parade, America 's Thanksgiving Parade in Detroit is one of the largest parades in the country. The parade runs from Midtown to Downtown Detroit and precedes the annual Detroit Lions Thanksgiving football game. The parade includes large balloons, marching bands, and various celebrity guests much like the Macy 's parade and is nationally televised on various affiliate stations. The Mayor of Detroit closes the parade by giving Santa Claus a key to the city.
There are Thanksgiving parades in many other cities, including:
Most of these parades are televised on a local station, and some have small, usually regional, syndication networks; most also carry the parades via Internet television on the TV stations ' websites.
Several other parades have a loose association with Thanksgiving, thanks to CBS 's now - discontinued All - American Thanksgiving Day Parade coverage. Parades that were covered during this era were the Aloha Floral Parade held in Honolulu, Hawaii every September, the Toronto Santa Claus Parade in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and the Opryland Aqua Parade (held from 1996 to 2001 by the Gaylord Opryland Resort & Convention Center in Nashville); the Opryland parade was discontinued and replaced by a taped parade in Miami Beach, Florida in 2002. A Disneyland parade was also featured on CBS until Disney purchased rival ABC.
For many years the Santa Claus Lane Parade (now Hollywood Christmas Parade) in Los Angeles was held on the Wednesday evening before Thanksgiving. In 1978 this was switched to the Sunday following the holiday.
American football is an important part of many Thanksgiving celebrations in the United States, a tradition that dates to the earliest era of the sport in the late 19th century. Professional football games are often held on Thanksgiving Day; until recently, these were the only games played during the week apart from Sunday or Monday night. The National Football League has played games on Thanksgiving every year since its creation. The Detroit Lions have hosted a game every Thanksgiving Day from 1934 to 1938 and again every year since 1945. In 1966, the Dallas Cowboys, who had been founded six years earlier, adopted the practice of hosting Thanksgiving games. The league added a third game in prime time in 2006, which aired on the NFL Network, then moved to NBC in 2012. The third game has no set site or team, providing an opportunity for all teams in the league to host a Thanksgiving game in the future.
For college football teams that participate in the highest level (all teams in the Football Bowl Subdivision, as well as three teams in the historically black Southwestern Athletic Conference of the Championship Subdivision), the regular season ends on Thanksgiving weekend, and a team 's final game is often against a regional or historic rival, such as the Iron Bowl between Alabama and Auburn, the Civil War between Oregon and Oregon State, the Apple Cup between Washington and Washington State, and Michigan and Ohio State playing in their rivalry game. Most of these college games are played on the Friday or Saturday after Thanksgiving, but usually one or two college games are played on Thanksgiving itself. The lower divisions of the game, including all of Divisions II and III, the NAIA, club football and the rest of the Championship Subdivision (except the Ivy League, whose season ends before Thanksgiving). are in the midst of playoff tournaments over Thanksgiving weekend.
Some high school football games (which include some state championship games), and informal "Turkey Bowl '' contests played by amateur groups and organizations, are frequently held on Thanksgiving weekend. Games of football preceding or following the meal in the backyard or a nearby field are also common during many family gatherings. Amateur games typically follow less organized backyard - rules, two - hand touch or flag football styles.
College basketball holds several elimination tournaments on over Thanksgiving weekend, before the conference season. These include the Anaheim - based Wooden Legacy, the Orlando - based AdvoCare Invitational, and the Bahamas - based Battle 4 Atlantis, all of which are televised on ESPN2 and ESPNU in marathon format. The NCAA owned - and - operated NIT Season Tip - Off has also since moved to Thanksgiving week. This is a relatively new phenomenon, dating only to 2006. The National Basketball Association also briefly played on Thanksgiving, albeit in the evening, with a doubleheader airing Thanksgiving night on TNT, a practice that ran from 2009 to 2011; the Atlanta Hawks hosted the early game each year, while the Los Angeles Clippers hosted the late game in both 2010 and 2011 (both of the 2011 NBA Thanksgiving games were canceled due to a labor dispute). The NBA did not schedule any Thanksgiving games in 2012 or 2013, mainly due to the move of the NFL 's primetime Thanksgiving game to NBC.
Though golf and auto racing are in their off - seasons on Thanksgiving, there are events in those sports that take place on Thanksgiving weekend. The Turkey Night Grand Prix is an annual automobile race that takes place at various venues in southern California on Thanksgiving night; due in part to the fact that this is after the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series and Verizon IndyCar Series have finished their seasons, it allows some of the top racers in the United States to participate. In golf, Thanksgiving weekend was the traditional time of the Skins Game from 1983 to 2008; the event was canceled in 2009 due to a lack of sponsorship and a difficulty in drawing star talent. A return was, at the time of the cancellation, planned for the next year, but no skins game has been included on the PGA Tour schedule since that time.
The world championship pumpkin chunking contest was held in early November in Delaware and televised each Thanksgiving on Science Channel.
In ice hockey, the National Hockey League announced, as part of its decade - long extension with NBC, that they would begin airing a game on the Friday afternoon following Thanksgiving beginning the 2011 -- 12 NHL season; the game has since been branded as the Thanksgiving Showdown. (The Boston Bruins have played matinees on Black Friday since at least 1990, but 2011 is the first time the game has been nationally televised.) The NHL has played games on Thanksgiving, usually scheduling games involving Canadian teams (but not always, as was the case in 2016, when the league scheduled a nationally televised game Thanksgiving night between two American teams on the West Coast). In Canada, Thanksgiving is in October, although no games were scheduled in 2011 and only one was scheduled in 2012 (both the Thanksgiving Showdown and the lone Canadian game on U.S. Thanksgiving were canceled as a result of a labor dispute in 2012); as a result of the effective day off, almost all of the league 's teams play the day after Thanksgiving.
Professional wrestling promotions have typically held premier pay - per - view events on or around the time of Thanksgiving. This trend began in 1983 when Jim Crockett Promotions, the largest promoter in the National Wrestling Alliance, introduced Starrcade. Starrcade, later incorporated into World Championship Wrestling, moved off Thanksgiving in 1988; the year prior, the rival World Wrestling Federation had introduced Survivor Series ', an event that continues to be hosted in November to the present day. TNA Wrestling held pay - per - view events, including TNA Genesis and TNA Turning Point, in November from 2005 to 2013.
The Turkey Trot is a road running event held in numerous cities on Thanksgiving morning. Depending on the organizations involved, these can range from one - mile (1.6 km) fun runs to full marathons (although no races currently use the latter; the Atlanta Marathon stopped running on Thanksgiving beginning in 2010). Most Turkey Trots range from between three and ten miles (5 -- 16 km).
While not as prolific as Christmas specials, which usually begin right after Thanksgiving, there are many special television programs transmitted on or around Thanksgiving, such as A Charlie Brown Thanksgiving, in addition to the live parades and football games mentioned above. In some cases, television broadcasters begin programming Christmas films and specials to run on Thanksgiving Day, taking the day as a signal for the beginning of the Christmas season.
"Alice 's Restaurant '', an 18 - minute monologue by Arlo Guthrie that is partially based on an incident that happened on Thanksgiving in 1965, was first released in 1967. It has since become a tradition on numerous classic rock and classic hits radio stations to play the full, uninterrupted recording to much fanfare each Thanksgiving Day, a tradition that appears to have originated with counterculture radio host Bob Fass, who introduced the song to the public on his radio show. Another song that traditionally gets played on numerous radio stations (of many different formats) is "The Thanksgiving Song '', a 1992 song by Adam Sandler.
Prominent radio host Rush Limbaugh has an annual tradition known as The Real Story of Thanksgiving, in which he gives his interpretation of the Thanksgiving story on his program the day before Thanksgiving. The public radio series Science Friday broadcasts coverage of the Ig Nobel Prize ceremonies on the day after Thanksgiving.
Football play - by - play and, in at least one case, parade coverage, is also available on the radio.
Since 1947, the National Turkey Federation has presented the President of the United States with one live turkey and two dressed turkeys, in a ceremony known as the National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation. John F. Kennedy was the first president reported to spare the turkey given to him (he announced he did n't plan to eat the bird), and Ronald Reagan was the first to grant the turkey a presidential pardon, which he jokingly presented to his 1987 turkey (a turkey that would indeed be spared and sent to a petting zoo).
There are legends that state that the "pardoning '' tradition dates to the Harry Truman administration or even to an anecdote of Abraham Lincoln pardoning his son 's pet turkey (a Christmas turkey); both stories have been quoted in more recent presidential speeches, but neither has any evidence in the Presidential record. In more recent years, two turkeys have been pardoned, in case the original turkey becomes unavailable for presidential pardoning.
George H.W. Bush, who served as vice president under Reagan, made the turkey pardon a permanent annual tradition upon assuming the presidency in 1989, a tradition that has been carried on by every president each year since. The pardoned turkeys have typically ended up in the Northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C. From 1989 to 2004 they were sent to a children 's farm called "Frying Pan Farm Park '' in Herndon, Virginia. From 2009 to 2013 they were sent to George Washington 's Mount Vernon estate near Alexandria, Virginia, and in 2014 they were sent to an estate in Leesburg, Virginia once owned by former state governor and turkey farmer Westmoreland Davis. However, from 2005 to 2009 they were sent to either Walt Disney World or Disneyland. The turkeys rarely live to see the next Thanksgiving due to being bred for large size.
On Thanksgiving Day, families and friends usually gather for a large meal or dinner. Consequently, the Thanksgiving holiday weekend is one of the busiest travel periods of the year. Thanksgiving is a four - day or five - day weekend vacation for schools and colleges. Most business and government workers (78 % in 2007) are given Thanksgiving and the day after as paid holidays. Thanksgiving Eve, the night before Thanksgiving, is one of the busiest nights of the year for bars and clubs (where it is often identified by the derogatory name Blackout Wednesday), as many college students and others return to their hometowns to reunite with friends and family.
Much like Columbus Day, Thanksgiving is considered by some to be a "national day of mourning '', as a celebration of the cultural genocide and conquest of Native Americans by colonists. Thanksgiving has long carried a distinct resonance for Native Americans, who see the holiday as an embellished story of "Pilgrims and Natives looking past their differences '' to break bread. Professor Dan Brook of the University of California, Berkeley condemns the "cultural and political amnesia '' of Americans who celebrate Thanksgiving: "We do not have to feel guilty, but we do need to feel something. '' Professor Robert Jensen of the University of Texas at Austin is somewhat harsher: "One indication of moral progress in the United States would be the replacement of Thanksgiving Day and its self - indulgent family feasting with a National Day of Atonement accompanied by a self - reflective collective fasting. '' Some of the controversy regarding Thanksgiving have been used to justify the Christmas creep (the act of putting up Christmas decorations before Thanksgiving).
Since 1970, the United American Indians of New England, a protest group led by Frank "Wamsutta '' James has accused the United States and European settlers of fabricating the Thanksgiving story and of whitewashing a genocide and injustice against Native Americans, and it has led a National Day of Mourning protest on Thanksgiving at Plymouth Rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts in the name of social equality and in honor of political prisoners.
On November 27, 1969, as another notable example of anti-Thanksgiving sentiment, hundreds of supporters traveled to Alcatraz on Thanksgiving Day to celebrate the Occupation of Alcatraz (which had started a week earlier and lasted until 1971) by Native Americans of All Tribes. The American Indian Movement and the Native American Church (peyote religion) both also hold a negative view of Thanksgiving; the AIM has used it as a platform for protest, most notably when they took over a Mayflower float in a Thanksgiving Day parade. Some Native Americans hold "Unthanksgiving Day '' celebrations in which they mourn the deaths of their ancestors, fast, dance, and pray. This tradition has been taking place since 1975.
The perception of Thanksgiving among Native Americans is not, however, universally negative. Tim Giago, founder of the Native American Journalists Organization, seeks to reconcile Thanksgiving with Native American traditions. He compares Thanksgiving to "wopila '', a thanks - giving celebration practiced by Native Americans of the Great Plains. He wrote in The Huffington Post: "The idea of a day of Thanksgiving has been a part of the Native American landscape for centuries. The fact that it is also a national holiday for all Americans blends in perfectly with Native American traditions. '' He also shares personal anecdotes of Native American families coming together to celebrate Thanksgiving. Members of the Oneida Indian Nation marched in the 2010 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade with a float called "The True Spirit of Thanksgiving '' and have done so every year since.
In the early part of the twentieth century, the American Association for the Advancement of Atheism (4A) opposed the celebration of Thanksgiving Day, offering an alternative observance called Blamegiving Day, which was in their eyes, "a protest against Divine negligence, to be observed each year on Thanksgiving Day, on the assumption, for the day only, that God exists. '' Citing their view of the separation of church and state, some atheists in recent times have particularly criticized the annual recitation of Thanksgiving proclamations by the President of the United States, because these proclamations often revolve around the theme of giving thanks to God.
The move by retailers to begin holiday sales during Thanksgiving Day (as opposed to the traditional day after) has been criticized as forcing (under threat of being fired) low - end retail workers, who compose an increasing share of the nation 's workforce, to work odd hours and to handle atypical, unruly crowds on a day reserved for rest. In response to this controversy, Macy 's and Best Buy (both of which planned to open on Thanksgiving, even earlier than they had the year before) stated in 2014 that most of their Thanksgiving Day shifts were filled voluntarily by employees who would rather have the day after Thanksgiving off instead of Thanksgiving itself. Blue laws in several Northeastern states prevent retailers in those states from opening on Thanksgiving. Such retailers typically open at midnight on the day after Thanksgiving to circumvent the laws as much as legally possible.
Since being fixed on the fourth Thursday in November by law in 1941, the holiday in the United States can occur on any date from November 22 to 28. When it falls on November 22 or 23, it is not the last Thursday, but the penultimate Thursday in November. Regardless, it is the Thursday preceding the last Saturday of November.
Because Thanksgiving is a federal holiday, all United States government offices are closed and all employees are paid for that day. It is also a holiday for the New York Stock Exchange and most other financial markets and financial services companies.
The date of Thanksgiving Day follows a 28 - year cycle, broken only by century years that are not also a multiple of 400 (2100, 2200, 2300, 2500,...). The cycle break is an effect of the leap year algorithm, which dictates that such years are common years as an adjustment for the calendar - season alignment that leap years provide. Past and future dates of celebration include:
The day after Thanksgiving is a day off for some companies and most schools, particularly those that remain open on Columbus Day. It is known as Black Friday and has historically been known as a day for chaotic, early - morning sales at major retailers that were historically closed on Thanksgiving; those who oppose the consumerist nature of the day can instead participate in Buy Nothing Day. The day after Thanksgiving is also Native American Heritage Day, a day to pay tribute to Native Americans for their many contributions to the United States.
Small Business Saturday, a movement promoting shopping at smaller local establishments, takes place on the last Saturday in November, two days after Thanksgiving. Cyber Monday is a nickname given to the Monday following Thanksgiving; the day evolved in the early days of the Internet, when consumers returning to work took advantage of their employers ' broadband Internet connections to do online shopping and retailers began offering sales to meet the demand. Giving Tuesday takes place on the Tuesday after Thanksgiving.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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where's the load carried when a roof truss system is in place | Truss - wikipedia
In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two - force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object ''. A "two - force member '' is a structural component where force is applied to only two points. Although this rigorous definition allows the members to have any shape connected in any stable configuration, trusses typically comprise five or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes.
In this typical context, external forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members that are either tensile or compressive. For straight members, moments (torques) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes, as is necessary for the links to be two - force members.
A planar truss is one where all members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes that extend into three dimensions. The top beams in a truss are called top chords and are typically in compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords, and are typically in tension. The interior beams are called webs, and the areas inside the webs are called panels.
Truss derives from the Old French word trousse, from around 1200, which means "collection of things bound together ''. The term truss has often been used to describe any assembly of members such as a cruck frame or a couple of rafters. One engineering definition is: "A truss is a single plane framework of individual structural member (sic) connected at their ends of forms a series of triangle (sic) to span a large distance ''.
A truss consists of typically (but not necessarily) straight members connected at joints, traditionally termed panel points. Trusses are typically (but not necessarily) composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four - sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its shape. The joint at which a truss is designed to be supported is commonly referred to as the Munter Point.
The simplest form of a truss is one single triangle. This type of truss is seen in a framed roof consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist, and in other mechanical structures such as bicycles and aircraft. Because of the stability of this shape and the methods of analysis used to calculate the forces within it, a truss composed entirely of triangles is known as a simple truss. However, a simple truss is often defined more restrictively by demanding that it can be constructed through successive addition of pairs of members, each connected to two existing joints and to each other to form a new joint, and this definition does not require a simple truss to comprise only triangles. The traditional diamond - shape bicycle frame, which utilizes two conjoined triangles, is an example of a simple truss.
A planar truss lies in a single plane. Planar trusses are typically used in parallel to form roofs and bridges.
The depth of a truss, or the height between the upper and lower chords, is what makes it an efficient structural form. A solid girder or beam of equal strength would have substantial weight and material cost as compared to a truss. For a given span, a deeper truss will require less material in the chords and greater material in the verticals and diagonals. An optimum depth of the truss will maximize the efficiency.
A space frame truss is a three - dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends. A tetrahedron shape is the simplest space truss, consisting of six members that meet at four joints. Large planar structures may be composed from tetrahedrons with common edges, and they are also employed in the base structures of large free - standing power line pylons.
Simple tetrahedron
Diagram of a planar space frame such as used for a roof
This electrical pylon is a three - dimensional truss structure
There are two basic types of truss:
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof construction. A metal plate - connected wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected with metal connector plates.
Truss members form a series of equilateral triangles, alternating up and down.
The Pratt truss was patented in 1844 by two Boston railway engineers, Caleb Pratt and his son Thomas Willis Pratt. The design uses vertical members for compression and diagonal members to respond to tension. The Pratt truss design remained popular as bridge designers switched from wood to iron, and from iron to steel. This continued popularity of the Pratt truss is probably due to the fact that the configuration of the members means that longer diagonal members are only in tension for gravity load effects. This allows these members to be used more efficiently, as slenderness effects related to buckling under compression loads (which are compounded by the length of the member) will typically not control the design. Therefore, for given planar truss with a fixed depth, the Pratt configuration is usually the most efficient under static, vertical loading.
The Southern Pacific Railroad bridge in Tempe, Arizona is a 393 meter (1,291 foot) long truss bridge built in 1912. The structure is composed of nine Pratt truss spans of varying lengths. The bridge is still in use today.
The Wright Flyer used a Pratt truss in its wing construction, as the minimization of compression member lengths allowed for lower aerodynamic drag.
Named for their shape, bowstring trusses were first used for arched truss bridges, often confused with tied - arch bridges.
Thousands of bowstring trusses were used during World War II for holding up the curved roofs of aircraft hangars and other military buildings. Many variations exist in the arrangements of the members connecting the nodes of the upper arc with those of the lower, straight sequence of members, from nearly isosceles triangles to a variant of the Pratt truss.
One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of two angled supports leaning into a common vertical support.
The queen post truss, sometimes queenpost or queenspost, is similar to a king post truss in that the outer supports are angled towards the centre of the structure. The primary difference is the horizontal extension at the centre which relies on beam action to provide mechanical stability. This truss style is only suitable for relatively short spans.
Lenticular trusses, patented in 1878 by William Douglas (although the Gaunless Bridge of 1823 was the first of the type), have the top and bottom chords of the truss arched, forming a lens shape. A lenticular pony truss bridge is a bridge design that involves a lenticular truss extending above and below the roadbed.
American architect Ithiel Town designed Town 's Lattice Truss as an alternative to heavy - timber bridges. His design, patented in 1820 and 1835, uses easy - to - handle planks arranged diagonally with short spaces in between them, to form a lattice.
The Vierendeel truss is a structure where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending moments. As such, it does not fit the strict definition of a truss (since it contains non-two - force members); regular trusses comprise members that are commonly assumed to have pinned joints, with the implication that no moments exist at the jointed ends. This style of structure was named after the Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who developed the design in 1896. Its use for bridges is rare due to higher costs compared to a triangulated truss.
The utility of this type of structure in buildings is that a large amount of the exterior envelope remains unobstructed and can be used for windows and door openings. This is preferable to a braced - frame system, which would leave some areas obstructed by the diagonal braces.
A truss that is assumed to comprise members that are connected by means of pin joints, and which is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically determinate. Newton 's Laws apply to the structure as a whole, as well as to each node or joint. In order for any node that may be subject to an external load or force to remain static in space, the following conditions must hold: the sums of all (horizontal and vertical) forces, as well as all moments acting about the node equal zero. Analysis of these conditions at each node yields the magnitude of the compression or tension forces.
Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the application of Newton 's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces.
In order for a truss with pin - connected members to be stable, it does not need to be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following necessary condition for stability of a simple truss:
where m is the total number of truss members, j is the total number of joints and r is the number of reactions (equal to 3 generally) in a 2 - dimensional structure.
When m = 2 j − 3 (\ displaystyle m = 2j - 3), the truss is said to be statically determinate, because the (m + 3) internal member forces and support reactions can then be completely determined by 2j equilibrium equations, once we know the external loads and the geometry of the truss. Given a certain number of joints, this is the minimum number of members, in the sense that if any member is taken out (or fails), then the truss as a whole fails. While the relation (a) is necessary, it is not sufficient for stability, which also depends on the truss geometry, support conditions and the load carrying capacity of the members.
Some structures are built with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those structures may survive even when some of the members fail. Their member forces depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described.
Because the forces in each of its two main girders are essentially planar, a truss is usually modeled as a two - dimensional plane frame. However if there are significant out - of - plane forces, the structure must be modeled as a three - dimensional space.
The analysis of trusses often assumes that loads are applied to joints only and not at intermediate points along the members. The weight of the members is often insignificant compared to the applied loads and so is often omitted; alternatively, half of the weight of each member may be applied to its two end joints. Provided that the members are long and slender, the moments transmitted through the joints are negligible, and the junctions can be treated as "hinges '' or "pin - joints ''.
Under these simplifying assumptions, every member of the truss is then subjected to pure compression or pure tension forces -- shear, bending moment, and other more - complex stresses are all practically zero. Trusses are physically stronger than other ways of arranging structural elements, because nearly every material can resist a much larger load in tension or compression than in shear, bending, torsion, or other kinds of force.
These simplifications make trusses easier to analyze. Structural analysis of trusses of any type can readily be carried out using a matrix method such as the direct stiffness method, the flexibility method, or the finite element method.
Illustrated is a simple, statically determinate flat truss with 9 joints and (2 x 9) − 3 = 15 members. External loads are concentrated in the outer joints. Since this is a symmetrical truss with symmetrical vertical loads, the reactive forces at A and B are vertical, equal, and half the total load.
The internal forces in the members of the truss can be calculated in a variety of ways, including graphical methods:
A truss can be thought of as a beam where the web consists of a series of separate members instead of a continuous plate. In the truss, the lower horizontal member (the bottom chord) and the upper horizontal member (the top chord) carry tension and compression, fulfilling the same function as the flanges of an I - beam. Which chord carries tension and which carries compression depends on the overall direction of bending. In the truss pictured above right, the bottom chord is in tension, and the top chord in compression.
The diagonal and vertical members form the truss web, and carry the shear stress. Individually, they are also in tension and compression, the exact arrangement of forces is depending on the type of truss and again on the direction of bending. In the truss shown above right, the vertical members are in tension, and the diagonals are in compression.
In addition to carrying the static forces, the members serve additional functions of stabilizing each other, preventing buckling. In the adjacent picture, the top chord is prevented from buckling by the presence of bracing and by the stiffness of the web members.
The inclusion of the elements shown is largely an engineering decision based upon economics, being a balance between the costs of raw materials, off - site fabrication, component transportation, on - site erection, the availability of machinery and the cost of labor. In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance and so influence the design decisions beyond mere matters of economics. Modern materials such as prestressed concrete and fabrication methods, such as automated welding, have significantly influenced the design of modern bridges.
Once the force on each member is known, the next step is to determine the cross section of the individual truss members. For members under tension the cross-sectional area A can be found using A = F × γ / σ, where F is the force in the member, γ is a safety factor (typically 1.5 but depending on building codes) and σ is the yield tensile strength of the steel used.
The members under compression also have to be designed to be safe against buckling.
The weight of a truss member depends directly on its cross section -- that weight partially determines how strong the other members of the truss need to be. Giving one member a larger cross section than on a previous iteration requires giving other members a larger cross section as well, to hold the greater weight of the first member -- one needs to go through another iteration to find exactly how much greater the other members need to be. Sometimes the designer goes through several iterations of the design process to converge on the "right '' cross section for each member. On the other hand, reducing the size of one member from the previous iteration merely makes the other members have a larger (and more expensive) safety factor than is technically necessary, but does n't require another iteration to find a buildable truss.
The effect of the weight of the individual truss members in a large truss, such as a bridge, is usually insignificant compared to the force of the external loads.
After determining the minimum cross section of the members, the last step in the design of a truss would be detailing of the bolted joints, e.g., involving shear stress of the bolt connections used in the joints. Based on the needs of the project, truss internal connections (joints) can be designed as rigid, semi rigid, or hinged. Rigid connections can allow transfer of bending moments leading to development of secondary bending moments in the members.
Component connections are critical to the structural integrity of a framing system. In buildings with large, clearspan wood trusses, the most critical connections are those between the truss and its supports. In addition to gravity - induced forces (a.k.a. bearing loads), these connections must resist shear forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the truss and uplift forces due to wind. Depending upon overall building design, the connections may also be required to transfer bending moment.
Wood posts enable the fabrication of strong, direct, yet inexpensive connections between large trusses and walls. Exact details for post-to - truss connections vary from designer to designer, and may be influenced by post type. Solid - sawn timber and glulam posts are generally notched to form a truss bearing surface. The truss is rested on the notches and bolted into place. A special plate / bracket may be added to increase connection load transfer capabilities. With mechanically - laminated posts, the truss may rest on a shortened outer - ply or on a shortened inner - ply. The later scenario places the bolts in double shear and is a very effective connection.
Double chorded heavy timber truss with 80 foot clear span
The Hong Kong Bank of China Tower 中銀 大廈 (香港) has an externally visible truss structure
The HSBC Main Building, Hong Kong has an externally visible truss structure
Support structure under the Auckland Harbour Bridge
The Auckland Harbour Bridge seen from Watchman Island to its west
Little Belt: a truss bridge in Denmark
Pre-fabricated steel bow string roof trusses built in 1942 for war department properties in Northern Australia
Roof truss in a side building of Cluny Abbey, France
A section through a queen post timber roof truss
A space truss carrying a floor in The Woodlands Mall
Electricity pylon
Timber roof truss
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who got the gold in men's hockey | Ice Hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics -- men 's tournament - wikipedia
The men 's tournament in ice hockey at the 2010 Winter Olympics was held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, from 16 to 28 February 2010. Games were hosted at two venues -- Canada Hockey Place (renamed from "General Motors Place '' for the Olympics due to IOC rules disallowing host venues to be named after non-Olympic sponsors) and UBC Thunderbird Arena. It was the fourth time since the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano that the National Hockey League allowed its players to compete. These Olympics were the first to take place in a city with an NHL team since then, which meant players on the Vancouver Canucks who were competing in the Olympics were playing in their home arena: Roberto Luongo for Canada, Ryan Kesler for the United States, Pavol Demitra for Slovakia, Sami Salo for Finland, Christian Ehrhoff for Germany, and Daniel and Henrik Sedin for Sweden.
Teams from twelve national hockey associations competed, seeded into three groups for the preliminary round. The tournament consisted of 30 games: 18 in the preliminary round (teams played the other teams in their own group); 4 qualification playoff games; 4 quarterfinal games; 2 semifinal games; 1 bronze medal game; and 1 gold medal game.
During the tournament, Teemu Selänne of Finland became the all - time leader for points scored in the Olympics. He notched an assist in his second game of the tournament for 37 career points, surpassing Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union, Vlastimil Bubník of Czechoslovakia, and Harry Watson of Canada. Sweden 's goaltender Henrik Lundqvist set a modern - day Olympic shutout streak record of 172 minutes and 34 seconds, continuous from the final of the gold medal game of the 2006 Olympics until Sweden 's quarterfinal against Slovakia.
The tournament was won by Canada for the record eighth time (one more than the Soviet Union), which defeated the United States in overtime in the gold medal game. Canada 's loss to the U.S. in the preliminary round of the tournament remains, as of the conclusion of the 2016 World Cup of Hockey, their most recent defeat in non-exhibition best - on - best international men 's play.
Belarus, Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States qualified as the top nine teams in the IIHF World Ranking. Germany, Latvia and Norway qualified via the qualification tournament for teams ranked 10th through 30th.
Points to each team are awarded as follows:
If two or more teams are tied in points, the following tiebreaker criteria will be used:
If a criterion leaves only two teams tied, then those teams will be ranked based on their head - to - head result.
All times are local (UTC − 8).
All times are local (UTC − 8).
All times are local (UTC − 8).
Following the completion of the preliminary round, all teams will be ranked 1D through 12D. To determine this ranking, the following criteria will be used in the order presented:
The top four ranked teams (1D -- 4D) received byes to and were deemed the home team in the quarterfinals as they are seeded to advance, with the remaining eight teams (5D -- 12D) playing qualification playoff games as follows:
Should the score remain even after regulation an overtime period of at most ten minutes is to be played. Should neither team score, a shoot out of three rounds of penalty shots decides the winner. The four winners of these qualification playoff games advanced to the quarterfinal round, while the losers of the qualification playoff games received a final ranking of 9 through 12 based on their preliminary round ranking.
All times are local (UTC − 8)
Teams seeded D1 to D4 are the home teams. Should the teams be tied after 60 minutes of regulation, an overtime period of at most ten minutes would decide the winner immediately upon the next goal. If the game remains tied after the overtime period, a penalty shot competition determines the winning team.
Following the quarterfinal games, the winning teams will be re-ranked F1 through F4, with the winner of 1D vs. E4 re-ranked as F1, the winner of 2D vs. E3 re-ranked as F2, the winner of 3D vs. E2 re-ranked as F3, and the winner of 4D vs. E1 re-ranked as F4. The losers of the quarterfinal round games will receive a final ranking of 5 through 8 based on their preliminary round ranking.
All times are local (UTC − 8).
All times are local (UTC − 8).
All times are local (UTC − 8).
All times are local (UTC − 8).
The gold medal game was a rematch of the men 's tournament in ice hockey at the 2002 Winter Olympics held in Salt Lake City, United States. In addition, Chris Pronger, Scott Niedermayer, Martin Brodeur and Jarome Iginla of Team Canada were returnees from the 2002 gold - winning squad and collected their second gold medal. Due to the total turnover makeup of Team USA, Brian Rafalski and Chris Drury were the only players remaining from the 2002 silver squad.
The final score was a 3 -- 2 win for Team Canada. Goal scorers for Canada were Jonathan Toews, Corey Perry and Sidney Crosby, with the winning goal scored in overtime. For USA, the goal scorers were Ryan Kesler and Zach Parise, the latter tying the game with 25 seconds left, forcing it to go into sudden death.
Sidney Crosby scored the game - winning goal off a pass from Jarome Iginla, seven minutes and forty seconds into overtime for Canada, gaining victory over the United States. The puck has been sent to the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto; in Canadian media, Crosby 's goal has been compared in significance to the ones scored by Paul Henderson in the 1972 Summit Series and Mario Lemieux in the 1987 Canada Cup.
The referees for the final were Bill McCreary (Canada) and Dan O'Halloran (Canada), while the linesmen were Stefan Fonselius (Finland) and Jean Morin (Canada).
The gold medal game was the last competitive event at the Olympics before the closing ceremony.
The gold medal game drew a big hockey audience in both Canada and the United States.
In Canada, the game drew an average 16.6 million viewers while 26.5 million Canadians watched at least part of the game. Canada 's Olympic Broadcast Media Consortium claims that 22 million people -- or two thirds of the Canadian population -- were watching the gold medal game when Sidney Crosby scored in overtime, making the game the most - watched television broadcast in Canadian history. However, a new ratings system intended to better track out - of - home viewership was only implemented in August 2009, making it difficult to accurately compare these results with ratings prior to that date -- specifically, the 2002 Canada -- USA gold medal game in Salt Lake City, the record holder under the previous system. There was some speculation that the final game of the 1972 Summit Series had as many as 18 million viewers, although recently recovered Nielsen ratings archives indicate that only 4.255 million Canadians watched that game live.
In the United States, NBC said that the game was the most - watched hockey game in the U.S. in 30 years, drawing 27.6 million, the largest since the United States -- Finland game that decided the gold medal at the 1980 Winter Olympics.
The final standings of the tournament according to the IIHF:
Rankings based upon points
Hat trick scorers
Goalkeepers with 40 % or more of their team 's total minutes.
Shutout posters
United States ' Ryan Miller was named the most valuable player and received the Directorate Award for best goaltender of the tournament. Directorate Awards also went to Brian Rafalski (United States) for best defenceman, and to Jonathan Toews (Canada) for best forward.
The tournament all - star team was voted on by the international media at the conclusion of the event. The following players were named:
Toews, along with Brent Seabrook and Duncan Keith would become the fourth, fifth and sixth players to win both Olympic gold medal and Stanley Cup (with the Chicago Blackhawks) in the same year, following Ken Morrow 1980, and Steve Yzerman and Brendan Shanahan (2002). Patrick Kane would become the fourth player to win both Olympic silver medal and Stanley Cup in the same year, following Red Wings Sergei Fedorov in 1998, and Chris Chelios and Brett Hull in 2002.
The Triple Gold Club, made up of individuals who have won the Stanley Cup plus gold medals at the Olympics and World Championships, gained two new members:
Later the same season, Team Canada centre Jonathan Toews would go on to become the 24th and youngest player in the Triple Gold Club, following up his Olympic gold medal with the Stanley Cup with the Chicago Blackhawks just four months after winning Olympic gold. He had previously won the World Championships in 2007.
The games were officiated, according to the IIHF rules, by the following:
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when does rick and morty come on tv | Rick and Morty - wikipedia
Rick and Morty is an American adult animated science fiction adventure comedy series created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon for Cartoon Network 's late - night programming block Adult Swim. The series follows the misadventures of cynical mad scientist Rick Sanchez and his good - hearted but fretful grandson Morty Smith, who split their time between domestic life and interdimensional adventures. The series premiered on December 2, 2013, and the third season concluded on October 1, 2017. In May 2018, the series was picked up for an additional 70 episodes over an unspecified amount of seasons.
Roiland voices the eponymous characters, with Chris Parnell, Spencer Grammer and Sarah Chalke voicing the rest of the family. The series originated from an animated short parody film of Back to the Future, The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, created by Roiland for Channel 101, a short film festival co-founded by Harmon. When Adult Swim approached Harmon for television show ideas, he and Roiland decided to develop a program based on the short. The series has received universal acclaim for its originality, creativity and humor.
The show revolves around the adventures of the members of the Smith household, which consists of parents Jerry and Beth, their kids Summer and Morty, and Beth 's father, Rick Sanchez, who lives with them as a guest. According to Justin Roiland, the family lives outside of Seattle in the U.S. state of Washington. The adventures of Rick and Morty, however, take place across an infinite number of realities, with the characters travelling to other planets and dimensions through portals and Rick 's flying car.
Rick is an eccentric and alcoholic mad scientist, who eschews many ordinary conventions such as school, marriage, love, and family. He frequently goes on adventures with his 14 - year - old grandson, Morty, a kind - hearted but easily distressed boy, whose naïve but grounded moral compass plays counterpoint to Rick 's Machiavellian ego. Morty 's 17 - year - old sister, Summer, is a more conventional teenager, who worries about improving her status among her peers and sometimes follows Rick and Morty on their adventures. The kids ' mother, Beth, is a generally level - headed person and assertive force in the household, though self - conscious about her professional role as a horse doctor. She is dissatisfied with her marriage with Jerry, a simple - minded and insecure person, who disapproves of Rick 's influence over his family.
Different versions of the characters inhabit other dimensions throughout the multiverse and their personal characteristics can vary from one reality to another. The show 's original Rick identifies himself as "Rick Sanchez of Earth Dimension C - 137 '', in reference to his original universe, but this does not necessarily apply to every other member of the Smith household. For instance, in the first - season episode "Rick Potion # 9 '', after turning the entire world population into monsters, Rick and Morty move to a different dimension, leaving Summer, Beth and Jerry behind.
Following the conclusion of the third season, future seasons of the show had remained in question, with no announcement of the show 's renewal or status of production. In March 2018, Harmon tweeted that he had not begun writing new episodes for season four, in part because Adult Swim had not ordered any new episodes yet nor had they picked up the show for a fourth season. As a reason for the delay, Harmon explained that the contract negotiations were more complicated, as compared to the previous seasons.
In May 2018, Adult Swim announced a long - term deal with the creators, ordering 70 new episodes of Rick and Morty. The episode count per season remains unknown, though Harmon had expressed his interest in creating more than ten episodes per season a few months earlier. Writer Ryan Ridley has said that he does not expect the fourth season to air any sooner than late 2019.
Rick and Morty was created by Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon. The duo first met at Channel 101, a non-profit monthly short film festival in Los Angeles co-founded by Harmon. At Channel 101, participants submit a short film in the format of a pilot, and a live audience decides which pilots continue as a series. Roiland, then a producer on reality programming, began submitting content to the festival a year after its launch, in 2004. His pilots typically consisted of shock value -- "sick and twisted '' elements that received a confused reaction from the audience. Nevertheless, Harmon took a liking to his humor and the two began collaborating. In 2006, Roiland was fired from working on a television series he regarded as intensely creatively stifling, and funneled his creative energies into creating a webisode for Channel 101. The result was The Real Animated Adventures of Doc and Mharti, an animated short starring parodies of Doc Brown and Marty McFly, characters from the Back to the Future film trilogy. In the short, which Harmon would dub "a bastardization, a pornographic vandalization '', Doc Smith urges Mharti that the solution to all of his problems is to give him oral sex. The audience reacted to it wildly, and Roiland began creating more shorts involving the characters, which soon evolved beyond his original intentions and their obvious origin within the film from which it was culled. Harmon would later create and produce Community, an NBC sitcom, while Roiland would work primarily in voice acting for Disney 's Fish Hooks and Cartoon Network 's Adventure Time.
In 2012, Harmon was briefly fired from Community. Adult Swim, searching for a more prime - time, "hit '' show, approached Harmon shortly afterward, who initially viewed the channel as unfit for his style. He also was unfamiliar with animation, and his process for creating television focuses more heavily on dialogue, characters, and story. Instead, he phoned Roiland to inquire if he had any ideas for an animated series. Roiland immediately brought up the idea of using the Doc and Mharti characters, renamed Rick and Morty. Roiland initially wanted the show 's run time to consist of one eleven - minute segment, but Adult Swim pushed for a half - hour program. Harmon felt the best way to extend the voices into a program would be to build a family around the characters, while Adult Swim development executive Nick Weidenfeld suggested that Rick be Morty 's grandfather. Having pitched multiple television programs that did not get off the ground, Roiland was initially very unreceptive to others attempting to give notes on his pitch. Prior to developing Rick and Morty, he had created three failed animated pilots for Fox, and he had begun to feel "burned out '' with developing television.
The first draft was completed in six hours on the Paramount Pictures lot in Dan Harmon 's unfurnished Community office. The duo had broken the story that day, sold the pilot, and then sat down to write. Roiland, while acknowledging a tendency for procrastination, encouraged Harmon to stay and write the entire first draft. "We were sitting on the floor, cross-legged with laptops and I was about to get up and go home and he said, ' Wait, if you go home, it might take us three months to write this thing. Stay here right now and we can write it in six hours. ' He just had a premonition about that, '' recalled Harmon. Adult Swim was initially unsure of Roiland doing both voices, partially due to the undeveloped nature of the character of Morty. Harmon wrote four short premises in which Morty took a more assertive role and sent it to Mike Lazzo. Adult Swim placed a tamer TV - 14 rating on the program, which initially was met with reluctance from the show 's staff. The network 's reason behind the rating was that it would soon begin broadcasting in prime - time, competing with major programs.
The main theme for Rick and Morty by Ryan Elder was originally used in a rejected Cartoon Network pilot Roiland made called "Dog World '', which was referenced in the episode "Lawnmower Dog ''.
The general formula of Rick and Morty consists of the juxtaposition of two conflicting scenarios: an extremely selfish, alcoholic grandfather dragging his grandson along for intergalactic and / or interdimensional adventures, intercut with domestic family drama. This has led Harmon to describe the series as a cross between Matt Groening 's two shows The Simpsons and Futurama, balancing family life with heavy science fiction. The series is inspired by British - style storytelling, as opposed to traditional American family TV stories. Roiland has stated his and Harmon 's intentions for the series to lack traditional continuity, opting for discontinuous storylines "not bound by rules ''. In producing the series ' first season, episodes were occasionally written out of order. For example, "Rick Potion # 9 '' was the second episode written for the series, but was instructed to be animated as the fifth, as it would make more sense within the series ' continuity.
Many episodes are structured with use of a story circle, a Harmon creation based largely on Joseph Campbell 's monomyth, or The Hero 's Journey. Its two - act structure places the act break at an odd location in the stages of the monomyth: after The Meeting with the Goddess, instead of Atonement with the Father. Harmon has stated that his inspiration behind much of the concept and humor for the series comes from various British television series, such as The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy and Doctor Who. He figures that the audience will only understand developments from Morty 's point of view, but stated "we do n't want to be the companions. We want to hang out with the Doctor, we idolize the Doctor, but we do n't think like him, and that 's really interesting, Rick is diseased, he 's mentally ill, he 's an absolute lunatic because he lives on this larger scale. ''
Harmon has noted that the writers room at the show 's studio bears a striking resemblance to the one used for Community. In comparing the two, he noted that the writing staff of Rick and Morty was significantly smaller, and more "rough and tumble verbally ''. The first season writing staff consisted of Roiland, Harmon, Tom Kauffman, Ryan Ridley, Wade Randolph, and Eric Acosta, while writer 's assistant Mike McMahan was also given writing credit. Described as a "very, very tiny little writers ' room with a lot of heavy lifting from everybody, '' the show 's writing staff, like many Adult Swim productions, is not unionized with the Writers ' Guild of America. The writing staff first meets and discusses ideas, which evolve into a story. Discussions often include anecdotes from personal life as well as thoughts on the science fiction genre. After breaking the story -- which consists of developing its consistency and logical beginning, middle, and conclusion -- a writer is assigned to create an outline. Roiland and Harmon do a "pass '' on the outline, and from there the episode undergoes several more drafts. The final draft of the script is last approved by either of the co-creators. Harmon has admitted that his perfectionism can some times be disruptive and cause writing schedule delays. For the most part, this was the reason why the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended.
Animation for the show is done using Toon Boom Harmony, post-production work is done in Adobe After Effects, and background art is done in Adobe Photoshop. Production of animation is handled by Bardel Entertainment in Canada. Roiland 's cartooning style is heavily indebted to The Simpsons, a factor he acknowledged in a 2013 interview, while also comparing his style to that of Pendleton Ward (Adventure Time) and J.G. Quintel (Regular Show): "You 'll notice mouths are kind of similar and teeth are similar, but I think that 's also a stylistic thing that... all of us are kind of the same age, and we 're all inspired by The Simpsons and all these other shows we 're kind of subconsciously tapping into. '' John Kricfalusi 's The Ren & Stimpy Show was another strong influence for Rick and Morty, which is why, according to Roiland, the small "w - shaped mouths '' that the characters occasionally make is a reference to a similar expression that Ren frequently makes. When recording dialogue, Roiland does a considerable amount of improvisation, in order to make the characters feel more natural.
Morty Smith (character), "Rixty Minutes ''
Rick and Morty has been described as "a never - ending fart joke wrapped around a studied look into nihilism. '' The series addresses the insignificance of human existence as compared to the size of the universe, with no recognizable divine presence, as described by Lovecraft 's philosophy of cosmicism. The characters of the show find ways to deal with cosmic horror and existential dread, either by asserting the utility of science over magic or by choosing a life in ignorant bliss.
Co-creator Dan Harmon, talking about the philosophy guiding the show and Rick 's nihilistic apathy, stated that "the knowledge that nothing matters, while accurate, gets you nowhere. '' To find a sense of purpose and live a better life, one needs to focus on human relationships and experiences, and not preoccupy our minds with unanswerable questions. According to Harmon, this contrast is evident in the final scene of "Auto Erotic Assimilation '', where Jerry is joyfully removing the weeds from his driveway, while Rick appears in the background passed out drunk, after a failed suicide attempt.
Occasionally, characters will acknowledge an episode 's narrative or hint at the presence of a fourth wall, suggesting that they are aware of the fact that they are characters of a TV show. Thereunder, Troy Patterson of The New Yorker notes that Rick and Morty "supplies an artful answer to the question of what follows postmodernism: a decadent regurgitation of all its tropes, all at once, leavened by some humanistic wistfulness. '' Other philosophies that have been referenced in the characters ' behavior and observations include: existentialism, anarchism, absurdism, and the work of Friedrich Nietzsche.
The 11 - episode first season, was released on DVD (2 - disc set) and Blu - ray (single BD - 50 disc) on October 7, 2014. Special features include commentary and animatics for every episode, deleted scenes, behind the scenes featurette and commentaries by special guests Matt Groening, Robert Kirkman, Pendleton Ward, Al Jean and others. The 10 - episode second season, was released on DVD (2 - disc set) and Blu - ray (single BD - 50 disc) on June 7, 2016. Special features include behind the scenes, commentary and animatics for every episode, deleted animatic sketches and a "Plumbus Owner 's Manual '' booklet. The 10 - episode third season, was released on DVD (2 - disc set) and Blu - ray (single BD - 50 disc) on May 15, 2018. Special features include exclusive commentary and animatics for every episode, "inside the episode '', the origins of Rick and Morty, and an exclusive "inside the recording booth '' session.
Uncensored versions of the show are also available to purchase on various digital platforms, including iTunes and Amazon, with the digital releases of each season containing bonus material. The digital release of the first season includes the 2013 Rick and Morty Comic - Con panel, the digital release of the second season includes the 2015 ATX Television Festival panel, and the digital release of the third season includes commentary on every episode, as well as seven more short videos featuring co-creators Dan Harmon and Justin Roiland.
The show is available to watch on Netflix in a number of countries outside the United States, including the United Kingdom, while the first two seasons are available to stream on Hulu. Following the conclusion of the show 's third season, Adult Swim made a livestream marathon of Rick and Morty available to watch on its official website in select regions, hoping to dissuade viewers from watching other illegal livestreams.
Rick and Morty has received universal critical acclaim, holding a 97 % approval rating by critics on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes. David Weigand of San Francisco Chronicle described it as "offbeat and occasionally coarse... the take - away here is that it works ''. He praised the animation direction by James McDermott for being "fresh, colorful and as wacky as the script '', and states that the series possesses "shades of Futurama, South Park and even Beetlejuice '', ultimately opining that its humor felt "entirely original ''. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times praised the series and stated that it was "Grandparenting at its unhinged finest. ''
Todd Spangler of Variety gave the series a lukewarm review; while he found the series was passable, he contrasted it with other Adult Swim series as "often seems overly reliant on simply being frenetic at the expense of being witty '' and enjoyed it as "a welcome attempt to dream just a little bigger ''. David Sims of The A.V. Club gave the series an "A − ''. In reviewing the first two episodes, he complimented the animation for its "clean, simple style ''. He stated that while the series has "a dark, sick sensibility '', he praised its "effort to give each character a little bit of depth '', further applauding Roiland 's voice talent for the eponymous characters.
On October 7, 2017, McDonald 's served Szechuan sauce, months after it was referenced several times in the Season 3 premiere, "The Rickshank Redemption ''. The event was marked with criticism from fans when not enough of the sauces were provided. The sauce was announced to return to all McDonald 's stores on February 26, 2018 due to popular demand.
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who wrote i love to tell the story | I. love to Tell the Story - wikipedia
"I Love to Tell the Story '' is a well - known hymn which was written as a poem by an English evangelist, Katherine Hankey. It was set to music by William G. Fischer.
Hankey had a serious spell of sickness while in a mission in Africa. During her long days of convalescence, she wrote a long on the life of Jesus in 1866 in two parts. The first part was a poem of fifty stanzas, titled "The Story Wanted '' (dated January 29, 1866) and second part titled "The Story Told '' (dated November 18, 1866).
Certain verses were taken from Part I. by Dr. W.H. Doane in 1867 to make the popular and familiar hymn beginning, "Tell me the old, old story ''. From Part II. certain verses were selected to make the hymn, "I Love to Tell the Story ''.
The tune was composed by William G. Fischer and appeared in Fischer 's Joyful Songs, Nos. 1 to 3 published in 1869 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by Methodist Episcopal Book Room.
The refrain used was
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who won the last men's world cup | List of FIFA World Cup finals - wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup is an international association football competition established in 1930. It is contested by the men 's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The tournament has taken place every four years, except in 1942 and 1946, when the competition was cancelled due to World War II. The most recent World Cup, hosted by Brazil in 2014, was won by Germany, who beat Argentina 1 -- 0 after extra time.
The World Cup final match is the last of the competition, and the result determines which country is declared world champions. If after 90 minutes of regular play the score is a draw, an additional 30 - minute period of play, called extra time, is added. If such a game is still tied after extra time it is decided by kicks from the penalty shoot - out. The team winning the penalty shoot - out are then declared champions. The tournament has been decided by a one - off match on every occasion except 1950, when the tournament winner was decided by a final round - robin group contested by four teams (Uruguay, Brazil, Sweden, and Spain). Uruguay 's 2 -- 1 victory over Brazil was the decisive match (and one of the last two matches of the tournament) which put them ahead on points and ensured that they finished top of the group as world champions. Therefore, this match is regarded by FIFA as the de facto final of the 1950 World Cup.
In the 20 tournaments held, 77 nations have appeared at least once. Of these, 12 have made it to the final match, and eight have won. With five titles, Brazil is the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have participated in every World Cup finals tournament. Italy and Germany have four titles. The other former champions are Uruguay and Argentina with two titles each, and England, France, and Spain with one each. The current champions, Germany, took their fourth title in 2014, and it is the first title for the reunified German team. The 2014 German team also became the first European team to win in South America. The team that wins the finals receive the FIFA World Cup Trophy, and their name is engraved in the bottom side of the trophy.
The 1970 and 1994 along with the 1986, 1990 and 2014 games are to date the only matches competed by the same teams (Brazil -- Italy and Argentina -- Germany respectively). As of 2014, the 1934 final remains the latest final to have been between two teams playing their first final. The final match of the upcoming 2018 World Cup in Russia is scheduled to take place at the country 's biggest sports complex, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow.
The 1930 and the 1966 games are the only ones that did not take place on Sunday. The former did on a Wednesday and the latter on a Saturday.
As of 2014, only nations from Europe and South America have competed in a World Cup Final.
General
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who won the first winter olympic gold medal for australia | Steven Bradbury - Wikipedia
Steven John Bradbury OAM (born 14 October 1973) is an Australian former short track speed skater and four - time Olympian. He is best known for winning the 1,000 m event at the 2002 Winter Olympics after all of his opponents were involved in a last corner pile - up. He was the first athlete from Southern Hemisphere and Australian to win a Winter Olympic gold medal and was also part of the short track relay team that won Australia 's first Winter Olympic medal, a bronze in 1994.
In 1991, Bradbury was part of the Australian quartet that won the 5,000 m relay at the World Championships in Sydney. It was the first time Australia had won a World Championship in a winter sport.
Australia 's short track relay team went into the 1992 Winter Olympics as world champions, but the team crashed in the semi-finals. The Australians were in third place when Richard Nizielski lost his footing; they finished fourth and failed to reach the final. Bradbury was unable to help, as he had been named as the reserve for the team and was sitting on the bench. He was not selected for any individual events.
At the 1994 Winter Olympics in Norway, Bradbury was part of the short track relay team that won Australia 's first Winter Olympic medal, a bronze. They scraped into the four - team final after edging out Japan and New Zealand to finish second in their semi-final. They adopted a plan of staying on their feet as first priority, and remaining undisqualified and beating at least one of the other three finalists. During the race, the Canadians fell and lost significant time, meaning that Australia would win their first medal if they raced conservatively and avoided a crash. Late in the race, Nizielski was fighting with his American counterpart for track position for the silver medal, but took the safe option and yielded, mindful of the lost opportunity following the crash in Albertville. Thus Bradbury, Nizielski, Andrew Murtha and Kieran Hansen became Australia 's first Winter Olympics medallists.
Bradbury was also entered in the 500 m and 1,000 m individual events and was the favourite going into the latter. In the first event, Bradbury came second in his heat in a time of 45.43 s and then won his quarterfinal in a time of 44.18 s to qualify for the semifinal. In the semifinal, Bradbury was knocked over by a rival and he limped home fourth, in a time of 1 m 03.51 s and was eliminated. He came fourth in the B final and was classified eighth overall out of 31 competitors. In the 1,000 m event, Bradbury fell in his heat after being illegally pushed by a competitor who was later disqualified. He came home in 2 m 01.89 s, more than 30 s off the leaders ' pace and was eliminated. Nevertheless, because of the high rate of accidents, Bradbury came 24th out of 31 competitors.
During a 1994 World Cup event in Montreal, another skater 's blade sliced through Bradbury 's right thigh after a collision; it cut through to the other side and he lost four litres of blood. Bradbury 's heart rate had been up near 200 at the end of the race and this meant that blood was being pumped out fast. All four of his quadriceps muscles had been sliced through and Bradbury thought that if he lost consciousness, he would die. He needed 111 stitches and could not move for three weeks. His leg needed 18 months before it was back to full strength.
Bradbury, Nizielski and Kieran Hansen, three of the quartet that won Australia 's maiden medal in 1994, returned for the 1998 Winter Olympics in Japan with new teammate Richard Goerlitz. There were hopes that they could repeat their Lillehammer performance. However, in their qualifying race, they placed third in a time of 7 m 11.691 s and missed the final by one place, even though they had been two seconds faster than their medal - winning performance of 1994. They completed the course four seconds slower in the B final and came last in the race, and thus last out of eight teams overall.
Bradbury was again regarded as a medal contender in the individual events, but was impeded in collisions with other racers in both the 500 m and 1,000 m events. He came third in the heats of both races, posting times of 43.766 s and 1 m 33.108 s in each race. Neither of these times were fast enough to advance him to the quarterfinals and he came 19th and 21st out of 30 competitors respectively.
In September 2000, Bradbury broke his neck in a training accident. Another skater fell in front of him and Bradbury tried to jump over him, but instead clipped him and tripped head first into the barriers. As a result, Bradbury fractured his C4 and C5 vertebrae. He spent a month and a half in a halo brace, and needed four pins to be inserted in his skull and screws and plates bolted into his back and chest. Doctors told Bradbury that he would not be able to take to the ice again, but he was determined to reach another Olympics. He wanted redemption after the crashes in the individual races in 1994 and 1998, even though he conceded that he would be past his best in terms of challenging for the medals.
Bradbury is best known for his memorable and unlikely gold medal win in the men 's short track 1000 metres event at the Salt Lake City 2002 Winter Olympic Games, owing to three improbable events.
Bradbury won his heat convincingly in the 1,000 m, posting a time of 1: 30.956. However, it appeared that his run would end when the draw for the quarter - finals was made: Bradbury was allocated to the same race as Apolo Anton Ohno, the favourite from the host nation, and Marc Gagnon of Canada, the defending world champion. Only the top two finishers from each race would proceed to the semifinals. Bradbury finished third in his race and thought himself to be eliminated, but Gagnon was disqualified for obstructing another racer, allowing the Australian to advance to the semi-finals.
After consulting his national coach Ann Zhang, Bradbury 's strategy from the semi-final onwards was to cruise behind his opponents and hope that they crashed, as he realised he was slower and could not match their raw pace. His reasoning was that risk - taking by the favourites could cause a collision due to a racing incident, and if two or more skaters fell, the remaining three would all get medals, and that as he was slower than his opponents, trying to challenge them directly would only increase his own chances of falling. Bradbury said that he was satisfied with his result, and felt that as the second - oldest competitor in the field, he was not able to match his opponents in four races on the same night.
In his semi-final race, Bradbury was in last place, well off the pace of the medal favourites. However, three of the other competitors in the semi-final -- defending champion Kim Dong - sung of South Korea, multiple Olympic medallist Li Jiajun of China and Mathieu Turcotte of Canada -- crashed, paving the way for the Australian to take first place and advancing him through to the final.
In the final, Bradbury was again well off the pace when all four of his competitors (Ohno, Ahn Hyun - Soo, Li and Turcotte) crashed out at the final corner while jostling for the gold medal. This allowed the Australian, who was around 15 m behind with only 50 m to go, to avoid the pile - up and take the victory. Bradbury raised his arms aloft in complete disbelief and amazement at the unlikely circumstances of his victory. A shocked Bradbury became the first person from any southern hemisphere country to win a Winter Olympic event. After a period of delay, the judges upheld the result and did not order a re-race, confirming Bradbury 's victory.
In an interview after winning his gold, referring to his two career - and life - threatening accidents, Bradbury said "Obviously I was n't the fastest skater. I do n't think I 'll take the medal as the minute - and - a-half of the race I actually won. I 'll take it as the last decade of the hard slog I put in. ''
Bradbury was acutely aware of the possibility of collisions after his semi-final race. In an interview after the race he said:
I was the oldest bloke in the field and I knew that, skating four races back to back, I was n't going to have any petrol left in the tank. So there was no point in getting there and mixing it up because I was going to be in last place anyway. So (I figured) I might as well stay out of the way and be in last place and hope that some people get tangled up.
He later said that he never expected all of his opponents to fall, but added that he felt that the other four racers were under extreme pressure and might have over-attacked and taken too many risks. Bradbury cited the host nation pressure on Ohno, who was expected to win all four of his events. Li, much like Bradbury himself, had won Olympic medals but was yet to take a gold medal, Turcotte only had one individual event, and Ahn had been the form racer at the Olympics so far. Bradbury felt that none would be willing to settle for less than gold and that as a result, they might collide.
Bradbury had three other events at the 2002 Winter Olympics. In the relay event, the Australians came third in their heat in a time of 7: 19.177 and failed to make the final. They came second in the B final and finished sixth out of seven teams. In the 1,500 m event, Bradbury came third in his heat, before placing fourth in the semi-final and being eliminated. He then came fifth in the B final to finish 10th out of 29 entrants. He was unable to maintain his speed through the competition; after posting a time of 2: 22.632 in the heats, Bradbury slowed by three seconds in each of his next two races. In the 500 m event, Bradbury came second in his heat and was eliminated after coming third in his quarter - final. He finished 14th out of 31 overall.
The unlikely win turned Bradbury into something of a folk hero, comparable to ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle '' Edwards and the 1988 Jamaican bobsleigh team. Many newspapers hailed Bradbury for his unlikely win and used it as an example of the value of an underdog never giving up, regardless of the odds against them. The unusual manner of his victory made news across the world. However, some unhappy American commentators also made fun of the race and used it to criticise what they perceived as a lack of merit required to win a short track event. USA Today said "The first winter gold medal in the history of Australia fell out of the sky like a bagged goose. He looked like the tortoise behind four hares '', while the Boston Globe said that "multiple crashes that allow the wrong person to win are part of the deal ''.
Bradbury 's feat has entered the Australian colloquial vernacular in the phrase "doing a Bradbury '', or "Bradburied '' (as a verb) meaning an unexpected or unusual success.
Bradbury 's triumph was celebrated by Australia Post issuing a 45 - cent stamp of him, which followed on from their issuing stamps of Australian gold medallists at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Bradbury 's stamp was issued on 20 February 2002, four days after his victory. He received $ 20,000 for the use of his image. He said the fee "should get me a car. I have n't had a car for a long time '', and later described having a stamp issued as "a great honour ''. Before the Olympics, Bradbury had needed to borrow $1,000 from his parents to fix his old car in order to go to training. Bradbury was courted for sponsorship after his triumph and was interviewed on many American television shows. Bradbury had previously supported himself by making skating boots in a backyard workshop; his Revolutionary Boot Company supplied Ohno with free boots and Bradbury had asked Ohno to endorse his boots when he won in Salt Lake City, not thinking that he would defeat the American.
Bradbury retired after the 2002 Olympics. He commentated at the 2006 Winter Olympics, and for Channel Nine and Foxtel at the 2010 Winter Olympics. In 2005 Bradbury was a contestant in the second series of the Australian dancing show Dancing with the Stars.
After retiring from skating, Bradbury participated in competitive motor racing. After placing fourth in the 2005 Australian Grand Prix Celebrity Race, he competed in Queensland state - level Formula Vee championship events in 2006 and 2007, placing sixth in both years. In 2007, he raced in the National Formula Vee Championships at Morgan Park Raceway placing 15th.
In 2009, Bradbury competed in the Australian Mini Challenge at the Tasmanian round and 2010 at Queensland Raceway as their Uber Star. He also made a one - off appearance in the V8 Ute Series at Adelaide in March 2010, driving with regular Ute racer Jason Gomersall on the support program of the 2010 Clipsal 500.
In 2007, Bradbury was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia for his Olympic gold medal win. He was also inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in that year.
In 2009, Bradbury was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame.
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what house won the war of the roses | Wars of the Roses - wikipedia
Initial Yorkist victory
Eventual Lancastrian victory
House of Lancaster House of Tudor
House of York
Henry VI Henry VII Margaret of Anjou # Prince of Wales † Duke of Somerset Duke of Buckingham † Earl of Shrewsbury † Lord Audley † Duke of Exeter # Earl of Northumberland † Baron Clifford † Baron Neville † Andrew Trollope † Earl of Wiltshire Owen Tudor Earl of Pembroke Baron de Ros Earl of Oxford Earl of Devon † Earl of Warwick † Marquess of Montagu † Thomas Neville
Robin of Redesdale
Edward IV # Richard III † Duke of York † Earl of Salisbury Earl of Kent # Earl of Warwick Lord Montagu Duke of Norfolk # Thomas Neville Earl of Rutland † Duke of Clarence Lord Hastings Baron Howard †
The Wars of the Roses were a series of English civil wars for control of the throne of England fought between supporters of two English rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the House of Lancaster (associated with a red rose), and the House of York (whose symbol was a white rose). The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487; however, there was fighting before and after this period between the houses. The power struggle ignited around social and financial troubles following the Hundred Years ' War, combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of Henry VI which revived interest in Richard of York 's claim to the throne. Historians disagree about whether the Wars of the Roses were caused by the structural problems of feudalism or Henry VI 's ineffectiveness as king.
With the Duke of York 's death, the claim transferred to his heir, Edward, who later became the first Yorkist king of England, as Edward IV. His son reigned for 78 days as Edward V, but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IV 's younger brother, who became Richard III. The two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London.
The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, at the Battle of Bosworth Field. After assuming the throne as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York.
The name "Wars of the Roses '' refers to the heraldic badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Wars of the Roses came into common use in the 19th century after the publication in 1829 of Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter Scott. Scott based the name on a scene in William Shakespeare 's play Henry VI, Part 1, set in the gardens of the Temple Church, where a number of noblemen and a lawyer pick red or white roses to show their loyalty to the Lancastrian or Yorkist faction respectively.
The Yorkist faction used the symbol of the white rose from early in the conflict, but the Lancastrian red rose was apparently introduced only after the victory of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth, when it was combined with the Yorkist white rose to form the Tudor rose, which symbolised the union of the two houses; the origins of the Rose as a cognizance itself stem from Edward I 's use of "a golden rose stalked proper. '' Often, owing to nobles holding multiple titles, more than one badge was used: Edward IV, for example, used both his sun in splendour as Earl of March, but also his father 's falcon and fetterlock as Duke of York. Badges were not always distinct; at the Battle of Barnet, Edward 's ' sun ' was very similar to the Earl of Oxford 's Vere star, which caused fateful confusion.
Most, but not all, of the participants in the wars wore livery badges associated with their immediate lords or patrons under the prevailing system of bastard feudalism; the wearing of livery was by now confined to those in "continuous employ of a lord '', thus excluding, for example, mercenaries. Another example: Henry Tudor 's forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon while the Yorkist army used Richard III 's personal device of a white boar.
Although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster, the corresponding duchy and dukedom had little to do with these cities. The lands and offices attached to the Duchy of Lancaster were mainly in Gloucestershire, North Wales and Cheshire, while the estates and castles of the Duke of York were spread throughout England and Wales, although many were in the Welsh Marches.
Although minor armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster, the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans. Several prominent Lancastrians died at the hands of the Yorkists. Although peace was temporarily restored, the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest York 's influence, and a deadly feud between the two branches of the royal family ensued.
Fighting resumed more violently in 1459. York and his supporters were forced to flee the country, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Earl of Warwick, invaded England from Calais and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton. York returned to the country and became Protector of England, but was dissuaded from claiming the throne, though it was agreed that he would become heir to the throne (thus displacing Henry and Margaret 's son, Edward of Westminster, from the line of succession). Margaret and the remaining Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England.
When York moved north to engage them, he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans, but failed to occupy London, and subsequently retreated to the north. York 's eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV. He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a crushing victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461.
After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464, Henry was captured once again and placed in the Tower of London. Edward fell out with his chief supporter and adviser, the Earl of Warwick (known as the "Kingmaker '') after Edward 's unpopular and secretly conducted marriage with the widow of a Lancastrian supporter, Elizabeth Woodville. Within a few years, it became clear that Edward was favouring his wife 's family and alienating a number of friends closely aligned with Warwick as well.
Furious, Warwick tried first to supplant Edward with his younger brother George, Duke of Clarence, establishing the alliance by marriage to his daughter, Isabel Neville. When that plan failed, due to lack of support from Parliament, Warwick sailed to France with his family and made an alliance with the former Lancastrian Queen, Margaret of Anjou, to restore Henry VI to the throne.
This resulted in two years of rapid changes of fortune, before Edward IV once again won complete victories at Barnet (14 April 1471), where Warwick was killed, and Tewkesbury (4 May 1471) where the Lancastrian heir, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales was killed, or perhaps executed after the battle. Queen Margaret was escorted to London as a prisoner and Henry was murdered in the Tower of London several days later, ending the direct Lancastrian line of succession.
A period of comparative peace followed, ending with the unexpected death of King Edward in 1483. His surviving brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, first moved to prevent the unpopular Woodville family of Edward 's widow from participating in the government during the minority of Edward 's son, Edward V, and then seized the throne for himself, using the suspect legitimacy of Edward IV 's marriage as pretext.
Henry Tudor, a distant relative of the Lancastrian kings who had inherited their claim, defeated Richard III at Bosworth in 1485. He was crowned Henry VII, and married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV, to unite and reconcile the two houses. Yorkist revolts, directed by John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln and others, flared up in 1487 under the banner of the pretender Lambert Simnel -- who claimed he was Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of George of Clarence), resulting in the last pitched battles.
Though most surviving descendants of Richard of York were imprisoned, sporadic rebellions continued until 1497, when Perkin Warbeck, who claimed he was the younger brother of Edward V, one of the two disappeared Princes in the Tower, was imprisoned and later executed.
William the Conqueror 's son King Henry I of England died in 1135, after his only male heir was killed aboard the White Ship. Following the White Ship disaster, England entered a period of prolonged instability known as The Anarchy. However, following the ascension of Henry of Anjou to the throne in 1154 as Henry II, the crown passed from father to son or brother to brother with little difficulty until 1399.
The question of succession after Edward III 's death in 1377 is said to be the cause of the Wars of Roses. Although Edward III had five legitimate sons there was a "sudden narrowing in the direct line of descent '' near the end of his reign. Edward 's eldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, had died the year before. Edward III was succeeded on the throne by the Black Prince 's only surviving son and offspring Richard II, who was only 10 years old. Richard 's claim to the throne was based on the principle that the son of an elder brother had priority in the succession over his uncles. Since Richard was a minor, and had three living uncles at the time of Edward III 's death, there was considerable uncertainty about who was next in line for the succession.
Edward III had five sons who in turn had offspring: Edward, the Black Prince (1330 -- 1376); Lionel, Duke of Clarence (1338 -- 1368); John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (1340 -- 1399); Edmund, Duke of York (1341 -- 1402); and Thomas, Duke of Gloucester (1355 -- 1397). By the custom of primogeniture, the legitimate successors to Richard II would be the descendants of the Duke of Clarence, Edward III 's second eldest son. Clarence had a single daughter named Philippa, who married into the Mortimer family. She had a son, Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March (1374 -- 1398), who, through his most senior descent from Edward III, technically had the best claim to succeed. However, a legal decree issued by Edward III in 1376 introduced some complexity into the question of who would ultimately take the throne. The letters patent issued by Edward III limited the right of succession to male heirs, which placed Richard 's uncle and the king 's third son John of Gaunt and his male descendants ahead of Philippa 's male children in the succession.
Richard II 's reign was marked by increasing dissension between the King and several of the most powerful nobles. In 1399, he exiled Gaunt 's son Henry of Bolingbroke. Richard 's government had become highly unpopular beyond his strongholds in Cheshire and Wales. Throughout his reign, Richard had casted doubt into the question of succession; without a general consensus as to who could succeed him, chances of deposition would likely be reduced (Edward III 's will may have been annulled, which would have returned Roger Mortimer and his successors to the position of heirs to the throne). Nevertheless, when Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399, initially to reclaim his rights as Duke of Lancaster, he took advantage of the support of most of the nobles to depose Richard and was crowned King Henry IV, establishing the House of Lancaster on the throne.
Henry IV 's claim to the throne was through his father, John of Gaunt, third surviving son of Edward III. At the time of Richard II 's deposition, the succession was unclear, so an argument could be made that Henry IV was not the legitimate king of England (the childless Richard II may have nominated the young Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, son of Roger Mortimer, as his successor, but there was little support at the time for his counter-claim). Certainly many people believed it to be the case; as Henry 's initial popularity waned, the Mortimer family 's claim to the throne was a pretext for the major rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr in Wales, and other, less successful, revolts in Cheshire and Northumberland. There were uprisings in support of the Mortimer 's claim throughout Henry IV 's reign, which lasted until 1413.
An important branch of the House of Lancaster was the House of Beaufort, whose members were descended from Gaunt by his mistress, Katherine Swynford. Originally illegitimate, they were made legitimate by an Act of Parliament when Gaunt and Katherine later married. However, Henry IV excluded them from the line of succession to the throne.
Henry IV 's son and successor, Henry V, inherited a temporarily pacified nation, and his military success against France in the Hundred Years ' War bolstered his popularity, enabling him to strengthen the Lancastrian hold on the throne. Nevertheless, one notable conspiracy against Henry, the Southampton Plot, took place during his nine - year reign. This was led by Richard, Earl of Cambridge, who attempted to place Edmund Mortimer, his brother - in - law, in the throne. Cambridge was executed for treason in 1415, at the start of the campaign that led to the Battle of Agincourt.
The founder of the House of York was Edmund of Langley, the fourth son of Edward III and the younger brother of John of Gaunt. His son, Richard, Earl of Cambridge, who was executed by Henry V, had married Anne Mortimer, daughter of Roger Mortimer and sister of Edmund Mortimer. The Mortimers were members of the most powerful marcher family of the fourteenth century. G.M. Trevelyan has written that "the Wars of the Roses were to a large extent a quarrel between Welsh Marcer Lords, who were also great English nobles, closely related to the English throne. '' Anne herself was descended from Edward III through her grandmother, Philippa of Clarence, daughter of Lionel of Antwerp, Edward 's second son.
Anne had died in 1411. When her brother Edmund, Earl of March, who had loyally supported Henry, died childless in 1425, the title and extensive estates of the Earldom of March and the Mortimer claim to the throne thus passed to Anne 's descendants.
Richard of York, the son of Cambridge and Anne Mortimer, was four years old at the time of his father 's execution. Although Cambridge was attainted, Henry V later allowed Richard to inherit the title and lands of Cambridge 's elder brother Edward, Duke of York, who had died fighting alongside Henry at Agincourt and had no issue. Henry, who had three younger brothers and was himself in his prime and recently married (to the French princess, Catherine of Valois) had no doubt that the Lancastrian right to the crown was secure.
Henry 's premature death in 1422, at the age of 36, led to his only son Henry VI coming to the throne as an infant and the country being ruled by a divided Council of regency. Henry V 's younger brothers produced no surviving legitimate issue, leaving only distant cousins (the Beauforts) as alternative Lancaster heirs. As Richard of York grew into maturity and questions were raised over Henry VI 's fitness to rule, Richard 's claim to the throne thus became more significant. The revenue from the York and March estates also made him the wealthiest magnate in the land.
From early childhood, Henry VI was surrounded by quarrelsome councillors and advisors. His younger surviving paternal uncle, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, sought to be named Lord Protector and deliberately courted the popularity of the common people for his own ends but was opposed by his half - uncle Cardinal Henry Beaufort. On several occasions, Beaufort called on John, Duke of Bedford, Humphrey 's older brother, to return from his post as regent in Henry VI 's Kingdom of France, either to mediate or to defend him against Humphrey 's accusations of treason. Some time after Bedford died in 1435, Cardinal Beaufort withdrew from public affairs, partly due to old age and partly because William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, rose to become the dominant personality at court. The void left by the cardinal 's withdrawal from politics was also filled by his Beaufort relatives.
Suffolk and the Beaufort family were widely held to be enriching themselves through their influence on Henry, and were blamed for mismanaging the government and poorly executing the continuing Hundred Years ' War with France. Their influence was bitterly opposed by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who felt that the lifetime efforts of his brothers, of himself, and of many Englishmen on the war against France were being wasted as the French territories slipped from English hands, and especially since Suffolk and his supporters were trying to make large diplomatic and territorial concessions to the French in a desperate attempt for peace. Richard, Duke of York, who had succeeded Bedford as commander of the English forces in France with the support of Gloucester, also opposed their influence. York was frequently denied much needed resources for his campaigns in France, while Suffolk and his associates would obtain large money and land grants from King Henry VI who, mainly due to their less hawkish and more conciliatory inclinations, tended to favour their faction in court over that of Gloucester and York.
Suffolk eventually succeeded in having Humphrey of Gloucester arrested for treason. Humphrey died while awaiting trial in prison at Bury St Edmunds in 1447. Some authorities date the start of the War of the Roses from the death of Humphrey. However, with severe reverses in France, Suffolk was stripped of office and was murdered on his way to exile. Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, succeeded him as leader of the party seeking peace with France. The Duke of York meanwhile represented those who wished to prosecute the war more vigorously, and criticised the court, and Somerset in particular, for starving him of funds and men during his campaigns in France. Willingly or unwillingly, York came to be associated with the name of Humphrey and was regarded as his political successor, due to his advocacy for good government.
In all these quarrels, Henry VI had taken little part. He was seen as a weak, ineffectual king. In addition, he displayed several symptoms of mental illness that he may have inherited from his maternal grandfather, Charles VI of France. By 1450 many considered Henry incapable of carrying out the duties and responsibilities of a king. Under Henry VI, all the land in France won by Henry V and even the provinces of Guienne and Gascony, which had been held since the reign of Henry II three centuries previously, were lost.
In 1450, there was a violent popular revolt in Kent, Jack Cade 's Rebellion, which is often seen as the prelude to the Wars of the Roses. The rebel manifesto, The Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent written under Cade 's leadership, accused the crown of extortion, perversion of justice, and election fraud. The rebels occupied parts of London, and executed James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele, the unpopular Lord High Treasurer, after a hasty trial. After some of them fell to looting, they were driven out of London by the citizens. They dispersed after they were supposedly pardoned but several, including Cade, were later executed. After the rebellion the rebels ' grievances formed the basis of Richard of York 's opposition to a royal government from which he felt excluded.
Two years later, in 1452, Richard of York returned to England from his new post as Lieutenant of Ireland and marched on London, demanding Somerset 's removal and reform of the government. At this stage, few of the nobles supported such drastic action, and York was forced to submit to superior force at Blackheath. He was imprisoned for much of 1452 and 1453 but was released after swearing not to take arms against the court.
The increasing discord at court was mirrored in the country as a whole, where noble families engaged in private feuds and showed increasing disrespect for the royal authority and for the courts of law. In many cases feuds were fought between old - established families, and formerly minor nobility raised in power and influence by Henry IV in the aftermath of the rebellions against him. The quarrel between the Percys -- long the Earls of Northumberland -- and the comparatively upstart Nevilles was the best - known of these private wars and followed this pattern, as did the Bonville -- Courtenay feud in Cornwall and Devon. A factor in these feuds was the presence of large numbers of soldiers discharged from the English armies that had been defeated in France. Nobles engaged many of these to mount raids, or to pack courts of justice with their supporters, intimidating suitors, witnesses and judges.
This growing civil discontent, the abundance of feuding nobles with private armies, and corruption in Henry VI 's court formed a political climate ripe for civil war. With the king so easily manipulated, power rested with those closest to him at court, in other words, Somerset and the Lancastrian faction. Richard and the Yorkist faction, who tended to be physically placed further away from the seat of power, found their power slowly being stripped away. Royal power and finances also started to slip, as Henry was persuaded to grant many royal lands and estates to the Lancastrians, thereby losing their revenue.
In 1453, Henry suffered the first of several bouts of complete mental collapse, during which he failed even to recognise his new - born son, Edward of Westminster. On 22 March 1454, Cardinal John Kemp, the Chancellor, died. Henry was incapable of nominating a successor. To ensure that the country could be governed, a Council of Regency was set up, headed by the Duke of York, who still remained popular with the people, as Lord Protector. York soon asserted his power with ever - greater boldness (although there is no proof that he had aspirations to the throne at this early stage). He imprisoned Somerset and backed his Neville allies (his brother - in - law, the Earl of Salisbury, and Salisbury 's son, the Earl of Warwick), in their continuing feud with the Earl of Northumberland, a powerful supporter of Henry.
Henry recovered in 1455 and once again fell under the influence of those closest to him at court. Directed by Henry 's queen, the powerful and aggressive Margaret of Anjou, who emerged as the de facto leader of the Lancastrians, Richard was forced out of court. Margaret built up an alliance against Richard and conspired with other nobles to reduce his influence. An increasingly thwarted Richard (who feared arrest for treason) finally resorted to armed hostilities in 1455.
Richard, Duke of York, led a small force toward London and was met by Henry 's forces at St Albans, north of London, on 22 May 1455. The relatively small First Battle of St Albans was the first open conflict of the civil war. Richard 's aim was ostensibly to remove "poor advisors '' from King Henry 's side. The result was a Lancastrian defeat. Several prominent Lancastrian leaders, including Somerset and Northumberland, were killed. After the battle, the Yorkists found Henry hiding in a local tanner 's shop, abandoned by his advisers and servants, apparently having suffered another bout of mental illness. (He had also been slightly wounded in the neck by an arrow.) York and his allies regained their position of influence. With the king indisposed, York was again appointed Protector, and Margaret was shunted aside, charged with the king 's care.
For a while, both sides seemed shocked that an actual battle had been fought and did their best to reconcile their differences, but the problems that caused conflict soon re-emerged, particularly the issue of whether the Duke of York, or Henry and Margaret 's infant son, Edward, would succeed to the throne. Margaret refused to accept any solution that would disinherit her son, and it became clear that she would only tolerate the situation for as long as the Duke of York and his allies retained the military ascendancy.
Henry recovered and in February 1456 he relieved York of his office of Protector. In the autumn of that year, Henry went on royal progress in the Midlands, where the king and queen were popular. Margaret did not allow him to return to London where the merchants were angry at the decline in trade and the widespread disorder. The king 's court was set up at Coventry. By then, the new Duke of Somerset was emerging as a favourite of the royal court. Margaret persuaded Henry to revoke the appointments York had made as Protector, while York was made to return to his post as lieutenant in Ireland.
Disorder in the capital and the north of England (where fighting between the Nevilles and Percys had resumed) and piracy by French fleets on the south coast were growing, but the king and queen remained intent on protecting their own positions, with the queen introducing conscription for the first time in England. Meanwhile, York 's ally, Warwick (later dubbed "The Kingmaker ''), was growing in popularity in London as the champion of the merchants; as Captain of Calais he had fought piracy in the Channel.
In the spring of 1458, Thomas Bourchier, the Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to arrange a reconciliation. The lords had gathered in London for a Grand Council and the city was full of armed retainers. The Archbishop negotiated complex settlements to resolve the blood - feuds that had persisted since the Battle of St. Albans. Then, on Lady Day (25 March), the King led a "love day '' procession to St. Paul 's Cathedral, with Lancastrian and Yorkist nobles following him, hand in hand. No sooner had the procession and the Council dispersed than plotting resumed.
The next outbreak of fighting was prompted by Warwick 's high - handed actions as Captain of Calais. He led his ships in attacks on neutral Hanseatic League and Spanish ships in the Channel on flimsy grounds of sovereignty. He was summoned to London to face enquiries, but he claimed that attempts had been made on his life, and returned to Calais. York, Salisbury and Warwick were summoned to a royal council at Coventry, but they refused, fearing arrest when they were isolated from their own supporters.
York summoned the Nevilles to join him at his stronghold at Ludlow Castle in the Welsh Marches. On 23 September 1459, at the Battle of Blore Heath in Staffordshire, a Lancastrian army failed to prevent Salisbury from marching from Middleham Castle in Yorkshire to Ludlow. Shortly afterwards the combined Yorkist armies confronted the much larger Lancastrian force at the Battle of Ludford Bridge. Warwick 's contingent from the garrison of Calais under Andrew Trollope defected to the Lancastrians, and the Yorkist leaders fled. York returned to Ireland, and his eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, Salisbury and Warwick fled to Calais.
The Lancastrians were back in total control. York and his supporters were attainted at the Parliament of Devils as traitors. Somerset was appointed Governor of Calais and was dispatched to take over the vital fortress on the French coast, but his attempts to evict Warwick were easily repulsed. Warwick and his supporters even began to launch raids on the English coast from Calais, adding to the sense of chaos and disorder. Being attainted, only by a successful invasion could the Yorkists recover their lands and titles. Warwick travelled to Ireland to concert plans with York, evading the royal ships commanded by the Duke of Exeter. In late June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury and Edward of March crossed the Channel and rapidly established themselves in Kent and London, where they enjoyed wide support. Backed by a papal emissary who had taken their side, they marched north. King Henry led an army south to meet them while Margaret remained in the north with Prince Edward. At the Battle of Northampton on 10 July, the Yorkist army under Warwick defeated the Lancastrians, aided by treachery in the king 's ranks. For the second time in the war, King Henry was found by the Yorkists in a tent, abandoned by his retinue, having apparently suffered another breakdown. With the king in their possession, the Yorkists returned to London.
In the light of this military success, Richard of York moved to press his claim to the throne based on the illegitimacy of the Lancastrian line. Landing in north Wales, he and his wife Cecily entered London with all the ceremony usually reserved for a monarch. Parliament was assembled, and when York entered he made straight for the throne, which he may have been expecting the Lords to encourage him to take for himself as they had acclaimed Henry IV in 1399. Instead, there was stunned silence. York announced his claim to the throne, but the Lords, even Warwick and Salisbury, were shocked by his presumption; they had no desire at this stage to overthrow King Henry. Their ambition was still limited to the removal of his councillors.
The next day, York produced detailed genealogies to support his claim based on his descent from Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence. York 's claim was through a daughter of a second son, Henry 's through the son of a third son. The judges felt that Common law principles could not determine who had priority in the royal succession, and declared the matter "above the law and passed ther lernyng. '' Parliament agreed to consider the matter and accepted that York 's claim was better, but by a majority of five, they voted that Henry VI should remain as king. A compromise was struck in October 1460 with the Act of Accord, which recognised York as Henry 's successor, disinheriting Henry 's six - year - old son, Edward. York accepted this compromise as the best offer. It gave him much of what he wanted, particularly since he was also made Protector of the Realm and was able to govern in Henry 's name.
Queen Margaret and her son had fled to north Wales, parts of which were still in Lancastrian hands. They later travelled by sea to Scotland to negotiate for Scottish assistance. Mary of Gueldres, Queen Consort to James II of Scotland, agreed to give Margaret an army on condition that she cede the town of Berwick to Scotland and Mary 's daughter be betrothed to Prince Edward. Margaret agreed, although she had no funds to pay her army and could only promise booty from the riches of southern England, as long as no looting took place north of the River Trent.
The Duke of York left London later that year with the Earl of Salisbury to consolidate his position in the north against the Lancastrians who were reported to be massing near the city of York. He took up a defensive position at Sandal Castle near Wakefield over Christmas 1460. Then on 30 December, his forces left the castle and attacked the Lancastrians in the open, although outnumbered. The ensuing Battle of Wakefield was a complete Lancastrian victory. Richard of York was slain in the battle, and both Salisbury and York 's 17 - year - old second son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were captured and executed. Margaret ordered the heads of all three placed on the gates of York.
The Act of Accord and the events of Wakefield left the 18 - year - old Edward, Earl of March, York 's eldest son, as Duke of York and heir to his claim to the throne. With an army from the pro-Yorkist Marches (the border area between England and Wales), he met Jasper Tudor 's Lancastrian army arriving from Wales, and he defeated them soundly at the Battle of Mortimer 's Cross in Herefordshire. He inspired his men with a "vision '' of three suns at dawn (a phenomenon known as "parhelion ''), telling them that it was a portent of victory and represented the three surviving York sons; himself, George and Richard. This led to Edward 's later adoption of the sign of the sunne in splendour as his personal device.
Margaret 's army was moving south, supporting itself by looting as it passed through the prosperous south of England. In London, Warwick used this as propaganda to reinforce Yorkist support throughout the south -- the town of Coventry switched allegiance to the Yorkists. Warwick 's army established fortified positions north of the town of St Albans to block the main road from the north but was outmanoeuvred by Margaret 's army, which swerved to the west and then attacked Warwick 's positions from behind. At the Second Battle of St Albans, the Lancastrians won another big victory. As the Yorkist forces fled they left behind King Henry, who was found unharmed, sitting quietly beneath a tree.
Henry knighted thirty Lancastrian soldiers immediately after the battle. In an illustration of the increasing bitterness of the war, Queen Margaret instructed her seven - year - old son Edward of Westminster to determine the manner of execution of the Yorkist knights who had been charged with keeping Henry safe and had stayed at his side throughout the battle.
As the Lancastrian army advanced southwards, a wave of dread swept London, where rumours were rife about savage northerners intent on plundering the city. The people of London shut the city gates and refused to supply food to the queen 's army, which was looting the surrounding counties of Hertfordshire and Middlesex.
Edward of March, having joined with Warwick 's surviving forces, advanced towards London from the west at the same time that the queen retreated northwards to Dunstable; as a result, Edward and Warwick were able to enter London with their army. They found considerable support there, as the city was largely Yorkist - supporting. It was clear that Edward was no longer simply trying to free the king from bad councillors, but that his goal was to take the crown. Thomas Kempe, the Bishop of London, asked the people of London their opinion and they replied with shouts of "King Edward ''. The request was quickly approved by Parliament, and Edward was unofficially crowned in an impromptu ceremony at Westminster Abbey; Edward vowed that he would not have a formal coronation until Henry VI and his wife were removed from the scene. Edward claimed Henry had forfeited his right to the crown by allowing his queen to take up arms against his rightful heirs under the Act of Accord. Parliament had already accepted that Edward 's victory was simply a restoration of the rightful heir to the throne.
Edward and Warwick marched north, gathering a large army as they went, and met an equally impressive Lancastrian army at Towton. The Battle of Towton, near York, was the biggest battle of the Wars of the Roses. Both sides agreed beforehand that the issue would be settled that day, with no quarter asked or given. An estimated 40,000 -- 80,000 men took part, with over 20,000 men being killed during (and after) the battle, an enormous number for the time and the greatest recorded single day 's loss of life on English soil. Edward and his army won a decisive victory, and the Lancastrians were routed, with most of their leaders slain. Henry and Margaret, who were waiting in York with their son Edward, fled north when they heard the outcome. Many of the surviving Lancastrian nobles switched allegiance to King Edward, and those who did not were driven back to the northern border areas and a few castles in Wales. Edward advanced to take York, where he replaced the rotting heads of his father, his brother, and Salisbury with those of defeated Lancastrian lords such as the notorious John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford of Skipton - Craven, who was blamed for the execution of Edward 's brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, after the Battle of Wakefield.
The official coronation of Edward IV took place in June 1461 in London, where he received a rapturous welcome from his supporters.
After the Battle of Towton, Henry VI and Margaret had fled to Scotland, where they stayed with the court of James III and followed through on their promise to cede Berwick to Scotland. Later in the year, they mounted an attack on Carlisle, but, lacking money, they were easily repulsed by Edward 's men, who were rooting out the remaining Lancastrian forces in the northern counties. Several castles under Lancastrian commanders held out for years: Dunstanburgh, Alnwick (the Percy family seat), and Bamburgh were some of the last to fall.
There was also some fighting in Ireland. At the Battle of Piltown in 1462, the Yorkish supporter Thomas FitzGerald, 7th Earl of Desmond, defeated the Lancastrian Butlers of Kilkenny. The Butlers suffered more than 400 casualties. Local folklore claims that the battle was so violent that the local river ran red with blood, hence the names Pill River and Piltown (Baile an Phuill, meaning "Town of the blood '').
There were Lancastrian revolts in the north of England in 1464. Several Lancastrian nobles, including the third Duke of Somerset, who had apparently been reconciled to Edward, readily led the rebellion. The revolt was put down by Warwick 's brother, John Neville. A small Lancastrian army was destroyed at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor on 25 April, but because Neville was escorting Scottish commissioners for a treaty to York, he could not immediately follow up this victory. Then on 15 May, he routed Somerset 's army at the Battle of Hexham. Somerset was captured and executed.
The deposed King Henry was later captured for the third time at Clitheroe in Lancashire in 1465. He was taken to London and held prisoner at the Tower of London, where, for the time being, he was reasonably well treated. About the same time, once England under Edward IV and Scotland had come to terms, Margaret and her son were forced to leave Scotland and sail to France, where they maintained an impoverished court in exile for several years. The last remaining Lancastrian stronghold was Harlech Castle in Wales, which surrendered in 1468 after a seven - year - long siege.
The powerful Earl of Warwick ("the Kingmaker '') had meanwhile become the greatest landowner in England. Already a great magnate through his wife 's property, he had also inherited his father 's estates and had been granted much forfeited Lancastrian property. He also held many of the offices of state. He was convinced of the need for an alliance with France and had been negotiating a match between Edward and a French bride. However, Edward had married Elizabeth Woodville, the widow of a Lancastrian knight, in secret in 1464. He later announced the news of his marriage as fait accompli, to Warwick 's considerable embarrassment.
This embarrassment turned to bitterness when the Woodvilles came to be favoured over the Nevilles at court. Many of Queen Elizabeth 's relatives were married into noble families and others were granted peerages or royal offices. Other factors compounded Warwick 's disillusionment: Edward 's preference for an alliance with Burgundy rather than France and reluctance to allow his brothers George, Duke of Clarence and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, to marry Warwick 's daughters Isabel and Anne. Furthermore, Edward 's general popularity was on the wane in this period with higher taxes and persistent disruptions of law and order.
By 1469, Warwick had formed an alliance with Edward 's jealous and treacherous brother George, who married Isabel Neville in defiance of Edward 's wishes in Calais. They raised an army that defeated the king 's forces at the Battle of Edgecote Moor. Edward was captured at Olney, Buckinghamshire, and imprisoned at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire. (Warwick briefly had two Kings of England in his custody.) Warwick had the queen 's father, Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and her brother John executed. However, he made no immediate move to have Edward declared illegitimate and place George on the throne. The country was in turmoil, with nobles once again settling scores with private armies (in episodes such as the Battle of Nibley Green), and Lancastrians being encouraged to rebel. Few of the nobles were prepared to support Warwick 's seizure of power. Edward was escorted to London by Warwick 's brother George Neville, the Archbishop of York, where he and Warwick were reconciled, to outward appearances.
When further rebellions broke out in Lincolnshire, Edward easily suppressed them at the Battle of Losecoat Field. From the testimony of the captured leaders, he declared that Warwick and George, Duke of Clarence, had instigated them. They were declared traitors and forced to flee to France, where Margaret of Anjou was already in exile. Louis XI of France, who wished to forestall a hostile alliance between Edward and Edward 's brother - in - law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, suggested the idea of an alliance between Warwick and Margaret. Neither of those two formerly mortal enemies entertained the notion at first, but eventually they were brought round to realise the potential benefits. However, both were undoubtedly hoping for different outcomes: Warwick for a puppet king in the form of Henry VI or his young son; Margaret to be able to reclaim her family 's realm. In any case, a marriage was arranged between Warwick 's daughter Anne and Margaret 's son Edward of Westminster, and Warwick invaded England in the autumn of 1470.
Edward IV had already marched north to suppress another uprising in Yorkshire. Warwick, with help from a fleet under his nephew, the Bastard of Fauconberg, landed at Dartmouth and rapidly secured support from the southern counties and ports. He occupied London in October and paraded Henry VI through the streets as the restored king. Warwick 's brother John Neville, who had recently received the empty title Marquess of Montagu and who led large armies in the Scottish marches, suddenly defected to Warwick. Edward was unprepared for this event and had to order his army to scatter. He and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, fled from Doncaster to the coast and thence to Holland and exile in Burgundy. They were proclaimed traitors, and many exiled Lancastrians returned to reclaim their estates.
Warwick 's success was short - lived, however. He over-reached himself with his plan to invade Burgundy in alliance with the King of France, tempted by King Louis ' promise of territory in the Netherlands as a reward. This led Edward 's brother - in - law, Charles of Burgundy, to provide funds and troops to Edward to enable him to launch an invasion of England in 1471. Edward landed with a small force at Ravenspur on the Yorkshire coast. Initially claiming to support Henry and to be seeking only to have his title of Duke of York restored, he soon gained the city of York and rallied several supporters. His brother George turned traitor again, abandoning Warwick. Having outmaneuvered Warwick and Montagu, Edward captured London. His army then met Warwick 's at the Battle of Barnet. The battle was fought in thick fog, and some of Warwick 's men attacked each other by mistake. It was believed by all that they had been betrayed, and Warwick 's army fled. Warwick was cut down trying to reach his horse. Montagu was also killed in the battle.
Margaret and her son Edward had landed in the West Country only a few days before the Battle of Barnet. Rather than return to France, Margaret sought to join the Lancastrian supporters in Wales and marched to cross the Severn but was thwarted when the city of Gloucester refused her passage across the river. Her army, commanded by the fourth successive Duke of Somerset, was brought to battle and destroyed at the Battle of Tewkesbury. Her son Prince Edward, the Lancastrian heir to the throne, was killed. With no heirs to succeed him, Henry VI was murdered shortly afterwards, on 21 May 1471, to strengthen the Yorkist hold on the throne.
The restoration of Edward IV in 1471 is sometimes seen as marking the end of the Wars of the Roses proper. Peace was restored for the remainder of Edward 's reign. His youngest brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and Edward 's lifelong companion and supporter, William Hastings, were generously rewarded for their loyalty, becoming effectively governors of the north and midlands respectively. George of Clarence became increasingly estranged from Edward, and was executed in 1478 for association with convicted traitors.
When Edward died suddenly in 1483, political and dynastic turmoil erupted again. Many of the nobles still resented the influence of the queen 's Woodville relatives (her brother, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers and her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset), and regarded them as power - hungry upstarts (' parvenus '). At the time of Edward 's premature death, his heir, Edward V, was only 12 years old and had been brought up under the stewardship of Earl Rivers at Ludlow Castle.
On his deathbed, Edward had named his surviving brother Richard of Gloucester as Protector of England. Richard had been in the north when Edward died. Hastings, who also held the office of Lord Chamberlain, sent word to him to bring a strong force to London to counter any force the Woodvilles might muster. The Duke of Buckingham also declared his support for Richard.
Richard and Buckingham overtook Earl Rivers, who was escorting the young Edward V to London, at Stony Stratford in Buckinghamshire on 28 April. Although they dined with Rivers amicably, they took him prisoner the next day, and declared to Edward that they had done so to forestall a conspiracy by the Woodvilles against his life. Rivers and his nephew Richard Grey were sent to Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire and executed there at the end of June.
Edward entered London in the custody of Richard on 4 May, and was lodged in the Tower of London. Elizabeth Woodville had already gone hastily into sanctuary at Westminster with her remaining children, although preparations were being made for Edward V to be crowned on 22 June, at which point Richard 's authority as Protector would end. On 13 June, Richard held a full meeting of the Council, at which he accused Hastings and others of conspiracy against him. Hastings was executed without trial later in the day.
Thomas Bourchier, the Archbishop of Canterbury, then persuaded Elizabeth Woodville to allow her younger son, the 9 - year - old Richard, Duke of York, to join Edward in the Tower. Having secured the boys, Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells then alleged that Edward IV 's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville had been illegal and that the two boys were therefore illegitimate. Parliament agreed, and enacted the Titulus Regius, which officially named Gloucester as King Richard III. The two imprisoned boys, known as the "Princes in the Tower '', disappeared and were possibly murdered; by whom and under whose orders remains controversial. There was never a trial or judicial inquest on the matter. Perkin Warbeck claimed he was the younger of the Princes from 1490 and was recognised as such in international diplomacy outside England.
Having been crowned in a lavish ceremony on 6 July, Richard then proceeded on a tour of the Midlands and the north of England, dispensing generous bounties and charters and naming his own son as the Prince of Wales.
Opposition to Richard 's rule had already begun in the south when, on 18 October, the Duke of Buckingham (who had been instrumental in placing Richard on the throne and who himself had a distant claim to the crown) led a revolt aimed at installing the Lancastrian Henry Tudor. It has been argued that his supporting Tudor rather than either Edward V or his younger brother, showed Buckingham was aware that both were already dead.
The Lancastrian claim to the throne had descended to Henry Tudor on the death of Henry VI and his son in 1471. Henry 's father, Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, had been a half - brother of Henry VI, but Henry 's claim to royalty was through his mother, Margaret Beaufort. She was descended from John Beaufort, who was a son of John of Gaunt and thus a grandson of Edward III. John Beaufort had been illegitimate at birth, though later legitimised by the marriage of his parents. It had supposedly been a condition of the legitimation that the Beaufort descendants forfeited their rights to the crown. Henry had spent much of his childhood under siege in Harlech Castle or in exile in Brittany. After 1471, Edward IV had preferred to belittle Henry 's pretensions to the crown, and made only sporadic attempts to secure him. However his mother, Margaret Beaufort, had been twice remarried, first to Buckingham 's uncle, and then to Thomas, Lord Stanley, one of Edward 's principal officers, and continually promoted her son 's rights.
Buckingham 's rebellion failed. Some of his supporters in the south rose up prematurely, thus allowing Richard 's Lieutenant in the South, the Duke of Norfolk, to prevent many rebels from joining forces. Buckingham himself raised a force at Brecon in mid-Wales. He was prevented from crossing the River Severn to join other rebels in the south of England by storms and floods, which also prevented Henry Tudor landing in the West Country. Buckingham 's starving forces deserted and he was betrayed and executed.
The failure of Buckingham 's revolt was clearly not the end of the plots against Richard, who could never again feel secure, and who also suffered the loss of his wife and eleven - year - old son, putting the future of the Yorkist dynasty in doubt.
Many of Buckingham 's defeated supporters and other disaffected nobles fled to join Henry Tudor in exile. Richard made an attempt to bribe the Duke of Brittany 's chief Minister Pierre Landais to betray Henry, but Henry was warned and escaped to France, where he was again given sanctuary and aid.
Confident that many magnates and even many of Richard 's officers would join him, Henry set sail from Harfleur on 1 August 1485, with a force of exiles and French mercenaries. With fair winds, he landed in Pembrokeshire six days later and the officers Richard had appointed in Wales, either joined Henry or stood aside. Henry gathered supporters on his march through Wales and the Welsh Marches and defeated Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard was slain during the battle, supposedly by the major Welsh landowner Rhys ap Thomas with a blow to the head from his poleaxe. Rhys was knighted three days later by Henry VII.
Henry, having been acclaimed King Henry VII, strengthened his position by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and the best surviving Yorkist claimant, reuniting the two royal houses. Henry merged the rival symbols of the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York into the new emblem of the red and white Tudor Rose. Henry shored up his position by killing all other possible claimants whenever he had a pretext, a policy his son Henry VIII continued.
Many historians consider the accession of Henry VII to mark the end of the Wars of the Roses. Others argue that they continued to the end of the fifteenth century, as there were several plots to overthrow Henry and restore Yorkist claimants. Only two years after the Battle of Bosworth, Yorkists rebelled, led by John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who had been named by Richard III as his heir but had been reconciled with Henry after Bosworth. The conspirators produced a pretender, a boy named Lambert Simnel, who resembled the young Edward, Earl of Warwick (son of George of Clarence), the best surviving male claimant of the House of York. The imposture was shaky, because the young earl was still alive and in King Henry 's custody and was paraded through London to expose the impersonation. At the Battle of Stoke Field, Henry defeated Lincoln 's army. Lincoln died in the battle. Simnel was pardoned for his part in the rebellion and was sent to work in the royal kitchens.
Henry 's throne was challenged again in 1491, with the appearance of the pretender Perkin Warbeck, who claimed he was Richard, Duke of York (the younger of the two Princes in the Tower). Warbeck made several attempts to incite revolts, with support at various times from the court of Burgundy and James IV of Scotland. He was captured after the failed Second Cornish Uprising of 1497 and killed in 1499, after attempting to escape from prison.
During the reign of Henry VII 's son Henry VIII, the possibility of a Yorkist challenge to the throne remained until as late as 1525, in the persons of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk and his brother Richard de la Pole, all of whom had blood ties to the Yorkist dynasty but were excluded by the pro-Woodville Tudor settlement. To an extent, England 's break with Rome was prompted by Henry 's fears of a disputed succession, should he leave only a female heir to the throne or an infant who would be as vulnerable as Henry VI had been to antagonistic or rapacious regents.
Historians debate the extent of impact the wars had on medieval English life. The classical view is that the many casualties among the nobility continued the changes in feudal English society caused by the effects of the Black Death. These included a weakening of the feudal power of the nobles and an increase in the power of the merchant classes, and the growth of a centralised monarchy under the Tudors. The wars heralded the end of the medieval period in England and the movement towards the Renaissance. After the wars the large standing baronial armies that had helped fuel the conflict were suppressed. Henry VII, wary of any further fighting, kept the barons on a very tight leash, removing their right to raise, arm and supply armies of retainers so that they could not make war on each other or the king. The military power of individual barons declined, and the Tudor court became a place where baronial squabbles were decided with the influence of the monarch.
Revisionists, such as the Oxford historian K.B. McFarlane, suggest that the effects of the conflicts have been greatly exaggerated and that there were no wars of the roses. Many places were unaffected by the wars, particularly in the eastern part of England, such as East Anglia. It has also been suggested that the traumatic impact of the wars was exaggerated by Henry VII, to magnify his achievement in quelling them and bringing peace. The effect of the wars on the merchant and labouring classes was far less than in the long drawn - out wars of siege and pillage in Europe, which were carried out by mercenaries who profited from long wars. Although there were some lengthy sieges, such as those of Harlech Castle and Bamburgh Castle, these were in comparatively remote and less populous regions. In the populated areas, both factions had much to lose by the ruin of the country and sought quick resolution of the conflict by pitched battle. Philippe de Commines observed in 1470:
The realm of England enjoys one favour above all other realms, that neither the countryside nor the people are destroyed, nor are buildings burnt or demolished. Misfortune falls on soldiers and nobles in particular...
Exceptions to this claimed general rule were the Lancastrian looting of Ludlow after the largely bloodless Yorkist defeat at Ludford Bridge in 1459, and the widespread pillaging carried out by Queen Margaret 's unpaid army as it advanced south in early 1461. Both events inspired widespread opposition to the Queen, and support for the Yorkists.
Many areas did little or nothing to change their city defences, perhaps an indication that they were left untouched by the wars. City walls were either left in their ruinous state or only partially rebuilt. In the case of London, the city was able to avoid being devastated by convincing the York and Lancaster armies to stay out after the inability to recreate the defensive city walls.
Few noble houses were extinguished during the wars; in the period from 1425 to 1449, before the outbreak of the wars, there were as many extinctions of noble lines from natural causes (25) as occurred during the fighting (24) from 1450 to 1474. The most ambitious nobles died and by the later period of the wars, fewer nobles were prepared to risk their lives and titles in an uncertain struggle.
The kings of France and Scotland and the dukes of Burgundy played the two factions off against each other, pledging military and financial aid and offering asylum to defeated nobles and pretenders, to prevent a strong and unified England from making war on them.
Chronicles written during the Wars of the Roses include:
The above - listed individuals with well - defined sides are coloured with red borders for Lancastrians and blue for Yorkists (The Kingmaker, his relatives and George Plantagenet changed sides, so they are represented with a purple border)
Sources:
The hinge point in the succession dispute is the forced abdication of Richard II and whether it was lawful or not. Following that event, Richard 's legitimate successor would be Henry Bolingbroke if strict Salic inheritance were adhered to, or Anne Mortimer if male - preference primogeniture, which eventually became the standard form of succession, were adhered to.
Following defeat in the Hundred Years ' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a contributory cause of the Wars of the Roses. The wars were fought largely by the landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers, with some mercenaries.
At the end of the Hundred Years ' War large numbers of unemployed soldiery returned to England seeking employment in the growing armies of local nobility. England drifted toward misrule and violence under the weak governance as local noble families like the Nevilles and Percies increasingly relied on their feudal retainers to settle disputes. It became common practice for landowners to bind their mesnie knights to their service with annual payments.
Edward III had developed the contract system where the monarch entered into formal written contracts called indenture with experienced captains who were contractually obliged to provide an agreed upon number of men, at established rates for a given period. Frequently the landed nobility acted the principal or main contractor. Knights, men at arms and archers were often sub-contracted. A lord could find men amongst his tenantry who included landless men and others who would crave the security of maintenance and livery. Skilled archers could command as high a wage as knights. As baronial armies grew in size, the rule of law was weakened.
Support for each house largely depended upon dynastic factors, such as blood relationships, marriages within the nobility and the grants or confiscations of feudal titles and lands. Given the conflicting loyalties of blood, marriage and ambition, it was not uncommon for nobles to switch sides; several battles (such as Northampton and Bosworth) were decided by treachery.. The armies consisted of nobles ' contingents of men - at - arms, with companies of archers and foot - soldiers (such as billmen). There were sometimes contingents of foreign mercenaries, armed with cannon or handguns. The horsemen were generally restricted to "prickers '' and "scourers ''; i.e. scouting and foraging parties.
The rules of military engagement changed as civil war succeeded overseas campaigns. It was customary for the heavy cavalry to fight entirely on foot. In several cases, noblemen dismounted and fought among the common foot - soldiers, to inspire them and to dispel the notion that in the case of defeat they might be ransomed while the common soldiers, being of little value, faced death. It was often claimed that the nobles faced greater risks than the ordinary soldiers as there was little incentive for anyone to take prisoner any high - ranking noble during or immediately after a battle. During the Hundred Years ' War against France, a captured noble would be able to ransom himself for a large sum but in the Wars of the Roses, a captured noble who belonged to a defeated faction had a high chance of being executed as a traitor. Forty - two captured knights were executed after the Battle of Towton. The Burgundian observer Philippe de Commines, who met Edward IV in 1470, reported,
King Edward told me in all the battles which he had won, as soon as he had gained victory, he mounted his horse and shouted to his men that they must spare the common soldiers and kill the lords, of whom none or few escaped.
Even those who escaped execution might be declared attainted therefore possess no property and be of no value to a captor.
The War of the Roses is depicted in the BBC television series The White Queen and the mini-series The White Princess. The White Queen primarily follows the life of Elizabeth Woodville, while The White Princess primarily follows the life of Elizabeth of York.
George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series as well as the HBO adaptation of the series, Game of Thrones, was inspired by various events that happened in the Wars of the Roses.
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would you mind earth wind and fire album | All ' N All - wikipedia
All ' N All is the eighth studio album by the American band Earth, Wind & Fire, released in 1977 on Columbia Records. It is one of the group 's most well known albums and has been certified triple platinum in the United States for sales of three million copies by the RIAA, gold in Canada by Music Canada and silver in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry.
All ' N All reached number three on the Pop Album chart and stayed at number one on the Black Album chart for nine weeks. All ' N All was also the bestselling R&B album of 1978. The album features hit songs such as "I 'll Write A Song For You '', "Serpentine Fire '', "Love 's Holiday '', and the pop hit "Fantasy ''. A remastered version of the LP was issued in 2002.
A trip for a month to Argentina and Brazil by Maurice White inspired the recording of All ' N All.
All ' N All is described by Alex Henderson of Allmusic as a "diverse jewel '' and he goes on to say that All ' N All was "a highly rewarding addition to EWF 's catalog ''. The Guardian in its review of the album says that the "band can sound like one enormous kit, where every crash and beat has its funky place '', and adds that "the whole shebang is punctuated beautifully by Milton Nascimento 's Brazilian Rhyme ''.
The album won a Grammy for Best R&B Vocal Performance By A Duo, Group Or Chorus and "Runnin ' '' also won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Instrumental in 1978. All ' N All also garnered an American Music Award nomination for Favorite Album - Soul / Rhythm & Blues.
The information regarding accolades attributed to All ' N All is adapted from AcclaimedMusic.net and the book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die.
(*) designates lists that are unordered.
"Beijo '' has been sampled by Grandmaster Flash & The Furious Five on their song "Girls Love The Way He Spins '' featured on the 1985 album They Said It Could n't Be Done, Big Pun on his song "Still Not a Playa '' on his 1998 album Capital Punishment, The Fugees on their song "Refugees on the Mic '' featured on the 1994 album Blunted on Reality, R&B group Blackstreet on the track "Givin ' You All My Lovin ' '' featured on their 1994 album Blackstreet and by A Tribe Called Quest on the song "Mr. Muhammad '' featured on their 1990 album People 's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm.
In addition "I 'll Write a Song For You '' has been sampled by 2Pac on the track "Hold on Be Strong '' featured on his 1997 album RU Still Down? (Remember Me). and "Runnin ' '' has been sampled by Organized Konfusion on the track "Walk Into the Sun '' included on their 1991 album Organized Konfusion.
"Love 's Holiday '' has been covered by Deniece Williams featuring Philip Bailey on her album Love, Niecy Style. The song was also covered by Kim Burrell, for her Love Album. The song was sampled by Hurricane Chris for his single, Playas Rock in 2007.
"I 'll Write a Song for You '' was featured in the movie Sprung.
"Love 's Holiday '' was featured in the stand up comedy special The Original Kings of Comedy. Steve Harvey used it to describe what real music was like in the 70s.
Adapted from AllMusic.
Works cited
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when did season 8 of the vampire diaries start | The Vampire Diaries (season 8) - Wikipedia
The Vampire Diaries, an American supernatural drama, was renewed for an eighth season by The CW on March 11, 2016. On July 23, 2016, the CW announced that the upcoming season would be the series ' last and would consist of 16 episodes. The season premiered on October 21, 2016 and concluded on March 10, 2017.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2016. It was announced on July 23, 2016, that season 8 of The Vampire Diaries would be the series ' last. The season would contain 16 episodes. Filming for the season ended on February 8, 2017.
On January 26, 2017, it was announced that Nina Dobrev would return as Elena Gilbert in the series finale. At the end of the episode, "It 's Been a Hell of a Ride '' on February 24, 2017, it was revealed that Dobrev would reprise her role of Katherine Pierce as well.
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3. give any two similarities between li and mg | Diagonal relationship - wikipedia
A diagonal relationship is said to exist between certain pairs of diagonally adjacent elements in the second and third periods of the periodic table. These pairs (lithium (Li) and magnesium (Mg), beryllium (Be) and aluminium (Al), boron (B) and silicon (Si) etc.) exhibit similar properties; for example, boron and silicon are both semiconductors, forming halides that are hydrolysed in water and have acidic oxides.
The organization of elements on the periodic table in to horizontal rows and vertical columns makes certain relationships more apparent (periodic law). Moving rightward and descending the periodic table have opposite effects on atomic radii of isolated atoms. Moving rightward across groups decreases the atomic radii of atoms, while moving down the periods will increase the atomic radii.
Similarly, on moving rightward a group, the elements become progressively more covalent, less basic and more electronegative, whereas on moving down a period the elements become more ionic, more basic and less electronegative. Thus, on both descending a period and crossing a group by one element, the changes "cancel '' each other out, and elements with similar properties which have similar chemistry are often found -- the atomic size, electronegativity, properties of compounds (and so forth) of the diagonal members are similar.
It is found that the chemistry of a first - row (second period) element often has similarities to the chemistry of the second - row (third period) element being one column to the right of it in the periodic table. Thus, the chemistry of Li has similarities to that of Mg, the chemistry of Be has similarities to that of Al, and the chemistry of B has similarities to that of Si. These are called diagonal relationships. (It is not as noticeable after B and Si.) The reasons for the existence of diagonal relationships are not fully understood, but charge density is a factor. For example, Li is a small cation with a + 1 charge and Mg is somewhat larger with a + 2 charge, so the charge density on each ion is roughly the same. Using the Li -- Mg pair: (under room temperature and pressure)
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when did global trade first make its appearance | Timeline of international trade - wikipedia
The history of international trade chronicles notable events that have affected the trade between various countries.
In the era before the rise of the nation state, the term ' international ' trade can not be literally applied, but simply means trade over long distances; the sort of movement in goods which would represent international trade in the modern world.
In the 21st century, China, the European Union and the United States are the three largest trading markets in the world.
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where did the human league get their name | The Human League - wikipedia
The Human League are an English synth - pop band formed in Sheffield in 1977. After signing to Virgin Records in 1979, the band released two albums and a string of singles before attaining widespread commercial success with their third album Dare in 1981. The album contained four hit singles, including the UK / US number one hit "Do n't You Want Me ''. The band received the Brit Award for Best British Breakthrough Act in 1982. Further hits followed throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, including "Being Boiled '', "Mirror Man '', "Fascination '', "The Lebanon '', "Human '' (a US No. 1) and "Tell Me When ''.
The band began as an avant - garde all - male synthesizer group. The only constant band member since 1977 has been lead singer and songwriter Philip Oakey. Keyboard players Martyn Ware and Ian Craig Marsh both left the band in 1980 to form Heaven 17. Under Oakey 's leadership, The Human League then evolved into a commercially successful New Pop band with a new line - up including female vocalists Joanne Catherall and Susan Ann Sulley. Since the mid-1990s, the band has essentially been a trio of Oakey, Catherall and Sulley with various sidemen.
Since 1978, the Human League have released nine studio albums, four EPs, 30 singles and several compilation albums. They have had five albums and eight singles in the UK Top 10 and have sold more than 20 million records worldwide.
Before adopting the name The Human League, the band briefly had two previous incarnations. In early 1977, Martyn Ware and Ian Craig Marsh, who had met at youth arts project Meatwhistle, were both working as computer operators. Their musical collaboration combined pop music (such as glam rock and Tamla Motown) with avant - garde electronic music. With the price of electronic components dropping in the mid-1970s, equipment became more affordable for the average consumer; Ware and Marsh purchased a Korg 700S synthesizer together and learned how to play it. Their musical reputation spread and they were invited to play at a friend 's 21st birthday party. For the party, Ware and Marsh formed themselves into an informal band called The Dead Daughters. Their live highlight was a rendition of the theme of the British TV series Doctor Who.
After a few more low - key, private performances, Ware and Marsh decided to officially form a band. Joined by their friend Adi Newton and another synthesizer (a Roland System - 100), they formed The Future and began to create music in their own rehearsal facility in a disused cutlery workshop in the centre of Sheffield. Although The Future was never signed and did not release material commercially at the time, a collection of demos from this period was released retrospectively on CD in 2002 titled The Golden Hour of the Future, mixed by Richard X. The association with Adi Newton was short; Newton left The Future and went on to form Clock DVA. Ware at this point decided that he needed a singer rather than another keyboard player. The reason for this was twofold: record companies had been reluctant to sign The Future, as they could not offer any "marketable '' songs, and therefore a talented singer was required for any chance of commercial success; also the group only owned two synthesizers and could not afford a third.
Ware and Marsh searched for a vocalist, but their first choice, Glenn Gregory, was unavailable (Gregory eventually became the lead singer of their later band Heaven 17). Ware then decided to invite an old school friend, Philip Oakey, to join the band. Oakey was working as a hospital porter at the time and was known on the Sheffield social scene for his eclectic style of dress. Although he had no musical experience, Ware thought he would be ideal as lead singer for The Future as "he already looked like a pop star. '' When Ware called on Oakey he found he was out, so asked him to join the Future by leaving a note stuck to his front door. He accepted the invitation, but early sessions were awkward. Oakey had never sung in front of an audience before, could not play keyboards and only owned a saxophone (which he could barely play). Listening to one of Ware and Marsh 's demos, Oakey was inspired to write some lyrics which later became the single "Being Boiled ''.
With a new line - up, sound, and vocalist, Ware decided that the band needed a new name. It would also allow them to approach record companies again from a different angle. Ware suggested a quote derived from Starforce: Alpha Centauri, a science - fiction wargame. In the game, "The Human League '' arose in 2415 A.D, and were a frontier - oriented society that desired more independence from Earth. Ware suggested that the Future rename themselves after the game, and in early 1978 the Future became "The Human League ''.
Using Future material, the Human League released a demo tape to record companies under their new name. The tape contained versions of "Being Boiled '', "Toyota City '', and "Circus of Death ''. Ware 's friend Paul Bower of Sheffield new - wave band "2.3 '', who had just recorded a single for Bob Last 's Edinburgh - based independent label Fast Product, took their demo to Last and he signed the band.
The band released their first single, "Being Boiled '', in June 1978 which became Fast Product 's third release. Although a limited release -- because it was so unique and at odds with everything else on the market -- it was picked up on by NME who championed the band, although one guest reviewer, John Lydon of Public Image Limited condemned the band as "trendy hippies. ''
Boosted by critical praise, on 12 June 1978 the band played their first live gig together at Bar 2 in Sheffield 's Psalter Lane Art College (now Sheffield Hallam University; a plaque now commemorates the spot in what is now a computer suite.)
With their reliance on technology and tape machines, the band had been nervous about playing live. After the Psalter Lane performance, they worried that they had appeared static and uninspiring. A friend of Oakey 's who had been in the audience, Philip Adrian Wright, who also had an art and photography background was invited to become the band 's Director of Visuals with a remit to "liven up '' the stage performance with slides, film clips and lighting.
The band 's live performances began to gain momentum and acclaim and they were asked to support first The Rezillos (featuring future band member Jo Callis), then Siouxsie and the Banshees as early as September 1978. In December 1978, David Bowie appeared in the audience and later declared to NME that he "had seen the future of pop music. ''
In April 1979 the Human League released their first EP under Fast Record entitled The Dignity of Labour, which contained four experimental instrumentals. Although the EP barely charted, major record labels began approaching the band in an attempt to lure them away from Fast. Eventually in May 1979, the band accepted an offer by Richard Branson 's Virgin Records. Because of his label 's early support, the band offered Bob Last the position as band manager.
In June 1979 the Human League supported Iggy Pop on his European tour before settling into recording their first single for Virgin. Despite promising them creative freedom, Virgin now insisted on some sweeping changes to the band 's style for their first single to make it more commercial. They insisted on conventional instruments and vocals as well as synthesizers. Because the band had accepted a large financial signing advance, Ware was in no position to refuse, but insisted that any releases in this style be credited to a pseudonym.
The band 's first single under Virgin Records was the disco influenced "I Do n't Depend on You '', released in July 1979 under the pseudonym "The Men ''. The single did not chart and had very little in common with the previous work of the Human League. It did, however, feature female vocals by guests Lisa (Liza) Strike and Katie Kissoon sounding like the yet - to - be-formed future Human League of 1981.
Because the imposed style had not worked, Virgin permitted the band to return to their original style and the band recorded and released their first full studio album Reproduction in August 1979. The album and the single "Empire State Human '' failed to make any impact on the charts. After these flops, Virgin cancelled the band 's December 1979 tour. By this time, the Human League 's role as UK electronic pioneers was usurped by Gary Numan when his single "Are ' Friends ' Electric? '' became a huge hit in the UK in mid-1979.
In March 1980, the band -- which had not yet itself hit the singles charts -- was namechecked in a UK hit song by The Undertones. The Undertones track "My Perfect Cousin '', which would peak at # 9 on the UK charts by May, contained a dig at the perceived "arty '' Human League in the lyric:
In April 1980 the band was able to release an EP entitled Holiday ' 80, containing the principal track "Marianne '' and a cover of "Nightclubbing '' (written by Bowie and Iggy Pop). The seven - inch version of "Holiday ' 80 '' did well enough to get the band their first TV appearance on BBC TV Top of the Pops on 8 May 1980 opening a Peter Powell presented show with Gary Glitter 's "Rock and Roll Part 2 ''. This was to be the only high - profile TV appearance by the Oakey / Marsh / Ware trio on British television, with the sole exception of BBC2 's Mainstream programme in late 1979, where a performance in the studio, complete with slideshow etcetera, was broadcast of the tracks "The Path of Least Resistance '' and the current minor hit "Empire State Human ''.
In May 1980, the band toured the UK. Philip Adrian Wright was now playing incidental keyboards in addition to his visuals role. It was the last time all four members performed together live. Also in May, the band released their second studio album Travelogue. More commercial sounding than Reproduction, it peaked at No. 16 in the UK, giving the band their first real success. As a result, "Empire State Human '' was re-released and the band made their second appearance on Top of the Pops even though it only reached No. 62 in the singles chart.
Because of their lack of commercial success, Virgin refused to release further singles from Travelogue. The Human League was booked to conduct a tour of the UK and Europe in October -- November 1980 but the lack of success after two years of hard work and perceived lack of faith by Virgin set about severe internal conflict within the band.
Equipment used in this period were -- Roland Jupiter 4, Korg 770, Roland System 100 consisting of 1 x 101 kdb, 2 x 102 expanders, 2 x 104 Sequencers and 103 mixer plus taped backing for Rhythm and drums.
The relationship between Oakey and Ware had always been turbulent, and the pair often quarrelled over creative and personal matters. The lack of success compared with the success of Gary Numan 's work at that time had brought matters to a head. Ware insisted the band maintain their pure electronic sound while Oakey wanted to emulate more successful pop groups. The pair clashed continually, with Ware eventually walking out. Taking Ware 's side, Ian Craig Marsh joined him.
Manager Bob Last tried to reconcile both parties, and when that proved impossible various options were suggested including two new bands under a Human League sub-label. Eventually it was agreed that Oakey would continue with the Human League name while Ware and Marsh would form a completely new band, which became Heaven 17. Two weeks before the UK / Europe tour the band split.
Retaining the Human League name came at a heavy price for Oakey; he was responsible for all Human League debts and commitments. Also, the Human League would have to pay Ware and Marsh one percent of royalties of the next Human League album under the Virgin contract.
With the tour only ten days away and the music media reporting that the Human League was finished now that "the talented people had left '', promoters started threatening to sue Oakey if the tour was not completed as contracted. To complete the tour, Oakey had to recruit new people in a matter of days. Oakey and his then girlfriend went into Sheffield city centre on a Wednesday night with the intention of recruiting a single female backing vocalist. After looking in various venues, they visited the Crazy Daisy Nightclub on High Street where Oakey spotted two girls dancing together on the dance floor. Susan Ann Sulley (17) and Joanne Catherall (18) were just schoolgirls on a night out together. Neither had any experience of singing or dancing professionally. With no preamble, Oakey asked both girls to join the tour as dancers and incidental vocalists.
Oakey states that when he found out the age of the girls and that they were best friends, he revised his plan for a single female and decided that the two girls could look after each other on the tour. Originally just wanting a single female singer to replace the high backing vocals originally provided by Martyn Ware, he says that he thought having two female vocalists / dancers would also add potential glamour to the band. Because of the girls ' ages, Oakey and Wright later had to visit Sulley and Catherall 's respective parents to obtain permission for the girls to go on the tour.
In addition to Sulley and Catherall, Oakey employed professional musician Ian Burden from Sheffield synth band Graph as a session keyboard player for the tour to cover for the keyboards of the now departed Ware and Marsh.
The tour was completed as advertised with the first date at Doncaster Top Rank but was less than successful. The music press was scornful of "Oakey and his dancing girls '' and treated the new band line - up with derision. Many of the audiences who had paid to see the original all - male line - up, were not happy with the new band; Sulley and Catherall were often heckled and, on occasion, objects were thrown.
On completion of the tour, Burden went on to his next commitment playing bass guitar in West Berlin. Because of the professionalism they had shown and because he planned to use them further vocally, Oakey and manager Bob Last made Sulley and Catherall full members of the band, to be paid on a salary basis.
In January 1981, although they had survived the tour, the band was still in trouble. Heavily in debt to Virgin Records, Oakey and Wright were under pressure to produce results quickly. By February 1981 the band recorded and rushed out "Boys and Girls ''. Sulley and Catherall (who had returned to their sixth - form full - time) were not involved in the recording but were included on the single 's front cover. The single reached No. 47 in the UK charts, the band 's highest chart position to that point. Oakey acknowledged that he needed to bring in professional musicians and so Ian Burden was tracked down and invited to join the band as a trial member.
Virgin 's faith had been restored by "Boys and Girls '', but they believed the band lacked professional production. In March, Oakey was introduced to veteran producer Martin Rushent. Rushent 's first move was to dispatch the entire band to his Genetic Studios in Reading, Berkshire, away from the "unhealthy atmosphere '' of Monumental Studios, Sheffield that they shared with Ware and Marsh 's Heaven 17. The first result of the Genetic sessions was the single "The Sound of the Crowd ''. The single became their first Top 40 hit, reaching No. 12 in the UK.
Bob Last believed that the band could be improved further by the addition of one more professional musician, so in April 1981 his associate Jo Callis (formerly of The Rezillos whom Last had previously managed) was invited to become the final permanent member of the band. The next single, "Love Action (I Believe in Love) '', reached No. 3 in the UK in August 1981. The band set about arranging their existing material and demos into a viable album, produced by Rushent. Sulley and Catherall who had just left school immediately postponed their plans to attend university to work on the album.
By this time, the band 's commercial success and higher profile had caused their first two albums to start selling again. Reproduction charted for the first time in August 1981, eventually peaking at no. 34, and Travelogue also recharted and returned to the Top 30 for several weeks. Both albums would eventually achieve Gold status. In October 1981, Virgin released a brand new single, "Open Your Heart '', which gave the band another Top 10 hit. The band 's new album, Dare, was also released in October 1981 and reached No. 1 in the UK. It spent a total of four weeks at the top spot over the 1981 / 82 period, remaining in the chart for 77 weeks and eventually going triple platinum.
Because of Dare 's success, Virgin executive Simon Draper instructed that a fourth single be released from the album before the end of 1981. His choice was to be "Do n't You Want Me '', a track Oakey considered to be a filler and the weakest track on the album. Oakey fought the decision believing it would damage the band, but was over-ruled by Draper and "Do n't You Want Me '' was released in November 1981. Aided by an expensive music video (a rarity at the time) directed by film maker Steve Barron, the single went to No. 1 for five weeks over the 1981 Christmas period.
"Do n't You Want Me '' became the band 's biggest hit, selling almost 1.5 million copies in the UK. Dare has since been labelled as one of pop music 's most influential albums. In a retrospective review of the album, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, senior editor for AllMusic, gave Dare a 5 - star rating. He wrote: "The technology may have dated, synths and drum machines may have become more advanced, but few have manipulated technology in such an emotionally effective way. '' Philip Oakey often plays down claims of "Dare '' being such an influential album, but at other times acknowledges its influence on modern music. In 2001, paraphrasing an NME headline from 1980, Oakey once famously quipped: "The Human League: one day all music will be made like this! And it is! ''
Although the group has been retrospectively identified with the New Romantic movement of this period, according to Dave Rimmer, author of New Romantics: The Look, "at the time (they) were no such thing. '' The band themselves have also consistently and strenuously rejected the label. The Sheffield scene in which the Human League formed predated New Romanticism and took more influence from Kraftwerk. Bands in the Sheffield scene were also referred to as Futurists, although Oakey himself has said: "We thought we were the punkiest band in Sheffield. ''
Capitalising on the success of the album and their recent No. 1 hit single, "Being Boiled '' was re-released and became a Top 10 hit in early 1982. The band toured for the first time together internationally. Concurrently, Dare (later renamed Dare!) was released in the US by A&M Records and "Do n't You Want Me '' also reached No. 1 there in mid-1982. A remix album of Dare entitled Love and Dancing was released under the group name "The League Unlimited Orchestra '' (a tribute to Barry White 's Love Unlimited Orchestra), reaching No. 3 on the UK album chart.
In 1982, the band received the Best British Newcomer award at the annual Brit Music awards, and Rushent also took Best Producer for his work on Dare. By the end of the awards party, a drunken Sulley and Catherall had lost the band 's valuable trophy and it was never seen again.
In November 1982, the Motown influenced electropop single "Mirror Man '' reached No. 2 in the UK chart, just missing another Christmas No. 1, which was taken by a novelty record by Renée and Renato.
The Human League 's work was now recognised on both sides of the Atlantic. In February 1983, the band was nominated for the Best New Artist award at the 25th annual Grammy Awards (though the award eventually went to Men at Work).
The follow - up single, "(Keep Feeling) Fascination '', was released in April 1983, and peaked at No. 2 in the UK. The following months proved to be difficult ones for the band as they struggled to record a follow - up album to Dare under immense pressure from Virgin. A six - song EP called Fascination! composed of the singles "Mirror Man '' and "Fascination '' together with the new track "I Love You Too Much '' was released from the original recording sessions for their new album, later to be named Hysteria. The EP was released in America as a stop - gap and also became a strong seller as an import in the UK.
In August 1983, the band released "the UK 's first videotape single '' to capitalise on the growing market created by the increasing popularity of domestic home video cassette recorders (VCRs), called The Human League Video Single. Although "video albums '' had been released by bands such as Blondie and ELO as early as 1979, this release was a short (12 mins) video tape cassette in either VHS or Betamax format containing just three tracks (the music videos for "Mirror Man '', "Love Action (I Believe in Love) '', and "Do n't You Want Me ''). Although it was not a commercial success (as it retailed for £ 10.99, compared to 12 '' vinyl singles averaging £ 1.99 in 1983), the format caught on and other artists began releasing video singles / EPs of their own.
The band spent many months agonising as they tried to make a successor to Dare, and as things became ever more stressful, producer Martin Rushent left the project. At this point, the band ditched much of the material recorded so far and started over again with new producers Hugh Padgham and Chris Thomas (though some of Rushent 's contributions to certain tracks from the earlier sessions were included on the released album).
Finally in May 1984, the band released the politically charged single "The Lebanon ''. The single peaked at No. 11 in the UK. This was followed shortly thereafter by the album Hysteria, so called because of the difficult and tense recording process. It entered the UK album chart at No. 3, however it climbed no further and critics and fans were divided by the new direction the band had taken. The second single was "Life on Your Own '' in mid-1984. The single peaked at No. 16.
Later that year, success outside of the Human League came for Oakey in the shape of the huge hit single "Together in Electric Dreams '', a collaboration with one of his idols, synth pioneer Giorgio Moroder. The track was taken from the film soundtrack to Electric Dreams and became a massive hit. Often now erroneously credited as a Human League single, due to its success and enduring popularity, the band have since adopted it for their live performances and it appears on their greatest hits compilations. Oakey and Moroder then recorded an album together for Virgin, Philip Oakey & Giorgio Moroder, but this met with rather less success and the following two singles failed to make the UK Top 40. However, the success of the original Oakey and Moroder track encouraged Virgin to release one final single from Hysteria in November 1984, the ballad "Louise '' was released and reached No. 13 in the UK.
After Hysteria, the group found themselves in creative stagnation, struggling to record material to follow up on their previous successes. Key songwriter Jo Callis departed, replaced by drummer Jim Russell. Bob Last quit as manager and was not replaced. In 1985, the band spent several months working on a new album with producer Colin Thurston (who had produced the first two Duran Duran albums) but yet more clashes in the recording studio ensued and the project was shelved in September 1985.
Worried by the lack of progress with their most profitable act, Virgin paired the Human League up with American R&B producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, who had a proven track record with Janet Jackson, the SOS Band, Alexander O'Neal, and Cherelle. Jam and Lewis had expressed an interest in working with the band after hearing their US releases. Virgin flew the entire band to Minneapolis. The four - month - long recording sessions were beset with creative disputes, with Jam and Lewis having preconceived ideas on how they wanted the album to sound, rejecting most of the band 's material (which would cost the band considerable loss of royalty income). The band eventually quit the sessions early amidst creative acrimony, although the personal relationships had actually been good.
The final result of the sessions was the Crash album. The album featured much material written by the Jam and Lewis team, and showcased their Yamaha DX7 - led sound. It had a US No. 1 single, "Human '' (No. 8 in the UK), but other singles performed relatively poorly. The album, while making the Top 10 in the UK, was not as popular as previous releases. Disheartened by being sidelined in Minneapolis and with the direction the band had taken, Adrian Wright left the band to work in film. Crash was generally more popular in the US and internationally than in the UK. The band toured in the UK and internationally in 1986 and 1987 to capitalise on their high - profile at this time.
In 1987, Ian Burden also left the band. In November 1988 a greatest hits compilation album was released that reached No. 3 in UK. This was preceded by the release of the single "Love Is All That Matters '' from Crash.
In 1989, the band built their own studio in Sheffield, jointly funded by Oakey and a business development loan from Sheffield City Council. Oakey believed if the band owned their own facilities it would cut down on the production costs of future albums and the band could become more productive.
In 1990, the band released their last album for Virgin Records, Romantic?. By now, longstanding members Adrian Wright and Ian Burden, together with newer recruit Jim Russell, had all left the band, although Jo Callis did return to play on some of the sessions and co-wrote two songs, including the minor hit single "Heart Like a Wheel ''. New to the line - up were keyboardist Neil Sutton who had worked with the band on the Crash tour of 1986, and guitarist / keyboardist Russell Dennett. At odds with the prevailing trend of US grunge and the Manchester scene the Romantic? album did not re-capture the group 's huge commercial success of the 1980s with its second single "Soundtrack to a Generation '' barely charting.
In 1992, Virgin abruptly cancelled their recording contract. Damaged by the failure of the album, their rejection by Virgin, harsh criticism in the media and facing financial ruin, the emotional well - being of Oakey and Sulley deteriorated badly. Catherall remained positive and she is cited as the principal reason why the band did not fold at this, their lowest point.
After a couple of years the band had recovered enough confidence to put out demos to other record labels. Concurrently in 1993 they were invited to work with veteran Japanese electropop band Yellow Magic Orchestra (YMO) which resulted in the EP "YMO Versus The Human League ''. Released principally in Japan and Asia in April 1993, the EP includes the songs "Behind the Mask '' and "Kimi Ni Mune Kyun '' ("I Love You '') written by Oakey and Yukihiro Takahashi, featuring the vocals of Sulley and Catherall.
In 1994, EastWest Records (a subsidiary of Time Warner) showed interest in the band 's demos and the material rejected by Virgin. They signed the band and paired them with producer Ian Stanley (formerly of Tears for Fears). EastWest financed expensive music videos and heavily promoted their releases. The first release was on Boxing Day 1994, and was the single "Tell Me When '', which gave the band their first Top 10 hit since 1986 's "Human ''. It also topped the UK airplay charts for several weeks. The accompanying album, Octopus, returned the band to the UK Top 10 and later achieved a gold disc.
On the album cover artwork and in videos, the group was now presented simply as a trio of Oakey / Catherall / Sulley. In reality however, other musicians had input to the record, including producer Ian Stanley, with continued playing and songwriting contributions from Neil Sutton and Russell Dennett; and Oakey co-writing one track with Jo Callis.
The next single from the album was the ballad "One Man in My Heart '', which features Sulley on lead vocals. It reached No. 13 in the UK and was unique in that it was the only single by the Human League to feature a female only lead vocal until "Never Let Me Go '' in 2011.
Their renewed success prompted the band to tour again for the first time since 1987, and they conducted a tour of the US and UK in 1995. Subsequent singles "Filling up with Heaven '' and the non-album single "Stay with Me Tonight '' also reached the UK Top 40, and a new remix of "Do n't You Want Me '' was released to capitalise on the band 's revitalised profile. This was in the run up to a new "greatest hits '' compilation in 1996, but which proved less successful than their first "Greatest Hits '' album from 1988.
A change in management at EastWest in 1998 saw the cancellation of the band 's contract once again. Afterward, the band co-headlined with Culture Club and Howard Jones on VH1 's 1980s "Big Rewind '' nostalgia tour and made other concert and public appearances throughout 1997 -- 2000.
In 2000 the band signed to Papillon Records a subsidiary of the Chrysalis Group.
The band released their next album, Secrets, in 2001. The band was still presented as the Oakey, Sulley and Catherall trio, although Neil Sutton was credited with keyboards, and co-wrote most of the material with Oakey. The album received mixed reviews from critics. Commercially, the album foundered entering the UK album chart at No. 44, falling off the chart the following week. This was not helped by the band 's record label, Papillon which developed financial problems. It was closed by the parent company shortly after the album 's release, leading to poor promotion and sales. BBC Radio 1 also refused to playlist the single "All I Ever Wanted '' because, now in their 40s, the band did not match the radio station 's demographic target audience.
Susan Sulley said that the rejection of Secrets was "the lowest the band had been since 1992 and after putting in so much time and effort in to an album that then failed, nearly causing them to call it a day. ''
To accompany the then - stalled album, the band conducted the 2001 ' Secrets Tour '. Along with Sulley and Catherall, the band had Neil Sutton on keyboards. Long time studio engineer David Beevers had become part of the on - stage line - up controlling the sequencers from behind his deck of twin Apple Macintoshes. Oakey further recruited multi-instrumentalist Nic Burke, then aged 21, who he had seen playing in Sheffield, to play electric guitar and keytar. To round off the line - up in 2002, percussionist Errol Rollins was added to play the electronic drum kit. Rollins was replaced by Rob Barton in 2004.
As a point of honour the band refuses to use playback; they always play live and rehearse before every appearance, ensuring that no two performances are the same. This was clearly demonstrated in 2002, when the band was booked to appear on UK national TV channel GMTV, where they were to play "Do n't You Want Me '' before being interviewed. The producer was astounded when the band arrived at 5 am (three hours early) expecting to set up and rehearse; it had been assumed they would just mime to playback. Joanne Catherall explained why on air during the interview: "We simply do n't sound like we did 20 years ago; it would be wrong if we used tapes, so we do everything live. ''
In 2003, a second single from Secrets, "Love Me Madly? '', was released independently as a private venture by Nukove, a small independent label especially set up to release Human League material, but it did not have funds for promotion and the single did not chart. Also in 2003, Virgin records released The Very Best of the Human League, a DVD of most of their previously recorded music videos. The DVD sold well in the UK and US, and was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name.
Throughout the following years, the band has continued to tour frequently, enjoying success and popularity as a live act. In 2004 they released The Human League Live at the Dome, a DVD of a live show in filmed at the Brighton Dome, complete with a compilation CD called Live at the Dome.
At the end of 2005, together with EMI, the band released a compilation album of remixes. Called The Human League Original Remixes and Rarities, it was aimed at the DJ / Dance market in the US and UK.
As well as dedicated Human League tours, the band has appeared at many independent concerts and festivals worldwide. They have played at the V Festival in 2004 and 2009, Homelands in 2005, Nokia Trends in Brazil 2005, and Festival Internacional de Benicàssim in 2007.
On 22 September 2006, the band performed on the US network television show, Jimmy Kimmel Live!. The bands 's highlight of 2006 was a performance to an audience of 18,000 at the Hollywood Bowl, Los Angeles on 24 October 2006, one of their largest concerts to date. This was followed up by an 11 - venue tour of Europe in November and December 2006.
The band has been the subject of, and appeared in, various TV documentaries and features including Channel 4 's Made in Sheffield and the BBC 's Young Guns: The Bands of the Early 1980s. In June 2007, Sulley and Catherall presented a documentary on Sheffield 's pop music history entitled The Nation 's Music Cities for VH1.
In November and December 2007, to mark their 30th anniversary (1977 -- 2007), the band conducted their highest profile tour since the Secrets tour of 2001. The ' Dare! 2007 ' tour encompassed 20 European venues from London to Stockholm, most of which were sold out. Their set list included (for the first time ever) a performance of Dare played sequentially and in its entirety. This included Philip Oakey playing the Human League 's instrumental arrangement of the theme from "Get Carter '' on an original Casio VL - Tone from 1981. The remainder of the concert was dedicated to songs from the band 's other albums and also included the Oakey / Moroder song "Together in Electric Dreams ''. The band invested heavily in the stage set and lighting for the tour, including elaborate high definition video backgrounds provided by set designer Rob Sinclair.
A 12 '' single remix of "Things That Dreams Are Made Of '' (originally from the Dare! album) was released in the UK in January 2008, by Hooj Choons. It peaked at No. 2 on the UK Dance chart.
In August and September 2008, the band headlined the US Regeneration Tour supported by ABC, A Flock of Seagulls, Naked Eyes, and at some venues, Belinda Carlisle.
In November and December 2008, the Human League got together with Martin Fry 's ABC and Heaven 17 for ' The Steel City Tour ' of the UK. This was Philip Oakey 's concept of a joint tour of all three bands celebrating the original electronic music of early 1980s Sheffield (the titular Steel City). Much was made in the UK media of the history between Heaven 17 and the Human League, the original events of 1980 and the fact they were now working together. Both Oakey and Martyn Ware were at pains to explain that any acrimony from that period had long since been forgotten.
The Human League were one of the headline acts on the line - up at Spillers Wharf on 30 May 2009, in the Newcastle / Gateshead Evolution festival. The Human League were one of the headline bands for Dubai 's first music festival, the ' Dubai Sound City ' festival, between 5 and 7 November 2009.
On 11 December 2009, The Human League signed a new recording contract with UK based Wall of Sound. They also have their own studio in Sheffield, and are managed by Sidewinder Management Ltd. The band continue to record and play live, with regular appearances at music festivals worldwide at many of which they are among the headliners.
Although the subject of retirement is often brought up in interviews, Oakey, Sulley and Catherall have all stated that they still enjoy performing and intend to carry on for "as long as they are filling concerts and people want to see them ''. Sulley often jokes that she "has to carry on because she does n't know how to do anything else ''.
A new album, Credo was released in March 2011. It peaked at No. 44 on the UK Albums Chart.
The first single from the album, "Night People '' was released on 22 November 2010 but failed to enter the mainstream UK chart. It did however reach No. 25 in the UK Indie chart. The follow up single, "Never Let Me Go '' was released in the UK on 1 March 2011, however in Germany, Switzerland and Austria, "Egomaniac '' was chosen as the second single. A double vinyl edition of Credo was released on 25 July 2011, together with the download of "Sky '', the third single from the album.
At the end of 2012, the band undertook the ' XXXV Tour ' across Europe and the UK, to celebrate 35 years in existence. The shows were critically acclaimed. The UK 's Daily Telegraph said "as good a night 's entertainment as you are likely to find anywhere on the planet ''.
In March 2014, "Do n't You Want Me '' re-entered the Top 20 of the UK Singles Chart, thanks to a social media campaign from the fans of Aberdeen F.C., who won the Scottish League Cup the previous weekend. They have adopted the song as a terrace chant, citing their midfielder Peter Pawlett with the lyrics changed to "Peter Pawlett Baby ''.
In 2016, the band announced their ' A Very British Synthesizer Group ' European and UK tour and the release of the multi-disc anthology of the same name.
The Human League has influenced many electropop, other synthpop, and mainstream performers including Moby, Pet Shop Boys, and Little Boots. They have been sampled and covered by various artists including Ladytron, Tony Christie, Utah Saints, Ministry of Sound, Craig David, George Michael, KMFDM and Robbie Williams.
In 2000, the tribute album Reproductions: Songs of The Human League was released. It contains cover versions of 16 of The Human League 's songs including performances by Ladytron, Lali Puna, Momus, Future Bible Heroes, Stephin Merritt and The Aluminum Group.
Former additional members
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a mantle plume that starts beneath the ocean results in | Mantle plume - wikipedia
A mantle plume is an upwelling of abnormally hot rock within the Earth 's mantle, first proposed by J. Tuzo Wilson in 1963. As the heads of mantle plumes can partly melt when they reach shallow depths, they are often invoked as the cause of volcanic hotspots, such as Hawaii or Iceland, and flood basalts such as the Deccan and Siberian traps. Some such volcanic regions lie far from tectonic plate boundaries, while others represent unusually large - volume volcanism near plate boundaries or in large igneous provinces.
A mantle plume is posited to exist where hot rock nucleates at the core - mantle boundary and rises through the Earth 's mantle becoming a diapir in the Earth 's crust. The currently active volcanic centers are known as hotspots. In particular, the concept that mantle plumes are fixed relative to one another, and anchored at the core - mantle boundary, would provide a natural explanation for the time - progressive chains of older volcanoes seen extending out from some such hot spots, such as the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain.
The hypothesis of mantle plumes from depth is not universally accepted as explaining all such volcanism. It has required progressive hypothesis - elaboration leading to variant propositions such as mini-plumes and pulsing plumes. Another hypothesis for unusual volcanic regions is the "Plate model ''. This proposes shallower, passive leakage of magma from the mantle onto the Earth 's surface where extension of the lithosphere permits it, attributing most volcanism to plate tectonic processes, with volcanoes far from plate boundaries resulting from intraplate extension.
In 1971, geophysicist W. Jason Morgan further developed the hypothesis of mantle plumes. In this hypothesis, convection in the mantle transports heat from the core to the Earth 's surface in thermal diapirs. In this concept, two largely independent convective processes occur in the mantle: the broad convective flow associated with plate tectonics, which is driven primarily by the sinking of cold plates of lithosphere back into the mantle asthenosphere, and mantle plumes, which carry heat upward in narrow, rising columns, driven by heat exchange across the core - mantle boundary. The latter type of convection is postulated to be independent of plate motions.
The sizes and occurrence of mushroom mantle plumes can be predicted easily by transient instability theory developed by Tan and Thorpe. The theory predicts mushroom mantle plumes of about 2000 km diameter with a critical time of about 830 Myr for a core mantle heat flux of 20 mW / m, while the cycle time is about 2 Gyr. The number of mantle plumes is predicted to be about 17.
The plume hypothesis was studied using laboratory experiments conducted in small fluid - filled tanks in the early 1970s. Thermal or compositional fluid - dynamical plumes produced in that way were presented as models for the much larger postulated mantle plumes. On the basis of these experiments, mantle plumes are now postulated to comprise two parts: a long thin conduit connecting the top of the plume to its base, and a bulbous head that expands in size as the plume rises. The entire structure is considered to resemble a mushroom. The bulbous head of thermal plumes forms because hot material moves upward through the conduit faster than the plume itself rises through its surroundings. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, experiments with thermal models showed that as the bulbous head expands it may entrain some of the adjacent mantle into the head.
When a plume head encounters the base of the lithosphere, it is expected to flatten out against this barrier and to undergo widespread decompression melting to form large volumes of basalt magma. It may then erupt onto the surface. Numerical modelling predicts that melting and eruption will take place over several million years. These eruptions have been linked to flood basalts, although many of those erupt over much shorter time scales (less than 1 million years). Examples include the Deccan traps in India, the Siberian traps of Asia, the Karoo - Ferrar basalts / dolerites in South Africa and Antarctica, the Paraná and Etendeka traps in South America and Africa (formerly a single province separated by opening of the South Atlantic Ocean), and the Columbia River basalts of North America. Flood basalts in the oceans are known as oceanic plateaus, and include the Ontong Java plateau of the western Pacific Ocean and the Kerguelen Plateau of the Indian Ocean.
The narrow vertical pipe, or conduit, postulated to connect the plume head to the core - mantle boundary, is viewed as providing a continuous supply of magma to a fixed location, often referred to as a "hotspot ''. As the overlying tectonic plate (lithosphere) moves over this hotspot, the eruption of magma from the fixed conduit onto the surface is expected to form a chain of volcanoes that parallels plate motion. The Hawaiian Islands chain in the Pacific Ocean is the type example. Interestingly, it has recently been discovered that the volcanic locus of this chain has not been fixed over time, and it thus joined the club of the many type examples that do not exhibit the key characteristic originally proposed.
The eruption of continental flood basalts is often associated with continental rifting and breakup. This has led to the hypothesis that mantle plumes contribute to continental rifting and the formation of ocean basins. In the context of the alternative "Plate model '', continental breakup is a process integral to plate tectonics, and massive volcanism occurs as a natural consequence when it onsets.
The current mantle plume theory is that material and energy from Earth 's interior are exchanged with the surface crust in two distinct modes: the predominant, steady state plate tectonic regime driven by upper mantle convection, and a punctuated, intermittently dominant, mantle overturn regime driven by plume convection. This second regime, while often discontinuous, is periodically significant in mountain building and continental breakup.
The chemical and isotopic composition of basalts found at hotspots differs subtly from mid-ocean - ridge basalts. This geochemical signature arises from the mixing of near - surface materials such as subducted slabs and continental sediments, in the mantle source. There are two competing interpretations for this. In the context of mantle plumes, the near - surface material is postulated to have been transported down to the core - mantle boundary by subducting slabs, and to have been transported back up to the surface by plumes. In the context of the Plate hypothesis, subducted material is mostly re-circulated in the shallow mantle and tapped from there by volcanoes.
The processing of oceanic crust, lithosphere, and sediment through a subduction zone decouples the water - soluble trace elements (e.g., K, Rb, Th) from the immobile trace elements (e.g., Ti, Nb, Ta), concentrating the immobile elements in the oceanic slab (the water - soluble elements are added to the crust in island arc volcanoes). Seismic tomography shows that subducted oceanic slabs sink as far as the bottom of the mantle transition zone at 650 km depth. Subduction to greater depths is less certain, but there is evidence that they may sink to mid-lower - mantle depths at about 1,500 km depth.
The source of mantle plumes, is postulated to be the core - mantle boundary at 3,000 km depth. Because there is little material transport across the core - mantle boundary, heat transfer must occur by conduction, with adiabatic gradients above and below this boundary. The core - mantle boundary is a strong thermal (temperature) discontinuity. The temperature of the core is approximately 1,000 degrees Celsius higher than that of the overlying mantle. Plumes are postulated to rise as the base of the mantle becomes hotter and more buoyant.
Plumes are postulated to rise through the mantle and begin to partially melt on reaching shallow depths in the asthenosphere by decompression melting. This would create large volumes of magma. The plume hypothesis postulates that this melt rises to the surface and erupts to form "hot spots ''.
The most prominent thermal contrast known to exist in the deep (1000 km) mantle is at the core - mantle boundary. Mantle plumes were originally postulated to rise from this layer because the "hot spots '' that are assumed to be their surface expression were thought to be fixed relative to one another. This required that plumes were sourced from beneath the shallow asthenosphere that is thought to be flowing rapidly in response to motion of the overlying tectonic plates. There is no other known major thermal boundary layer in the deep Earth, and so the core - mantle boundary was the only candidate.
The base of the mantle is known as the D '' layer, a seismological subdivision of the Earth. It appears to be compositionally distinct from the overlying mantle, and may contain partial melt.
Two very large, broad, large low - shear - velocity provinces, exist in the lower mantle under Africa and under the central Pacific. It is postulated that small plumes rise from their surface or their edges. Their low seismic velocities were thought to suggest that they are relatively hot, although it has recently been shown that their low wave velocities are due to high density caused by chemical heterogeneity.
Various lines of evidence have been cited in support of mantle plumes. There is some confusion regarding what constitutes support, as there has been a tendency to re-define the postulated characteristics of mantle plumes after observations have been made.
Some common and basic lines of evidence cited in support of the theory are linear volcanic chains, noble gases, geophysical anomalies and geochemistry.
The age - progressive distribution of the Hawaiian - Emperor seamount chain has been explained as a result of a fixed, deep - mantle plume rising into the upper mantle, partly melting, and causing a volcanic chain to form as the plate moves overhead relative to the fixed plume source. Other "hot spots '' with time - progressive volcanic chains behind them include Réunion, the Chagos - Laccadive Ridge, the Louisville Ridge, the Ninety East Ridge and Kerguelen, Tristan, and Yellowstone.
An intrinsic aspect of the plume hypothesis is that the "hot spots '' and their volcanic trails have been fixed relative to one another throughout geological time. Whereas there is evidence that the chains listed above are time - progressive, it has, however, been shown that they are not fixed relative to one another. The most remarkable example of this is the Emperor chain, the older part of the Hawaii system, which was formed by migration of volcanic activity across a geo - stationary plate.
Many postulated "hot spots '' are also lacking time - progressive volcanic trails, e.g., Iceland, the Galapagos, and the Azores. Mismatches between the predictions of the hypothesis and observations are commonly explained by auxiliary processes such as "mantle wind '', "ridge capture '', "ridge escape '' and lateral flow of plume material.
Helium - 3 is a primordial isotope that formed in the Big Bang. Very little is produced, and little has been added to the Earth by other processes since then. Helium - 4 includes a primordial component, but it is also produced by the natural radioactive decay of U and Th. Over time, He in the upper atmosphere is lost into space. Thus, the Earth has become progressively depleted in He, and He is not replaced as He is. As a result, the ratio He / He in the Earth has decreased over time.
Unusually high He / He have been observed in some, but not all, "hot spots ''. In mantle plume theory, this is explained by plumes tapping a deep, primordial reservoir in the lower mantle, where the original, high He / He ratios have been preserved throughout geologic time. In the context of the Plate hypothesis, the high ratios are explained by preservation of old material in the shallow mantle. Ancient, high He / He ratios would be particularly easily preserved in materials lacking U or Th, so He was not added over time. Olivine and dunite, both found in subducted crust, are materials of this sort.
Other elements, e.g. osmium, have been suggested to be tracers of material arising from near to the Earth 's core, in basalts at oceanic islands. However, so far conclusive proof for this is lacking.
The plume hypothesis has been tested by looking for the geophysical anomalies predicted to be associated with them. These include thermal, seismic, and elevation anomalies. Thermal anomalies are inherent in the term "hotspot ''. They can be measured in numerous different ways, including surface heat flow, petrology, and seismology. Thermal anomalies produce anomalies in the speeds of seismic waves, but unfortunately so do composition and partial melt. As a result, wave speeds can not be used simply and directly to measure temperature, but more sophisticated approaches must be taken.
Seismic anomalies are identified by mapping variations in wave speed as seismic waves travel through Earth. A hot mantle plume is predicted to have lower seismic wave speeds compared with similar material at a lower temperature. Mantle material containing a trace of partial melt (e.g., as a result of it having a lower melting point), or being richer in Fe, also has a lower seismic wave speed and those effects are stronger than temperature. Thus, although unusually low wave speeds have been taken to indicate anomalously hot mantle beneath "hot spots '', this interpretation is ambiguous. The most commonly cited seismic wave - speed images that are used to look for variations in regions where plumes have been proposed come from seismic tomography. This method involves using a network of seismometers to construct three - dimensional images of the variation in seismic wave speed throughout the mantle.
Seismic waves generated by large earthquakes enable structure below the Earth 's surface to be determined along the ray path. Seismic waves that have traveled a thousand or more kilometers (also called teleseismic waves) can be used to image large regions of Earth 's mantle. They also have limited resolution, however, and only structures at least several hundred kilometers in diameter can be detected.
Seismic tomography images have been cited as evidence for a number of mantle plumes in Earth 's mantle. There is, however, vigorous on - going discussion regarding whether the structures imaged are reliably resolved, and whether they correspond to columns of hot, rising rock.
The mantle plume hypothesis predicts that domal topographic uplifts will develop when plume heads impinge on the base of the lithosphere. An uplift of this kind occurred when the north Atlantic Ocean opened about 54 million years ago. Some scientists have linked this to a mantle plume postulated to have caused the breakup of Eurasia and the opening of the north Atlantic, now suggested to underlie Iceland. Current research has shown that the time - history of the uplift is probably much shorter than predicted, however. It is thus not clear how strongly this observation supports the mantle plume hypothesis.
Basalts found at oceanic islands are geochemically distinct from those found at mid-ocean ridges and volcanoes associated with subduction zones (island arc basalts). "Ocean island basalt '' is also similar to basalts found throughout the oceans on both small and large seamounts (thought to be formed by eruptions on the sea floor that did not rise above the surface of the ocean). They are also compositionally similar to some basalts found in the interiors of the continents (e.g., the Snake River Plain).
In major elements, ocean island basalts are typically higher in iron (Fe) and titanium (Ti) than mid-ocean ridge basalts at similar magnesium (Mg) contents. In trace elements, they are typically more enriched in the light rare - earth elements than mid-ocean ridge basalts. Compared to island arc basalts, ocean island basalts are lower in alumina (Al O) and higher in immobile trace elements (e.g., Ti, Nb, Ta).
These differences result from processes that occur during the subduction of oceanic crust and mantle lithosphere. Oceanic crust (and to a lesser extent, the underlying mantle) typically becomes hydrated to varying degrees on the seafloor, partly as the result of seafloor weathering, and partly in response to hydrothermal circulation near the mid-ocean - ridge crest where it was originally formed. As oceanic crust and underlying lithosphere subduct, water is released by dehydration reactions, along with water - soluble elements and trace elements. This enriched fluid rises to metasomatize the overlying mantle wedge and leads to the formation of island arc basalts. The subducting slab is depleted in these water - mobile elements (e.g., K, Rb, Th, Pb) and thus relatively enriched in elements that are not water - mobile (e.g., Ti, Nb, Ta) compared to both mid-ocean ridge and island arc basalts.
Ocean island basalts are also relatively enriched in immobile elements relative to the water - mobile elements. This, and other observations, have been interpreted as indicating that the distinct geochemical signature of ocean island basalts results from inclusion of a component of subducted slab material. This must have been recycled in the mantle, then re-melted and incorporated in the lavas erupted. In the context of the plume hypothesis, subducted slabs are postulated to have been subducted down as far as the core - mantle boundary, and transported back up to the surface in rising plumes. In the plate hypothesis, the slabs are postulated to have been recycled at shallower depths -- in the upper few hundred kilometers that make up the upper mantle. However, the plate hypothesis is inconsistent with both the geochemistry of shallow asthenosphere melts (i.e., Mid-ocean ridge basalts) and with the isotopic compositions of ocean island basalts.
In 2015, based on data from 273 large earthquakes, researchers compiled a model based on full waveform tomography, requiring the equivalent of 3 million hours of supercomputer time. Due to computational limitations, high - frequency data still could not be used, and seismic data remained unavailable from much of the seafloor. Nonetheless, vertical plumes, 400 C hotter than the surrounding rock, were visualized under many hotspots, including the Pitcairn, Macdonald, Samoa, Tahiti, Marquesas, Galapagos, Cape Verde, and Canary hotspots. They extended nearly vertically from the core - mantle boundary (2900 km depth) to a possible layer of shearing and bending at 1000 km. They were detectable because they were 600 -- 800 km wide, more than three times the width expected from contemporary models. Many of these plumes are in the large low - shear - velocity provinces under Africa and the Pacific, while some other hotspots such as Yellowstone were less clearly related to mantle features in the model.
The unexpected size of the plumes leaves open the possibility that they may conduct the bulk of the Earth 's 44 terawatts of internal heat flow from the core to the surface, and means that the lower mantle convects less than expected, if at all. It is possible that there is a compositional difference between plumes and the surrounding mantle that slows them down and broadens them.
Many different localities have been suggested to be underlain by mantle plumes, and scientists can not agree on a definitive list. Some scientists suggest that several tens of plumes exist, whereas others suggest that there are none. The theory was really inspired by the Hawaiian volcano system. Hawaii is a large volcanic edifice in the center of the Pacific Ocean, far from any plate boundaries. Its regular, time - progressive chain of islands and seamounts superficially fits the plume theory well. However, it is almost unique on Earth, as nothing as extreme exists anywhere else. The second strongest candidate for a plume location is often quoted to be Iceland, but according to opponents of the plume hypothesis its massive nature can be explained by plate tectonic forces along the mid-Atlantic spreading center.
Mantle plumes have been suggested as the source for flood basalts. These extremely rapid, large scale eruptions of basaltic magmas have periodically formed continental flood basalt provinces on land and oceanic plateaus in the ocean basins, such as the Deccan Traps, the Siberian Traps the Karoo / Ferrar flood basalts of Gondwana, and the largest known continental flood basalt, the Central Atlantic magmatic province (CAMP).
Others, have pointed out the coincidence of many continental flood basalt events with continental rifting. This is consistent with a system that tends toward equilibrium, as matter rises in a mantle plume, other material is drawn down into the mantle causing rifting.
In parallel with the mantle plume model, two alternative explanations for the observed phenomena have been considered: the plate hypothesis and the impact hypothesis.
The plate hypothesis suggests that "anomalous '' volcanism results from lithospheric extension that permits melt to rise passively from the asthenosphere beneath. It is thus the conceptual inverse of the plume hypothesis, attributing volcanism to shallow, near - surface processes associated with plate tectonics, rather than active processes arising at the core - mantle boundary. The plate hypothesis argues that deep mantle plumes causing surface, time - progressive volcanism do not exist.
Lithospheric extension is attributed to processes related to plate tectonics. These processes are well understood at mid-ocean ridges, where most of Earth 's volcanism occurs. It is less commonly recognised that the plates themselves deform internally, and can permit volcanism in those regions where the deformation is extensional. Well - known examples are the Basin and Range Province in the western USA, the East African Rift valley, and the Rhine Graben. Under this hypothesis, variable volumes of magma are attributed to variations in chemical composition (large volumes of volcanism corresponding to more easily molten mantle material) rather than to temperature differences.
The plate hypothesis thus attributes all of Earth 's volcanism to a single process -- plate tectonics -- rather than to two independent processes (plumes and plate tectonics), but does not address issues of core -- mantle heat and / or material transfer.
Under the umbrella of the plate hypothesis, the following sub-processes, all of which can contribute to permitting surface volcanism, are recognised:
In addition to these processes, impact events such as ones that created the Addams crater on Venus and the Sudbury Igneous Complex in Canada are known to have caused melting and volcanism. In the impact hypothesis, it is proposed that some regions of hotspot volcanism can be triggered by certain large - body oceanic impacts which are able to penetrate the thinner oceanic lithosphere, and flood basalt volcanism can be triggered by converging seismic energy focused at the antipodal point opposite major impact sites. Impact - induced volcanism has not been adequately studied and comprises a separate causal category of terrestrial volcanism with implications for the study of hotspots and plate tectonics.
In 1997 it became possible using seismic tomography to image submerging tectonic slabs penetrating from the surface all the way to the core - mantle boundary.
For the Hawaii hotspot, long - period seismic body wave diffraction tomography provided evidence that a mantle plume is responsible, as had been proposed as early as 1971. For the Yellowstone hotspot, seismological evidence began to converge from 2011 in support of the plume model, as concluded by James et al., "we favor a lower mantle plume as the origin for the Yellowstone hotspot. '' Data acquired through Earthscope, a program collecting high - resolution seismic data throughout the contiguous United States has accelerated acceptance of a plume underlying Yellowstone.
Although there is strong evidence that at least two deep mantle plumes rise to the core - mantle boundary, confirmation that other hypotheses can be dismissed may require similar tomographic evidence for other hot spots.
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how high is base camp of mount everest | Everest Base Camp - wikipedia
Everest Base Camp is either one of two base camps on opposite sides of Mount Everest (It could also be any Everest base camp on a given route, but this is less common since the two main routes became standardized). South Base Camp is in Nepal at an altitude of 5,364 metres (17,598 ft) (28 ° 0 ′ 26 '' N 86 ° 51 ′ 34 '' E / 28.00722 ° N 86.85944 ° E / 28.00722; 86.85944), and North Base Camp is in Tibet at 5,150 metres (16,900 ft) (28 ° 8 ′ 29 '' N 86 ° 51 ′ 5 '' E / 28.14139 ° N 86.85139 ° E / 28.14139; 86.85139 (North Base Camp)). These camps are rudimentary campsites on Mount Everest that are used by mountain climbers during their ascent and descent. South Base Camp is used when climbing via the southeast ridge, while North Base Camp is used when climbing via the northeast ridge.
Supplies are shipped to the South Base Camp by sherpas or porters, and with the help of animals, usually yaks. The North Base Camp has vehicle access (at least in the summer months). Climbers typically rest at base camp for several days for acclimatization to reduce the risks and severity of altitude sickness.
The Everest Base Camp trek on the south side is one of the most popular trekking routes in the Himalayas and is visited by thousands of trekkers each year. Trekkers usually fly from Kathmandu to Lukla to save time and energy before beginning the trek to this base camp. However, trekking to Lukla is possible. There are no roads from Kathmandu to Lukla and as a result, the only method of transporting large and heavy goods is by plane.
In 2015, it was noted that about 40,000 people per year take the trek from the Lukla airport to the Nepal Everest Base Camp.
From Lukla, climbers trek upward to the Sherpa capital of Namche Bazaar, 3,440 metres (11,290 ft), following the valley of the Dudh Kosi river. It takes about two days to reach the village, which is a central hub of the area. Typically at this point, climbers allow a day of rest for acclimatization. They then trek another two days to Dingboche, 4,260 metres (13,980 ft) before resting for another day for further acclimatization. Another two days takes them to Everest Base Camp via Gorakshep, the flat field below Kala Patthar, 5,545 metres (18,192 ft) and Mt. Pumori.
On 25 April 2015, an earthquake measuring 7.8 on the moment magnitude scale, struck Nepal and triggered an avalanche on Pumori that swept through the South Base Camp. At least 19 people were said to have been killed as a result. Just over two weeks later, on May 12, a second quake struck measuring 7.3 on the M. Some of the trails leading to Everest Base Camp were damaged by these earthquakes and needed repairs.
A temporary tent platform on the Khumbu glacier at South EBC, Nepal.
Nepal 's EBC bottom left, Khumbu icefall to the right
Khumbu icefall
Everest Base Camp
A visit to the North (China - side) Base Camp currently requires a permit from the Chinese government, on top of the permit required to visit Tibet itself. Such permits must be arranged via travel companies in Lhasa as part of a package tour that include hiring a vehicle, driver, and guide. The North Base Camp is accessed by vehicle through a 100 km road branching to the South from the Friendship Highway near Shelkar. From the Base Camp, all tourists must take the buses managed by the government to limit the traffic in the last stretch of gravel road to a marked hill at 5,200 meters above sea level just before the climbers ' camp. It is also possible to trek up from the tourist camp, but only when properly acclimatized. The "tourist Base Camp '' is located about halfway between Rongbuk Monastery; the actual climbers ' Base Camp is at the foot of Rongbuk glacier.
Gravel road leading to north EBC after leaving Friendship Highway, Tibet, with first close view of Mt. Everest
Tent village established for tourists ' convenience called Everest Base Camp, in Tibet. It is the furthest that private cars can go. Mount Everest can be seen in the background.
Tea house at the North Everest Base Camp. Mount Everest is visible in the background.
Interior of tea house / hotel located at Everest Base Camp, Tibet
A view of Everest North (Tibet - side) Base Camp looking west, August 3, 2002. The permanent structure at left is for mountain climbers, central - left structure is for pit toilets, while the temporary wood - frame, plastic tarpaulin - covered structures below and right are for other visitors and support people
Climbers ' tents in the restricted area beyond the area open to tourists.
Camps visible on northeast ridge as seen from north tent village, Tibet on May 20, 2011.
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who is the host of all things considered | All Things Considered - Wikipedia
All Things Considered (ATC) is the flagship news program on the American network National Public Radio (NPR). It was the first news program on NPR, premiering on May 3, 1971. It is broadcast live on NPR affiliated stations in the United States, and worldwide through several different outlets, including the NPR Berlin station in Germany. All Things Considered and Morning Edition were the highest rated public radio programs in the United States in 2002 and 2005. The show combines news, analysis, commentary, interviews, and special features, and its segments vary in length and style. ATC airs weekdays from 4: 00 p.m. to 6: 00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (live) or Pacific Standard Time (recorded with some updates; in Hawaii it airs as a fully recorded program) or from 3: 00 p.m. to 5: 00 p.m. Central Standard Time. A weekend version of ATC, Weekend All Things Considered, airs on Saturdays and Sundays.
ATC programming combines news, analysis, commentary, interviews, and special features broadcast live daily from 4: 00 p.m. to 6: 00 p.m. Eastern Time (3 to 5 pm Central Time) (20: 00 to 22: 00 UTC), and is re-fed with updates until 10 p.m. ET (9 p.m. CT) or 7 p.m. PT (02: 00 UTC). Broadcasts run about 105 minutes with local content interspersed in between to complete two hours. In 2005, ATC aired on over 560 radio stations and reached an audience of approximately 12 million listeners each weekday, making it the third most listened to radio program in the United States after The Rush Limbaugh Show and Morning Edition. In September 2010, All Things Considered had an average quarter - hour audience of 1.8 million. ATC is co-hosted by Audie Cornish, Ari Shapiro, and Mary Louise Kelly, regularly by turns.
The first broadcast of ATC was fed to about 90 radio stations on May 3, 1971, with host Robert Conley. During the first week, these stations were not allowed to broadcast the feed "live '' but could record it for later broadcast. The first story was about the march on Washington, D.C. and the growing anti-Vietnam War protests taking place there. NPR chose to place its inaugural daily newscast at the afternoon commute timeslot instead of the morning because many of its affiliates at that time did not sign on for the day until mid-morning or afterward. It was not until 1979, by which time most affiliates had expanded their broadcast days to begin at 6 a.m. or earlier, that NPR premiered Morning Edition.
Weekend All Things Considered (WATC) is a one - hour version of the show that premiered in 1977, with host Robert Conley, and is broadcast on Saturdays and Sundays at 5 p.m. ET. Michel Martin now hosts the program. Former hosts also include Guy Raz. Raz left to be the host of the TED Radio Hour. On February 13, 2013, NPR announced that it was relocating production of WATC to NPR West. Production returned to Washington, DC in 2015.
ATC was excluded from the NPR deal with Sirius Satellite Radio so as not to compete with local stations airing the show.
To coordinate the choice of interview partners in cultural coverage between ATC and other NPR shows (as of 2010: Morning Edition, the weekend editions, Talk of the Nation, and Tell Me More), NPR set up a "dibs list '' system around 2005, whereby the first show to declare interest in a particular guest can "reserve '' that person.
The format is less rigid than that of Morning Edition, with a wider array of type and length of stories. The length of stories tends to be greater than Morning Edition, with some stories lasting for almost 23 minutes. Certain types of personal interest stories are almost always covered within this limit; those relating to hard news or entertainment tend to last the standard three - and - a-half to four minutes.
The program begins with the familiar Don Voegeli theme song under a one - minute billboard of the stories to be covered during the hour. Then the standard five - minute NPR newscast is delivered from one minute to six minutes past the hour. The newscast offers a cutaway after three minutes (at four minutes past the hour), allowing stations to cover the last 2.5 minutes with evening rush - hour news and traffic reports. For those stations that run the newscast untouched, a 30 - second music bed follows instead.
The first, or "A '' segment, begins at: 06: 30 after the hour. It features important news stories, although not necessarily the most important news stories of the day. Often it is here that the most significant interviews or developing stories are placed. Segment A runs 11: 29 in duration, and closes out at: 18 after with a two - minute station break.
At: 20: 35 past the hour, ATC picks back up with Segment B. This segment, which runs 8: 24, features more news and analysis, and often contains lighter stories and commentary. Segment B breaks for the half - hour at: 29 past. The program goes into a one - minute local break.
At the bottom of the hour, ATC resumes with a "host return ''. In the 30 - second return, the host or hosts discuss what 's coming up in the remaining half - hour and intro the news. This is immediately followed by a 3: 30 newscast which ends at: 34 after the hour, followed by a one - minute local break.
Segment C kicks off at: 35: 35 past the hour, and runs 8: 24. Long feature stories are heard here, or as many as three shorter stories or commentaries may be heard as well. Segment D occurs immediately after Segment C at: 44 past the hour, and runs for four minutes. Segment D is a designated cutaway for stations to run local commentary or features in lieu of the national segment. Segment D ends at: 48 after the hour, and another two - minute break ensues. Occasionally, the show will "break format '' and place a long, 12 - minute story in Segments C and D without a local cutaway.
Segment E starts at: 50 after, and concludes the hour. The segment runs 8: 09. Unlike Morning Edition, there is no set format for this segment, although usually the second hour will contain an arts, culture, or lighter news story in this segment. Other times, hard news otherwise not fitting in the program may be placed here.
Stations receive a preliminary rundown before each broadcast (usually a few minutes before 4: 00 p.m. Eastern) denoting the timing and placement of stories so they can schedule local content as appropriate. This rundown is updated as stories change until the feed ends at 10 p.m. ET. As with Morning Edition, two hours of content are scheduled for each program. After 6 p.m. Eastern, the feed repeats the earlier hours for the Midwest and West Coast, although information is updated through the evening as appropriate.
Major awards won by the show include the Ohio State Award, the Peabody Award, the Overseas Press Club Award, the DuPont Award, the American Women in Radio and Television Award, and the Robert F. Kennedy Award. In 1993, the show was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame, the first public radio program to be given that honor.
In 2017, the first broadcast episode (from 1971) of All Things Considered was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress. Recordings in the collection are considered "culturally, historically, or artistically significant. ''
ABC NewsRadio in Australia broadcasts a continuous hour of selected segments from each day 's program between 12: 00 and 13: 00 Australian Eastern Standard Time Monday to Friday. Segments A to D are edited together omitting local NPR news inserts.
NPR Berlin in Germany airs in the local German timeslot, live from the U.S.
From time to time, NPR produces and distributes short series of radio pieces. Series that have aired during the show include:
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who was the first host on price is right | The Price Is Right - wikipedia
The Price Is Right is a television game show franchise originally produced by Mark Goodson and Bill Todman, and created by Bob Stewart, and is currently produced and owned by FremantleMedia (Endemol in Netherlands). The franchise centers on television game shows, but also includes merchandise such as video games, printed media and board games. The franchise began in 1956 as a television game show hosted by Bill Cullen and was revamped in 1972. This version was originally hosted by Bob Barker. Since 2007, Drew Carey has hosted the program.
In the show, contestants compete to win cash and prizes by guessing the pricing of merchandise. The program has been critically successful and remains a stalwart in the television ratings. It also managed to break away from the quiz show format that has been used in other game shows. Since the current version premiered, it has also been adapted in several international formats around the world, most notably in the United Kingdom, Australia and Mexico.
In 2013, TV Guide ranked it No. 5 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever.
The original version of The Price Is Right was first broadcast on NBC, and later ABC, from 1956 to 1965. Hosted by Bill Cullen, it involved four contestants bidding on a wide array of merchandise prizes, whose values ranged anywhere from a few dollars, (in many cases, "bonus '' prizes were attached after the fact, to the winner) to thousands, doing so in the manner of auctions except that Cullen did not act out the role of auctioneer. Instead, contestants tried to bid closest to the product 's actual retail price without going over that price. Depending on the prize, contestants were allowed, in proper turn, to make multiple bids; or only allowed one bid. In the case of the former, each contestant in - turn bid on the displayed item until a buzzer sounded. They could make a final bid, or "freeze. '' The contestant whose bid was closest to the correct value of the prize -- and had not gone over that value -- won it. There was also a special game set aside for the home viewer, which offered several prizes in a package, which usually included a luxury vacation trip, and / or a new car as part of the package. Viewers submitted their bids via post cards; the winner was announced on the air. At the end of each episode, the contestant who had won the most (by dollar value) was declared the winner and became the returning champion, entitled to play again in the next episode.
This version began as part of NBC 's daytime schedule. An alleged series of technical problems made the pilot episode look bad enough for NBC to decline buying the show, but after an appeal from the producers, citing the fact that at that time all TV shows were given up to an initial 13 weeks to succeed or fail, it aired anyway. It became successful enough to warrant a second version of the series, beginning on prime time in the fall of 1957. Shown weekly, that version had the distinction of being the first TV game show to be broadcast in color. After being a Top - 10 prime time show for some time its ratings gradually but noticeably declined, and by 1963 NBC canceled it, only to be picked up by ABC. ABC 's primetime version ran for one full season (1963 -- 64), and the daytime version ended in 1965.
Since 1972, the current version of The Price Is Right uses the same structure:
When the new format debuted as The New Price Is Right, shows were thirty minutes in length: three pricing games were played and the two contestants with the highest winnings entered the Showcase. By June 1973, the show was renamed back to The Price is Right.
The show was expanded into an hour - long format on November 3, 1975. This allowed for six pricing games to be played. A new feature, the Showcase Showdown, was added to select which players would play in the Showcase. It is used after the first three players completed their pricing games to select one player from this set, and after the next three. In the Showdown, each player is given two chance to spin a wheel which has a monetary amounts from 5 cents to 1 dollar by 5 cent increments. The goal was to be the closest to one dollar from both spins without going over; a player can opt to not spin a second time. Additional prize money can be won if the player make a total of one dollar exactly with either one or both spins, and even a larger amount if they could can a bonus spin on marked spaces on the wheel.
The series debuted September 4, 1972, in two forms: a daily version on CBS with Bob Barker as host, and a weekly version, eventually dubbed "the nighttime Price Is Right, '' hosted by Dennis James and airing in first - run syndication. Barker took over the nighttime version in 1977 (which remained a half - hour in length throughout its existence) and hosted both until the nighttime version was discontinued in 1980. The syndicated nighttime version returned five years later, with Tom Kennedy as host and running five days a week. This version ran for one season.
Barker hosted the program from its debut until June 15, 2007. During his 35 years as host, Barker won numerous awards and honors including Daytime Emmys and a Lifetime Achievement Award. Directors of the show included Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, and Bart Eskander, with Eskander receiving a Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Direction of a Game Show. Producer Roger Dobkowitz won a Daytime Emmy for his work on the show, which included the development of many of the show 's games that are still being played today.
After a season - long search for a successor, Drew Carey took the helm of the show, with production resuming in August 2007, and his first episode airing on October 15. It is believed to be the longest - running game show on television (the Spanish - language variety show Sábado Gigante ended on September 19, 2015). It is also the longest running game show airing episodes five days - per - week in the world. The Price Is Right is one of two game show franchises (along with To Tell the Truth) to be seen nationally in either first - run network or syndication airings in the U.S. in every decade from the 1950s onward. CBS has occasionally aired extra episodes of the show for short periods between the cancellation of one daytime program and the premiere of its successor. On occasion since 1986, special episodes have aired during prime time hours, most notably to fill in gaps between the Survivor series, and during the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike.
On September 22, 2008, Terry Kneiss made game show history by bidding the exact amount of his $23,743 showcase. Taping of the show immediately stopped, with Carey and show staffers concerned that cheating was taking place. It was later learned that -- by constantly watching the show, noticing the frequency of certain products showing up on the show, and using statistical analysis -- Kneiss and his wife Linda, who was in the studio audience, had legitimately determined the exact prices of the items in the showcase. Kneiss was awarded the prizes, and the show subsequently discontinued featuring certain products.
On April Fools ' Day in 2014, Craig Ferguson and Carey switched hosting duties, with Carey hosting The Late Late Show and Ferguson taking over the hosting duties on The Price Is Right. The episode also featured Shadoe Stevens as announcer. Barker appeared on the April Fools ' Day episode in 2015, hosting the first item up for bids and the first pricing game, with Carey hosting the remainder of the episode.
Primetime episodes have been ordered by CBS on occasion since 1986. The first, The Price Is Right Special, was a six - week summer series which aired on CBS in 1986, hosted by Barker. In 2002, the show celebrated its 30th year with a Las Vegas special.
Later in 2002, the show began its current line of primetime episodes (known as # xxxSP in show codes). Six special episodes titled The Price Is Right Salutes aired in primetime, saluting the branches of the United States armed forces, and for the police and firefighters of America in the wake of the September 11 attacks became the first in the canon. The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular (# 007SP - # 033SP) was a series of primetime specials airing from 2003 until 2008 featuring chances at winning $1,000,000, as well as more expensive prizes than on the daytime counterpart.
Two daytime episodes aired in primetime. Episode # 4035K (June 15, 2007, season finale and Bob Barker 's final episode) was rebroadcast in primetime after airing that morning, leading to the Daytime Emmy Awards. Episode # 4512K, the show 's military special, originally intended for November 11, 2008, became the first daytime episode scheduled to originally air in primetime when it was moved to November 14.
The Celebrity Week format in daytime where a celebrity plays along with contestants was adopted for the next series of primetime episodes, which are part of the same series as the 2002 Salutes and 2003 -- 08 $1,000,000 Spectaculars (# 034SP - # 036SP). These shows used former participants on the network 's three primetime reality game shows (Survivor, The Amazing Race and Big Brother) who joined contestants as teams. The three - night special aired May 23 -- 25, 2016.
Endless Games, which in the past has produced board games based on several other game shows, including The Newlywed Game and Million Dollar Password, distributes home versions of The Price Is Right, featuring the voice of Rich Fields, including a DVD edition and a Quick Picks travel - size edition. Ubisoft also released a video game version of the show for the PC, Nintendo DS, and Wii console on September 9, 2008. An updated version of the game (The Price Is Right: 2010 Edition) was released on September 22, 2009. Both versions feature the voice of Rich Fields, who was the show 's announcer at the time of the release of the video games in question.
In September 2010, Ludia released the official Facebook version of The Price Is Right game. The game had two million monthly active users only two months after the launch.
In October 2011, Ludia (now owned by RTL Group) released The Price Is Right Decades, a video game featuring production elements from various decades of the show, for the Wii, mobile devices, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 to celebrate their 40 years on the CBS network.
The 1972 revised format appeared on Australian television the following year and debuted in the U.K. in 1984. The format has also been adapted elsewhere around the world. Hosts and models from the versions in other countries have made appearances on the U.S. version, usually sitting in the audience and acknowledged by the host during the broadcast. Barker and then - music - director Stan Blits appeared on the Carlo Boszhard - hosted Cash en Carlo at the start of the 200th episode.
Currently airing Ended
Guess Right, Give Now
The Price is Right Thailand 's: Rich Price
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osmotic pressure of blood is mainly due to | Oncotic pressure - Wikipedia
Oncotic pressure, or colloid osmotic pressure, is a form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins, notably albumin, in a blood vessel 's plasma (blood / liquid) that usually tends to pull water into the circulatory system. It is the opposing force to hydrostatic pressure. It has a major effect on the pressure across the glomerular filter. However, this concept has been strongly criticised and the attention shifts to the impact of the intravascular glycocalyx layer as major player.
Throughout the body, dissolved compounds have an osmotic pressure. Because large plasma proteins can not easily cross through the capillary walls, their effect on the osmotic pressure of the capillary interiors will, to some extent, balance out the tendency for fluid to leak out of the capillaries. In other words, the oncotic pressure tends to pull fluid into the capillaries. In conditions where plasma proteins are reduced, e.g. from being lost in the urine (proteinuria) or from malnutrition, there will be a reduction in oncotic pressure and an increase in filtration across the capillary, resulting in excess fluid buildup in the tissues (edema).
The large majority of oncotic pressure in capillaries is generated by the presence of high quantities of albumin, a protein that constitutes approximately 80 % of the total oncotic pressure exerted by blood plasma on interstitial fluid. The total oncotic pressure of an average capillary is about 28 mmHg with albumin contributing approximately 22 mmHg of this oncotic pressure. Because blood proteins can not escape through capillary endothelium, oncotic pressure of capillary beds tends to draw water into the vessels. It is necessary to understand the oncotic pressure as a balance; because the blood proteins reduce interior permeability, less plasma fluid can exit the vessel.
Oncotic pressure is represented by the symbol Π or π in the Starling equation and elsewhere,.
In the clinical setting, there are two types of fluids that are used for intravenous drips: crystalloids and colloids. Crystalloids are aqueous solutions of mineral salts or other water - soluble molecules. Colloids contain larger insoluble molecules, such as gelatin. Oncotic pressure values are approximately 290 mOsm per kg of water, which slightly differs from the osmotic pressure of the blood that has values approximating 300 mOsm / L.
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how long does it take to get danish citizenship | Danish nationality law - wikipedia
Danish nationality law is ruled by the Constitutional act of Denmark (of 1953) and the Consolidated Act of Danish Nationality (of 2003, with amendment in 2004). Danish nationality can be acquired in one of the following ways:
According to Statistics Denmark, 3,267 foreigners living in Denmark replaced their foreign citizenship with Danish citizenship in 2012. A total of 71.4 % of all those who were naturalized in 2012 were from the non-Western world. Half of all new Danish citizenships in 2012 were given to people from Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, Somalia and Iran.
In October 2011, the newly elected centre - left coalition government indicated its intention to permit dual citizenship.
On December 18, 2014, Parliament passed a bill to allow Danish citizens to become foreign nationals without losing their Danish citizenship, and to allow foreign nationals to acquire Danish citizenship without renouncing their prior citizenship. A provision in the bill also allows former Danish nationals who lost their citizenship as a result of accepting another to reobtain Danish citizenship. This provision expires in 2020. A separate provision, lasting until 2017, allows current applicants for Danish citizenship who have been approved under the condition they renounce their prior citizenship to retain their prior nationality as they become Danish citizens. The law came into force on September 1, 2015.
Anyone with Danish (or other) citizenship may be required by a country of which they are also citizens to give up their other (Danish) citizenship, although this can not be enforced outside the jurisdiction of the country in question. For example Japan does not permit multiple citizenship, while Argentina has no restrictions.
Citizenship of the European Union for Danish citizens varies in each part of the Danish Realm.
Danish citizens in Denmark proper are also citizens of the European Union under European Union law and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament. When in a non-EU country where there is no Danish embassy, Danish citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country. Danish citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.
Greenland joined the European Economic Community along with Denmark proper in 1973 but left in 1985. Although Greenland is not part of the EU, Danish citizens residing in Greenland are EU citizens.
The Faroe Islands have never been part of the EU or its predecessors, and EU treaties do not apply to the islands. Consequently, Danish citizens residing in the Faroe Islands are not EU citizens within the meaning of the treaties. However, they can choose between a non-EU Danish - Faroese passport (which is green and modelled on pre-EU Danish passport) or a regular Danish EU passport. Some EU member states may treat Danish citizens residing in the Faroe Islands the same as other Danish citizens and thus as EU citizens.
Concerning citizenship of the European Union as established in the Maastricht Treaty, Denmark proper obtained an opt - out in the Edinburgh Agreement, in which EU citizenship does not replace national citizenship and each member state is free to determine its nationals according to its own nationality law. The Amsterdam Treaty extends this to all EU member states, which renders the Danish opt - out de facto meaningless.
Visa requirements for Danish citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of the Kingdom of Denmark. In 2015, Danish citizens had visa - free or visa - on - arrival access to 171 countries and territories, ranking the Danish passport 3rd in the world according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
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who was prime minister of england during suez canal crisis | Anthony Eden - wikipedia
World War I
Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC (12 June 1897 -- 14 January 1977), was a British Conservative politician who served three periods as Foreign Secretary and then a relatively brief term as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1955 to 1957.
Achieving rapid promotion as a young Member of Parliament, he became Foreign Secretary aged 38, before resigning in protest at Neville Chamberlain 's appeasement policy towards Mussolini 's Italy. He again held that position for most of the Second World War, and a third time in the early 1950s. Having been deputy to Winston Churchill for almost 15 years, he succeeded him as the Leader of the Conservative Party and Prime Minister in April 1955, and a month later won a general election.
Eden 's worldwide reputation as an opponent of appeasement, a "man of peace '', and a skilled diplomat was overshadowed in 1956 when the United States refused to support the Anglo - French military response to the Suez Crisis, which critics across party lines regarded as an historic setback for British foreign policy, signalling the end of British predominance in the Middle East. Most historians argue that he made a series of blunders, especially not realising the depth of American opposition to military action. Two months after ordering an end to the Suez operation, he resigned as Prime Minister on grounds of ill health and because he was widely suspected of having misled the House of Commons over the degree of collusion with France and Israel.
Eden is generally ranked among the least successful British prime ministers of the 20th century, although two broadly sympathetic biographies (in 1986 and 2003) have gone some way to redressing the balance of opinion. Biographer D.R. Thorpe described the Suez Crisis as "a truly tragic end to his premiership, and one that came to assume a disproportionate importance in any assessment of his career. ''
Eden was born at Windlestone Hall, County Durham, on 12 June 1897. He was born into a very conservative family of landed gentry. He was a younger son of Sir William Eden, 7th and 5th Baronet, a former colonel and local magistrate from an old titled family. Sir William, an eccentric and often foul - tempered man, was a talented watercolourist and collector of Impressionists.
Eden 's mother, Sybil Frances Grey, was a member of the famous Grey family of Northumberland (see below). She had wanted to marry Francis Knollys, later an important Royal adviser. Although she was a popular figure locally, she had a strained relationship with her children, and her profligacy ruined the family fortunes. Eden 's older brother Tim had to sell Windlestone in 1936. Rab Butler would later quip that Eden -- a handsome but ill - tempered man -- was "half mad baronet, half beautiful woman ''.
Eden 's great - grandfather was William Iremonger, who commanded the 2nd Regiment of Foot during the Peninsular War and fought under Wellington (as he became) at Vimiero. He was also descended from Governor Sir Robert Eden, 1st Baronet, of Maryland, the Calvert Family of Maryland, the Schaffalitzky de Muckadell family of Denmark, and Bie family of Norway. Eden was once amused to learn that one of his ancestors had, like Churchill 's ancestor the Duke of Marlborough, been the lover of Barbara Castlemaine.
There was speculation for many years that Eden 's biological father was the politician and man of letters George Wyndham, but this is considered impossible as Wyndham was in South Africa at the time of Eden 's conception. His mother was rumoured to have had an affair with Wyndham. Eden had an elder brother, John, who was killed in action in 1914, and a younger brother, Nicholas, who was killed when the battlecruiser HMS Indefatigable blew up and sank at the Battle of Jutland in 1916.
Eden was educated at two independent schools. The first was Sandroyd School in Cobham from 1907 to 1910, where he excelled in languages. He then started at Eton College in January 1911. There he won a Divinity prize and excelled at cricket, rugby and rowing, winning House colours in the last.
Eden learned French and German on continental holidays and as a child is said to have spoken French better than English. Although Eden was able to converse with Hitler in German in February 1934 and with the Chinese premier Chou En - lai in French at Geneva in 1954, he preferred to have interpreters to translate at formal meetings out of a sense of professionalism.
Although Eden later claimed to have had no interest in politics until the early 1920s, his teenage letters and diaries show him to have been obsessed with the subject. He was a strong, partisan Conservative, rejoicing in the defeat of Charles Masterman at a by - election (May 1913) and once astonishing his mother on a train journey by telling her the MP and the size of his majority for each constituency through which they passed. By 1914 he was a member of the Eton Society ("Pop '').
During the Great War, Eden 's older brother, Lieutenant John Eden, was killed in action on 17 October 1914, at the age of 26, while serving with the 12th (Prince of Wales 's Royal) Lancers. He is buried in Larch Wood (Railway Cutting) Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery in Belgium. His uncle Robin was later shot down and captured whilst serving with the Royal Flying Corps.
Volunteering for service the British Army, as did many others of his generation, Eden served with the 21st (Yeoman Rifles) Battalion of the King 's Royal Rifle Corps (KRRC), a Kitchener 's Army unit, initially recruited mainly from County Durham country labourers, who were increasingly replaced by Londoners after losses at the Somme in mid-1916. He was commissioned as a temporary second lieutenant on 2 November 1915 (antedated to 29 September 1915). His battalion transferred to the Western Front on 4 May 1916 as part of the 41st Division. On 31 May 1916, Eden 's younger brother, Midshipman William Nicholas Eden, was killed in action, aged 16, on board HMS Indefatigable during the Battle of Jutland. He is commemorated on the Plymouth Naval Memorial. His brother - in - law, Lord Brooke, was wounded during the war.
One summer night in 1916, near Ploegsteert, Eden had to lead a small raid into an enemy trench to kill or capture enemy soldiers, so as to identify the enemy units opposite. He and his men were pinned down in No Man 's Land under enemy fire, his sergeant seriously wounded in the leg. Eden sent one man back to British lines to fetch another man and a stretcher, then he and three others carried the wounded sergeant back with, as he later put it in his memoirs, a "chilly feeling down our spines '', unsure whether the Germans had not seen them in the dark or were chivalrously declining to fire. He omitted to mention that he had been awarded the Military Cross (MC) for the incident, something of which he had made little mention in his political career. On 18 September 1916, after the Battle of Flers - Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme), he wrote to his mother "I have seen things lately that I am not likely to forget ''. On 3 October, he was appointed an adjutant, with the rank of temporary lieutenant for the duration of that appointment. At the age of just 19, he was the youngest adjutant on the Western Front.
Eden 's MC was gazetted in the 1917 Birthday Honours list. His battalion fought at Messines Ridge in June 1917. On 1 July 1917, Eden was confirmed as a temporary lieutenant, relinquishing his appointment as adjutant three days later. His battalion fought in the first few days of Third Battle of Ypres (31 July -- 4 August). Between 20 and 23 September 1917 his battalion spent a few days on coastal defence on the Franco - Belgian border.
On 19 November, he was transferred to the General Staff as a General Staff Officer Grade 3 (GSO3), with the temporary rank of captain. He served at Second Army HQ, missing out on service in Italy, as the 41st Division was in Italy, after the disastrous Italian defeat at the Battle of Caporetto, between mid-November 1917 and 8 March 1918, returning to the Western Front, the main theatre of war, as a major German offensive was clearly imminent, only for Eden 's former battalion to be disbanded to help alleviate the British Army 's acute manpower shortage. Although David Lloyd George, then the British Prime Minister, was one of the few politicians of whom Eden reported front - line soldiers speaking highly, he wrote to his sister (23 December 1917) in disgust at his "wait and see twaddle '' in declining to extend conscription to Ireland.
In March 1918, during the German Spring Offensive, he was stationed near La Fere on the Oise, opposite Adolf Hitler, as he learned at a conference in 1935. At one point, when brigade HQ was bombed by German aircraft, his companion told him "There now, you have had your first taste of the next war. '' On 26 May 1918 he was appointed brigade major of the 198th Infantry Brigade, part of the 66th Division. At the age of twenty, Eden was the youngest brigade major in the British Army.
He considered standing for Parliament at the end of the war, but the general election was called too early for this to be possible. After the Armistice with Germany, he spent the winter of 1918 -- 19 in the Ardennes with his brigade and on 28 March 1919 he transferred to be brigade major of the 99th Infantry Brigade. Eden contemplated applying for a commission in the Regular Army, but they were very hard to come by, with the army contracting so rapidly. He initially shrugged off his mother 's suggestion of studying at Oxford. He also rejected the thought of becoming a barrister; his preferred career alternatives at this stage were standing for Parliament for Bishop Auckland, the Civil Service in East Africa, or the Foreign Office. He was demobilised on 13 June 1919. He retained the rank of captain.
Eden had dabbled in the study of Turkish with a family friend. After the war, he studied Oriental Languages (Persian and Arabic) at Christ Church, Oxford, starting in October 1919. Persian was his main, and Arabic his secondary, language. He studied under Richard Paset Dewhurst and David Samuel Margoliouth.
At Oxford, Eden took no part in student politics, and his main leisure interest at the time was art. Eden was in the Oxford University Dramatic Society and President of the Asiatic Society. Along with Lord David Cecil and R.E. Gathorne - Hardy he founded the Uffizi Society, of which he later became President. Possibly under the influence of his father he gave a paper on Cézanne, whose work was then not yet widely appreciated. Eden was already collecting paintings.
In July 1920, whilst still an undergraduate, Eden was recalled to military service as a lieutenant in the 6th Battalion of the Durham Light Infantry. In the spring of 1921, once again as a temporary captain, he commanded local defence forces at Spennymoor as serious industrial unrest seemed possible. He again relinquished his commission on 8 July. He graduated from Oxford in June 1922 with a Double First. He continued to serve as an officer in the Territorial Army until May 1923.
Captain Eden, as he was still known, was selected to contest Spennymoor, as a Conservative. At first he had hoped to win (with some Liberal support as the Conservatives were still supporting Lloyd George 's coalition government) but by the time of the November 1922 general election it was clear that the surge in the Labour vote made this unlikely. His main sponsor was the Marquess of Londonderry, a local coalowner. The seat went from Liberal to Labour.
Eden 's father had died on 20 February 1915. As a younger son, he had inherited capital of £ 7,675 and in 1922 he had a private income of £ 706 after tax (approximately £ 375,000 and £ 35,000 at 2014 prices).
Eden read the writings of Lord Curzon and was hoping to emulate him by entering politics with a view to specialising in foreign affairs. Eden married Beatrice Beckett in the autumn of 1923, and after a two - day honeymoon in Essex, he was selected to fight Warwick and Leamington for a by - election in November 1923. His Labour opponent, Daisy Greville Countess of Warwick, was by coincidence his sister Elfrida 's mother - in - law and also mother to his wife 's step - mother, Marjorie Blanche Eve Beckett née Greville. On 16 November 1923, during the by - election campaign, Parliament was dissolved for the December 1923 general election. He was elected to Parliament at the age of twenty - six.
The first Labour Government, under Ramsay MacDonald, took office in January 1924. Eden 's maiden speech (19 February 1924) was a controversial attack on Labour 's defence policy and was heckled, and thereafter he was careful to speak only after deep preparation. He later reprinted the speech in a collection called Foreign Affairs (1939) to give an impression that he had been a consistent advocate of air strength. Eden admired H.H. Asquith, then in his final year in the Commons, for his lucidity and brevity. On 1 April 1924 he spoke urging Anglo - Turkish friendship and ratification of the Treaty of Lausanne, which had been signed in July 1923.
The Conservatives returned to power at the 1924 General Election. In January 1925 Eden, disappointed not to have been offered a position, went on a tour of the Middle East, meeting Emir Feisal of Iraq. Feisal reminded him of the "Czar of Russia & (I) suspect that his fate may be similar '' (a similar fate did indeed befall the Iraqi Royal Family in 1958). He inspected the oil refinery at Abadan, which he likened to "a Swansea on a small scale ''.
He was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary (PPS) to Godfrey Locker - Lampson, Under - Secretary at the Home Office (17 February 1925) (serving under Home Secretary William Joynson Hicks). In July 1925 he went on a second trip to Canada, Australia and India. He wrote articles for The Yorkshire Post (controlled by his father - in - law Sir Gervase Beckett) under the pseudonym "Backbencher ''. In September 1925 he represented the Yorkshire Post at the Imperial Conference at Melbourne.
Eden continued to be PPS to Locker - Lampson when the latter was appointed Under - Secretary at the Foreign Office in December 1925. He distinguished himself with a speech on the Middle East (21 December 1925), calling for the readjustment of Iraqi frontiers in favour of Turkey, but also for a continued British mandate rather than "scuttle ''. Eden ended his speech by calling for Anglo - Turkish friendship. On 23 March 1926 he spoke urging the League of Nations to admit Germany, which would happen the following year. In July 1926 he became PPS to the Foreign Secretary Sir Austen Chamberlain.
Besides supplementing his parliamentary income (around £ 300 a year at that time) by writing and journalism, in 1926 he published a book about his travels, Places in the Sun, highly critical of the detrimental effect of socialism on Australia, and to which Stanley Baldwin wrote a foreword.
In November 1928, with Austen Chamberlain away on a voyage to recover his health, Eden had to speak for the government in a debate on a recent Anglo - French naval agreement, replying to Ramsay MacDonald (then Leader of the Opposition). According to Austen Chamberlain, he would have been promoted to his first ministerial job, Under - Secretary at the Foreign Office, if the Conservatives had won the 1929 election.
The 1929 General Election was the only time Eden received less than 50 % of the vote at Warwick. After the Conservative defeat he joined a progressive group of younger politicians consisting of Oliver Stanley, William Ormsby - Gore and the future Speaker W.S. "Shakes '' Morrison. Another member was Noel Skelton, who before his death coined the phrase "property - owning democracy '', which Eden was later to popularise as a Conservative party aspiration. Eden advocated co-partnership in industry between managers and workers, whom he wanted to be given shares.
In opposition between 1929 and 1931 Eden worked as a City broker for Harry Lucas (a firm eventually absorbed into S.G. Warburg & Co.).
In August 1931 Eden held his first ministerial office as Under - Secretary for Foreign Affairs in Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald 's National Government. Initially the office of Foreign Secretary was held by Lord Reading (in the House of Lords), although Sir John Simon held the job from November 1931.
Like many of his generation who had served in World War I, Eden was strongly anti-war, and strove to work through the League of Nations to preserve European peace. The government proposed measures, superseding the postwar Versailles Treaty, that would allow Germany to rearm (albeit replacing her small professional army with a short - service militia) and reduce French armaments. Winston Churchill criticised the policy sharply in the House of Commons on 23 March 1933, opposing "undue '' French disarmament as this might require Britain to take action to enforce peace under the 1925 Locarno Treaty. Eden, replying for the government, dismissed Churchill 's speech as exaggerated and unconstructive, commenting that land disarmament had yet to make the same progress as naval disarmament at the Washington and London treaties, and arguing that French disarmament was needed in order to "secure for Europe that period of appeasement which is needed ''. Eden 's speech was met with approval by the House of Commons. Neville Chamberlain commented shortly afterwards: "That young man is coming along rapidly; not only can he make a good speech but he has a good head and what advice he gives is listened to by the Cabinet '' Eden later wrote that in the early 1930s the word "appeasement '' was still used in its correct sense (from the Oxford English Dictionary) of seeking to settle strife. Only later in the decade did it come to acquire a pejorative meaning of acceding to bullying demands.
In December 1933 he was appointed Lord Privy Seal, a position that was combined with the newly created office of Minister for League of Nations Affairs. While Lord Privy Seal, Eden was sworn of the Privy Council in the 1934 Birthday Honours. He entered the Cabinet for the first time in June 1935 when Stanley Baldwin formed his third administration. Eden later came to recognise that peace could not be maintained by appeasement of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy. He privately opposed the policy of the Foreign Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, of trying to appease Italy during its invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935. When Hoare resigned after the failure of the Hoare - Laval Pact, Eden succeeded him as Foreign Secretary. When Eden had his first audience with King George V, the King is said to have remarked, "No more coals to Newcastle, no more Hoares to Paris. ''
At this stage in his career, Eden was considered as something of a leader of fashion. He regularly wore a Homburg hat, which became known in Britain as an "Anthony Eden ''.
Eden became Foreign Secretary at a time when Britain was having to adjust its foreign policy to face the rise of the fascist powers. He supported the policy of non-interference in the Spanish Civil War through conferences like the Nyon Conference and supported prime minister Neville Chamberlain in his efforts to preserve peace through reasonable concessions to Germany. The Italian - Ethiopian War was brewing, and Eden tried in vain to persuade Mussolini to submit the dispute to the League of Nations. The Italian dictator scoffed at Eden publicly as "the best dressed fool in Europe. '' Eden did not protest when Britain and France failed to oppose Hitler 's reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936. When the French requested a meeting with a view to some kind of military action in response to Hitler 's occupation, Eden in a statement firmly ruled out any military assistance to France.
His resignation in February 1938 was largely attributed to growing dissatisfaction with Chamberlain 's policy of appeasement. That is, however, disputed by new research; it was not the question if there should be negotiations with Italy, but only when they should start and how far they should be carried. Similarly, he at no point registered his dissatisfaction with the appeasement policy directed towards Nazi Germany in his period as Foreign Secretary. He became a Conservative dissenter leading a group that conservative whip David Margesson called the "Glamour Boys, '', and a leading anti-appeaser like Winston Churchill, who led a similar group, called "The Old Guard. ''
Although Churchill claimed to have lost sleep the night of Eden 's resignation, they were not allies and did not see eye - to - eye until Churchill became Prime Minister. Churchill maintained that and detailed how Eden resigned over Chamberlain 's affront to Roosevelt, who had offered earlier in February to mediate the growing dispute in Europe. There was much speculation that Eden would become a rallying point for all the disparate opponents of Neville Chamberlain, but his position declined heavily amongst politicians as he maintained a low profile, avoiding confrontation, though he opposed the Munich Agreement and abstained in the vote on it in the House of Commons. However, he remained popular in the country at large, and in later years was often wrongly supposed to have resigned as Foreign Secretary in protest at the Munich Agreement.
In a 1967 interview, Eden explained his decision to resign: "It was not over protocol, Chamberlain 's communicating with Mussolini without telling me. I never cared a goddamn, a tuppence about protocol. The reason for my resignation was that we had an agreement with Mussolini about the Mediterranean and Spain, which he was violating by sending troops to Spain, and Chamberlain wanted to have another agreement. I thought Mussolini should honour the first one before we negotiated for the second. I was trying to fight a delaying action for Britain, and I could not go along with Chamberlain 's policy. ''
During the last months of peace in 1939, Eden joined the Territorial Army with the rank of major, in the London Rangers motorized battalion of the King 's Royal Rifle Corps and was at annual camp with them in Beaulieu, Hampshire, when he heard news of the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact.
On the outbreak of war (3 September 1939) Eden, unlike most Territorials, did not mobilise for active service. Instead, he returned to Chamberlain 's government as Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, but was not in the War Cabinet. As a result, he was not a candidate for the Premiership when Chamberlain resigned in May 1940 after the Narvik Debate and Churchill became Prime Minister. Churchill appointed Eden Secretary of State for War.
At the end of 1940 Eden returned to the Foreign Office, and in this role became a member of the executive committee of the Political Warfare Executive in 1941. Although he was one of Churchill 's closest confidants, his role in wartime was restricted because Churchill conducted the most important negotiations, with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin, himself, but Eden served loyally as Churchill 's lieutenant. In December 1941, he travelled by ship to Russia where he met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and surveyed the battlefields upon which the Russians had successfully defended Moscow from the German Army attack in Operation Barbarossa.
Nevertheless, he was in charge of handling most of the relations between Britain and Free French leader de Gaulle during the last years of the war. Eden was often critical of the emphasis Churchill put on the Special Relationship with the United States and was often disappointed by American treatment of their British allies.
In 1942 Eden was given the additional role of Leader of the House of Commons. He was considered for various other major jobs during and after the war, including Commander - in - Chief Middle East in 1942 (this would have been a very unusual appointment as Eden was a civilian; General Harold Alexander was in fact appointed), Viceroy of India in 1943 (General Archibald Wavell was appointed to this job), or Secretary - General of the newly formed United Nations Organisation in 1945. In 1943 with the revelation of the Katyn Massacre Eden refused to help the Polish Government in Exile.
In early 1943 Eden blocked a request from the Bulgarian authorities to aid with deporting part of the Jewish population from newly acquired Bulgarian territories to British - controlled Palestine. After his refusal, some of those people were transported to concentration camps in Nazi - occupied Poland.
In 1944 Eden went to Moscow to negotiate with the Soviet Union at the Tolstoy Conference. Eden also opposed the Morgenthau Plan to deindustrialise Germany. After the Stalag Luft III murders, he vowed in the House of Commons to bring the perpetrators of the crime to "exemplary justice '', leading to a successful manhunt after the war by the Royal Air Force Special Investigation Branch.
Eden 's eldest son, Pilot Officer Simon Gascoigne Eden, went missing in action and was later declared dead, while serving as a navigator with the RAF in Burma, in June 1945. There was a close bond between Eden and Simon, and Simon 's death was a great personal shock to his father. Mrs. Eden reportedly reacted to her son 's loss differently, and this led to a breakdown in the marriage. De Gaulle wrote him a personal letter of condolence in French.
In 1945 he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates who were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.
After the Labour Party won the 1945 election, Eden went into opposition as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party. Many felt that Churchill should have retired and allowed Eden to become party leader, but Churchill refused to consider this. As early as the spring of 1946, Eden openly asked Churchill to retire in his favour. He was in any case depressed during this period by the break - up of his first marriage and the death of his eldest son. Churchill was in many ways only "part - time Leader of the Opposition '', given his many journeys abroad and his literary work, and left the day - to - day work largely to Eden. Eden was largely regarded as lacking sense of party politics and contact with the common man. In these opposition years, however, he developed some knowledge about domestic affairs and created the idea of a "property - owning - democracy '', which Margaret Thatcher 's government attempted to achieve decades later. His domestic agenda is overall considered centre - left.
In 1951 the Conservatives returned to office and Eden became Foreign Secretary for a third time, though not "Deputy Prime Minister '' (Churchill gave him this title in the first list of ministers submitted to the King, but the King forbade it on the grounds that this "office '' is unknown to the Constitution). Churchill was largely a figurehead in this government, and Eden had effective control of British foreign policy for the second time, as the Empire declined and the Cold War grew more intense.
Eden 's biographer Richard Lamb said that Eden bullied Churchill into going back on commitments to European unity made in opposition. The truth appears to be more complex. Britain was still a world power, or at least trying to be, in 1945 -- 55, with the concept of sovereignty not as discredited as on the continent. The USA encouraged moves towards European federalism as it wanted to withdraw US troops and get the Germans rearmed under supervision. Eden was less Atlanticist than Churchill and had little time for European federalism. He wanted firm alliances with France and other Western European powers to contain Germany. Half of British trade at that time was with the sterling area, and only a quarter with Western Europe. Despite later talk of "lost opportunities '', even Macmillan, who had been an active member of the "European Movement '' after the war, acknowledged in February 1952 that Britain 's relationship with the USA and the Commonwealth would prevent her from joining a federal Europe at that time. Eden was also irritated by Churchill 's hankering for a summit meeting with the USSR, during the period in 1953 after Stalin 's death and whilst Eden was seriously ill from a botched bile duct operation.
Despite the ending of the British Raj in India, British interest in the Middle East remained strong: Britain had treaty relations with Jordan and Iraq and was the protecting power for Kuwait and the Trucial States, the colonial power in Aden, and the occupying power in the Suez Canal. Many right - wing Conservative MPs, organised in the so - called Suez Group, sought to retain this imperial role, though economic pressures made maintenance of it increasingly difficult. Britain did seek to maintain its huge military base in the Suez Canal zone and, in the face of Egyptian resentment, further develop its alliance with Iraq, and the hope was that the Americans would assist Britain, possibly through finance. While the Americans did co-operate with the British in overthrowing the Mosaddegh government in Iran, after it had nationalised British oil interests, the Americans developed their own relations in the region, taking a positive view of the Egyptian Free Officers and developing friendly relations with Saudi Arabia. Britain was eventually forced to withdraw from the canal zone and the Baghdad Pact security treaty was not supported by the United States, leaving Eden vulnerable to the charge of having failed to maintain British prestige.
Eden had grave misgivings about American foreign policy under Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower was concerned, as early as March 1953, at the escalating costs of defence and the increase of state power which this would bring. Eden was irked by Dulles 's policy of "brinkmanship '', or display of muscle, in relations with the Communist world. The success of the 1954 Geneva Conference on Indo - China ranks as the outstanding achievement of his third term in the Foreign Office, although he was critical of the United States decision not to sign the accord. During the summer and fall of 1954, the Anglo - Egyptian agreement to withdraw all British forces from Egypt was also negotiated and ratified.
There were concerns that if the EDC was not ratified as they wanted, the US Republican Administration might withdraw into defending only the Western Hemisphere (although recent documentary evidence confirms that the US intended to withdraw troops from Europe anyway if the EDC was ratified). After the French Assembly rejected the EDC in September 1954, Eden tried to come up with a viable alternative. Between 11 and 17 September he visited every major West European capital, to negotiate West Germany becoming a sovereign state and entering the Brussels pact prior to entering NATO. Paul - Henri Spaak said he "saved the Atlantic alliance ''.
In 1954 he was appointed to the Order of the Garter and became Sir Anthony Eden.
In April 1955 Churchill finally retired, and Eden succeeded him as Prime Minister. He was a very popular figure as a result of his long wartime service and his famous good looks and charm. His famous words "Peace comes first, always '' added to his already substantial popularity.
On taking office, he immediately called a general election for 26 May 1955, at which he increased the Conservative majority from seventeen to sixty, an increase in majority that broke a ninety - year record for any UK government. The 1955 general election was the last in which the Conservatives won the majority share of the votes in Scotland. However, Eden had never held a domestic portfolio and had little experience in economic matters. He left these areas to his lieutenants such as Rab Butler, and concentrated largely on foreign policy, forming a close relationship with US President Dwight Eisenhower. Eden 's attempts to maintain overall control of the Foreign Office drew widespread criticism.
Eden has the distinction of being the British prime minister to oversee the lowest unemployment figures of the post-World War II era, with unemployment standing at just over 215,000 -- barely one per cent of the workforce -- in July 1955.
The alliance with the US proved not universal, however, when in July 1956 Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt, unexpectedly nationalised (seized) the Suez Canal, following the withdrawal of Anglo - American funding for the Aswan Dam, Eden believed the nationalisation was in violation of the Anglo - Egyptian Agreement that Nasser had signed with the British and French governments on 19 October 1954. This view was shared by Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell and Liberal leader Jo Grimond. In 1956 the Suez Canal was of vital importance since over two - thirds of the oil supplies of Western Europe (60 million tons annually) passed through it, with 15,000 ships a year, one - third of them British; three - quarters of all Canal shipping belonged to NATO countries. Britain 's total oil reserve at the time of the nationalisation was enough for only six weeks. The Soviet Union was certain to veto any sanctions against Nasser at the United Nations. Britain and a conference of other nations met in London following the nationalisation in an attempt to resolve the crisis through diplomatic means. However, the Eighteen Nations Proposals, including an offer of Egyptian representation on the board of the Suez Canal Company and a share of profits, were rejected by Nasser. Eden feared that Nasser intended to form an Arab Alliance that would threaten to cut off oil supplies to Europe and, in conjunction with France, decided he should be removed from power.
Eden, drawing on his experience in the 1930s, saw Nasser as another Mussolini, considering the two men aggressive nationalist socialists determined to invade other countries. Others believed that Nasser was acting from legitimate patriotic concerns and the nationalisation was determined by the Foreign Office to be deliberately provocative but not illegal. The Attorney General, Sir Reginald Manningham - Buller, was not asked for his opinion officially but made his view that the government 's contemplated armed strike against Egypt would be unlawful known through the Lord Chancellor.
Anthony Nutting recalled that Eden told him, "What 's all this nonsense about isolating Nasser or ' neutralising ' him as you call it? I want him destroyed, ca n't you understand? I want him murdered, and if you and the Foreign Office do n't agree, then you 'd better come to the cabinet and explain why. '' When Nutting pointed out that they had no alternative government to replace Nasser, Eden apparently replied, "I do n't give a damn if there 's anarchy and chaos in Egypt. '' At a private meeting at Downing Street on 16 October 1956 Eden showed several ministers a plan, submitted two days earlier by the French. Israel would invade Egypt, Britain and France would give an ultimatum telling both sides to stop and, when one refused, send in forces to enforce the ultimatum, separate the two sides -- and occupy the Canal and get rid of Nasser. When Nutting suggested the Americans should be consulted Eden replied, "I will not bring the Americans into this... Dulles has done enough damage as it is. This has nothing to do with the Americans. We and the French must decide what to do and we alone. '' Eden openly admitted his view of the crisis was shaped by his experiences in the two world wars, writing, "We are all marked to some extent by the stamp of our generation, mine is that of the assassination in Sarajevo and all that flowed from it. It is impossible to read the record now and not feel that we had a responsibility for always being a lap behind... Always a lap behind, a fatal lap. ''
There was no question of an immediate military response to the crisis -- Cyprus had no deep - water harbours, which meant that Malta, several days ' sailing from Egypt, would have to be the main concentration point for an invasion fleet if the Libyan government would not permit a land invasion from its territory. Eden initially considered using British forces in the Kingdom of Libya to regain the Canal, but then decided this risked inflaming Arab opinion. Unlike the French prime minister Guy Mollet, who saw regaining the Canal as the primary objective, Eden believed the real need was to remove Nasser from office. He hoped that if the Egyptian army was swiftly and humiliatingly defeated by the Anglo - French forces the Egyptian people would rise up against Nasser. Eden told Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery that the overall aim of the mission was simply, "To knock Nasser off his perch. '' In the absence of a popular uprising Eden and Mollet would say that Egyptian forces were incapable of defending their country and therefore Anglo - French forces would have to return to guard the Suez Canal.
Eden believed that if Nasser were seen to get away with seizing the Canal then Egypt and other Arab countries might move closer to the Soviet Union. At that time, the Middle East accounted for 80 -- 90 percent of Western Europe 's oil supply. If Nasser were seen to get away with it, then other Middle East countries might be encouraged to nationalise their oil. The invasion, he contended at the time, and again in a 1967 interview, was aimed at maintaining the sanctity of international agreements and at preventing future unilateral denunciation of treaties. Eden was energetic during the crisis in using the media, including the BBC, to incite public opinion to support his views of the need to overthrow Nasser. In September 1956 a plan was drawn up to reduce the flow of water in the Nile by using dams in an attempt to damage Nasser 's position. However, the plan was abandoned because it would take months to implement, and due to fears that it could affect other countries such as Uganda and Kenya.
On 25 September 1956, the Chancellor of the Exchequer Harold Macmillan met informally with President Eisenhower at the White House; he misread Eisenhower 's determination to avoid war and told Eden that the Americans would not in any way oppose the attempt to topple Nasser. Though Eden had known Eisenhower for years and had many direct contacts during the crisis, he also misread the situation. The Americans saw themselves as the champion of decolonization and refused to support any move that could be seen as imperialism or colonialism. Eisenhower felt the crisis had to be handled peacefully; he told Eden that American public opinion would not support a military solution. Eden and other leading British officials incorrectly believed Nasser 's support for Palestinian terrorists against Israel, as well as his attempts to destabilise pro-western regimes in Iraq and other Arab states, would deter the US from intervening with the operation. Eisenhower specifically warned that the Americans, and the world, "would be outraged '' unless all peaceful routes had been exhausted, and even then "the eventual price might become far too heavy ''. At the root of the problem was the fact that Eden felt that Britain was still an independent world power. His lack of sympathy for British integration into Europe, manifested in his scepticism about the fledgling European Economic Community (EEC), was another aspect of his belief in Britain 's independent role in world affairs.
Israel invaded the Sinai peninsula at the end of October 1956. Britain and France moved in ostensibly to separate the two sides and bring peace, but in fact to regain control of the canal and overthrow Nasser. The United States immediately and strongly opposed the invasion. The United Nations denounced the invasion, the Soviets were bellicose, and only New Zealand, Australia, West Germany and South Africa spoke out for Britain 's position.
The Suez Canal was of lesser economic importance to the USA, which acquired 15 percent of its oil through that route. Eisenhower wanted to broker international peace in "fragile '' regions. He did not see Nasser as a serious threat to the West, but he was concerned that the Soviets, who were well known to want a permanent warm water base for their Black Sea fleet in the Mediterranean, might side with Egypt. Eisenhower feared a pro-Soviet backlash amongst the Arab nations if, as seemed likely, Egypt suffered an humiliating defeat at the hands of the British, French and Israelis.
Eden, who faced domestic pressure from his party to take action, as well as stopping the decline of British influence in the Middle East, had ignored Britain 's financial dependence on the US in the wake of the Second World War, and had assumed the US would automatically endorse whatever action taken by its closest ally. At the ' Law not War ' rally in Trafalgar Square on 4 November 1956, Eden was ridiculed by Aneurin Bevan: ' Sir Anthony Eden has been pretending that he is now invading Egypt to strengthen the United Nations. Every burglar of course could say the same thing; he could argue that he was entering the house to train the police. So, if Sir Anthony Eden is sincere in what he is saying, and he may be, then he is too stupid to be a prime minister '. Public opinion was mixed; some historians think that the majority of public opinion in the UK was on Eden 's side. Eden was forced to bow to American diplomatic and financial pressure, and protests at home, by calling a ceasefire when Anglo - French forces had captured only 23 miles of the Canal. With the US threatening to withdraw financial support from sterling, the Cabinet divided and the Chancellor of the Exchequer Harold Macmillan threatening to resign unless an immediate ceasefire was called, Eden was under immense pressure. He considered defying the calls until the commander on the ground told him it could take up to six days for the Anglo - French troops to secure the entire Canal zone. Therefore, a ceasefire was called at quarter past midnight on 7 November.
In his 1987 book Spycatcher Peter Wright said that, following the imposed ending to the military operation, Eden reactivated the assassination option for a second time. By this time virtually all MI6 agents in Egypt had been rounded up by Nasser, and a new operation, using renegade Egyptian officers, was drawn up. It failed principally because the cache of weapons which had been hidden on the outskirts of Cairo was found to be defective.
Suez damaged Eden 's reputation for statesmanship, in many eyes, and led to a breakdown in his health. He went on vacation to Jamaica in November 1956, at a time when he was still determined to soldier on as Prime Minister. His health, however, did not improve, and during his absence from London his Chancellor Harold Macmillan and Rab Butler worked to manoeuvre him out of office. On the morning of the ceasefire Eisenhower agreed to meet with Eden to publicly resolve their differences, but this offer was later withdrawn after Secretary of State Dulles advised that it could inflame the Middle Eastern situation further.
The Observer newspaper accused Eden of lying to Parliament over the Suez Crisis, while MPs from all parties criticised his calling a ceasefire before the Canal was taken. Churchill, while publicly supportive of Eden 's actions, privately criticised his successor for not seeing the military operation through to its conclusion. Eden easily survived a vote of confidence in the House of Commons on 8 November.
While Eden was on holiday in Jamaica, other members of the government discussed on 20 November how to counter charges that the UK and France had worked in collusion with Israel to seize the Canal, but decided there was very little evidence in the public domain.
On his return from Jamaica on 14 December, Eden still hoped to continue as Prime Minister. He had lost his traditional base of support on the Tory left and amongst moderate opinion nationally, but appears to have hoped to rebuild a new base of support amongst the Tory Right. However, his political position had eroded during his absence. He wished to make a statement attacking Nasser as a puppet of the Soviets, attacking the United Nations and speaking of the "lessons of the 1930s '', but was prevented from doing so by Macmillan, Butler and Lord Salisbury.
On his return to the House of Commons (17 December), he slipped into the Chamber largely unacknowledged by his own party. One Conservative MP rose to wave his Order Paper, only to have to sit down in embarrassment whilst Labour MPs laughed. On 18 December he addressed the 1922 committee (Conservative backbenchers), declaring "as long as I live, I shall never apologise for what we did '', but was unable to answer a question about the validity of the Tripartite Declaration of 1950 (which he had in fact reaffirmed in April 1955, two days before becoming Prime Minister). In his final statement to the House of Commons as Prime Minister (20 December 1956) he performed well in a difficult debate, but told MPs that "there was not foreknowledge that Israel would attack Egypt ''. Victor Rothwell writes that the knowledge of his having misled the House of Commons in this way must have hung over him thereafter, as was the concern that the US Administration might demand that Britain pay reparations to Egypt. Papers released in January 1987 showed the entire Cabinet had been informed of the plan on 23 October 1956.
Eden suffered another fever at Chequers over Christmas, but was still talking of going on an official trip to the USSR in April 1957, wanting a full inquiry into the Crabb affair and badgering Lord Hailsham (First Lord of the Admiralty) about the £ 6m being spent on oil storage at Malta.
Eden resigned on 9 January 1957, after his doctors warned him his life was at stake if he continued in office. John Charmley writes "Ill - health... provide (d) a dignified reason for an action (i.e.. resignation) which would, in any event, have been necessary. '' Rothwell writes that "mystery persists '' over exactly how Eden was persuaded to resign, although the limited evidence suggests that Butler, who was expected to succeed him as Prime Minister, was at the centre of the intrigue. Rothwell writes that Eden 's fevers were "nasty but brief and not life - threatening '' and that there may have been "manipulation of medical evidence '' to make Eden 's health seem "even worse '' than it was. Macmillan wrote in his diary that "nature had provided a real health reason '' when a "diplomatic illness '' might otherwise have had to be invented. David Carlton (1981) even suggested that the Palace might have been involved, a suggestion discussed by Rothwell. As early as spring 1954 Eden had been indifferent to cultivating good relations with the new Queen. Eden is known to have favoured a Japanese or Scandinavian style monarchy (i.e. with no involvement in politics whatsoever) and in January 1956 he had insisted that Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin spend only the minimum amount of time in talks with the Queen. Evidence also exists that the Palace were concerned at not being kept fully informed during the Suez Crisis. In the 1960s Clarissa Eden was observed to speak of the Queen "in an extremely hostile and belittling way '', and in an interview in 1976 Eden commented that he "would not claim she was pro-Suez ''.
Although the media expected Butler would get the nod as Eden 's successor, a survey of the Cabinet taken for the Queen showed Macmillan was the nearly unanimous choice, and he became Prime Minister on 10 January 1957. Shortly afterwards Eden and his wife left England for a holiday in New Zealand.
A.J.P. Taylor wrote in the 1970s: "Eden... destroyed (his reputation as a peacemaker) and led Great Britain to one of the greatest humiliations in her history... (he) seemed to take on a new personality. He acted impatiently and on impulse. Previously flexible he now relied on dogma, denouncing Nasser as a second Hitler. Though he claimed to be upholding international law, he in fact disregarded the United Nations Organisation which he had helped to create... The outcome was pathetic rather than tragic ''.
Thorpe has summarised Eden 's central role in the Suez Crisis of 1956:
Eden 's policy had four main aims: first, to secure the Suez Canal; second and consequentially, to ensure continuity of oil supplies; third, to remove Nasser; and fourth, to keep the Russians out of the Middle East. The immediate consequence of the crisis was that the Suez Canal was blocked, oil supplies were interrupted, Nasser 's position as the leader of Arab nationalism was strengthened, and the way was left open for Russian intrusion into the Middle East.
Michael Foot pushed for a special inquiry along the lines of the Parliamentary Inquiry into the Attack on the Dardanelles in the First World War, although Harold Wilson (Labour Prime Minister 1964 -- 70 and 1974 -- 76) regarded the matter as a can of worms best left unopened. This talk ceased after the defeat of the Arab armies by Israel in the Six Day War of 1967, after which Eden received a lot of fanmail telling him that he had been right, and his reputation, not least in Israel and the United States, soared. In 1986 Eden 's official biographer Robert Rhodes James re-evaluated sympathetically Eden 's stance over Suez and in 1990, following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, James asked: "Who can now claim that Eden was wrong? ''. Such arguments turn mostly on whether, as a matter of policy, the Suez operation was fundamentally flawed or whether, as such "revisionists '' thought, the lack of American support conveyed the impression that the West was divided and weak. Anthony Nutting, who resigned as a Foreign Office Minister over Suez, expressed the former view in 1967, the year of the Arab - Israeli Six - Day War, when he wrote that "we had sown the wind of bitterness and we were to reap the whirlwind of revenge and rebellion ''. Conversely, Jonathan Pearson argues in Sir Anthony Eden and the Suez Crisis: Reluctant Gamble (2002) that Eden was more reluctant and less bellicose than most historians have judged. D.R. Thorpe, another of Eden 's biographers, writes that Suez was "a truly tragic end to his premiership, and one that came to assume a disproportionate importance in any assessment of his careers ''; he suggests that had the Suez venture succeeded, "there would almost certainly have been no Middle East war in 1967, and probably no Yom Kippur War in 1973 also ''.
Guy Millard, one of Eden 's Private Secretaries, who thirty years later, in a radio interview, spoke publicly for the first time on the crisis, made an insider 's judgement about Eden: "It was his mistake of course and a tragic and disastrous mistake for him. I think he overestimated the importance of Nasser, Egypt, the Canal, even of the Middle East itself. '' While British actions in 1956 are routinely described as "imperialistic '', the motivation was in fact economic. Eden was a liberal supporter of nationalist ambitions, such as over Sudanese independence. His 1954 Suez Canal Base Agreement (withdrawing British troops from Suez in return for certain guarantees) was sold to the Conservative Party against Churchill 's wishes.
Rothwell believes that Eden should have cancelled the Suez Invasion plans in mid-October, when the Anglo - French negotiations at the United Nations were making some headway, and that in 1956 the Arab countries threw away a chance to make peace with Israel on her existing borders.
British Government cabinet papers from September 1956, during Eden 's term as Prime Minister, have shown that French Prime Minister Guy Mollet approached the British Government suggesting the idea of an economic and political union between France and Great Britain. This was a similar offer, in reverse, to that made by Churchill (drawing on a plan devised by Leo Amery) in June 1940.
The offer by Guy Mollet was referred to by Sir John Colville, Churchill 's former private secretary, in his collected diaries, The Fringes of Power (1985), his having gleaned the information in 1957 from Air Chief Marshal Sir William Dickson during an air flight (and, according to Colville, after several whiskies and soda). Mollet 's request for Union with Britain was rejected by Eden, but the additional possibility of France joining the Commonwealth of Nations was considered, although similarly rejected. Colville noted, in respect of Suez, that Eden and his Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd "felt still more beholden to the French on account of this offer ''.
Eden resigned from the House of Commons in March 1957. He retained much of his personal popularity in Britain and soon regretted his retirement, and contemplated standing again. Several Conservative MPs were reportedly willing to give up their seats for him, although the party hierarchy were less keen. He finally gave up such hopes in late 1960 after an exhausting speaking tour of Yorkshire. Macmillan initially offered to recommend him for a viscountcy, which Eden assumed to be a calculated insult, and he was granted an earldom (which was then the traditional rank for a former Prime Minister) after reminding Macmillan that he had already been offered one by the Queen herself. He entered the House of Lords as the Earl of Avon in 1961.
In retirement Eden lived in ' Rose Bower ' by the banks of the River Ebble in Broad Chalke, Wiltshire. Starting in 1961 he bred a herd of sixty Herefordshire cattle (one of whom was called "Churchill '') until a further decline in his health forced him to sell them in 1975.
In July 1962 Eden made front - page news by commenting that "Mr Selwyn Lloyd has been horribly treated '' when the latter was dismissed as Chancellor in the reshuffle known as the "Night of the Long Knives ''. In August 1962, at a dinner party, he had a "slanging match '' with Nigel Birch, who as Secretary of State for Air had not wholeheartedly supported the Suez Invasion. In 1963 Eden initially favoured Hailsham for the Conservative leadership but then supported Home as a compromise candidate.
From 1945 to 1973, Eden was Chancellor of the University of Birmingham. In a television interview in 1966 he called on the United States to halt its bombing of North Vietnam to concentrate on developing a peace plan "that might conceivably be acceptable to Hanoi. '' The bombing of North Vietnam, he argued, would never settle the conflict in South Vietnam. "On the contrary, '' he declared, "bombing creates a sort of David and Goliath complex in any country that has to suffer -- as we had to, and as I suspect the Germans had to, in the last war. '' Eden sat for extensive interviews for the famed multi-part Thames Television production, The World at War, which was first broadcast in 1973. He also featured frequently in Marcel Ophüls ' 1969 documentary Le chagrin et la pitié, discussing the occupation of France in a wider geopolitical context. He spoke impeccable, if accented, French.
Eden 's occasional articles and his early 1970s television appearance were an exception to an almost total retirement. He seldom appeared in public, unlike other former Prime Ministers, e.g. James Callaghan who commented frequently on current affairs. He was even accidentally omitted from a list of Conservative Prime Ministers by Margaret Thatcher when she became Conservative Leader in 1975, although she later went out of her way to establish relations with Eden and, later, his widow. In retirement he was highly critical of regimes such as Sukarno 's Indonesia which confiscated assets belonging to their former colonial rulers, and appears to have reverted somewhat to the right - wing views which he had espoused in the 1920s.
In retirement Eden corresponded with Selwyn Lloyd, coordinating the release of information and with which writers they would agree to speak and when. Rumours that Britain had colluded with France and Israel appeared, albeit in garbled form, as early as 1957. By the 1970s they had agreed that Lloyd would only tell his version of the story after Eden 's death (in the event, Lloyd would outlive Eden by a year, struggling with terminal illness to complete his own memoirs).
In retirement Eden was particularly bitter that Eisenhower had initially indicated British and French troops should be allowed to remain around Port Said, only for the US ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr to press for an immediate withdrawal at the UN, thereby rendering the operation a complete failure. Eden felt the Eisenhower administration 's unexpected opposition was hypocritical in light of the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état.
Eden published three volumes of political memoirs, in which he denied that there had been any collusion with France and Israel. Like Churchill, Eden relied heavily on the ghost - writing of young researchers, whose drafts he would sometimes toss angrily into the flowerbeds outside his study. One of them was the young David Dilks.
In his view, American Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, whom he particularly disliked, was responsible for the ill fate of the Suez adventure. In an October press conference, barely three weeks before the fighting began, Dulles had coupled the Suez Canal issue with colonialism, and his statement infuriated Eden and much of the UK as well. "The dispute over Nasser 's seizure of the canal, '' wrote Eden, "had, of course, nothing to do with colonialism, but was concerned with international rights. '' He added that "if the United States had to defend her treaty rights in the Panama Canal, she would not regard such action as colonialism. '' His lack of candour further diminished his standing and a principal concern in his later years was trying to rebuild his reputation that was severely damaged by Suez, sometimes taking legal action to protect his viewpoint.
Eden faulted the United States for forcing him to withdraw, but he took credit for United Nations action in patrolling the Israeli - Egyptian borders. Eden said of the invasion, "Peace at any price has never averted war. We must not repeat the mistakes of the pre-war years, by behaving as though the enemies of peace and order are armed with only good intentions. '' Recalling the incident in a 1967 interview, he declared, "I am still unrepentant about Suez. People never look at what would have happened if we had done nothing. There is a parallel with the 1930s. If you allow people to break agreements with impunity, the appetite grows to feed on such things. I do n't see what other we ought to have done. One can not dodge. It is hard to act rather than dodge. '' In his 1967 interview (which he stipulated would not be used until after his death), Eden acknowledged secret dealings with the French and "intimations '' of the Israeli attack. He insisted, however, that "the joint enterprise and the preparations for it were justified in the light of the wrongs it (the Anglo - French invasion) was designed to prevent. '' "I have no apologies to offer, '' Eden declared.
At the time of his retirement, Eden had been short of money, although he was paid a £ 100,000 advance for his memoirs by The Times, with any profit over this amount to be split between himself and the newspaper. By 1970, they had brought him £ 185,000 (around £ 3,000,000 at 2014 prices), leaving him a wealthy man for the first time in his life. Towards the end of his life, he published a personal memoir of his early life, Another World (1976).
On 5 November 1923, shortly before his election to Parliament, he married Beatrice Beckett, then aged only 18. They had three sons: Simon Gascoigne (1924 -- 1945), Robert, who died fifteen minutes after being born in October 1928, and Nicholas (1930 -- 1985).
The marriage was not a success, with both parties apparently conducting affairs. By the mid-1930s his diaries seldom mention Beatrice. The marriage finally broke up under the strain of the loss of their son Simon, who was killed in action with the RAF in Burma in 1945. His plane was reported "missing in action '' on 23 June and found on 16 July; Eden did not want the news to be public until after the election result on 26 July, to avoid claims of "making political capital '' from it.
Between 1946 and 1950, whilst separated from his wife, Eden conducted an open affair with Dorothy, Countess Beatty, the wife of David, Earl Beatty.
Eden was the great - great - grandnephew of author Emily Eden and in 1947, wrote an introduction to her novel The Semi-Attached Couple (1860).
In 1950, Eden and Beatrice were finally divorced, and in 1952, he married Churchill 's niece Clarissa Spencer - Churchill, a nominal Roman Catholic who was fiercely criticised by Catholic writer Evelyn Waugh for marrying a divorced man. Eden 's second marriage was much more successful than his first had been.
Eden had an ulcer, exacerbated by overwork, as early as the 1920s. His life was changed by a medical mishap: during an operation on 12 April 1953, to remove gallstones, his bile duct was damaged, leaving Eden susceptible to recurrent infections, biliary obstruction, and liver failure. The physician consulted at the time was the royal physician, Sir Horace Evans, 1st Baron Evans. Three surgeons were recommended and Eden chose the one that had previously performed his appendectomy, John Basil Hume, surgeon from St Bartholomew 's Hospital. Eden suffered from cholangitis, an abdominal infection which became so agonising that he was admitted to hospital in 1956 with a temperature reaching 106 ° F (41 ° C). He required major surgery on three or four occasions to alleviate the problem.
He was also prescribed Benzedrine, the wonder drug of the 1950s. Regarded then as a harmless stimulant, it belongs to the family of drugs called amphetamines, and at that time they were prescribed and used in a very casual way. Among the side effects of Benzedrine are insomnia, restlessness, and mood swings, all of which Eden suffered during the Suez Crisis; indeed, earlier in his premiership he complained of being kept awake at night by the sound of motor scooters. Eden 's drug use is now commonly agreed to have been a part of the reason for his bad judgment while Prime Minister. The Thorpe biography, however, denied Eden 's abuse of Benzedrine, stating that the allegations were "untrue, as is made clear by Eden 's medical records at Birmingham University, not yet (at the time) available for research ''.
The resignation document written by Eden for release to the Cabinet on 9 January 1957 admitted his dependence on stimulants but not that they affected his judgement during the Suez crisis in the autumn of 1956. "... I have been obliged to increase the drugs (taken after the "bad abdominal operations '') considerably and also increase the stimulants necessary to counteract the drugs. This has finally had an adverse effect on my precarious inside, '' he wrote. However, in his book The Suez Affair (1966), historian Hugh Thomas, quoted by David Owen, CH, PC, FRCP, claimed that Eden had revealed to a colleague that he was "practically living on Benzedrine '' at the time.
In December 1976, Eden felt well enough to travel with his wife to the United States to spend Christmas and New Year with Averell and Pamela Harriman, but after reaching the States his health rapidly deteriorated. Prime Minister James Callaghan arranged for an RAF plane that was already in America to divert to Miami, to fly Eden home.
Eden died from liver cancer in Salisbury on 14 January 1977, aged 79. He was survived by Clarissa.
He was buried in St Mary 's churchyard at Alvediston, just three miles upstream from ' Rose Bower ', at the source of the River Ebble. Eden 's papers are housed at the University of Birmingham Special Collections.
At his death, Eden was the last surviving member of Churchill 's War Cabinet. Eden 's surviving son, Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon (1930 -- 1985), known as Viscount Eden from 1961 to 1977, was also a politician and a minister in the Thatcher government until his premature death from AIDS at the age of 54.
Eden, who was well - mannered, well - groomed, and good - looking, always made a particularly cultured appearance. This gave him huge popular support throughout his political life, but some contemporaries felt he was merely a superficial person lacking any deeper convictions.
That view was enforced by his very pragmatic approach to politics. Sir Oswald Mosley, for example, said he never understood why Eden was so strongly pushed by the Tory party, as he felt that Eden 's abilities were very much inferior to those of Harold Macmillan and Oliver Stanley. In 1947, Dick Crossman called Eden "that peculiarly British type, the idealist without conviction ''.
US Secretary of State Dean Acheson regarded Eden as a quite old - fashioned amateur in politics typical of the British Establishment. In contrast, Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev commented that until his Suez adventure Eden had been "in the top world class ''.
Eden was heavily influenced by Stanley Baldwin when he first entered Parliament. After earlier combative beginnings, he cultivated a low - key speaking style which relied heavily on rational argument and consensus - building rather than rhetoric and party point - scoring, and which was often highly effective in the House of Commons. However, he was not always an effective public speaker, and his parliamentary performances sometimes disappointed many of his followers, e.g., after Eden 's resignation from Chamberlain 's government. Churchill once even commented on one of Eden 's speeches that the latter had used every cliché except "God is love ''. This was deliberate: Eden often struck out original phrases from speech drafts and replaced them with clichés.
Eden 's inability to express himself clearly is often attributed to shyness and lack of self - confidence. Eden is known to have been much more direct in meeting with his secretaries and advisers than in Cabinet meetings and public speeches, and sometimes tended to become enraged and behave "like a child '', only to regain his temper within a few minutes. Many who worked for him remarked that he was "two men '', one charming, erudite, and hard - working, the other petty and prone to temper tantrums during which he would insult his subordinates.
As Prime Minister, Eden was notorious for telephoning ministers and newspaper editors from 6 am onwards. Rothwell writes that even before Suez, the telephone had become "a drug '' and that "During the Suez Crisis Eden 's telephone mania exceeded all bounds ''.
Eden was notoriously "unclubbable '' and offended Churchill by declining to join The Other Club. He also declined honorary membership in the Athenaeum. However, he maintained friendly relations with Opposition MPs; for example, George Thomas received a kind two - page letter from Eden on learning that his stepfather had died. Eden was a Trustee of the National Gallery (in succession to MacDonald) between 1935 and 1949. He also had a deep knowledge of Persian poetry and of Shakespeare and would bond with anybody who could display similar knowledge.
Rothwell writes that although Eden was capable of acting with ruthlessness; for instance, over the repatriation of the Cossacks in 1945, his main concern was to avoid being seen as "an appeaser '' or over the Soviet reluctance to accept a democratic Poland in October 1944. Like many people, Eden persuaded himself that his past actions were more consistent than they had in fact been.
Recent biographies put more emphasis on Eden 's achievements in foreign policy and perceive him to have held deep convictions regarding world peace and security as well as a strong social conscience. Rhodes James applies to Eden Churchill 's famous verdict on Lord Curzon (in Great Contemporaries): "The morning had been golden; the noontime was bronze; and the evening lead. But all was solid, and each was polished until it shone after its fashion ''.
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who did houston rockets play in the finals | Houston Rockets - wikipedia
The Houston Rockets are an American professional basketball team based in Houston, Texas. The Rockets compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA), as a member of the league 's Western Conference Southwest Division. The team plays its home games at the Toyota Center, located in downtown Houston. The Rockets have won two NBA championships and four Western Conference titles. The team was established as the San Diego Rockets, an expansion team originally based in San Diego, in 1967. In 1971, the Rockets moved to Houston.
The Rockets won only 15 games in their debut season as a franchise in 1967. In the 1968 NBA draft, the Rockets, picking first overall, selected power forward Elvin Hayes, who would lead the team to its first playoff appearance in his rookie season. The Rockets did not finish a season with a winning record until the 1976 -- 77 season, when they traded for center Moses Malone. Malone went on to win the NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) award twice and led Houston to the conference finals in his first year with the team. He also led the Rockets to the NBA Finals in 1981 where they were defeated in six games by the Boston Celtics, led by Larry Bird and future Rockets coach Kevin McHale.
In 1984, the Rockets drafted center Hakeem Olajuwon, who would be paired with 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) Ralph Sampson, forming one of the tallest front courts in the NBA. Nicknamed the "Twin Towers '', they led the team to the 1986 NBA Finals -- the second NBA Finals appearance in franchise history -- where Houston was again defeated by the Boston Celtics. The Rockets continued to reach the playoffs throughout the 1980s, but failed to advance past the first round for several years following a second - round defeat to the Seattle SuperSonics in 1987. Rudy Tomjanovich took over as head coach midway through the 1991 -- 92 season, ushering in the most successful period in franchise history. The Olajuwon - led Rockets went to the 1994 NBA Finals and won the franchise 's first championship against Patrick Ewing and the New York Knicks. The following season, reinforced by another All - Star, Clyde Drexler, the Rockets repeated as champions with a four - game sweep of the Orlando Magic, who were led by a young Shaquille O'Neal and Penny Hardaway. Houston, which was seeded sixth in the Western Conference during the 1995 playoffs, became the lowest - seeded team in NBA history to win the title.
The Rockets acquired all - star forward Charles Barkley in 1996, but the presence of three of the NBA 's 50 greatest players of all - time (Olajuwon, Drexler, and Barkley) was not enough to propel Houston past the Western Conference Finals. Each one of the aging trio had left the team by 2001, and the Rockets of the early 2000s, led by superstars Tracy McGrady and Yao Ming, followed the trend of consistent regular season respectability followed by playoff underachievement as both players struggled with injuries. After Yao 's early retirement in 2011, the Rockets entered a period of rebuilding, completely dismantling and retooling their roster. The acquisition of franchise player James Harden in 2012 has launched the Rockets back into championship contention in the mid-2010s.
Moses Malone, Hakeem Olajuwon and James Harden have been named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player while playing for the Rockets, for a total of four MVP awards. The Rockets, under general manager Daryl Morey, are notable for popularizing the use of advanced statistical analytics (similar to sabermetrics in baseball) in player acquisitions and style of play.
The Rockets were founded in 1967 in San Diego by Robert Breitbard, who paid an entry fee of US $1.75 million to join the NBA as an expansion team for the 1967 -- 68 season. The NBA wanted to add more teams in the Western United States, and chose San Diego based on the city 's strong economic and population growth, along with the local success of an ice hockey team owned by Breitbard, the San Diego Gulls. The resulting contest to name the franchise chose the name "Rockets '', which paid homage to San Diego 's theme of "a city in motion '' and the local arm of General Dynamics developing the Atlas missile and booster rocket program. Breitbard brought in Jack McMahon, then coach of the Cincinnati Royals, to serve as the Rockets ' coach and general manager. The team, that would join the league along with the Seattle SuperSonics, then built its roster with both veteran players at an expansion draft, and college players from the 1967 NBA draft, where San Diego 's first ever draft pick was Pat Riley. The Rockets lost 67 games in their inaugural season, which was an NBA record for losses in a season at the time.
In 1968, after the Rockets won a coin toss against the Baltimore Bullets to determine who would have the first overall pick in the 1968 NBA draft, they selected Elvin Hayes from the University of Houston. Hayes improved the Rockets ' record to 37 wins and 45 losses, enough for the franchise 's first ever playoff appearance in 1969, but the Rockets lost in the semi-finals of the Western Division to the Atlanta Hawks, four games to two. Despite the additions of Calvin Murphy and Rudy Tomjanovich and the management of Hall of Fame coach Alex Hannum, the Rockets tallied a 67 -- 97 record in the following two seasons and did not make the playoffs in either season. Because of the low performance and attendance, Breitbard looked to sell the team, and in 1971, Texas Sports Investments bought the franchise for $5.6 million, and moved the team to Houston. The franchise became the first NBA team in Texas, and the nickname "Rockets '' took on even greater relevance after the move, given Houston 's long connection to the space industry.
Before the start of the 1971 -- 72 season, Hannum left for the Denver Rockets of the American Basketball Association -- later renamed Denver Nuggets, who joined the NBA in 1976 -- and Tex Winter was hired in his place. However, Winter 's clashes with Hayes, due to a system that contrasted with the offensive style to which Hayes was accustomed, made Hayes ask for a trade, leaving for the Baltimore Bullets at the end of the 1971 -- 72 season.
It was also around this time that the Rockets would unveil their classic yellow and red logo and accompanying uniforms used until the end of the 1994 -- 95 season. Winter left soon after, being fired in January 1973 following a ten - game losing streak, and was replaced by Johnny Egan. Egan led the Rockets back to the playoffs in 1975, where the franchise also won their first round against the New York Knicks, subsequently losing to the veteran Boston Celtics in 5 games. At that time the Rockets gained popularity in Houston, selling out several home games during the regular season as the Rockets battled for a playoff spot and then selling out all of their home playoff games.
In the 1975 -- 76 season the Rockets finally had a permanent home in Houston as they moved into The Summit, which they would call home for the next 29 years. During the period, the franchise was owned by Kenneth Schnitzer, developer of the Greenway Plaza which included The Summit. After missing the 1976 playoffs, Tom Nissalke was hired as a coach, and pressed the team to add a play - making guard in college standout John Lucas and a rebounding center through Moses Malone, who he had coached in the ABA. The additions had an immediate impact, with the 1976 -- 77 Rockets winning the Central Division and going all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals, losing to the Julius Erving 's Philadelphia 76ers 4 games to 2. The following season had the team regressing to just 28 wins due to an injury to captain Tomjanovich, who got numerous facial fractures after being punched by Kermit Washington of the Los Angeles Lakers and wound up spending five months in rehabilitation. After trading Lucas to the Golden State Warriors in exchange for Rick Barry, the Rockets returned to the playoffs in 1978 -- 79, with "The Chairman Of The Boards '' Moses Malone receiving the 1979 MVP Award, but the team was swept 2 -- 0 by Atlanta in the first round. Nissalke was let go, and assistant Del Harris was promoted to head coach.
In 1979, George Maloof, a businessperson from Albuquerque, New Mexico, bought the Rockets for $9 million. He died the following year, and while the Maloof family expressed interest in selling the team, George 's 24 - year - old son Gavin took over the Rockets. A buyer was eventually found in 1982 as businessman Charlie Thomas and Sidney Shlenker purchased the franchise for $11 million. The Maloof period of ownership marked the first dominant period of the Rockets, highlighted by the team 's first NBA Finals appearance in 1981. Prior to the 1980 -- 81 season, the arrival of the Dallas Mavericks led to an NBA realignment that sent the Rockets back to the Western Conference. Houston qualified for the playoffs only in the final game of the season with a 40 -- 42 record. The postseason had the Rockets beat the Lakers, in - state rivals San Antonio Spurs, and the equally underdog Kansas City Kings to become only the second team in NBA history (after the 1959 Minneapolis Lakers) to have advanced to the Finals after achieving a losing record in the regular season. In the final round facing Larry Bird 's Boston Celtics in the finals round, the Rockets blew a late lead in Game 1 and won Game 2 at the Boston Garden. However, afterwards the team failed to capitalize on the early success against the favored Celtics, and eventually lost in six games.
While new owner Charlie Thomas expressed interest in renewing with Moses Malone, who had been again chosen as MVP in 1981 -- 82, the Rockets traded him to the Philadelphia 76ers for Caldwell Jones, as a declining regional economy made the Rockets unable to pay Malone 's salary. When the Rockets finished a league worst 14 -- 68, Celtics coach Bill Fitch was hired to replace outgoing Del Harris, and the team won the first pick of the 1983 NBA draft, used to select Ralph Sampson from the University of Virginia. Sampson had good numbers and was awarded the NBA Rookie of the Year award, but the Rockets still finished last overall, again getting the top pick at the upcoming 1984 NBA draft, used to select Hakeem Olajuwon from the University of Houston.
In his first season, Olajuwon finished second to Michael Jordan in NBA Rookie of the Year balloting, and the Rockets record improved by 19 games, good enough for a return to the playoffs as the third best team in the West, where they were upset by the sixth - seeded Utah Jazz. The Olajuwon and Sampson duo earned much praise, and was nicknamed "Twin Towers ''. In the following season, Houston won the Midwest Division title with a 51 -- 31 record. The subsequent playoffs had the Rockets sweeping the Sacramento Kings, having a hard - fought six - game series with Alex English 's Denver Nuggets, and then facing defending champion Lakers, losing the first game but eventually managing to win the series -- the only Western Playoffs defeat of the Showtime Lakers -- to get to the franchise 's second Finals appearance. The NBA Finals once again matched the Rockets up against the Celtics, a contrast to Houston 's young front challenging the playoff - hardened Celtics front court of Larry Bird, Kevin McHale and Robert Parish. The Celtics won the first two games in Boston, gave the Rockets their only home playoff defeat that season in game 4, and clinched the title as Bird scored a triple - double on Game 6.
After the Finals, Boston coach K.C. Jones called the Rockets "the new monsters on the block '' feeling they had a bright future. But the team had a poor start to the following season amidst players getting injured or suspended for cocaine usage, and during the playoffs were defeated in the second round by Seattle SuperSonics in six games, with the final game being a double - overtime classic that saw Olajuwon notching 49 points, 25 rebounds and 6 blocks in defeat. Early in the 1987 -- 88 season, Sampson, who had signed a new contract, was traded to the Golden State Warriors, bringing the Twin Towers era to an end just 18 months after their Finals appearance. Sampson 's once - promising career was shortened due to chronic knee injuries, which forced his retirement in 1991. Jones ' prophecy of a Rockets dynasty never materialized until the early 1990s.
In the next five seasons, the Rockets either failed to qualify for the playoffs or were eliminated in the first round. The first elimination in 1988 led to Fitch 's dismissal, with Don Chaney replacing him as head coach. Chaney, like Olajuwon, also played for the Houston Cougars under Guy Lewis, having played along Elvin Hayes in the late 1960s. Chaney had his best season during 1990 -- 91, where he was named the Coach of the Year after leading the Rockets to a 52 - 30 record despite Olajuwon 's absence due to injury for 25 games. Despite Olajuwon 's usual strong numbers, the underwhelming roster could not be lifted out of mediocrity. However, the attempts to rebuild the team nucleus incorporated players that would later make an impact in the years to come, such as Kenny Smith, Vernon Maxwell, Robert Horry, Mario Elie, Sam Cassell and Otis Thorpe.
Midway through the 1991 -- 92 season, with the Rockets ' record only 26 -- 26, Chaney was fired and replaced by his assistant Rudy Tomjanovich, a former Houston player himself. While the Rockets did not make the playoffs, Tomjanovich 's arrival was considered a step forward. In the next year, the Rockets improved their record by 13 games, getting the Midwest Division title, and winning their first playoff series in 6 years by defeating the Los Angeles Clippers, before an elimination by the SuperSonics in a closely contested Game 7 overtime loss.
On July 30, 1993, Leslie Alexander purchased the Rockets for $85 million. Following the bitter Game 7 loss in Seattle in overtime, Olajuwon gathered the team and famously stated "we go from here ''. The next season, in Tomjanovich 's second full year as head coach, the Rockets began the 1993 -- 94 season by tying an NBA record with a start of 15 -- 0. Led by Olajuwon, who was named the MVP and Defensive Player of the Year, the Rockets won 58 games, a franchise record at the time. After quickly dispatching the Portland Trail Blazers (who had made the finals just two years prior) in 4 games, they then faced the defending Western Conference champion Phoenix Suns, led by the previous year 's MVP Charles Barkley. The series opened up in Houston, which saw the Rockets open up a big lead going into the fourth quarter. In both games, however, the Rockets inexplicably collapsed to allow the Suns a 2 - 0 lead going back to Phoenix. Following recent heart - breaking playoff losses by the Houston Oilers, it appeared as though the Rockets were doomed. Local newspapers labeled Houston as "Choke City '', which the Rockets took to heart and ultimately came back to win the series in seven games. As "Choke City '' became "Clutch City '', the name permanently became a part of Houston folklore. The Rockets then soon defeated John Stockton and Karl Malone 's Utah Jazz in five in the Conference Finals to advance to their third finals. The New York Knicks opened a 3 - 2 advantage, but the Rockets won the last two games on their home court and claimed their first championship in franchise history. Olajuwon was awarded the Finals MVP, after averaging 27 points, nine rebounds and four blocked shots a game.
The Rockets initially struggled in the first half of the 1994 -- 95 season, which they fixed by sending Otis Thorpe to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Olajuwon 's former college teammate Clyde Drexler. With only 47 wins, the Rockets entered the playoffs as the sixth seed in the Western Conference. Still, a strong playoff run that earned Houston the nickname "Clutch City '' had the Rockets defeating the West 's top three seeds -- the Jazz, Suns and Spurs -- to reach back - to - back finals, this time against the Orlando Magic, led by Shaquille O'Neal and Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway. When Houston swept the series in four straight games, they became the first team in NBA history to win the championship as a sixth seed, and the first to beat four 50 - win teams in a single postseason en route to the championship. Olajuwon was again the Finals MVP, only the second player after Michael Jordan to win the award two years in a row. It was on the floor of The Summit after they captured their second title that head coach Rudy Tomjanovich proclaimed, "Do n't ever underestimate the heart of a champion! ''
During the off - season, the Rockets went for a change of visual identity, making navy blue and silver the new primary colors while adopting a new cartoon - inspired logo and pinstriped jerseys. The Rockets won 48 games in the 1995 -- 96 season, in which Olajuwon became the NBA 's all - time leader in blocked shots. The playoffs had the Rockets beating the Lakers before a sweep by the SuperSonics.
Before the start of the succeeding season, the Rockets sent four players to Phoenix in exchange for Charles Barkley. The resulting "Big Three '' of Olajuwon, Drexler, and Barkley had a strong debut season with a 57 -- 25 record, going all the way to the Western Conference finals before losing to the Utah Jazz 4 -- 2 on a dramatic last - second shot by John Stockton. The following season was marked by injuries, and Houston finished 41 -- 41 and the 8th seed, leading to another elimination by the top - seeded Jazz.
Drexler retired after the season, and the Rockets traded to bring in Scottie Pippen to take his place. In the lockout - shortened 1998 -- 99 season, the Rockets lost to the Lakers in the first round of the playoffs. After the 1999 draft, the Rockets traded for the second overall pick Steve Francis from the Vancouver Grizzlies, in exchange for four players and a first - round draft pick. However, after Houston traded a discontented Pippen to Portland, and Barkley suffered a career - ending injury, the rebuilt Rockets went 34 -- 48 and missed the playoffs, for only the second time in 15 years.
In the 2000 -- 01 season, the Rockets worked their way to a 45 -- 37 record. However, in a competitive Western Conference where seven teams won 50 games, this left the Rockets two games out of the playoffs. In the following off - season, a 38 - year - old Olajuwon requested a trade, and, despite stating their desire to keep him, the Rockets reached a sign - and - trade agreement, sending him to the Toronto Raptors. The ensuing 2001 -- 02 season -- the first without Hakeem in two decades -- was unremarkable, and the Rockets finished with only 28 wins.
After Houston was awarded the first overall pick in the 2002 NBA draft, they selected Yao Ming, a 7 feet 6 inches (2.29 m) Chinese center. The Rockets missed the 2003 playoffs by one game, improving their record by 15 victories.
The 2003 -- 04 season marked the Rockets ' arrival to a new arena, the Toyota Center, a redesign of their uniforms and logo, and their first season without Rudy Tomjanovich, who resigned as head coach after being diagnosed with bladder cancer. Led by former Knicks coach Jeff Van Gundy, the Rockets finished the regular season with a record of 45 -- 37, earning their first playoff berth since 1999, again losing to the Lakers in the first round.
In the off - season, Houston saw major changes in the roster as the Rockets acquired Tracy McGrady in a seven - player deal with the Orlando Magic. The scoring champion McGrady and the strong rebounder Yao formed a well - regarded pair that helped the Rockets win 22 consecutive games in the 2007 -- 08 season, which was at the time the 3rd longest winning streak in NBA history. Still, the duo was plagued with injuries -- of the 463 regular season games for which they were teammates, Yao missed 146 and McGrady 160 -- and did not win any playoff series, despite gathering leads over the Dallas Mavericks in 2005 and the Jazz in 2007. After the 2007 elimination, Van Gundy was fired, and the Rockets hired Rick Adelman to replace him.
For the 2008 -- 09 season, the Rockets signed forward Ron Artest. While McGrady wound up playing only half the games before enduring a season - ending microfracture surgery, the Rockets ended the season 53 -- 29, enough for the Western Conference 's fifth seed. During the playoffs, the Rockets beat the Portland Trail Blazers four games to two, winning their first playoff round since 1997. During the series, Dikembe Mutombo injured his knee, which forced him to retire after 18 seasons in the NBA. However, the second round against the Lakers had the Rockets losing 4 - 3 and Yao Ming suffering yet another season - ending injury, this time a hairline fracture in his left foot.
During the 2009 -- 10 season, the Rockets saw the departures of Artest in the off - season and McGrady, Joey Dorsey and Carl Landry during mid-season trades. Despite great play by Kevin Martin, who arrived from the Kings, and Aaron Brooks, who would eventually be chosen as the Most Improved Player of the season, the Rockets could not make it to the playoffs, finishing 42 -- 40, 3rd in the Southwest Division. At that time, the Rockets set an NBA record for best record by a team with no All - Stars. The Rockets would also finish ninth in the Western Conference for the following two seasons, with Yao Ming getting a season - ending injury seven games into the 2010 -- 11 season and deciding to retire during the 2011 off - season. Said off - season, which saw the NBA going through a lockout, had Adelman dismissed, and general manager Daryl Morey deciding to start a revamp of the Rockets based on advanced statistical analytics (similar to sabermetrics in baseball) in player acquisitions and style of play. Kevin McHale was named head coach, and the roster saw significant changes.
After the roster moves made by Morey during the 2012 NBA off - season, only four players were left from the 2011 -- 12 Rockets roster: Chandler Parsons, Greg Smith, Marcus Morris and Patrick Patterson, with the latter two leaving through trades during the 2012 -- 13 season. The most important acquisition was reigning sixth man of the year James Harden, who Morey called a "foundational '' player which he expected to be Houston 's featured player after a supporting role in the Oklahoma City Thunder. Harden caused an immediate impact as part of the starting lineup for the Rockets, with 37 points, 12 assists, 6 rebounds, 4 steals, and a block in the season opener against the Detroit Pistons, and an average of 25.9 points a game through the season. Combining Harden 's performance and McHale 's up - tempo offense, the Rockets became one of the highest scoring offenses in the NBA, leading the league in scoring for the majority of the season. In the postseason, the Rockets fell to the Oklahoma City Thunder in the first round, losing the series 4 -- 2.
Eager to add another franchise player to their team, the Rockets heavily pursued Jeremy Lin, the first American of Taiwanese and Chinese descent to play in the National Basketball Association (NBA), led the Knicks to seven straight victories while establishing an NBA scoring record in July 2012. Also, they pursued free agent center Dwight Howard in the 2013 off - season. He officially signed with the Rockets on July 13, 2013. Led by the new inside - out combination of Howard and James Harden, and with a strong supporting cast including Chandler Parsons, Jeremy Lin, and Ömer Aşık, the Rockets were expected to jump into title contention in the upcoming season. However, that postseason, the Rockets were defeated in the first round by the Portland Trail Blazers, losing the series 4 -- 2. Still, in the 2014 -- 15 season, without Lin and Parsons but reinforced by Trevor Ariza, the Rockets started the season well, winning the first four games of the season for the first time since 1996 -- 97, and winning each of their first six games by 10 points or more, the first team to accomplish this feat since the 1985 -- 86 Denver Nuggets. While the Rockets had many key players miss time throughout the entire season, James Harden took it upon himself to keep the Rockets near the top of the conference, turning him into an MVP front - runner. He became the first Rocket to score 50 points in a game since Hakeem Olajuwon, as well as the only player in franchise history to record multiple 50 point games in a season. On April 15, 2015, the Rockets beat the Jazz to claim their first ever Southwest Division title and first Division crown since 1994, and by completing 56 wins finished with the third - best regular season record in franchise history. During the playoffs, the Rockets beat the Mavericks 4 -- 1 in the first round, and overcame a 3 -- 1 deficit against the Los Angeles Clippers to win the Western Semifinals and return to the Conference Finals for the first time in 18 years. In the Conference Finals, the Rockets were defeated by the Golden State Warriors 4 -- 1.
The 2015 -- 16 season saw Kevin McHale fired after a bad start where the team only won 4 of its first 11 games, and assistant J.B. Bickerstaff took over coaching duties. Inconsistent play led to the Rockets struggling to remain in the playoff qualifying zone, and surrounded by trade rumors. Houston only clinched its 2016 playoffs spot by winning its last game, finishing the season 41 -- 41 to earn an eight seed and a match - up against the Warriors. Like in the previous year, the Rockets were once again defeated by Golden State in 5 games.
During the 2016 off - season, Mike D'Antoni was named as the Rockets ' new head coach, and Dwight Howard opted out of his contract 's final year, becoming a free agent. In the following free - agency period, the Rockets looked to embrace the play styles of both coach D'Antoni and Harden through the signings of Ryan Anderson and Eric Gordon, two predominately perimeter players and good fits in Houston 's up - tempo offense style.
When the 2016 -- 17 season started, Harden was off to a great start and was widely considered a top MVP runner along with Kawhi Leonard, alongside former teammate Russell Westbrook. When the season ended, the Rockets were third in both the Western Conference and overall rankings, a major improvement from the season before. D'Antoni was named the NBA Coach of the Year, Eric Gordon the Sixth Man of the Year, and Harden finished second in MVP voting to Russell Westbrook. In the playoffs, the Rockets faced the sixth seeded Oklahoma City Thunder in a battle of the MVP frontrunners, as the winner was not announced until after the finals. The Rockets won the series 4 -- 1 including Nene Hilario 's perfect 12 -- 12 in field goals in Game 4. In the following round, Houston opened with a dominating 27 points win over the San Antonio Spurs, lost the following two games and then tied the series again. Game 5 went into overtime and had both Manu Ginobili blocking James Harden 's game tying three point attempt at the final second, and Nene injuring himself out of the postseason. Without Nene, the Rockets could not guard LaMarcus Aldridge, who scored 34 points and grabbed 12 rebounds in the series - closing match.
During the 2017 off - season, the Rockets were purchased by Houston restaurant billionaire Tilman Fertitta for $2.2 billion, breaking the record for the price to purchase an American professional sports team. The team also acquired 8 time All - NBA player and 9 time All - Star Chris Paul in a trade from the Los Angeles Clippers, in exchange for seven players, cash considerations, and a top three protected 2018 first round draft pick. Even if Paul missed many games due to a knee injury, he was a key addition to the Rockets. The team finished the season with 65 wins, a record both league - leading and the best in franchise history. During the playoffs, Houston easily beat the Minnesota Timberwolves and Utah Jazz before another confrontation with the Golden State Warriors. In game 5 of the Conference Finals, the Rockets took a 3 -- 2 lead in the series, but saw Paul leave with an injured hamstring. His absence was felt in the two remaining games, where Houston led by halftime only to suffer a comeback by Golden State.
List of the last five seasons completed by the Rockets. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Houston Rockets seasons.
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, % = Winning percentage
During the four years the Rockets were in San Diego, they played their games in the San Diego Sports Arena, which had a seating capacity of 14,400. In their first season after moving to Houston, the Rockets did not have their own arena, and they played their first two years at various venues in the city, including the Astrodome, AstroHall, Sam Houston Coliseum and Hofheinz Pavilion, the latter eventually being adopted as their home arena until 1975. They also had to play "home '' games in other cities such as San Antonio, Waco, Albuquerque, and even San Diego in efforts to extend the fan - base. During their first season, the Rockets averaged less than 5,000 fans per game (roughly half full), and in one game in Waco, there were only 759 fans in attendance.
Their first permanent arena in Houston was the 10,000 seat Hofheinz Pavilion on the campus of the University of Houston, which they moved into starting in their second season. They played in the arena for four years, before occupying The Summit in 1975. The arena, which could hold 16,611 spectators, was their home for the next 28 years. It was renamed the Compaq Center from 1998 to 2003. Following the 1994 title, the Rockets had a sellout streak of 176 consecutive home games, including the playoffs, which lasted until 1999. However, the struggling 2000 -- 01 and 2001 -- 02 seasons saw Houston having the worst attendance average in the league, with less than 12,000 spectators each season.
For the 2003 -- 04 season, the Rockets moved into their new arena, the Toyota Center, with a seating capacity of 18,500. During the 2007 -- 08 season where the team achieved a 22 - game winning streak, the Rockets got their best numbers to date, averaging 17,379 spectators. These were exceeded once James Harden joined the team in 2013. The Rockets averaged 18,123 spectators during the 2013 -- 14 season, selling out 39 out of the 41 home games. The 2014 -- 15 season had even better numbers, with 40 sellouts and an average of 18,230 tickets sold.
When the Rockets debuted in San Diego, their colors were green and gold. Road uniforms featured the city name, while the home uniforms feature the team name, both in a serifed block lettering. This was the only uniform design the Rockets would use throughout their years in San Diego. The Rockets ' first logo featured a rocket streaking with a basketball surrounded by the team name.
Upon moving to Houston in 1971, the Rockets replaced green with red. They kept the same design from their San Diego days, save for the change of color and city name. The logo used is of a player with a spinning basketball launching upward, with boosters on his back, leaving a trail of red and gold flames and the words "Houston Rockets '' below it.
For the 1972 -- 73 season, the Rockets introduced the famous "mustard and ketchup '' logo, so dubbed by fans, featuring a gold basketball surrounded by two red trails, with "Houston '' atop the first red trail and "Rockets '' (all capitalized save for the lowercase ' E ' and ' T ') in black surrounding the basketball. The initial home uniforms, used until the 1975 -- 76 season, features the city name, numbers and serifed player name in red with gold trim, while the away uniforms feature the city name (all capitalized except for the lower case ' T ' and ' N '), numbers and serifed player name in gold with white trim.
In the 1976 -- 77 season, the Rockets modified their uniforms, featuring a monotone look on the Cooper Black fonts and white lettering on the road uniforms. On the home shorts, the team logo is located on the right leg, while the away shorts feature the team name wordmark on the same location. With minor modifications in the number font, this version was used in all four of their NBA Finals appearances, including their 1994 and 1995 championships.
Following the 1995 title, the Rockets opted to modernize their look. After a fan contest with over 5,000 entries, the team went with the idea of Missouri City artist Thomas Nash of a rocket orbiting a basketball, which was then reworked by Houston designer Chris Hill. Nash would later sue the Rockets for breach of contract, given they were using his idea despite not having paid the contest prizes. The NBA suggested that the identity should follow the cartoon - inspired imagery that other teams adopted during the 1990s, leading to a rocket painted with sharkmouth nose art orbiting a basketball. Red was retained, but navy blue and silver became the uniform 's primary colors. Both the home white and away navy uniforms featured gradient - fading pinstripes and futuristic number fonts, with side stripes of navy fading to red. This was used until the 2002 -- 03 season.
The Rockets ' current logos and uniforms were introduced in the 2003 -- 04 season, created by New York - based agency Alfafa Studio in association with Japanese designer Eiko Ishioka. The logo is a stylized ' R ' in the shape of a rocket during takeoff, surrounded by a red orbit streak that can be interpreted as the central circle of a basketball court. Said "R '' inspired the team 's new custom typeface, designed so that every single digit could be read well from a distance, whether in the arena or on television. Red once again became the dominant color, with silver and black as secondary. In 2009, the Rockets invoked the championship years with an alternate red uniform, featuring gold numbers and side stripes. The Rockets had two sleeved alternate jerseys for the 2015 -- 16 season, an alternate silver - colored uniform whose design referenced the design of NASA 's Gemini - Titan rocket, and a red and gold jersey featuring the nickname "Clutch City ''. For the 2016 -- 17 season, the Rockets began to wear a black alternate uniform.
Following the switch to Nike in 2017, the Rockets made some slight tweaks to the uniform. While the black "Statement '' uniform remained mostly unchanged, the red "Icon '' and white "Association '' uniforms now feature truncated side striping that no longer wrap around the shoulders. The Rockets also wore a "City '' uniform that was similar to their red "Icon '' uniforms but with Chinese lettering in place of "Rockets '' in front.
The mascot of the Houston Rockets in the 1980s was called Booster. From 1993 to 1995, the mascot was Turbo, a costumed man that performed acrobatic dunks and other maneuvers. In 1995, the Rockets debuted Clutch the Bear as a second mascot, a large teddy bear - like mascot that performs a variety of acts during the games. After eight years of serving as dual mascots, the performer playing Turbo retired, making Clutch the sole mascot for the team.
The Rockets have developed many rivalries within the Western Conference ever since the team returned there in 1980. Two are intrastate rivalries, with the San Antonio Spurs, who moved along with the Rockets after four years with them in the Eastern Conference, and the Dallas Mavericks, introduced that very season. Houston faced both Texas teams in playoffs since 1980, beating the Spurs three times and losing once. The Rockets lost twice to the Mavericks, while beating them once. Other famed rivalries were with the Los Angeles Lakers, who in the 1980s Showtime era only missed the NBA Finals when beaten by the Rockets, and the Utah Jazz, who the Rockets beat in both championship seasons but were defeated by Utah in five other occasions.
NBA Most Valuable Player Award
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Scoring Champions
NBA Defensive Player of the Year
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Sixth Man of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
All - Star
All - Star head coach
All - Star Game MVP
Bold denotes still active with team. Italics denotes still active but not with team.
Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Other Statistics (regular season) (as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 07 -- 25
The Rockets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
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write an algorithm of insertion sort in descending order | Insertion sort - wikipedia
Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array (or list) one item at a time. It is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, heapsort, or merge sort. However, insertion sort provides several advantages:
When people manually sort cards in a bridge hand, most use a method that is similar to insertion sort.
Insertion sort iterates, consuming one input element each repetition, and growing a sorted output list. At each iteration, insertion sort removes one element from the input data, finds the location it belongs within the sorted list, and inserts it there. It repeats until no input elements remain.
Sorting is typically done in - place, by iterating up the array, growing the sorted list behind it. At each array - position, it checks the value there against the largest value in the sorted list (which happens to be next to it, in the previous array - position checked). If larger, it leaves the element in place and moves to the next. If smaller, it finds the correct position within the sorted list, shifts all the larger values up to make a space, and inserts into that correct position.
The resulting array after k iterations has the property where the first k + 1 entries are sorted ("+ 1 '' because the first entry is skipped). In each iteration the first remaining entry of the input is removed, and inserted into the result at the correct position, thus extending the result:
becomes
with each element greater than x copied to the right as it is compared against x.
The most common variant of insertion sort, which operates on arrays, can be described as follows:
Pseudocode of the complete algorithm follows, where the arrays are zero - based:
The outer loop runs over all the elements except the first one, because the single - element prefix A (0: 1) is trivially sorted, so the invariant that the first i + 1 entries are sorted is true from the start. The inner loop moves element A (i) to its correct place so that after the loop, the first i + 2 elements are sorted. Note that the and - operator in the test must use short - circuit evaluation, otherwise the test might get stuck with an array bounds error, when j = 0 and it tries to evaluate A (j - 1) > A (j) (i.e. accessing A (- 1) fails).
After expanding the swap operation in - place as x ← A (j); A (j) ← A (j - 1); A (j - 1) ← x (where x is a temporary variable), a slightly faster version can be produced that moves A (i) to its position in one go and only performs one assignment in the inner loop body:
The new inner loop shifts elements to the right to clear a spot for x = A (i).
The algorithm can also be implemented in a recursive way. The recursion just replaces the outer loop, calling itself and storing successively smaller values of n on the stack until n equals 0, where the function then returns back up the call chain to execute the code after each recursive call starting with n equal to 1, with n increasing by 1 as each instance of the function returns to the prior instance. The initial call would be insertionSortR (A, length (A) - 1).
The best case input is an array that is already sorted. In this case insertion sort has a linear running time (i.e., O (n)). During each iteration, the first remaining element of the input is only compared with the right-most element of the sorted subsection of the array.
The simplest worst case input is an array sorted in reverse order. The set of all worst case inputs consists of all arrays where each element is the smallest or second - smallest of the elements before it. In these cases every iteration of the inner loop will scan and shift the entire sorted subsection of the array before inserting the next element. This gives insertion sort a quadratic running time (i.e., O (n)).
The average case is also quadratic, which makes insertion sort impractical for sorting large arrays. However, insertion sort is one of the fastest algorithms for sorting very small arrays, even faster than quicksort; indeed, good quicksort implementations use insertion sort for arrays smaller than a certain threshold, also when arising as subproblems; the exact threshold must be determined experimentally and depends on the machine, but is commonly around ten.
Example: The following table shows the steps for sorting the sequence (3, 7, 4, 9, 5, 2, 6, 1). In each step, the key under consideration is underlined. The key that was moved (or left in place because it was biggest yet considered) in the previous step is marked with an asterisk.
Insertion sort is very similar to selection sort. As in selection sort, after k passes through the array, the first k elements are in sorted order. However, the fundamental difference between the two algorithms is that for selection sort these are the k smallest elements of the unsorted input, while in insertion sort they are simply the first k elements of the input. The primary advantage of insertion sort over selection sort is that selection sort must always scan all remaining elements to find the absolute smallest element in the unsorted portion of the list, while insertion sort requires only a single comparison when the k + 1th element is greater than the kth element; when this is frequently true (such as if the input array is already sorted or partially sorted), insertion sort is distinctly more efficient compared to selection sort. On average (assuming the rank of the k + 1th element rank is random), insertion sort will require comparing and shifting half of the previous k elements, meaning insertion sort will perform about half as many comparisons as selection sort on average. In the worst case for insertion sort (when the input array is reverse - sorted), insertion sort performs just as many comparisons as selection sort. However, a disadvantage of insertion sort over selection sort is that it requires more writes due to the fact that, on each iteration, inserting the k + 1th element into the sorted portion of the array requires many element swaps to shift all of the following elements, while only a single swap is required for each iteration of selection sort. In general, insertion sort will write to the array O (n) times, whereas selection sort will write only O (n) times. For this reason selection sort may be preferable in cases where writing to memory is significantly more expensive than reading, such as with EEPROM or flash memory.
While some divide - and - conquer algorithms such as quicksort and mergesort outperform insertion sort for larger arrays, non-recursive sorting algorithms such as insertion sort or selection sort are generally faster for very small arrays (the exact size varies by environment and implementation, but is typically between seven and fifty elements). Therefore, a useful optimization in the implementation of those algorithms is a hybrid approach, using the simpler algorithm when the array has been divided to a small size.
D.L. Shell made substantial improvements to the algorithm; the modified version is called Shell sort. The sorting algorithm compares elements separated by a distance that decreases on each pass. Shell sort has distinctly improved running times in practical work, with two simple variants requiring O (n) and O (n) running time.
If the cost of comparisons exceeds the cost of swaps, as is the case for example with string keys stored by reference or with human interaction (such as choosing one of a pair displayed side - by - side), then using binary insertion sort may yield better performance. Binary insertion sort employs a binary search to determine the correct location to insert new elements, and therefore performs ⌈ log (n) ⌉ comparisons in the worst case, which is O (n log n). The algorithm as a whole still has a running time of O (n) on average because of the series of swaps required for each insertion.
The number of swaps can be reduced by calculating the position of multiple elements before moving them. For example, if the target position of two elements is calculated before they are moved into the right position, the number of swaps can be reduced by about 25 % for random data. In the extreme case, this variant works similar to merge sort.
A variant named binary merge sort uses a binary insertion sort to sort groups of 32 elements, followed by a final sort using merge sort. It combines the speed of insertion sort on small data sets with the speed of merge sort on large data sets.
To avoid having to make a series of swaps for each insertion, the input could be stored in a linked list, which allows elements to be spliced into or out of the list in constant - time when the position in the list is known. However, searching a linked list requires sequentially following the links to the desired position: a linked list does not have random access, so it can not use a faster method such as binary search. Therefore, the running time required for searching is O (n) and the time for sorting is O (n). If a more sophisticated data structure (e.g., heap or binary tree) is used, the time required for searching and insertion can be reduced significantly; this is the essence of heap sort and binary tree sort.
In 2006 Bender, Martin Farach - Colton, and Mosteiro published a new variant of insertion sort called library sort or gapped insertion sort that leaves a small number of unused spaces (i.e., "gaps '') spread throughout the array. The benefit is that insertions need only shift elements over until a gap is reached. The authors show that this sorting algorithm runs with high probability in O (n log n) time.
If a skip list is used, the insertion time is brought down to O (log n), and swaps are not needed because the skip list is implemented on a linked list structure. The final running time for insertion would be O (n log n).
List insertion sort is a variant of insertion sort. It reduces the number of movements.
If the items are stored in a linked list, then the list can be sorted with O (1) additional space. The algorithm starts with an initially empty (and therefore trivially sorted) list. The input items are taken off the list one at a time, and then inserted in the proper place in the sorted list. When the input list is empty, the sorted list has the desired result.
The algorithm below uses a trailing pointer for the insertion into the sorted list. A simpler recursive method rebuilds the list each time (rather than splicing) and can use O (n) stack space.
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who played the role of dia in aaja nachle | Aaja Nachle - Wikipedia
Aaja Nachle (Hindi: आजा नचले English: Come, Let 's Dance) is a 2007 Indian film. It was released in India and in the United States on 30 November 2007. The film stars Madhuri Dixit in her first film after five years, alongside Konkona Sen Sharma, Jugal Hansraj, Akshaye Khanna and Kunal Kapoor in pivotal roles. The film opened to mixed reviews and was declared a Flop by Box Office India.
Dia (Madhuri Dixit) is a choreographer who lives in New York with her daughter Radha. One day she receives word that her old dance teacher, Makarand, is dying. She returns to her hometown Shamli with Radha, to find that he has already died and left her the responsibility of saving the deserted dance theatre, Ajanta, which is to be demolished to make way for a shopping mall.
Shamli has changed a great deal since Dia left. Her parents left the town in shame a decade ago, after she eloped with an American photographer, and their house is now owned by the strict Mr Chojar and his wife. Her childhood friend Najma is married to Farooque, a successful businessman. Both of them greet Dia coldly. The only ally she has left is her old friend Doctor Saab. To save Ajanta, Dia goes to petition the local MP Raja Uday Singh. He issues her a challenge; if she can put on a successful performance using only people from Shamli, he will cancel the demolition.
That night Dia dances in Ajanta and afterwards calls on the people to help her put up a performance of the famous Laila - Majnu play. Jeering at her, they leave the theatre one by one, but Raja remains behind, reminding her of the challenge. Refusing to accept defeat, Dia goes out into the street the next day to scout for talent. When she returns to the theatre she finds that a group of thugs are burning the set, after being ordered by a local election candidate, Chaudhary Om Singh. Instead of being angry, she is intrigued by the ring - leader, Imran, and makes a deal with Chaudhary - she will help him win the next election, if he will support Ajanta and if Imran plays Majnu. He agrees and Imran is forced to take on the role. After finding out about the casting of Imran, many girls flock to the theatre for the part of Laila. Among them is Anokhi, a tomboy who is in love with Imran. She begs Dia, who is reluctant because of her rough appearance and lack of talent, but agrees in the end, thinking that her love for Imran will make her the ideal Laila. Other parts in the play go to Mr Chojar, who wants to prove to his wife that he is not boring, Chaudhary who plays Laila 's father and Dia 's former fiancé Mohan, who is able to overcome his bitterness towards her.
With one month to put the show together, Dia struggles to get Imran and Anokhi to work together. With Dia 's support, Anokhi changes her attitude and appearance to get Imran to take her seriously and soon their relationship deepens. A few days before the show, Farooque pays Chaudhary to abandon Ajanta and makes Najma spread hurtful stories about Dia. Chaudhary tries to get Imran to give up his part, but Imran is aware of Chaudhary 's political intentions and refuses, leading him to be attacked by Chaudhary 's men while Anokhi tries to protect him. With the whole town against her, Dia loses hope until Najma arrives to apologise and asks to be in the show.
On the night of the show, Dia is amazed to find that the entire town has come to Ajanta. The troupe put on a performance that amazes and excites the audience, including Chaudhary who is moved to tears. Farooque is stunned to see his wife playing the part of Laila 's mother and Mrs Chojar is shocked and thrilled when her husband appears singing and dancing on stage. At the end, the audience cheers loudly as the cast return to the stage for an encore. The night is a success and Ajanta is saved.
After Dia says her farewells to Shamli, she and Radha leave to find her parents in another part of India. Imran and Anokhi go on to teach dance classes at Ajanta with Doctor Saab 's help and dance becomes an inherent part of Shamli once again. Raja is seen watching Dia dance and it is implied that they develop a romance.
Shooting began on 15 January 2007 at Film City in Mumbai and ended in March 2007. Madhuri Dixit told that during the shoot of Aaja Nachle, she was given special attention by the crew. Madhuri 's favourite chocolates were brought everyday on the shoot.
The film 's soundtrack was released on 18 October 2007 composed by Salim - Sulaiman and lyrics by Jaideep Sahni and Piyush Mishra. A few songs from the final sequence of the movie have not been included on the soundtrack including "Yeh Ishq ''.
The film 's music was well received. This soundtrack debuted at number 9 for the first week. The song "O Re Piya '' was later used in the 2009 Malaysian movie Talentime.
and other dance classmates with Steve taking pictures
Aaja Nachle opened to a poor response due to controversy. The domestic performance of the film was below average mostly everywhere. Overseas the response was lukewarm as well. Movie managed to collect Rs 207.5 million and was declared a flop by Box Office India.
The film was received with mixed reception from both critics and audiences. The lead performances received mixed reviews. Khalid Mohammed from the Hindustan Times wrote, "Madhuri Dixit has a cool time. Konkona is overacting while Kunal Kapoor is flustered '', while Rajeev Masand from CNN - IBN noted, "Madhuri is the one and only star of the film. Konkona Sen Sharma is nothing short of fantastic. Her greatest strength is that she is n't afraid of making a fool of herself and she does n't worry about being laughed at. As a result, her performance in Aaja Nachle is fearless and uninhibited. '' Madhuri was nominated for the best actress award at the 54th Filmfare awards in 2008.
The movie was banned in Uttar Pradesh, Harayana, Punjab on the 1st three days of its release over alleged casteist remarks. It majorly affected the its Box office Rating Dia, the character played by Madhuri Dixit, sings the lines Mohalle mein kaisi maara - mar hai; bole mochi bhi khud ko sunar hai (translated "There is chaos in the neighborhood, even the Mochi (Cobbler) calls himself a Sunar (Goldsmith) ''. Dalit groups said the line implied that Mochis (the Jatav caste -- a caste of cobblers) were inferior to Sunars (goldsmiths).
Punjab and Haryana followed suit, banning the film the next day. However the ban was later lifted in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana, after a written apology from the producers and the removal of the disputed lyrics (bole mochi bhi khud ko sunar hai) in the title song. The lyrics were replaced by other words mere dar pe deewano ki bahaar hai (translated "there is a parade of lovers at my doorstep ''). However, a ban was imposed in the city of Patna on 2 December 2007. The issue was also raised in the Indian Parliament (Lok Sabha) by RPI member Ramdas Athawale who sought a ban by the government for hurting Dalit sentiments, but Information and Broadcasting Minister Priya Ranjan Dasmunsi said that it was the responsibility of state governments to take any such action.
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who sang if i can dream with elvis presley | If I Can Dream - wikipedia
"If I Can Dream '' is a song made famous by Elvis Presley, written by Walter Earl Brown and notable for its direct quotations of Martin Luther King, Jr. The song was published by Elvis Presley 's music publishing company Gladys Music, Inc. It was recorded by Presley in June 1968, two months after King 's assassination. The recording was first released to the public as the finale of Presley 's ' 68 Comeback Special.
Although the song is not technically gospel music, Presley performed the song with the intensity and intonations of southern gospel. It has since appeared on various Presley gospel and / or inspirational compilations.
Brown was asked to write a song to replace "I 'll Be Home for Christmas '' as the grand finale on NBC 's "Elvis '' (June 20 -- 23, 1968). He wrote "If I Can Dream '', and when Presley heard it he proclaimed "I 'm never going to sing another song I do n't believe in. I 'm never going to make another picture I do n't believe in. ''
The song was published by Elvis Presley 's company Gladys Music, Inc.
When Colonel Tom Parker heard the song demonstrated by Earl Brown, he said: "This ai n't Elvis ' kind of song. '' Elvis was also there, unbeknownst to him, and he said: "I 'd like to try it, man. '' Earl Brown said that when Elvis recorded the song, Brown saw tears rolling down the cheeks of the three back up singers. One of them whispered to him: "Elvis has never sung with so much emotion before. He means every word. ''
Band - related errors prevented the first take from becoming the master. After filming for the TV special was completed for its eventual editing, then broadcast in December of the year, the song was released as a single - "If I Can Dream / Edge of Reality '' - in November 1968. It charted on Billboard 's Hot 100 for 13 weeks, peaking at # 12, with more than one million sales; though the RIAA has only certified the song as gold (500,000 units shipped) as of March 27, 1992. In Canada the song peaked at 6 on RPM 's top singles chart, lasting more than several weeks.
The song has appeared in many Presley compilations since its release, a number of which are related to the ' 68 Comeback Special or Inspirational meshes. Sony BMG remastered the song in 2004, for future compilations. The song is referred to as stereo mix (as opposed to the 2004 remaster honorific) in ' 68 Comeback Special releases after 2004. Other compilations, such as Platinum - A Life In Music, include alternative takes on the song that are not as polished as the official takes. For instance, the background vocalists are not present in most of these takes, specifically with "If I Can Dream ''.
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abstract data type in data structure in c | Abstract data type - wikipedia
In computer science, an abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for data types, where a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data, and are the point of view of an implementer, not a user.
Formally, an ADT may be defined as a "class of objects whose logical behavior is defined by a set of values and a set of operations ''; this is analogous to an algebraic structure in mathematics. What is meant by "behavior '' varies by author, with the two main types of formal specifications for behavior being axiomatic (algebraic) specification and an abstract model; these correspond to axiomatic semantics and operational semantics of an abstract machine, respectively. Some authors also include the computational complexity ("cost ''), both in terms of time (for computing operations) and space (for representing values). In practice many common data types are not ADTs, as the abstraction is not perfect, and users must be aware of issues like arithmetic overflow that are due to the representation. For example, integers are often stored as fixed width values (32 - bit or 64 - bit binary numbers), and thus experience integer overflow if the maximum value is exceeded.
ADTs are a theoretical concept in computer science, used in the design and analysis of algorithms, data structures, and software systems, and do not correspond to specific features of computer languages -- mainstream computer languages do not directly support formally specified ADTs. However, various language features correspond to certain aspects of ADTs, and are easily confused with ADTs proper; these include abstract types, opaque data types, protocols, and design by contract. ADTs were first proposed by Barbara Liskov and Stephen N. Zilles in 1974, as part of the development of the CLU language.
For example, integers are an ADT, defined as the values..., − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2,..., and by the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, together with greater than, less than, etc., which behave according to familiar mathematics (with care for integer division), independently of how the integers are represented by the computer. Explicitly, "behavior '' includes obeying various axioms (associativity and commutativity of addition etc.), and preconditions on operations (can not divide by zero). Typically integers are represented in a data structure as binary numbers, most often as two 's complement, but might be binary - coded decimal or in ones ' complement, but the user is abstracted from the concrete choice of representation, and can simply use the data as data types.
An ADT consists not only of operations, but also of values of the underlying data and of constraints on the operations. An "interface '' typically refers only to the operations, and perhaps some of the constraints on the operations, notably pre-conditions and post-conditions, but not other constraints, such as relations between the operations.
For example, an abstract stack, which is a last - in - first - out structure, could be defined by three operations: push, that inserts a data item onto the stack; pop, that removes a data item from it; and peek or top, that accesses a data item on top of the stack without removal. An abstract queue, which is a first - in - first - out structure, would also have three operations: enqueue, that inserts a data item into the queue; dequeue, that removes the first data item from it; and front, that accesses and serves the first data item in the queue. There would be no way of differentiating these two data types, unless a mathematical constraint is introduced that for a stack specifies that each pop always returns the most recently pushed item that has not been popped yet. When analyzing the efficiency of algorithms that use stacks, one may also specify that all operations take the same time no matter how many data items have been pushed into the stack, and that the stack uses a constant amount of storage for each element.
Abstract data types are purely theoretical entities, used (among other things) to simplify the description of abstract algorithms, to classify and evaluate data structures, and to formally describe the type systems of programming languages. However, an ADT may be implemented by specific data types or data structures, in many ways and in many programming languages; or described in a formal specification language. ADTs are often implemented as modules: the module 's interface declares procedures that correspond to the ADT operations, sometimes with comments that describe the constraints. This information hiding strategy allows the implementation of the module to be changed without disturbing the client programs.
The term abstract data type can also be regarded as a generalized approach of a number of algebraic structures, such as lattices, groups, and rings. The notion of abstract data types is related to the concept of data abstraction, important in object - oriented programming and design by contract methodologies for software development.
An abstract data type is defined as a mathematical model of the data objects that make up a data type as well as the functions that operate on these objects. There are no standard conventions for defining them. A broad division may be drawn between "imperative '' and "functional '' definition styles.
In the philosophy of imperative programming languages, an abstract data structure is conceived as an entity that is mutable -- meaning that it may be in different states at different times. Some operations may change the state of the ADT; therefore, the order in which operations are evaluated is important, and the same operation on the same entities may have different effects if executed at different times -- just like the instructions of a computer, or the commands and procedures of an imperative language. To underscore this view, it is customary to say that the operations are executed or applied, rather than evaluated. The imperative style is often used when describing abstract algorithms. (See The Art of Computer Programming by Donald Knuth for more details)
Imperative - style definitions of ADT often depend on the concept of an abstract variable, which may be regarded as the simplest non-trivial ADT. An abstract variable V is a mutable entity that admits two operations:
with the constraint that
As in so many programming languages, the operation store (V, x) is often written V ← x (or some similar notation), and fetch (V) is implied whenever a variable V is used in a context where a value is required. Thus, for example, V ← V + 1 is commonly understood to be a shorthand for store (V, fetch (V) + 1).
In this definition, it is implicitly assumed that storing a value into a variable U has no effect on the state of a distinct variable V. To make this assumption explicit, one could add the constraint that
More generally, ADT definitions often assume that any operation that changes the state of one ADT instance has no effect on the state of any other instance (including other instances of the same ADT) -- unless the ADT axioms imply that the two instances are connected (aliased) in that sense. For example, when extending the definition of abstract variable to include abstract records, the operation that selects a field from a record variable R must yield a variable V that is aliased to that part of R.
The definition of an abstract variable V may also restrict the stored values x to members of a specific set X, called the range or type of V. As in programming languages, such restrictions may simplify the description and analysis of algorithms, and improve their readability.
Note that this definition does not imply anything about the result of evaluating fetch (V) when V is un-initialized, that is, before performing any store operation on V. An algorithm that does so is usually considered invalid, because its effect is not defined. (However, there are some important algorithms whose efficiency strongly depends on the assumption that such a fetch is legal, and returns some arbitrary value in the variable 's range.)
Some algorithms need to create new instances of some ADT (such as new variables, or new stacks). To describe such algorithms, one usually includes in the ADT definition a create () operation that yields an instance of the ADT, usually with axioms equivalent to
This axiom may be strengthened to exclude also partial aliasing with other instances. On the other hand, this axiom still allows implementations of create () to yield a previously created instance that has become inaccessible to the program.
As another example, an imperative - style definition of an abstract stack could specify that the state of a stack S can be modified only by the operations
with the constraint that
Since the assignment V ← x, by definition, can not change the state of S, this condition implies that V ← pop (S) restores S to the state it had before the push (S, x). From this condition and from the properties of abstract variables, it follows, for example, that the sequence
where x, y, and z are any values, and U, V, W are pairwise distinct variables, is equivalent to
Here it is implicitly assumed that operations on a stack instance do not modify the state of any other ADT instance, including other stacks; that is,
An abstract stack definition usually includes also a Boolean - valued function empty (S) and a create () operation that returns a stack instance, with axioms equivalent to
Sometimes an ADT is defined as if only one instance of it existed during the execution of the algorithm, and all operations were applied to that instance, which is not explicitly notated. For example, the abstract stack above could have been defined with operations push (x) and pop (), that operate on the only existing stack. ADT definitions in this style can be easily rewritten to admit multiple coexisting instances of the ADT, by adding an explicit instance parameter (like S in the previous example) to every operation that uses or modifies the implicit instance.
On the other hand, some ADTs can not be meaningfully defined without assuming multiple instances. This is the case when a single operation takes two distinct instances of the ADT as parameters. For an example, consider augmenting the definition of the abstract stack with an operation compare (S, T) that checks whether the stacks S and T contain the same items in the same order.
Another way to define an ADT, closer to the spirit of functional programming, is to consider each state of the structure as a separate entity. In this view, any operation that modifies the ADT is modeled as a mathematical function that takes the old state as an argument, and returns the new state as part of the result. Unlike the imperative operations, these functions have no side effects. Therefore, the order in which they are evaluated is immaterial, and the same operation applied to the same arguments (including the same input states) will always return the same results (and output states).
In the functional view, in particular, there is no way (or need) to define an "abstract variable '' with the semantics of imperative variables (namely, with fetch and store operations). Instead of storing values into variables, one passes them as arguments to functions.
For example, a complete functional - style definition of an abstract stack could use the three operations:
In a functional - style definition there is no need for a create operation. Indeed, there is no notion of "stack instance ''. The stack states can be thought of as being potential states of a single stack structure, and two stack states that contain the same values in the same order are considered to be identical states. This view actually mirrors the behavior of some concrete implementations, such as linked lists with hash cons.
Instead of create (), a functional - style definition of an abstract stack may assume the existence of a special stack state, the empty stack, designated by a special symbol like Λ or "() ''; or define a bottom () operation that takes no arguments and returns this special stack state. Note that the axioms imply that
In a functional - style definition of a stack one does not need an empty predicate: instead, one can test whether a stack is empty by testing whether it is equal to Λ.
Note that these axioms do not define the effect of top (s) or pop (s), unless s is a stack state returned by a push. Since push leaves the stack non-empty, those two operations are undefined (hence invalid) when s = Λ. On the other hand, the axioms (and the lack of side effects) imply that push (s, x) = push (t, y) if and only if x = y and s = t.
As in some other branches of mathematics, it is customary to assume also that the stack states are only those whose existence can be proved from the axioms in a finite number of steps. In the abstract stack example above, this rule means that every stack is a finite sequence of values, that becomes the empty stack (Λ) after a finite number of pops. By themselves, the axioms above do not exclude the existence of infinite stacks (that can be poped forever, each time yielding a different state) or circular stacks (that return to the same state after a finite number of pops). In particular, they do not exclude states s such that pop (s) = s or push (s, x) = s for some x. However, since one can not obtain such stack states with the given operations, they are assumed "not to exist ''.
Aside from the behavior in terms of axioms, it is also possible to include, in the definition of an ADT operation, their algorithmic complexity. Alexander Stepanov, designer of the C++ Standard Template Library, included complexity guarantees in the STL specification, arguing:
The reason for introducing the notion of abstract data types was to allow interchangeable software modules. You can not have interchangeable modules unless these modules share similar complexity behavior. If I replace one module with another module with the same functional behavior but with different complexity tradeoffs, the user of this code will be unpleasantly surprised. I could tell him anything I like about data abstraction, and he still would not want to use the code. Complexity assertions have to be part of the interface.
Abstraction provides a promise that any implementation of the ADT has certain properties and abilities; knowing these is all that is required to make use of an ADT object. The user does not need any technical knowledge of how the implementation works to use the ADT. In this way, the implementation may be complex but will be encapsulated in a simple interface when it is actually used.
Code that uses an ADT object will not need to be edited if the implementation of the ADT is changed. Since any changes to the implementation must still comply with the interface, and since code using an ADT object may only refer to properties and abilities specified in the interface, changes may be made to the implementation without requiring any changes in code where the ADT is used.
Different implementations of the ADT, having all the same properties and abilities, are equivalent and may be used somewhat interchangeably in code that uses the ADT. This gives a great deal of flexibility when using ADT objects in different situations. For example, different implementations of the ADT may be more efficient in different situations; it is possible to use each in the situation where they are preferable, thus increasing overall efficiency.
Some operations that are often specified for ADTs (possibly under other names) are
In imperative - style ADT definitions, one often finds also
The free operation is not normally relevant or meaningful, since ADTs are theoretical entities that do not "use memory ''. However, it may be necessary when one needs to analyze the storage used by an algorithm that uses the ADT. In that case one needs additional axioms that specify how much memory each ADT instance uses, as a function of its state, and how much of it is returned to the pool by free.
Some common ADTs, which have proved useful in a great variety of applications, are
Each of these ADTs may be defined in many ways and variants, not necessarily equivalent. For example, an abstract stack may or may not have a count operation that tells how many items have been pushed and not yet popped. This choice makes a difference not only for its clients but also for the implementation.
An extension of ADT for computer graphics was proposed in 1979: an abstract graphical data type (AGDT). It was introduced by Nadia Magnenat Thalmann, and Daniel Thalmann. AGDTs provide the advantages of ADTs with facilities to build graphical objects in a structured way.
Implementing an ADT means providing one procedure or function for each abstract operation. The ADT instances are represented by some concrete data structure that is manipulated by those procedures, according to the ADT 's specifications.
Usually there are many ways to implement the same ADT, using several different concrete data structures. Thus, for example, an abstract stack can be implemented by a linked list or by an array.
In order to prevent clients from depending on the implementation, an ADT is often packaged as an opaque data type in one or more modules, whose interface contains only the signature (number and types of the parameters and results) of the operations. The implementation of the module -- namely, the bodies of the procedures and the concrete data structure used -- can then be hidden from most clients of the module. This makes it possible to change the implementation without affecting the clients. If the implementation is exposed, it is known instead as a transparent data type.
When implementing an ADT, each instance (in imperative - style definitions) or each state (in functional - style definitions) is usually represented by a handle of some sort.
Modern object - oriented languages, such as C++ and Java, support a form of abstract data types. When a class is used as a type, it is an abstract type that refers to a hidden representation. In this model an ADT is typically implemented as a class, and each instance of the ADT is usually an object of that class. The module 's interface typically declares the constructors as ordinary procedures, and most of the other ADT operations as methods of that class. However, such an approach does not easily encapsulate multiple representational variants found in an ADT. It also can undermine the extensibility of object - oriented programs. In a pure object - oriented program that uses interfaces as types, types refer to behaviors not representations.
As an example, here is an implementation of the abstract stack above in the C programming language.
An imperative - style interface might be:
This interface could be used in the following manner:
This interface can be implemented in many ways. The implementation may be arbitrarily inefficient, since the formal definition of the ADT, above, does not specify how much space the stack may use, nor how long each operation should take. It also does not specify whether the stack state s continues to exist after a call x ← pop (s).
In practice the formal definition should specify that the space is proportional to the number of items pushed and not yet popped; and that every one of the operations above must finish in a constant amount of time, independently of that number. To comply with these additional specifications, the implementation could use a linked list, or an array (with dynamic resizing) together with two integers (an item count and the array size).
Functional - style ADT definitions are more appropriate for functional programming languages, and vice versa. However, one can provide a functional - style interface even in an imperative language like C. For example:
Many modern programming languages, such as C++ and Java, come with standard libraries that implement several common ADTs, such as those listed above.
The specification of some programming languages is intentionally vague about the representation of certain built - in data types, defining only the operations that can be done on them. Therefore, those types can be viewed as "built - in ADTs ''. Examples are the arrays in many scripting languages, such as Awk, Lua, and Perl, which can be regarded as an implementation of the abstract list.
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who has won the most german league titles | Bundesliga - Wikipedia
The Bundesliga (ˈbʊndəsˌliːɡa) (lit. English: "Federal League '', sometimes referred to as the Fußball - Bundesliga (ˈfuːsbal ˈbʊndəsˌliːɡa) or 1. Bundesliga (ˈeːɐ̯stə ˈbʊndəsˌliːɡa)) is a professional association football league in Germany and the football league with the highest average stadium attendance worldwide. At the top of the German football league system, the Bundesliga is Germany 's primary football competition. The Bundesliga comprises 18 teams and operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the 2. Bundesliga. Seasons run from August to May. Most games are played on Saturdays and Sundays, with a few games played on weekdays. All of the Bundesliga clubs qualify for the DFB - Pokal. The winner of the Bundesliga qualifies for the DFL - Supercup.
A total of 54 clubs have competed in the Bundesliga since its founding. Bayern Munich has won the Bundesliga the most, winning the title 26 times. However, the Bundesliga has seen other champions with Borussia Dortmund, Hamburger SV, Werder Bremen, Borussia Mönchengladbach and VfB Stuttgart most prominent among them. The Bundesliga is one of the top national leagues, ranked second in Europe according to UEFA 's league coefficient ranking at the end of the 2016 -- 17 season, based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons. The Bundesliga is the number - one football league in the world in terms of average attendance; out of all sports, its average of 45,134 fans per game during the 2011 -- 12 season was the second highest of any sports league in the world after the National Football League. The Bundesliga is broadcast on television in over 200 countries.
The Bundesliga was founded in 1962 in Dortmund and the first season started in 1963. The structure and organisation of the Bundesliga along with Germany 's other football leagues have undergone frequent changes right up to the present day. The Bundesliga was founded by the Deutscher Fußball - Bund (English: German Football Association), but is now operated by the Deutsche Fußball Liga (English: German Football League).
The Bundesliga is composed of two divisions: the 1. Bundesliga (although it is rarely referred to with the First prefix), and, below that, the 2. Bundesliga (2nd Bundesliga), which has been the second tier of German football since 1974. The Bundesligen (plural) are professional leagues. Since 2008, the 3. Liga (3rd League) in Germany has also been a professional league, but may not be called Bundesliga because the league is run by the German Football Association (DFB) and not, as are the two Bundesligen, by the German Football League (Deutsche Fußball - Liga or DFL).
Below the level of the 3. Liga, leagues are generally subdivided on a regional basis. For example, the Regionalligen are currently made up of Nord (North), Nordost (Northeast), Süd (South), Südwest (Southwest) and West divisions. Below this are thirteen parallel divisions, most of which are called Oberligen (upper leagues) which represent federal states or large urban and geographical areas. The levels below the Oberligen differ between the local areas. The league structure has changed frequently and typically reflects the degree of participation in the sport in various parts of the country. In the early 1990s, changes were driven by the reunification of Germany and the subsequent integration of the national league of East Germany.
Every team in the two Bundesligen must have a licence to play in the league, or else they are relegated into the regional leagues. To obtain a licence, teams must be financially healthy and meet certain standards of conduct as organisations.
As in other national leagues, there are significant benefits to being in the top division:
The 1. Bundesliga is financially strong, and the 2. Bundesliga has begun to evolve in a similar direction, becoming more stable organizationally and financially, and reflecting an increasingly higher standard of professional play.
Internationally, the most well - known German clubs include Bayern Munich, Borussia Dortmund, Schalke 04, Hamburger SV, VfB Stuttgart, Borussia Mönchengladbach, Werder Bremen and Bayer Leverkusen. Hamburger SV is the only club to have played continuously in the Bundesliga since its foundation.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Bundesliga reinstated an earlier German system of promotion and relegation, which had been in use from 1981 until 1991:
From 1992 until 2008, a different system had been used in which the bottom three finishers of the Bundesliga had been automatically relegated, to be replaced by the top three finishers in the 2. Bundesliga. From 1963 until 1981 two, or later three, teams had been relegated from the Bundesliga automatically, while promotion had been decided either completely or partially in promotion play - offs.
The season starts in early August and lasts until late May, with a winter break of six weeks (mid-December through to the end of January). In recent years, games have been played on Saturdays (five games beginning at 3: 30 pm and one game beginning at 6: 30 pm) and Sundays (one game beginning at 3: 30 pm and one game at 5: 30 pm). A new television deal in 2006 reintroduced a Friday game (beginning at 8: 30 pm).
Prior to the formation of the Bundesliga, German football was played at an amateur level in a large number of sub-regional leagues until, in 1949, part - time (semi -) professionalism was introduced and only five regional Oberligen (Premier Leagues) remained. Regional champions and runners - up played a series of playoff matches for the right to compete in a final game for the national championship. On 28 January 1900, a national association, the Deutscher Fußball Bund (DFB) had been founded in Leipzig with 86 member clubs. The first recognised national championship team was VfB Leipzig, who beat DFC Prague 7 -- 2 in a game played at Altona on 31 May 1903.
Through the 1950s, there were continued calls for the formation of a central professional league, especially as professional leagues in other countries began to draw Germany 's best players away from the semi-professional domestic leagues. At the international level the German game began to falter as German teams often fared poorly against professional teams from other countries. A key supporter of the central league concept was national team head coach Sepp Herberger who said, "If we want to remain competitive internationally, we have to raise our expectations at the national level. ''
Meanwhile, in East Germany, a separate league was established with the formation of the DS - Oberliga (Deutscher Sportausschuss Oberliga) in 1950. The league was renamed the Football Oberliga DFV in 1958 and was generally referred to simply as the DDR - Liga or DDR - Oberliga. The league fielded 14 teams with two relegation spots.
The defeat of the national team by Yugoslavia (0 -- 1) in a 1962 World Cup quarter - final game in Chile was one impetus (of many) towards the formation of a national league. At the annual DFB convention under new DFB president Hermann Gösmann (elected that very day) the Bundesliga was created in Dortmund at the Westfalenhallen on 28 July 1962 to begin play starting with the 1963 -- 64 season.
At the time, there were five Oberligen (Premier Leagues) in place representing West Germany 's North, South, West, Southwest, and Berlin. East Germany, behind the Iron Curtain, maintained its separate league structure. 46 clubs applied for admission to the new league. 16 teams were selected based on their success on the field, economic criteria and representation of the various Oberligen.
The first Bundesliga games were played on 24 August 1963. Early favourite 1. FC Köln was the first Bundesliga champion (with 45: 19 points) over second place clubs Meidericher SV and Eintracht Frankfurt (both 39: 25).
Following German reunification, the East German leagues were merged into the West German system. Dynamo Dresden and F.C. Hansa Rostock were seeded into the top - tier Bundesliga division, with other clubs being sorted into lower tiers.
The German football champion is decided strictly by play in the Bundesliga. Each club plays every other club once at home and once away. Originally, a victory was worth two points, with one point for a draw and none for a loss. Since the 1995 -- 96 season, a victory has been worth three points, while a draw remains worth a single point, and zero points are given for a loss. The club with the most points at the end of the season becomes German champion. Currently, the top three clubs in the table qualify automatically for the group phase of the UEFA Champions League, while the fourth - place team enters the Champions League at the third qualifying round (see overview). The two teams at the bottom of the table are relegated into the 2. Bundesliga, while the top two teams in the 2. Bundesliga are promoted. The 16th - placed team (third - last), and the third - placed team in the 2. Bundesliga play a two - leg play - off match. The winner of this match plays the next season in the Bundesliga, and the loser in the 2. Bundesliga.
If teams are level on points, tie - breakers are applied in the following order:
If two clubs are still tied after all of these tie - breakers have been applied, a single match is held at a neutral site to determine the placement. However, this has never been necessary in the history of the Bundesliga.
In terms of team selection, matchday squads must have no more than five non-EU representatives. Seven substitutes are permitted to be selected, from which three can be used in the duration of the game.
The number of German clubs which may participate in UEFA competitions is determined by UEFA coefficients, which take into account the results of a particular nation 's clubs in UEFA competitions over the preceding five years.
Founding member of the Bundesliga Never been relegated from the Bundesliga
In the 2009 -- 10 season, the Bundesliga 's turnover was € 1.7 bn, broken down into match - day revenue (€ 424m), sponsorship receipts (€ 573m) and broadcast income (€ 594m). That year it was the only European football league where clubs collectively made a profit. Bundesliga clubs paid less than 50 % of revenue in players wages, the lowest percentage out of the European leagues. The Bundesliga has the lowest ticket prices and the highest average attendance out of Europe 's five major leagues.
Bundesliga clubs tend to form close associations with local firms, several of which have since grown to big global companies; in a comparison of the leading Bundesliga and Premiership clubs, Bayern Munich received 55 % of its revenue from company sponsorship deals, while Manchester United got 37 %.
Bundesliga clubs are required to be majority - owned by German club members (known as the 50 + 1 rule (de) to discourage control by a single entity) and operate under tight restrictions on the use of debt for acquisitions (a team only receives an operating license if it has solid financials), as a result 11 of the 18 clubs were in the black after the 2008 -- 09 season. By contrast the lax approach of the other major European leagues has resulted in several high - profile teams coming under ownership of tycoons and Middle Eastern billionaires, and a larger number of clubs have high levels of debt.
After 2000 the German Football Association and the Bundesliga mandated that all clubs run a youth academy, with the aim of bolstering the stream of local talent for the club and national team. As of 2010 the Bundesliga and second Bundesliga spend € 75m a year on these youth academies, that train five thousand players aged 12 -- 18, increasing the under - 23 - year - olds in the Bundesliga from 6 % in 2000 to 15 % in 2010. This allows more money to be spent on the players that are bought, and there is a greater chance to buy better instead of average players.
In the first ten years of the second millennium, the Bundesliga is regarded as competitive, as five different teams have won the league title. This contrasts with Spain 's La Liga which is dominated by the "Big Two '' (Barcelona and Real Madrid), and the English Premier League which has seen the "Big Four '' (Manchester United, Chelsea, Liverpool, and Arsenal) finish in the top four for a number of years. This theory has been called into question because of Bayern Munich 's dominance in the 2012 -- 13 to 2016 -- 17 seasons as the Bavarian side is able to spend big to purchase the league 's best players and the Premier League 's four different winners in four seasons.
For a number of years, the clubs in the Bundesliga have been subject to regulations not unlike the UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations agreed upon in September 2009.
At the end of each season, clubs in the Bundesliga must apply to the German Football Federation (DFB) for a licence to participate again the following year; only when the DFB, who have access to all transfer documents and accounts, are satisfied that there is no threat of insolvency do they give approval. The DFB have a system of fines and points deductions for clubs who flout rules and those who go into the red can only buy a player after selling one for at least the same amount. In addition, no individual is allowed to own more than 49 percent of any Bundesliga club, the only exceptions being VfL Wolfsburg, Bayer Leverkusen and current Regionalliga Nordost member FC Carl Zeiss Jena should they ever be promoted to the Bundesliga as they were each founded as factory teams.
Despite the good economic governance, there have still been some instances of clubs getting into difficulties. In 2004, Borussia Dortmund reported a debt of € 118.8 million (£ 83 million). Having won the Champions League in 1997 and a number of Bundesliga titles, Dortmund had gambled to maintain their success with an expensive group of largely foreign players but failed, narrowly escaping liquidation in 2006. In subsequent years, the club went through extensive restructuring to return to financial health, largely with young home - grown players. In 2004 Hertha BSC reported debts of £ 24.7 million and were able to continue in the Bundesliga only after proving they had long term credit with their bank.
The leading German club Bayern Munich made a net profit of just € 2.5 million in 2008 -- 09 season (group accounts, while Schalke 04 made a net loss of € 30.4 million in 2009 financial year. Borussia Dortmund GmbH & Co. KGaA, made a net loss of just € 2.9 million in 2008 -- 09 season.
Based on its per - game average, the Bundesliga is the best - attended association football league in the world; out of all sports, its average of 45,116 fans per game during the 2011 -- 12 season was the second highest of any professional sports league worldwide, behind only the National Football League of the United States. Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund has the highest average attendance of any football club in the world.
Out of Europe 's five major football leagues (Premier League, La Liga, Ligue 1, and Serie A), the Bundesliga has the lowest ticket prices and the highest average attendance. Many club stadia have large terraced areas for standing fans (by comparison, stadia in the English Premier League are all - seaters due to the Taylor Report). Teams limit the number of season tickets to ensure everyone has a chance to see the games live, and the away club has the right to 10 % of the available capacity. Match tickets often double as free rail passes which encourages supporters to travel and celebrate in a relaxed atmosphere. According to Bundesliga chief executive Christian Seifert, tickets are inexpensive (especially for standing room) as "It is not in the clubs ' culture so much (to raise prices). They are very fan orientated ''. Uli Hoeneß, former president of Bayern Munich, was quoted as saying "We do not think the fans are like cows to be milked. Football has got to be for everybody. ''
The spectator figures for league for the last ten seasons:
The Bundesliga TV, radio, internet, and mobile broadcast rights are distributed by DFL Sports Enterprises, a subsidiary of the Deutsche Fußball Liga. The Bundesliga broadcast rights are sold along with the broadcast rights to the Bundesliga Relegation Playoffs, 2. Bundesliga and DFL - Supercup.
TV: From 2017 -- 18 to 2020 -- 21 Bundesliga matches are broadcast on TV in Germany on Sky Germany and Eurosport
Radio VHF radio: ARD radios (selected matches or simulcast on saturday) Internet radio: free for Amazon Prime subscriber (every single match or simulcast) club radios are only available over internet / audio stream
The Bundesliga is broadcast on TV in over 200 countries. In October 2013, 21st Century Fox, via the Fox Sports, Fox International Channels, and Sky plc divisions, acquired television and digital rights to the Bundesliga in 80 territories, including North America and Asia (outside of India and Oceania) for five years, and selected European territories for two years, beginning in the 2015 -- 16 season. CEO James Murdoch explained that the deal was designed to "leverage our unrivaled global portfolio of sports channels to bolster the Bundesliga brand in every corner of the globe. ''
As a result of this partnership, Fox Sports replaced GOL TV as United States rightsholder beginning in the 2015 -- 16 season. Matches are broadcast by Fox Sports 1, Fox Sports 2, Fox Sports Networks and Fox Soccer Plus. Spanish - language telecasts air on Fox Deportes. Matches stream online for subscribers to these channels on participating providers via Fox Sports Go, and are also available through the subscription service Fox Soccer 2Go. In Canada, broadcast rights were sub-licensed to Sportsnet and Sportsnet World.
In the United Kingdom and in Ireland, the Bundesliga is broadcast live on BT Sport. ITV4 broadcasts delayed highlights the following Monday. This arrangement lasts through the 2017 season. In Spain, the Bundesliga is broadcast live on Movistar+.
In 2015, digital TV operator StarTimes acquired exclusive television rights for Sub-Saharan Africa for 5 years starting from 2015 - 2016 season.
In total, 43 clubs have won the German championship, including titles won before the Bundesliga 's inception and those in the East German Oberliga. The record champions are Bayern Munich with 27 titles, ahead of BFC Dynamo Berlin with 10 (all in East Germany) and 1. FC Nürnberg with 9.
The following 12 clubs have won the Bundesliga: Bayern Munich (26 titles), Borussia Mönchengladbach and Borussia Dortmund (5), Werder Bremen (4), Hamburger SV and VfB Stuttgart (3), 1. FC Köln and FC Kaiserslautern (2), TSV 1860 Munich, Eintracht Braunschweig, 1. FC Nürnberg and VfL Wolfsburg (1). No club from former East Germany or Berlin has won the Bundesliga.
In 2004, the honour of "Verdiente Meistervereine '' (roughly "distinguished champion clubs '') was introduced, following a custom first practised in Italy to recognize sides that have won multiple championships or other honours by the display of gold stars on their team badges and jerseys. Each country 's usage is unique and in Germany the practice is to award one star for three titles, two stars for five titles, three stars for 10 titles, and four stars for 20 titles.
The former East German side Dynamo Berlin laid claim to the three stars of a 10 - time champion. They petitioned the league to have their DDR - Oberliga titles recognized, but received no reply. Dynamo eventually took matters into their own hands and emblazoned their jerseys with three stars. This caused some debate given what may be the tainted nature of their championships under the patronage of East Germany 's secret police, the Stasi. The issue also affects other former East German and pre-Bundesliga champions. In November 2005, the DFB allowed all former champions to display a single star inscribed with the number of titles, including all German men 's titles since 1903, women 's titles since 1974 and East German titles.
The DFB format only applies to teams playing below the Bundesliga (below the top two divisions), since the DFL conventions apply in the Bundesliga. BFC Dynamo Berlin have not followed this guideline and continue to wear three stars, rather than a single star inscribed with the number 10. Greuther Fürth unofficially display three (silver) stars for pre-war titles in spite of being in the Bundesliga second division. These stars are a permanent part of their crest. However, Fürth has to leave the stars out on their jersey.
As of June 2010 the following clubs are officially allowed to wear stars while playing in the Bundesliga. The number in parentheses is for Bundesliga titles won.
In addition, a system of one star designation was adopted for use. This system is intended to take into account not only Bundesliga titles but also other (now defunct) national championships. As of July 2014, the following clubs are allowed to wear one star while playing outside the Bundesliga. The number in parentheses is for total league championships won over the course of German football history, and would be displayed within the star. Some teams listed here had different names while winning their respective championships, these names are also noted in parentheses.
* currently member of 1. Bundesliga * * currently member of 2. Bundesliga * * * currently member of 3. Liga
For the first time in 1996, the Bundesliga was given its own logo to distinguish itself. Six years later, the logo was revamped into a portrait orientation, which was used until 2010. A new logo was announced for the 2010 -- 11 season in order to modernise the brand logo for all media platforms. To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Bundesliga, a special logo was developed for the 2012 -- 13 season, featuring a "50 '' and "1963 -- 2013 ''. Following the season, the 2010 logo was restored. In December 2016, it was announced that a new logo would be used for the 2017 -- 18 season, modified slightly for digitisation requirements, featuring a matte look.
As of 1 June 2016
Media related to Fußball - Bundesliga (Germany) at Wikimedia Commons
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who started the technique of plant tissue culture | Plant tissue culture - wikipedia
Plant tissue culture is a collection of techniques used to maintain or grow plant cells, tissues or organs under sterile conditions on a nutrient culture medium of known composition. Plant tissue culture is widely used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micropropagation. Different techniques in plant tissue culture may offer certain advantages over traditional methods of propagation, including:
Plant tissue culture relies on the fact that many plant cells have the ability to regenerate a whole plant (totipotency). Single cells, plant cells without cell walls (protoplasts), pieces of leaves, stems or roots can often be used to generate a new plant on culture media given the required nutrients and plant hormones.
Preparation of plant tissue for tissue culture is performed under aseptic conditions under HEPA filtered air provided by a laminar flow cabinet. Thereafter, the tissue is grown in sterile containers, such as petri dishes or flasks in a growth room with controlled temperature and light intensity. Living plant materials from the environment are naturally contaminated on their surfaces (and sometimes interiors) with microorganisms, so their surfaces are sterilized in chemical solutions (usually alcohol and sodium or calcium hypochlorite) before suitable samples (known as explants) are taken. The sterile explants are then usually placed on the surface of a sterile solid culture medium, but are sometimes placed directly into a sterile liquid medium, particularly when cell suspension cultures are desired. Solid and liquid media are generally composed of inorganic salts plus a few organic nutrients, vitamins and plant hormones. Solid media are prepared from liquid media with the addition of a gelling agent, usually purified agar.
The composition of the medium, particularly the plant hormones and the nitrogen source (nitrate versus ammonium salts or amino acids) have profound effects on the morphology of the tissues that grow from the initial explant. For example, an excess of auxin will often result in a proliferation of roots, while an excess of cytokinin may yield shoots. A balance of both auxin and cytokinin will often produce an unorganised growth of cells, or callus, but the morphology of the outgrowth will depend on the plant species as well as the medium composition. As cultures grow, pieces are typically sliced off and subcultured onto new media to allow for growth or to alter the morphology of the culture. The skill and experience of the tissue culturist are important in judging which pieces to culture and which to discard.
As shoots emerge from a culture, they may be sliced off and rooted with auxin to produce plantlets which, when mature, can be transferred to potting soil for further growth in the greenhouse as normal plants.
The specific differences in the regeneration potential of different organs and explants have various explanations. The significant factors include differences in the stage of the cells in the cell cycle, the availability of or ability to transport endogenous growth regulators, and the metabolic capabilities of the cells. The most commonly used tissue explants are the meristematic ends of the plants like the stem tip, axillary bud tip and root tip. These tissues have high rates of cell division and either concentrate or produce required growth regulating substances including auxins and cytokinins.
Shoot regeneration efficiency in tissue culture is usually a quantitative trait that often varies between plant species and within a plant species among subspecies, varieties, cultivars, or ecotypes. Therefore, tissue culture regeneration can become complicated especially when many regeneration procedures have to be developed for different genotypes within the same species.
The three common pathways of plant tissue culture regeneration are propagation from preexisting meristems (shoot culture or nodal culture), organogenesis and non-zygotic embryogenesis.
The propagation of shoots or nodal segments is usually performed in four stages for mass production of plantlets through in vitro vegetative multiplication but organogenesis is a common method of micropropagation that involves tissue regeneration of adventitious organs or axillary buds directly or indirectly from the explants. Non-zygotic embryogenesis is a noteworthy developmental pathway that is highly comparable to that of zygotic embryos and it is an important pathway for producing somaclonal variants, developing artificial seeds, and synthesizing metabolites. Due to the single cell origin of non-zygotic embryos, they are preferred in several regeneration systems for micropropagation, ploidy manipulation, gene transfer, and synthetic seed production. Nonetheless, tissue regeneration via organogenesis has also proved to be advantageous for studying regulatory mechanisms of plant development.
The tissue obtained from a plant to be cultured is called an explant.
Explants can be taken from many different parts of a plant, including portions of shoots, leaves, stems, flowers, roots, single undifferentiated cells and from many types of mature cells provided are they still contain living cytoplasm and nuclei and are able de-differentiate and resume cell division. This has given rise to the concept of totipotentency of plant cells. (1) However this is not true for all cells or for all plants. In many species explants of various organs vary in their rates of growth and regeneration, while some do not grow at all. The choice of explant material also determines if the plantlets developed via tissue culture are haploid or diploid. Also the risk of microbial contamination is increased with inappropriate explants.
The first method involving the meristems and induction of multiple shoots is the preferred method for the micropropagation industry since the risks of somaclonal variation (genetic variation induced in tissue culture) are minimal when compared to the other two methods. Somatic embryogenesis is a method that has the potential to be several times higher in multiplication rates and is amenable to handling in liquid culture systems like bioreactors.
Some explants, like the root tip, are hard to isolate and are contaminated with soil microflora that become problematic during the tissue culture process. Certain soil microflora can form tight associations with the root systems, or even grow within the root. Soil particles bound to roots are difficult to remove without injury to the roots that then allows microbial attack. These associated microflora will generally overgrow the tissue culture medium before there is significant growth of plant tissue.
Some cultured tissues are slow in their growth. For them there would be two options: (i) Optimizing the culture medium; (ii) Culturing highly responsive tissues or varieties. Necrosis can spoil cultured tissues. Generally, plant varieties differ in susceptibility to tissue culture necrosis. Thus, by culturing highly responsive varieties (or tissues) it can be managed.
Aerial (above soil) explants are also rich in undesirable microflora. However, they are more easily removed from the explant by gentle rinsing, and the remainder usually can be killed by surface sterilization. Most of the surface microflora do not form tight associations with the plant tissue. Such associations can usually be found by visual inspection as a mosaic, de-colorization or localized necrosis on the surface of the explant.
An alternative for obtaining uncontaminated explants is to take explants from seedlings which are aseptically grown from surface - sterilized seeds. The hard surface of the seed is less permeable to penetration of harsh surface sterilizing agents, such as hypochlorite, so the acceptable conditions of sterilization used for seeds can be much more stringent than for vegetative tissues.
Tissue cultured plants are clones. If the original mother plant used to produce the first explants is susceptible to a pathogen or environmental condition, the entire crop would be susceptible to the same problem. Conversely, any positive traits would remain within the line also.
Plant tissue culture is used widely in the plant sciences, forestry, and in horticulture. Applications include:
Although some growers and nurseries have their own labs for propagating plants by the technique of tissue culture, a number of independent laboratories provide custom propagation services. The Plant Tissue Culture Information Exchange lists many commercial tissue culture labs. Since plant tissue culture is a very labour - intensive process, this would be an important factor in determining which plants would be commercially viable to propagate in a laboratory.
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where is late night with seth meyers filmed | Late Night with Seth Meyers - wikipedia
Late Night with Seth Meyers is an American late - night talk show hosted by Seth Meyers on NBC. The show premiered on February 24, 2014 and is produced by Broadway Video and Universal Television. It is the fourth incarnation of NBC 's long - running Late Night franchise. The show also stars bandleader Fred Armisen and the 8 - G Band, the show 's house band. Late Night is produced by former Saturday Night Live producer Mike Shoemaker and executive - produced by Lorne Michaels. The show records from Studio 8G at 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City.
The program generally airs new episodes Monday through Thursday nights at 12: 37 a.m. ET / PT, with repeat airings on Friday nights. The show opens with Meyers ' topical monologue, which he delivers from his desk. The program also contains comedy bits, sketches, interviews with a myriad of guests, and a musical or comedy performance. "A Closer Look, '' a signature segment in which Meyers explores contemporary current events in depth, which has given the show a politically - driven edge. The show attracts an average of 1.5 million viewers nightly.
On January 13, 2016, NBC renewed Meyers ' contract to remain as host through 2021.
The series is the fourth incarnation of the Late Night franchise, originated by David Letterman. Meyers was appointed host when Jimmy Fallon was announced to become the next host of The Tonight Show (currently The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon), where he succeeded the previous host Jay Leno on February 17, 2014. Meyers ' first guests were fellow SNL alum and Weekend Update co-anchor Amy Poehler, Vice President Joe Biden, and musical act A Great Big World. The show 's house band, The 8G Band, features members of the indie bands Les Savy Fav and Girls Against Boys, and is typically led by SNL alum Fred Armisen. Every episode features a coffee mug on Meyers ' desk from a different NBC affiliate.
On September 2, 2014, the show premiered a redesigned set.
Late Night with Seth Meyers originates from NBC Studio 8 - G in the Comcast Building at 30 Rockefeller Center in New York City. The studio is housed directly above Studio 6B, the home of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon; the combination created logistical challenges for executives, who were concerned about "sound bleed '' (as the Comcast Building was built with steel girders, sound is too easily conducted floor to floor). As a result, The Tonight Show tapes at 5: 00pm, and Late Night tapes later in the evening, at 6: 30pm. The studio seats nearly 180 individuals, and is housed directly beside Studio 8H, longtime home of Saturday Night Live. Architectural Digest writes that the stage "strikes an Art Deco tone, with its illuminated proscenium arch reminiscent of the Chrysler Building 's iconic crown. '' Seth 's Late Night has a house band, called The 8G Band, and led by Fred Armisen who also acts as the show 's sidekick. He also performs as backing and co-lead vocals, rhythm guitars, bass and drums. The other personnel in the band are Seth Jabour on lead guitars and backing vocals, Marnie Stern on lead and rhythm guitars and backing vocals, Syd Butler on bass, and Eli Janney on keyboards, programmer and lead vocals. Just before Marnie Stern took over for Fred Armisen as guitarist in 2015, the role of drummer was held by Kimberly Thompson, who has performed trumpets, backing vocals and melodicas since the premiere of Late Night on February 24, 2014.
The show opens with Ron McClary proclaiming "From 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York, it 's Late Night with Seth Meyers! '' and announcing that night 's guests and The 8G Band with Fred Armisen, and / or guest musicians. McClary introduces Meyers with "Ladies and gentlemen, Seth Meyers. '' Previously, the introduction to Meyers was "And now here he is, Seth Meyers! ''. Meyers performs a monologue from his desk based around recent news, punctuating jokes with on - screen images and video. For the first year and a half of the program, Meyers performed a traditional stand - up monologue, before changing to a seated, Weekend Update - style opening monologue. This segment is normally followed by a long - form desk piece, or an interaction with bandleader Fred Armisen. The desk piece then leads to a commercial break. After the first commercial, one of various recurring segments appears, followed by the first of the episode 's guests, which usually include celebrities and actors, literary figures, people in fashion, artists, athletes, and politicians. The first guest may return after the second commercial break, or be followed by the second guest. The third commercial break is normally followed by either a musical guest or a segment featuring that night 's regular guests. Alternatively, a third guest may be featured.
On some occasions, Meyers does not follow this pattern at all; rather, he will perform a monologue followed by a long series of interviews without other segments. This first occurred following the series finale of Parks and Recreation, a long - running NBC sitcom starring Meyers ' former co-anchor and close friend Amy Poehler. This occurred again with the cast of the then - upcoming film Sisters (which coincidentally also starred Poehler), although the episode featured a short desk segment between the monologue and interviews.
The show eventually increased its focus on politics. After Jon Stewart left The Daily Show in 2015, Meyers ' program has gradually moved towards the "longer - form political comedy '' style The Daily Show is known for. In an interview with journalist Chris Hayes, Meyers acknowledged this change, saying that the show was always intended to be politically minded, but when the show started, the creators opted to only gradually work the political material into the content to measure the amount of workload following the 24 - hour news cycle would cause. It 's been described as The Daily Show for people without basic cable.
In July 2016, it was announced that the show would produce two live episodes following the final nights of the Republican and Democratic National Conventions. The show is normally recorded live on tape (primarily), but too early in the day to feature content from each night 's convention. As a result, Meyers opted to host the show live to have the first opportunity for a fresh take on how each convention ended.
The first live episode featured guest Leslie Jones, as well as a live Ya Burnt. One of the roasting topics for the segment was "live television '', in which Meyers stated that he was going to test the Standards & Practices division at NBC to see how well they could censor him live if he used swear words. Ultimately, a few swears were aired in the live version. Meyers also joked with Jones in her interview that she can not swear like she normally does, because the show would be live. Despite this, Jones ultimately did swear in her interview, though the network censor caught it.
The second live episode featured guests Colin Jost, Michael Che, and Jessi Klein. The episode also featured a live "Jokes Seth Ca n't Tell Segment '', in which writer Amber Ruffin used the phrase "bigger dicks though '' as the punchline of a joke. Meyers appeared caught off - guard and chastised her for the use of the word, to which she responded by reminding him that the show is live so the network can not stop them from saying it. Meyers repeated the line offhand later in the segment.
The third live episode followed the first presidential debate of the 2016 general election. Will Forte and Mandy Moore were the guests, with a special appearance by Weekend Update co-anchor Colin Jost. The show opened with a brief monologue, followed by an extended Closer Look segment about the night 's debate. It was the first live episode to go as planned, with no impromptu mishaps or swears.
Late Night with Seth Meyers premiered to high ratings. It debuted to 3.4 million viewers and a 1.4 rating among the key demographic of adults aged 18 -- 49 -- the best ratings for the Late Night franchise since January 2005. Several months into its run, the show averaged 1.5 million viewers nightly, which was slightly down from Fallon 's final average as host. It remained at the same average one year later, in July 2015.
The show initially received mixed reviews. The Hollywood Reporter 's Tim Goodman referred to Meyers ' monologue as "staccato and hit and miss -- sounding more like his ' Weekend Update ' bits rather than a real monologue. '' On the other hand, USA Today 's Robert Bianco felt Meyers was "shifting the show to suit his talents, '' making the show stronger and more traditional than Fallon 's. Reviewing the debut week, The A.V. Club gave a B grade: The show begins with, "essentially, a carbon copy of Meyers ' Weekend Update / ' what 's in the news ' jokes (...) Meyers will settle in to the formulaic parts of this job quickly enough -- he 's a pro, and it shows... '' A month later, Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the program a B+ and wrote, "In his first week, the very smart, very smiley former Saturday Night Live head writer gave stiff monologue, which was basically his Weekend Update newsreader shtick, delivered in his shouty, wiseassy, talk - to - the - camera manner, but standing up; he improved the more he connected with the studio audience. He rolls when sitting down. Meyers seems capable of creating chemistry and having quality chats with anyone, from riding the wild waves of Kanye West to spinning a funny anecdote with pal Brad Paisley about accidentally stealing a Porsche. ''
Reviews have grown more positive as the show has evolved. In 2015, David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the program "quietly (became) a heavy hitter, mixing a solid monologue with great scripted and semi-improvised bits from its writers. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Sophia Hollander, with regard to the show 's emphasis on authors, considered it "something of an intellectual salon, with authors and biting political commentary as well as celebrities. '' Bruce Fretts of New York felt the show distinguished itself from its contemporaries with a heavier focus on politics.
The 2016 election cycle allowed the show to further increase its focus on politics, satirizing the daily news both in the monologue and longform "A Closer Look '' segments. At the behest of NBC executives, Late Night does not attempt to "equally cover '' the news. Rather, jokes and segments are written openly from Meyers ' more liberal viewpoint. This is also, in part, to help distinguish the show from its lead - in, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, which attempts to skewer from an unbiased perspective. Meyers ' transition from broad appeal comedy to his personal views has been critically praised, saying that the show has been able to find its own footing more in these political pieces. Conversely, Jonny Coleman of LA Weekly called Meyers a "purveyor of toxic fluff '' who has "demonstrated zero political efficacy. '' Dave Itzkoff of the New York Times praised "A Closer Look '' and Meyers for embracing a more political style, noting "This approach has helped "Late Night, '' which was drawing more than 1.6 million viewers at the end of last year, stand out in a crowded field of competitors, and has earned Mr. Meyers praise from viewers, critics and his fellow hosts. ''
In MENA Countries, the show airs on OSN First Comedy HD, And re-two hours after the presentation on OSN First Comedy + 2.
The show started airing across Europe on CNBC Europe from November 1, 2016 at 23: 00 GMT (00: 00 CET), as a replacement for the Tonight Show starring Jimmy Fallon which used to occupy the same slot, however from November 2016 the Tonight Show starring Jimmy Fallon has exclusive broadcast rights across Europe on the E! channel so Late Night was chosen as its replacement.
The show airs on CNBC Europe Mondays to Fridays at 22: 30 GMT / BST (23: 30 CET). Episodes now air in an uncut one hour format, airing episodes on a one - day delay from US transmission. On Saturdays and Sundays, episodes of the show air in an uncut one hour format from 20: 00 GMT / BST (21: 00 CET) with three episodes airing on a Saturday and three episodes airing on a Sunday. The weekend episodes are from editions which had aired around a week before across the USA.
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where does publisher clearing house money come from | Publishers Clearing House - wikipedia
Publishers Clearing House (PCH) is a direct marketing company that markets merchandise and magazine subscriptions with sweepstakes, and prize - based games.
Publishers Clearing House was founded in 1953 by Harold Mertz to replace door - to - door magazine subscription sales by a single vendor offering multiple subscriptions by mail. It introduced its sweepstakes in 1967. In the early 1990s, the company was the subject of concerns and legal actions regarding whether consumers were misled about their odds of winning the sweepstakes and whether purchases increased their chances. By 2010, the company had reached settlements with all 50 states.
The company acquired search company Blingo in 2006, online gaming company Funtank in 2010, and mobile marketing company Liquid Wireless in 2012.
Publishers Clearing House was founded in 1953 in Port Washington, New York, by Harold Mertz, a former manager of a door - to - door sales team for magazine subscriptions. The company started in Mertz 's basement with help from his wife LuEsther and daughter Joyce. Its first mailings were of 10,000 envelopes from Mertz 's home in Long Island, New York, and offered 20 magazine subscriptions. 100 orders were received. Within a few years the company moved out of Mertz 's basement into an office building and started hiring staff. When Publishers Clearing House moved its headquarters in 1969, its prior location was donated to the city and renamed the Harold E. Mertz community center. The company revenue had grown to US $ 50 million by 1981, and $100 million by 1988.
In 1967 Publishers Clearing House started its first sweepstakes as a way to increase subscription sales, based on the sweepstakes held by Reader 's Digest. The first prizes ranged from 25 cents to $10 and entrants had a 1 in 10 chance of winning. After the sweepstakes increased response rates to mailings, prizes of $5,000 and eventually $250,000 were offered. PCH began advertising the sweepstakes on TV in 1974. It was the only major multi-magazine subscription business until 1977. Former client Time Inc. and several other publishers formed American Family Publishers to compete with Publishers Clearing House after the company refused repeated requests by Time for a larger share of sales revenue from magazine subscriptions.
American Family Publishers and Publishers Clearing House competed for exclusive rights to magazines and for the better promotion and prize ideas. When American Family Publishers increased their jackpot to $1 million, then to $10 million in 1985, Publishers Clearing House raised its prizes to match. $7 million in prizes were distributed by 1979, $40 million by 1991 and $137 million by 2000. In 1989 two members of its advertising team, Dave Sayer and Todd Sloane, started the Prize Patrol, a publicized event where winners are surprised with a check at their home. The idea was inspired by the 1950s television series "The Millionaire ''.
In 1992 thousands of discarded sweepstakes entries from contestants who had not bought magazine subscriptions were found in the trash by city employees, reinforcing beliefs that the company favored those who made purchases in selecting a sweepstakes winner. Publishers Clearing House said this was done by a disgruntled employee at their mail processing vendor. A class action ensued, which PCH settled by giving discarded entrants a second chance to win.
In the 1990s Publishers Clearing House and its primary competitor, American Family Publishers, experienced a series of legal troubles due to concerns that their mailings misled consumers about their odds of winning and implied that magazine purchases increased their chances. This led to the Deceptive Mail Prevention and Enforcement Act of 2000, which regulates direct mail businesses. At the senate hearings regarding this Act, Publishers Clearing House said most consumers were not confused about their chances of winning or that purchases did not increase their chances. The company said less than five percent of participants spend more than $300. Government officials from California said 5,000 local consumers paid more than $2,500 each in magazine purchases under the false belief that they were increasing their odds of winning the sweepstakes.
Industry sources estimated Publishers Clearing House 's response rates decreased by 7 - 12 percent and its sales volume by 22 to 30 percent in response to the bad publicity from the lawsuits. In 2000, Publishers Clearing House laid off a quarter of its 800 - person work force.
In 1994 Publishers Clearing House sent mailings telling recipients they were all "finalists '', which led to a lawsuit involving the attorneys general of 14 US states. Later that year, Publishers Clearing House denied wrongdoing, but agreed to pay a settlement of $490,000 and to change their practices. Under the agreement, Publishers Clearing House said it would define terms like "finalist '' and disclose the chances of winning.
In 1997, a contestant of competitor American Family Publishers flew to Tampa, Florida, thinking he had won, though he had not. The resulting publicity caused more lawsuits for both companies. Publishers Clearing House reached a $30 million national settlement in 1999. In 2000, another $18 million settlement was reached with 24 states, after the company sent mass mailings that said "You are a winner! '' and used mock personalized checks. Publishers Clearing House agreed to avoid similar mailings in the future, and add a "sweepstakes fact box '' to mailings.
State attorneys spoke out against the national settlement from 2000 and additional lawsuits were filed by individual states. Another $34 million settlement was reached in 2001 in a lawsuit involving 25 states. As part of the settlement, Publishers Clearing House was required to avoid terms like "Guaranteed Winner, '' add disclaimers to mailings saying that the recipient has not won and that purchasing merchandise wo n't increase their chances. Publishers Clearing House reached settlements with all fifty states and agreed to work with a "compliance counsel. '' Publishers Clearing House apologized in the settlement and said it would contact customers who had spent more than $1,000 on merchandise the prior year ".
Publishers Clearing House also reached an agreement with Iowa in 2007. In 2010 the company paid $3.5 million to the Attorneys General of 32 states and the District of Columbia to settle possible contempt charges that it had violated the terms of the 2001 agreement. The company denied wrongdoing, but agreed to work with both an ombudsperson and a compliance counsel who would review its mailings quarterly.
In April 2014, an investigation by the Senate Special Committee on Aging concluded that Publishers Clearing House had "pushed the limits '' of prior agreements and that additional legislation may be needed.
Publishers Clearing House began selling merchandise in 1985 with two products. After a Hershey 's Chocolate Cookbook and a diet cookbook sold more than other products, the company began expanding into jewelry, media, collectibles, household products and others. The company also shifted its focus online. It began selling magazine subscriptions and merchandise on PCH.com in 1996. In 2006, it acquired Blingo Inc., an ad - supported metasearch engine that was later re-branded as PCH Search and Win. Publishers Clearing House ran contests on Twitter, Facebook and Myspace. iPhone apps for slot games and trivia were developed. The company created online play - and - win sites like PCH Games (formerly Candystand) and PCHQuiz4Cash, with air - hockey and video poker games.
In December 2010, Publishers Clearing House acquired Funtank and its online gaming site Candystand.com. In 2011, Publishers Clearing House promoted a "$5,000 every week for life '' sweepstakes in TV ads and the front page of AOL.com. The following year the company acquired a mobile marketing company, Liquid Wireless. The company utilized, then stopped then started again utilizing coregistration (through other websites) to expand its customer base.
In 2008, a PCH spokesperson said the digital properties were intended to attract younger consumers. By 2013, the internet had become PCH 's primary channel of interaction with consumers. The New York Times described the digital transition as "part of an overall effort to collect information on Web users, show them advertisements and use the registration information for PCH 's mailing lists. ''
Publishers Clearing House is a direct - marketing company that sells merchandise, magazine subscriptions and operates several prize - based websites. While best known for the sweepstakes and Prize Patrol it uses to promote its magazine subscriptions, the majority of the company 's revenue now comes from merchandise. The company has been selling books, media, jewelry and other consumer items since the 1980s. Publishers Clearing house operates eight websites, including PCH Search and Win, PCH Lotto, PCH Games, PCH Save and Win, and Candystand.
The company also sells magazine subscriptions at a discount and advertises subscriptions along with its sweepstakes. It 's estimated that companies like Publishers Clearing House keep 75 - 90 percent of the fees from the original subscription, while publishers use the increased distribution to improve circulation numbers and revenue from renewals. Publishers Clearing House popularized the idea of using sweepstakes to sell magazine subscriptions in the direct - marketing market and became known by detractors as a producer of junk - mail for advertising through mass - mailings. Documents filed with the New York State Department in 1993 said that year the company mailed 220 million envelopes. Frequent buyers can receive 30 - 40 mailings a year.
Although Publishers Clearing House advertises its sweepstakes along with magazine subscriptions, no purchase is necessary to enter or win. In 1995, Publishers Clearing House began the tradition of announcing winners of its $10 million prize just after the Super Bowl. As of 2012, $225 million in prizes have been distributed. Some of its larger prizes are for $5,000 a week for life, or $10 million. Prizes can also range from $1 Amazon gift cards to $2,500, $1 million or $3 million. The larger cash prizes are paid in installments, typically with a balloon payment at 30 years, reducing the present value of prizes to much less than their nominal values.
Sweepstakes scammers often pose as being from Publishers Clearing House and say that a cash payment is needed before they can deliver a prize. According to Chris Irving from Publishers Clearing House "If you are contacted by anyone claiming to represent Publishers Clearing House and they request payment of any amount to collect a prize, do not send any money... You have not heard from the real Publishers Clearing House. ''
The odds of winning a Publishers Clearing House sweepstakes vary depending on the number of entries and what prize or sweepstakes is involved. According to the official rules, the estimated odds of winning the $1 million a year forever are one in 1.3 billion. As of 2017, the odds of winning $15 million in Giveaway 8800 are 1 in 2.4 billion. Smaller prizes have better odds that may vary from one in 223 to one in 80,000, depending on the prize.
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when did the varna system become rigid and hereditary | Caste system in India - Wikipedia
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early - modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj. It is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. It consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system.
The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and the British colonial regime in India. The collapse of the Mughal era saw the rise of powerful men who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming the regal and martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless social groups into differentiated caste communities. The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration. Between 1860 and 1920, the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes. Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes.
Caste - based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the Indian subcontinent like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism. It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and also by present - day Indian Buddhism.
New developments took place after India achieved independence, when the policy of caste - based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Since 1950, the country has enacted many laws and social initiatives to protect and improve the socioeconomic conditions of its lower caste population. These caste classifications for college admission quotas, job reservations and other affirmative action initiatives, according to the Supreme Court of India, are based on heredity and are not changeable. Discrimination against lower castes is illegal in India under Article 15 of its constitution, and India tracks violence against Dalits nationwide.
Varna literally means type, order, colour or class and was a framework for grouping people into classes, first used in Vedic Indian society. It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts. The four classes were the Brahmins (priestly people), the Kshatriyas (also called Rajanyas, who were rulers, administrators and warriors), the Vaishyas (artisans, merchants, tradesmen and farmers), and Shudras (labouring classes). The varna categorisation implicitly had a fifth element, being those people deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as tribal people and the untouchables.
Jati, meaning birth, is mentioned much less often in ancient texts, where it is clearly distinguished from varna. There are four varnas but thousands of jatis. The jatis are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definition or characteristic, and have been more flexible and diverse than was previously often assumed.
Some scholars of caste have considered jati to have its basis in religion, assuming that in India the sacred elements of life envelop the secular aspects; for example, the anthropologist Louis Dumont described the ritual rankings that exist within the jati system as being based on the concepts of religious purity and pollution. This view has been disputed by other scholars, who believe it to be a secular social phenomenon driven by the necessities of economics, politics, and sometimes also geography. Jeaneane Fowler says that although some people consider jati to be occupational segregation, in reality the jati framework does not preclude or prevent a member of one caste from working in another occupation. A feature of jatis has been endogamy, in Susan Bayly 's words, that "both in the past and for many though not all Indians in more modern times, those born into a given caste would normally expect to find marriage partner '' within his or her jati.
Jatis have existed in India among Hindus, Muslims, Christians and tribal people, and there is no clear linear order among them.
The term caste is not originally an Indian word, though it is now widely used, both in English and in Indian languages. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is derived from the Portuguese casta, meaning "race, lineage, breed '' and, originally, "' pure or unmixed (stock or breed) ''. There is no exact translation in Indian languages, but varna and jati are the two most approximate terms.
The sociologist G.S. Ghurye wrote in 1932 that, despite much study by many people,
we do not possess a real general definition of caste. It appears to me that any attempt at definition is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon. On the other hand, much literature on the subject is marred by lack of precision about the use of the term.
Ghurye offered what he thought was a definition that could be applied across British India, although he acknowledged that there were regional variations on the general theme. His model definition for caste included the following six characteristics,
The above Ghurye 's model of caste thereafter attracted scholarly criticism for relying on the British India census reports, the "superior, inferior '' racist theories of H.H. Risley, and for fitting his definition to then prevalent colonial orientalist perspectives on caste.
Ghurye added, in 1932, that the colonial construction of caste led to the livening up, divisions and lobbying to the British officials for favourable caste classification in India for economic opportunities, and this had added new complexities to the concept of caste. Graham Chapman and others have reiterated the complexity, and they note that there are differences between theoretical constructs and the practical reality.
Ronald Inden, the Indologist, agrees that there has been no universally accepted definition. For example, for some early European documenters it was thought to correspond with the endogamous varnas referred to in ancient Indian scripts, and its meaning corresponds in the sense of estates. To later Europeans of the Raj era it was endogamous jatis, rather than varnas, that represented caste, such as the 2378 jatis that colonial administrators classified by occupation in the early 20th century.
Arvind Sharma, a professor of comparative religion, notes that caste has been used synonymously to refer to both varna and jati but that "serious Indologists now observe considerable caution in this respect '' because, while related, the concepts are considered to be distinct. In this he agrees with the Indologist Arthur Basham, who noted that the Portuguese colonists of India used casta to describe
... tribes, clans or families. The name stuck and became the usual word for the Hindu social group. In attempting to account for the remarkable proliferation of castes in 18th - and 19th - century India, authorities credulously accepted the traditional view that by a process of intermarriage and subdivision the 3,000 or more castes of modern India had evolved from the four primitive classes, and the term ' caste ' was applied indiscriminately to both varna or class, and jati or caste proper. This is a false terminology; castes rise and fall in the social scale, and old castes die out and new ones are formed, but the four great classes are stable. There are never more or less than four and for over 2,000 years their order of precedence has not altered. ''
The sociologist Andre Beteille notes that, while varna mainly played the role of caste in classical Hindu literature, it is jati that plays that role in present times. Varna represents a closed collection of social orders whereas jati is entirely open - ended, thought of as a "natural kind whose members share a common substance. '' Any number of new jatis can be added depending on need, such as tribes, sects, denominations, religious or linguistic minorities and nationalities. Thus, "Caste '' is not an accurate representation of jati in English. Better terms would be ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic group.
In normal usage of the term jati in modern india, it does refer to caste.
Sociologist Anne Waldrop observes that while outsiders view the term caste as a static phenomenon of stereotypical tradition - bound India, empirical facts suggest caste has been a radically changing feature. The term means different things to different Indians. In the context of politically active modern India, where job and school quotas are reserved for affirmative action based on castes, the term has become a sensitive and controversial subject.
Sociologists such as M.N. Srinivas and Damle have debated the question of rigidity in caste and believe that there is considerable flexibility and mobility in the caste hierarchies.
There are at least two perspectives for the origins of the caste system in ancient and medieval India, which focus on either ideological factors or on socio - economic factors.
The first school has focused on religious anthropology and disregarded other historical evidence as secondary to or derivative of this tradition. The second school has focused on sociological evidence and sought to understand the historical circumstances. The latter has criticised the former for its caste origin theory, claiming that it has dehistoricised and decontextualised Indian society.
According to Samuel, referencing George L. Hart, central aspects of the later Indian caste system may originate from the ritual kingship system prior to the arrival of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism in India. The system is seen in the South Indian Tamil literature from the Sangam period, dated to the third to sixth centuries CE. This theory discards the Indo - Aryan varna model as the basis of caste, and is centred on the ritual power of the king, who was "supported by a group of ritual and magical specialists of low social status, '' with their ritual occupations being considered ' polluted '. According to Hart, it may be this model that provided the concerns with "pollution '' of the members of low status groups. The Hart model for caste origin, writes Samuel, envisions "the ancient Indian society consisting of a majority without internal caste divisions and a minority consisting of a number of small occupationally polluted groups ''.
The varnas originated in Vedic society (ca. 1500 -- 500 BCE). The first three groups, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishya have parallels with other Indo - European societies, while the addition of the Shudras is probably a Brahmanical invention from northern India.
The varna system is propounded in revered Hindu religious texts, and understood as idealised human callings. The Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda and Manusmriti 's comment on it, being the oft - cited texts. Counter to these textual classifications, many revered Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with this system of social classification.
Scholars have questioned the varna verse in Rigveda, noting that the varna therein is mentioned only once. The Purusha Sukta verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Rigveda, probably as a charter myth. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, professors of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much - subdivided and overarching caste system '', and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality ''. In contrast to the lack of details about varna system in the Rigveda, the Manusmriti includes an extensive and highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions ''. Susan Bayly summarises that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmins in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create the phenomenon of caste '' in India.
Jeaneane Fowler, a professor of philosophy and religious studies, states that it is impossible to determine how and why the jatis came in existence. Susan Bayly, on the other hand, states that jati system emerged because it offered a source of advantage in an era of pre-Independence poverty, lack of institutional human rights, volatile political environment, and economic insecurity.
According to social anthropologist Dipankar Gupta, guilds developed during the Mauryan period and crystallised into jatis in post-Mauryan times with the emergence of feudalism in India, which finally crystallised during the 7 -- 12th centuries. However, other scholars dispute when and how jatis developed in Indian history. Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, both professors of History, write, "One of the surprising arguments of fresh scholarship, based on inscriptional and other contemporaneous evidence, is that until relatively recent centuries, social organisation in much of the subcontinent was little touched by the four varnas. Nor were jati the building blocks of society. ''
According to Basham, ancient Indian literature refers often to varnas, but hardly if ever to jatis as a system of groups within the varnas. He concludes that "If caste is defined as a system of group within the class, which are normally endogamous, commensal and craft - exclusive, we have no real evidence of its existence until comparatively late times. ''
The Vedic texts neither mention the concept of untouchable people nor any practice of untouchability. The rituals in the Vedas ask the noble or king to eat with the commoner from the same vessel. Later Vedic texts ridicule some professions, but the concept of untouchability is not found in them.
The post-Vedic texts, particularly Manusmriti mentions outcastes and suggests that they be ostracised. Recent scholarship states that the discussion of outcastes in post-Vedic texts is different from the system widely discussed in colonial era Indian literature, and in Dumont 's structural theory on caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma - sutras and Dharma - sastras, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity - impurity premise implicit in the Dumont theory. According to Olivelle, purity - impurity is discussed in the Dharma - sastra texts, but only in the context of the individual 's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, going to bathroom). Olivelle writes in his review of post-Vedic Sutra and Shastra texts, "we see no instance when a term of pure / impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste ''. The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna. These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people '' and considered impure in the medieval Indian texts. The texts declare that these sinful, fallen people be ostracised. Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity / impurity in the Dharma - sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation '' and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance (acts by children), stipulations, and ritualistic behaviours.
Dumont, in his later publications, acknowledged that ancient varna hierarchy was not based on purity - impurity ranking principle, and that the Vedic literature is devoid of the untouchability concept.
During the time of the Rigveda, there were two varnas: arya varna and dasa varna. The distinction originally arose from tribal divisions. The Vedic tribes regarded themselves as arya (the noble ones) and the rival tribes were called dasa, dasyu and pani. The dasas were frequent allies of the Aryan tribes, and they were probably assimilated into the Aryan society, giving rise to a class distinction. Many dasas were however in a servile position, giving rise to the eventual meaning of dasa as servant or slave.
The Rigvedic society was not distinguished by occupations. Many husbandmen and artisans practised a number of crafts. The chariot - maker (rathakara) and metal worker (karmara) enjoyed positions of importance and no stigma was attached to them. Similar observations hold for carpenters, tanners, weavers and others.
Towards the end of the Atharvaveda period, new class distinctions emerged. The erstwhile dasas are renamed Shudras, probably to distinguish them from the new meaning of dasa as slave. The aryas are renamed vis or Vaishya (meaning the members of the tribe) and the new elite classes of Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) are designated as new varnas. The Shudras were not only the erstwhile dasas but also included the aboriginal tribes that were assimilated into the Aryan society as it expanded into Gangetic settlements. There is no evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage during the Vedic period.
In an early Upanishad, Shudra is referred to as Pūşan or nourisher, suggesting that Shudras were the tillers of the soil. But soon afterwards, Shudras are not counted among the tax - payers and they are said to be given away along with the lands when it is gifted. The majority of the artisans were also reduced to the position of Shudras, but there is no contempt indicated for their work. The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas are given a special position in the rituals, distinguishing them from both the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Vaishya is said to be "oppressed at will '' and the Shudra "beaten at will. ''
Our knowledge of this period is supplemented by Pali Buddhist texts. Whereas the Brahmanical texts speak of the four-fold varna system, the Buddhist texts present an alternative picture of the society, stratified along the lines of jati, kula and occupation. It is likely that the varna system, while being a part of the Brahmanical ideology, was not practically operative in the society. In the Buddhist texts, Brahmin and Kshatriya are described as jatis rather than varnas. They were in fact the jatis of high rank. The jatis of low rank were mentioned as chandala and occupational classes like bamboo weavers, hunters, chariot - makers and sweepers. The concept of kulas was broadly similar. Along with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, a class called gahapatis (literally householders, but effectively propertied classes) was also included among high kulas. The people of high kulas were engaged in occupations of high rank, viz., agriculture, trade, cattle - keeping, computing, accounting and writing, and those of low kulas were engaged in low - ranked occupations such as basket - weaving and sweeping. The gahapatis were an economic class of land - holding agriculturists, who employed dasa - kammakaras (slaves and hired labourers) to work on the land. The gahapatis were the primary taxpayers of the state. This class was apparently not defined by birth, but by individual economic growth.
While there was an alignment between kulas and occupations at least at the high and low ends, there was no strict linkage between class / caste and occupation, especially among those in the middle range. Many occupations listed such as accounting and writing were not linked to jatis. Peter Masefield, in his review of caste in India, states that anyone could in principle perform any profession. The texts state that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown. The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated.
The contestations of the period are evident from the texts describing dialogues of Buddha with the Brahmins. The Brahmins maintain their divinely ordained superiority and assert their right to draw service from the lower orders. Buddha responds by pointing out the basic facts of biological birth common to all men and asserts that the ability to draw service is obtained economically, not by divine right. Using the example of the northwest of the subcontinent, Buddha points out that aryas could become dasas and vice versa. This form of social mobility was endorsed by Buddha.
The Mahabharata, whose final version is estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century, discusses the varna system in section 12.181, presenting two models. The first model describes varna as a colour - based system, through a character named Bhrigu, "Brahmins varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras ' black ''. This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the varnas, he asks. The Mahabharata then declares, "There is no distinction of varnas. This whole universe is Brahman. It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts. '' The epic then recites a behavioural model for varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshtriya varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishya varna; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudra varna. The Brahmin class is modeled in the epic as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct. In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognise, in theory, varna is nongenealogical. The four varnas are not lineages, but categories ''.
Adi Purana, an 8th - century text of Jainism by Jinasena, is the first mention of varna and jati in Jainism literature. Jinasena does not trace the origin of varna system to Rigveda or to Purusha, but to the Bharata legend. According to this legend, Bharata performed an "ahimsa - test '' (test of non-violence), and during that test all those who refused to harm any living beings were called as the priestly varna in ancient India, and Bharata called them dvija, twice born. Jinasena states that those who are committed to the principle of non-harming and non-violence to all living beings are deva - Brahmaṇas, divine Brahmins. The text Adipurana also discusses the relationship between varna and jati. According to Padmanabh Jaini, a professor of Indic studies, in Jainism and Buddhism, the Adi Purana text states "there is only one jati called manusyajati or the human caste, but divisions arise on account of their different professions ''. The caste of Kshatriya arose, according to Jainism texts, when Rishabha procured weapons to serve the society and assumed the powers of a king, while Vaishya and Shudra castes arose from different means of livelihood they specialised in.
Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of varna and jati in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence of varna and jati systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged.
Varna is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of Andhra Pradesh, for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of History and Asian Studies, to question whether varna was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of jati is even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest. Richard Eaton, a professor of History, writes, "anyone could become warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the jati - another pillar of alleged traditional Indian society - appear as features of people 's identity. Occupations were fluid. '' Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited '' in the Hindu Kakatiya population in the Deccan region between the 11th and 14th centuries.
In Tamil Nadu region of India, studied by Leslie Orr, a professor of Religion, "Chola period inscriptions challenge our ideas about the structuring of (south Indian) society in general. In contrast to what Brahmanical legal texts may lead us to expect, we do not find that caste is the organising principle of society or that boundaries between different social groups is sharply demarcated. '' In Tamil Nadu the Vellalar were during ancient and medieval period the elite caste who were major patrons of literature. They ranked higher in the social hierarchy than the Brahmins.
For northern Indian region, Susan Bayly writes, "until well into the colonial period, much of the subcontinent was still populated by people for whom the formal distinctions of caste were of only limited importance; Even in parts of the so - called Hindu heartland of Gangetic upper India, the institutions and beliefs which are now often described as the elements of traditional caste were only just taking shape as recently as the early eighteenth century - that is the period of collapse of Mughal period and the expansion of western power in the subcontinent. ''
For western India, Dirk Kolff, a professor of Humanities, suggests open status social groups dominated Rajput history during the medieval period. He states, "The omnipresence of cognatic kinship and caste in North India is a relatively new phenomenon that only became dominant in the early Mughal and British periods respectively. Historically speaking, the alliance and the open status group, whether war band or religious sect, dominated medieval and early modern Indian history in a way descent and caste did not. ''
Early and mid 20th century Muslim historians, such as Hashimi in 1927 and Qureshi in 1962, proposed that "caste system was established before the arrival of Islam '', and it and "a nomadic savage lifestyle '' in the northwest Indian subcontinent were the primary cause why Sindhi non-Muslims "embraced Islam in flocks '' when Arab Muslim armies invaded the region. According to this hypothesis, the mass conversions occurred from the lower caste Hindus and Mahayana Buddhists who had become "corroded from within by the infiltration of Hindu beliefs and practices ''. This theory is now widely believed to be baseless and false.
Derryl MacLein, a professor of social history and Islamic studies, states that historical evidence does not support this theory, whatever evidence is available suggests that Muslim institutions in north - west India legitimised and continued any inequalities that existed, and that neither Buddhists nor "lower caste '' Hindus converted to Islam because they viewed Islam to lack a caste system. Conversions to Islam were rare, states MacLein, and conversions attested by historical evidence confirms that the few who did convert were Brahmin Hindus (theoretically, the upper caste). MacLein states the caste and conversion theories about Indian society during the Islamic era are not based on historical evidence or verifiable sources, but personal assumptions of Muslim historians about the nature of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism in northwest Indian subcontinent.
Richard Eaton, a professor of History, states that the presumption of a rigid Hindu caste system and oppression of lower castes in pre-Islamic era in India, and it being the cause of "mass conversion to Islam '' during the medieval era suffers from the problem that "no evidence can be found in support of the theory, and it is profoundly illogical ''.
Peter Jackson, a professor of Medieval History and Muslim India, writes that the speculative hypotheses about caste system in Hindu states during the medieval Delhi Sultanate period (~ 1200 to 1500) and the existence of a caste system as being responsible for Hindu weakness in resisting the plunder by Islamic armies is appealing at first sight, but "they do not withstand closer scrutiny and historical evidence ''. Jackson states that, contrary to the theoretical model of caste where Kshatriyas only could be warriors and soldiers, historical evidence confirms that Hindu warriors and soldiers during the medieval era included other castes such as Vaishyas and Shudras. Further, there is no evidence, writes Jackson, that there ever was a "widespread conversion to Islam at the turn of twelfth century '' by Hindus of lower caste. Jamal Malik, a professor of Islamic studies, extends this observation further, and states that "at no time in history did Hindus of low caste convert en masse to Islam ''.
Jamal Malik states that caste as a social stratification is a well - studied Indian system, yet evidence also suggests that hierarchical concepts, class consciousness and social stratification had already occurred in Islam before Islam arrived in India. The concept of caste, or ' qaum ' in Islamic literature, is mentioned by a few Islamic historians of medieval India, states Malik, but these mentions relate to the fragmentation of the Muslim society in India. Zia al - Din al - Barani of Delhi Sultanate in his Fatawa - ye Jahandari and Abu al - Fadl from Akbar 's court of Mughal Empire are the few Islamic court historians who mention caste. Zia al - Din al - Barani 's discussion, however, is not about non-Muslim castes, rather a declaration of the supremacy of Ashraf caste over Ardhal caste among the Muslims, justifying it in Quranic text, with "aristocratic birth and superior genealogy being the most important traits of a human ''.
Irfan Habib, an Indian historian, states that Abu al - Fadl 's Ain - i Akbari provides a historical record and census of the Jat peasant caste of Hindus in northern India, where the tax - collecting noble classes (Zamindars), the armed cavalry and infantry (warrior class) doubling up as the farming peasants (working class), were all of the same Jat caste in the 16th century. These occupationally diverse members from one caste served each other, writes Habib, either because of their reaction to taxation pressure of Muslim rulers or because they belonged to the same caste. Peasant social stratification and caste lineages were, states Habib, tools for tax revenue collection in areas under the Islamic rule.
The origin of caste system of modern form, in the Bengal region of India, may be traceable to this period, states Richard Eaton. The medieval era Islamic Sultanates in India utilised social stratification to rule and collect tax revenue from non-Muslims. Eaton states that, "Looking at Bengal 's Hindu society as a whole, it seems likely that the caste system -- far from being the ancient and unchanging essence of Indian civilisation as supposed by generations of Orientalists -- emerged into something resembling its modern form only in the period 1200 -- 1500 ''.
Susan Bayly, an anthropologist, notes that "caste is not and never has been a fixed fact of Indian life '' and the caste system as we know it today, as a "ritualised scheme of social stratification, '' developed in two stages during the post-Mughal period, in 18th and early 19th century. Three sets of value played an important role in this development: priestly hierarchy, kingship, and armed ascetics.
With the Islamic Mughal empire falling apart in the 18th century, regional post-Mughal ruling elites and new dynasties from diverse religious, geographical and linguistic background attempted to assert their power in different parts of India. Bayly states that these obscure post-Mughal elites associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, deploying the symbols of caste and kinship to divide their populace and consolidate their power. In addition, in this fluid stateless environment, some of the previously casteless segments of society grouped themselves into caste groups. However, in 18th century writes Bayly, India - wide networks of merchants, armed ascetics and armed tribal people often ignored these ideologies of caste. Most people did not treat caste norms as given absolutes writes Bayly, but challenged, negotiated and adapted these norms to their circumstances. Communities teamed in different regions of India, into "collective classing '' to mold the social stratification in order to maximise assets and protect themselves from loss. The "caste, class, community '' structure that formed became valuable in a time when state apparatus was fragmenting, was unreliable and fluid, when rights and life were unpredictable.
In this environment, states Rosalind O'Hanlon, a professor of Indian History, the newly arrived colonial East India Company officials, attempted to gain commercial interests in India by balancing Hindu and Muslim conflicting interests, by aligning with regional rulers and large assemblies of military monks. The British Company officials adopted constitutional laws segregated by religion and caste. The legal code and colonial administrative practice was largely divided into Muslim law and Hindu law, the latter including laws for Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. In this transitory phase, Brahmins together with scribes, ascetics and merchants who accepted Hindu social and spiritual codes, became the deferred - to - authority on Hindu texts, law and administration of Hindu matters.
While legal codes and state administration were emerging in India, with the rising power of the colonial Europeans, Dirks states that the late 18th - century British writings on India say little about caste system in India, and predominantly discuss territorial conquest, alliances, warfare and diplomacy in India. Colin Mackenzie, a British social historian of this time, collected vast numbers of texts on Indian religions, culture, traditions and local histories from south India and Deccan region, but his collection and writings have very little on caste system in 18th - century India.
Although the varnas and jatis have pre-modern origins, the caste system as it exists today is the result of developments during the post-Mughal period and the British colonial regime, which made caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.
Jati were the basis of caste ethnology during the British colonial era. In the 1881 census and thereafter, colonial ethnographers used caste (jati) headings, to count and classify people in what was then British India (now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma). The 1891 census included 60 sub-groups each subdivided into six occupational and racial categories, and the number increased in subsequent censuses. The British colonial era census caste tables, states Susan Bayly, "ranked, standardised and cross-referenced jati listings for Indians on principles similar to zoology and botanical classifications, aiming to establish who was superior to whom by virtue of their supposed purity, occupational origins and collective moral worth ''. While bureaucratic British officials completed reports on their zoological classification of Indian people, some British officials criticised these exercises as being little more than a caricature of the reality of caste system in India. The British colonial officials used the census - determined jatis to decide which group of people were qualified for which jobs in the colonial government, and people of which jatis were to be excluded as unreliable. These census caste classifications, states Gloria Raheja, a professor of Anthropology, were also used by the British officials over the late 19th century and early 20th century, to formulate land tax rates, as well as to frequently target some social groups as "criminal '' castes and castes prone to "rebellion ''.
The population then comprised about 200 million people, across five major religions, and over 500,000 agrarian villages, each with a population between 100 and 1,000 people of various age groups, which were variously divided into numerous castes. This ideological scheme was theoretically composed of around 3,000 castes, which in turn was claimed to be composed of 90,000 local endogamous sub-groups.
The strict British class system may have influenced the British colonial preoccupation with the Indian caste system as well as the British perception of pre-colonial Indian castes. British society 's own similarly rigid class system provided the British with a template for understanding Indian society and castes. The British, coming from a society rigidly divided by class, attempted to equate India 's castes with British social classes. According to David Cannadine, Indian castes merged with the traditional British class system during the British Raj.
Colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, an exponent of race science, used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indians into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.
The role of the British Raj on the caste system in India is controversial. The caste system became legally rigid during the Raj, when the British started to enumerate castes during their ten - year census and meticulously codified the system. Between 1860 and 1920, the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes.
Starting with the 19th century, the British colonial government passed a series of laws that applied to Indians based on their religion and caste identification. These colonial era laws and their provisions used the term "Tribes '', which included castes within their scope. This terminology was preferred for various reasons, including Muslim sensitivities that considered castes by definition Hindu, and preferred Tribes, a more generic term that included Muslims.
The British colonial government, for instance, enacted the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871. This law declared everyone belonging to certain castes to be born with criminal tendencies. Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History and specialising in social exclusion in Indian subcontinent, states that the criminal - by - birth castes under this Act included initially Ahirs, Gurjars and Jats, but its enforcement expanded by the late 19th century to include most Shudras and untouchables, such as Chamars, as well as Sannyasis and hill tribes. Castes suspected of rebelling against colonial laws and seeking self - rule for India, such as the previously ruling families Kallars and the Maravars in south India and non-loyal castes in north India such as Ahirs, Gurjars and Jats, were called "predatory and barbarian '' and added to the criminal castes list. Some caste groups were targeted using the Criminal Tribes Act even when there were no reports of any violence or criminal activity, but where their forefathers were known to have rebelled against Mughal or British authorities, or these castes were demanding labour rights and disrupting colonial tax collecting authorities.
The colonial government prepared a list of criminal castes, and all members registered in these castes by caste - census were restricted in terms of regions they could visit, move about in or people with whom they could socialise. In certain regions of colonial India, entire caste groups were presumed guilty by birth, arrested, children separated from their parents, and held in penal colonies or quarantined without conviction or due process. This practice became controversial, did not enjoy the support of all colonial British officials, and in a few cases this decades - long practice was reversed at the start of the 20th century with the proclamation that people "could not be incarcerated indefinitely on the presumption of (inherited) bad character ''. The criminal - by - birth laws against targeted castes was enforced until the mid-20th century, with an expansion of criminal castes list in west and south India through the 1900s to 1930s. Hundreds of Hindu communities were brought under the Criminal Tribes Act. By 1931, the colonial government included 237 criminal castes and tribes under the act in the Madras Presidency alone.
While the notion of hereditary criminals conformed to orientalist stereotypes and the prevailing racial theories in Britain during the colonial era, the social impact of its enforcement was profiling, division and isolation of many communities of Hindus as criminals - by - birth.
Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of History and Religions in India, states that the colonial government hardened the caste - driven divisions in British India not only through its caste census, but with a series of laws in early 20th century. The British colonial officials, for instance, enacted laws such as the Land Alienation Act in 1900 and Punjab Pre-Emption Act in 1913, listing castes that could legally own land and denying equivalent property rights to other census - determined castes. These acts prohibited the inter-generational and intra-generational transfer of land from land - owning castes to any non-agricultural castes, thereby preventing economic mobility of property and creating consequent caste barriers in India.
Khushwant Singh a Sikh historian, and Tony Ballantyne a professor of History, state that these British colonial era laws helped create and erect barriers within land - owning and landless castes in northwest India. Caste - based discrimination and denial of human rights by the colonial state had similar impact elsewhere in British India.
Nicholas Dirks has argued that Indian caste as we know it today is a "modern phenomenon, '' as caste was "fundamentally transformed by British colonial rule. '' According to Dirks, before colonialism caste affiliation was quite loose and fluid, but the British regime enforced caste affiliation rigorously, and constructed a much more strict hierarchy than existed previously, with some castes being criminalised and others being given preferential treatment.
De Zwart notes that the caste system used to be thought of as an ancient fact of Hindu life and that contemporary scholars argue instead that the system was constructed by the British colonial regime. He says that "jobs and education opportunities were allotted based on caste, and people rallied and adopted a caste system that maximized their opportunity ''. De Zwart also notes that post-colonial affirmative action only reinforced the "British colonial project that ex hypothesi constructed the caste system ''.
Sweetman notes that the European conception of caste dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an "essentially religious character '' of India. During the colonial period, caste was defined as a religious system and was divorced from political powers. This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as a society characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticised as "despotic and epiphenomenal '', with the colonial powers providing the necessary "benevolent, paternalistic rule by a more ' advanced ' nation ''.
Assumptions about the caste system in Indian society, along with its nature, evolved during British rule. Corbridge concludes that British policies of divide and rule of India 's numerous princely sovereign states, as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the 10 - year census, particularly with the 1901 and 1911 census, contributed towards the hardening of caste identities.
Social unrest during 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes.
In the round table conference held on August 1932, upon the request of Ambedkar, the then Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay MacDonald made a Communal Award which awarded a provision for separate representation for the Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo - Indians, Europeans and Dalits. These depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from special constituencies in which voters belonging to the depressed classes only could vote. Gandhi went on a hunger strike against this provision claiming that such an arrangement would split the Hindu community into two groups. Years later, Ambedkar wrote that Gandhi 's fast was a form of coercion. This agreement, which saw Gandhi end his fast and Ambedkar drop his demand for a separate electorate, was called the Poona Pact.
After India achieved independence, the policy of caste - based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Smelser and Lipset propose in their review of Hutton 's study of caste system in colonial India the theory that individual mobility across caste lines may have been minimal in British India because it was ritualistic. They state that this may be because the colonial social stratification worked with the pre-existing ritual caste system.
The emergence of a caste system in the modern form, during the early British colonial rule in the 18th and 19th century, was not uniform in South Asia. Claude Markovits, a French historian of colonial India, writes that Hindu society in north and west India (Sindh), in late 18th century and much of 19th century, lacked a proper caste system, their religious identities were fluid (a combination of Saivism, Vaisnavism, Sikhism), and the Brahmins were not the widespread priestly group (but the Bawas were). Markovits writes, "if religion was not a structuring factor, neither was caste '' among the Hindu merchants group of northwest India.
Societal stratification, and the inequality that comes with it, still exists in India, and has been thoroughly criticised. Government policies aim at reducing this inequality by reservation, quota for backward classes, but paradoxically also have created an incentive to keep this stratification alive. The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the Untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes, and certain economically backward castes as Other Backward Class.
Leonard and Weller have surveyed marriage and genealogical records to study patterns of exogamous inter-caste and endogamous intra-caste marriages in a regional population of India in 1900 -- 1975. They report a striking presence of exogamous marriages across caste lines over time, particularly since the 1970s. They propose education, economic development, mobility and more interaction between youth as possible reasons for these exogamous marriages.
A 2003 article in The Telegraph claimed that inter-caste marriage and dating were common in urban India. Indian societal and family relationships are changing because of female literacy and education, women at work, urbanisation, the need for two - income families, and global influences through television. Female role models in politics, academia, journalism, business, and India 's feminist movement have accelerated the change.
Independent India has witnessed caste - related violence. According to a 2005 UN report, approximately 31,440 cases of violent acts committed against Dalits were reported in 1996. The UN report claimed 1.33 cases of violent acts per 10,000 Dalit people. For context, the UN reported between 40 and 55 cases of violent acts per 10,000 people in developed countries in 2005. One example of such violence is the Khairlanji massacre of 2006.
Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination based on caste and Article 17 declared the practice of untouchability to be illegal. In 1955, India enacted the Untouchability (Offences) Act (renamed in 1976, as the Protection of Civil Rights Act). It extended the reach of law, from intent to mandatory enforcement. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act was passed in India in 1989.
The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the Untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and certain economically backward Shudra castes as Other Backward Class. The Scheduled Castes are sometimes referred to as Dalit in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits comprised 16.2 percent of India 's total population. Of the one billion Hindus in India, it is estimated that Hindu Forward caste comprises 26 %, Other Backward Class comprises 43 %, Hindu Scheduled Castes (Dalits) comprises 22 % and Hindu Scheduled Tribes (Adivasis) comprises 9 %.
In addition to taking affirmative action for people of schedule castes and scheduled tribes, India has expanded its effort to include people from poor, backward castes in its economic and social mainstream. In 1990, the government reservation of 27 % for Backward Classes on the basis of the Mandal Commission 's recommendations. Since then, India has reserved 27 percent of job opportunities in government - owned enterprises and agencies for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs). The 27 percent reservation is in addition to 22.5 percent set aside for India 's lowest castes for last 50 years.
The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to "identify the socially or educationally backward '' and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. In 1980, the commission 's report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law, whereby additional members of lower castes -- the other backward classes -- were given exclusive access to another 27 percent of government jobs and slots in public universities, in addition to the 23 percent already reserved for the Dalits and Tribals. When V.P. Singh 's administration tried to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission in 1989, massive protests were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash in on caste - based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes.
Many political parties in India have indulged in caste - based votebank politics. Parties such as Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support, to win elections.
There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India; it is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey.
The reservation system has led to widespread protests, such as the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests, with many complaining of reverse discrimination against the Forward Castes (the castes that do not qualify for the reservation).
In May 2011, the government approved a poverty, religion and caste census to identify poverty in different social backgrounds. The census would also help the government to re-examine and possibly undo some of the policies which were formed in haste such as the Mandal Commission in order to bring more objectivity to the policies with respect to contemporary realities. Critics of the reservation system believe that there is actually no social stigma at all associated with belonging to a backward caste and that because of the huge constitutional incentives in the form of educational and job reservations, a large number of people will falsely identify with a backward caste to receive the benefits. This would not only result in a marked inflation of the backward castes ' numbers, but also lead to enormous administrative and judicial resources being devoted to social unrest and litigation when such dubious caste declarations are challenged.
In 20th century India, the upper - class (Ashraf) Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include the Muslim untouchable and lower castes among the groups eligible for affirmative action in India under SC and STs provision act and have been given additional reservation based on the Sachar Committee report.
In a 2008 study, Desai et al. focussed on education attainments of children and young adults aged 6 -- 29, from lowest caste and tribal populations of India. They completed a national survey of over 100,000 households for each of the four survey years between 1983 and 2000. They found a significant increase in lower caste children in their odds of completing primary school. The number of dalit children who completed either middle -, high - or college - level education increased three times faster than the national average, and the total number were statistically same for both lower and upper castes. However, the same study found that in 2000, the percentage of dalit males never enrolled in a school was still more than twice the percentage of upper caste males never enrolled in schools. Moreover, only 1.67 % of dalit females were college graduates compared to 9.09 % of upper caste females. The number of dalit girls in India who attended school doubled in the same period, but still few percent less than national average. Other poor caste groups as well as ethnic groups such as Muslims in India have also made improvements over the 16 - year period, but their improvement lagged behind that of dalits and adivasis. The net percentage school attainment for Dalits and Muslims were statistically the same in 1999.
A 2007 nationwide survey of India by the World Bank found that over 80 percent of children of historically discriminated castes were attending schools. The fastest increase in school attendance by Dalit community children occurred during the recent periods of India 's economic growth.
A study by Darshan Singh presents data on health and other indicators of socio - economic change in India 's historically discriminated castes. He claims:
The life expectancy of various caste groups in modern India has been raised; but the International Institute for Population Sciences report suggests that poverty, not caste, is the bigger differentiation in life expectancy in modern India.
While identified with Hinduism, caste systems are found in other religions on the Indian subcontinent, including other religions such as Buddhists, Christians and Muslims.
Social stratification is found among the Christians in India based on caste as well as by their denomination and location. The caste distinction is based on their caste at the time that they or their ancestors converted to Christianity since the 16th century, they typically do not intermarry, and sit separately during prayers in Church.
Duncan Forrester observes that "Nowhere else in India is there a large and ancient Christian community which has in time immemorial been accorded a high status in the caste hierarchy... Syrian Christian community operates very much as a caste and is properly regarded as a caste or at least a very caste - like group. '' Amidst the Hindu society, the Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society by the observance of caste rules and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy. Their traditional belief that their ancestors were high - caste Hindus such as Nambudiris and Nairs, who were evangelised by St. Thomas, has also supported their upper - caste status. With the arrival of European missionaries and their evangelistic mission among the lower castes in Kerala, two new groups of Christians, called Latin Rite Christians and New Protestant Christians, were formed but they continued to be considered as lower castes by higher ranked communities, including the Saint Thomas Christians.
Caste system has been observed among Muslims in India. They practice endogamy, hypergamy, hereditary occupations, avoid social mixing and have been stratified. There is some controversy if these characteristics make them social groups or castes of Islam.
Indian Muslims are a mix of Sunni (majority), Shia and other sects of Islam. From the earliest days of Islam 's arrival in South Asia, the Arabic, Persian and Afghan Muslims have been part of the upper, noble caste. Some upper caste Hindus converted to Islam and became part of the governing group of Sultanates and Mughal Empire, who along with Arabs, Persians and Afghans came to be known as Ashrafs (or nobles). Below them are the middle caste Muslims called Ajlafs, and the lowest status is those of the Arzals. Anti-caste activists like Ambedkar called the Arzal caste among Muslims as the equivalent of Hindu untouchables, as did the controversial colonial British ethnographer Herbert Hope Risley.
In Bengal, some Muslims refer to the social stratification within their society as qaum (or Quoms), a term that is found among Muslims elsewhere in India, as well as in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Qaums have patrilineal hereditary, with ranked occupations and endogamy. Membership in a qaum is inherited by birth. Barth identifies the origin of the stratification from the historical segregation between pak (pure) and paleed (impure) - - defined by the family 's social or religious status, occupation and involvement in sexual crimes. Originally, Paleed / Paleet qaum included people running or working at brothels, prostitution service providers or professional courtesan / dancers (Tawaif) and musicians. There is history of skin color defining Pak / Paleed, but that does not have historical roots, and was adopted by outsiders using analogy from Hindu Caste system.
Similarly, Christians in Pakistan are called "Isai '', meaning followers of Isa (Jesus). But the term originates from Hindu Caste system and refers to the demeaning jobs performed by Christians in Pakistan out of poverty. Efforts are being made to replace the term with "Masihi '' (Messiah), which is preferred by the Christians citizens of Pakistan.
Endogamy is very common in Muslims in the form of arranged consanguineous marriages among Muslims in India and Pakistan. Malik states that the lack of religious sanction makes qaum a quasi-caste, and something that is found in Islam outside South Asia.
Some assert that the Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as those of the Hindus, while critics of Islam assert that the discrimination in South Asian Muslim society is worse.
Although the Sikh Gurus criticised the hierarchy of the caste system, one does exist in Sikh community. According to Sunrinder S, Jodhka, the Sikh religion does not advocate discrimination against any caste or creed, however, in practice, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (the communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy.
In 1953, the Government of India acceded to the demands of the Sikh leader, Tara Singh, to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low - caste Sikhs.
The Sikh literature from the Islamic rule and British colonial era mention Varna as Varan, and Jati as Zat or Zat - biradari. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and author of books on Sikhism, states that the Varan is described as a class system, while Zat has some caste system features in Sikh literature. In theory, Nesbitt states Sikh literature does not recognise caste hierarchy or differences. In practice, states Nesbitt, widespread endogamy practice among Sikhs has been prevalent in modern times, and poorer Sikhs of disadvantaged castes continue to gather in their own places of worship. Most Sikh families, writes Nesbitt, continue to check the caste of any prospective marriage partner for their children. She notes that all Gurus of Sikhs married within their Zat, and they did not condemn or break with the convention of endogamous marriages for their own children or Sikhs in general.
Caste system in Jainism has existed for centuries, primarily in terms of endogamy, although, per Paul Dundas, in modern times the system does not play a significant role. This is contradicted by Carrithers and Humphreys who describe the major Jain castes in Rajasthan with their social rank.
Table 1 is the distribution of population of each Religion by Caste Categories, obtained from merged sample of Schedule 1 and Schedule 10 of available data from the National Sample Survey Organisation 55th (1999 -- 2000) and 61st Rounds (2004 -- 05) Round Survey The Other Backward Class (OBCs) were found to comprise 52 % of the country 's population by the Mandal Commission report of 1980, a figure which had shrunk to 41 % by 2006 when the National Sample Survey Organisation 's survey took place.
There has been criticism of the caste system from both within and outside of India. Since the 1980s, caste has become a major issue in the politics of India.
The caste system has been criticised by many Indian social reformers.
Basava (1105 -- 1167) Arguably one of the first social reformers, Basava championed devotional worship that rejected temple worship and rituals, and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as individually worn icons and symbols like a small linga. This approach brought Shiva 's presence to everyone and at all times, without gender, class or caste discrimination. His teachings and verses such as Káyakavé Kailása (Work is the path to Kailash (bliss, heaven), or Work is Worship) became popular.
Jyotirao Phule (1827 -- 1890) vehemently criticised any explanations that the caste system was natural and ordained by the Creator in Hindu texts. If Brahma wanted castes, argued Phule, he would have ordained the same for other creatures. There are no castes in species of animals or birds, so why should there be one among human animals. In his criticism Phule added, "Brahmins can not claim superior status because of caste, because they hardly bothered with these when wining and dining with Europeans. '' Professions did not make castes, and castes did not decide one 's profession. If someone does a job that is dirty, it does not make them inferior; in the same way that no mother is inferior because she cleans the excreta of her baby. Ritual occupation or tasks, argued Phule, do not make any human being superior or inferior.
Vivekananda similarly criticised caste as one of the many human institutions that bars the power of free thought and action of an individual. Caste or no caste, creed or no creed, any man, or class, or caste, or nation, or institution that bars the power of free thought and bars action of an individual is devilish, and must go down. Liberty of thought and action, asserted Vivekananda, is the only condition of life, of growth and of well - being.
In his younger years, Gandhi disagreed with some of Ambedkar 's observations, rationale and interpretations about the caste system in India. "Caste, '' he claimed, has "saved Hinduism from disintegration. But like every other institution it has suffered from excrescences. '' He considered the four divisions of Varnas to be fundamental, natural and essential. The innumerable subcastes or Jatis he considered to be a hindrance. He advocated to fuse all the Jatis into a more global division of Varnas. In the 1930s, Gandhi began to advocate for the idea of heredity in caste to be rejected, arguing that "Assumption of superiority by any person over any other is a sin against God and man. Thus caste, in so far as it connotes distinctions in status, is an evil. ''
He claimed that Varnashrama of the shastras is today nonexistent in practice. The present caste system is theory antithesis of varnashrama. Caste in its current form, claimed Gandhi, had nothing to do with religion. The discrimination and trauma of castes, argued Gandhi, was the result of custom, the origin of which is unknown. Gandhi said that the customs ' origin was a moot point, because one could spiritually sense that these customs were wrong, and that any caste system is harmful to the spiritual well - being of man and economic well - being of a nation. The reality of colonial India was, Gandhi noted, that there was no significant disparity between the economic condition and earnings of members of different castes, whether it was a Brahmin or an artisan or a farmer of low caste. India was poor, and Indians of all castes were poor. Thus, he argued that the cause of trauma was not in the caste system, but elsewhere. Judged by the standards being applied to India, Gandhi claimed, every human society would fail. He acknowledged that the caste system in India spiritually blinded some Indians, then added that this did not mean that every Indian or even most Indians blindly followed the caste system, or everything from ancient Indian scriptures of doubtful authenticity and value. India, like any other society, can not be judged by a caricature of its worst specimens. Gandhi stated that one must consider the best it produced as well, along with the vast majority in impoverished Indian villages struggling to make ends meet, with woes of which there was little knowledge.
B.R. Ambedkar was born in a caste that was classified as untouchable, became a leader of human rights campaigns in India, a prolific writer, and a key person in drafting modern India 's constitution in the 1940s. He wrote extensively on discrimination, trauma and what he saw as the tragic effects of the caste system in India. He believed that the caste system originated in the practise of endogamy and that it spread through imitation by other groups. He wrote that initially, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras existed as classes whose choice of occupation was not restricted by birth and in which exogamy was prevalent. Brahmins then began to practise endogamy and enclosed themselves, hence Ambedkar defines caste as "enclosed class ''. He believed that traditions such as sati, enforced widowhood and child marriage developed from the need to reinforce endogamy and Shastras were used to glorify these practices so that they are observed without being questioned. Later, other caste groups imitated these customs. However, although Ambedkar uses the approach of psychologist Gabriel Tarde to indicate how the caste system spread, he also explains that Brahmins or Manu can not be blamed for the origin of the caste system and he discredits theories which trace the origin of caste system in races.
Economic inequality seems to be related to the influence of inherited social - economic stratification. A 1995 study notes that the caste system in India is a system of exploitation of poor low - ranking groups by more prosperous high - ranking groups. A report published in 2001 note that in India 36.3 % of people own no land at all, 60.6 % own about 15 % of the land, with a very wealthy 3.1 % owning 15 % of the land. A study by Haque reports that India contains both the largest number of rural poor, and the largest number of landless households on the planet. Haque also reports that over 90 percent of both scheduled castes (low - ranking groups) and all other castes (high - ranking groups) either do not own land or own land area capable of producing less than $1000 per year of food and income per household. However, over 99 percent of India 's farms are less than 10 hectares, and 99.9 percent of the farms are less than 20 hectares, regardless of the farmer or landowner 's caste. Indian government has, in addition, vigorously pursued agricultural land ceiling laws which prohibit anyone from owning land greater than mandated limits. India has used this law to forcibly acquire land from some, then redistribute tens of millions of acres to the landless and poor of the low - caste. Haque suggests that Indian lawmakers need to reform and modernise the nation 's land laws and rely less on blind adherence to land ceilings and tenancy reform.
In a 2011 study, Aiyar too notes that such qualitative theories of economic exploitation and consequent land redistribution within India between 1950 and 1990 had no effect on the quality of life and poverty reduction. Instead, economic reforms since the 1990s and resultant opportunities for non-agricultural jobs have reduced poverty and increased per capita income for all segments of Indian society. For specific evidence, Aiyar mentions the following
Critics believe that the economic liberalisation has benefited just a small elite and left behind the poor, especially the lowest Hindu caste of dalits. But a recent authoritative survey revealed striking improvements in living standards of dalits in the last two decades. Television ownership was up from zero to 45 percent; cellphone ownership up from zero to 36 percent; two - wheeler ownership (of motorcycles, scooters, mopeds) up from zero to 12.3 percent; children eating yesterday 's leftovers down from 95.9 percent to 16.2 percent... Dalits running their own businesses up from 6 percent to 37 percent; and proportion working as agricultural labourers down from 46.1 percent to 20.5 percent.
Cassan has studied the differential effect within two segments of India 's Dalit community. He finds India 's overall economic growth has produced the fastest and more significant socio - economic changes. Cassan further concludes that legal and social program initiatives are no longer India 's primary constraint in further advancement of India 's historically discriminated castes; further advancement are likely to come from improvements in the supply of quality schools in rural and urban India, along with India 's economic growth.
The maltreatment of Dalits in India has been described by some authors as "India 's hidden apartheid ''. Critics of the accusations point to substantial improvements in the position of Dalits in post-independence India, consequent to the strict implementation of the rights and privileges enshrined in the Constitution of India, as implemented by the Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955. They also argue that the practise had disappeared in urban public life.
Sociologists Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman and Angela Bodino, while critical of caste system, conclude that modern India does not practice apartheid since there is no state - sanctioned discrimination. They write that casteism in India is presently "not apartheid. In fact, untouchables, as well as tribal people and members of the lowest castes in India benefit from broad affirmative action programmes and are enjoying greater political power. ''
A hypothesis that caste amounts to race has been rejected by some scholars. Ambedkar, for example, wrote that "The Brahmin of Punjab is racially of the same stock as the Chamar of Punjab. The Caste system does not demarcate racial division. The Caste system is a social division of people of the same race. '' Various sociologists, anthropologists and historians have rejected the racial origins and racial emphasis of caste and consider the idea to be one that has purely political and economic undertones. Beteille writes that "the Scheduled Castes of India taken together are no more a race than are the Brahmins taken together. Every social group can not be regarded as a race simply because we want to protect it against prejudice and discrimination '', and that the 2001 Durban conference on racism hosted by the U.N. is "turning its back on established scientific opinion ''.
Mulk Raj Anand 's debut novel, Untouchable (1935), is based on the theme of untouchability. The Hindi film Achhut Kannya (Untouchable Maiden, 1936), starring Ashok Kumar and Devika Rani, was an early reformist film. The debut novel of Arundhati Roy, The God of Small Things (1997), also has themes surrounding the caste system across religions. A lawyer named Sabu Thomas filed a petition to have the book published without the last chapter, which had graphic description of sexual acts between members of different castes. Thomas claimed the alleged obscenity in the last chapter deeply hurts the Syrian Christian community, the basis of the novel.
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how burdock fruits inspired the invention of the hook and loop fastener | Hook and loop fastener - wikipedia
Hook - and - loop fasteners, hook - and - pile fasteners or touch fasteners, consist of two components: typically, two lineal fabric strips (or, alternatively, round "dots '' or squares) which are attached (sewn or otherwise adhered) to the opposing surfaces to be fastened. The first component features tiny hooks; the second features even smaller and "hairier '' loops. When the two components are pressed together, the hooks catch in the loops and the two pieces fasten or bind temporarily during the time that they are pressed together. When separated, by pulling or peeling the two surfaces apart, the strips make a distinctive "ripping '' sound.
Hook and loop fasteners are often referred to by the genericized trademark "Velcro. ''
The original hook - and - loop fastener was conceived in 1941 by Swiss engineer George de Mestral. The idea came to him one day after returning from a hunting trip with his dog in the Alps. He took a close look at the burrs (seeds) of burdock that kept sticking to his clothes and his dog 's fur. He examined them under a microscope, and noted their hundreds of "hooks '' that caught on anything with a loop, such as clothing, animal fur, or hair. He saw the possibility of binding two materials reversibly in a simple fashion if he could figure out how to duplicate the hooks and loops. Hook and Loop is viewed by some like Steven Vogel or Werner Nachtigall as a key example of inspiration from nature or the copying of nature 's mechanisms (called bionics or biomimesis).
Originally people refused to take De Mestral seriously when he took his idea to Lyon, which was then a center of weaving. He did manage to gain the help of one weaver, who made two cotton strips that worked. However, the cotton wore out quickly, so De Mestral turned to synthetic fibers. He settled on nylon as being the best synthetic, which had several advantages: it does n't break down, rot, or attract mold, and it could be produced in threads of various thickness. Nylon had only recently been invented, and through trial and error de Mestral eventually discovered that, when sewn under hot infrared light, nylon forms small hook shapes. However, he had yet to figure out a way to mechanize the process, and to make the looped side. Next he found that nylon thread, when woven in loops and heat - treated, retains its shape and is resilient; however, the loops had to be cut in just the right spot so that they could be fastened and unfastened many times. On the verge of giving up, a new idea came to him. He bought a pair of shears and trimmed the tops off the loops, thus creating hooks that would match up perfectly with the loops in the pile.
Mechanizing the process of weaving the hooks took eight years, and it took another year to create the loom that trimmed the loops after weaving them. In all, it took ten years to create a mechanized process that worked.
De Mestral submitted his idea for a patent in Switzerland in 1951, which was granted in 1955. Within a few years he obtained patents and began to open shops in Germany, Switzerland, Great Britain, Sweden, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Canada. In 1957 he branched out to the textile center of Manchester, New Hampshire in the United States.
Columnist Sylvia Porter made the first mention of the product in her column Your Money 's Worth of August 25, 1958, writing, "It is with understandable enthusiasm that I give you today an exclusive report on this news: A ' zipperless zipper ' has been invented -- finally. The new fastening device is in many ways potentially more revolutionary than was the zipper a quarter century ago. ''
A Montreal firm, Velek, Ltd., acquired the exclusive right to market the product in North and South America, as well as in Japan, with American Velcro, Inc. of New Hampshire, and Velcro Sales of New York, marketing the "zipperless zipper '' in the United States.
De Mestral obtained patents in many countries right after inventing the fasteners, as he expected an immediate high demand. Partly due to its cosmetic appearance, though, hook and loop 's integration into the textile industry took time. At the time, the fasteners looked like they had been made from leftover bits of cheap fabric, and thus was not sewn into clothing or used widely when it debuted in the early 1960s. It was also viewed as impractical.
A number of Velcro Corporation products were displayed at a fashion show at the Waldorf - Astoria hotel in New York in 1959, and the fabric got its first break when it was used in the aerospace industry to help astronauts maneuver in and out of bulky space suits. However, this reinforced the view among the populace that hook and loop was something with very limited utilitarian uses. The next major use hook and loop saw was with skiers, who saw the similarities between their costume and that of the astronauts, and thus saw the advantages of a suit that was easier to don and remove. Scuba and marine gear followed soon after. Having seen astronauts storing food pouches on walls, children 's clothing makers came on board. As touch fasteners only became widely used after NASA 's adoption of it, NASA is popularly -- and incorrectly -- credited with its invention.
By the mid-1960s hook and loop fasteners were used in the futuristic creations of fashion designers such as Pierre Cardin, André Courrèges and Paco Rabanne.
Later improvements included strengthening the filament by adding polyester.
In 1978 de Mestral 's patent expired, prompting a flood of low - cost imitations from Taiwan, China and South Korea onto the market. Today, the trademark is the subject of more than 300 trademark registrations in over 159 countries. George de Mestral was inducted into the national inventors hall of fame for his invention.
The big breakthrough George de Mestral made was to think about hook - and - eye closures on a greatly reduced scale. Hook and eye fasteners have been common for centuries, but what was new about hook and loop fasteners was the miniaturisation of the hooks and eyes. Shrinking the hooks led to the two other important differences. Firstly, instead of a single - file line of hooks, touch fasteners have a two - dimensional surface. This was needed, because in decreasing the size of the hooks, the strength was also unavoidably lessened, thus requiring more hooks for the same strength. The other difference is that hook and loop has indeterminate match - up between the hooks and eyes. With larger hook and eye fasteners, each hook has its own eye. On a scale as small as that of hook and loop fasteners, matching up each of these hooks with the corresponding eye is impractical, thus leading to the indeterminate matching.
Various constructions and strengths are available. Some touch fasteners are strong enough that a two - inch square (5 × 5 cm) piece is enough to support a 175 - pound (80 kg) load. Fasteners made of Teflon loops, polyester hooks, and glass backing are used in aerospace applications, e.g. on space shuttles. The strength of the bond depends on how well the hooks are embedded in the loops, how much surface area is in contact with the hooks, and the nature of the force pulling it apart. If hook and loop is used to bond two rigid surfaces, such as auto body panels and frame, the bond is particularly strong because any force pulling the pieces apart is spread evenly across all hooks. Also, any force pushing the pieces together is disproportionately applied to engaging more hooks and loops. Vibration can cause rigid pieces to improve their bond. Full - body hook and loop suits have been made that can hold a person to a suitably covered wall.
When one or both of the pieces is flexible, e.g., a pocket flap, the pieces can be pulled apart with a peeling action that applies the force to relatively few hooks at a time. If a flexible piece is pulled in a direction parallel to the plane of the surface, then the force is spread evenly, as it is with rigid pieces.
Three ways to maximize the strength of a bond between the two flexible pieces are:
Shoe closures can resist a large force with only a small amount of hook and loop fasteners. This is because the strap is wrapped through a slot, halving the force on the bond by acting as a pulley system (thus gaining a mechanical advantage), and further absorbing some of the force in friction around the tight bend. This layout also ensures that the force is parallel to the strips.
Touch fasteners are easy to use, safe, and maintenance free. There is only a minimal decline in effectiveness even after many fastenings and unfastenings. The tearing noise it makes can also be useful against pickpockets.
There are also some deficiencies: it tends to accumulate hair, dust, and fur in its hooks after a few months of regular use. The loops can become elongated or broken after extended use. The hooks often become attached to articles of clothing, especially loosely woven items like sweaters. This clothing may be damaged when one attempts to remove the hook and loop, even if the sides are separated slowly. The tearing noise made by unfastening hook and loop fasteners make it inappropriate for some applications. For example, a soldier in hiding would not want to alert the enemy to his position by opening a pocket. It also absorbs moisture and perspiration when worn next to the skin, which means it will smell if not washed.
Textiles can contain chemicals or compounds, such as dyes, that may be allergenic to sensitive people. Some products have been tested according to the Oeko - tex certification standard, which imposes limits on the chemical content of textiles to address the issue of human ecological safety.
Because its ease of use, hook - and - loop fasteners have been used for a wide variety of applications where a temporary bond is required. It is especially popular in clothing where it replaces buttons or zippers, and as a shoe fastener for children who have not yet learned to tie shoelaces. Touch fasteners are used in adaptive clothing, which is designed for people with physical disabilities, the elderly, and the infirm, who may experience difficulty dressing themselves due to an inability to manipulate closures such as buttons and zippers.
Touch fasteners held together a human heart during the first artificial heart surgery, and it is used in nuclear power plants and army tanks to hold flashlights to walls. Cars use it to bond headliners, floor mats and speaker covers. It is used in the home when pleating draperies, holding carpets in place and attaching upholstery. It closes backpacks, briefcases and notebooks, secures pockets, and holds disposable diapers, and diaper covers for cloth diapers, on babies. It is an integral part of the game tag rugby, and is used in surfboard leashes and orthopaedic braces.
NASA makes significant use of touch fasteners. Each space shuttle flew equipped with ten thousand inches of a special fastener made of Teflon loops, polyester hooks, and glass backing. Touch fasteners are widely used, from the astronauts ' suits, to anchoring equipment. In the near weightless conditions in orbit, hook and loop fasteners are used to temporarily hold objects and keep them from floating away. A patch is used inside astronauts ' helmets where it serves as a nose scratcher. During mealtimes astronauts use trays that attach to their thighs using springs and fasteners.
Touch fasteners is also used aboard the ISS (International Space Station) to temporary attachment of various gear, equipment and other objects to either a crewmember 's clothing or to another surface.
The Slidingly Engaging Fastener was developed to address several problems with common hook and loop fasteners. Heavy - duty variants (such as "Dual Lock '' or "Duotec '') feature mushroom - shaped stems on each face of the fastener, providing an audible snap when the two faces mate. A strong pressure sensitive adhesive bonds each component to its substrate.
There is a silent version of touch fasteners, sometimes called Quiet Closures.
Hook and Loop jumping is a game where people wearing hook - covered suits take a running jump and hurl themselves as high as possible at a loop - covered wall. The wall is inflated, and looks similar to other inflatable structures. It is not necessarily completely covered in the material -- often there will be vertical strips of hooks. Sometimes, instead of a running jump, people use a small trampoline.
Television show host David Letterman immortalized this during the February 28, 1984 episode of Late Night with David Letterman on NBC. Letterman proved that with enough of the material a man could be hurled against a wall and stick, by performing this feat during the television broadcast. This put the Velcro ® Brand fastener in the national spotlight.
Jumping goes beyond David Letterman, though. Amusement companies rent walls and jumpsuits for $ 400 - $500 a day. It was also done on a regular basis in pubs in both New York and New Zealand, where it is a competition to see how high a person can get their feet above the ground. Jeremy Bayliss and Graeme Smith of the Cri Bar and Grill in Napier, New Zealand, started it after seeing American astronauts sticking to walls during space flights. They created their own equipment for the "human fly '' contests, and sold it to several others in New Zealand.
The game moved to the U.S. after Sports Illustrated published a story on it in 1991. Adam Powers and Stephen Wastell of the Perfect Tommy 's bar in New York city read of the game, and soon became the United States distributor of Human Bar Fly equipment. Wall - jumping now exists in dozens of New Zealand bars and is said to be one of the favorite bar activities there.
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the familiar of zero season 3 episode 9 | List of the familiar of Zero episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes of anime produced for the Japanese series The Familiar of Zero. The series consists of four seasons, and the story follows characters from the second - year class of a magic academy, with the main one being an inept mage Louise and her familiar, a human from Earth, Saito Hiraga.
The first season, released in 2006, entitled The Familiar of Zero (ゼロ の 使い 魔, Zero no Tsukaima), was produced by the Japanese animation studio J.C. Staff and directed by Yoshiaki Iwasaki. The series contained thirteen episodes which aired between July 3 and September 25 on a number of Japanese television networks, which include, but are not limited to Chiba TV and TV Kanagawa. In 2007, the second season, entitled The Familiar of Zero: Knight of the Twin Moons (ゼロ の 使い 魔 〜 双 月 の 騎士 〜, Zero no Tsukaima: Futatsuki no Kishi), had Yuu Kou as director. The series contained twelve episodes and aired in Japan between July 9 and September 24 on several Japanese television networks, such as Sun TV, TV Aichi, and TV Saitama. In 2008, the third season, titled The Familiar of Zero: Rondo of Princesses (ゼロ の 使い 魔 〜 三 美姫 (プリンセッセ) の 輪舞 (ロンド), Zero no Tsukaima: Princesse no Rondo) was produced by the same team as the previous season; the series began July 6, 2008 and ended on September 21, 2008. Like the second season, it contained twelve episodes. A fourth and final season titled The Familiar of Zero F (ゼロ の 使い 魔, Zero no Tsukaima F) aired between January 7, 2013 and March 24, 2013. It also contained twelve episodes.
Each season has two pieces of theme music: an opening theme and a closing theme. All opening themes are performed by Ichiko while all closing themes are performed by Rie Kugimiya, Louise 's Japanese voice actress. Season one 's episodes opened with "First Kiss '' and ended with "The real feeling '' (ホントノ キモチ). Season two episodes started with "I Say Yes '' and ended with "Suki!? Kirai!? Suki!!! '' (スキ!? キライ!? スキ!!!), and season three episodes started with "You 're the One '' and ended with "Gomen '' (literally "Sorry ''). Season four episodes started with "I 'll Be There For You '' and ended with "Kiss Shite Agenai ''
All four seasons of the series have been released on DVD in Japan.
In April 2007 at Anime Boston, Geneon announced that they had picked up the English dubbing rights of the first season of the anime series under the title The Familiar of Zero. In July 2008, Geneon Entertainment and Funimation Entertainment announced an agreement to distribute select titles in North America. While Geneon Entertainment still retained the license, Funimation Entertainment assumed exclusive rights to the manufacturing, marketing, sales and distribution of select titles. The Familiar of Zero was one of several titles involved in the deal. Funimation released a complete box set of the series on November 4, 2008. Funimation reported their rights to the series expired in August 2011. Sentai Filmworks re-licensed the first series in North America in 2013 and released it digitally. Sentai released the Geneon English - language version on Blu - ray and DVD on April 8, 2014.
Sentai Filmworks licensed the second season (under the name The Familiar of Zero: Knight of the Twin Moons) in North America and released it on March 10, 2015 on Blu - ray and DVD. Sentai Filmworks licensed the third season with the OVA (under the name The Familiar of Zero: Rondo of Princesses) in North America and released them on May 12, 2015 on Blu - ray and DVD. In 2012, Sentai Filmworks licensed the fourth season (under the name The Familiar of Zero: F) in North America and released it on July 14, 2015 on Blu - ray and DVD.
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where did pot calling kettle black come from | The pot calling the kettle black - wikipedia
"The pot calling the kettle black '' is a proverbial idiom that seems to be of Spanish origin, versions of which began to appear in English in the first half of the 17th century. It is glossed in the original sources as being used of a person who is guilty of the very thing of which they accuse another and is thus an example of psychological projection.
The earliest appearance of the idiom is in Thomas Shelton 's 1620 translation of the Spanish novel Don Quixote. The protagonist is growing increasingly restive under the criticisms of his servant Sancho Panza, of which one is that "You are like what is said that the frying - pan said to the kettle, ' Avant, black - browes '. '' The Spanish text at this point reads: Dijo la sartén a la caldera, Quítate allá ojinegra (Said the pan to the pot, get out of there black - eyes). It is identified as a proverb (refrán) in the text, functioning as a retort to the person who criticises another of the same defect that he plainly has. Among several variations, the one where the pan addresses the pot as culinegra (black - arse) makes clear that they are dirtied in common by contact with the cooking fire.
This version was also recorded in England soon afterwards as "The pot calls the pan burnt - arse '' in John Clarke 's collection of proverbs, Paroemiologia Anglo - Latina (1639). A nearer approach to the present wording is provided by William Penn in his collection Some Fruits of Solitude in Reflections and Maxims (1682):
Apart from the final example in this passage, there is not a strict accord between the behaviour of the critic and the person censured.
An alternative modern interpretation, far removed from the original intention, argues that while the pot is sooty (being placed on a fire), the kettle is shiny (being placed on coals only); hence, when the pot accuses the kettle of being black, it is the pot 's own sooty reflection that it sees: the pot accuses the kettle of a fault that only the pot has, rather than one that they share. The point is illustrated by a poem that appeared anonymously in an early issue of St. Nicholas Magazine from 1876:
"Oho! '' said the pot to the kettle; "You are dirty and ugly and black! Sure no one would think you were metal, Except when you 're given a crack. ''
"Not so! not so! '' kettle said to the pot; "' Tis your own dirty image you see; For I am so clean -- without blemish or blot -- That your blackness is mirrored in me. ''
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where is the story of tracy beaker filmed | The Story of Tracy Beaker (TV series) - wikipedia
The Story of Tracy Beaker (also known as Tracy Beaker or TSOTB) is a British television programme adapted from the book of the same name by Jacqueline Wilson. It ran on CBBC for five series, from 2002 to 2005 and also contained a feature - length episode, Tracy Beaker 's Movie of Me, broadcast in 2004, as well as a week of interactive episodes for Children in Need. The theme song was written and performed by Keisha White. Many of the episodes have been released on official DVD compilations, and the entire series was briefly available for purchase alongside a magazine based on the show.
The pilot episode aired on 8 January 2002 and the series finale aired on 9 December 2005. The show spanned a total of five series with 120 episodes in total. Series 1 introduces the characters and feel of the show. In "Tracy Returns '', Tracy moves back into the Dumping Ground. Three episodes in Series 1 form the basis of the show and make the format and atmosphere easy to understand, "Sneaking in Ben '' shows Tracy 's friendships, "The Truth Is Revealed '' shows Tracy 's way of thinking and "Friend '' shows Tracy 's way of understanding things. Series 1 also sees the introduction of characters such as Jenny, Duke, Mike, Justine, Louise, and Ben.
The Story of Tracy Beaker has been released on DVD in the UK.
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in the christmas carol what was wrong with tiny tim | Tiny Tim (a Christmas Carol) - wikipedia
Timothy Cratchit, called "Tiny Tim '', is a fictional character from the 1843 novella A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens in the Victorian era. He is a minor character, the youngest son of Bob Cratchit, and is seen only briefly, but serves as an important symbol of the consequences of the protagonist 's choices.
When Ebenezer Scrooge is visited by the Ghost of Christmas Present he is shown just how ill the boy really is (the family can not afford to properly treat him on the salary Scrooge pays Cratchit). When visited by the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come, Scrooge sees that Tiny Tim has died. This, and several other visions, lead Scrooge to reform his ways. At the end of the story, Dickens makes it explicit that Tiny Tim does n't die, and Scrooge becomes a "second father '' to him.
In the story, Tiny Tim is known for the statement, "God bless us, every one! '' which he offers as a blessing at Christmas dinner. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; this is symbolic of Scrooge 's change of heart.
Dickens often used his characters to demonstrate the disparity between social classes that existed in England during the Victorian era, and the hardships suffered at that time by the poor. These representative characters are typically children, presumably because children are most dependent upon others for survival, especially when they come from the lower social classes. Tiny Tim is among these characters, and is the most notable example in A Christmas Carol.
When the audience first meet Tiny Tim, he rests upon his father 's shoulder, suggesting that while the Cratchits love their boy dearly, his situation is nonetheless a burden on the family. Further representative of this burden is Tiny Tim 's crippled condition. That he is crippled evokes the financial issues that many poor families faced in 19th - century England. Although his spirit is robust, Tiny Tim 's life expectancy is questionable. His crutch and iron frame support his frail body - ' bore a little crutch, and had his limbs supported by an iron frame ', but more support is needed for Tim if he is to survive, as pointed out by the Ghost of Christmas Present in stave III: "I see a vacant seat in the poor chimney corner, and a crutch without an owner, carefully preserved. If these shadows remain unaltered by the future, the child will die. '' These are a microcosm of the impoverished population: without support or charity, their family will be reduced.
The relationship between Scrooge and Tiny Tim is a condensed depiction of the relationship between two social classes: the wealthy and the impoverished. Tiny Tim plays a large part in Scrooge 's change. Tiny Tim 's fate is linked very closely to Scrooge 's fate, which tightens the connection that Dickens establishes between the two social classes. If Scrooge does not change his miserly ways, Tiny Tim is sure to die. Likewise, if the wealthy do not do their part to support the impoverished, the impoverished are sure to struggle. That Dickens framed this relationship with Christmas seems to suggest the immense need for decreasing the distance between English social strata. The proximity of the Christmas spirit to the issue of social strata lends a sense of community to Dickens ' message, urging the well - to - do upper class to consider the dependent poor, especially during the holiday, but year - round as well.
In early drafts, the character 's name was "Little Fred. '' It has been claimed that the character is based on the son of a friend of Dickens who owned a cotton mill in Ardwick, Manchester. However, Dickens had two younger brothers both with "Fred '' in the name; one called Frederick and another named Alfred. Alfred died young. Also, Dickens had a sister named Fanny who had a disabled son named Henry Burnett Jr. Tiny Tim did not take his name from Fanny 's child, but the actual aspects of Tiny Tim 's character are taken from Henry Burnett Jr. (Fan -- Ebenezer Scrooge 's deceased sister and Fred 's mother -- may be named after Dickens ' sister Fanny.)
Dickens tried other names such as "Tiny Mick '' after "Little Fred '' but eventually decided upon "Tiny Tim. '' After dropping the name "Little Fred, '' Dickens instead named Scrooge 's nephew "Fred ''.
Dickens did not explicitly say what Tiny Tim 's illness was. However, renal tubular acidosis (type 1), which is a type of kidney failure causing the blood to become acidic, has been proposed as one possibility, another being rickets (caused by a lack of Vitamin D). Either illness was treatable during Dickens ' lifetime, but fatal if not treated, thus following in line with the comment of the Ghost of Christmas Present that Tiny Tim would die "only if the present remain unchanged ''.
The child actor Dennis Holmes played the role of Tiny Tim on Ronald Reagan 's General Electric Theater in the 1957 episode "The Trail to Christmas ''.
The role of Tiny Tim has been performed (live action, voiced or animated) by, among others:
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which states in usa have the death penalty | Capital punishment in the United states - wikipedia
Capital punishment is a legal penalty in the United States, currently used by 31 states, the federal government, and the military. Its existence can be traced to the beginning of the American colonies. The United States is the only Western country currently applying the death penalty, one of 54 countries worldwide applying it, and was the first to develop lethal injection as a method of execution, which has since been adopted by five other countries.
There were no executions in the United States between 1967 and 1977. In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down capital punishment statutes in Furman v. Georgia, reducing all death sentences pending at the time to life imprisonment.
Subsequently, a majority of states passed new death penalty statutes, and the court affirmed the legality of capital punishment in the 1976 case Gregg v. Georgia. Since then, more than 7,800 defendants have been sentenced to death; of these, more than 1,400 have been executed, 161 who were sentenced to death in the modern era were exonerated before their execution, and more than 2,900 are still on death row.
The first recorded death sentence in the British North American colonies was carried out in 1608 on Captain George Kendall, who was executed by firing squad at the Jamestown colony for spying for the Spanish government.
The Bill of Rights adopted in 1789 included the Eighth Amendment which prohibited cruel and unusual punishment. The Fifth Amendment was drafted with language implying a possible use of the death penalty, requiring a grand jury indictment for "capital crime '' and a due process of law for deprivation of "life '' by the government. The Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868 also requires a due process of law for deprivation of life by any states.
The Espy file, compiled by M. Watt Espy and John Ortiz Smykla, lists 15,269 people executed in the United States and its predecessor colonies between 1608 and 1991. From 1930 to 2002, there were 4,661 executions in the U.S., about two - thirds of them in the first 20 years. Additionally, the United States Army executed 135 soldiers between 1916 and 1955 (the most recent).
Three states abolished the death penalty for murder during the 19th century: Michigan (which has never executed a prisoner since achieving statehood) in 1846, Wisconsin in 1853 and Maine in 1887. Rhode Island is also a state with a long abolitionist background, having repealed the death penalty in 1852, though it was theoretically available for murder committed by a prisoner between 1872 and 1984.
Other states which abolished the death penalty for murder before Gregg v. Georgia include: Minnesota in 1911, Vermont in 1964, Iowa and West Virginia in 1965 and North Dakota in 1973. Hawaii abolished the death penalty in 1948 and Alaska in 1957, both before their statehood. Puerto Rico repealed it in 1929 and the District of Columbia in 1981. Arizona and Oregon abolished the death penalty by popular vote in 1916 and 1964 respectively, but both reinstated it, again by popular vote, some years later: Arizona in 1918 and Oregon in 1978. Puerto Rico and Michigan are the only two U.S. jurisdictions to have explicitly prohibited capital punishment in their constitutions: in 1952 and 1964, respectively.
Nevertheless, capital punishment continued to be used by a majority of states and the federal government for various crimes, especially murder and rape, from the creation of the United States up to the beginning of the 1960s. Until then, "save for a few mavericks, no one gave any credence to the possibility of ending the death penalty by judicial interpretation of constitutional law '', according to abolitionist Hugo Bedau.
The possibility of challenging the constitutionality of the death penalty became progressively more realistic after the Supreme Court of the United States decided Trop v. Dulles in 1958, when the court said explicitly for the first time that the Eighth Amendment 's cruel and unusual clause must draw its meaning from the "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society '', rather than from its original meaning. Also in the 1932 case Powell v. Alabama, the court made the first step of what would later be called "death is different '' jurisprudence, when it held that any indigent defendant was entitled to a court - appointed attorney in capital cases - a right that was only later extended to non-capital defendants in 1963, with Gideon v. Wainwright.
In Furman v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court considered a group of consolidated cases. The lead case involved an individual convicted under Georgia 's death penalty statute, which featured a "unitary trial '' procedure in which the jury was asked to return a verdict of guilt or innocence and, simultaneously, determine whether the defendant would be punished by death or life imprisonment. The last pre-Furman execution was that of Luis Monge on June 2, 1967.
In a 5 - 4 decision, the Supreme Court struck down the impositions of the death penalty in each of the consolidated cases as unconstitutional in violation of the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court has never ruled the death penalty to be per se unconstitutional. The five justices in the majority did not produce a common opinion or rationale for their decision, however, and agreed only on a short statement announcing the result. The narrowest opinions, those of Byron White and Potter Stewart, expressed generalized concerns about the inconsistent application of the death penalty across a variety of cases, but did not exclude the possibility of a constitutional death penalty law. Stewart and William O. Douglas worried explicitly about racial discrimination in enforcement of the death penalty. Thurgood Marshall and William J. Brennan Jr. expressed the opinion that the death penalty was proscribed absolutely by the Eighth Amendment as cruel and unusual punishment.
The Furman decision caused all death sentences pending at the time to be reduced to life imprisonment, and was described by scholars as a "legal bombshell ''. The next day, columnist Barry Schweid wrote that it was "unlikely '' that the death penalty could exist anymore in the United States.
Instead of abandoning capital punishment, 37 states enacted new death penalty statutes that attempted to address the concerns of White and Stewart in Furman. Some states responded by enacting mandatory death penalty statutes which prescribed a sentence of death for anyone convicted of certain forms of murder. White had hinted that such a scheme would meet his constitutional concerns in his Furman opinion. Other states adopted "bifurcated '' trial and sentencing procedures, with various procedural limitations on the jury 's ability to pronounce a death sentence designed to limit juror discretion.
On July 2, 1976, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Gregg v. Georgia and upheld 7 - 2 a Georgia procedure in which the trial of capital crimes was bifurcated into guilt - innocence and sentencing phases. At the first proceeding, the jury decides the defendant 's guilt; if the defendant is innocent or otherwise not convicted of first - degree murder, the death penalty will not be imposed. At the second hearing, the jury determines whether certain statutory aggravating factors exist, whether any mitigating factors exist, and, in many jurisdictions, weigh the aggravating and mitigating factors in assessing the ultimate penalty - either death or life in prison, either with or without parole. The same day, in Woodson v. North Carolina and Roberts v. Louisiana, the court struck down 5 - 4 statutes providing a mandatory death sentence.
Executions resumed on January 17, 1977, when Gary Gilmore went before a firing squad in Utah. Although hundreds of individuals were sentenced to death in the United States during the 1970s and early 1980s, only ten people besides Gilmore (who had waived all of his appeal rights) were actually executed prior to 1984.
In 1977, the Supreme Court 's Coker v. Georgia decision barred the death penalty for rape of an adult woman. Previously, the death penalty for rape of an adult had been gradually phased out in the United States, and at the time of the decision, Georgia and the U.S. Federal government were the only two jurisdictions to still retain the death penalty for that offense.
In the 1980 case Godfrey v. Georgia, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that murder can be punished by death only if it involves a narrow and precise aggravating factor.
The U.S. Supreme Court has placed two major restrictions on the use of the death penalty. First, the case of Atkins v. Virginia, decided on June 20, 2002, held that the execution of intellectually disabled inmates is unconstitutional. Second, in 2005, the court 's decision in Roper v. Simmons struck down executions for offenders under the age of 18 at the time of the crime.
In the 2008 case Kennedy v. Louisiana, the court also held 5 - 4 that the death penalty is unconstitutional when applied to non-homicidal crimes against the person, including child rape. Only two death row inmates (both in Louisiana) were affected by the decision. Nevertheless, the ruling came less than five months before the 2008 presidential election and was criticized by both major party candidates Barack Obama and John McCain.
In 2004, New York and Kansas capital sentencing schemes were struck down by their respective state highest courts. Kansas successfully appealed the Kansas Supreme Court decision to the United States Supreme Court, who reinstated the statute in Kansas v. Marsh (2006), holding it did not violate the U.S. Constitution. The decision of New York Court of Appeals was based on the state constitution, making unavailable any appeal. The state lower house has since blocked all attempts to reinstate the death penalty by adopting a valid sentencing scheme. In 2016, Delaware 's death penalty statute was also struck down by its state supreme court.
In 2007, New Jersey became the first state to repeal the death penalty by legislative vote since Gregg v. Georgia, followed by New Mexico in 2009, Illinois in 2011, Connecticut in 2012, and Maryland in 2013. The repeals were not retroactive, but in New Jersey, Illinois and Maryland, governors commuted all death sentences after enacting the new law. In Connecticut, the Connecticut Supreme Court ruled in 2015 that the repeal must be retroactive. New Mexico is the only state with remaining death row inmates and no present death penalty statute.
Nebraska 's legislature also passed a repeal in 2015, but a referendum campaign gathered enough signatures to suspend it. Capital punishment was reinstated by popular vote on November 8, 2016. The same day, California 's electorate defeated a proposal to repeal the death penalty, and adopted another initiative to speed up its appeal process.
Since Furman, 11 states have organized popular votes dealing with the death penalty through the initiative and referendum process. All resulted in a vote for reinstating it, rejecting its abolition, expanding its application field, specifying in the state constitution that it is not unconstitutional, or expediting the appeal process in capital cases.
19 states including the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico have abolished the death penalty for all crimes. Below is a table of the 19 states and the date that the state abolished the death penalty.
From 1976 to January 1, 2018, there were 1,465 executions, of which 1,290 were by lethal injection, 158 by electrocution, 11 by gas inhalation, 3 by hanging, and 3 by firing squad. The South had the great majority of these executions, with 1,195; there were 181 in the Midwest, 85 in the West, and only 4 in the Northeast. No state in the Northeast has conducted an execution since Connecticut, now abolitionist, in 2005. The state of Texas alone conducted 545 executions, over 1 / 3 of the total; the states of Texas, Virginia, and Oklahoma combined make up over half the total, with 770 executions between them. 3 executions have been conducted by the federal government, the last in 2003. Executions increased in frequency until 1999; 98 prisoners were executed that year. Since 1999, the number of executions has greatly decreased, and the 20 executions in 2016 were the fewest since 1991.
The death penalty was a notable issue during the 1988 presidential election. It came up in the October 13, 1988, debate between the two presidential nominees George H.W. Bush and Michael Dukakis, when Bernard Shaw, the moderator of the debate, asked Dukakis, "Governor, if Kitty Dukakis (his wife) were raped and murdered, would you favor an irrevocable death penalty for the killer? '' Dukakis replied, "No, I do n't, and I think you know that I 've opposed the death penalty during all of my life. I do n't see any evidence that it 's a deterrent, and I think there are better and more effective ways to deal with violent crime. '' Bush was elected, and many, including Dukakis himself, cite the statement as the beginning of the end of his campaign.
In 1996, Congress passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act to streamline the appeal process in capital cases. The bill was signed into law by President Bill Clinton, who had endorsed capital punishment during his 1992 presidential campaign.
A study found that at least 34 of the 749 executions carried out in the U.S. between 1977 and 2001, or 4.5 %, involved "unanticipated problems or delays that caused, at least arguably, unnecessary agony for the prisoner or that reflect gross incompetence of the executioner ''. The rate of these "botched executions '' remained steady over the period. A study published in The Lancet in 2005 found that in 43 % of cases of lethal injection, the blood level of hypnotics in the prisoner was insufficient to ensure unconsciousness. Nonetheless, the Supreme Court ruled in 2008 (Baze v. Rees) and again in 2015 (Glossip v. Gross) that lethal injection does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment.
In 1632, 24 years after the first recorded male execution in the colonies, Jane Champion became the first woman to be lawfully executed. She was sentenced to death by hanging after she was convicted of murder in front of a grand jury. The second half of the 1600s saw the executions of 14 women and 6 men who were accused of witchcraft during the witch hunt hysteria and the Salem Witch Trials. While both men and women were executed, 80 % of the accusations were towards women, so the list of executions disproportionately affected men by a margin of 6 (actual) to 4 (expected), i.e. 50 % more men were executed than expected from the percentage of accused who were men.
Other notable female executions include Mary Surratt, Margie Velma Barfield and Wanda Jean Allen. Mary Surratt was executed by hanging in 1865 after being convicted of co-conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln. Margie Velma Barfield was convicted of murder and when she was executed by lethal injection in 1984, she became the first woman to be executed since the ban on capital punishment was lifted in 1976. Wanda Jean Allen was convicted of murder in 1989 and had a high - profile execution by lethal injection in January 2001. She was the first black woman to be executed in the US since 1954. According to Allen 's lawyers, prosecutors capitalized on her low IQ, race and homosexuality in their representations of her as a murderer at trial.
Aggravating factors for seeking capital punishment of murder vary greatly among death penalty states. California has twenty - two; New Hampshire has seven. Some aggravating circumstances are nearly universal, such as robbery - murder, murder involving rape of the victim, and murder of an on - duty police officer.
Several states have included child murder to their list of aggravating factors, but the victim 's age under which the murder is punishable by death varies. In 2011, Texas raised this age from six to ten.
In some states, the high number of aggravating factors has been criticized on account of giving prosecutors too much discretion in choosing cases where they believe capital punishment is warranted. In California especially, an official commission proposed, in 2008, to reduce these factors to five (multiple murders, torture murder, murder of a police officer, murder committed in jail, and murder related to another felony). Columnist Charles Lane went further, and proposed that murder related to a felony other than rape should no longer be a capital crime when there is only one victim killed.
In order for a person to be eligible for a death sentence when convicted of aggravated first - degree murder, the jury or court (when there is not a jury) must determine at least one of sixteen aggravating factors that existed during the crime 's commission. The following is a list of the 16 aggravating factors.
The opinion of the court in Kennedy v. Louisiana says that the ruling does not apply to "treason, espionage, terrorism, and drug kingpin activity, which are offenses against the State ''.
Since no one is on death row for such offenses, the court has yet to rule on the constitutionality of the death penalty applied for them.
Treason, espionage and large - scale drug trafficking are all capital crimes under federal law. Treason is also punishable by death in six states (Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri). Vermont still has a pre-Furman statute providing the death penalty for treason despite removing capital punishment for murder in 1965. Large - scale drug trafficking is punishable by death in two states (Florida and Missouri). Aircraft hijacking is a capital crime in Georgia and Mississippi.
The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States typically involves five critical steps: (1) prosecutorial decision to seek the death penalty (2) sentencing, (3) direct review, (4) state collateral review, and (5) federal habeas corpus.
Clemency, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.
While judges in criminal cases can usually impose a harsher prison sentence than the one demanded by prosecution, the death penalty can be handed down only if the accuser has specifically decided to seek it.
In the decades since Furman, new questions have emerged about whether or not prosecutorial arbitrariness has replaced sentencing arbitrariness. A study by Pepperdine University School of Law published in Temple Law Review, surveyed the decision - making process among prosecutors in various states. The authors found that prosecutors ' capital punishment filing decisions remain marked by local "idiosyncrasies '', suggesting they are not in keeping with the spirit of the Supreme Court 's directive. This means that "the very types of unfairness that the Supreme Court sought to eliminate '' may still "infect capital cases ''. Wide prosecutorial discretion remains because of overly broad criteria. California law, for example, has 22 "special circumstances '', making nearly all premeditated murders potential capital cases.
A proposed remedy against prosecutorial arbitrariness is to transfer the prosecution of capital cases to the state attorney general.
Of the 31 states with the death penalty, 29 provide the sentence to be decided by a jury, and 28 require a unanimous sentence.
The only state which does not require a unanimous jury decision is Alabama. In Alabama, at least 10 jurors must concur. A retrial happens if the jury deadlocks.
Nebraska is the only state in which the sentence is decided by a three - judge panel. If one of the judges on the panel opposes death, the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment.
Montana is the only state where the trial judge decides the sentence alone.
In all states in which the jury is involved, only death - qualified veniremen can be selected in such a jury, to exclude both people who will always vote for the death sentence and those who are categorically opposed to it.
However, the states differ on what happens if the penalty phase results in a hung jury:
The first outcome is referred as the "true unanimity '' rule, while the third has been criticized as the "single - juror veto '' rule.
If a defendant is sentenced to death at the trial level, the case then goes into a direct review. The direct review process is a typical legal appeal. An appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether the decision was legally sound or not. Direct review of a capital sentencing hearing will result in one of three outcomes. If the appellate court finds that no significant legal errors occurred in the capital sentencing hearing, the appellate court will affirm the judgment, or let the sentence stand. If the appellate court finds that significant legal errors did occur, then it will reverse the judgment, or nullify the sentence and order a new capital sentencing hearing. Lastly, if the appellate court finds that no reasonable juror could find the defendant eligible for the death penalty, a rarity, then it will order the defendant acquitted, or not guilty, of the crime for which he / she was given the death penalty, and order him sentenced to the next most severe punishment for which the offense is eligible. About 60 percent survive the process of direct review intact.
At times when a death sentence is affirmed on direct review, supplemental methods to attack the judgment, though less familiar than a typical appeal, do remain. These supplemental remedies are considered collateral review, that is, an avenue for upsetting judgments that have become otherwise final. Where the prisoner received his death sentence in a state - level trial, as is usually the case, the first step in collateral review is state collateral review, which is often called state habeas corpus. (If the case is a federal death penalty case, it proceeds immediately from direct review to federal habeas corpus.) Although all states have some type of collateral review, the process varies widely from state to state. Generally, the purpose of these collateral proceedings is to permit the prisoner to challenge his sentence on grounds that could not have been raised reasonably at trial or on direct review. Most often, these are claims, such as ineffective assistance of counsel, which requires the court to consider new evidence outside the original trial record, something courts may not do in an ordinary appeal. State collateral review, though an important step in that it helps define the scope of subsequent review through federal habeas corpus, is rarely successful in and of itself. Only around 6 percent of death sentences are overturned on state collateral review.
In Virginia, state habeas corpus for condemned men are heard by the state supreme court under exclusive original jurisdiction since 1995, immediately after direct review by the same court. This avoids any proceeding before the lower courts, and is in part why Virginia has the shortest time on average between death sentence and execution (less than eight years) and has executed 113 offenders since 1976 with only five remaining on death row as of June 2017.
To reduce litigation delays, other states require convicts to file their state collateral appeal before the completion of their direct appeal, or provide adjudication of direct and collateral attacks together in a "unitary review ''.
After a death sentence is affirmed in state collateral review, the prisoner may file for federal habeas corpus, which is a unique type of lawsuit that can be brought in federal courts. Federal habeas corpus is a type of collateral review, and it is the only way that state prisoners may attack a death sentence in federal court (other than petitions for certiorari to the United States Supreme Court after both direct review and state collateral review). The scope of federal habeas corpus is governed by the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (AEDPA), which restricted significantly its previous scope. The purpose of federal habeas corpus is to ensure that state courts, through the process of direct review and state collateral review, have done a reasonable job in protecting the prisoner 's federal constitutional rights. Prisoners may also use federal habeas corpus suits to bring forth new evidence that they are innocent of the crime, though to be a valid defense at this late stage in the process, evidence of innocence must be truly compelling. According to Eric Freedman, 21 percent of death penalty cases are reversed through federal habeas corpus.
James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case, there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995 ''. Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted ''. The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive: Freedam 's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to habeas corpus review.
A similar process is available for prisoners sentenced to death by the judgment of a federal court.
The AEDPA also provides an expeditious habeas procedure in capital cases for states meeting several requirements set forth in it concerning counsel appointment for death row inmates. Under this program, federal habeas corpus for condemned prisoners would be decided in about three years from affirmance of the sentence on state collateral review. In 2006, Congress conferred the determination of whether a state fulfilled the requirements to the U.S. attorney general, with a possible appeal of the state to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. As of March 2016, the Department of Justice has still not granted any certifications.
If the federal court refuses to issue a writ of habeas corpus, the death sentence becomes final for all purposes. In recent times, however, prisoners have postponed execution through another way of federal litigation using the Civil Rights Act of 1871 - codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1983 - which allows people to bring lawsuits against state actors to protect their federal constitutional and statutory rights.
While the aforementioned appeals are normally limited to one and automatically stay the execution of the death sentence, Section 1983 lawsuits are unlimited, but the petitioner will be granted a stay of execution only if the court believes he has a likelihood of success on the merits.
Traditionally, Section 1983 was of limited use for a state prisoner under sentence of death because the Supreme Court has held that habeas corpus, not Section 1983, is the only vehicle by which a state prisoner can challenge his judgment of death. In the 2006 Hill v. McDonough case, however, the United States Supreme Court approved the use of Section 1983 as a vehicle for challenging a state 's method of execution as cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The theory is that a prisoner bringing such a challenge is not attacking directly his judgment of death, but rather the means by which that the judgment will be carried out. Therefore, the Supreme Court held in the Hill case that a prisoner can use Section 1983 rather than habeas corpus to bring the lawsuit. Yet, as Clarence Hill 's own case shows, lower federal courts have often refused to hear suits challenging methods of execution on the ground that the prisoner brought the claim too late and only for the purposes of delay. Further, the Court 's decision in Baze v. Rees, upholding a lethal injection method used by many states, has narrowed the opportunity for relief through Section 1983.
While the execution warrant is issued by the governor in several states, in the vast majority it is a judicial order, issued by a judge or by the state supreme court at the request of the prosecution.
The warrant usually sets an execution day. Some states instead provide a longer period, such as a week or 10 days to carry out the execution. This is designated to avoid issuing a new warrant in case of a last - minute stay of execution that would be vacated only few days or few hours later.
Within the context of the overall murder rate, the death penalty can not be said to be widely or routinely used in the United States; in recent years the average has been about one death sentence for every 200 murder convictions.
Alabama has the highest per capita rate of death sentences. This is because Alabama was one of the few states that allowed judges to override a jury recommendation in favor of life imprisonment, a possibility it removed in March 2017.
The distribution of death sentences among states is loosely proportional to their populations and murder rates. California, which is the most populous state, has also the largest death row with over 700 inmates. Wyoming, which is the least populous state, has only one condemned man.
But executions are more frequent (and happen more quickly after sentencing) in conservative states. Texas, which is the second most populous state of the Union, carried out over 500 executions during the post-Furman era, more than a third of the national total. California has carried out only 13 executions during the same period, and has carried out none since 2006.
African Americans made up 41 % of death row inmates while making up only 12.6 % of the general population. They have made up 34 % of those actually executed since 1976. However, this is an under - representation relative to the proportion of convicted murderers; 52.5 % of all homicide offenders between 1980 and 2008 were African Americans. According to a 2003 Amnesty International report, blacks and whites were the victims of murder in almost equal numbers, yet 80 % of the people executed since 1977 were convicted of murders involving white victims.
Approximately 13.5 % of death row inmates are of Hispanic or Latino descent, while they make up 17.4 % of the general population.
As of October 1, 2016, the Death Penalty Information Center reports that there are only 54 women on death row. This constitutes 1.86 % of the total death row population. 16 women have been executed since 1976, while 1442 men have been executed. 15,391 total confirmed lawful executions have been carried out in the US since 1608, and of these, 575, or 3.6 %, were women. Women account for 1 / 50 death sentences, 1 / 67 people on death row, and 1 / 100 people whose executions are actually carried out. The states that have executed the most women are California, Texas and Florida. For women, the racial breakdown of those sentenced to death is 21 % black, 13 % Latina, 2 % American Indian, 61 % white and 3 % Asian.
All 31 states with the death penalty provide lethal injection as the primary method of execution.
Some states allow other methods than lethal injection, but only as secondary methods to be used merely at the request of the prisoner or if lethal injection is unavailable.
Several states continue to use the historical three - drug protocol: an anesthetic, pancuronium bromide a paralytic, and potassium chloride to stop the heart. Eight states have used a single - drug protocol, inflicting only an overdose of a single anesthetic to the prisoner.
While some state statutes specify the drugs required, a majority do not, giving more flexibility to corrections officials.
Pressures from anti-death penalty activists and shareholders have made it difficult for correctional services to get the chemicals. Hospira, the only U.S. manufacturer of sodium thiopental, stopped making the drug in 2011. In 2016, it was reported that more than 20 U.S. and European drug manufacturers including Pfizer (the owner of Hospira) had taken steps to prevent their drugs from being used for lethal injections.
Since then, some states have used other anesthetics, such as pentobarbital, etomidate, or fast - acting benzodiazepines like midazolam. Many states have since bought lethal injection drugs from foreign furnishers, and most states have made it a criminal offense to reveal the identities of furnishers or execution team members. In November 2015, California adopted regulations allowing the state to use its own public compounding pharmacies to make the chemicals.
In 2009, Ohio approved the use of an intramuscular injection of 500 mg of hydromorphone (a 333-fold overdose for an opioid - naïve patient of this narcotic analgesic closely related to and five times stronger than morphine; this is the equivalent of an entire 50 - ml bottle of Dilaudid HP, the most powerful commercially available form, although the advantage of hydromorphone is its very high solubility allowing for solutions of almost arbitrary concentration; 500 mg of hydromorphone HCl as pure powder can be dissolved in isotonic saline in volumes as small as under 2 cc) and a supratherapeutic dose of midazolam as a backup means of carrying out executions when a suitable vein can not be found for intravenous injection.
Lethal injection was held to be a constitutional method of execution by the U.S. Supreme Court in two cases: Baze v. Rees (2008) and Glossip v. Gross (2015).
In the following states, death row inmates with an execution warrant may choose to be executed by:
In five states (Arizona, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee and Utah), the alternative method is offered only to inmates sentenced to death for crimes committed prior to a specified date (usually when the state switched from the earlier method to lethal injection).
When an offender chooses to be executed by a means different from the state default method, which is always lethal injection, he / she loses the right to challenge its constitutionality in court. See Stewart v. LaGrand, 526 US 115 (1999).
The last executions by methods other than injection are as follows (all chosen by the inmate):
Depending on the state, the following alternative methods are statutorily provided in the event that lethal injection is either found unconstitutional by a court or unavailable for practical reasons:
Oklahoma is the only state allowing more than two methods of execution in its statutes, providing lethal injection, nitrogen hypoxia, electrocution and firing squad to be used in that order in the event that all earlier methods are unavailable. The nitrogen option was added by the Oklahoma Legislature in 2015 and has never been used in a judicial execution, though it is routinely used to give a painless death in animal euthanasia.
Three states (Oklahoma, Tennessee and Utah) have added back - up methods recently in 2014 or 2015 (or have expanded their application fields) in reaction to the shortage of lethal injection drugs.
Some states such as Florida have a larger provision dealing with execution methods unavailability, requiring their state departments of corrections to use "any constitutional method '' if both lethal injection and electrocution are found unconstitutional. This was designed to make unnecessary any further legislative intervention in that event, but the provision applies only to legal (not practical) infeasibility.
In May 2016, an Oklahoma grand jury recommended the state to use nitrogen hypoxia as its primary method of execution rather than as a mere backup, after experts testified that the method would be painless, easy and "inexpensive ''.
The method of execution of federal prisoners for offenses under the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 is that of the state in which the conviction took place. If the state has no death penalty, the judge must choose a state with the death penalty for carrying out the execution.
The federal government has a facility (at U.S. Penitentiary Terre Haute) and regulations only for executions by lethal injection, but the United States Code allows U.S. Marshals to use state facilities and employees for federal executions.
The last public execution in the U.S. was that of Rainey Bethea in Owensboro, Kentucky, on August 14, 1936.
It was the last execution in the nation at which the general public was permitted to attend without any legally imposed restrictions. "Public execution '' is a legal phrase, defined by the laws of various states, and carried out pursuant to a court order. Similar to "public record '' or "public meeting '', it means that anyone who wants to attend the execution may do so.
Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall '' or "enclosure '', or to "exclude public view ''. Most states laws currently use such explicit wording to prohibit public executions, while others do so only implicitly by enumerating the only authorized witnesses.
All states allow news reporters to be execution witnesses for information of the general public, except Wyoming which allow only witnesses authorized by the condemned. Several states also allow victims ' families and relatives selected by the prisoner to watch executions. An hour or two before the execution, the condemned is offered religious services and to choose his last meal (except in Texas which abolished it in 2011).
The execution of Timothy McVeigh on June 11, 2001, was witnessed by over 200 people, most by closed - circuit television.
Gallup, Inc. monitors support for the death penalty in the United States since 1937 by asking "Are you in favor of the death penalty for a person convicted of murder? '' Gallup surveys document a sharp increase in support for capital punishment between 1966 and 1994 clearly in response to rising violent crime rates during this period (e.g. Page and Shapiro 1992.) However, with the dramatic surge in arguments questioning the fairness of the sentence (due, in part, to DNA exonerations of death row inmates in the national media in the late 1990s (Baumgartner, De Boef, and Boydstun 2004 The Decline of the Death Penalty and the Discovery of Innocence), support then began to wane, falling from 80 % in 1994 to 66 % in 2000. Moreover, approval varies substantially depending on the characteristics of the target and the alternatives posed, with much lower support for putting juveniles and the mentally ill to death (26 % and 19 %, respectively, in 2002) and for the alternative of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole (52 % in 2003) Gallup 2005). Given the fact that attitudes toward this policy are often responsive to events, to characteristics of the target, and to alternatives, the conventional wisdom -- that death penalty attitudes are impervious to change -- is surely overstated. Accordingly, any analysis of death penalty attitudes must account for the responsiveness of such attitudes, as well as their reputed resistance to change
In the October 2016 Gallup poll, 60 % of respondents said they were in favor and 37 % were opposed.
Pew Research polls have demonstrated declining American support for the death penalty: 80 % in 1974, 78 % in 1996, 55 % in 2014, and 49 % in 2016. The 2014 poll showed significant differences by race: 63 % of whites, 40 % of Hispanics, and 36 % of blacks, respectively, supported the death penalty in that year.
A 2010 poll found that 61 % of voters would choose a penalty other than the death sentence for murder. When persons surveyed are given a choice between the death penalty and life without parole for persons convicted of capital crimes, support for execution has traditionally been significantly lower than in polling that asks only if a person does or does not support the death penalty. In 2010, for instance, a Gallup poll that offered a choice showed 49 % favoring the death penalty, and 46 % favoring life imprisonment.
On the other hand, in November 2009, another Gallup poll found that 77 % of Americans say that September 11 attacks ' mastermind Khalid Sheikh Mohammed should get the death penalty if convicted, including 12 who normally opposed the death penalty when asked the 1937 question. A similar result was found in 2001 when respondents were polled about the execution of Timothy McVeigh for the Oklahoma City Bombing that killed 168 victims.
Capital punishment is a controversial issue, with many prominent organizations and individuals participating in the debate. Amnesty International and other groups oppose capital punishment on moral grounds.
Some law enforcement organizations, and some victims ' rights groups support capital punishment.
The United States is one of three developed countries, that still practice capital punishment, along with Japan, Singapore.
Religious groups are widely split on the issue of capital punishment. The Fiqh Council of North America, a group of highly influential Muslim scholars in the United States, has issued a fatwa calling for a moratorium on capital punishment in the United States until various preconditions in the legal system are met.
In October 2009, the American Law Institute voted to disavow the framework for capital punishment that it had created in 1962, as part of the Model Penal Code, "in light of the current intractable institutional and structural obstacles to ensuring a minimally adequate system for administering capital punishment ''. A study commissioned by the institute had said that experience had proved that the goal of individualized decisions about who should be executed and the goal of systemic fairness for minorities and others could not be reconciled. As of 2017, 159 prisoners have been exonerated due to evidence of their innocence.
Advocates of the death penalty say that it deters crime, is a good tool for prosecutors in plea bargaining, improves the community by eliminating recidivism by executed criminals, provides "closure '' to surviving victims or loved ones, and is a just penalty.
The murder rate is highest in the South (6.5 per 100,000 in 2016), where 80 % of executions are carried out, and lowest in the Northeast (3.5 per 100,000), with less than 1 % of executions. A report by the US National Research Council in 2012 stated that studies claiming a deterrent effect are "fundamentally flawed '' and should not be used for policy decisions.
According to a survey of the former and present presidents of the country 's top academic criminological societies, 88 % of these experts rejected the notion that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder. (Radelet & Lacock, 2009)
Data shows that the application of the death penalty is strongly influenced by racial bias. Furthermore, some opponents argue that it is applied in an arbitrary manner by a criminal justice system that has been shown to be biased through the systemic influence of socio - economic, geographic, and gender factors. Another argument in the capital punishment debate is the cost.
Various commentators predicted that the death penalty would likely have disappeared in the United States if Hillary Clinton had been elected U.S. President in November 2016 and allowed to appoint a liberal Supreme Court Justice to replace the late Antonin Scalia. Because Donald Trump won and citizens in three states voted the same day for ballot measures supporting capital punishment, columnists came to the conclusion that it will remain indefinitely.
One of the main arguments against the use of capital punishment in the United States is that there has been a long history of botched executions. University of Colorado Boulder Professor Michael L. Radelet described a "botched execution '' as an execution that causes the prisoner to suffer for a long period of time before they die. This has led to citizens having the opinion that capital punishment is cruel and unusual punishment. The following is a short list of botched executions that have occurred in the United States.
The largest number of clemencies was granted in January 2003 in Illinois when outgoing Governor George Ryan, who had already imposed a moratorium on executions, pardoned four death - row inmates and commuted the sentences of the remaining 167 to life in prison without the possibility of parole. When Governor Pat Quinn signed legislation abolishing the death penalty in Illinois in March 2011, he commuted the sentences of the fifteen inmates on death row to life imprisonment.
Previous post-Furman mass clemencies took place in 1986 in New Mexico, when Governor Toney Anaya commuted all death sentences because of his personal opposition to the death penalty. In 1991, outgoing Ohio Governor Dick Celeste commuted the sentences of eight prisoners, among them all four women on the state 's death row. And during his two terms (1979 - 1987) as Florida 's Governor, Bob Graham, although a strong death penalty supporter who had overseen the first post-Furman involuntary execution as well as 15 others, agreed to commute the sentences of six people on the grounds of doubts about guilt or disproportionality.
All executions were suspended through the country between September 2007 and April 2008. At that time, the U.S. Supreme Court was examining the constitutionality of lethal injection in Baze v. Rees. This was the longest period with no executions in the United States since 1982. The Supreme Court ultimately upheld this method in a 7 -- 2 ruling.
In addition to the states that have no valid death penalty statute, the following states and jurisdictions are noted that have an official moratorium, or have had no executions for more than ten years, as of 2018:
Kansas, New Hampshire, Wyoming, and the U.S. Military have also had no executions for over ten years, but in these states it is because of the lack of death row inmates having exhausted the appeal process.
Since 1976, four states have executed only condemned prisoners who voluntarily waived further appeals: Pennsylvania has executed three inmates, Oregon two, Connecticut one, and New Mexico one.
In North Carolina, executions are suspended following a decision by the state 's medical board that physicians can not participate in executions, which is a requirement under state law.
In California, United States District Judge Jeremy Fogel suspended all executions in the state on December 15, 2006, ruling that the implementation used in California was unconstitutional but that it could be fixed.
On November 25, 2009, the Kentucky Supreme Court suspended executions until the state adopts regulations for carrying out the penalty by lethal injection.
In November 2011, Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber announced a moratorium on executions in Oregon, canceling a planned execution and ordering a review of the death penalty system in the state.
On February 11, 2014, Washington Governor Jay Inslee announced a capital punishment moratorium. All death penalty cases that come to Inslee will result in him issuing a reprieve, not a pardon or commutation.
On February 13, 2015, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf announced a moratorium on the death penalty. Wolf will issue a reprieve for every execution until a commission on capital punishment, which was established in 2011 by the Pennsylvania State Senate, produces a recommendation. Effectively there was a moratorium in place, as the state had not executed anyone since Gary M. Heidnik in 1999.
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when was the last time the federal minimum wage increased | Minimum wage in the United States - wikipedia
The minimum wage in the United States is set by US labor law and a range of state and local laws. Employers generally have to pay workers the highest minimum wage prescribed by federal, state, and local law. Since July 24, 2009, the federal government has mandated a nationwide minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. As of January 2018, there were 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2017 to 2018, eight states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in eleven other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Washington has the highest state minimum wage at $11.50 per hour.
Using 2017 inflation - adjusted dollars, the federal minimum wage peaked at $11.53 per hour in 1968. If the minimum wage in 1968 had kept up with labor 's productivity growth, it would have reached $19.33 in 2017.
There is a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage with most black and Latino individuals supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it. In 2015, about three percent of white, Asian, and Latino workers earned the federal minimum wage or less. Among black workers, the percentage was about four percent.
-- President Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1933
Minimum wage legislation emerged at the end of the nineteenth century from the desire to end sweated labor which had developed in the wake of industrialization. Sweatshops employed large numbers of women and young workers, paying them what were considered nonliving wages that did not allow workers to afford the necessaries of life. Besides substandard wages, sweating was also associated with long work hours and unsanitary work conditions. From the 1890s to the 1920s, during the Progressive Era, a time of social activists and political reform across the United States, progressive reformers, women 's organizations, religious figures, academics, and politicians all played an important role in getting state minimum wage laws passed throughout the United States.
The first successful attempts at using minimum wage laws to ameliorate the problem of nonliving wages occurred in the Australian state of Victoria in 1896. Factory inspector reports and newspaper reporting on the conditions of sweated labor in Melbourne, Victoria led in 1895 to the formation of the National Anti-Sweating League which pushed the government aggressively to deal legislatively with the problem of substandard wages. The government, following the recommendation of the Victorian Chief Secretary Alexander Peacock, established wage boards which were tasked with establishing minimum wages in the labor trades which suffered from nonlivable wages. During the same time period, campaigns against sweated labor were occurring in the United States and England.
In the United States in 1890, a group of concerned female reformers who wanted to improve the harsh conditions of sweated workers formed the Consumer 's League of the City of New York. The consumer group sought to improve working conditions by boycotting products which were made under sweated conditions and did not conform to a code of "fair house '' standards drawn up by them. Similar, consumer leagues formed throughout the United States, and in 1899, they united under the National Consumer League (NCL) parent organization. Consumer advocacy, however, was extremely slow at changing conditions in the sweated industries. When NCL leaders in 1908 went to an international anti-sweatshop conference in Geneva, Switzerland and were introduced to Australian minimum wage legislation, which had successfully dealt with sweated labor, they came home believers and made minimum wage legislation part of their national platform.
In 1910, in conjunction with advocacy work led by Florence Kelley of the National Consumer League, the Women 's Trade Union League (WTLU) of Massachusetts under the leadership of Elizabeth Evans took up the cause of minimum wage legislation in Massachusetts. Over the next two years, a coalition of social reform groups and labor advocates in Boston pushed for minimum wage legislation in the state. On June 4, 1912, Massachusetts passed the first minimum wage legislation in the United States, which established a state commission for recommending non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children. The passage of the bill was significantly assisted by the Lawrence textile strike which had raged for ten weeks at the beginning of 1912. The strike brought national attention to the plight of the low wage textile workers, and pushed the state legislatures, who feared the magnitude of the strike, to enact progressive labor legislation.
By 1923, fifteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia had passed minimum wage laws, with pressure being placed on state legislatures by the National Consumers League in a coalition with other women 's voluntary associations and organized labor. The United States Supreme Court of the Lochner era (1897 -- 1937), however, consistently invalidated labor regulation laws. Advocates for state minimum wage laws hoped that they would be upheld under the precedent of Muller v. Oregon (1908), which upheld maximum working hours laws for women on the grounds that women required special protection that men did not. The Supreme Court, however, did not extend this principle to minimum wage laws. The court ruled in Adkins v. Children 's Hospital (1923) that the District of Columbia 's minimum wage law was unconstitutional, because the law interfered with the ability of employers to freely negotiate wage contracts with employees. The court also noted that women did not require anymore special protection by the law, following the passage in 1920 of the Nineteenth Amendment, which gave women the right to vote and equal legal status.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration during the New Deal made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage regiment with the National Industrial Recovery Act, which set minimum wage and maximum hours on an industry and regional basis. The Supreme Court, however, in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (1935) ruled the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage regulations were abolished. Two years later after President Roosevelt 's overwhelming reelection in 1936 and discussion of judicial reform, the Supreme Court took up the issue of labor legislation again in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937) and upheld the constitutionality of minimum wage legislation enacted by Washington state and overturned the Adkins decision which marked the end of the Lochner era. In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, this time at a uniform rate of $0.25 per hour ($4.78 in 2017 dollars). The Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941), holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.
The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce, '' but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80.
The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009. Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: Employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists. The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans ' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses.
Some politicians in the United States advocate linking the minimum wage to the consumer price index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the consumer price index. Linking the minimum wage to the consumer price index avoids the erosion of the purchasing power of the minimum wage with time because of inflation. In 1998 Washington state became the first state to approve consumer price indexing for its minimum wage. In 2003 San Francisco, California and Santa Fe, New Mexico were the first cities to approve consumer price indexing for their minimum wage. Oregon and Florida were the next states to link their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Later in 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour, and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation. As of 2018, the minimum wage is indexed to inflation in 17 states.
Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15 '', initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage to a living wage. Since the start of these protests, a number of states and cities have increased their minimum wage. In 2014 Connecticut for instance passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 per hour by 2017, making it one of about six states at the time to aim at or above $10.00 per hour. In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington D.C. passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00 per hour. In 2016 New York and California became the first states to pass legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour in each state.
In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the minimum wage on the federal level by way of the Minimum Wage Fairness Act. The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two - year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Later in 2014, voters in the Republican - controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all four states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines.
In April 2017, Senator Bernie Sanders and Senator Patty Murray, backed by 28 of the Senate 's Democrats, introduced new federal legislation which would raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour by 2024 and index it to inflation. The Raise the Wage Act of 2017, which was simultaneously introduced in the House of Representatives with 166 Democratic cosponsors, would raise the minimum wage to $9.25 per hour immediately, and then gradually increase it to $15 per hour by 2024, while simultaneously raising the minimum wage for tipped workers and phasing it out. The legislation was introduced according to Senator Bernie Sanders to make sure that every worker has at least a modest and decent standard of living.
In the United States, different states are able to set their own minimum wages independent of the federal government. When the state and federal minimum wage differ the higher wage prevails. As of January 2018, there were 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. Washington has the highest state minimum wage at $11.50 per hour. A number of states have also in recent years enacted state preemption laws, which restrict local community rights, and bar local governments from setting their own minimum wage amounts. As of 2017, state preemption laws for local minimum wages have passed in 25 states.
Legislation has passed recently in multiple states that significantly raises the minimum wage. California is set to raise its minimum wage to $15.00 per hour by January 1, 2023. Colorado is set to raise its minimum wage from $9.30 per hour to $12 per hour by January 1, 2020, rising $0.90 per year. New York has also passed legislation to increase its minimum wage to $15.00 per hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster schedules than others. A number of other cities and states across the country are also debating and enacting legislation to increase the minimum wage for low wage workers to a livable wage.
Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. In 2003 San Francisco, California and Santa Fe, New Mexico were the first two cities to introduce local minimum wage ordinances. Another device to increase wages locally are living wage ordinances, which generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself. In 1994 Baltimore, Maryland was the first city in the United States to pass such a living wage ordinance. These targeted living wage ordinances for city contract workers have led in subsequent years to citywide local minimum wage laws which apply to all workers.
In the current wave of minimum wage legislative action, Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass on June 2, 2014 a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage for all workers to $15.00 per hour, which phases in over seven years. This ordinance followed the referendum in SeaTac, Washington in November 2013, which raised on a more limited scale the local minimum wage to $15.00 for transportation and hospitality workers. Numerous other cities have followed Seattle 's example since. San Francisco is expected to become the first U.S. city to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020. Similarly, the minimum wage in Minneapolis, Minnesota will be $15.00 per hour by 2022. A growing number of other California cities have also enacted local minimum wage ordinances to increase the minimum wage to $15.00 per hour, including Berkeley, El Cerrito, Emeryville, Mountain View, Oakland, Richmond, and San Jose.
Some minimum wage ordinances have an exemption for unionized workers. For instance, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary in 2014 for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour which has such an exemption. This led in some cases to longtime workers at unionized hotels such as the Sheraton Universal making $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton less than 500 feet away making at least $15.37 as mandated by law for non-unionized employees. Similar exemptions have been adopted in other cities. As of December 2014, unions were exempt from minimum wage ordinances in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland. In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver.
The federal minimum wage was introduced in 1938 at the rate of $0.25 per hour ($4.78 in 2018 dollars). By 1950 the minimum wage had risen to $0.75 per hour. The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.65 in 2018 dollars). From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record - setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. In 2009 the minimum wage was adjusted to $7.25 where it has remained fixed for the past nine years.
The purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has fluctuated. Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014. If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars. This would have been equal to a 31 % increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216 % in the same time period.
-- Henry Ford, 1926
The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality, and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter.
In neoclassical economics, the law of demand states that -- all else being equal -- raising the price of any particular good or service reduces the quantity demanded. Therefore, neoclassical economists argue that -- all else being equal -- raising the minimum wage will have adverse effects on employment. Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, they do not hire or retain that worker.
Other economists of different schools of thought argue that a limited increase in the minimum wage does not affect or increases the number of jobs available. Economist David Cooper for instance estimates that a higher minimum wage would support the creation of at least 85,000 new jobs in the United States. This divergence of thought began with empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s which challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey 's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment. '' In contrast, a 1995 analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey 's minimum wage resulted in a 4.6 % decrease in employment. Neumark 's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast - food restaurant chains, whereas the Card - Krueger study relied on business surveys.
A literature review conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher in 2007 (which surveyed 101 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that about two - thirds of peer - reviewed economic research showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment -- especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark 's review further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85 % of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment.
Statistical meta - analysis conducted by Tom Stanley in 2005 in contrast found that there is evidence of publication bias in minimum wage literature, and that correction of this bias shows no relationship between the minimum wage and unemployment. In 2008 Hristos Doucouliagos and Tom Stanley conducted a similar meta - analysis of 64 U.S. studies on disemployment effects and concluded that Card and Krueger 's initial claim of publication bias was correct. Moreover, they concluded, "Once this publication selection is corrected, little or no evidence of a negative association between minimum wages and employment remains. ''
The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) in 2014 estimated the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes). The Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) in contrast in 2013 found in a review of multiple studies since 2000 that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage. '' CEPR found in a later study that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage. In 2014 the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States. Washington had a job growth rate 0.3 % faster than the national average job growth rate.
A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia estimated that the 2004 - 6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2 % to 21.8 % reduction in employment for less - skilled, less - educated workers. Similarly, a study led by Richard Burkhauser in 2000 concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working - age population -- young adults without a high school degree (aged 20 - 24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16 - 24), and teenagers (aged 16 - 19). ''
The Economist wrote in December 2013 in sum that: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world 's highest wage floor, at more than 60 % of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26 % for 15 - to 24 - year - olds. ''
Conceptually, raising the minimum wage increases the cost of labor, ceteris paribus. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products, due to the effects of price elasticity of demand. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they can not raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases. However, there are studies that show that higher prices for products due to increased labor cost are usually only by about 0.4 % of the original price.
A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review '' argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime. The study by the Council of Economic Advisers calculated that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent. '' To get those numbers, the study assumed that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower. ''
In contrast in a 1987 journal article, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase. According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also argued that to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity.
Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment. Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity.
The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income.
An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher - income persons (business owners or "capital '') to lower income persons (workers or "labor '') and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise.
Among hourly - paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum. Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7 % of all hourly - paid workers.
The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option. Similarly, Arindrajit Dube, professor of economics at University of Massachusetts Amherst, found in a 2017 study "robust evidence that higher minimum wages lead to increases in incomes among families at the bottom of the income distribution and that these wages reduce the poverty rate. '' According to the study "a 10 percent increase in the minimum wage reduces the nonelderly poverty rate by about 5 percent. ''
In contrast, research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues in 2004 found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low - wage workers. A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line. Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty... ''
The CBO reported in February 2014 that "(T) he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits. '' On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less.
According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79 % of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers. ''
A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believes raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83 %), adult employment levels (52 %), and the number of jobs available (76 %). Additionally, 67 % of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business.
A 2006 survey conducted by economist Robert Whaples of a sample of 210 Ph. D. economists randomly selected from the American Economic Association, found that, regarding the U.S. minimum wage:
In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low - wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight '' of economic research shows higher pay does n't lead to fewer jobs.
According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists:
According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide - Stevenson, 73.5 % (27.9 % of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5 % disagreed with the statement.
Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including:
Democratic candidates, elected officials, and activists support an increase in the minimum wage. In his 2013 State of the Union Address, President Barack Obama called for an increase in the federal minimum wage to $9 an hour; several months later, Democrats Tom Harkin and George Miller proposed legislation to increase the federal minimum wage to $10.10; and in 2015, congressional Democrats introduced a proposal to increase the federal minimum wage to $12 an hour. These efforts did not succeed, but increases in city and state minimum wages prompted congressional Democrats to continue fighting for an increase on the federal level. After much internal party debate, the party 's official platform adopted at the 2016 Democratic National Convention stated: "We should raise the federal minimum wage to $15 an hour over time and index it, give all Americans the ability to join a union regardless of where they work, and create new ways for workers to have power in the economy so every worker can earn at least $15 an hour. ''
Most Republican elected officials oppose action to increase the minimum wage, and have blocked Democratic efforts to increase the minimum wage. Republican leadership such as Speakers of the House John Boehner and Paul Ryan have opposed minimum wage increases. Some Republicans oppose having a minimum wage altogether, while a few, conversely, have supported minimum wage increases or indexing the minimum wage to inflation.
Former President Bill Clinton advocated raising the minimum wage in 2014: "I think we ought to raise the minimum wage because it does n't just raise wages for the three or four million people who are directly affected by it, it bumps the wage structure everywhere... The estimates are that 35 million Americans would get a pay raise if the federal minimum wage was raised... If you (raise the minimum wage) in a phased way, it always creates jobs. Why? Because people who make the minimum wage or near it are struggling to get by, they spend every penny they make, they turn it over in the economy, they create jobs, they create opportunity, and they take better care of their children. It 's just the right thing to do, but it 's also very good economics. ''
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it.
A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following:
This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage. A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce.
Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage. Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit. Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA.
In addition, some counties and cities within states may implement a higher minimum wage than the rest of their state. Sometimes this higher wage applies only to businesses that contract with the local government, while in other cases the higher minimum applies to all work.
The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation. As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018.
For employees working in Prince George 's County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour, effective October 1, 2017.
For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour starting July 1, 2017. County Council bill 12 - 16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive.
A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large '' employers have 11 or more employees, and "small '' have between 1 and 10. "Downstate '' includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties. NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00.
Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two - thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher.
($ / h)
The minimum wage for tipped - employees will increase to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020.
The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age.
Jobs that a minimum wage is most likely to directly affect are those that pay close to the minimum.
According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following:
Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest - paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data) was:
In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour:
In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour:
According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:
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who has won the most world championships in f1 | List of Formula One World Drivers ' champions - wikipedia
The Formula One World Drivers ' Championship (WDC) is awarded by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) to the most successful Formula One racing car driver over a season, as determined by a points system based on individual Grand Prix results.
The Drivers ' Championship was first awarded in 1950, to Giuseppe Farina. The first driver to win multiple Championships was Alberto Ascari, in 1952 and 1953. The current Drivers ' Champion is Lewis Hamilton who won the World Championship in 2017.
A driver secures the World Championship each season (although it is not officially awarded until after the end of the season) as soon as it is no longer mathematically possible for another driver to beat him no matter what the outcome of the remaining races is. The Drivers ' Championship has been won in the final race of the season 29 times in the 68 seasons it has been awarded. The earliest in a season that the Drivers ' Championship has been clinched was in 2002, when Michael Schumacher secured the title with six races remaining.
Overall, thirty - three different drivers have won the Championship, with German Michael Schumacher holding the record for most titles, at seven. Schumacher also holds the record for most consecutive Drivers ' Championships, winning five from 2000 to 2004. The United Kingdom has produced the most World Championship winning drivers with ten; Brazil, Germany and Finland are next with three each. Of the 33 drivers to win the World Championship, twenty are still alive. The most recently deceased is John Surtees (1934 -- 2017). Among teams, Scuderia Ferrari has produced the most World Championship winning drivers with 15.
Bold indicates the team also won the Constructors ' Championship (awarded since 1958).
Drivers in bold have competed in the 2018 World Championship.
Drivers in bold have competed in the 2018 World Championship.
In 1966 Australian Jack Brabham won the world championship driving his own car powered by the Australian engine Repco, but the car was built by his team registered in Britain.
Constructors in bold have competed in the 2018 World Championship.
Engine manufacturers in bold have competed in the 2018 World Championship. ^ * Built by Cosworth
^ * * In 1998 and 1999 built by Ilmor
^ * * * Built by Porsche
Tyre manufacturers in bold have competed in the 2018 World Championship. Numbers in parentheses indicate championships won as the sole tyre supplier.
* Bold text indicates driver was still active in the 2018 World Championship * * Measured at the race where the driver secured the championship (except for Rindt, measured at the day of his death)
Ten drivers have achieved consecutive wins in the Formula One Drivers ' Championship. Of those, Michael Schumacher is the only driver to have won two sets of consecutive Formula One Drivers ' Championships.
Bold text indicates driver has competed in the 2018 World Championship.
1950 G. Farina 1951 J.M. Fangio 1952 A. Ascari 1953 A. Ascari 1954 J.M. Fangio 1955 J.M. Fangio 1956 J.M. Fangio 1957 J.M. Fangio 1958 M. Hawthorn 1959 J. Brabham
1960 J. Brabham 1961 P. Hill 1962 G. Hill 1963 J. Clark 1964 J. Surtees 1965 J. Clark 1966 J. Brabham 1967 D. Hulme 1968 G. Hill 1969 J. Stewart
1970 J. Rindt 1971 J. Stewart 1972 E. Fittipaldi 1973 J. Stewart 1974 E. Fittipaldi 1975 N. Lauda 1976 J. Hunt 1977 N. Lauda 1978 M. Andretti 1979 J. Scheckter
1980 A. Jones 1981 N. Piquet 1982 K. Rosberg 1983 N. Piquet 1984 N. Lauda 1985 A. Prost 1986 A. Prost 1987 N. Piquet 1988 A. Senna 1989 A. Prost
1990 A. Senna 1991 A. Senna 1992 N. Mansell 1993 A. Prost 1994 M. Schumacher 1995 M. Schumacher 1996 D. Hill 1997 J. Villeneuve 1998 M. Häkkinen 1999 M. Häkkinen
2000 M. Schumacher 2001 M. Schumacher 2002 M. Schumacher 2003 M. Schumacher 2004 M. Schumacher 2005 F. Alonso 2006 F. Alonso 2007 K. Räikkönen 2008 L. Hamilton 2009 J. Button
2010 S. Vettel 2011 S. Vettel 2012 S. Vettel 2013 S. Vettel 2014 L. Hamilton 2015 L. Hamilton 2016 N. Rosberg 2017 L. Hamilton
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where are the cast of one life to live | One Life to Live cast members - wikipedia
This is a list of actors and actresses who have had roles on the soap opera, One Life to Live. For a full historical character listing, see List of One Life to Live characters.
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what does the term nap mean in horse racing | Tipster - wikipedia
A tipster is someone who regularly provides information (tip) on the likely outcomes of sporting events.
In the past tips were bartered for and traded but nowadays, thanks largely to the Internet and premium rate telephone lines, they are usually exchanged for money, and many tipsters operate websites. Some of them are free and some require subscription.
A tip in gambling is a bet suggested by a third party who is perceived to be more knowledgeable about that subject than the bookmaker who sets the initial prices. (A bookmaker will vary his prices according to the amount of money wagered, but has to start with a blank book and himself set an initial price to encourage betting.) Thus a tip is not even regarded by the tipster as a certainty but that the bookmaker has set a price too low (or too high) from what the true risk is: it is a form of financial derivative, since the tipster himself risks none of his own money but sells his expert knowledge to others to try to "beat the bookie ''.
The Tipster must overcome the profit margin integrated into sports betting odds by bookmakers trading teams and then also obtain an additional edge to deliver profit over the long term.
However, many tipping services are scam operations that play on the Behavioral addiction of betting.
Tipsters are often insiders of a particular sport able to provide bettors with information not publicly available. There are other tipsters who provide equally respectable results through analysis of commonly accessible information.
Some tipsters use statistical based estimations about the outcome of a game, and compare this estimation with the bookmaker 's odds. If there is a gap between the estimate odds and the bookmakers odds, the tipster is said to identify "value '', and a person who bets on such odds when they perceive not a certainty but a "gap in the book '' is said to be a "value bettor ''. When value is found, the tipster is recommending the bettor to place a bet.
A tip that is considered to be a racing certainty, that is, almost completely certain to be true, is also called a nap and tipsters in newspapers will tend to indicate the "nap ''.
Tipping is mostly associated with horse racing but can apply to any sport that has odds offered on it. The relaxed cultural attitude towards gambling in the UK is increasingly resulting in a gambling element being promoted alongside sport coverage in the media.
Most National newspapers in the UK employ a tipster or columnist who provides horse racing tips. Rather than pick a tip for each race that occurs on a given day the normal protocol is to provide a Nap and nb selection.
Nap (derived from the card game Napoleon) indicates this is the tipster 's most confident selection of the day.
nb = "Next best '' and indicates another selection that the tipster rates highly.
Both types of selections would be counted in calculating the tipsters running profit / loss figure which states how far in profit or loss an individual would be if they had backed every tip with a level stake (£ 1).
The popular Channel 4 television programme The Morning Line previews weekend horse racing on a Saturday morning culminating in the panel of experts and guests providing their selections for the day. Sky Sports News runs a similar preview segment including expert analysis of the teams and betting odds relating to Premier League football fixtures on a Saturday.
The United Kingdom, morning national Radio 4 Today Programme usually includes a couple of racing tips in its short sports section (Garry Richardson is the usual presenter, although others fill in when he is away) but these are not taken too seriously (in fact the tips are supplied by a well - known newspaper tipster): but the programme tracks Richardson 's performance as a tipster for amusement value: he is usually quite well "down '' but just very occasionally is "up '' after a correct tip at a long price.
Premium tipping services charge a fee for accessing a tip or tips by telephone, internet or post. The more reputable companies will keep an accurate record of their tipping activities enabling a prospective client to assess their past form and so anticipate potential future performance. There is a lot of scope for less reputable operations to massage these figures or even to fabricate figures in order to attract new customers. In 2008, the Office of Fair Trading state the figure lost to tipster scams each year is between £ 1 million and £ 4 million in the UK alone.
Derren Brown 's Channel 4 programme ' ' The System exposed one method by which tipping services operate. By giving out different tips to different people (unknown to each other) in a horse race, one person must win (essentially, a sweepstake). The bettor who won might then assume that they received real insight into the race outcome from the tipster and may then pay for subsequent tips.
Australia has led the way in the emergence of tipping competitions where the object is to win prizes for registering virtual bets. The focus of the majority of these competitions has been Australian rules football but the commonly referred to term for the activity of Footy tipping now also covers Soccer, Rugby League and Rugby Union. In the UK there are a growing number of such competitions but most relate to the Horse Racing industry.
In theory, tipping for prizes in a free competition provides a viable alternative to gambling for real. However, many will take the opposite view that it makes gambling more accessible to a wider audience by creating what is perceived to be a safe route in. There is also a lot of scope for gamblers looking to identify good tips using such competitions as an information resource given some competitions publish current tips entered and historical records for the tipsters involved.
Internet forums are increasingly being used as a means to share ideas and information within web communities and many such forums exist in the gambling arena as a means of discussing views on events or simply offering advice and tips. While many in the gambling community view this as a way in which they can earn respect from their peers in an otherwise isolated profession, tipping services also use these areas to attract users to their premium schemes.
While the term gambling is often considered to be confined to sports betting or at least the services offered by a bookmaker, the classification can also be applied to investing in stocks where the gamble relates to a share or commodity price moving in a certain direction. Stock tips, as publicised in the financial sections of the media, are largely directed at the casual investor but their interrelation and interest to the business sector has proven to be controversial.
The increase in spread betting as a financial derivative also blurs the distinction between financial investment and gambling: since in the United Kingdom a win on a bet pays no tax, but another form of investment might require payment of Capital Gains Tax, there may be a financial advantage to "betting ''.
Many newspapers and other betting journals such as the Racing Post track the leading newspapers ' tipsters and see how well their predictions match the actual outcome, by assuming a nominal £ 1 bet on every tip that the tipster makes, and calculating the theoretical return. Thus, tipsters themselves can be "tipped '' as being a good or bad tipster.
Therefore, it is actually possible in theory to bet on whether a tipster 's prediction will be correct (rather than bet on the prediction itself).
Tipster is also a term used in the United Kingdom for a person who gives information regarding potential news stories, particularly those involving celebrities, to journalists, often in exchange for cash; or more generally an informant.
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who plays frankie's dad on the middle | Jerry Van Dyke - wikipedia
Jerry McCord Van Dyke (July 27, 1931 -- January 5, 2018) was an American actor, musician and comedian. He was the younger brother of Dick Van Dyke.
Van Dyke made his television acting debut on The Dick Van Dyke Show with several guest appearances as Rob Petrie 's brother Stacey. While his infrequent starring roles were typically in poorly received sitcoms (My Mother the Car, one of the shows where he was the lead actor, is considered one of the worst sitcoms of all time), he enjoyed a long and successful career as a character actor in supporting and guest roles. From 1989 to 1997 he portrayed Luther Van Dam in Coach.
Van Dyke was born in Danville, Illinois on July 27, 1931, to Hazel Victoria (née McCord; 1896 -- 1992), a stenographer, and Loren Wayne "Cookie '' Van Dyke (1898 -- 1976), a salesman. He was of Dutch, English, and Scottish descent. His mother was a Mayflower descendant.
Van Dyke pursued his stand - up comedy career while still in Danville High School and was already a veteran of strip joints and nightclubs when he joined the United States Air Force Tops In Blue in 1954 and 1955. During the mid-1950s, Van Dyke worked at WTHI - TV in Terre Haute, Indiana. The Jerry Van Dyke Show, which included future CBS News Early Show news anchor Joseph Benti, Nancee South and Ben Falber, was popular fare. In the service, he performed at military bases around the world, twice winning the All Air Force Talent Show.
Following his first guest appearances on The Dick Van Dyke Show and two others on CBS 's The Ed Sullivan Show, CBS made him a regular on The Judy Garland Show. He was also given hosting chores on the 1963 game show Picture This. In that same year, movie audiences saw him in supporting roles in McLintock!, Palm Springs Weekend and The Courtship of Eddie 's Father.
In 1963 Van Dyke was cast on an episode of GE True, hosted by Jack Webb. When The Judy Garland Show was unsuccessfully revamped, Van Dyke left the program. He turned down the offer to play Gilligan on Gilligan 's Island, a role which instead went to Bob Denver. He rejected as well an offer to replace Don Knotts as Sheriff Andy Taylor 's deputy on The Andy Griffith Show. Van Dyke finally accepted the lead role of attorney David Crabtree in My Mother the Car (1965), the misadventures of a man whose deceased mother Gladys (voiced by Ann Sothern) is reincarnated as a restored antique car. Though the series was a commercial failure, Van Dyke continued to work steadily in supporting television and film roles through the rest of the decade. He starred in another short - lived situation comedy Accidental Family (1967) as widowed comedian Jerry Webster who buys a farm to raise his son while he is not away on professional tours.
He was also featured in Love and Kisses (1965) and as Andy Griffith 's co-star in Angel in My Pocket (1969).
During the 1970s Van Dyke returned to stand - up comedy. He spent much of the decade touring Playboy Clubs around the country and headlining venues in Las Vegas and Reno, Nevada, Summerfest in Milwaukee, and in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He returned to television for guest appearances on Love, American Style and Fantasy Island. In 1973 he portrayed Wes Callison, News Writer, on the season four episode "Son of ' But Seriously, Folks ' '' on The Mary Tyler Moore Show. He also had roles in The Amazing Cosmic Awareness of Duffy Moon (1976) and 13 Queens Boulevard (1979). Also in 1989 he appeared as a panelist in the pilot for the revival of Match Game, hosted by Bert Convy, but due to his brain tumor, he was later replaced by Ross Shafer when it was turned into a series in 1990.
In 1988 he made a guest appearance on Scott Baio 's sitcom Charles in Charge as Jamie Powell 's health teacher Mr. Merkin. In 1989 Van Dyke began portraying beloved, yet befuddled, assistant coach Luther Van Dam on the long - running series Coach. For this role, he received four consecutive Emmy Award nominations (1990 through 1993) for "Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series ''.
In 1995 he appeared in a series of Hardee 's commercials to promote the Big Hardee, then in the late 1990s acted as the spokesperson for Big Lots. He appeared in Yes, Dear as Big Jimmy, the father of Jimmy Hughes. He made a guest appearance on a September 2008 episode of My Name Is Earl and in 2010 he made an appearance on the second - season episode, "A Simple Christmas '' of the television series, The Middle, playing Frankie 's father, Tag Spence. He returned in "Thanksgiving III '' in November 2011, "Thanksgiving IV '' in November 2012, "From Orson with Love '' in May 2013, and "Thanksgiving V '' in November 2013. "flirting with disaster '' in March 2015 Van Dyke also played the object of Maw Maw 's affections on the 18th episode of the first season of Raising Hope. In a December 2013 episode of The Millers he played Bud Miller, father to Margo Martindale 's character, Carol. In his final television role in April 2015 he reprised his role as Frankie 's father on The Middle, along with real - life brother Dick Van Dyke playing his character 's brother.
Van Dyke was married twice and had three children with first wife Carol, daughters Jerri Lynn and Kelly Jean and son Ronald. Kelly Jean Van Dyke committed suicide in 1991, following struggles with substance abuse.
Jerry and wife Shirley resided together on their 800 - acre ranch near Hot Springs, Arkansas.
Van Dyke was an avid poker player and announced a number of poker tournaments for ESPN in the late 1990s and early 2000s. He was also a four - string banjo player with several performances on The Dick Van Dyke Show to his credit.
On January 5, 2018, Van Dyke died at his Arkansas ranch at the age of 86. He was in declining health since being involved in a car accident two years earlier.
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what is the trojan virus on your computer | Trojan horse (computing) - wikipedia
In computing, a Trojan horse, or Trojan, is any hacking computer program which misleads users of its true intent. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek story of the deceptive wooden horse that led to the fall of the city of Troy.
Trojans are generally spread by some form of social engineering, for example where a user is duped into executing an e-mail attachment disguised to be unsuspicious, (e.g., a routine form to be filled in), or by drive - by download. Although their payload can be anything, many modern forms act as a backdoor, contacting a controller which can then have unauthorized access to the affected computer. Trojans may allow an attacker to access users ' personal information such as banking information, passwords, or personal identity (IP address). It can infect other devices connected to the network. Ransomware attacks are often carried out using a Trojan.
Unlike computer viruses and worms, Trojans generally do not attempt to inject themselves into other files or otherwise propagate themselves.
Antivirus can not protect you from trojan.
Trojan in this way may require interaction with a malicious controller (not necessarily distributing the Trojan) to fulfill their purpose. It is possible for those involved with Trojans to scan computers on a network to locate any with a Trojan installed, which the hacker can then control...
Some Trojans take advantage of a security flaw in older versions of Internet Explorer and Google Chrome to use the host computer as an anonymizer proxy to effectively hide Internet usage, enabling the controller to use the Internet for illegal purposes while all potentially incriminating evidence indicates the infected computer or its IP address. The host 's computer may or may not show the internet history of the sites viewed using the computer as a proxy. The first generation of anonymizer Trojan horses tended to leave their tracks in the page view histories of the host computer. Later generations of the Trojan tend to "cover '' their tracks more efficiently. Several versions of Sub7 have been widely circulated in the US and Europe and became the most widely distributed examples of this type of Trojan.
In German - speaking countries, spyware used or made by the government is sometimes called govware. Govware is typically a Trojan software used to intercept communications from the target computer. Some countries like Switzerland and Germany have a legal framework governing the use of such software. Examples of govware trojans include the Swiss MiniPanzer and MegaPanzer and the German "state trojan '' nicknamed R2D2.
Due to the popularity of botnets among hackers and the availability of advertising services that permit authors to violate their users ' privacy, Trojans are becoming more common. According to a survey conducted by BitDefender from January to June 2009, "Trojan - type malware is on the rise, accounting for 83 - percent of the global malware detected in the world. '' Trojans have a relationship with worms, as they spread with the help given by worms and travel across the internet with them. BitDefender has stated that approximately 15 % of computers are members of a botnet, usually recruited by a Trojan infection.
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what kind of beer is bud light lime | Anheuser - Busch brands - wikipedia
Anheuser - Busch, a wholly owned subsidiary of Anheuser - Busch InBev SA / NV, is the largest brewing company in the United States, with a market share of 45 percent in 2016.
The company operates 12 breweries in the United States and nearly 20 in other countries, which increased recently since Anheuser - Busch InBev SA / NV acquired SABMiller. Brands include Budweiser, Busch, Michelob, Bud Light, and Natural Light.
Budweiser is a 5.0 % ABV Adjunct pale lager introduced in 1876 by Adolphus Busch and has become one of the best selling beers in the United States. It is made with up to 30 % rice in addition to hops and barley malt. Budweiser is produced in various breweries located around the United States and the rest of the world. It is a filtered beer available in draught and packaged forms. Lower strength versions are distributed in regions with restrictive alcohol laws.
Introduced in 1982 as Budweiser Light, Budweiser 's flagship light beer with 4.2 % ABV and 110 calories per 12 US fl oz (355 mL) serving (1,300 kJ / L). From 1993 to 1998, Bud Light aired 30 - second commercials featuring Rob and Laura from the CBS series The Dick Van Dyke Show.
A slightly sweeter, higher alcohol version of Bud Light launched in early 2012, with 6 % ABV. This product is noted for being packaged in a new translucent blue glass bottle. Bud Light Platinum has 137 calories per 12 ounce serving, 8 fewer than a regular Budweiser.
Bud Light with apple flavor added. It has 151 calories per 355 ml serving. Released in 2015 with 4.2 % ABV.
Bud Light with lime flavor added. It has 116 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,370 kJ / L). Released in May 2008 with 4.2 % alcohol content, the same alcohol content as Bud Light.
Since April 2012, AB has released a line of 8 % alcohol by volume (6 % ABV in Canada) flavored malt beverages titled "Bud Light Lime Ritas, '' with its flagship flavor being the "Lime - a-Rita, '' a lime flavored beverage. The drinks are available in a twenty - five ounce can, as well as a twelve - pack of eight ounce cans. Since then, AB has released the strawberry - flavored "Straw - Ber - Rita, '' the mango flavored "Mang - o - Rita, '' and the raspberry flavored "Raz - Ber - Rita. '' For the winter 2013 season, AB released the cranberry - flavored "Cran - Brrr - Rita '' as well, and wound up extending it through January and February 2014 due to strong sales. After the release of the "Mang - o - Rita '' and "Raz - Ber - Rita, '' A-B released an eighteen - pack case containing six "Lime - a-Ritas, '' four "Straw - Ber - Ritas, '' four "Mang - o - Ritas, '' and four "Raz - Ber - Ritas. ''
In August 2014, A-B released a new fall seasonal extension for their "Rita '' line, "Apple - Ahh - Rita, '' an apple - flavored margarita sold until October 2014.
In February 2015, A-B released a new summer seasonal extension for their "Rita '' line, "Lemon - Ade - Rita, '' a lemonade flavored margarita.
In summer 2016, A-B released the newest "rita '' flavor of their line named "Water - melon - rita '', a watermelon flavored margarita. A-B also released the "Grape - Ahh - Rita, '' a grape flavored margarita.
In fall 2016, A-B released the new "Cherry - Ahh - Rita, '' a cherry - flavored margarita.
In summer 2017, A-B released the new "Peach - A-Rita, '' a peach - flavored margarita. A-B also released the new "Orange - A-Rita, '' an orange - flavored margarita but only available in MI, OH, TX, FL, and GA. The "Grape - Ahh - Rita '' was also renamed "Grape - A-Rita ''
In summer 2017, A-B introduced "Splash by Lime - A-Rita, '' a line of lighter their Lime - A-Ritas with less alcohol, calories, and carbs available in three flavors; the existing "Straw - Ber - Rita '' and the two new flavors "Pine - Apple - Rita '' and "Coco - Nut - Rita. ''
Budweiser Select, or Bud Select, is a light pale lager that contains 4.3 % ABV and 99 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,170 kJ / L). Anheuser - Busch has aggressively promoted Budweiser Select. Its slogan was "The Real Deal ''. The company hired Jay - Z as a spokesman for the brand.
A version of Budweiser Select that contains 55 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (650 kJ / L) is "a direct counterstrike to Miller 's MGD 64 '' according to Anheuser - Busch officials. Budweiser currently claims that it is the lightest beer in the world. The food energy in both Miller 's MGD 64 and Budweiser 's Select 55 have been reduced simply by lowering the fermentables content. MGD 64 has only 2.8 % alcohol content and some Select 55 states "alcohol content not more than 3.2 % by weight / 4 % by volume '', possibly to allow its sale in areas where that is the limit. The actual alcohol content of "55 '' is reported to be 2.4 % ABV; by comparison, most American lagers have around 5 %.
Budweiser Brew No. 66 is a 4 % alcohol by volume lager that is brewed and distributed in the United Kingdom by InBev UK Limited. Launched in July 2010, Budweiser 66 has 84 Calories in a 300 ml serving (just over 10 oz).
A 6 % ABV amber lager style introduced in November 2017, inspired by a pre-prohibition recipe.
Introduced in October 1993 as "Ice by Budweiser '', it has more alcohol (5.5 % ABV) than Budweiser. It is best known for an advertising campaign that involved a malevolent penguin that stalked Bud Ice drinkers and stole their beer, announcing its presence by singing the "doo - be-doo - be-doo '' phrase from "Strangers in the Night ''.
A beer with caffeine, ginseng, guarana and alcohol. It contains 6.6 % ABV. It was marketed as a caffeinated malt beverage, similar to Sparks. On June 26, 2008, Anheuser - Busch announced that it would remove caffeine and guarana from the beverage in response to concerns that the product was being marketed to consumers under the age of 21.
A blend of Budweiser or Bud Light and Clamato. This beverage became available nationally in late 2007.
A non-alcoholic beer introduced into the Canadian market in 2016. It is anticipated to be available in the United States soon. In 2015, AB InBev committed to ensuring that low - alcohol and nonalcoholic beers would represent at least 20 % of its global beer volume by 2025.
Non-alcoholic version of Budweiser developed for the Middle Eastern market. Also available in Green Apple and Tropical Fruits versions.
Budweiser American Ale debuted in September 2008. The beer claims to offer complex taste without much bitterness. American Ale has a distinctive hoppier flavor than other Anheuser - Busch beers, in an attempt to capture some of the American craft beer market, although most American craft beers are hoppier. American Ale is the first beer under the Budweiser name that is brewed with a top fermenting yeast. The beer 's darker color is a departure from the other Budweiser brands. Production was discontinued prior to 2015.
Budweiser Brew Masters ' Private Reserve is an all - malt lager with a honey color and robust taste. It is based on a "Budweiser brewmaster holiday tradition of collecting the richest part of the batch which is tapped to the brew kettles to toast the holiday season. ''
Bud Dry was introduced nationally in the U.S. in April 1990 with the slogan of "Why ask why? Try Bud Dry. '' It was originally successful in test markets and was expected to be a popular beer with the rise in light lager popularity. Dry beer is a form of pale lager where the sugars are more fully fermented to give a less sweet beer. It is also known as the Diät - Pils style. However, after the introduction of Bud Ice in 1994, Bud Dry was not heavily marketed. Production was discontinued in December 2010.
Bud Ice Light contains 5.0 % ABV and 115 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,360 kJ / L). It undergoes fractional freezing, which Bud Light does not undergo. It was discontinued in 2010.
On October 5, 2009, Budweiser officially released Bud Light Golden Wheat, a response to the increase in the amount of wheat beers produced from craft brewers around the country. This beer had 118 calories per 12 US fl oz serving (1,390 kJ / L), 8.3 grams of carbohydrates and 4.1 % alcohol by volume. It was an American Hefeweizen which is based on the classic German Hefeweizen style. Production was discontinued in 2012.
An attempt to appeal to the tastes of beer drinkers in the United Kingdom, this specially brewed beer contained 4.2 % alcohol by volume. It was discontinued in 2006 after it failed to meet sales expectations.
Michelob is a 4.7 % ABV pale lager developed by Adolphus Busch in 1896 as a "draught beer for connoisseurs ''. In 1961, Anheuser - Busch produced a pasteurized version of Michelob which allowed legal shipment of the beer across state lines. Bottled beer began to be shipped soon after, and the brand was introduced in cans in 1966. Bottled Michelob was originally sold in a uniquely shaped bottle named the teardrop bottle because it resembled a water droplet. The teardrop bottle was awarded a medal from the Institute of Design in 1962. Five years later the bottle was redesigned for efficiency in the production line. This bottle was used until 2002 when it was dropped in favor of a traditional bottle. The teardrop bottle was used again from January 2007 to October 2008.
The company introduced Michelob Light in 1978. Michelob Classic Dark was made available in 1981 in kegs, with a bottled version following three years later. In 1991, Michelob Golden Draft was introduced to compete against Miller Genuine Draft in the Midwest.
1997 saw the introduction of several specialty beers under the Michelob marquee. These include:
AmberBock is a 5.1 % ABV amber lager which uses roasted black barley malt in the ingredients, and which received a World Beer Cup Bronze Medal in 1998.
From the beginning, the specialty beers have had a very limited distribution. The chief outlet has been through a "holiday sampler pack '' produced during the Christmas holiday season. Other specialty beers that are no longer in production include Michelob Hefeweizen and Michelob Black & Tan. Some (notably Michelob AmberBock) have subsequently gone into larger production, while others have not. The brewery continues to experiment with specialty beers -- in 2005 an oak - aged vanilla beer was sold under the Michelob logo, available in single pints. In 2006 Michelob added a chocolate beer to the oak - aged vanilla Celebrate holiday season beer released a year earlier. Michelob also brewed Michelob Bavarian Style Wheat and Michelob Porter for its "holiday sampler pack ''. In 2007, Michelob launched its Seasonal Specialty Line. These include:
The early 21st century saw in the U.S. a demand for diet beer similar to that of the early 1970s, and in 2002 the Michelob line responded with the introduction of Michelob Ultra, advertised as being low in carbohydrates. Later Michelob Ultra Amber, a darker, more flavorful beer, was added to this sub-line.
According to a report by Beer Marketer 's Insights and published by USA Today on December 9, 2013, sales of Michelob Light declined by nearly 70 % between 2007 and 2012. The article listed Michelob Light as one of "nine beers many Americans no longer drink. ''
Michelob 5 % alcohol; Michelob Golden Draft 4.7 % alcohol; Michelob Golden Draft Light 4.3 % alcohol; Michelob Ultra 4.2 % alcohol; Michelob Ultra Amber 4.0 % alcohol; Michelob: ULTRA Lime Cactus A fruit - infused light pilsner with natural lime flavor and a floral essence derived from the cactus; Michelob: ULTRA Pomegranate Raspberry A pilsner with a berry aroma, raspberry flavor, and a hint of pomegranate; Michelob: ULTRA Tuscan Orange Grapefruit A pilsner with fresh juicy orange notes and a slight pink - grapefruit finish.
All fruit flavors have the following nutrition content: 107 calories, 6.0 g carbs, 0.5 g protein and 0.0 g fat, per 12 oz bottle.
Advertisements for Michelob Ultra feature people engaged in sporting activities. The Michelob ULTRA Open at Kingsmill and Michelob Ultra Futures Players Championship, were sponsored by Michelob Ultra. Michelob Ultra serves as a presenting sponsor of the Tour of Missouri bicycle race and sponsors the King of the Mountains jersey. Michelob also sponsors the Rugby Super League, and many of its teams have shirt sponsorships with its AmberBock brand. PGA Tour player Sergio García is sponsored by Michelob. Lance Armstrong signed on October 6, 2009 a three - year agreement to become Michelob Ultra 's new spokesperson and ambassador, but was dropped by the company in 2012 after being accused of using performance - enhancing drugs.
Michelob sponsored several episodes of the Diggnation podcast. The hosts, Kevin Rose and Alex Albrecht, sampled the beer during the show and several episodes included interviews with the company 's head brew - master to discuss the different products that can be found in the sampler packs. Also, an episode of the show was filmed inside the Michelob brewery.
Michelob is most notably famous for its late - 1980s TV commercials that used the slogan, "The night belongs to Michelob '', which centered on its "night '' theme and used songs that had the word "night '' or a form of the word "night '' in its title, including "Move Better in the Night '' by Roger Daltrey, "Tonight, Tonight, Tonight '' by Genesis, "Do n't You Know What the Night Can Do? '' by Steve Winwood and a new recording of "After Midnight '' by Eric Clapton. In the 1980s and 1990s, Michelob used the slogan "Some days are better than others ''.
Rolling Rock is a 4.5 % ABV pale lager launched in 1939 by the Latrobe Brewing Company. In May, 2006, Anheuser - Busch purchased the Rolling Rock brand from InBev for $82 million and began brewing Rolling Rock at its Newark facility in mid July, 2006. Other pale lagers marketed under the Rolling Rock brand name are Rock Green Light, 3.7 % ABV, and Rock Light, 3.5 %; the company also produces a 5 % ABV amber lager, Rolling Rock Red. Ingredients are pale barley malt, rice, corn and hops.
Busch Beer, a 4.3 % ABV economy brand pale lager was introduced in 1955 as Busch Bavarian Beer; the brand name was changed in 1979 to Busch Beer. Other beers marketed under the Busch brand name are Busch Light, a 4.1 % pale lager introduced in 1989, Busch Ice, a 5.9 % ice beer introduced in 1995, and Busch NA, a non-alcoholic brew. Ingredients are a mix of American - grown and imported hops and a combination of malt and corn. At a slightly lower price point than flagship brand Budweiser, it serves as Anheuser - Busch 's second most popular brand.
Shock Top is a 5.2 % ABV Belgian - style wheat ale introduced under the name Spring Heat Spiced Wheat brewed in Fort Collins, Colorado as a seasonal beer in 2006, then all year from 2007. The beer is brewed with wheat malt, two - row barley, orange, lemon, lime peel, coriander and Cascade and Willamette hops. Entering as the Spring Heat Spiced Wheat, Shock Top Belgian White won gold and bronze medals in the Belgian Wit (White) category at the 2006 and 2007 North American Beer Awards, earning the reputation as America 's Beer respectively. The brand now includes some seasonals and specialties that have replaced the Michelob Seasonals. Such varieties include Shock Top Pumpkin Wheat, Shock Top Raspberry Wheat, Shock Top Wheat IPA, Shock Top Lemon Shandy, Shock Top Honeycrisp Apple Wheat, Shock Top Chocolate Wheat, Ginger Wheat, Pretzel Wheat and Shock Top End of the World Midnight Wheat. It competes directly with the MillerCoors brand Blue Moon.
Natural Light is an economy brand 4.2 % ABV reduced - calorie pale lager introduced in 1977. The brand was originally called Anheuser - Busch Natural Light. In 2008 The Wall Street Journal listed it as the fifth largest selling beer in the U.S. Natural Ice is an economy brand 5.9 % ABV ice beer, introduced in 1995. Nearly two decades after the introduction of Natural Ice, a malt liquor, Natty Daddy (8 % and 5.9 ABV), was added to the market in 2012.
Johnny Appleseed is a 5.5 % ABV cider produced by Anheuser - Busch subsidiary Brokenstraw Beverage LLC and introduced in April 2014. Brokenstraw Beverage was created by Anheuser - Busch in 2014 as a corporate identity to manufacture and distribute Johnny Appleseed out of their Baldwinsville, N.Y. brewery.
LandShark Lager, brewed in Jacksonville, Florida, is a 4.6 % ABV island - style lager launched in 2006 as the house lager for "Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville '' restaurant chain. Under a sponsorship deal, Dolphin Stadium, home of the Miami Dolphins, Florida Marlins and the Miami Hurricanes, was renamed "Land Shark Stadium '' for the 2009 football season. The contract ended in early 2010, and the stadium has been renamed "Sun Life Stadium '' as of January 18, 2010, in time for both the 2010 NFL Pro Bowl and Super Bowl XLIV. The stadium was renamed Hard Rock Stadium in 2016.
LandShark also has Bar & Grill locations in Pensacola, Florida, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Biloxi, Mississippi.
The name is derived from the Jimmy Buffett song "Fins '', where men in a beach town trying to woo a vacationing woman are referred to as "sharks that can swim on the land ''.
Goose Island started in 1988 as a brewpub in Chicago, and opened a separate bottling plant there in 1995. The brewery and its beers were purchased by Anheuser - Busch InBev in 2011. The Chicago brewery continues to produce and sell small batch beers while their national offerings are made in bulk at various Anheuser - Busch facilities.
On February 5, 2014, it was announced that Blue Point Brewing Company was being sold to Anheuser - Busch InBev for nearly $24 million. As of the time of sale, the brewery will continue to operate in its Patchogue, New York, location.
in November 2014, it was reported that 10 Barrel Brewing, with brewpubs in Bend, Oregon, and Boise, Idaho, would be acquired by Anheuser - Busch. This was the second small brewing company acquired by the company in that calendar year.
Elysian was founded in Seattle, Washington, in 1995 by Dave Buhler, Joe Bisacca, and Dick Cantwell. On January 23, 2015, it was announced that Elysian would be sold to Anheuser - Busch in a deal expected to close within three months.
The purchase of Golden Road Brewery in Los Angeles was announced on September 23, 2015.
Four Peaks announced on December 18, 2015, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.
Several days after acquiring the Four Peaks brand and assets, InBev announced the purchase of Breckenridge Brewery, with brewpubs based in Colorado.
Devils Backbone announced on April 12, 2016, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.
Karbach Brewing Company announced on November 3, 2016, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.
Wicked Weed Brewing announced on May 3, 2017, that it had been acquired by ABInbev as part of its High End unit.
King Cobra is a 6 % alcohol by volume malt liquor introduced in 1984. It is brewed with a warmer fermentation than used for the company 's pale lagers, and the ingredients include barley malt and corn. Shortly after its launch, King Cobra was supported by an advertising campaign featuring actor, martial artist, and former American football player Fred Williamson and the tag - line "Do n't let the smooth taste fool you! ''
Hurricane High Gravity Lager is an 8.1 % alcohol malt liquor beverage available primarily in the United States. It is available in 40 ounce bottles, as well as 12, 16, 24, and 25 ounce cans. Recently, Hurricane High Gravity 8.1 % has gone from a Black Label to a Silver Label in all of its serving sizes. Hurricane also comes in a lower alcohol content just called Hurricane malt liquor usually sold in a 40 - ounce bottle Emina with an ABV of 5.9 %.
The company introduced a flavored 12 % ABV malt liquor under the name Spykes in 2007. It was sold in colorful, 2 - ounce bottles. Available flavors included mango, lime, melon and chocolate. It was withdrawn in the same year after criticism from alcohol industry watchdog groups that it was being marketed to underage customers, and the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau found that the labeling of Spykes was illegal.
As of January 2013, Anheuser - Busch InBev had 32.2 % ownership in the Craft Brew Alliance, a beer brewing company that is composed of several beer and cider brands.
Beers made by smaller "craft '' breweries which are co-distributed with A-B brands by select distributors:
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who plays olivia in she's the man | She 's the Man - wikipedia
She 's the Man is a 2006 American romantic comedy sports film directed by Andy Fickman and starring Amanda Bynes, Channing Tatum, Laura Ramsey and Emily Perkins. Inspired by William Shakespeare 's play Twelfth Night, it is a remake of the 1985 film Just One of the Guys.
The film centers on teenager Viola Hastings who enters her brother 's school in his place, pretending to be a boy, in order to play with the boys ' soccer team after her team gets cut at her school.
Viola Hastings (Amanda Bynes) is a teen girl who plays for Cornwall College 's soccer team until the team gets cut. Meanwhile, her twin brother, Sebastian (James Kirk), is supposed to enroll in Illyria, an elite boarding school, but he secretly goes to London with his fledgling band instead. Viola agrees to cover for him and decides to pass herself off as Sebastian, in hopes of joining their boys ' team and beating Cornwall to prove their coach and her cocky ex-boyfriend, Justin (Robert Hoffman), wrong. With the help of her stylist friend, Paul (Jonathan Sadowski), she is transformed into "Sebastian '' and attends Illyria in his place.
While moving in, she meets her roommate, Duke Orsino (Channing Tatum), an attractive soccer player and Illyria 's team captain. During tryouts, Viola fails to impress Coach Dinklage (Vinnie Jones) and is assigned to second string, much to her dismay. Her teammates, including Duke, initially dislike "Sebastian '' due to his awkward and strange behavior. However, with help from Paul once again, they begin to accept him into their social circle. "Sebastian '' then gets the popular and pretty Olivia (Laura Ramsey) as his lab partner, which frustrates Duke, as he has feelings for her. "Sebastian '' agrees to put in a good word for Duke if he promises to train him to be a better soccer player. Coach Dinklage eventually notices "Sebastian 's '' effort and improvement, thus promoting him to first string.
At the Junior League carnival, where her mother has made her volunteer, Viola works a shift at the kissing booth and shares a kiss with Duke. Duke expresses to "Sebastian '' that he might move on from Olivia as he is starting to like Viola now. Viola is delighted as she secretly feels the same way.
Olivia who now has a crush on "Sebastian '', asks Duke out on a date in hopes that it will make "Sebastian '' jealous. Viola, who is unaware of Olivia 's true intentions, is enraged instead because Duke has now abandoned his interest in Viola. When Viola finds out the truth, she encourages Olivia to tell "Sebastian '' directly about her feelings.
The situation becomes even more complicated when the real Sebastian returns from London a day early, unbeknownst to Viola. As soon as he arrives at Illyria, Olivia confesses her feelings and kisses him. Duke, seeing this, believes his roommate has betrayed him. When "Sebastian '' returns to their room, the two have an argument and Duke kicks him out. Viola oversleeps and misses the first half of the game, while the real Sebastian is mistaken for "Sebastian '' and winds up poorly playing his sister 's game instead. At half - time, Viola explains the situation to Sebastian and they switch places again.
Duke, still furious at "Sebastian '', refuses to cooperate with him on the field. Determined to makes amends with Duke, "Sebastian '' explains that he is actually Viola. Illyria wins the game when Viola scores a goal, finally humiliating Justin and the rest of the Cornwall boys.
Everyone at Illyria celebrates their victory over Cornwall, except for Duke who is hurt about Viola 's deception. Viola introduces Sebastian and Olivia officially, and they begin dating. Viola and Sebastian 's divorced parents also make up, exchanging contact information so as to be better parents towards their children. She invites Duke to her debutante ball, with an invitation delivered by Sebastian, now Duke 's roommate. Still hurt, Duke does n't respond to Viola 's invitation, which devastates her. At the ball, Viola is skeptical that Duke will show up; she distracts herself by assisting Olivia, who is being escorted by Sebastian to the ball, and is touched when Paul asks to be her date. Her mother shows up with a dress that will suit Viola 's "no ruffles '' policy, but Viola decides to go for a walk instead. She runs into Duke outside, who tells her that he has feelings for her, but that he does n't want there to be any more deception on her part; Viola promises to be honest with him. Later, Monique is escorted by Justin, Olivia is escorted by Sebastian, and Viola and Duke enter the stage late, but together, with Viola in her new dress, much to the joy of her mother. Viola and Duke share a kiss before joining the crowd. At the end of the film, Viola and Duke are shown happily playing on Illyria 's soccer team together.
The film opened at # 4 at the North American box office making $10.7 million USD in its opening weekend. Its budget was approximately $20,000,000. She 's the Man grossed a total of $33.7 million domestically with a total gross of $57.2 million worldwide.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave She 's the Man a rating of 43 %, based on 109 reviews. The critical consensus reads, "Shakespeare 's wit gets lost in translation with She 's the Man 's broad slapstick, predictable jokes, and unconvincing plotline. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 45 out of 100 based on 28 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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when does the rolling stone magazine come out | Rolling Stone - wikipedia
Rolling Stone is an American biweekly magazine that focuses on popular culture. It was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner, who is still the magazine 's publisher, and the music critic Ralph J. Gleason. It was first known for its musical coverage and for political reporting by Hunter S. Thompson. In the 1990s, the magazine shifted focus to a younger readership interested in youth - oriented television shows, film actors, and popular music. In recent years, it has resumed its traditional mix of content.
Rolling Stone Press is the magazine 's associated book publishing imprint.
Rolling Stone magazine was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner and Ralph Gleason. To get it off the ground, Wenner borrowed $7,500 from his own family and from the parents of his soon - to - be wife, Jane Schindelheim. The first issue carried a cover date of November 9, 1967, and was in newspaper format with a lead article on the Monterey Pop Festival. The cover price was 25 ¢ (equivalent to $1.80 in 2016).
In the first issue, Wenner explained that the title of the magazine referred to the 1950 blues song, "Rollin ' Stone '', recorded by Muddy Waters, the rock and roll band the Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan 's hit single "Like a Rolling Stone ''. Some authors have attributed the name solely to Dylan 's hit single: "At (Ralph) Gleason 's suggestion, Wenner named his magazine after a Bob Dylan song. '' Rolling Stone initially identified with and reported the hippie counterculture of the era. However, it distanced itself from the underground newspapers of the time, such as Berkeley Barb, embracing more traditional journalistic standards and avoiding the radical politics of the underground press. In the very first edition, Wenner wrote that Rolling Stone "is not just about the music, but about the things and attitudes that music embraces ''.
In the 1970s, Rolling Stone began to make a mark with its political coverage, with the likes of gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson writing for the magazine 's political section. Thompson first published his most famous work Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas within the pages of Rolling Stone, where he remained a contributing editor until his death in 2005. In the 1970s, the magazine also helped launch the careers of many prominent authors, including Cameron Crowe, Lester Bangs, Joe Klein, Joe Eszterhas, Patti Smith and P.J. O'Rourke. It was at this point that the magazine ran some of its most famous stories, including that of the Patty Hearst abduction odyssey. One interviewer, speaking for a large number of his peers, said that he bought his first copy of the magazine upon initial arrival on his college campus, describing it as a "rite of passage ''.
In 1977, the magazine moved its headquarters from San Francisco to New York City. Editor Jann Wenner said San Francisco had become "a cultural backwater ''.
During the 1980s, the magazine began to shift towards being a general "entertainment '' magazine. Music was still a dominant topic, but there was increasing coverage of celebrities in television, films and the pop culture of the day. The magazine also initiated its annual "Hot Issue '' during this time.
Rolling Stone was initially known for its musical coverage and for Thompson 's political reporting. In the 1990s, the magazine changed its format to appeal to a younger readership interested in youth - oriented television shows, film actors and popular music. This led to criticism that the magazine was emphasizing style over substance. In recent years, the magazine has resumed its traditional mix of content, including in - depth political stories. It has also expanded content to include coverage of financial and banking issues. As a result, the magazine has seen its circulation increase and its reporters invited as experts to network television programs of note.
The printed format has gone through several changes. The first publications, in 1967 -- 72, were in folded tabloid newspaper format, with no staples, black ink text, and a single color highlight that changed each edition. From 1973 onwards, editions were produced on a four - color press with a different newsprint paper size. In 1979, the bar code appeared. In 1980, it became a gloss - paper, large format (10 "× 12 '') magazine. As of edition of October 30, 2008, Rolling Stone has had a smaller, standard - format magazine size.
After years of declining readership, the magazine experienced a major resurgence of interest and relevance with the work of two young journalists in the late 2000s, Michael Hastings and Matt Taibbi.
In 2005, Dana Leslie Fields, former publisher of Rolling Stone, who had worked at the magazine for 17 years, was an inaugural inductee into the Magazine Hall of Fame.
In 2009, Taibbi unleashed an acclaimed series of scathing reports on the financial meltdown of the time. He famously described Goldman Sachs as "a great vampire squid ''.
Bigger headlines came at the end of June 2010. Rolling Stone caused a controversy in the White House by publishing in the July issue an article by journalist Michael Hastings entitled, "The Runaway General '', quoting criticism by General Stanley A. McChrystal, commander of the International Security Assistance Force and U.S. Forces - Afghanistan commander, about Vice President Joe Biden and other Administration members of the White House. McChrystal resigned from his position shortly after his statements went public.
In 2010, Taibbi documented illegal and fraudulent actions by banks in the foreclosure courts, after traveling to Jacksonville, Florida and sitting in on hearings in the courtroom. His article, Invasion of the Home Snatchers also documented attempts by the judge to intimidate a homeowner fighting foreclosure and the attorney Taibbi accompanied into the court.
In January 2012, the magazine ran exclusive excerpts from Hastings ' book just prior to publication. The book, The Operators: The Wild and Terrifying Inside Story of America 's War in Afghanistan, provided a much more expansive look at McChrystal and the culture of senior American military and how they become embroiled in such wars. The book reached Amazon 's bestseller list in the first 48 hours of release, and it received generally favorable reviews. Salon 's Glenn Greenwald described it as "superb, '' "brave '' and "eye - opening ''.
In 2012, Taibbi, through his coverage of the Libor scandal, emerged as an expert on that topic, which led to media appearances outside Rolling Stone.
On November 9, 2012, the magazine published its first Spanish - language section on Latino music and culture, in the issue dated November 22.
In September 2016, Advertising Age reported that Wenner is in the process of selling a 49 % stake of the magazine to a company from Singapore called BandLab. The new investor will have no direct involvement in the editorial content of the magazine.
Rolling Stone 's website features selected current articles, reviews, blogs, MP3s and other features, such as searchable and free encyclopedic articles about artists, with images and sometimes sound clips of their work. The articles and reviews are sometimes in a revised form of the published versions. The website also carries political and cultural articles and entries selected from the magazine 's archives.
The site at one time had an extensive message - board forum. By the late 1990s, this had developed into a thriving community, with a large number of regular members and contributors worldwide. However, the site was also plagued with numerous Internet trolls and malicious code - hackers, who vandalized the forum substantially. The magazine abruptly deleted the forum in May 2004, then began a new, much more limited message board community on their site in late 2005, only to remove it again in 2006. In March 2008, the website started a new message board section once again, then deleted it in April 2010.
Rolling Stone devotes one of its table of contents pages to promoting material currently appearing on its website, listing detailed links to the items. The magazine also has a page at MySpace, Facebook and Twitter.
On April 19, 2010, the website was updated drastically and now features the complete archives of Rolling Stone. The archive was first launched under a for - pay model, but has since transitioned to a free - with - print - subscription model. In the spring of 2012, Rolling Stone launched a federated search feature which searches both the website and the archive.
The website has become an interactive source of biographical information on music artists in addition to historical rankings from the magazine. Users can cross-reference lists and they are also provided with historical insights. For example, one group that is listed on both Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time is Toots and the Maytals, with biographical details from Rolling Stone that explain how Toots and the Maytals are responsible for coining the term "reggae '' in their song "Do the Reggay ''. For biographical information on all artists, the website contains a directory listed alphabetically.
In May 2016, Wenner Media announced plans to create a separate online publication dedicated to the coverage of video games and their culture. Gus Wenner, Jann Wenner 's son, stated that "gaming is today what rock ' n ' roll was when Rolling Stone was founded ''. Glixel was originally hosted on Rolling Stone 's website and transitioned to its own domain by October 2016. Stories from Glixel are included on the Rolling Stone website, while writers for Rolling Stone were also able to contribute to Glixel. The site is headed by John Davison, and its offices were located in San Fransciso. Rolling Stone closed down the offices in June 2017, citing the difficulties of working with the remote site from their main New York office; content will still be developed for the site but from the main New York office.
In December 2009, the Los Angeles Times reported that the owners of Rolling Stone magazine planned to open a Rolling Stone restaurant in the Hollywood & Highland Center in Hollywood in the spring of 2010. The expectation was that the restaurant could become the first of a national chain if it was successful. As of November 2010, the "soft opening '' of the restaurant was planned for December 2010. In 2011, the restaurant was open for lunch and dinner as well as a full night club downstairs on the weekends. The restaurant closed in February 2013.
One major criticism of Rolling Stone involves its generational bias toward the 1960s and 1970s. One critic referred to the Rolling Stone list of the "99 Greatest Songs '' as an example of "unrepentant rockist fogeyism ''. In further response to this issue, rock critic Jim DeRogatis, a former Rolling Stone editor, published a thorough critique of the magazine 's lists in a book called Kill Your Idols: A New Generation of Rock Writers Reconsiders the Classics, which featured differing opinions from many younger critics.
Rolling Stone magazine has been criticized for reconsidering many classic albums that it had previously dismissed, and for frequent use of the 3.5 - star rating. For example, Led Zeppelin was largely written off by Rolling Stone magazine critics during the band 's most active years in the 1970s, but by 2006, a cover story on the band honored them as "the Heaviest Band of All Time ''. A critic for Slate magazine described a conference at which 1984 's The Rolling Stone Record Guide was scrutinized. As he described it, "The guide virtually ignored hip - hop and ruthlessly panned heavy metal, the two genres that within a few years would dominate the pop charts. In an auditorium packed with music journalists, you could detect more than a few anxious titters: How many of us will want our record reviews read back to us 20 years hence? ''
The hiring of former FHM editor Ed Needham further enraged critics who alleged that Rolling Stone had lost its credibility.
The 2003 Rolling Stone 's 100 Greatest Guitarists of all Time article, which named only two female musicians, resulted in Venus Zine answering with their own list, entitled "The Greatest Female Guitarists of All Time ''.
Conservative columnist Jonah Goldberg stated that Rolling Stone had "essentially become the house organ of the Democratic National Committee ''. Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner has made all of his political donations to Democrats.
Rolling Stone 's film critic, Peter Travers, has been criticized for his high number of repetitively used blurbs.
The August 2013 Rolling Stone cover, featuring then - accused (later convicted) Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, drew widespread criticism that the magazine was "glamorizing terrorism '' and that the cover was a "slap in the face to the great city of Boston ''. The online edition of the article was accompanied by a short editorial stating that the story "falls within the traditions of journalism and Rolling Stone 's long - standing commitment to serious and thoughtful coverage of the most important political and cultural issues of our day ''. The controversial cover photograph that was used by Rolling Stone had previously featured on the front page of The New York Times on May 5, 2013.
In response to the outcry, New England - based CVS Pharmacy and Tedeschi Food Shops banned their stores from carrying the issue. Also refusing to sell the issue were Walgreens, Rite - Aid, Roche Bros., Kmart, H-E-B, Walmart, 7 - Eleven, Hy - Vee, Rutter 's Farm, United Supermarkets, Cumberland Farms, Market Basket, Shaw 's and Stop & Shop. Boston mayor Thomas Menino sent a letter to Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner, calling the cover "ill conceived, at best... (it) reaffirms a message that destruction gains fame for killers and their ' causes '. '' Menino also wrote, "To respond to you in anger is to feed into your obvious market strategy '', and that Wenner could have written about the survivors or the people who came to help after the bombings instead. In conclusion he wrote, "The survivors of the Boston Marathon deserve Rolling Stone cover stories, though I no longer feel that Rolling Stone deserves them. ''
In the November 19, 2014 issue, the story "A Rape on Campus '' was run about an alleged gang rape on the campus of the University of Virginia. Separate inquiries by Phi Kappa Psi, the fraternity accused by Rolling Stone of facilitating the alleged rape, and The Washington Post revealed major errors, omissions and discrepancies in the story. Reporter Sabrina Erdely 's story was subject to intense media criticism. The Washington Post and Boston Herald issued calls for magazine staff involved in the report to be fired. Rolling Stone subsequently issued three apologies for the story. Some suggested that legal action against the magazine by persons accused of the rape might result.
On December 5, 2014, Rolling Stone 's managing editor, Will Dana, apologized for not fact - checking the story. Rolling Stone commissioned an outside investigation of the story and its problems by the dean of the Columbia School of Journalism. The report uncovered journalistic failure in the UVA story and institutional problems with reporting at Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone retracted the story on April 5, 2015. On April 6, 2015, following the investigation and retraction of the story, Phi Kappa Psi announced plans to pursue all available legal action against Rolling Stone, including claims of defamation.
On May 12, 2015, UVA associate dean Nicole Eramo, chief administrator for handling sexual assault issues at the school, filed a $7.5 million defamation lawsuit in Charlottesville Circuit Court against Rolling Stone and Erdely, claiming damage to her reputation and emotional distress. Said the filing, "Rolling Stone and Erdely 's highly defamatory and false statements about Dean Eramo were not the result of an innocent mistake. They were the result of a wanton journalist who was more concerned with writing an article that fulfilled her preconceived narrative about the victimization of women on American college campuses, and a malicious publisher who was more concerned about selling magazines to boost the economic bottom line for its faltering magazine, than they were about discovering the truth or actual facts. '' On November 4, 2016, after 20 hours of deliberation, a jury consisting of eight women and two men found Rolling Stone, the magazine 's publisher and Erdely liable for defaming Eramo.
On July 29, 2015, three graduates of the fraternity Phi Kappa Psi filed a lawsuit against Rolling Stone, its publisher Wenner Media, and a journalist for defamation and infliction of emotional distress. The same day, and just months after the controversy began, The New York Times reported that managing editor Will Dana was departing the magazine with his last date recorded as August 7, 2015. On November 9, 2015, the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity filed suit for $25 million for damages to its reputation caused by the magazine 's publication of this story, "with reckless disregard for the truth ''.
George Harrison 's song "This Guitar '' (1975), a lyrical sequel to his Beatles track "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' (1968), references the magazine in its second verse: "Learned to get up when I fall / Can even climb Rolling Stone walls ''. The song was written in response to some highly unfavorable reviews from Rolling Stone and other publications for Harrison 's 1974 North American tour and the Dark Horse album.
Some artists have been featured on the cover many times, and some of these pictures went on to become iconic. The Beatles, for example, have appeared on the cover more than 30 times, either individually or as a band. The first 10 issues featured, in order of appearance, the following:
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when was the last time uc made the sweet 16 | Cincinnati Bearcats Men 's basketball - Wikipedia
The Cincinnati Bearcats men 's basketball program represents the University of Cincinnati in Cincinnati, Ohio. The school 's team competes in NCAA Division I as part of the American Athletic Conference. The Bearcats are coached by Mick Cronin, who has been UC 's head coach since 2006.
With nearly 1800 total wins, the Bearcats are one of the 20 winningest basketball programs of all - time. The school 's merits include 2 National Titles, 6 Final Fours, and 32 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament appearances. As of 2018, Cincinnati has appeared in 8 consecutive NCAA Tournaments, and 22 of the last 27, with an all - time tournament record of 45 -- 30. There have also been 30 All - American honors issued to Bearcats as well.
Cincinnati has been playing its home games since 1989 at Fifth Third Arena, which holds 13,176 fans plus overflow. The Bearcats played their home games for the 2017 -- 18 season in the 9,400 seat BB&T Arena on the campus of Northern Kentucky University in Highland Heights, Kentucky while their home arena was renovated, which will be ready for the 2018 - 19 season, the renovated arena will hold 12,012. Cincinnati joined the original Big East Conference in 2005, which was rebranded as the American Athletic Conference (AAC) in 2013.
Statistics and NCAA all - time rankings (through the end of the 2016 -- 17 season):
Basketball formally debuted as a selected varsity team in 1901 and played nine games. Cincinnati, in its first season lost to Yale but later defeated a team from the University of Kentucky while compiling a 5 -- 4 record, with the remaining games being against non-collegiate teams. Home games during this time were played in a gym in the basement of McMicken Hall. Pillars on the court gave UC a home court advantage. UC experienced moderate success in the early days, with the main highlights being them winning several conference championships in both the Buckeye Athletic Association and the Mid-American Conference.
Cincinnati opened its new on - campus arena, Armory Fieldhouse, with a 97 -- 65 win over Indiana in 1954. One of the first of Cincinnati 's long list of standouts was Jack Twyman, who earned All - America status in 1954 -- 55. He went on to NBA stardom and is in the Basketball Hall of Fame. Oscar Robertson made his debut in 1957, and quickly emerged as one of the top college players in the country. "The Big O '' is still widely recognized as one of the greatest to ever play the sport -- college or professional. A unanimous three - time All - American, he was college basketball 's all - time leading scorer at the close of his career. His 33.8 scoring average today ranks third on the NCAA career charts, and he has the NBA 's third-most career assists. The Bearcats celebrated their entry into the Missouri Valley Conference by winning the league title. Cincinnati made its first NCAA tournament appearance in 1958, losing to Kansas State in overtime at the Midwest Regional.
Sparked by the exploits of Robertson, who became the first player to lead the nation in scoring in three consecutive seasons, Cincinnati advanced to the Final Four in 1958 -- 59 and 1959 -- 60, settling for third place both years. Then the Bearcats, with a rookie head coach (Ed Jucker) and without Robertson, won their first national title in 1960 -- 61. Then to prove that its 1961 championship was no fluke, UC repeated as national champion in 1961 -- 62. Cincinnati made a fifth - straight trip to the Final Four in 1962 -- 63, and narrowly missed capturing a third - straight national crown when Loyola (Ill.) overcame a 15 - point deficit and defeated the Bearcats by a basket, 60 -- 58, in overtime.
During those five seasons, UC recorded a 37 - game win streak and posted a 161 -- 16 ledger. The five straight Final Four appearances is a feat topped only by UCLA. Connie Dierking (1958), Ralph Davis (1960), Bob Wiesenhahn (1961), Paul Hogue (1961, 1962), Tom Thacker (1963), Tony Yates (1963), Ron Bonham (1963, 1964) and George Wilson (1963) were accorded All - American recognition with Wilson playing on the U.S. 1964 Olympic gold medal team.
The Bearcats during the 1970s compiled a 170 -- 85 record (. 667). Cincinnati inaugurated the Metro Conference by winning the league 's first two tournament championships and made four consecutive post-season appearances from 1974 -- 1977, including a Sweet Sixteen appearance in 1975. Jim Ard (1970), Lloyd Batts (1973), Steve Collier (1976), Gary Yoder (1977), Bob Miller (1978) and Pat Cummings (1979) earned All - American recognition. Cummings closed his career as UC 's No. 2 leading scorer of all - time.
Cincinnati fell into exceptionally hard times during the 1980s, going 112 -- 142 over the course of the decade. Tony Yates, a member of the national championship teams in the 1960s, was hired as head coach in 1983. In his first season in 1983 -- 84, UC went 3 -- 25 (0 -- 14 in conference), the school 's worst season (winning - percentage-wise) since going 1 -- 9 in 1915. After several unremarkable campaigns thereafter, Yates was fired after the 1989 season. The Bearcats of the 1980s failed to make a single NCAA tournament, and only had one postseason appearance in the 1985 NIT.
Bob Huggins, the former head coach at the University of Akron, was named head coach at UC prior to the 1989 -- 90 season. Taking over a team with a proud history but one that had not had any legitimate success in over a decade, Huggins quickly turned things around and rekindled the national championship expectations of the past. Posting winning records in each of his first two seasons, Huggins would soon prove that his team was for real and in only his third season at the helm he directed UC to the 1992 Final Four. The 1992 team that went on to lose to Michigan 's "Fab Five '' in the Final Four, would set a high standard of success that would last for years to come. The Bearcats advanced to the Elite Eight of the NCAA tournament three times, and reached the Sweet 16 four times while Huggins was coach. Cincinnati also won its conference season and / or tournament title in 12 years out of a 13 - year span (1992 -- 2004). UC was also one of the top ranked teams of this time, often being ranked in the top 10 if not number one in the country. Huggin 's team merits include claiming eight league tournament titles and 10 regular season crowns in addition to appearing in 14 consecutive NCAA Tournaments (1992 -- 2005).
Fifteen Bearcats had garnered first team all - conference honors during this era with three of those, Danny Fortson, Kenyon Martin and Steve Logan, picking up a total of four C - USA Most Outstanding Player Awards. Fortson, Nick Van Exel, Ruben Patterson, Bobby Brannen, Melvin Levett, Logan, Martin and Pete Mickeal have joined Cincinnati 's list of All - Americans. Fortson was a consensus first team All - American in 1996 -- 97 after receiving second team recognition in 1995 -- 96. Martin was college basketball 's top player of the 1999 -- 2000 season, making a clean sweep of the national player of the year awards. Logan was a consensus All - American in 2001 -- 02 and a finalist for every national player of the year award. Several Bearcats were NBA Draft Picks, including Martin being the number one overall pick in 2000.
After a DUI in 2004 and a string of players having academic and behavioral issues off the court, in her efforts to improve the school 's national image and reputation, new school president at the time Nancy Zimpher controversially asked coach Bob Huggins to resign in August 2005. This decision was met wide widespread criticism among virtually everyone connected to the program, creating a situation that would not bode well for the team in the near future. Looking to stay within the program, the school immediately promoted assistant coach Andy Kennedy as interim head coach for the 2005 -- 06 season.
In the spring of 2006, Mick Cronin was hired as head coach, replacing interim coach Andy Kennedy after the dismissal of Bob Huggins. Cronin was tasked with picking up the pieces from a depleted program after Huggins was abruptly asked to resign three months before the 2005 season, and a temporary coach in Kennedy for the previous season. Due to the school having little - to - no recruiting going on for around a full calendar year, Cronin was forced to scrounge for players. He even had a couple players on the school 's football team play, one being current Philadelphia Eagles linebacker Connor Barwin.
Although Cronin 's teams struggled early in his UC career, he improved the school 's win total each of his first five seasons. After two straight losing seasons, UC began to get back on track under Cronin in the 2008 -- 09 season with an 18 -- 14 record. This was then followed by an NIT appearance and a brief return to the Top 25 polls during the 2009 -- 10 campaign.
Since the beginning of the 2010 -- 11 season, the Bearcats have amassed a 206 -- 71 record (. 744), have spent 71 weeks ranked in the AP Poll, and have reached 8 straight NCAA Tournaments (all as of March 12, 2018). UC also, for the first time in its storied history, defeated a team with a higher seed than theirs in the NCAA Tournament (6 seeded Cincinnati defeated 3 seeded Florida State in 2012).
Following the team 's breakthrough season in 2010 -- 11, the 2011 -- 12 team was looked upon with high expectations coming into the season. The team, of which had many returning players like Yancy Gates, Cashmere Wright, and Dion Dixon, was the first team under Cronin to be nationally ranked going into a season and was thought to be able to compete for a conference title that year in the Big East. These high expectations were quickly diminished however, as the team lost early to two Mid Major 's on their home court. This, added to the team 's involvement in the Crosstown Shootout Brawl left most people to write them off. UC showed that they were not done though, winning the remainder of their non-conference games and a good showing in conference play defeating 8 ranked teams (tops in college basketball), leading to a 6 - seed in the 2012 NCAA Tournament. The team would then go onto the Sweet Sixteen, which was their first since 2001.
At the start of the 2013 -- 14 season and the team 's first in the newly formed American conference, Cincinnati received just one vote in the Preseason AP Poll. Under the leadership of 2nd team All - American senior guard Sean Kilpatrick, the Bearcats got off to a hot start and picked up their 20th win on January 30, 2014, which was the fastest they 've gotten to 20 wins since the 2001 -- 02 season (went 31 -- 4 that year). They also reached as high as # 7 in the AP Poll, their highest since being ranked # 6 in the 2003 -- 04 season. On March 8, UC clinched a share of the AAC Conference regular season championship, their first conference title since 2004. Although very successful, the season would come to a sour end with a 1st round loss to underdog 12 seed Harvard in the 2014 NCAA Tournament.
During the 2014 -- 15 season, UC was forced to play without head coach Mick Cronin for the majority of the season due to health concerns. Under assistant coach Larry Davis, the Bearcats rallied to reach the 2015 NCAA Tournament for their 5th consecutive tournament appearance, and knocked off # 9 seed Purdue before falling to # 1 seed Kentucky in the second round.
On January 2, 2017, Cincinnati celebrated its 400th week in the AP Poll, becoming just the 12th program all - time to spend that many weeks in the Top 25.
On March 17, 2017, Cincinnati defeated Kansas State in the 1st Round of the NCAA Tournament to win its 30th game of the season, reaching 30 wins for the first time in 15 years, and a new high in the Mick Cronin era.
01 / 09 / 1958 -- Cincinnati 118, Seton Hall 54: 19 - year - old sophomore Oscar Robertson ("The Big O '') dropped 56 points, scoring more than all of Seton Hall, and caught the attention of New York City in a road win. His 56 points, at the time, was a Madison Square Garden record.
03 / 25 / 1961 -- Cincinnati 70, Ohio State 65: The Buckeyes were the defending champs, 27 -- 0 and No. 1 in the nation. They took on state rival No. 2 Cincinnati in the National Championship. A layup by Ohio State 's Bobby Knight sent the game into overtime, tied at 61. Cincy, led by Paul Hogue and Bob Wiesenhahn, took it from there, winning, 70 -- 65, giving the Bearcats their first basketball title in school history.
03 / 24 / 1962 -- Cincinnati 71, Ohio State 59: Cincinnati and Ohio State, again ranked Nos. 1 and 2 at the end of the regular season, became the first teams to play each other in two consecutive NCAA championship games. Unlike the year before, this game was not close. Cincy led by eight at the half and won by 12 as Paul Hogue and Tom Thacker led the way with 22 and 21 points, respectively. When it was over, the Bearcats ' second - year coach Ed Jucker had a pair of NCAA titles in two tries.
03 / 23 / 1963 -- Loyola (Ill.) 60, Cincinnati 58: Despite its No. 3 ranking and a scoring average of 91.8, nobody expected Loyola of Chicago to beat Cincinnati, especially when the Ramblers fell behind by 15 in the second half. But Loyola rallied to send the game into OT and won the title on a last - second rebound and basket by Vic Rouse.
12 / 21 / 1981 -- Cincinnati 75, Bradley 73: This contest is still listed as the longest game of NCAA Division I history, reaching seven overtimes. Reserve forward Doug Schloemer hit the decisive shot, a left - wing 15 - footer with one second remaining in the seventh overtime. If he had missed that jump shot, it would have gone to an eighth overtime.
12 / 12 / 1984 -- Cincinnati 69, UAB 67: UAB had a one - point lead, but in the waning seconds, Tony Wilson, who was on a track scholarship, hit a 54 - foot shot beyond half - court at the buzzer to give Cincinnati a 2 - point win at Riverfront Coliseum.
11 / 25 / 1989 -- Cincinnati 66, Minnesota 64: It was the school 's first game under Bob Huggins, in their new arena, the Shoemaker Center. Walk - on Steve Sanders, who was also the school 's football team 's wide receiver for four years, hit the buzzer - beating three - pointer to give UC a 66 -- 64 win over No. 20 Minnesota.
01 / 23 / 1993 -- Cincinnati 40, UAB 38: The No. 9 Bearcats were heavily favored playing at home vs an 11 -- 7 UAB team. It was an ugly, very low - scoring affair, where UAB led at halftime 15 -- 11. In a tie game with seconds left, Corie Blount for UC had his shot blocked. It was kicked around and Nick Van Exel recovered it to put up a long two - pointer at the buzzer. Nothing but net. Cats won 40 -- 38.
12 / 17 / 1994 -- Cincinnati 81, Wyoming 80: UC trailed to Wyoming all game, but when down 2 in the final seconds, LaZelle Durden put up a 3 - point attempt as the final horn sounded. He was fouled, but hit all three free throws with no time on the clock. UC won, 81 -- 80, and Durden 's 45 points were the most by a Bearcat in 34 years.
03 / 12 / 1995 -- Cincinnati 67, St. Louis 65: LaZelle Durden fired in the game - winning three - pointer with 1.2 seconds to play in the conference championship game over Saint Louis, giving the Bearcats a 67 -- 65 victory and clinching an NCAA Tournament berth.
02 / 11 / 1996 -- Arizona, 79, Cincinnati 76: The Bearcats had the ball under their own hoop in a tie game vs Arizona with just a few seconds left. Miles Simon stripped the ball from Danny Fortson, and hit a three - quarter - court buzzer - beater to beat UC, 79 -- 76.
02 / 06 / 1997 -- Cincinnati 65, Tulane 64: The game was tied at 63 with 2 seconds left, and UC had the ball. Bobby Brannan threw the ball the length of the court. Danny Fortson made the catch near the hoop and laid it in with 0.2 seconds remaining. The majority of the Bearcats bench stormed the court in excitement, thinking the game was over. Cincinnati was given a technical foul for the incident, awarding Tulane two free throws and the ball. Honeycutt only made one of two free throws, and Tulane was unable to score with 0.2 seconds left. Cincinnati won by one.
02 / 19 / 1998 -- Cincinnati 93, UAB 76: All - American Ruben Patterson was awoken at 6: 00 in the morning by Bob Huggins. The coach broke the news to him that his mother had a heart attack overnight and died. Patterson played the game that night anyway, after spending all day crying. He scored a career - high 32 points in a 93 -- 76 win over UAB.
03 / 15 / 1998 -- West Virginia 75, Cincinnati 74: Cincinnati took a 2 - point lead with 7.1 seconds remaining against West Virginia in the second round of the NCAA Tournament. Jarrod West of WV then banked in a 30 - foot three - pointer with 0.8 seconds left, a shot that was tipped by Ruben Patterson. West Virginia advanced to the Sweet Sixteen with a 75 -- 74 win.
11 / 29 / 1998 -- Cincinnati 77, Duke 75: No. 14 Cincinnati took on No. 1 Duke in the Great Alaska Shootout championship. In a tie game with 3 seconds left, Cincinnati ran a "hook - and - ladder '' type play, that had Kenyon Martin hit an open Melvin Levett sprinting towards the hoop. Levett dunked the ball with one second left, and the Bearcats won, 77 -- 75. To this day, it is their lone win vs a No. 1 team.
03 / 02 / 2000 -- Cincinnati 66, DePaul 64: DePaul led the No. 2 Bearcats by 17, and by 10 with under 4 minutes remaining. The National POY Kenyon Martin took over, scoring 5 straight field goals for UC and had 2 key blocks down the stretch. With the game tied at 62, freshman DerMarr Johnson hit the game - winning jumper with 2.7 seconds left.
02 / 22 / 2002 -- Cincinnati 63, Marquette 62: 9th - ranked Marquette led No. 4 Cincinnati by 4 with 30 seconds remaining. Steve Logan hit a three - pointer with 22 seconds left, then after a missed one - and - one free throw by Dwyane Wade, Donald Little hit a jumper with 3 seconds remaining. Cincinnati won 63 -- 62 in their biggest win of the season.
03 / 08 / 2006 -- Syracuse 74, Cincinnati 73: In the first round of the Big East Tournament, the Bearcats led by one with 8.3 seconds remaining. Devan Downey of UC was at the line shooting two free throws. After making the first, he missed the second. Trailing by 2, Gerry McNamara of Syracuse came down and hit a running one - handed three pointer with 0.5 seconds left, giving Syracuse a one - point win. Cincinnati, who was a bubble team, just barely missed the NCAA Tournament (even with a Joe Lunardi prediction of a 9 seed on the morning of Selection Sunday), snapping their streak of 14 straight appearances.
12 / 10 / 2011 -- Xavier 76, Cincinnati 53: The 2011 rivalry game with Xavier ended in a bench - clearing brawl between the two teams, with the officials calling an end to the game with less than 10 seconds left. For more details, see 2011 Crosstown Shootout brawl.
03 / 09 / 2012 -- Cincinnati 71, Syracuse 68: Unranked Cincinnati took on No. 2 Syracuse (31 -- 1) in the Big East Tournament semifinals. The Bearcats were hot out of the gate, hitting 8 of their first 10 three - point attempts and jumping out to a 25 -- 8 lead. Syracuse came roaring back in the game, getting it to a one - point game with a few seconds left. A Justin Jackson dunk with a second remaining capped the Bearcats 71 -- 68 win, the school 's highest - ranked victory since 1998.
03 / 19 / 2015 -- Cincinnati 66, Purdue 65: 8 - seeded Cincinnati and 9 - seeded Purdue met for the first time in the NCAA Tournament in this round of 64 matchup. In a game that was close the majority of the way, Purdue began to pull away down the stretch. Down 7 with 48 seconds to go, the Bearcats hit a three pointer, forced a turnover, and made an and - one layup, all within 6 seconds to cut it to one. Down two with 7 seconds left, sophomore Troy Caupain drove to the hoop and hit a floater that dramatically spun around the rim, hung on the rim for a second, and fell in, as time expired. In overtime, UC prevailed 66 -- 65, to advance to the round of 32.
03 / 11 / 2016 -- UConn 104, Cincinnati 97: In a 4 - overtime thriller for the ages, Cincinnati and UConn faced off in the AAC Tournament. In the closing seconds of the 3rd overtime, in a tie game, UC guard Kevin Johnson drained a long 3 - pointer with 0.8 seconds left to take a three - point lead. In a desperation heave, Jalen Adams of UConn banked in a 75 - footer to extend the game. UConn outscored Cincinnati in the 4th overtime, 16 -- 9, advancing in the conference tournament in which they would end up winning.
03 / 18 / 2016 -- St. Joe 's 78, Cincinnati 76: In the first round of the NCAA Tournament, 9 - seeded Cincinnati took on 8 - seeded St. Joe 's. After the Cats clawed back from a second half deficit of 12 points, St. Joe 's drained a 3 - pointer with under 10 seconds left to take a two - point lead. Cincy guard Troy Caupain drove the length of the floor to the hoop, and got the ball to Octavius Ellis after being swarmed by a double - team. Ellis attempted to quickly slam it home, only to discover his dunk was 0.1 seconds too late. Time expired. St. Joe 's advanced.
03 / 11 / 2018 -- Houston 55, Cincinnati 56: Cincinnati met the nationally ranked Houston Cougars for the third time this season, having split the regular season 1 - 1. The rubber match came in the finals of the American Athletic Conference Tournament, with both schools seeking their first ever AAC tournament title. Gary Clark and company were able to cut down the nets for the first time in their collegiate careers, as Houston 's star Rob Gray turned the ball over on the game 's final possession.
03 / 18 / 2018 -- Nevada 75, Cincinnati 73: With the "South bracket '' in the 2018 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament shaping up in Cincinnati 's favor, the Bearcats seemed prime for continued March success as they led Nevada by 22 points with 11 minutes remaining. Nevada mounted a furious comeback, scoring 16 straight points over the next 3 minutes. The game continued to be touch and go for the remainder of the half, with an overwhelming amount of foul calls against the Bearcats. With 9 seconds left, Nevada took their first and only lead of the game at 75 - 73. The Bearcats dribbled the full length of the court but bobbled the ball and never got a clean look as time expired and Nevada tied the second largest comeback to - date in NCAA Tournament history.
The Bearcats have appeared in the NCAA Tournament 32 times. Their combined record is 46 -- 29. They have been to six Final Fours, including five in a row from 1959 -- 1963, and are two time National Champions (1961, 1962).
Cincinnati has had 30 different players receive All - American honors while at UC. The award has been given to a Consensus 1st - Team All - American 8 times.
The following were McDonald 's All - Americans in high school that committed to, and played for, the University of Cincinnati.
1000 - Point Club -- Career Scoring Leaders
The Bearcats have had 33 players play in the NBA, spanning seven decades.
The Bearcats have played their home games in Fifth Third Arena since 1989. The arena is on - campus and has a capacity of 13,176 (with room for overflow). It is located in the Myrl H. Shoemaker Center, which was also the name of the arena until 2005, when it was named for Cincinnati - based Fifth Third Bank. It is still popularly known as "The Shoe ''. The Bearcats closed out Fifth Third Arena (pre-2018 renovation) with an all - time home record of 389 -- 79 (. 831), along with an active 26 - game home winning streak. The Bearcats held a 42 - game win streak from 1997 -- 2000 as well. In the 1999 -- 2000 season, every Bearcat home game was sold out. During the Bob Huggins era, it was known as one of the most hostile arenas in the nation due to the high decibel levels typical of his tenure.
On December 15, 2015, The UC Board of Trustees approved an $87 - million, privately funded renovation of Fifth Third Arena. Proposed improvements to the facility, include the creation of a 360 - degree seating bowl, new HD scoreboard, ribbon boards, sound system, an LED lighting system which will allow for enhanced gameday presentation, new restroom and concession facilities, a new upper - level concourse with its own fan amenities, expanded food and beverage options and a new main entrance and plaza with centralized ticketing and guest services. The renovated arena also will feature upgraded locker room spaces, expanded premium seating options, including a courtside club, arena club and concourse club as well as enclosed suites, loge seating, a new Bearcats Lounge and super suites. During the meeting, trustee Rob Richardson Jr. said the upgraded facility would support the university 's objective to join a power athletic conference and in student - athlete recruitment. Construction is scheduled to begin in April 2017 and be completed in fall 2018. During the 2017 -- 18 school year, men 's basketball home games will be moved to BB&T Arena at Northern Kentucky University in Highland Heights, Kentucky, while women 's basketball and volleyball home games will be moved to the campus of St. Ursula Academy.
OVERALL: 389 -- 80 (. 829)
National champion Postseason invitational champion Conference regular season champion Conference regular season and conference tournament champion Division regular season champion Division regular season and conference tournament champion Conference tournament champion
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which of the following is not a reason currency in the united states has value | Gold standard - Wikipedia
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished: specie, bullion, and exchange.
Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century, although many hold substantial gold reserves. A survey of leading American economists showed that they unanimously reject that a return to the gold standard would benefit the average American.
The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form. Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.
The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.
During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. However, as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.
Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa CE 757 -- 796. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and later, the United States trade dollar.
In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne 's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.
A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold. The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.
Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin. Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia 's rich gold deposits.
The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.
From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States. Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.
In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token '' silver coins and overstruck foreign coins. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half - crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821. The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.
The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged. In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard. According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.
In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both. The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.
From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.
The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.
Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.
Following Germany 's decision after the 1870 -- 1871 Franco - Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.
In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government 's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver. Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.
The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations. A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals ' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay / receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money. Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard - money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.
Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks ''.
After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ' 73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People 's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.
The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862 -- 1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.
Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.
Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso / dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903. Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.
When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria - Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.
Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly '' according to economist Richard Lipsey.
By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it. According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard 's failure to resume its previous position after World War 1 was "the Bank of England 's precarious liquidity position and the gold - exchange standard. '' A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before. In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America 's. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.
Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.
For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.
The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to "sterilize '' some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money. By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard. As a result of World War 1 the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.
The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.
The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy (12 kg) of fine gold ''. John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard. By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake ''.
Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation. This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929 -- 1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic. The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.
The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England 's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.
In May 1931 a run on Austria 's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.
Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump '' for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks ' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40 % of its demand notes. Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize - winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard. They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs. The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.
Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks. As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply. Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.
The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation - adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy. Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.
In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.
Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40 %.
Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain, the failure of central banks to act responsibly, government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936, while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from. 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932. The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.
The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust. Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder '' any remaining confidence in the banking system. Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly ' great ' was the European banking crisis of 1931. According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.
Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries ' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries ' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.
After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard '' was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.
Starting in the 1959 -- 1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock '').
This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement '' was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries ' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.
An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.
World production for 2011 was at 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth of around 2x, although far less than world economic growth of some 8x, or some 4x since 1980.
Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.
Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.
Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.
Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.
Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
A full or 100 % - reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold. Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income. '' While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.
In an international gold - standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned), gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.
According to research produced by the Bank of Canada, the emerging Bitcoin economy has many similarities with the economy based on gold standard, in particular:
Edward Hadas and Michael Hiltzik noted that monetary systems based on Bitcoin and gold have some similar disadvantages:
George Gilder, a proponent of gold standard, proposed breaking "the government monopoly on money '' by using a combination of Bitcoin for the internet and treating gold in tax terms as currency.
A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24 - carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt - backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. As of 2013 the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.
Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority '' within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard. In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom '', Greenspan argued the case for returning to a ' pure ' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists '' intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending. More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard '', rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.
Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution '' is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes -- for example, a gold standard, some other commodity - based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money -- is considerably less important.
The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free - market libertarians and some supply - siders.
In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold - standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional - reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy - based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.
Former congressman Ron Paul is a long - term, high - profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.
In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes. As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states. The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.
In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.
In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve 's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate 's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.
In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in "price - stability and employment outcomes (that) would be better for the average American. '' The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well - known research universities. (The specific question posed to the economists was: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a ' dollar ' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price - stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American. '')
The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul 's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s. He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply, "(W) e do n't have the gold standard. It 's not because we do n't know about the gold standard, it 's because we do. ''
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which is the largest vidhan sabha in india | Vidhan Sabha - Wikipedia
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The Vidhan Sabha the Legislative Assembly is the lower house (in states with bicameral) or the sole house (in unicameral states) of the state legislature in the different states of India. The same name is also used for the lower house of the legislatures for two of the Union Territories, Delhi and Puducherry. The upper house in the seven states with a bicameral legislature is called the Legislative Council, or Vidhan Parishad. Members of a Vidhan Sabha are direct representatives of the people of the particular state as they are directly elected by an electorate consisting of all citizens above the age of 18 of that state. Its maximum size as outlined in the Constitution of India is not more than 500 members and not fewer than 60 members. However, the size of the Vidhan Sabha can be fewer than 59 members through an Act of Parliament: such is the case in the states of Goa, Sikkim, Mizoram and the Union Territory of Puducherry. In some states the Governor may appoint 1 member to Governors) to Vidhan Sabha are referred to as Members of Legislative Assembly or MLAs. Each Vidhan Sabha assembles for a five - year term, after which all seats are up for election. During a state of emergency, its term may be extended past five years or it may be dissolved. The term of the Legislative Assembly is five years. But it may be dissolved even earlier than five years by the Governor on the request of the Chief Minister. The term of a Legislative Assembly may be extended during an Emergency, but not by more than six months at a time. A Vidhan Sabha can also be dissolved if a motion of no confidence is passed within it against the majority party or coalition.
To become a member of a Vidhan Sabha, a person must be a citizen of India, not less than 25 years of age. He or she should be mentally sound and should not be bankrupt. He or she should also state an affidavit that there are no criminal procedures against him or her. Speaker of Vidhan Sabha who is responsible for the conduct of business of the body, and also a Deputy Speaker to preside during the Speaker 's absence. The Speaker acts as a neutral judge and manages all debates and discussions in the house. Usually he or she is a member of the stronger political party
A Vidhan Sabha holds equal legislative power with the upper house of state legislature, the Vidhan Parishad (' Legislative Council '), except in the area of money bills in which case the Vidhan Sabha has the ultimate authority.
A motion of no confidence against the government in the state can only be introduced in the Vidhan Sabha. If it is passed by a majority vote, then the Chief Minister and his Council of Ministers must collectively resign.
A money bill can only be introduced in Vidhan Sabha. In bicameral jurisdictions, after it is passed in the Vidhan Sabha, it is sent to the Vidhan Parishad, where it can be kept for a maximum time of 14 days.
In matters related to ordinary bills, the will of Legislative Assembly prevails and there is no provision of joint sitting. In such cases, Legislative council can delay the legislation by maximum 4 months (3 months in first visit and 1 month in the second visit of the bill).
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when does after hours trading start and end | Extended - hours trading - Wikipedia
Extended - hours trading is stock trading that happens either before or after the normal trading hours of a stock exchange, i.e., pre-market trading or after - hours trading.
After - hours trading is known as the buying and selling of securities when the major markets are closed. Since 1985, the regular trading hours for major exchanges in the United States, such as the New York Stock Exchange and the Nasdaq Stock Market, have been from 9: 30 a.m. to 4: 00 p.m. Eastern Time (ET). Pre-market trading occurs from 4: 00 a.m. to 9: 30 a.m. ET, although the majority of the volume and liquidity come to the pre-market at 8: 00AM ET. After - hours trading on a day with a normal session occurs from 4: 00 p.m. to 8: 00 p.m. ET. Market makers and specialists generally do not participate in after hours trading, which can limit liquidity.
Trading outside regular hours is not a new phenomenon but used to be limited to high - net - worth investors and institutional investors like mutual funds. The emergence of private trading systems, known as electronic communication networks (ECNs), has allowed individual investors to participate in after - hours trading.
Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) members who voluntarily enter quotations during the after - hours session are required to comply with all applicable limit order protection and display rules (e.g., the Manning Rule and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission order handling rules).
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "https://www.sec.gov/investor/pubs/afterhours.htm ''.
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short note of rani laxmi bai in hindi | Rani of Jhansi - wikipedia
Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi (pronunciation (help info); 19 November 1828 -- 18 June 1858), was the queen of the princely state of Jhansi in North India currently present in Jhansi district in Uttar Pradesh, India. She was one of the leading figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and became a symbol of resistance to the British Raj for Indian nationalists.
Rani Lakshmibai was born on 19 November 1828 in the holy town of Varanasi into a Marathi Karhade Brahmin family. She was named Manikarnika and was nicknamed Manu. Her father was Moropant Tambe and her mother Bhagirathi Sapre (Bhagirathi Bai). Her parents came from Maharashtra and was cousin of Nana Sahib. Her mother died when she was four years old. Her father worked for a court Peshwa of Bithoor district who brought up Manikarnika like his own daughter. The Peshwa called her "Chhabili '', which means "playful ''. She was educated at home and was more independent in her childhood than others of her age; her studies included shooting, horsemanship, fencing and mallakhamba with her childhood friends Nana Sahib and Tatya Tope.
Manikarnika was married to the Maharaja of Jhansi, Raja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar, in May 1842 and was afterwards called Lakshmibai (or Laxmibai) in honour of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi. She gave birth to a boy, later named Damodar Rao, in 1851, who died after four months. The Maharaja adopted a child called Anand Rao, the son of Gangadhar Rao 's cousin, who was renamed Damodar Rao, on the day before the Maharaja died. The adoption was in the presence of the British political officer who was given a letter from the Maharaja instructing that the child be treated with respect and that the government of Jhansi should be given to his widow for her lifetime. After the death of the Maharaja in November 1853, because Damodar Rao (born Anand Rao) was adopted, the British East India Company, under Governor - General Lord Dalhousie, applied the Doctrine of Lapse, rejecting Damodar Rao 's claim to the throne and annexing the state to its territories. When she was informed of this she cried out "I shall not surrender my Jhansi '' (Mein meri Jhansi nahi doongi). In March 1854, Lakshmibai was given an annual pension of Rs. 60,000 and ordered to leave the palace and the fort. Rani Lakshmibai has been known to the British most commonly as "the Rani of Jhansi ''; in Hindi she is often known as "Jhansi ki Rani ''.
Rani Lakshmibai was accustomed to riding on horseback accompanied by a small escort between the palace and the temple although sometimes she was carried by palanquin. Her horses included Sarangi, Pavan and Badal; according to tradition she rode Badal when escaping from the fort in 1858. The Rani Mahal, the palace of Rani Lakshmibai, has now been converted into a museum. It houses a collection of archaeological remains of the period between the 9th and 12th centuries AD.
On 10 May 1857 the Indian Rebellion started in Meerut. When news of the fighting reached Jhansi, the Rani asked the British political officer, Captain Alexander Skene, for permission to raise a body of armed men for her own protection; Skene agreed to this. The city was relatively calm in the midst of the regional unrest, but the Rani conducted a Haldi Kumkum ceremony with pomp in front of all the women of Jhansi to provide assurance to her subjects, in the summer of 1857 and to convince them that the British were cowards and not to be afraid of them.
Until this point, Lakshmibai was reluctant to rebel against the British. In June 1857, rebels of the 12th Bengal Native Infantry seized the fort containing the treasure and magazine, and after persuading the British to lay down their arms by promising them no harm, broke their word and massacred 40 to 60 European officers of the garrison along with their wives and children. The Rani 's involvement in this massacre is still a subject of debate. An army doctor, Thomas Lowe, wrote after the rebellion characterising her as the "Jezebel of India... the young rani upon whose head rested the blood of the slain ''.
Four days after the massacre the sepoys left Jhansi, having obtained a large sum of money from the Rani, and having threatened to blow up the palace where she lived. Following this, as the only source of authority in the city the Rani felt obliged to assume the administration and wrote to Major Erskine, commissioner of the Saugor division explaining the events which had led her to do so. On 2 July Erskine wrote in reply that he requested her to "manage the District for the British Government '' until the arrival of a British Superintendent. The Rani 's forces defeated an attempt by the mutineers to assert the claim to the throne of a rival prince who was captured and imprisoned. There was then an invasion of Jhansi by the forces of Company allies Orchha and Datia; their intention however was to divide Jhansi between themselves. The Rani appealed to the British for aid but it was now believed by the governor - general that she was responsible for the massacre and no reply was received. She set up a foundry to cast cannon to be used on the walls of the fort and assembled forces including some from former feudatories of Jhansi and elements of the mutineers which were able to defeat the invaders in August 1857. Her intention at this time was still to hold Jhansi on behalf of the British.
From August 1857 to January 1858 Jhansi under the Rani 's rule was at peace. The British had announced that troops would be sent there to maintain control but the fact that none arrived strengthened the position of a party of her advisers who wanted independence from British rule. When the British forces finally arrived in March they found it well - defended and the fort had heavy guns which could fire over the town and nearby countryside. Sir Hugh Rose, commanding the British forces, demanded the surrender of the city; if this was refused it would be destroyed. After due deliberation the Rani issued a proclamation: "We fight for independence. In the words of Lord Krishna, we will if we are victorious, enjoy the fruits of victory, if defeated and killed on the field of battle, we shall surely earn eternal glory and salvation. '' She defended Jhansi against British troops when Sir Hugh Rose besieged Jhansi on 23 March 1858.
The bombardment began on 24 March but was met by heavy return fire and the damaged defences were repaired. The defenders sent appeals for help to Tantia Tope; an army of more than 20,000, headed by Tantia Tope, was sent to relieve Jhansi but they failed to do so when they fought the British on 31 March. During the battle with Tantia Tope 's forces part of the British forces continued the siege and by 2 April it was decided to launch an assault by a breach in the walls. Four columns assaulted the defences at different points and those attempting to scale the walls came under heavy fire. Two other columns had already entered the city and were approaching the palace together. Determined resistance was encountered in every street and in every room of the palace. Street fighting continued into the following day and no quarter was given, even to women and children. "No maudlin clemency was to mark the fall of the city '' wrote Thomas Lowe. The Rani withdrew from the palace to the fort and after taking counsel decided that since resistance in the city was useless she must leave and join either Tantia Tope or Rao Sahib (Nana Sahib 's nephew).
According to tradition with Damodar Rao on her back she jumped on her horse Badal from the fort; they survived but the horse died. The Rani escaped in the night with her son, surrounded by guards. The escort included the warriors Khuda Bakhsh Basharat Ali (commandant), Gulam Gaus Khan, Dost Khan, Lala Bhau Bakshi, Moti Bai, Sunder - Mundar, Kashi Bai, Deewan Raghunath Singh and Deewan Jawahar Singh. She decamped to Kalpi with a few guards, where she joined additional rebel forces, including Tantia Tope. They occupied the town of Kalpi and prepared to defend it. On 22 May British forces attacked Kalpi; the Indian forces were commanded by the Rani herself and were again defeated.
The leaders (the Rani of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, the Nawab of Banda, and Rao Sahib) fled once more. They came to Gwalior and joined the Indian forces who now held the city (Maharaja Scindia having fled to Agra from the battlefield at Morar). They moved on to Gwalior intending to occupy the strategic Gwalior Fort and the rebel forces occupied the city without opposition. The rebels proclaimed Nana Sahib as Peshwa of a revived Maratha dominion with Rao Sahib as his governor (subedar) in Gwalior. The Rani was unsuccessful in trying to persuade the other rebel leaders to prepare to defend Gwalior against a British attack which she expected would come soon. General Rose 's forces took Morar on 16 June and then made a successful attack on the city.
On 17 June in Kotah - ki - Serai near the Phool Bagh of Gwalior, a squadron of the 8th (King 's Royal Irish) Hussars, under Captain Heneage, fought the large Indian force commanded by Rani Lakshmibai which was trying to leave the area. The 8th Hussars charged into the Indian force, slaughtering 5,000 Indian soldiers, including any Indian "over the age of 16 ''. They took two guns and continued the charge right through the Phool Bagh encampment. In this engagement, according to an eyewitness account, Rani Lakshmibai put on a sawar 's uniform and attacked one of the hussars; she was unhorsed and also wounded, probably by his sabre. Shortly afterwards, as she sat bleeding by the roadside, she recognised the soldier and fired at him with a pistol, whereupon he "dispatched the young lady with his carbine ''. According to another tradition Rani Lakshmibai, the Queen of Jhansi, dressed as a cavalry leader, was badly wounded; not wishing the British to capture her body, she told a hermit to burn it. After her death a few local people cremated her body.
The British captured the city of Gwalior after three days. In the British report of this battle, Hugh Rose commented that Rani Lakshmibai is "personable, clever and beautiful '' and she is "the most dangerous of all Indian leaders ''. Rose reported that she had been buried "with great ceremony under a tamarind tree under the Rock of Gwalior, where I saw her bones and ashes ''. Her tomb is in the Phool Bagh area of Gwalior. Twenty years after her death Colonel Malleson wrote in the History of the Indian Mutiny; vol. 3; London, 1878 ' Whatever her faults in British eyes may have been, her countrymen will ever remember that she was driven by ill - treatment into rebellion, and that she lived and died for her country, We can not forget her contribution for India. '
According to a memoir purporting to be by Damodar Rao he was among his mother 's troops and household at the battle of Gwalior; together with others who had survived the battle (some 60 retainers with 60 camels and 22 horses) he fled from the camp of Rao Sahib of Bithur and as the village people of Bundelkhand dared not aid them for fear of reprisals from the British they were forced to live in the forest and suffer many privations. After two years there were about 12 survivors and these together with another group of 24 they encountered sought the city of Jhalrapatan where there were yet more refugees from Jhansi. Damodar Rao surrendered himself to a British official and his memoir ends in May 1860 when he has been allowed a pension of Rs. 10,000, seven retainers only, and is in the guardianship of Munshi Dharmanarayan.
Statues of Lakshmibai are seen in many places of India, which show her and her son tied to her back. Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education in Gwalior, Laksmibai National College of Physical Education in Thiruvananthapuram, Maharani Laxmi Bai Medical College in Jhansi are named after her. Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University in Jhansi was founded in 2013. The Rani Jhansi Marine National Park is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. A women 's unit of the Indian National Army was named the Rani of Jhansi Regiment. In 1957 two postage stamps were issued to commemorate the centenary of the rebellion. The Rani of Jhansi was also depicted in a variety of colonial stereotypes in Victorian novels, which often represented her as a bloodthirsty queen responsible for the massacre of British colonials or even scandalously as a promiscuous woman in relationships with British men. These depictions had more to do with a colonial desire to denigrate the "rebel queen '' than with truth. On the other side, Indian representations in novels, poetry, and film tend towards an uncomplicated valorization of Rani Lakshmibai as an individual solely devoted to the cause of Indian independence.
A number of patriotic songs have been written about the Rani. The most famous composition about Rani Lakshmi Bai is the Hindi poem Jhansi ki Rani written by Subhadra Kumari Chauhan. An emotionally charged description of the life of Rani Lakshmibai, it is often taught in schools in India. A popular stanza from it reads:
बुंदेले हरबोलों के मुँह हमने सुनी कहानी थी,
खूब लड़ी मर्दानी वह तो झाँसी वाली रानी थी । ।
Translation: "From the bards of Bundela we have heard this story / She fought much valiantly, she was the queen of Jhansi. / ''
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who are the cast of real housewives of cheshire | The Real Housewives of Cheshire - wikipedia
The Real Housewives of Cheshire (abbreviated RHOCheshire) is a British reality television series broadcast on ITVBe. The show premiered on 12 January 2015 and is based on The Real Housewives franchise. It is produced and distributed by NBCUniversal International Networks, and Monkey Kingdom, one of Britain 's leading production companies. The Real Housewives of Cheshire chronicles the lives of several affluent housewives who reside in Cheshire, England.
The series originally focused on Ampika Pickston, Dawn Ward, Lauren Simon, Leanne Brown, Magali Gorré and Tanya Bardsley. Of the original housewives, Gorré left after the second series, while Pickston confirmed her departure shortly after the fifth. The remaining housewives joined in later seasons: Stacey Forsey and Seema Malhotra in the third, and Ester Dohnalová in the fifth. Other housewives include Missé Beqiri (series 3 - 4). Rachel Lugo and Nermina Pieters - Mekic joined the cast in the sixth.
On 22 September 2014 ITV announced the cast for Britain 's first housewives instalment The Real Housewives of Cheshire. Starring Ampika Pickston, Dawn Ward, Lauren Simon, Leanne Brown, Magali Gorré and Tanya Bardsley, the series follows the cast 's intertwining and fast lives in the rich communities of Cheshire and Greater Manchester. ITV had planned to profile the glamorous denizens of London 's Knightsbridge in the series, but ITV bosses said "their homes were n't quite big enough... '', and so Cheshire was chosen. After the success of the first series, with the premiere becoming ITVBe 's second highest rating ever programme behind The Only Way is Essex, on 27 April 2015 it was announced that a second series had been commissioned, with filming to begin in May 2015. The second series aired from 7 September 2015 to 9 November 2015, with the cast from the first series returning.
On 1 March 2016, it was announced that Magali Gorré would be departing the series, although a return in future has n't been ruled out. On 4 March 2016, ITVBe announced that Ward, Simon, Pickston, Brown and Bardsley would be returning for a third series along with three new wives, Missé Beqiri, Seema Malhotra and Stacey Forsey. The third series premiered on 4 April 2016. On 25 April 2016, it was confirmed by cast member Tanya Bardsley, that the third series would have a reunion show, a first since the show 's inception. On 19 May 2016, it was announced that Irish television presenter, Brian Dowling, would be hosting the reunion show. The reunion was filmed at Peckforton Castle in Cheshire in late May. The reunion aired on 13 June 2016, concluding the third series.
On 8 June 2016, a week before the airing of the reunion for the third series, it was announced that the show would be returning for a fourth series. It was also revealed that all the housewives from the third series would be returning. Filming for the fourth series commenced on 1 July 2016. In late August 2016, a small teaser was shown on ITVBe that revealed the fourth series would premiere on 5 September 2016. The fourth series ' reunion was filmed at Peckforton Castle in Cheshire. The reunion aired on 8 November 2016, concluding the fourth series.
On 3 January 2017, it was announced that the show had been renewed for a fifth and sixth series with both set to air in 2017. Filming for the fifth series began in late January.
On 13 February 2017, it was revealed that the fifth series would premiere on 27 March 2017. It was also announced that Missé Beqiri would not be returning as a main housewife, to take a step back to focus on her relationship, but will appear as a guest housewife. Former housewife Magali Gorré commented on the upcoming season, stating "I have heard there is a new cast member and she is more Geordie Shore than Golden Triangle. '' On 21 March 2017, Ester Dohnalová was announced to be the new housewife for the fifth series. The fifth series premiered on 27 March 2017, introducing new housewife Ester Dohnalova. On 28 April 2017, Misse Beqiri announced the fifth series would be her last. The fifth series did not have a reunion show, and instead featured host Brian Dowling visiting the housewives ' homes in a special titled ' At Home with the Real Housewives of Cheshire '.
On 9 July 2017, Lauren Simon exclusively revealed that filming for the sixth series had begun. It was exclusively announced on an ITVBe advert that two new housewives would be joining for the sixth series. On 29 July 2017, Ampika Pickston announced her departure from the series. Series 6 started on 11 September 2017, with Rachel Lugo and Nermina Pieters - Mekic joining the cast. On 13 October 2017, the reunion for the sixth series was officially announced.
In Australia, the series premiered on Arena on 24 May 2015. In the United States, the series debuted on 14 November 2015, on Bravo, the same network that initiated The Real Housewives franchise.
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2 chainz the play don't care who makes it ep | The Play Do n't Care Who Makes It - wikipedia
The Play Do n't Care Who Makes It is the fourth extended play (EP) by American rapper 2 Chainz, released on February 8, 2018, by Def Jam Recordings. The EP features guest appearances from YG and Offset. It was also produced by T - Minus, June James, Nonstop Da Hitman and Streetrunner, among others.
On February 6, 2018, 2 Chainz teased new music via social media and was on its the way.
Two days later, 2 Chainz revealed the EP 's title, tracklist and release date, which was then released on the same day.
Briana Younger of Pitchfork stated "On his reflective four - song EP, the Atlanta rapper 's hallmark frivolity and infinite swag keep it short and sweet. ''
Trent Clark of HipHopDX stated "TPDCWMI does n't manifest any all - time 2 Chainz greatest material nor will it cause any shakeups in the current industry. '' Praising the artist by stating "Such a ruminative number really sheds light on 2 Chainz 's OG status, as well as his versatility as an artist, which often gets overlooked being that he 's so adept in Pyrex poetry. ''
Credits adapted from Tidal.
Notes
Sample credits
Credits adapted from Tidal.
Performers
Technical
Production
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what are the most common jobs in puerto rico | Economy of Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
Standard & Poor 's BB+ Outlook Negative
The economy of Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and as the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum. The main drivers of its economy are manufacturing, primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals, and electronics; followed by the service industry, notably finance, insurance, real estate, and tourism. The geography of Puerto Rico and its political status are both determining factors on its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size as an island; its lack of natural resources used to produce raw materials, and, consequently, its dependence on imports; as well as its suzerainty to the United States which controls its foreign policies while exerting trading restrictions, particularly in its shipping industry.
At the macroeconomic level Puerto Rico has been experiencing an economic depression for 12 consecutive years, starting in 2006 after a series of negative cash flows and the expiration of the section 936 that applied to Puerto Rico of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. This section was critical for the economy of the island as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico and allowed its subsidiaries operating in the island to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has, however, surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade. Academically, most of Puerto Rico 's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; from its inability to become self - sufficient and self - sustainable throughout history; from its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as from its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 66 % of its gross domestic product over time.
In comparison to the different states of the United States, Puerto Rico is poorer than the poorest state of the United States, with 45 % of its population living below the poverty line. However, when compared to Latin America, Puerto Rico has the highest GDP per capita in the region, as well as being the most competitive economy among Ibero - American states, surpassing Chile and Spain. The Commonwealth has a massive bond debt that it is unable to service, $70 billion in early 2017, or $12,000 per capita, at a moment when its unemployment rate (12.4 %, Dec. 2016) is more than twice as large as the mainland 's. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals with creditors to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. More specifically, Puerto Rico has been in an unusual situation since 2016: its economy is under the supervision of a federal board that is managing finances and helping to get access again to capital markets.
The commonwealth has a modern infrastructure, a large public sector, and an institutional framework guided by the regulations of U.S. federal agencies, most of which have an active and continued presence in the island. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico 's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate.
Puerto Rico, like many other countries, has transitioned from an agricultural economy to an industrial one. Its economy is currently experiencing a transformation caused by the Information Age, albeit slowly.
Not much is known about the economic history of Puerto Rico prior to the arrival of Spaniards. The little that is known about its inhabitants, the Taíno, is that their economy was a mixture of hunting and gathering with agriculture.
The Taíno captured and ate small animals, such as mammals, earthworms, lizards, turtles, and birds. Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, poisoned, trapped in weirs, or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed with domesticated birds, and iguanas were taken from trees and other vegetation. Livestock was not practiced as there were no large animals native to Puerto Rico that could be raised in an agricultural setting in order to produce commodities such as food, fiber, or labor.
Fields for important root crops, such as the staple yuca, were prepared by heaping up mounds of soil, called conucos. This improved soil drainage and fertility as well as delaying erosion, and it allowing for longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops such as corn were raised in simple clearings created by slash and burn technique. Typically, conucos were three feet high and nine feet in circumference and were arranged in rows. The primary root crop was yuca / cassava, a woody shrub cultivated for its edible and starchy tuberous root. It was planted using a coa, a kind of hoe made completely from wood. Women processed the poisonous variety of cassava by squeezing it to extract the toxic juices. Then they would grind the roots into flour for baking bread. Batata (sweet potato) was the next most important root crop.
Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread. It was cooked and eaten off the cob. Corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the West Indies. The Taíno grew squash, beans, peppers, peanuts, and pineapples. Tobacco, calabashes (West Indian pumpkins) and cotton were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as palm nuts, guavas, and Zamia roots, were collected from the wild.
The economy of Puerto Rico was transformed drastically upon the arrivals of Spaniards in 1493 until their departure in 1898. The economy during that period was driven by slavery of the native population, the Taíno, and by slaves brought from Africa. Slaves were minimally remunerated for or forced to work in farms, mines, households, and other aspects. Agriculture was the primary mean of production, as well as livestock which was originally imported from Europe. Sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, and minor fruits were the primary cultivations which were exported to Europe and, by so, constituted the main economy for the island. Mining of gold, silver, and copper occurred as well, although not as much as in other territories during the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
In the early 20th century the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico 's economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar, displacing other cash crops such as tobacco and coffee. In 1935, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt launched the Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration, which provided agricultural development, public works, and electrification of the island.
Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great Depression because of external investment in capital - intensive industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and technology. Starting in the late 1940s a series of projects called Operation Bootstrap encouraged, using tax exemptions, the establishment of factories. Thus manufacturing replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Operation Bootstrap was based on an "industrialization - first '' campaign and modernization, focusing the Puerto Rican economy on exports, especially to the United States. As a result, Puerto Rico is now classified as a "high income country '' by the World Bank. Though initially there were large gains in employment and per capita income, recessions in the United States were magnified in the country and have repeatedly hampered Puerto Rican development.
With the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Dominican Republic -- Central America Free Trade Agreement, Puerto Rico lost a trade advantage over some Latin American countries as the right to duty - free imports to the U.S. market were expanded. Puerto Rico is also subject to the minimum wage laws of the United States, which gives lower - wage countries such as Mexico and the Dominican Republic an economic advantage in the Caribbean. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions.
Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the Continental United States, particularly New York City, in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930 -- 1940, 31,000 for 1946 -- 1950, 45,000 for 1951 -- 1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953. As of 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico.
On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1,536 public schools closed, and 95,762 people were furloughed in the first - ever partial shutdown of the government in the island 's history. On May 10, 2006, the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work. On November 15, 2006, a 5.5 % sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5 % bringing the total sales tax to 7 %.
The public debt of Puerto Rico has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008. In January 2009, Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government 's $3.3 billion deficit, including laying off 12,505 government employees. Puerto Rico 's unemployment rate was 15.9 percent in January 2010. Some analysts said they expect the government 's layoffs to propel that rate to 17 percent.
In November 2010, Gov. Fortuño proposed a tax reform plan that would be implemented in a six - year period, retroactive to January 1, 2010. The first phase, applicable to year 2010, reduces taxes to all individual taxpayers by 7 -- 15 %. By year 2016, average relief for individual taxpayers will represent a 50 % tax cut and a 30 % cut for corporate taxpayers, whose tax rate will be lowered from 41 to 30 %.
At the same time, the latest report by the President Task Force on Puerto Rico Status recognizes that the status question and the economy are intimately linked. Many participants in the forums conducted by the Task Force argued that uncertainty about status is holding Puerto Rico back in economic areas. And although there are a number of economic actions that should be taken immediately or in the short term, regardless of the ultimate outcome of the status question, identifying the most effective means of assisting the Puerto Rican economy depends on resolving the ultimate question of status. In short, the long - term economic well - being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically improved by an early decision on the status question.
During fiscal year (FY - 2012), the Consolidated Budget for the archipelago, including both direct transfers from federal programs (Social Security and Medicare benefits for workers, Veteran 's benefits, Pell Grants and student loan 's interest subsidies and miscellaneous temporary appropriations - e.g. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 grants totalling $2.6 billion -) represented more than $28.7 billion, or approximately 30 % of its GDP, while revenues surpassed $31 billion. In 2010, federal transfers amounted $16.710 billion, while the Commonwealth 's government managed funds of $10.12 billion.
As result of the recent reduction of Spain 's credit rating, Puerto Rico holds the second highest credit rating awarded by the agency to a Spanish speaking territory in the long term (BBB+, Stable).
In June 2013, a $300 million US Medicaid payment to Puerto Rico was delayed because the Puerto Rican Government had changed their nationally sponsored insurance carrier without obtaining approval from the US Health and Human Services Department. This one of several troubling economic developments, including high debt to population ratios, that have, per Forbes Magazine, caused consternation in the US municipal bond market.
Puerto Rico has been experiencing an economic depression for 12 consecutive years, starting in 2006 after a series of negative cash flows and the expiration of the section 936 that applied to Puerto Rico of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. This section was critical for the economy as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico and allowed its subsidiaries operating in the island to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. The government has also experienced 18 consecutive negative cash flows since 2000, exacerbating its fragile economic situation as the government is forced to incur into new debt in order to pay the old one.
Puerto Rico has, however, surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade. Academically, most of Puerto Rico 's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self - sufficient and self - sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 66 % of its gross domestic product throughout time.
Puerto Rico 's Economic Activity Index for FY 2005 -- 2013 evidences its depression.
Puerto Rico 's month - over-month Economic Activity Index for FY2013 evidences its sluggishness and decline.
By mid January 2017, the debt had reached $70 billion or $12,000 per capita in a territory with a 45 percent poverty rate and double digit unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals with creditors to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. In late January, the federal control board gave the Government of Puerto Rico until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood for Puerto Rico, particularly because of financial benefits that would offer. These include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited. A fifth plebiscite is due to be held on June 11, 2017. The two options at that time will be "Statehood '' and "Independence / Free Association ''. It will be the first referendum not to offer the choice of "Commonwealth ''. Regardless of the outcome, Congress will be the body to make the final decision on the status of Puerto Rico.
A review of the economic situation in May 2017 by the Official Monetary and Financial Institutions Forum, an independent think tank, led to a warning that the planned "draconian budget - tightening '' will cut up to 6 % of the island 's GNP over the next four years, leading to continuing decline. "Puerto Rico urgently needs an International Monetary Fund - style programme involving debt relief in return for a commitment to far - reaching reforms... that will facilitate growth, '' the group concluded.
The economy of Puerto Rico is mainly driven by manufacturing, primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals, and electronics; followed by the service industry, primarily finance, insurance, real estate, and tourism.
Agriculture constitutes about $808 million US $ or about 0.8 % of the island 's gross domestic product (GDP). However, Puerto Rico imports 85 % of its food even though most of the land is fertile. Only a mere 6 % is arable; a fact that poses a direct threat to Puerto Rico 's food security. This perplexing situation has been caused due to a shift in priorities towards industrialization, bureaucratization, mismanagement of terrains, lack of alternative methods, and a deficient agricultural workforce. Puerto Rico 's geographical location within the Caribbean exacerbates these issues, making the scarce existing crops vulnerable to the devastating effects of Atlantic hurricanes.
The following fruits are industrially cultivated and widely consumed:
Apples (manzanas), bananas (guineos), grapes (uvas), oranges (chinas), and watermelons (melones) are imported, as well as some of the aforementioned cultivated fruits.
Grains cultivated industrially and widely consumed include barley (cebada), maize (maíz), rice (arroz), rye (centeno), and wheat (trigo). Legumes include black beans (habichuelas negras), chickpea (garbanzo), kidney beans (habichuelas rojas), pea (pitipuá), pigeon peas (gandules), and pink beans (habichuelas rosadas). Tubers include cassava (yuca), eddoe (malanga), potatoes (papas), sweet potatoes (batata), taro (yautía), and yams (ñame).
Vegetables include asparagus (espárragos), cabbage (repollo), cauliflower (coliflor), carrots (zanahorias), chayote (chayote), cucumber (pepinillo), eggplant (berenjena), lettuce (lechuga), onions (cebolla), and peppers (ají).
Herbs include basil (orégano), bay leaves (hojas de laurel), cilantro (cilantrillo), culantro (culantro), and parsley (perejil). Spices include achiote (achiote), cinnamon (canela), cloves (clavos), garlic (ajo), ginger (jengibre), and paprika (sazón).
Recent studies have suggested there is a lack of young farmers and that 65 % of the island 's agriculture force is over 55 years of age. The decrease in new farmers will have significant negative effects on the island.
Puerto Rico does not have any coal, natural gas, nor oil reserves so it must import all its fuel in order to produce energy. The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA), a government - owned corporation, produces 70 % of all energy in Puerto Rico through several power plants dependent on fossil fuels. 58 % of PREPA 's budget goes directly to these costs. Additional indirect costs of imported fossil fuels are paid through power purchase agreements for the 30 % of the country 's energy produced through private companies dependent on fossil fuels. To meet energy demands, Puerto Rico must import oil at a rate of 8.0 billion kWh and about 1,499,196 km3 of natural gas per year (44) as well as a very large amount of coal.
Perplexingly, less than 3 % of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65 % sunny hours per day in average and 19 - knot (22 mph; 35 km / h) winds year round. The island could also generate all its energy through hydroelectric dams thanks to its local geography which features many rivers but it has opted to leave that industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue nuclear power either. Biofuel, biomass, geothermal energy, wave power and tidal power are still in its infant stages although there are some microbusinesses providing energy from those sources or performing research on the subject. The Puerto Rican government has made plans to reduce dependency on costly imported fossil fuels, but lacks funds to make more than modest progress.
As a result, Puerto Ricans pay 26 ¢ per kilowatt per hour of electricity, compared to an average of 11 to 12 cents or less in the United States. This places Puerto Rico at an enormous disadvantage when compared to other states that produce electric power at less than half of Puerto Rico 's price. Electric utility costs ultimately create a ripple effect on the economy as it adds to the cost of living and the cost of doing business. For example, 20 % of Bacardi 's expenses on the island come from electricity, while the company that owns all Wendy 's, Applebee 's, and LongHorn Steakhouse on the island has simply opted to keep the lights and air conditioning off in certain areas when employees arrive.
The water industry is administered in whole by the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA), another government - owned corporation and government monopoly which owns and manages all the water supply network in Puerto Rico. All potable water comes either from raw water (primarily rainwater, lakes, and rivers) or sewage treatment subject to regulations by the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources of Puerto Rico (DRNA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (JCA in Spanish), and the Safe Drinking Water Act. The water bottling industry is diverse with several plants on the island.
Fishery is common in all coastal towns but Puerto Rico does not have enough wild fisheries to supply the demand required to sustain a profitable fishing industry. There are no industrial fish farms on the island either. Common fish consumed by residents include cod (bacalao), mahi - mahi (pez dorado), marlin (marlín), salmon (salmón), snapper (chillo), trunkfish (chapín), and tuna (atún). Other seafood includes clams (almejas), crabs (cangrejos), lobsters (langostas), mussels (mejillones), octopi (pulpo), oysters (ostras), and squids (calamares). It is quite common for restaurants on the coast to serve fresh seafood.
Almost all wood used on the island is imported even though a study conducted more than two decades ago by the U.S. Forest Service concluded that local soil could sustain a lumber industry if the proper species were used. Regardless of this, several small sawmills do exist on the island.
Livestock used for food includes cattle, goats, pigs, and rabbits. Donkeys, horses, and mules are strictly used for labor or recreation as consumption is frowned upon culturally by locals. Cattle is used for both meat and dairy with a strong and self - sufficient local milk industry through processors such as Suiza Dairy and Tres Monjitas. Poultry includes chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and quail. The pet industry is one of the only two industries experiencing consistent significant growth on the island with dogs, cats, fishkeeping, canaries, parakeets, and parrots being quintessential in homes. Consumption of animals commonly used as pets is frowned upon culturally save for rabbits.
There are some metal deposits of copper, gold, silver, zinc, and molybdenum on the island but they are not large enough to sustain a profitable mining industry. Mismanagement of terrains and poor urban planning has made it difficult for the mining industry to thrive as well, as many deposits are directly below or nearby residential complexes. Puerto Rico also possesses industries of lime, marble, salt, cement, clay, crushed stone, dimension stone, industrial sand, gravel, and stone. The cement industry is tracked meticulously as it has shown to be highly correlated to the GDP of the island.
Manufacturing is the largest economic sector of the island; composing almost half (about 46 %) of its gross domestic product (GDP) through more than 2,000 manufacturing plants scattered throughout the island. All manufacturers in Puerto Rico are in some way interconnected with the Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (PRIDCO) which provides substantial incentives for companies that manufacture in Puerto Rico. Manufacturers are also voluntarily interconnected through the Puerto Rico Manufacturers Association which serves as their primary trade association and their main lobby group upon the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. Most manufacturing in Puerto Rico today is the product of Operation Bootstrap.
In terms of specialization, more than half of all manufacturing done in Puerto Rico is attributed to the pharmaceutical industry which generates more than 18,000 jobs, pays more than $3 billion USD in taxes, comprise about half of total exports, and has generated more than 25 % of the island 's GDP for the past four decades. Comparatively, Puerto Rico is the fifth largest area in the world for pharmaceutical manufacturing with more than 80 plants, including:
Puerto Rico is also the third - largest biotechnology manufacturer with more than two million square feet and the seventh - largest medical - device exporter with more than 50 plants. Pharmaceutical companies originally came to Puerto Rico in the late 1960s and 1970s to take advantage of the now - expired federal tax incentive known as Section 936. This incentive allowed U.S. - based manufacturers to send all profits from local plants to stateside parent plants without having to pay any federal taxes. However, expired patents, cheaper manufacturers (such as those in Brazil, China, India, and South Korea), the rise of generic drugs, and high production costs pose a challenge to the industry. As of 2014, Puerto Rico produces 16 of the top 20 - selling drugs in the mainland United States.
The aeronautical industry is relatively young on the island and concentrates mostly on the northwestern corridor composed by Aguadilla and Isabela. These municipalities serve as local headquarters for Honeywell Aerospace, Lufthansa, and Pratt & Whitney. GE Aviation, Lockheed Martin, and Raytheon also have presence on the island although their local operations do not focus on aeronautics but rather focus on business support.
Education in aeronautics is provided by the Caribbean Aviation Training Institute and the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico. The University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus (UPRM), the Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico (PUPR), and the Turabo University graduate most of the engineers on the island.
The financial sector is of great prominence, accounting for 5.75 % of Puerto Rico 's Gross National Product (GNP) in 2010. Similar to any other state of the union, Puerto Rico 's financial sector is also fully integrated into the U.S. financial system. Federal regulations govern the sector, being a constituent part of the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, responsible for implementing monetary policy enacted by members of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, D.C. throughout the United States.
The real estate industry constitutes about 14.8 % of the GDP, about 1 % of all of the employee compensation on the island and, together with finance and insurance (FIRE), about 3.7 % of all the employment on the jurisdiction.
Tourism is an important component of the Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion USD per year. In 1999, an estimated five million tourists visited the island, most from the United States. Nearly a third of these were cruise ship passengers. An increase in hotel registrations, which has been observed since 1998, and the construction of new hotels and the Puerto Rico Convention Center are indicators of the current strength of the tourism industry. In 2009, tourism accounted for nearly 7 % of the islands ' gross national product.
The following includes some public and private projects aimed at increasing the tourism industry in Puerto Rico:
As an unincorporated territory of the United States, travel and trade between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland or other U.S. territory are not subject to international border controls. However, all goods moving from Puerto Rico to the U.S. mainland are subject to agriculture inspection controls by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Travelers and goods move without restriction between Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories such as U.S. Virgin Islands. Travel and trade between Puerto Rico and territory outside U.S. jurisdiction are subject to international border controls.
Mail bound for the mainland from Puerto Rico and Hawaii is subject to USDA inspection for quarantined plant matter.
Puerto Rico may collect import duties only to the same degree it taxes the same goods produced domestically.
Puerto Rico receives cross-over subsidies, which generated approximately $371 million in 2008.
Similar to other states of the union, Puerto Rico is subject to trade agreements signed by the United States. As an unincorporated territory, the commonwealth is restricted from joining international organizations without the consent of the United States due to its current political status. However, due to its geographical and cultural nature, the U.S. Department of State allows Puerto Rico to be an observer in most international organizations to which it would potentially belong to if Puerto Rico were a sovereign state.
Entrepreneurship and research & development (R&D) is relatively young on the island but has become increasingly important for its economy due to its downturn. Companies like Neolpharma and Rock Solid Technologies possess significant R&D operations on the island. Regarding entrepreneurship, several organizations have presence on the island as well, such as the Founder Institute, the Small Business Administration, SCORE, and Startup Weekend. Most entrepreneurial activities are driven by regional organizations that join academia, local government, and private businesses such as DISUR, INTECO, INTENE, and INTENOR. Other initiatives such as the Puerto Rico Technoeconomic Corridor, the Puerto Rico Science, Technology and Research Trust, and the Puerto Rico Small Business Technology and Development Center provide significant support to entrepreneurship and R&D on the island.
Major management consulting firms have presence in the island including Accenture, the Boston Consulting Group, Booz Allen Hamilton, Deloitte, McKinsey & Company, and PricewaterhouseCoopers.
Puerto Rico has a modern infrastructure and an institutional framework guided by the regulations of U.S. federal agencies, most of which have an active and continued presence in the island. For most intents and purposes Puerto Rico is treated as if it were a state of the United States, albeit not being one. Virtually all federal laws apply on the island, save a few exceptions, including a strong and robust protection for intellectual property and contracts.
Preschool education, care, and services (including Early Head Start and Head Start) are free for low income families with private daycares being common and within walking distance in urban areas. Primary and secondary education is compulsory and free regardless of income through more than 1,400 public schools. Only ten public schools are considered prestigious locally, all of them being magnet schools, which graduate the highest scores on the island of the College Board 's PEAU (Latin America 's equivalent of the SAT). Two examples of these are CIMATEC and CROEM which focus on science, technology, and mathematics. There are more than 700 private schools on the island, most of them Catholic. It is constitutionally illegal to deny entrance or take action against students that profess a difference faith than the school they attend or intend to attend. Students from differing denominations are legally freed from attending religious activities on the schools they attend. Prominent private schools include Academia del Perpetuo Socorro, Academia Maria Reina, Academia San Jorge, Colegio Marista Guaynabo, Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola, and Colegio San José which maintain a high rate of students being accepted into prominent universities in the United States.
There is a plethora of junior colleges on the island, the most prominent being the Huertas College, the ICPR Junior College, the Instituto de Banca y Comercio, and the National University College (NUC). There is only one state - run system, the Puerto Rico Technological Institute, which possesses several prestigious programs at the local level and whose costs are significantly below market prices. Thanks to this abundance of junior colleges -- and the presence of other institutions of higher education -- the percentage of Puerto Ricans with bachelor 's degrees, at 18.3 % according to the 2000 Census, is roughly comparable to the lower tier of American states.
Not a single college and university in Puerto Rico ranks in the top 700 global rankings, with only the state university, the University of Puerto Rico (UPR), appearing on the ranks. Several schools and programs appear on different rankings but not a single one of these is considered a prestigious ranking system neither nationally nor internationally. The three major university systems on the island are the University of Puerto Rico itself with 11 campuses, the Ana G. Méndez University System (SUAGM) with 3 major campuses and some satellites, and the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico (Inter) with 9 campuses and 2 specialized schools.
The prestige and eliteness of the University of Puerto Rico within the Caribbean and Puerto Rico is unparalleled:
The system, however, is highly politicized with its board of trustees, chancellor, rectors, deans, and program directors changing whenever a political party gains power (about every 4 or 8 years) as the university is a government - owned corporation. Its flagship campus is also prone to student strikes, averaging about one strike every three years that halts the whole campus, with the system as a whole averaging about one strike every five years that halts the whole system. Most strikes derive from the extremely cheap costs per credit the institution offers: $55 USD per undergraduate credit and $117 per graduate credit. It is highly unlikely that a student graduates with college debt as a full Pell Grant covers most costs for low income students, and those that do n't receive a full Pell Grant or a Pell Grant at all can easily cover tuition costs. This economic accessibility comes at a price for the residents of Puerto Rico however: 9.6 % of the General Budget of the Government of Puerto Rico is automatically assigned to the university by law. As the economy shrunk so did the university 's endowment, suffocating an already highly indebted university incapable of generating enough revenue to maintain itself. Because of this, the board of trustees increased tuition costs, which led to strikes. Other strikes were caused by the mere mention of lowering the aforementioned percentage automatically assigned to the university even though no bill has ever been filed for such purpose.
In terms of specialized schools and programs, not a single school and program in Puerto Rico is ranked in a prestigious system. The University of Puerto Rico possesses the largest academic offer with 472 academic programs of which 32 lead to a doctorate. UPR is also the only system with a business school, an engineering school, a law school, a nursing school, a school of architecture, and a school of medicine. Almost all its schools and programs rank first on the island although competition has increased in the last decades with private universities gaining track at a fast pace. The Ana G. Méndez System, the Interamerican University, and the University of the Sacred Heart possess a business school with the University of Sacred Heart leading in non-profit management and social enterprise, as well as in communications. The Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico and the Turabo University both have engineering schools with the Polytechnic University leading in computer security and offering the only master 's degree in computer science on the island. Ranking regarding law schools is subjective with the University of Puerto Rico School of Law, the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico School of Law, and the Eugenio María de Hostos School of Law considered the best although UPR still leads in constitutional law. In terms of medicine the University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine and the University of Puerto Rico School of Dental Medicine are simply unmatched, with the Interamerican University School of Optometry being the only school of optometry on the island. The Carlos Albizu University leads in psychology while the Metropolitan University leads in environmental management although UPR leads by far in environmental science. In terms of arts, the Atlantic University College leads in digital arts by far, while the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico and the Escuela de Artes Plásticas y Diseño de Puerto Rico are considered the most prestigious in music and arts respectively; both by far. The only school of international relations was created in November 2013 under the name of Morales Carrión Diplomatic and Foreign Relations School, ascribed to the Department of State of Puerto Rico and still in development. There are no veterinary schools on the island with most veterinarians studying abroad at the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic.
Almost all junior colleges, colleges, universities, and schools are accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. Specific programs tend to possess their respective accreditation as well (such as ABET, AACSB, LCME, and so on) although it is not uncommon for programs to not possess its expected accreditation -- for example, only two business schools are accredited by AACSB.
The healthcare system in Puerto Rico is quite robust and advanced thanks to the regulations of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services which has jurisdiction over the island, and the local Department of Health of Puerto Rico. Medical offices within walking distance are common in urban areas as well as walk - in clinics, urgent care, emergency rooms, and hospitals. There are specialized hospitals for cardiovascular diseases, cancer treatment, children (pediatrics), psychiatric care, and veterans. Every medical specialty is covered in the island thanks to the different medical schools on the island, including the University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, the Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine (UCCSoM), the Ponce School of Medicine, and the San Juan Bautista School of Medicine.
Veterinary healthcare is provided by private veterinarians, clinics, and animal hospitals which are common and scattered all over the island.
The United States Postal Service has at least one postal office in each municipality in Puerto Rico with the island using zip codes as its postal code system. DHL, FedEx, and UPS have well established operations on the island.
Shipping cargo is expensive as Puerto Rico is restricted on using the United States Merchant Marine when shipping from and to the United States due to the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (the Jones Act). Cargo costs can quadruple when shipping to or from Puerto Rico due to this restriction.
Local security is overseen by the Puerto Rico Commission on Safety and Public Protection and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security which has jurisdiction over the island. Law enforcement is carried out by the Puerto Rico Police, the local state police force which has many stations scattered throughout all municipalities. Municipal laws are enforced by each respective Puerto Rico municipal police. The legal system is a mix of the civil law and the common law systems. Disputes under local jurisdiction are carried out by a system of municipal courts, district courts, and appellate courts with the highest state court and the court of last resort being the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico.
U.S. federal laws apply in Puerto Rico as the island is a territory of the United States. Issues that trespass into federal jurisdiction are managed by the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), the United States Marshals Service (USMS), the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), and other federal agencies. Disputes that trespass the local jurisdiction are managed by the federal court system with the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico being the first in line.
Fire protection, rescue, and protection from hazards is provided by the Puerto Rico Firefighters Corps which has at least one fire station in each municipality on the island. A separate agency, the Puerto Rico Medical Emergencies Corps, provides emergency medical services to all Puerto Rico. The island is also part of the 9 - 1 - 1 system. All local emergencies and disasters are managed and overseen by the Puerto Rico State Agency for Emergency and Disaster Management (AEMEAD) which works closely and directly with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Puerto Rico also has a local National Weather Service station which provides forecasts and public warnings, as well as a local Puerto Rico Seismic Network which tracks seismic activity and provides public warnings.
The local national guard is the Puerto Rico National Guard which has a branch for ground forces, the Puerto Rico Army National Guard, and another for aerial warfare, the Puerto Rico Air National Guard. The state defense force is the Puerto Rico State Guard under the sole jurisdiction of the governor. Both the Puerto Rico National Guard and the Puerto Rico State Guard are considered two of the most active and well - prepared local forces in the nation. Nine servicemen have been bestowed with the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration of the United States, with Puerto Ricans having served in every U.S. military conflict since World War I, including the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War.
Key posts include the Puerto Rico Police Superintendent, the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, the Secretary of Justice of Puerto Rico, and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico.
Telecommunications is quite robust on the island, thanks to the regulations of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) which has jurisdiction over the island, and the local Puerto Rico Telecommunications Regulatory Board (JRT in Spanish). Broadcasts are transmitted through radio and television stations, as well as the Internet. Uno Radio Group and the Spanish Broadcasting System are two of the most prominent radio operators on the island. Telemundo, Univision, and WAPA America transmit television from the island through WKAQ - TV, WLII - TV, and WAPA - TV respectively.
Several communications service providers offer triple play (Internet + television + telephony) on the island with Claro Puerto Rico, Choice Cable TV, and Liberty Media being the most prominent. Most downtime is caused by power failures in the electric grid rather than in telecommunications networks with outages being rare and fixed within hours. High speed internet access and mobile telephony is ubiquitous with providers such as AT&T, Open Mobile, Sprint, and T - Mobile being the most prominent. Chains like Burger King, Church 's Chicken, McDonald 's, and Starbucks provide free WiFi at their numerous locals.
Submarine communications cables landing in Puerto Rico include ARCOS - 1, Americas II, and ANTILLAS I.
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police. The island 's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a rapid transit system. Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico 's archipelago) as well as share taxis.
The island has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport (SJU) in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla. Puerto Rico is also served by another 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean, and one of the largest in the world in terms of passenger and cargo movement.
Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty - foot containers (TEUs) per year.
Puerto Rico does not have any comparative advantages in international markets but has a few at the U.S. national level. Its high costs of doing business are the primary factor, amongst many, that hinder the island from competing against foreign markets. These costs are typically offset by a combination of incentives or subsidies where the government either does not collect taxes against the foreign firm, assumes capital expenditures, subsidizes workers salaries and trainings, or, more often than not, offers a combination thereof. This is the case for Lufthansa 's operations in Aguadilla where the local government invested $46 million USD against $20 million invested by the company, aiming at recouping the investment in the long run.
Domestically, however, several comparative advantages emerge when comparing Puerto Rico to other U.S. jurisdictions. These advantages base themselves on lower wages and beneficial legal loopholes that exist as a result of Puerto Rico 's political status. For example, a company like Microsoft may create a subsidiary based in Puerto Rico in order to transfer its intellectual property to it, so that it can benefit from transfer pricing loopholes thereafter. Since the subsidiary is based in Puerto Rico, the company lawfully uses a loophole that allows it to undervalue the transferred intellectual property through the use of cost - sharing agreements, and by taking advantage of the revenue exceptions within the U.S. legal framework that apply exclusively to Puerto Rico.
This lack of advantages pervades the economy of the island extensively. As the territory is unable to compete against foreign markets, multinational corporations choose to close operations on the island and open them elsewhere. All while domestic businesses struggle to export their products and services when competing against external firms that offer lower prices. The same scenario occurs against other U.S. jurisdictions capable of producing goods and services at lesser costs.
Puerto Rico does not have a local coin, using instead the United States dollar as its local and only currency. Because of this, Puerto Rico does not control its money supply nor its interest rates, being subject instead to the monetary policy of the United States particularly to the operations performed by the Federal Reserve System. Puerto Rico, however, has a representative in the Federal Reserve Bank of New York through a local businessman by the name of Richard Carrión, Chairman and CEO of Popular, Inc., who has served as member of the board for the reserve bank several times.
The public debt of Puerto Rico has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008. In January 2009, Governor Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government 's $3.3 billion deficit.
Since 2000, the government of Puerto Rico has experienced 18 consecutive negative cash flows which has contributed to the enlargement of its public debt, as the government incurs in new debt in order to pay the older one.
On February 4, 2014 Standard & Poor 's downgraded the debt of Puerto Rico to junk status. Puerto Rico has roughly $70 billon outstanding debt for a population of four million inhabitants. Despite its small population it is the third issuer of municipal bonds in all 50 states and territories. First being California, second New York.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding debt of $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 14.2 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. Newly elected governor Ricardo Rosselló discussed the situation in an interview with the international Financial Times in mid January and indicated that he would seek an amicable resolution with creditors and also make fiscal reforms. "There will be real fiscal oversight and we are willing to sit down. We are taking steps to make bold reforms... What we are asking for is runway to establish these reforms and have Washington recognise that they have a role to play. '' He had instructed Puerto Rican government agencies to cut operating expenses by 10 per cent and reduce political appointees by 20 percent. To ensure that funds would be available to pay for "essential '' government services, Rosselló signed a fiscal emergency law on January 28, 2017 that would allow for setting aside funds that might otherwise be required for debt payments.
In mid January, the cash strapped government was having difficulty maintaining health care funding. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. '' In late January, the federal control board created under PROMESA gave the government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors) to solve the problems. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31.
Governor Rosselló hired investment expert Rothschild & Co in January 2017 to assist in convincing creditors to take deeper losses than they had expected on Puerto Rico 's debts. The company was also exploring the possibility of convincing insurers that had guaranteed some of the bonds against default, to contribute more to the restructuring, according to reliable sources. The governor also planned to negotiate restructuring of about $9 billion of electric utility debt, a plan that could result "in a showdown with insurers ''. Political observers suggest that his negotiation of the electrical utility debt indicated Rosselló 's intention to take a harder line with creditors. Puerto Rico has received authority from the federal government to reduce its debt with legal action and this may make creditors more willing to negotiate instead of becoming embroiled in a long and costly legal battle.
Taxation is highly complex due to a lack of uniformity in the local internal revenue code and a disparate amount of incentives, subsidies, tax exemptions, tax breaks, and tax deductions... For example, an ordinary retail sale might have to pay: import taxes, sales taxes, property taxes, corporate net income taxes, national taxes, excise taxes, and sin taxes depending on the item being sold. Regardless of all this, American citizens that reside in Puerto Rico do not pay federal income taxes unless they work for the federal government, do business with the federal government, or send funds to the United States. This peculiarity has been taken as an advantage by the local government which now offers a plethora of tax exemptions and tax benefits for high - net - worth individuals that relocate to the island. These benefits have been ratified into law through Act 20 of 2012, Act 22 of 2012, and Act 273 of 2012. Thanks to these acts, business owners residing on the island might be completely exempt from paying any local and federal taxes at all, depending on their line of business.
On November 15, 2006, the government implemented a 5.5 % sales tax. An optional 1 - 1.5 % municipal tax had been in effect since May 2006. On July 1, 2015, the government raised the sales tax from 7 % to 11.5 %.
More than 99 % of all businesses in Puerto Rico are considered small businesses (less than 250 employees) with more than 74 % being micro-enterprises (less than 10 employees). However, in terms of payroll, small businesses constitute about 61 % of all payroll on the island with about 13 % of all payroll coming from medium businesses (between 250 -- 499 employees) and about 25 % coming from large enterprises (more than 500 employees).
Only 7.5 % of the corporations registered in the Department of State of Puerto Rico -- or about 6,000 out of 80,000 -- exceed $3 M in revenue. Of these 6,000, a mere six compose more than 30 % of all of Puerto Rico 's corporate income tax collections; all six being multinationals.
The cost of living in Puerto Rico, specifically San Juan, is quite high compared to most major cities in the United States. One factor is housing prices which are comparable to Miami and Los Angeles, although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States. Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States ''. While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories.
The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from $100,000 USD to $214,000 USD, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.
Puerto Rico is considered the 40th economy out of 189 in rank of ease of doing business by the World Bank; surpassed only by Chile in Latin America. It ranks very poorly in construction permits but very well in getting credit and protecting investors.
Puerto Ricans had median household income of $18,314 for 2009, which makes Puerto Rico 's economy comparable to the independent nations of Latvia or Poland. By comparison, the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi, had median household income of $36,646 in 2009. Nevertheless, Puerto Rico 's GDP per capita compares favorably to other independent Caribbean nations, and is one of the highest in North America. See List of North American countries by GDP per capita
Puerto Rico has a GDP per capita of $16,300 (2010 est.). Compared to the rest of the world they are ranked 73rd. Puerto Rico 's GDP per capita has been declining in recent years ($18,100 (2008 est.), and $17,400 (2009 est.)). According to statistics from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), its GDP per capita is the 10th highest in the Caribbean, behind the Bahamas ($30,400), Aruba ($25,300) Barbados ($25,000), Trinidad and Tobago ($20,000), Antigua & Barbuda ($17,800) and British dependencies Cayman Islands ($43,800), British Virgin Islands ($42,300) and Turks & Caicos ($29,100).
In terms of personal income, federal transfer payments to Puerto Rico make up more than 20 % of the island 's personal income. By comparison, the poorest state, Mississippi, had a median level of $21,587, according to the U.S. Census Bureau 's Current Population Survey, 2002 to 2004 Annual Social and Economic Supplements. Since 1952, the gap between Puerto Rico 's per capita income and the national level has changed substantially -- from one third the U.S. national average and roughly half that of the poorest state in 1952, to 10 % less than the poorest state in 2007.
In 2010 the median income in Puerto Rico was $19,370, which is just over half that of the poorest state (Mississippi, $37,838) and 37 % of the nationwide average ($51,144). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the Department of Labor of the United States, the mean annual salary of residents of Puerto Rico is $27,190, the lowest among U.S. territories continuously surveyed periodically by this institution. Guam has the second lowest mean salary to $31,840, closely followed Mississippi, a state, with $34,770. This spread in mean wages could be explained by a minimum wage law for certain industries that are capped to 70 % of the federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour.
Puerto Rico 's most competitive advantage lies on its labor force: a highly competitive, educated, and skilled labor force that enjoys American citizenship. This allows U.S. - based companies to relocate some of its operations to the island for cheaper labor costs while still maintaining a labor force subject to the rights and benefits given by American citizenship and federal regulations. Educated workers tend to be bilingual as well while costing 30 -- 35 % less than a worker in the mainland.
One of the most significant contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (also known as the Jones Act) which prevents foreign - flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports (a practice known as cabotage). Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa can not stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico - bound goods, load mainland - bound Puerto Rico - manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico - bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S. - flagged ships.
Puerto Rican consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods again across the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea on U.S. - flagged ships subject to the extremely high operating costs imposed by the Jones Act. This also makes Puerto Rico less competitive with Caribbean ports as a shopping destination for tourists from home countries with much higher taxes (like mainland states) even though prices for non-American manufactured goods in theory should be cheaper since Puerto Rico is much closer to Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa.
The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success. The most recent measure has been taken by the 17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico through R. Conc. del S. 21. These measures have always received support from all the major local political parties. In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs '' and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S. - flag competition could lower costs. '' The report, however, concluded that the effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the United States.
The costs of doing business in Puerto Rico are further increased by complex labor laws that force employers to pay for several employee benefits from their own pockets. Puerto Rico also lacks at - will employment which puts significant restraints on employers when they want to dismiss an employee.
Residents of Puerto Rico are also subject to a highly complex tax system with many different exemptions and disparities between taxes.
The political class has proven to be highly stubborn when examining existent public policies. This stubbornness ultimately forced Puerto Rico to incur in higher opportunity costs. For example, even though the island 's geography features many rivers, the government has opted to leave the hydroelectric industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue nuclear power either. Instead, even though Puerto Rico does not have any oil - based resources, it has opted to power its electric plants with fossil fuels: less than 3 % of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65 % sunny hours per day in average and 19 - knot (22 mph; 35 km / h) winds year round. This forces PREPA, the government - owned corporation and government monopoly that owns and manages all electric power distribution and transmission, to spend 58 % of its operational expenses in fuel purchases alone.
In terms of food production, Puerto Rico imports 85 % of its food even though most of the land is fertile with only a mere 6 % being arable. This perplexing situation has been caused due to a shift in priorities towards industrialization, bureaucratization, mismanagement of land, lack of alternative methods, and a deficiency in the number of agricultural workforce.
Similarly, when looking at forestry, even though a study conducted more than two decades ago by the U.S. Forest Service concluded that local soil could sustain a lumber industry if the proper species were used, almost all wood used on the island is imported.
Higher education suffers the same fate: Puerto Rico spends almost $800 M per year on its state university even though none of its programs and schools appear in any prestigious ranking whatsoever. In addition, the system graduates about 50,000 students per year even though the labor market generates only about 6,000 jobs per year of which 25 % of them require a college education. This effectively means that the Puerto Rican labor market has no demand for 97 % of those who graduate with an undergraduate or graduate degree in Puerto Rico.
The same occurs in primary education and secondary education: Puerto Rico spends almost $4 billion per year in its public education system even though 40 % of all the students that enter tenth grade in public schools in Puerto Rico drop out and never finish secondary education. In addition, ninety - five percent (95 %) of public school students in Puerto Rico graduate at a sub-basic level while sixty percent (60 %) do not even graduate. Furthermore, according to the Department of Education of Puerto Rico, thirty - nine percent (39 %) of public school students perform at a basic level (average performance) in Spanish in the Puerto Rican Tests of Academic Achievement. Likewise, 36 % perform at a basic level in Mathematics while 35 % perform at a basic level in English and 43 % at a basic level in Science in the relevant tests. Overall, 1,321 out of 1,466 public schools in Puerto Rico (about 90 %) do not comply with the academic progress requirements established by the No Child Left Behind Act.
The local government has also proven to be highly inefficient in terms of management and planning; with some newspapers, such as El Vocero, stating that the main problem is inefficiency rather than lack of funds. As an example, the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico is incapable of collecting 44 % of the Puerto Rico Sales and Use Tax (or about $900 million USD), did not match what taxpayers reported to the department with the income reported by the taxpayer 's employer through Form W - 2 's, and did not collect payments owned to the department by taxpayers that submitted tax returns without their corresponding payments. The Treasury department also tends to publish its comprehensive annual financial report (CAFR) late, sometimes 15 months after a fiscal year ends, while the government as a whole constantly fails to comply with its continuing disclosure obligations on a timely basis. Furthermore, the government 's accounting, payroll and fiscal oversight information systems and processes also have deficiencies that significantly affect its ability to forecast expenditures.
Similarly, salaries for government employees tend to be quite disparate when compared to the private sector and other positions within the government itself. For example, a public teacher 's base salary starts at $24,000 while a legislative advisor starts at $74,000. The government has also been unable to set up a system based on meritocracy, with many employees, particularly executives and administrators, simply lacking the competencies required to perform their jobs.
There was a similar situation at the municipal level with 36 out of 78 municipalities experiencing a budget deficit, putting 46 % of the municipalities in financial stress. Just like the central government, the municipalities would issue debt through the Puerto Rico Municipal Financing Agency to stabilize its finances rather than make adjustments. In total, the combined debt carried by the municipalities of Puerto Rico account for $3.8 billion USD or about 5.5 % of Puerto Rico 's outstanding debt.
From 2000 to 2010, the population of Puerto Rico decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico; it went from 3,808,610 residents registered in 2000 to 3,725,789 in 2010 (a − 2.2 % decrease); it peaked at 3.91 million in 2005. A declining and aging population presents additional problems for any society as its labor force decreases and, consequently, so does its economic output. Two years later, another estimate noted that the population of Puerto Rico decreased further to 3,667,084 residents from April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012; a − 1.6 % decrease.
Emigration is also major part of Puerto Rico 's declining population. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfare, and promotion by the local government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico 's economy improved and its birth rate declined. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1 % in 2012 and an additional 1 % (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.
The US Census Bureau 's estimate for July 1, 2016 was 3,411,307 people, down substantially from the 2010 data which had indicated 3,725,789 people. As fewer people reside in Puerto Rico, the government collects less revenue from its residents. As revenues were declining in the past, the government opted to issue more outstanding debt (such as bonds) to maintain its operations rather than making adjustments. Hence, it 's clear that the declining - and aging - population continues to present problems for the Commonwealth.
Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the Constitution of the United States and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing most of the opportunities and limitations that state governments have, albeit not being one. Puerto Rico is also subject to the different treaties and trade agreements ratified by the United States, as well as all other laws enacted at the federal level.
Unemployment is a significant issue in Puerto Rico with the unemployment rate being as high as 11.7 % in 2006. By November 2009, it stood at 12 % and had increased to 15.7 % by October 2010. Currently the unemployment rate is at 13.7 % The U.S. state with the highest unemployment in October 2007 was Michigan, at 7.7 %, and the U.S. average was 4.4 %.
In mid January 2017, unemployment remained in the double digits and the poverty rate was at 45 percent. By that time, the Commonwealth 's debt had increased to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA.
Puerto Rico 's labor force from 2005 to 2014 evidences a decline.
Puerto Rico 's unemployment rate (seasonally adjusted) is significantly higher than the U.S. national average.
Percent population living below poverty level in Puerto Rico by census tract in 2015.
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who made the first english translation of the bible and when | Bible translations into English - wikipedia
Partial Bible translations into languages of the English people can be traced back to the late 7th century, including translations into Old and Middle English. More than 450 translations into English have been written.
The New Revised Standard Version is the version most commonly preferred by biblical scholars. In the United States, 55 % of survey respondents who read the Bible reported using the King James Version in 2014, followed by 19 % for the New International Version, with other versions used by fewer than 10 %.
Although John Wycliffe is often credited with the first translation of the Bible into English, there were in fact many translations of large parts of the Bible centuries before Wycliffe 's work. The English Bible was first translated from the Latin Vulgate into Old English by a few select monks and scholars. Such translations were generally in the form of prose or as interlinear glosses (literal translations above the Latin words).
Very few complete translations existed during that time. Most of the books of the Bible existed separately and were read as individual texts. Thus the sense of the Bible as history that often exists today did not exist at that time. Instead, an allegorical rendering of the Bible was more common and translations of the Bible often included the writer 's own commentary on passages in addition to the literal translation.
Toward the end of the 7th century, the Venerable Bede began a translation of scripture into Old English (often incorrectly called Anglo - Saxon). Aldhelm (c. 639 -- 709) translated the complete Book of Psalms and large portions of other scriptures into Old English.
In the 10th century an Old English translation of the Gospels was made in the Lindisfarne Gospels: a word - for - word gloss inserted between the lines of the Latin text by Aldred, Provost of Chester - le - Street. This is the oldest extant translation of the Gospels into the English language.
The Wessex Gospels (also known as the West - Saxon Gospels) are a full translation of the four gospels into a West Saxon dialect of Old English. Produced in approximately 990, they are the first translation of all four gospels into English without the Latin text.
In the 11th century, Abbot Ælfric translated much of the Old Testament into Old English. The Old English Hexateuch is an illuminated manuscript of the first six books of the Old Testament without lavish illustrations and including a translation of the Book of Judges in addition to the 5 books of the Pentateuch.
The Ormulum is in Middle English of the 12th century. Like its Old English precursor from Ælfric, an Abbot of Eynsham, it includes very little Biblical text, and focuses more on personal commentary. This style was adopted by many of the original English translators. For example, the story of the Wedding at Cana is almost 800 lines long, but fewer than 40 lines are the actual translation of the text. An unusual characteristic is that the translation mimics Latin verse, and so is similar to the better known and appreciated 14th - century English poem, Cursor Mundi.
Richard Rolle (1290 -- 1349) wrote an English Psalter. Many religious works are attributed to Rolle, but it has been questioned how many are genuinely from his hand. Many of his works were concerned with personal devotion, and some were used by the Lollards.
The 14th century theologian John Wycliffe is credited with translating what is now known as Wycliffe 's Bible, though it is not clear how much of the translation he himself did. This translation came out in two different versions. The earlier text is characterised by a strong adherence to the word order of Latin, and might have been difficult for the layperson to comprehend. The later text made more concessions to the native grammar of English.
Early Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. This, the first major period of Bible translation into the English language, began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible. The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526. Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament (NT) and Old Testament (OT) in addition to Jerome 's Latin translation. He was the first translator to use the printing press -- this enabled the distribution of several thousand copies of his New Testament translation throughout England. Tyndale did not complete his Old Testament translation.
The first printed English translation of the whole bible was produced by Miles Coverdale in 1535, using Tyndale 's work together with his own translations from the Latin Vulgate or German text. After much scholarly debate it is concluded that this was printed in Antwerp and the colophon gives the date as 4th October 1535. This first edition was adapted by Coverdale for his first "authorised version '', known as the Great Bible, of 1539. Other early printed versions were the Geneva Bible (1560), notable for being the first Bible divided into verses; the Bishop 's Bible (1568), which was an attempt by Elizabeth I to create a new authorised version; and the Authorized King James Version of 1611.
The first complete Roman Catholic Bible in English was the Douay -- Rheims Bible, of which the New Testament portion was published in Rheims in 1582 and the Old Testament somewhat later in Douay in Gallicant Flanders. The Old Testament was completed by the time the New Testament was published, but due to extenuating circumstances and financial issues was not published until nearly three decades later, in two editions, the first released in 1609, and the rest of the OT in 1610. In this version, the seven deuterocanonical books are mingled with the other books, rather than kept separate in an appendix.
While early English Bibles were generally based on a small number of Greek texts, or on Latin translations, modern English translations of the Bible are based on a wider variety of manuscripts in the original languages (Greek and Hebrew). The translators put much scholarly effort into cross-checking the various sources such as the Septuagint, Textus Receptus, and Masoretic Text. Relatively recent discoveries such as the Dead Sea scrolls provide additional reference information. There is some controversy over which texts should be used as a basis for translation, as some of the alternate sources do not include phrases (or sometimes entire verses) which are found only in the Textus Receptus.
Some say the alternate sources were poorly representative of the texts used in their time, whereas others claim the Textus Receptus includes passages that were added to the alternate texts improperly. These controversial passages are not the basis for disputed issues of doctrine, but tend to be additional stories or snippets of phrases. Many modern English translations, such as the New International Version, contain limited text notes indicating where differences occur in original sources.
A somewhat greater number of textual differences are noted in the New King James Bible, indicating hundreds of New Testament differences between the Nestle - Aland, the Textus Receptus, and the Hodges edition of the Majority Text. The differences in the Old Testament are less well documented, but do contain some references to differences between consonantal interpretations in the Masoretic Text, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Septuagint. Even with these hundreds of differences, however, a more complete listing is beyond the scope of most single volume Bibles (see Critical Translations below).
Modern translations take different approaches to the rendering of the original languages of approaches. The approaches can usually be considered to be somewhere on a scale between the two extremes:
Some translations have been motivated by a strong theological distinctive, such as the conviction that God 's name be preserved in a Semitic form, seen in Sacred Name Bibles. The Purified Translation of the Bible promotes the idea that Jesus and early Christians did not drink wine, but grape juice. The Jehovah 's Witnesses ' New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures renders the tetragrammaton as Jehovah throughout the Old Testament; it also uses the form Jehovah in the New Testament, including but not limited to passages quoting the Old Testament, even though it does not appear in the Greek text.
Outline of Bible - related topics
While most translations are made by committees of scholars in order to avoid bias or idiosyncrasy, translations are sometimes made by individuals. The translation of J.B. Phillips (1958), The Bible in Living English (1972) by Stephen T. Byington, J.N. Darby 's Darby Bible (1890), Heinz Cassirer 's translation (1989), R.A. Knox (1950), Gerrit Verkuyl 's Berkeley Version (1959), The Complete Jewish Bible (1998) by Dr. David H. Stern, Robert Young 's Literal Translation (1862), Jay P. Green 's Literal Translation (1985), The Emphatic Diaglott by Benjamin Wilson (1864), Noah Webster 's Bible Translation (1833), The Original Aramaic Bible in Plain English (2010) by David Bauscher, American King James Version (1999) by Michael Engelbrite, The Living Bible (1971) by Kenneth N. Taylor, The Modern Reader 's Bible (1914) by Richard Moulton, The Five Pauline Epistles, A New Translation (1900) by William Gunion Rutherford, Joseph Bryant Rotherham 's Emphasized Bible (1902), Professor S.H. Hooke 's The Bible in Basic English (1949), The Holy Name Bible containing the Holy Name Version of the Old and New Testaments (1963) by Angelo Traina, and Eugene H. Peterson 's The Message (2002) are largely the work of individual translators. Others, such as Robert Alter, N.T. Wright and Dele Ikeorha have translated portions of the Bible.
Most translations make the translators ' best attempt at a single rendering of the original, relying on footnotes where there might be alternative translations or textual variants. An alternative is taken by the Amplified Bible. In cases where a word or phrase admits of more than one meaning the Amplified Bible presents all the possible interpretations, allowing the reader to choose one. For example, the first two verses of the Amplified Bible read:
In the beginning God (Elohim) created (by forming from nothing) the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and void or a waste and emptiness, and darkness was upon the face of the deep (primeval ocean that covered the unformed earth). The Spirit of God was moving (hovering, brooding) over the face of the waters.
While most translations attempt to synthesize the various texts in the original languages, some translations also translate one specific textual source, generally for scholarly reasons. A single volume example for the Old Testament is The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible (ISBN 0 - 06 - 060064 - 0) by Martin Abegg, Peter Flint and Eugene Ulrich.
The Comprehensive New Testament (ISBN 978 - 0 - 9778737 - 1 - 5) by T.E. Clontz and J. Clontz presents a scholarly view of the New Testament text by conforming to the Nestle - Aland 27th edition and extensively annotating the translation to fully explain different textual sources and possible alternative translations.
A Comparative Psalter (ISBN 0 - 19 - 529760 - 1) edited by John Kohlenberger presents a comparative diglot translation of the Psalms of the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, using the Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation of the Septuagint.
R.A. Knox 's Translation of the Vulgate into English is another example of a single source translation.
Jewish English Bible translations are modern English Bible translations that include the books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) according to the masoretic text, and according to the traditional division and order of Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim.
Jewish translations often also reflect traditional Jewish interpretations of the Bible, as opposed to the Christian understanding that is often reflected in non-Jewish translations. For example, Jewish translations translate עלמה ' almâh in Isaiah 7: 14 as young woman, while many Christian translations render the word as virgin.
While modern biblical scholarship is similar for both Christians and Jews, there are distinctive features of Jewish translations, even those created by academic scholars. These include the avoidance of Christological interpretations, adherence to the Masoretic Text (at least in the main body of the text, as in the new Jewish Publication Society (JPS) translation) and greater use of classical Jewish exegesis. Some translations prefer names transliterated from the Hebrew, though the majority of Jewish translations use the Anglicized forms of biblical names.
The first English Jewish translation of the Bible into English was by Isaac Leeser in the 19th century.
The JPS produced two of the most popular Jewish translations, namely the JPS The Holy Scriptures of 1917 and the NJPS Tanakh (first printed in a single volume in 1985, second edition in 1999).
Since the 1980s there have been multiple efforts among Orthodox publishers to produce translations that are not only Jewish, but also adhere to Orthodox norms. Among these are The Living Torah and Nach by Aryeh Kaplan and others, the Torah and other portions in an ongoing project by Everett Fox, and the ArtScroll Tanakh.
The evangelical Christian Booksellers Association lists the most popular versions of the Bible sold by their members in the United States. Through 29 December 2012, the top 5 best selling translations (based on both dollar and unit sales) are as follows:
Sales are affected by denomination and religious affiliation. For example, the most popular Jewish version would not compete with rankings of a larger audience. Sales data can be affected by the method of marketing. Some translations are directly marketed to particular denominations or local churches, and many Christian booksellers only offer Protestant Bibles, so books in other biblical canons (such as Catholic and Orthodox Bibles) may not appear as high on the CBA rank.
A study published in 2014 by The Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University and Purdue University found that Americans read versions of the Bible as follows:
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who works at the top of the empire state building | Empire State Building - Wikipedia
The Empire State Building is a 102 - story skyscraper on Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets in Midtown, Manhattan, New York City. It has a roof height of 1,250 feet (381 m), and with its antenna included, it stands a total of 1,454 feet (443.2 m) tall. Its name is derived from the nickname for New York, the Empire State.
The Empire State Building stood as the world 's tallest building for nearly 40 years, from its completion in early 1931 until the topping out of the original World Trade Center 's North Tower in late 1970. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Empire State Building was again the tallest building in New York, until One World Trade Center reached a greater height in April 2012. The Empire State Building is currently the fifth - tallest completed skyscraper in the United States and the 35th - tallest in the world. It is also the fifth - tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. When measured by pinnacle height, it is the fourth - tallest building in the United States.
The Empire State Building is an American cultural icon. It is designed in the distinctive Art Deco style and has been named as one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The building and its street floor interior are designated landmarks of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, and confirmed by the New York City Board of Estimate. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In 2007, it was ranked number one on the AIA 's List of America 's Favorite Architecture.
The site of the Empire State Building was first developed as the John Thompson Farm in the late 18th century. At the time, a stream ran across the site, emptying into Sunfish Pond, located a block away. Beginning in the late 19th century, the block was occupied by the Waldorf - Astoria Hotel, frequented by The Four Hundred, the social elite of New York.
The limestone for the Empire State Building came from the Empire Mill in Sanders, Indiana which is an unincorporated town adjacent to Bloomington, Indiana. The Empire Mill Land office is near State Road 37 and Old State Road 37 just south of Bloomington. The Bloomington, Bedford, and Oolitic area is known locally as the limestone capital of the world.
The Empire State Building was designed by William F. Lamb from the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, which produced the building drawings in just two weeks, using its earlier designs for the Reynolds Building in Winston - Salem, North Carolina, and the Carew Tower in Cincinnati, Ohio (designed by the architectural firm W.W. Ahlschlager & Associates) as a basis. Every year the staff of the Empire State Building sends a Father 's Day card to the staff at the Reynolds Building in Winston - Salem to pay homage to its role as predecessor to the Empire State Building. The building was designed from the top down. The general contractors were Starrett Brothers and Eken, headed by William A. Starrett, and the project was financed primarily by John J. Raskob and Pierre S. du Pont. The construction company was chaired by Alfred E. Smith, a former Governor of New York and James Farley 's General Builders Supply Corporation supplied the building materials. John W. Bowser was project construction superintendent.
Excavation of the site began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started on March 17 -- St. Patrick 's Day -- per Al Smith 's influence as Empire State, Inc. president. The project involved 3,400 workers, mostly immigrants from Europe, along with hundreds of Mohawk iron workers, many from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal. According to official accounts, five workers died during the construction. Governor Smith 's grandchildren cut the ribbon on May 1, 1931. Lewis Wickes Hine 's photography of the construction provides not only invaluable documentation of the construction, but also a glimpse into common day life of workers in that era.
The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of "world 's tallest building ''. Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, on April 11, 1931, 12 days ahead of schedule, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building 's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signaling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.
The building 's opening coincided with the Great Depression in the United States, and as a result much of its office space was initially unrented. The building 's vacancy was exacerbated by its poor location on 34th Street, which placed it relatively far from public transportation, as Grand Central Terminal and Penn Station, built decades beforehand, are several blocks away, as is the more recently built Port Authority Bus Terminal. Other more successful skyscrapers, such as the Chrysler Building, did not have this problem. In its first year of operation, the observation deck took in approximately 2 million dollars, as much money as its owners made in rent that year. The lack of renters led New Yorkers to deride the building as the "Empty State Building ''.
The Empire State Building only became profitable in 1950. It was purchased in 1951 for $50 million by Roger L. Stevens and his business partners Henry Crown, Alfred R. Glancy and Ben Tobin. The sale was brokered by the prominent upper Manhattan real estate firm Charles F. Noyes & Company for $51 million, the highest price paid for a single structure at the time. Crown bought out his partners ' ownership stakes in 1954 and was the sole owner until 1961. That year, the building was bought by Harry B. Helmsley, Lawrence A. Wien, and Wien 's son - in - law Peter L. Malkin. for $65 million, which became the new highest price for a single structure. Over 3,000 people paid $10,000 for one share each in a company called Empire State Building Associates, that subletted the building to another company headed by Helmsley and Wein, raising $33 million of the funds used to pay for the change of ownership. The land itself was sold to Prudential Insurance for $29 million.
Prudential sold the land under the building in 1991 for $42 million to a buyer representing hotelier Hideki Yokoi, who was at the time imprisoned in connection with a deadly fire at the Hotel New Japan hotel in Tokyo. The land was bought jointly by Donald Trump and Hideki Yokoi in 1994. Trump sued Empire State Building Associates in February 1995, claiming that the latter had caused the buildign to become a "high - rise slum '' and a "second - rate, rodent - infested '' office tower. His objective was to get Empire State Building Associates evicted by breaking their lease, but that action was denied, and Helmsley 's companies sued Trump in May of that year. This sparked a round of lawsuits and countersuits that lasted several years, which partially arose from Trump 's desire to obtain the building 's master lease by taking it from Empire State Building Associates. Upon Harry Helmsley 's death in 1997, the Malkins sued Helmsley 's widow Leona Helmsley for ownership of the building. In 2002, Trump and Yokoi sold their claim to the land to the Empire State Building Associates, now headed by Malkin in a $57.5 million sale. This action merged the building 's title and lease for the first time in a half - century.
Leona Helmsley 's remaining share in the building was bought by Peter Malkin 's company in 2006. In 2008 the building was temporary "stolen '' by the New York Daily News (to show how easy it is to transfer the deed on a property, since city clerks were not required to validate the submitted information, and help demonstrate how fraudulent deeds could be used to obtain large mortgages and then have individuals disappear with the money). The paperwork submitted to the city included the names of Fay Wray (the famous star of the 1933 movie King Kong) and Willie Sutton (a notorious New York bank robber). The newspaper then transferred the deed back over to the legitimate owners, who at that time were Empire State Land Associates.
As of 2014 the building is owned by the Empire State Realty Trust with Anthony Malkin as Chairman, CEO, and President. In August 2016, the Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) gained a 10 % share in the Empire State Building through a $622 million investment to the Empire State Realty Trust (ESRT). ESRT 's president John Kessler called it an "endorsement of the company 's irreplaceable assets ''. The investment has been described as "an unusual move for a sovereign wealth fund '', as they typically buy direct stakes in buildings rather than real estate companies. Qatar Airways also has an office located in the Empire State Building. Other foreign entities that have a stake in the Empire State Building include investors from Norway, Japan, and Australia.
At 9: 40 am on July 28, 1945, a B - 25 Mitchell bomber, piloted in thick fog by Lieutenant Colonel William Franklin Smith, Jr., crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the National Catholic Welfare Council were located. One engine shot through the side opposite the impact and flew as far as the next block, where it landed on the roof of a nearby building, starting a fire that destroyed a penthouse. The other engine and part of the landing gear plummeted down an elevator shaft. The resulting fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. Fourteen people were killed in the incident. Elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, which still stands as the Guinness World Record for the longest survived elevator fall recorded.
Despite the damage and loss of life, the building was open for business on many floors on the following Monday. The crash helped spur the passage of the long - pending Federal Tort Claims Act of 1946, as well as the insertion of retroactive provisions into the law, allowing people to sue the government for the incident.
A year later, another aircraft narrowly missed striking the building.
More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building; most have succeeded. The first suicide occurred even before the building 's completion by a worker who had been laid off. A fence was put up around the observatory terrace in 1947 after five people tried to jump during a three - week span.
On December 16, 1943, ex-United States Navy gunner 's mate William Lloyd Rambo (22) jumped to his death from the 86th floor, landing amidst Christmas shoppers on the street below. In the early morning of September 27, 1946, shell - shocked 27 year - old Marine Douglas W. Brashear, Jr. jumped from the 76th - floor window of the Grant Advertising Agency after phoning a co-worker to tell her, "I know now this is the end. '' Police found his shoes 50 feet from his body.
On May 1, 1947, 23 - year - old Evelyn McHale leapt to her death from the 86th floor observation deck and landed on a limousine parked at the curb. Photography student Robert Wiles took a photo of McHale 's oddly intact corpse a few minutes after her death. The police found a suicide note among possessions that she left on the observation deck: "He is much better off without me... I would n't make a good wife for anybody ''. The photo ran in the May 12, 1947 edition of Life magazine and is often referred to as "The Most Beautiful Suicide ''. It was later used by visual artist Andy Warhol in one of his prints entitled Suicide (Fallen Body).
Only one person has jumped from the upper observatory. Frederick Eckert of Astoria ran past a guard in the enclosed 102nd floor gallery on November 3, 1932 and jumped a gate leading to an outdoor catwalk intended for dirigible passengers. He landed and died on the roof of the 86th floor observation promenade.
Two people have survived jumps by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, presumed to have jumped, but he landed alive on an 85th floor ledge where security guards brought him inside with minor injuries.
Two major shooting incidents have occurred at or in front of the Empire State Building. A gunman shot seven people on the 86th floor observation deck on February 23, 1997, at about 5 p.m. EST. Abu Kamal, a 69 - year - old Palestinian teacher, killed one person and wounded six others, supposedly in response to events happening in Palestine and Israel, before committing suicide.
Jeffrey T. Johnson (aged 58) shot and killed a former co-worker on August 24, 2012 at about 9 a.m. EDT on the sidewalk at the Fifth Avenue side of the building. He had been laid off from his job in 2011. Two police officers confronted the gunman, and he aimed his firearm at them. They responded by firing 16 shots, killing him but also wounding nine bystanders, most of whom were hit by fragments, although three took direct hits from bullets.
The Empire State Building rises to 1,250 ft (381 m) at the 102nd floor, and including the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, its full height reaches 1,453 feet 8 ⁄ inches (443.092 m). The building has 85 stories of commercial and office space representing 2,158,000 sq ft (200,500 m) of rentable space. It has an indoor and outdoor observation deck on the 86th floor. The remaining 16 stories represent the Art Deco tower, which is capped by a 102nd - floor observatory. Atop the tower is the 203 ft (61.9 m) pinnacle, much of which is covered by broadcast antennas, with a lightning rod at the very top.
The Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It has 6,500 windows and 73 elevators, and there are 1,860 steps from street level to the 102nd floor. It has a total floor area of 2,768,591 sq ft (257,211 m); the base of the Empire State Building is about 2 acres (8,094 m). The building houses 1,000 businesses and has its own ZIP code, 10118. As of 2007, approximately 21,000 employees work in the building each day, making the Empire State Building the second - largest single office complex in America, after the Pentagon. Its original 64 elevators are located in a central core; today, the Empire State Building has 73 elevators in all, including service elevators. It takes less than one minute by elevator to get to the 80th floor, which contains a gift shop and an exhibit detailing the building 's construction. From there, visitors can take another elevator or climb the stairs to the 86th floor, where an outdoor observation deck is located. The building has 70 mi (113 km) of pipe, 2,500,000 ft (762,000 m) of electrical wire, and about 9,000 faucets. It is heated by low - pressure steam; despite its height, the building only requires between 2 and 3 psi (14 and 21 kPa) of steam pressure for heating. It weighs approximately 365,000 short tons (331,000 t). The exterior of the building is clad in Indiana limestone panels.
The Empire State Building cost $40,948,900 to build (equivalent to $644,878,000 in 2016). Long - term forecasting of the life cycle of the structure was implemented at the design phase to ensure that the building 's future intended uses were not restricted by the requirements of previous generations. This is particularly evident in the over-design of the building 's electrical system.
The building 's art deco design is typical of pre -- World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story - high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass - enclosed bridges at the second - floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators.
The lobby is three stories high and features an aluminum relief of the skyscraper without the antenna, which was not added to the spire until 1952. The north corridor contained eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963 in time for the 1964 World 's Fair, which depicts the building as the Eighth Wonder of the World, alongside the traditional seven. These panels were eventually moved near a ticketing line for the observation deck.
Until the 1960s, the ceilings in the lobby had a shiny art deco mural inspired by both the sky and the Machine Age, until it was covered with ceiling tiles and fluorescent lighting. Because the original murals, designed by an artist named Leif Neandross, were damaged, reproductions were installed. Over 50 artists and workers used 15,000 square feet of aluminum and 1,300 square feet of 23 - carat gold leaf to re-create the mural. Renovations to the lobby alluded to original plans for the building; replacing the clock over the information desk in the Fifth Avenue lobby with an anemometer, as well as installing two chandeliers originally intended to be part of the building when it first opened. In 2000, the building 's owners installed a series of paintings by the New York artist Kysa Johnson in the concourse level. In January 2014 the artist filed suit in federal court in New York under the Visual Artists Rights Act, alleging the negligent destruction of the paintings and damage to her reputation as an artist.
Capital improvements were made to the Empire State Building from 1989 to the mid-1990s. These improvements entailed replacing alarm systems, elevators, windows, and air conditioning; making the observation deck compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; and refurbishing the limestone facade. The building 's lobbies and common areas received a $550 million renovation in 2009, with improvements including new air conditioning, waterproofing, and renovating the observation deck, and moving the gift shop to the 80th floor. Of this, $120 million was spent in an effort to transform the building into a more energy efficient and eco-friendly structure. For example, the 6,500 windows were remanufactured onsite into superwindows which block heat but pass light. Air conditioning operating costs on hot days were reduced and this saved $17 million of the project 's capital cost immediately, partly funding other retrofitting. After receiving a gold Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating in September 2011, the Empire State Building became the tallest LEED certified building in the United States.
On the 102nd floor of the Empire State Building there is a door with stairs ascending to the 103rd floor. This was built as a disembarkation floor for airships tethered to the building 's spire, and has a circular balcony outside. It is now a hot spot for celebrities, and an access point to reach the spire for maintenance. The room now contains electrical equipment. Above the 103rd floor, there is a set of stairs and a ladder to reach the spire for maintenance work.
The building 's Art Deco spire was designed to be a mooring mast and depot for dirigibles. An elevator between the 86th and 102nd floors would carry passengers after they checked in on the 86th floor. The idea proved impractical and dangerous, due to the powerful updrafts caused by the building itself, as well as the lack of mooring lines tying the other end of the craft to the ground. The building 's design was expanded to include the mooring mast as part of a competition for the world 's tallest building.
A large broadcast tower was added atop the spire in the early 1950s, to support the transmission antennas of several television and FM stations. Until then, NBC had exclusive rights to the site, and -- beginning in 1931 -- built various, smaller antennas for their television transmissions.
New York City is the largest media market in the United States. Since the September 11 attacks, nearly all of the city 's commercial broadcast stations (both television and FM radio) have transmitted from the top of the Empire State Building, although a few FM stations are located at the nearby Condé Nast Building. Most New York City AM stations broadcast from sites across the Hudson River in New Jersey or from other surrounding areas.
Broadcasting began at the Empire State Building on December 22, 1931, when RCA began transmitting experimental television broadcasts from a small antenna erected atop the spire. They leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there, and -- in 1934 -- RCA was joined by Edwin Howard Armstrong in a cooperative venture to test his FM system from the building 's antenna. When Armstrong and RCA fell out in 1935 and his FM equipment was removed, the 85th floor became the home of RCA 's New York television operations, first as experimental station W2XBS channel 1, which eventually became (on July 1, 1941) commercial station WNBT, channel 1 (now WNBC - TV channel 4). NBC 's FM station (WEAF - FM, now WQHT) began transmitting from the antenna in 1940. NBC retained exclusive use of the top of the building until 1950, when the FCC ordered the exclusive deal broken, based on consumer complaints that a common location was necessary for the (now) seven New York - area television stations (five licensed to New York City, NY, one licensed to Newark, NJ, and one licensed to Secaucus, NJ) to transmit from so that receiving antennas would not have to be constantly adjusted. Construction on a giant tower began. Other television broadcasters then joined RCA at the building, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride. Multiple transmissions of TV and FM began from the new tower in 1951. In 1965, a separate set of FM antennas was constructed ringing the 103rd floor observation area to act as a master antenna. When the World Trade Center was being constructed, it caused serious reception problems for the television stations, most of which then moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed. This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area. The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.
As of 2012, the Empire State Building is home to the following stations:
The Empire State Building has one of the most popular outdoor observatories in the world, having been visited by over 110 million people. The 86th - floor observation deck offers impressive 360 - degree views of the city. There is a second observation deck on the 102nd floor that is open to the public. It was closed in 1999, but reopened in November 2005. It is completely enclosed and much smaller than the first one; it may be closed on high - traffic days. Tourists may pay to visit the observation deck on the 86th floor and an additional amount for the 102nd floor. The lines to enter the observation decks, according to Concierge.com, are "as legendary as the building itself: '' there are five of them: the sidewalk line, the lobby elevator line, the ticket purchase line, the second elevator line, and the line to get off the elevator and onto the observation deck. For an extra fee tourists can skip to the front of the line. The Empire State Building makes more money from tickets sales for its observation decks than it does from renting office space.
The skyscraper 's observation deck plays host to several cinematic, television, and literary classics including, An Affair To Remember, On the Town, Love Affair and Sleepless in Seattle. In the Latin American literary classic, Giannina Braschi 's Empire of Dreams the observation deck is the site of a pastoral revolution; shepherds take over the City of New York. The deck was also the site of a publicity - stunt Martian invasion in an episode of I Love Lucy ("Lucy Is Envious '', season 3, episode 25).
The Empire State Building also has a motion simulator attraction located on the 2nd floor. Opened in 1994 as a complement to the observation deck, the New York Sky ride (or NY Sky ride) is a simulated aerial tour over the city. The cinematic presentation lasts approximately 25 minutes. As of May 2013, tickets are Adults $57, Children $42, Seniors $49.
Since its opening, the ride has gone through two incarnations. The original version, which ran from 1994 until around 2002, featured James Doohan, Star Trek 's Scotty, as the airplane 's pilot, who humorously tried to keep the flight under control during a storm, with the tour taking an unexpected route through the subway, Coney Island, and FAO Schwartz, among other places. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, however, the ride was closed, and an updated version debuted in mid-2002 with actor Kevin Bacon as the pilot. The new version of the narration attempted to make the attraction more educational, and included some minor post-9 / 11 patriotic undertones with retrospective footage of the World Trade Center. The new flight also goes haywire, but this segment is much shorter than in the original.
In 1964, floodlights were added to illuminate the top of the building at night. Since 1976 the spire has been lit in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events, such as St. Patrick 's Day, Christmas, Independence Day and Bastille Day. After the eightieth birthday and subsequent death of Frank Sinatra, for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer 's nickname "Ol ' Blue Eyes ''. After the death of actress Fay Wray (King Kong) in late 2004, the building stood in complete darkness for 15 minutes.
The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the World Trade Center, then reverted to the standard schedule. On June 4, 2002, the Empire State Building donned purple and gold (the royal colors of Elizabeth II), in thanks for the United Kingdom playing the Star Spangled Banner during the Changing of the Guard at Buckingham Palace on September 12, 2001 (a show of support after the September 11 attacks). This would also be shown after the Westminster Dog Show. Traditionally, in addition to the standard schedule, the building will be lit in the colors of New York 's sports teams on the nights they have home games (orange, blue and white for the New York Knicks, red, white and blue for the New York Rangers, and so on). The first weekend in June finds the building bathed in green light for the Belmont Stakes held in nearby Belmont Park. The building is illuminated in tennis - ball yellow during the US Open tennis tournament in late August and early September. It was twice lit in scarlet to support nearby Rutgers University: once for a football game against the University of Louisville on November 9, 2006, and again on April 3, 2007 when the women 's basketball team played in the national championship game. On January 13, 2012, the building was lit in red, orange, and yellow to honor the 60th anniversary of NBC 's The Today Show making it the first time the building was illuminated to honor a television program. From June 1 to 3, 2012, the building was lit in blue and white, the colors of the Israeli flag, in honor of the 49th annual Celebrate Israel Parade.
During 2012, the building 's metal halide lamps and floodlights were replaced with LED fixtures, increasing the available colors from nine to over 16 million. The computer - controlled system allows the building to be illuminated in ways that were unable to be done previously with plastic gels. For instance, on November 6, 2012, CNN used the top of the Empire State Building as a scoreboard for the 2012 United States presidential election. When incumbent president Barack Obama had reached the 270 electoral votes necessary to win re-election, the lights turned blue. Had Republican challenger Mitt Romney won, the building would have been lit red. Also, on November 26, 2012, the building had its first ever synchronized light show, using music from recording artist Alicia Keys. Those wishing to hear the music could tune to certain radio stations in the New York area. A video of the performance was posted online the next day. In 2013 the lights were changed to Financial Times pink. In the run - up week to Super Bowl XLVIII held at MetLife Stadium on February 2, 2014, the building was lit in a contest sponsored by the National Football League 's wireless partner, Verizon Wireless to determine both the winner and fan support for the two teams via their team colors in the game through the # WhosGonnaWin Twitter hashtag, either the "action green '' and navy blue of the Seattle Seahawks or orange and blue of the Denver Broncos, along with a light show during the game 's halftime.
The Empire State Building remained the tallest man - made structure in the world for 23 years before it was surpassed by the Griffin Television Tower Oklahoma (KWTV Mast) in 1954. It was also the tallest free - standing structure in the world for 36 years before it was surpassed by the Ostankino Tower in 1967.
The longest world record held by the Empire State Building was for the tallest skyscraper (to structural height), which it held for 42 years until it was surpassed by the North Tower of the World Trade Center in 1972. An early - 1970s proposal to dismantle the spire and replace it with an additional 11 floors, which would have brought the building 's height to 1,494 feet (455 m) and made it once again the world 's tallest at the time, was considered but ultimately rejected.
With the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks, the Empire State Building again became the tallest building in New York City, and the second - tallest building in the Americas, surpassed only by the Willis Tower in Chicago. As of December 2016, it is the fifth - tallest completed skyscraper in the United States, after the One World Trade Center, 432 Park Avenue in New York City, the Willis Tower and Trump International Hotel and Tower, both in Chicago. The Empire State Building is the 25th - tallest in the world, the tallest being Burj Khalifa, located in Dubai. It is also the sixth - tallest freestanding structure in the Americas.
On clear days, the building can be seen from much of the New York Metropolitan Area, and as far away as New Haven, Connecticut and Morristown, New Jersey.
The Empire State Building anchors an area of Midtown which features other major Manhattan landmarks as well, including Macy 's Herald Square, Koreatown, Penn Station, Madison Square Garden, and the Flower District. Collectively, these sites contribute to a significant volume of commuter and tourist pedestrian traffic traversing the southern portion of Midtown Manhattan.
ESRT began trading publicly on the New York Stock Exchange on October 2, 2013.
Current
Former
Sunrise (December 2005)
Spire seen from east on 34th Street (2013)
As seen from Queens during sunset (August 2016)
As seen from Washington Square Park
As seen from ground level on 35th Street
As seen from Broadway and 21st Street
As seen from the distance at sunset
View from Weehawken, New Jersey
Street - level side view, 2013
Griffin sculptures over front entrance, 2013
Seen from a Park Avenue skyscraper, 2007
Looking up from the observation deck
Looking down
Looking toward Times Square
Lit in Purple for the National Purple Heart day
Mural of the building, located in the lobby
Art deco elevators in the lobby
Building souvenir
Lit in red and green lights for Christmas, as seen from the GE Building
With Christmas lights
Lit in yellow to promote The Simpsons Movie home video release
Lit in yellow and red during the 60th anniversary of the PRC
Lit in blue after Barack Obama was declared winner of the 2012 United States Presidential Election (in the US, red commonly represents Republicans, blue for Democrats)
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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where did the phrase it takes a village come from | It Takes a Village - wikipedia
It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us is a book published in 1996 by First Lady of the United States Hillary Rodham Clinton. In it, Clinton presents her vision for the children of America. She focuses on the impact individuals and groups outside the family have, for better or worse, on a child 's well - being, and advocates a society which meets all of a child 's needs. The book was written with uncredited ghostwriter Barbara Feinman.
The book was republished as a Tenth Anniversary Edition in 2006 and saw publication as a picture book in 2017.
Publishers had approached Clinton since the spring of 1994 with the idea of writing a book, and announcement of the upcoming book came in April 1995 from the publisher she chose, Simon & Schuster. It came in the wake of the Clinton health care plan of 1993, which she had led the effort for and which had suffered its final collapse in September 1994, and the book was seen by some observers as an effort to help reshape Clinton 's image. It was not unusual for a First Lady to write a book while still in office, with Barbara Bush 's children - aimed Millie 's Book the most recent prior example. Eleanor Roosevelt was the first First Lady to write books while still in office, with the publication of "It 's Up to the Women '' in 1933, "This Troubled World '' in 1938, and "The Moral Basis of Democracy '' in 1940, among others. Carolyn Reidy, head of Simon & Schuster 's trade books division, said "We have all known that Hillary Rodham Clinton has devoted most of her career to issues of children. But outside of a handful of articles and speeches, her thoughts on these issues have not been available to everyone in an in an easily readable format. I think it will be an inspiring book. '' The book was originally intended to come out in September 1995, but delays on the part of Clinton resulted in publication being delayed until January 1996.
It was stated that Clinton would take no payments from the writing other than those to cover expenses, and that royalties from the book 's sales would go to charity.
In January 1996, Clinton went on a ten - city book tour and made numerous television appearances to promote the book, although she was frequently hit with questions about her involvement in the Whitewater and Travelgate controversies. The book spent 18 weeks on the New York Times Best Seller List during 1996 including three weeks at number one. By 2000 it had sold 450,000 copies in hardcover and another 200,000 in paperback.
The theme of the book, at least as perceived from its title, aroused immediate opposition within the United States. A well known instance of this occurred during the 1996 presidential election when, during his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention, Republican Party nominee Bob Dole said: "... with all due respect, I am here to tell you, it does not take a village to raise a child. It takes a family to raise a child. '' Criticism of Clinton 's notion would continue to be made by American conservatives such as Rush Limbaugh, Andrea Tantaros, and Jonah Goldberg through the next two decades.
In 1997, Clinton received a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for her audio recording of the book.
The book is parodied in Tim Wilson 's 1999 song "It Takes a Village to Raise a Nut ''. In 2005, Senator Rick Santorum wrote a rebuke to the book, It Takes a Family: Conservatism and the Common Good.
The book emphasizes the shared responsibility that society has for successfully raising children, by looking at a number of angles as indicated in the chapter titles noted above. Clinton describes herself in the book as a Moderate, which is evidenced by a combination of advocating for government - driven social reforms while also espousing conservative values.
Clinton notes in the book many institutions responsible in some way for raising children, including: direct family, grandparents, neighbors, teachers, ministers, doctors, employers, politicians, nonprofits, faith communities, businesses, and international governmental groups.
Some of the goals and institutions that Clinton advocates for in the book include: the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, Community Policing, the Brady Bill, Amber Alerts, immunizations, State Children 's Health Insurance Program, financial regulation, expanded Child Tax Credits, Minimum Wage increases, Universal health care, personal responsibility, uniforms in schools, Goals 2000 academic framework, music warning labels, sexual abstinence, Plan B contraception, family planning, and marriage.
The book 's title is attributed to an African proverb: "It takes a village to raise a child. '' The saying and its attribution as an "African '' proverb were in circulation before it was adopted by Clinton as the source for the title of her book. Indeed, the saying previously provided the source for the title of a children 's book entitled It Takes a Village by Jane Cowen - Fletcher, published in 1994.
The authenticity of the proverb is debatable as there is no evidence that this precise proverb genuinely originated with any African culture. However, numerous proverbs from different cultures across Africa have been noted that convey similar sentiments in different ways. As one poster on the scholarly list H - Net wrote, "While it is interesting to seek provenance in regard to the proverb, ' It takes a village to raise a child, ' I think it would be misleading to ascribe its origin to a single source... Let me give a few examples of African societies with proverbs which translate to ' It takes a village... ': In Lunyoro (Banyoro) there is a proverb that says ' Omwana takulila nju emoi, ' whose literal translation is ' A child does not grow up only in a single home. ' In Kihaya (Bahaya) there is a saying, ' Omwana taba womoi, ' which translates as ' A child belongs not to one parent or home. ' In Kijita (Wajita) there is a proverb which says ' Omwana ni wa bhone, ' meaning regardless of a child 's biological parent (s) its upbringing belongs to the community. In Swahili, the proverb ' Asiyefunzwa na mamae hufunzwa na ulimwengu ' approximates to the same. ''
In 2016, NPR decided to research the origins of the proverb, and concluded it was unable to pinpoint its origins, but agreed with the H - Net discussion regarding it holding the true spirits of some African cultures. It was part of a class of such - attributed sayings, with one observer stating, "If someone starts an aphorism with ' there 's an African saying ' it 's probably a mythical quote misattributed to a whole continent. '' NPR itself concluded, "What we found is that it takes a lot of phone calls to track down the origins of a proverb. And in the end, the answer might be: We just do n't know. ''
Clinton has been criticized for not giving credit to a ghostwriter in connection with It Takes a Village. The majority of the book was reportedly written by ghostwriter Barbara Feinman. When the book was first announced in April 1995, The New York Times reported publisher Simon & Schuster as saying "The book will actually be written by Barbara Feinman, a journalism professor at Georgetown University in Washington. Ms. Feinman will conduct a series of interviews with Mrs. Clinton, who will help edit the resulting text. ''
Feinman spent seven months on the project and was paid $120,000 for her work. Feinman, however, was not mentioned anywhere in the book. Clinton 's acknowledgment section began: "It takes a village to bring a book into the world, as everyone who has written one knows. Many people have helped me to complete this one, sometimes without even knowing it. They are so numerous that I will not even attempt to acknowledge them individually, for fear that I might leave one out. '' During her promotional tour for the book, Clinton said, "I actually wrote the book... I had to write my own book because I want to stand by every word. '' Clinton stated that Feinman assisted in interviews and did some editorial drafting of "connecting paragraphs '', while Clinton herself wrote the final manuscript in longhand.
This led Feinman to complain at the time to Capitol Style magazine over the lack of acknowledgement. In 2001, The Wall Street Journal reported that "New York literary circles are buzzing with vitriol over Sen. Clinton 's refusal, so far, to share credit with any writer who helps on her book. '' Later, in a 2002 article for The Writer 's Chronicle, Barbara Feinman Todd (now using her married name) related that the project with Clinton had gone smoothly, producing drafts in a round - robin style. Feinman agrees that Clinton was involved with the project, but also states that, "Like any first lady, Mrs. Clinton had an extremely hectic schedule and writing a book without assistance would have been logistically impossible. '' Feinman reiterates that her only objection to the whole process was the lack of any acknowledgement. A 2005 Georgetown University web page bio for Barbara Feinman Todd states that It Takes a Village was one of "several high - profile books '' that she has "assisted, as editor, writer and researcher. '' Feinman Todd wrote more about the collaboration in her 2017 memoir Pretend I 'm Not Here.
In 2006, It Takes a Village was republished as a 10th Anniversary Edition with a new cover design and a new Introduction by the author that reflected on the continued meaning of the book in the Internet era and following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. It also includes a new Notes section at the end that provides updates for scholarly studies that had been conducted in the intervening ten years. The role of Feinman remains unmentioned.
Clinton did not shy away from the book 's conclusions during her post-First Lady political career. As part of her own presidential campaign during 2007 she said "I still believe it takes a village to raise a child. '' And in her second presidential campaign during 2015 she said "Fundamentally, (Republicans) reject what it takes to build an inclusive economy. It takes an inclusive society. What I once called ' a village ' that has a place for everyone. ''
The year 2017 saw public efforts under way to render It Takes as a picture book, an announcement that was made in February 2017. It was also announced that Marla Frazee, a two - time winner of the Caldecott Medal, would be the illustrator for the picture book; Frazee said in a statement, "I am deeply honored to help bring Hillary Clinton 's life 's work and devotion to public service, which has inspired me and millions of others, to children and those who love them. '' As with the original book, any net proceeds from the picture book would go to charity.
In fact Clinton had entertained the notion of doing this for a number of years, and worked on it with Frazee during her 2016 presidential election campaign. The result was published on September 12, 2017, also the same day of publication as that for her account of her devastating loss in that election, What Happened.
The book is aimed at preschool - aged children, although a few messages are more likely understood by adults, and contains some 117 words. The Washington Post characterized the work thusly: "It captures perfectly Clinton 's vision of a multicultural America working toward a constructive goal. So hopeful and forward - looking, the book might even be called ' What Did n't Happen. ' ''
A review of the book in the industry publication Shelf Awareness said that the picture book took a somewhat different perspective from the original, focusing more on the actions of children than of adults. The review especially praised the art work, saying that "As with all of her works, Frazee 's illustrations explode with life... Her pencil - and - watercolor art is vibrant and action - packed, the story told entirely through her illustrations of the everyday ups and downs of the people working together to create something new and beautiful. ''
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instruments in all of my love by led zeppelin | All My Love (Led Zeppelin song) - wikipedia
"All My Love '' is the sixth track on Led Zeppelin 's 1979 album In Through the Out Door. Credited to Robert Plant and John Paul Jones, it is a rock ballad that features a synthesizer solo by Jones. It was written in honour of Plant 's son Karac, who died while Led Zeppelin was on their 1977 North American tour.
"All My Love '' is a mid-tempo rock - style ballad, which biographer Nigel Williamson describes as "underpinned by a semi-classical arrangement of the kind popular at the time with the likes of Genesis and ELO ''. The original working title was "The Hook ''. The song was recorded between November and December 1978 at Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. A studio outtake of an extended version of the song exists, timed around 7: 55 (the song itself would be timed around 6: 57). It has a complete ending, with Plant extending the last chorus with much ad - libbing and a twangy B - Bender guitar solo by Page. This version is found on several Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings.
Led Zeppelin performed the song during their concert tour of Europe in 1980. "All My Love '' is also included on the Led Zeppelin compilations Early Days and Latter Days, Remasters and Mothership.
In a review for In Through the Out Door (Deluxe Edition), Andrew Doscas of PopMatters described "All My Love '' as "the saddest and most heartfelt Zeppelin song. '' Doscas described the song as "a fitting ode to Plant 's son, which hauntingly enough sounds like a foreshadowing of a band on the path to an impending and unforeseeable dissolution.
In an interview he later gave to rock journalist Cameron Crowe, Plant stated that this song was one of Led Zeppelin 's "finest moments ''. However, guitarist Jimmy Page expressed less fondness for the song:
We (drummer John Bonham and I) both felt In Through the Out Door was a little soft. I was n't really keen on "All My Love. '' I was a little worried about the chorus. I could just imagine people doing the wave and all of that. And I thought, ' That 's not us. ' In its place it was fine, but I would n't have wanted to pursue that direction in the future.
A mono mix of the song was re-released in 2015 on In Through the Out Door (Deluxe Edition), under the title "The Hook ''.
1979 7 '' single edition (Brazil: Swan Song SS 11105, Paraguay: Swan Song 11.105)
1979 7 '' single edition (Argentina: Swan Song SS 79435)
1980 7 '' single edition (Peru: Capricornio 030 (RI 16288))
Notes: (*) B - side by Herb Alpert
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in lcd the refresh rate of the screen is | Refresh rate - wikipedia
The refresh rate (most commonly the "vertical refresh rate '', "vertical scan rate '' for cathode ray tubes) is the number of times in a second that a display hardware updates its buffer. This is distinct from the measure of frame rate. The refresh rate includes the repeated drawing of identical frames, while frame rate measures how often a video source can feed an entire frame of new data to a display.
For example, most movie projectors advance from one frame to the next one 24 times each second. But each frame is illuminated two or three times before the next frame is projected using a shutter in front of its lamp. As a result, the movie projector runs at 24 frames per second, but has a 48 or 72 Hz refresh rate.
On cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, increasing the refresh rate decreases flickering, thereby reducing eye strain. However, if a refresh rate is specified that is beyond what is recommended for the display, damage to the display can occur.
For computer programs or telemetry, the term is also applied to how frequently a datum is updated with a new external value from another source (for example; a shared public spreadsheet or hardware feed).
In a CRT, the scan rate is controlled by the vertical blanking signal generated by the video controller, ordering the monitor to position the beam at the upper left corner of the raster, ready to paint another frame. It is limited by the monitor 's maximum horizontal scan rate and the resolution, since higher resolution means more scan lines.
The refresh rate can be calculated from the horizontal scan rate by dividing the scanning frequency by the number of horizontal lines multiplied by 1.05 (since about 5 % of the time it takes to scan the screen is spent moving the electron beam back to the top). For instance, a monitor with a horizontal scanning frequency of 96 kHz at a resolution of 1280 × 1024 results in a refresh rate of 96,000 ÷ (1024 × 1.05) ≈ 89 Hz (rounded down).
CRT refresh rates have historically been an important factor in electronic game programming. Traditionally, one of the principles of video / computer game programming is to avoid altering the computer 's video buffer except during the vertical retrace. This is necessary to prevent flickering graphics (caused by altering the picture in mid-frame) or screen tearing (caused by altering the graphics faster than the electron beam can render the picture). Some video game consoles such as the Famicom / Nintendo Entertainment System did not allow any graphics changes except during the retrace (the period when the electron guns shut off and return to the upper left corner of the screen).
Contrary to popular belief, liquid - crystal displays (LCDs) do suffer from flickering problems. It is still necessary to avoid modifying graphics data except during the retrace phase to prevent tearing from an image that is rendered faster than the display operates (LCDs normally refresh at 60 Hz).
Refresh rate or the temporal resolution of an LCD is the number of times per second in which the display draws the data it is being given. Since activated LCD pixels do not flash on / off between frames, LCD monitors exhibit no refresh - induced flicker, no matter how low the refresh rate. However, high refresh rates may result in visual artifacts that distort the image in unpleasant ways. High - end LCD televisions now feature up to 600 Hz refresh rate, which requires advanced digital processing to insert additional interpolated frames between the real images to smooth the image motion. Such high refresh rates may not be supported by pixel response times, resulting in distorted images.
For a refresh rate of 600 Hz to be displayed correctly, an LCD would require a response time of approximately 1.667 ( ⁄) milliseconds GtG (grey - to - grey). In addition to the technical aspects of achieving such a high refresh rate, there are limits to the capability of the human eye. However, improving the response time of LCD pixels would improve the image quality for refresh rates that are on the fringe of what the human eye is capable of processing.
On smaller CRT monitors (up to about 15 in or 38 cm), few people notice any discomfort between 60 -- 72 Hz. On larger CRT monitors (17 in or 43 cm or larger), most people experience mild discomfort unless the refresh is set to 72 Hz or higher. A rate of 100 Hz is comfortable at almost any size. However, this does not apply to LCD monitors. The closest equivalent to a refresh rate on an LCD monitor is its frame rate, which is often locked at 60 fps. But this is rarely a problem, because the only part of an LCD monitor that could produce CRT - like flicker -- its backlight -- typically operates at around a minimum of 200 Hz.
Different operating systems set the default refresh rate differently. Microsoft Windows 95 and Windows 98 (First and Second Editions) set the refresh rate to the highest rate that they believe the display supports. Windows NT - based operating systems, such as Windows 2000 and its descendants Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7, set the default refresh rate to a conservative rate, usually 60 Hz. The many variations of Linux usually set a refresh rate chosen by the user during setup of the display manager (although a default option is usually included with xfree86). Some fullscreen applications, including many games, now allow the user to reconfigure the refresh rate before entering fullscreen mode, but most default to a conservative resolution and refresh rate and let you increase the settings in the options.
Old monitors could be damaged if a user set the video card to a refresh rate higher than the highest rate supported by the monitor. Some models of monitors display a notice that the video signal uses an unsupported refresh rate.
Some LCDs support adapting their refresh rate to the current frame rate delivered by the graphics card. Two technologies that allow this are FreeSync and G - Sync.
When LCD shutter glasses are used for stereo 3D displays, the effective refresh rate is halved, because each eye needs a separate picture. For this reason, it is usually recommended to use a display capable of at least 120 Hz, because divided in half this rate is again 60 Hz. Higher refresh rates result in greater image stability, for example 72 Hz non-stereo is 144 Hz stereo, and 90 Hz non-stereo is 180 Hz stereo. Unfortunately most computer graphics cards and monitors can not handle these high refresh rates, especially at higher resolutions.
For LCD monitors the pixel brightness changes are much slower than CRT or plasma phosphors. Typically LCD pixel brightness changes are faster when voltage is applied than when voltage is removed, resulting in an asymmetric pixel response time. With 3D shutter glasses this can result in a blurry smearing of the display and poor depth perception, due to the previous image frame not fading to black fast enough as the next frame is drawn.
The development of televisions in the 1930s was determined by a number of technical limitations. The AC power line frequency was used for the vertical refresh rate for two reasons. The first reason was that the television 's vacuum tube was susceptible to interference from the unit 's power supply, including residual ripple. This could cause drifting horizontal bars (hum bars). Using the same frequency reduced this, and made interference static on the screen and therefore less obtrusive. The second reason was that television studios would use AC lamps, filming at a different frequency would cause strobing. Thus producers had little choice but to run sets at 60 Hz in America, and 50 Hz in Europe. These rates formed the basis for the sets used today: 60 Hz System M (almost always used with NTSC color coding) and 50 Hz System B / G (almost always used with PAL or SECAM color coding). This accident of chance gave European sets higher resolution, in exchange for lower frame - rates. Compare System M (704 × 480 at 30i) and System B / G (704 × 576 at 25i). However, the lower refresh rate of 50 Hz introduces more flicker, so sets that use digital technology to double the refresh rate to 100 Hz are now very popular. (see Broadcast television systems)
Another difference between 50 Hz and 60 Hz standards is the way motion pictures (film sources as opposed to video camera sources) are transferred or presented. 35 mm film is typically shot at 24 frames per second (fps). For PAL 50 Hz this allows film sources to be easily transferred by accelerating the film by 4 %. The resulting picture is therefore smooth, however, there is a small shift in the pitch of the audio. NTSC sets display both 24 fps and 25 fps material without any speed shifting by using a technique called 3: 2 pulldown, but at the expense of introducing unsmooth playback in the form of telecine judder.
Similar to some computer monitors and some DVDs, analog television systems use interlace, which decreases the apparent flicker by painting first the odd lines and then the even lines (these are known as fields). This doubles the refresh rate, compared to a progressive scan image at the same frame rate. This works perfectly for video cameras, where each field results from a separate exposure - the effective frame rate doubles, there are now 50 rather than 25 exposures per second. The dynamics of a CRT are ideally suited to this approach, fast scenes will benefit from the 50 Hz refresh, the earlier field will have largely decayed away when the new field is written, and static images will benefit from improved resolution as both fields will be integrated by the eye. Modern CRT - based televisions may be made flicker - free in the form of 100 Hz technology.
Many high - end LCD televisions now have a 120 or 240 Hz (current and former NTSC countries) or 100 or 200 Hz (PAL / SECAM countries) refresh rate. The rate of 120 was chosen as the least common multiple of 24 fps (cinema) and 30 fps (NTSC TV), and allows for less distortion when movies are viewed due to the elimination of telecine (3: 2 pulldown). For PAL at 25 fps, 100 or 200 Hz is used as a fractional compromise of the least common multiple of 600 (24 × 25). These higher refresh rates are most effective from a 24p - source video output (e.g. Blu - ray Disc), and / or scenes of fast motion.
As movies are usually filmed at a rate of 24 frames per second, while television sets operate at different rates, some conversion is necessary. Different techniques exist to give the viewer an optimal experience.
The combination of content production, playback device, and display device processing may also give artifacts that are unnecessary. A display device producing a fixed 60 fps rate can not display a 24 fps movie at an even, judder - free rate. Usually, a 3: 2 pulldown is used, giving a slight uneven movement.
While common multisync CRT computer monitors have been capable of running at even multiples of 24 Hz since the early 1990s, recent "120 Hz '' LCDs have been produced for the purpose of having smoother, more fluid motion, depending upon the source material, and any subsequent processing done to the signal. In the case of material shot on video, improvements in smoothness just from having a higher refresh rate may be barely noticeable.
In the case of filmed material, as 120 is an even multiple of 24, it is possible to present a 24 fps sequence without judder on a well - designed 120 Hz display (i.e., so - called 5 - 5 pulldown). If the 120 Hz rate is produced by frame - doubling a 60 fps 3: 2 pulldown signal, the uneven motion could still be visible (i.e., so - called 6 - 4 pulldown).
Additionally, material may be displayed with synthetically created smoothness with the addition of motion interpolation abilities to the display, which has an even larger effect on filmed material.
"50 Hz '' TV sets (when fed with "50 Hz '' content) usually get a movie that is slightly faster than normal, avoiding any problems with uneven pulldown.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On - line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing '' terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
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where did the outsiders take place in the book | The Outsiders (novel) - wikipedia
The Outsiders is a coming - of - age novel by S.E. Hinton, first published in 1967 by Viking Press. Hinton was 15 when she started writing the novel but did most of the work when she was 16 and a junior in high school. Hinton was 18 when the book was published. The book details the conflict between two rival gangs divided by their socioeconomic status: the working - class "greasers '' and the upper - class "Socs '' (pronounced / ˈsoʊʃɪz / -- short for Socials). The story is told in first - person perspective by teenaged protagonist Ponyboy Curtis.
The story in the book takes place in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1965, but this is never explicitly stated in the book.
A film adaptation was produced in 1983, and a little - known short - lived television series appeared in 1990, picking up where the movie left off. A stage adaptation was written by Christopher Sergel and published in 1990.
Ponyboy Curtis, a teenaged member of a loose gang of "greasers '', is leaving a movie theater when he is jumped by "Socs '', the greasers ' rival gang. Several greasers, including Ponyboy 's two older brothers -- the paternal Darry and the popular Sodapop -- come to his rescue. The next night, Ponyboy and two greaser friends, the hardened Dally and the quiet Johnny, meet Cherry and Marcia, a pair of Soc girls, at a drive - in movie theater. Cherry spurns Dally 's rude advances, but Ponyboy ends up speaking civilly with Cherry, emotionally connecting with a Soc for the first time in his life.
Afterward, Ponyboy, Johnny, and their wisecracking friend Two - Bit begin to walk Cherry and Marcia home, when they are stopped by Cherry 's boyfriend Bob, who badly beat up Johnny a few months back. Bob and the greasers exchange taunts, but Cherry prevents a fight by willingly leaving with Bob. Ponyboy gets home at two in the morning, enraging Darry until he suddenly slaps Ponyboy. Ponyboy runs out the door and meets up with Johnny, expressing his anger at Darry 's increasing coldness in the wake of his parents ' recent deaths in a car crash.
Ponyboy and Johnny wander into a park, where Bob and four other Socs surround them. After some heated talk, Ponyboy spits at the Socs, prompting them to attempt to drown him in a nearby fountain, but Johnny stabs Bob, killing him and dispersing the Socs. Terrified of what to do next, Ponyboy and Johnny rush to find Dally, who gives them money and a loaded gun, directing them to hide in an abandoned church in Windrixville. During their stay there, Pony cuts and dyes his hair as a disguise, reads Gone with the Wind to Johnny, and, upon viewing a beautiful sunrise, recites the poem "Nothing Gold Can Stay '' by Robert Frost.
Days later, Dally comes to check on them, revealing that violence between the greasers and Socs has escalated since Bob 's death into all - out city - wide warfare, with Cherry acting out of guilt as a spy for the greasers. Johnny decides to turn himself in and Dally agrees to take the boys back home. As they attempt to leave, they notice the church has caught fire and several local schoolchildren have become trapped inside. The greasers run inside the burning church to save the children, but Ponyboy is rendered unconscious by the fumes. At the hospital he discovers that he and Dally are not badly injured, but a piece of the church roof fell on Johnny and broke his back. Sodapop and Darry come to the hospital; Darry breaks down and cries. Ponyboy then realizes that Darry cares about him, and is only hard on Ponyboy because he loves him and cares about his future.
The following morning the newspapers declare Pony and Johnny heroes, but Johnny will be charged with manslaughter for Bob 's death. Two - Bit tells them that the greaser -- Soc rivalry is to be settled in a final rumble. Ponyboy and Two - Bit are approached by a Soc named Randy, Bob 's best friend, who expresses remorse for his involvement in the gang war, lacks confidence about the rumble ending the feud, and says he will not participate.
Later, Ponyboy visits Johnny at the hospital, where he is in critical condition. On their way home, Pony spots Cherry and they talk. Cherry says she is unwilling to visit Johnny in the hospital because he killed her boyfriend. Pony calls her a traitor, but after she explains herself they end on good terms. After escaping the hospital, Dally shows up just in time for the rumble. The greasers win the brutal fight. Afterward, Pony and Dally hurry back to the hospital to see Johnny, but he dies moments later and a maniacal Dally runs out of the room. Pony returns home that night feeling confused and disoriented. Dally calls the house to say that he has robbed a store and is running from the police. The greasers find Dally deliberately pointing an unloaded gun at the police, causing them to shoot and kill him. Overwhelmed, Ponyboy faints and is sick in bed for several days due to the resulting concussion. When the hearing finally comes, the judge frees Ponyboy from responsibility for Bob 's death and allows Pony to remain at home with Darry and Soda.
Ponyboy returns to school, but his grades drop. Although he is failing English, his teacher, Mr. Syme, says he will pass him if he writes a decent theme. In the copy of Gone with the Wind that Johnny gave him before dying, Ponyboy finds a note from Johnny describing how he will die proudly after saving the kids from the fire. Johnny also urges Ponyboy to "stay gold ''. Ponyboy decides to write his English assignment about the recent events, and begins his essay with the opening line of the novel: "When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house, I had only two things on my mind: Paul Newman and a ride home... ''
The Outsiders was a controversial book at the time of its publication; it is still currently challenged and debated. It was ranked # 38 on the American Library Association 's Top 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 -- 1999. This book has been banned from some schools and libraries because of the portrayal of gang violence, underage smoking and drinking, strong language / slang, and family dysfunction. However, in many U.S. schools, the book is part of the English curriculum at the middle - or high - school level.
Hinton, S.E. (1997). The Outsiders. New York: SPEAK. ISBN 9780140385724.
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who illuminate the original document the constitution of india | Constitution of India - Wikipedia
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world. B.R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the Drafting Committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.
It imparts constitutional supremacy and not parliamentary supremacy, as it is not created by the Parliament but, by a constituent assembly, and adopted by its people, with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament can not override the constitution.
It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, and came into effect on 26 January 1950. With its adoption, the Union of India became the modern and contemporary Republic of India replacing the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country 's fundamental governing document. To ensure constitutional autochthony, the framers of the constitution repealed the prior Acts of the British Parliament via Article 395 of the constitution. India celebrates its coming into force on 26 January each year, as Republic Day.
It declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity among them.
The major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. When the Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950, it repealed the Indian Independence Act. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic. The date of 26 January was chosen to commemorate the Purna Swaraj declaration of independence of 1930.
Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393 and 394 of the Constitution came into force on 26 November 1949 and the remaining articles on 26 January 1950.
It is drawn from many sources. Keeping in mind the needs and conditions of India its framers borrowed different features freely from previous legislation viz. Government of India Act 1858, Indian Councils Act 1861, Indian Councils Act 1892, Indian Councils Act 1909, Government of India Act 1919, Government of India Act 1935 and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The last legislation which led to the creation of the two independent nations of India and Pakistan provided for the division of the erstwhile Constituent Assembly into two, with each new assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it, to enable each to draft and enact a new constitution, for the separate states.
It was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389 member Constituent Assembly took almost three years (two years, eleven months and eighteen days to be precise) to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution for independent India, during which, it held eleven sessions over 165 days. Of these, 114 days were spent on the consideration of the draft Constitution. On 29 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly set up a Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to prepare a draft Constitution for India. While deliberating upon the draft Constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed of as many as 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635 tabled. Dr B.R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were some important figures in the assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo - Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H.P. Modi. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all Christians other than Anglo - Indians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau and K.M. Munshi, Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and Vijayalakshmi Pandit were important women members.
The first temporary 2 - day president of the Constituent Assembly was Dr Sachchidananda Sinha. Later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly. The members of the Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946.
B.N. Rau was appointed as the Constitutional Adviser to the Constituent Assembly in formulating the Indian Constitution in 1946. He was responsible for the general structure of its democratic framework of the Constitution and prepared its initial draft in February 1948. This draft was debated, revised and finally adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949.
On 14 August 1947 meeting of the Assembly, a proposal for forming various committees was presented. Such committees included a Committee on Fundamental Rights, the Union Powers Committee and Union Constitution Committee. On 29 August 1947, the Drafting Committee was appointed, with Dr B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman along with six other members assisted by a constitutional advisor. These members were Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (KM Munshi, Ex - Home Minister, Bombay), Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer (Ex - Advocate General, Madras State), N Gopalaswami Ayengar (Ex-Prime Minister, J&K and later member of Nehru Cabinet), BL Mitter (Ex-Advocate General, India), Md. Saadullah (Ex - Chief Minister of Assam, Muslim League member) and DP Khaitan (Scion of Khaitan Business family and a renowned lawyer). The constitutional advisor was Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (who became First Indian Judge in International Court of Justice, 1950 -- 54). Later BL Mitter resigned and was replaced by Madhav Rao (Legal Advisor of Maharaja of Vadodara). On DP Khaitan 's death, TT Krishnamachari was included in the drafting committee. A draft Constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the Assembly on 4 November 1947, which was debated and over 2000 amendments were moved over a period of two years. Finally on 26 November 1949, the process was completed and the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution. 284 members signed the document and the process of constitution making was complete. This day is celebrated as National Law Day or Constitution Day.
The assembly met in sessions open to the public, for 166 days, spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days before adopting the Constitution, the 308 members of the assembly signed two copies of the document (one each in Hindi and English) on 24 January 1950. The original Constitution of India is hand - written with beautiful calligraphy, each page beautified and decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. The illustrations on the cover and pages represent styles from the different civilisations of the subcontinent, ranging from the prehistoric Mohenjodaro civilisation, in the Indus Valley, to the present. The calligraphy in the book was done by Prem Behari Narain Raizda. It was published in Dehra Dun, and photolithographed at the offices of Survey of India. The entire exercise to produce the original took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of India became the law of all the States and territories of India. Rs. 1, 00, 00,000 was official estimate of expenditure on constituent assembly. It has undergone many amendments since its enactment.
The original 1950 Constitution of India is preserved in helium cases in the Parliament house, New Delhi. There are two original versions of this -- one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution can be viewed here.
The Indian constitution is the world 's longest. At its commencement, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. It is made up of approximately 145,000 words, making it the second largest active constitution in the world. In its current form (September 2012), it has a preamble, 25 parts with 448 articles, 12 schedules, 5 appendices and 101 amendments, the latest of which came into force on 8 September 2016.
The individual articles of the constitution are grouped together into the following parts:
with the words "socialist '' and "secular '' added to it in 1976 by the 42nd constitutional amendment.
Schedules are lists in the Constitution that categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and policy of the Government.
Institutions of governance -- the Parliament, the President, the Judiciary, the Executive, etc. get their power from the Constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of the Constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. It states that there shall be a President of India who shall be the head of the executive, under Articles 52 and 53. The President 's duty is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law under Article 60 of the Indian constitution. Article 74 provides that there shall be a Prime Minister as the head of union cabinet which would aid and advise the President in performing his constitutional duty. Union cabinet is collectively responsible to the House of the People per Article 75 (3).
The Constitution of India is federal in nature but unitary in spirit. The common features of a federation such as written Constitution, supremacy of Constitution, rigidity of Constitution, two government, division of powers, bicameralism and independent judiciary as well as unitary features like single Constitution, single citizenship, integrated judiciary, flexible Constitution, a strong Centre, appointment of state governor by the Centre, All - India Services, Emergency Provisions etc. can be seen in Indian Constitution. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.
Each state and each Union territory of India has its own government. Analogous to President and Prime Minister, each has a Governor (in case of states) or Lieutenant Governor (in the case of Union territories) and a Chief Minister. Article 356 permits the President to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority when a situation has arisen in which the Government of the State can not be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. This power, known as President 's rule, was abused earlier as state governments came to be dismissed on the flimsiest of grounds, and more due to the political discomfiture of the party in power at the centre. Post -- Bommai judgment, such a course of action has been rendered rather difficult, as the courts have asserted their right to review it. Consequently, very few state governments have been disbanded since.
The 73rd and 74th Amendment Act also introduced the system of Panchayati Raj in rural areas and Municipality in urban areas. Also, Article 370 of the Constitution gives special status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
The process of addition, variation or repeal of any part of the constitution by the parliament under its constituent powers, is called amendment of the constitution. The procedure is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each House of the Parliament by a majority of the total membership of that House when at least two - thirds members are present and voted. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike the ordinary bills under legislative powers of Parliament as per Article 245 (with exception to money bills), there is no provision for joint sitting of the two houses (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) of the parliament to pass a constitutional amendment bill. During recess of Parliament, President can not promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers per Article 123, Chapter III which needs constitutional amendment. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under legislative powers of Parliament, are no more valid after the addition of Article 368 (1) by Twenty - fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India.
As of September 2015, there have been 120 amendment bills presented in the parliament, out of which 100 have been passed to become Amendment Acts. Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Constitution of India is the most frequently amended national governing document in the world. The Constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many of these amendments address issues dealt with by ordinary statute in other democracies. As a result, the document is amended roughly twice a year, and three times every two years.
In 2000, the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) was set up to look into updating the constitution. Government of India, establishes term based law commissions to recommend law reforms for maximising justice in society and for promoting good governance under the rule of law.
The Supreme Court has ruled in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case that an amendment can not destroy what it seeks to modify, which means, while amending anything in the Constitution, it can not tinker with the "basic structure '' or its framework, which is immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid even though no part of the constitution is explicitly prevented from being amended, nor does the basic structure doctrine protect any single provision of the Constitution. Yet, this "doctrine of basic features '' lays down that, the Constitution when "read as a whole '', that what comes to be understood as its basic features can not be abridged, deleted or abrogated. What these "basic features '' are, have not been defined exhaustively anywhere, and whether a particular provision of the Constitution of India is a "basic feature '' is decided as and when an issue is raised before a court in an instant case.
The judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case laid down the following as the basic structure of the constitution of India:
This implies that the Parliament, while amending the Constitution, can only amend it to the extent so as to not destroy any of the aforesaid characters. The Supreme Court / High Court (s) may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, by performing Judicial review. This is typical of Parliamentary governments, where the Judiciary has to exercise an effective check on the exercise of the powers of the Parliament, which in many respects is supreme.
In the Golak Nath v. State of Punjab case of 1967, the Supreme Court ruled that the State of Punjab could not restrict any of the Fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine. Extent of land ownership and practice of profession, in this case, were held to be a fundamental right. The ruling of the Golak Nath v. State of Punjab case was eventually overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.
The Judiciary interprets the Constitution as its final arbiter. It is its duty as mandated by the Constitution, to be its watchdog, by calling for scrutiny any act of the legislature or the executive, who otherwise, are free to enact or implement these, from overstepping bounds set for them by the Constitution. It acts like a guardian in protecting the fundamental rights of the people, as enshrined in the Constitution, from infringement by any organ of the state. It also balances the conflicting exercise of power between the centre and a state or among states, as assigned to them by the Constitution.
While pronouncing decisions under its constitutional mandate, it is expected to remain unaffected by pulls and pressures exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. And crucially, independence of the judiciary has been held to be a basic feature of the Constitution, and which being inalienable, has come to mean -- that which can not be taken away from it by any act or amendment by the legislature or the executive.
Judicial review is adopted in the Constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. In the Indian constitution, Judicial review is dealt with under Article 13. Judicial Review refers that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation and all laws are under its supremacy. Article 13 states that:
Due to the adoption of the thirty - eighth amendment, the Indian Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency that infringes upon fundamental rights under article 32 i.e. Right to Constitutional Remedies. Later with the Forty - second Amendment of the Constitution of India, article 31 C was widened and article 368 (4) and 368 (5) were added, which stated that any law passed by the parliament ca n't be challenged in the court on any ground. The Supreme court in the Minerva Mills v. Union of India case said that Judicial Review is one of the basic character of the constitution and therefore ca n't be taken away quashing Article 368 (4) & (5) as well as 31 C.
"The Indian Constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people. ''
The Constitution 's provisions have consciously been worded in generalities, though not in vague terms, instead of making them rigid and static with a fixed meaning or content as in an ordinary statute, so that they may be interpreted by coming generations of citizens with the onward march of time, to apply to new and ever - changing and demanding situations, making the Constitution a living and an organic document. Justice Marshall asserts: "It is the nature of (a) Constitution that only its great outlines be marked ''. It is a document intended "to endure for ages '' and therefore, it has to be interpreted not merely on the basis of the intention and understanding of the its framers but on the experience of its working effectively, in the existing social and political context.
For instance, "right to life '' as guaranteed under Article 21, has by interpretation been expanded to progressively mean a whole lot of human rights
In the conclusion of his Making of India 's Constitution, Justice Khanna writes:
"If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people. ''
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microsoft sql server 2012 express edition free download | SQL Server Express - Wikipedia
Microsoft SQL Server Express is a version of Microsoft 's SQL Server relational database management system that is free to download, distribute and use. It comprises a database specifically targeted for embedded and smaller - scale applications. The product traces its roots to the Microsoft Database Engine (MSDE) product, which was shipped with SQL Server 2000. The "Express '' branding has been used since the release of SQL Server 2005.
SQL Server Express provides many of the features of the paid, full versions of Microsoft SQL Server database management system. However it has technical restrictions that make it unsuitable for some large - scale deployments. Differences in the Express product include:
Unlike the predecessor product, MSDE, the Express product does not include a concurrent workload - governor to "limit performance if the database engine receives more work than is typical of a small number of users. ''
SQL Server Express includes several GUI tools for database management. These include:
The predecessor product MSDE generally lacked basic GUI management tools,
Features available in SQL Server "Standard '' and better editions but absent from SQL Server Express include:
Microsoft makes SQL Server Express available as:
In the Free 2005 Express version, for example, a standard approach to installation options was provided, as follows. Generally, the SQL 2005 Express installers are packaged with the following consistent naming convention:
These optional variants have gone through several service packs (SP), and each SP installer can be used without using the older ones first:
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where is the opening scene of aurora teagarden filmed | Aurora Teagarden - wikipedia
Aurora Teagarden is a fictional character created by author Charlaine Harris. She is the protagonist of a series of eleven crime novels written from 1990 to 2017. In 2014, Hallmark Movies & Mysteries began broadcasting adaptations of the novels as an original film series entitled The Aurora Teagarden Mysteries, as part of their ' Mystery Wheel ' umbrella series with Candace Cameron Bure in the title role.
In the first book of the series, twenty - eight - year - old Aurora (Roe) Teagarden is a professional librarian and belongs to the Real Murders club, a group of 12 enthusiasts who gather monthly to study famous baffling or unsolved crimes in the town of Lawrenceton, Georgia.
On June 4, 2014, author Charlaine Harris announced on her Facebook page that the Aurora Teagarden books would be adapted into a series of two - hour films, starring Candace Cameron Bure and would air on the Hallmark Movies and Mysteries Channel.
The films in the series have been shot largely in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The films are broadcast in the USA on Hallmark Movies & Mysteries. Channel 5 took over the broadcast rights for the series in the UK.
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where did england come in the eurovision song contest | United Kingdom in the Eurovision song Contest 2017 - wikipedia
The United Kingdom participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017. The British entry for the 2017 contest in Kiev, Ukraine, was selected via the national final Eurovision: You Decide, organised by the British broadcaster BBC. Six acts competed in the national final, with the song "Never Give Up on You '' performed by Lucie Jones being selected the winner following the combination of a public televote and the votes of a professional jury panel. The song was co-written by former Eurovision winner Emmelie de Forest who participated as a songwriter for the first time.
As a member of the "Big 5 '', the United Kingdom automatically qualified to compete in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest.
Prior to the 2017 contest, the United Kingdom has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest fifty - nine times. Thus far, the United Kingdom has won the contest five times: in 1967 with the song "Puppet on a String '' performed by Sandie Shaw, in 1969 with the song "Boom Bang - a-Bang '' performed by Lulu, in 1976 with the song "Save Your Kisses for Me '' performed by Brotherhood of Man, in 1981 with the song "Making Your Mind Up '' performed by Bucks Fizz and in 1997 with the song "Love Shine a Light '' performed by Katrina and the Waves. To this point, the nation is noted for having finished as the runner - up in a record fifteen contests. Up to and including 1998, the UK had only twice finished outside the top 10, in 1978 and 1987. Since 1999, the year in which the rule was abandoned that songs must be performed in one of the official languages of the country participating, the UK has had less success, thus far only finishing within the top ten twice: in 2002 with the song "Come Back '' performed by Jessica Garlick and in 2009 with the song "It 's My Time '' performed by Jade Ewen. For the 2016 contest, the United Kingdom finished in twenty - fourth place out of twenty - six competing entries with the song "You 're Not Alone '' performed by Joe and Jake.
The British national broadcaster, BBC, broadcasts the event within the United Kingdom and organises the selection process for the nation 's entry. BBC announced that the United Kingdom would participate in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 on 6 October 2016. Between 2011 and 2015, BBC opted to internally select the British entry. For their 2016 entry, the broadcaster announced that a national final would be organised featuring a competition among several artists and songs to choose the British entry for Eurovision. The same process was used in 2017.
Eurovision: You Decide was the national final that was used to select the 2016 and 2017 entrants. Six acts compete in a televised show on 27 January 2017 hosted by Mel Giedroyc. The winner was selected via the combination of a public televote, consisting of televoting and online voting, and the votes of a professional jury panel. For the first time, the show was broadcast live on BBC Two.
On 6 October 2016, BBC announced an open submission for interested artists to submit their songs in the form of a video recording. The submission period lasted until 1 November 2016. The BBC invited the UK branch of the international OGAE fan club to assist in shortlisting the open entries and also revived its partnership with the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA) who ran a songwriting competition amongst its members. The BBC also consulted with music industry experts including writers, producers, artist managers and members of the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Former music director of RCA Records and founder of Innocent Records, Hugh Goldsmith, acted as music consultant to the BBC. Songs from all entry methods were included in a final shortlist which was presented to a professional panel, who ultimately selected six finalists to compete in the national final. The six competing songs premiered during The Ken Bruce Show on BBC Radio 2 on 23 January 2017.
Six acts competed in the televised final on 27 January 2017. In addition to their performances, musical guest performers were featured in the show. A combination of the votes from the public and the votes from an eight - member professional jury panel selected the winner, Lucie Jones. Three of the members of the eight - member jury panel provided feedback regarding the songs during the show, and they were:
Norway 's Eurovision 2009 winner Alexander Rybak was revealed as the first guest performer on 16 December 2016 and opened the show with his winning song "Fairytale ''. Pop rock band The Vamps were also revealed as guest performers on 20 January 2017 and performed their latest single "All Night '' during the show.
Following the show, during an interview on BBC Breakfast on 30 January 2017, Jones revealed that both she and the BBC would be seeking to make changes to the song, stating they had listened to feedback from viewers on social media and would look at ideas at how to make it better.
A new version of the song was recorded at Tileyard Studios in late February 2017, whilst an accompanying music video was shot soon afterwards. The new version of the song, together with the official video, was released on 11 March 2017.
It was announced that Jones would promote the song by performing at both the London Eurovision Party on 2 April 2017, and the Eurovision In Concert event in Amsterdam on 8 April 2017.
The Eurovision Song Contest 2017 took place at the International Exhibition Centre in Kiev, Ukraine, and consisted of two semi-finals on 9 and 11 May and the final on 13 May 2017. According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big 5 '' (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. As a member of the "Big 5 '', the United Kingdom automatically qualifies to compete in the final. In addition to their participation in the final, the United Kingdom is also required to broadcast and vote in one of the two semi-finals. At the semi-final allocation draw on 31 January 2017, the United Kingdom was drawn to vote in the first semi-final on 9 May; the country also performed in the first semi-final jury show on 8 May, and an extended clip of the performance was broadcast in the televised semi-final show the following evening. In the United Kingdom, the semi-finals were broadcast on BBC Four, with an average of half a million viewers watching the first semifinal and 350,000 watching the second semifinal. The number of viewers who watched the second semifinal was down almost half on the 2016 second semifinal, which had 630,000 viewers. The final was broadcast on BBC One, with a peak audience of 6.7 million viewers, down by half a million from 2016 's contest.
Below is a breakdown of points awarded to United Kingdom and awarded by United Kingdom in the first semi-final and grand final of the contest, and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows:
The following five members comprised the British jury:
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when was the last time the panthers went to the super bowl | Carolina Panthers - wikipedia
National Football League (1995 -- present)
Black, Panther Blue, Silver
Conference championships (2)
Division championships (6)
The Carolina Panthers are a professional American football team based in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Panthers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) South division. The team is headquartered in Bank of America Stadium in uptown Charlotte; also the team 's home field. They are one of the few NFL teams to own the stadium they play in, which is legally registered as Panthers Stadium, LLC. The Panthers are supported throughout the Carolinas; although the team has played its home games in Charlotte since 1996, it played home games at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina during its first season. The team hosts its annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina. The head coach is Ron Rivera.
The Panthers were announced as the league 's 29th franchise in 1993, and began play in 1995 under original owner and founder Jerry Richardson. The Panthers played well in their first two years, finishing 7 -- 9 in 1995 (an all - time best for an NFL expansion team 's first season) and 12 -- 4 the following year, winning the NFC West before ultimately losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship Game. They did not have another winning season until 2003, when they won the NFC Championship Game and reached Super Bowl XXXVIII, losing 32 -- 29 to the New England Patriots. After recording playoff appearances in 2005 and 2008, the team failed to record another playoff appearance until 2013, the first of three consecutive NFC South titles. After losing in the divisional round to the San Francisco 49ers in 2013 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2014, the Panthers returned to the Super Bowl in 2015, but lost to the Denver Broncos. The Panthers have reached the playoffs seven times, advancing to four NFC Championship Games and two Super Bowls. They have won six division titles, one in the NFC West and five in the NFC South.
The Carolina Panthers are legally registered as Panther Football, LLC. and are controlled by David Tepper, whose purchase of the team from founder Jerry Richardson was unanimously approved by league owners on May 22, 2018. The club is worth approximately US $1.56 billion, according to Forbes.
On December 15, 1987, entrepreneur Jerry Richardson announced his bid for an NFL expansion franchise in the Carolinas. A North Carolina native, Richardson was a former wide receiver on the Baltimore Colts who had used his 1959 league championship bonus to co-found the Hardee 's restaurant chain, later becoming president and CEO of TW Services. Richardson drew his inspiration to pursue an NFL franchise from George Shinn, who had made a successful bid for an expansion National Basketball Association (NBA) team in Charlotte, the Charlotte Hornets. Richardson founded Richardson Sports, a partnership consisting of himself, his family, and a number of businessmen from North and South Carolina were also recruited to be limited partners. Richardson looked at four potential locations for a stadium, ultimately choosing uptown Charlotte. In choosing the team name, the Richardsons did not run focus groups with potential fans. Their intention had always been the ' Panthers '; Jerry Richardson began driving a car with the license plate ' PNTHRS ' near the end of 1989.
To highlight the demand for professional football in the Carolinas, Richardson Sports held preseason games around the area from 1989 to 1991. The first two games were held at Carter -- Finley Stadium in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, while the third and final game was held at Williams - Brice Stadium in Columbia, South Carolina. The matchups were between existing NFL teams. In 1991, the group formally filed an application for the open expansion spot, and on October 26, 1993, the 28 NFL owners unanimously named the Carolina Panthers as the 29th member of the NFL.
The Panthers first competed in the 1995 NFL season; they were one of two expansion teams to begin play that year, the other being the Jacksonville Jaguars. The Panthers were put in the NFC West to increase the size of that division to five teams; there were already two other southeastern teams in the division, the Atlanta Falcons and the New Orleans Saints. Former Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Dom Capers was named the first head coach. The team finished its inaugural season 7 -- 9, the best performance ever from a first - year expansion team. They performed even better in their second season, finishing with a 12 -- 4 record and winning the NFC West division, as well as securing a first - round bye. The Panthers beat the defending Super Bowl champions Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round before losing the NFC Championship Game to the eventual Super Bowl champions, the Green Bay Packers. The team managed only a 7 -- 9 finish in 1997 and slipped to 4 -- 12 in 1998, leading to Capers ' dismissal as head coach.
The Panthers hired former San Francisco 49ers head coach George Seifert to replace Capers, and he led the team to an 8 -- 8 record in 1999. The team finished 7 -- 9 in 2000 and fell to 1 -- 15 in 2001, winning their first game but losing their last 15. This performance tied the NFL record for most losses in a single season and it broke the record held by the winless 1976 Buccaneers for most consecutive losses in a single season (both records have since been broken by the 2008 Lions), leading the Panthers to fire Seifert.
After the NFL 's expansion to 32 teams in 2002, the Panthers were relocated from the NFC West to the newly created NFC South division; The Panthers ' rivalries with the Falcons and Saints were maintained, and they would be joined by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. New York Giants defensive coordinator John Fox was hired to replace Seifert and led the team to a 7 -- 9 finish in 2002. Although the team 's defense gave up very few yards, ranking the second - best in the NFL in yards conceded, they were hindered by an offense that ranked as the second - worst in the league in yards gained. The Panthers improved to 11 -- 5 in the 2003 regular season, winning the NFC South and making it to Super Bowl XXXVIII before losing to the New England Patriots, 32 -- 29, in what was immediately hailed by sportswriter Peter King as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time ''. King felt the game "was a wonderful championship battle, full of everything that makes football dramatic, draining, enervating, maddening, fantastic, exciting '' and praised, among other things, the unpredictability, coaching, and conclusion. The game is still viewed as one of the best Super Bowls of all time, and in the opinion of Charlotte - based NPR reporter Scott Jagow, the Panthers ' Super Bowl appearance represented the arrival of Charlotte onto the national scene.
Following a 1 -- 7 start in 2004, the Panthers rebounded to win six of their last seven games despite losing 14 players for the season due to injury. They lost their last game to New Orleans, finishing the 2004 season at 7 -- 9. Had they won the game, the Panthers would have made the playoffs. The team improved to 11 -- 5 in 2005, finishing second in the division behind Tampa Bay and clinching a playoff berth as a wild - card. In the first round of the playoffs, the Panthers went on the road to face the New York Giants, beating them 23 -- 0 for the NFL 's first playoff shutout against a home team since 1980. The following week, they beat Chicago 29 -- 21 on the road, but lost key players Julius Peppers, a defensive end, and DeShaun Foster, a running back, who were both injured during the game. The Panthers were then defeated 34 -- 14 by the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Championship Game, ending their season. Although the Panthers went into the 2006 season as favorites to win the NFC South, they finished with a disappointing 8 -- 8 record. The team finished the 2007 season with a 7 -- 9 record after losing quarterback Jake Delhomme early in the season due to an elbow injury. In 2008, the Panthers rebounded with a 12 -- 4 regular season record, winning the NFC South and securing a first - round bye. They were eliminated in the divisional round of the playoffs, losing 33 -- 13 to the eventual NFC Champion Arizona Cardinals after Delhomme turned the ball over six times. Delhomme 's struggles carried over into the 2009 season, where he threw 18 interceptions in the first 11 games before breaking a finger in his throwing hand. The Panthers were at a 4 -- 7 record before Delhomme 's season - ending injury, and his backup, Matt Moore, led the team to a 4 -- 1 finish to the season for an 8 -- 8 overall record.
In 2010, after releasing Delhomme in the offseason, the Panthers finished with a league - worst (2 -- 14) record; their offense was the worst in the league. John Fox 's contract expired after the season ended, and the team did not retain him or his staff.
The team hired Ron Rivera to replace Fox as head coach and drafted Auburn 's Heisman Trophy - winning quarterback Cam Newton with the first overall pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. The Panthers opened the 2011 season 2 -- 6, but finished with a 6 -- 10 record, and Newton was awarded the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year award after setting the NFL record for most rushing touchdowns from a quarterback (14) in a single season and becoming the first rookie NFL quarterback to throw for over 4,000 yards in a single season. He also was the first rookie quarterback to rush for over 500 yards in a single season. In 2012, the Panthers again opened the season poorly, losing five out of their first six games, leading longtime general manager Marty Hurney to be fired in response. The team slid to a 2 -- 8 record before winning five of their last six games, resulting in a 7 -- 9 record. This strong finish helped save Rivera 's job. The Panthers had a winning season the following year, finishing with a 12 -- 4 record and winning their third NFC South title and another playoff bye, but they were beaten by the 49ers in the Divisional Round. In 2014, the Panthers opened the season with two wins, but after 12 games sat at 3 -- 8 -- 1 due in part to a seven - game winless streak. A four - game winning streak to end the season secured the team their second consecutive NFC South championship and playoff berth, despite a losing record of 7 -- 8 -- 1. The Panthers defeated the Arizona Cardinals, 27 -- 16, in the wild card round to advance to the divisional playoffs, where they lost to eventual NFC champion Seattle, 31 -- 17. The 2015 season saw the Panthers start the season 14 -- 0 and finish the season 15 -- 1, which tied for the best regular - season record in NFC history. The Panthers also secured their third consecutive NFC South championship, as well as their first overall top - seeded playoff berth. In the 2015 -- 16 playoffs, the Panthers defeated the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Divisional playoffs, 31 -- 24, after shutting them out in the first half, 31 -- 0, and the Arizona Cardinals, 49 -- 15 (highest score in NFC Championship history), in the NFC Championship Game to advance to Super Bowl 50, their first Super Bowl appearance since the 2003 season. The Panthers lost a defensive struggle to the AFC Champion Denver Broncos, 24 -- 10.
In the 2016 season, the Panthers regressed on their 15 -- 1 record from 2015, posting a 6 -- 10 record and a last - place finish in the NFC South, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2012, and losing the division title to the second - seeded Falcons, who went on to represent the NFC in Super Bowl LI.
In the 2017 season, the Panthers finished with a 11 -- 5 record and a # 5 seed and lost to the New Orleans Saints 31 - 26 in the Wild Card Round, their first loss in that round in franchise history.
On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers finalized an agreement to purchase the Panthers. The sale price was more than $2.3 billion, a record at the time. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018.
The shape of the Panthers logo was designed to mimic the outline of both North Carolina and South Carolina. The Panthers changed their logo and logotype in 2012, the first such change in team history. According to the team, the changes were designed to give their logo an "aggressive, contemporary look '' as well to give it a more three - dimensional feel. The primary tweaks were made in the eye and mouth, where the features, particularly the muscular brow and fangs, are more pronounced, creating a more menacing look. The revised logo has a darker shade of blue over the black logo, compared to the old design, which had teal on top of black.
By the time they had been announced as the 29th NFL team in October 1993, the Panthers ' logo and helmet design had already been finalized, but the uniform design was still under creation. After discussion, the Panthers organization decided on jerseys colored white, black, and blue, and pants colored white and silver. The exact tone of blue, which they decided would be "process blue '' (a shade lighter than Duke 's and darker than North Carolina 's), was the most difficult color to choose.
The team 's uniform has remained largely the same since its creation, with only minor alterations such as changing the sock color of the team 's black uniforms from blue to black and changing the team 's shoes from white to black. Richardson, a self - described traditionalist, said that no major uniform changes would be made in his lifetime.
The Panthers have three main jersey colors: black, white, and blue. Their blue jerseys, designated their alternate uniforms, are the newest and were introduced in 2002. NFL regulations allow the team to use the blue jersey up to two times in any given season. In all other games, the team must wear either their white or black jerseys; in NFL games, the home team decides whether to wear a dark or white jersey, while the away team wears the opposite. Usually the Panthers opt for white or blue when the weather is expected to be hot and for black when the weather is expected to be cold.
The Panthers typically pair their white jerseys with white pants, while the black and blue jerseys are paired with silver pants; there have only been a few exceptions to these combinations. The first such instance was in 1998, when the team paired their white jerseys with silver pants in a game against the Indianapolis Colts. The second instance was in 2012 during a game against the Denver Broncos, when they paired their black jerseys with new black pants; this created an all - black uniform, with the exception of blue socks and silver helmets. The decision to wear blue socks was made by team captain Steve Smith, who felt the blue socks gave the uniforms a more distinct appearance compared with other teams that have all - black uniforms. The all - black uniforms won the "Greatest Uniform in NFL History '' contest, a fan - voted contest run by NFL.com in July 2013. In July 2013, the team 's equipment manager, Jackie Miles, said the Panthers intended to use the all - black uniform more in the future. The Panthers wore the all - black uniform three times the following season, once each in the preseason and regular season, and the third time during the home divisional round playoff game vs the 49ers. During the Panthers ' 2015 Thanksgiving Day game against the Dallas Cowboys, they debuted an all - blue uniform as part of Nike 's "Color Rush '' series.
The team 's uniform did not change significantly after Nike became the NFL 's jersey supplier in 2012, but the collar was altered to honor former Panthers player and coach Sam Mills by featuring the phrase "Keep Pounding ''. Nike had conceived the idea, and the team supported the concept as a way to expose newer fans to the legacy of Mills, who died of cancer in 2005. Mills had introduced the phrase, which has since become a team slogan, in a speech that he gave to the players and coaches prior to their 2003 playoff game against Dallas; in the speech, Mills compared his fight against cancer with the team 's on - field battle, saying "When I found out I had cancer, there were two things I could do -- quit or keep pounding. I 'm a fighter. I kept pounding. You 're fighters, too. Keep pounding! ''
The Panthers played their first season at Memorial Stadium in Clemson, South Carolina, as their facility in uptown Charlotte was still under construction. Ericsson Stadium, called Bank of America Stadium since 2004, opened in the summer of 1996. Bank of America Stadium is owned entirely by the Panthers, making them one of the few teams in the NFL to own the facility they play in. The stadium was specially designed by HOK Sports Facilities Group for football and also serves as the headquarters and administrative offices of the Panthers. On some days the stadium offers public tours for a fee. Private tours for groups are offered for a fee seven days a week, though there are some exceptions, and such tours must be arranged in advance. Two bronze panther statues flank each of the stadium 's three main entrances; they are the largest sculptures ever commissioned in the United States. The names of the team 's original PSL owners are engraved on the base of each statue. The two people in the Panthers Hall of Honor, team executive Mike McCormack and linebacker Sam Mills, are honored with life - sized bronze statues outside the stadium. Mills, in addition to being the only player in the Hall of Honor, is the only player to have had his jersey number (# 51) retired by the Panthers as of 2016.
The Panthers have three open - air fields next to Bank of America Stadium where they currently hold their practices; during the 1995 season, when the team played their home games in South Carolina, the team held their practices at Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South Carolina. Because the practice fields, along with the stadium, are located in uptown Charlotte, the fields are directly visible from skyscrapers as well as from a four - story condominium located across the street. According to Mike Cranston, a running joke said that the Panthers ' division rivals had pooled their resources to purchase a room on the building 's top floor, and that a fire at the condominium was caused by the Panthers organization. In order to prevent people from seeing inside the field while the team is practicing, the team has added "strategically planted trees and a tarp over the... fence surrounding the fields ''. Additionally, they employ a security team to watch for and chase away any people who stop alongside the fence surrounding the field. In the event of bad weather, the team moves their practices to an indoor sports facility about 10 miles from the stadium. The team does not own this facility. The Panthers have hosted their annual training camp at Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina, since 1995.
The Panthers are supported in both North Carolina and South Carolina; South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley declared July 30, 2012, "Carolina Panthers Day '' in her state, saying that "when it comes to professional teams, the Carolina Panthers are the team that South Carolina calls their own ''. During the 2016 NFC Championship and Super Bowl, the hashtag # OneCarolina was used by college and professional sports teams from North Carolina and South Carolina to show unified support for the Panthers.
Pat Yasinskas of ESPN.com observed that while there is "a bit of a wine - and - cheese atmosphere at Panthers games... there is a strong core of die - hard fans who bring energy to Bank of America Stadium. Charlotte lives and dies with the Panthers because there are n't a lot of other options in the sports world ''. Sports Illustrated graded the Panthers as having the 10th highest "NFL Fan Value Experience '' in 2007, attributing much of the fan atmosphere to the team 's newness when compared to the established basketball fanbase. They also observed that the stadium has scattered parking lots, each of which has a different tailgating style. Some have fried chicken, pork, or Carolina - style barbecue, while others have live bands and televisions. Pickup football games in the parking lots are common, but fans tend to "behave themselves '', in part due to blue laws that prevent the sale of alcohol before noon on Sundays.
The Carolina Panthers have sold out all home games since December 2002, and their home attendance has ranked in the NFL 's top ten since 2006.
Sir Purr, an anthropomorphic black cat who wears a jersey numbered ' 00 ', has been the Panthers ' mascot since their first season. During games, Sir Purr provides sideline entertainment through skits and "silly antics ''. The mascot participates in a number of community events year - round, including a monthly visit to the patients at Levine Children 's Hospital. Sir Purr also hosts the annual Mascot Bowl, an event which pits pro and college mascots against each other during halftime at a selected Panthers home game.
The team 's cheerleaders are the Carolina Topcats, a group of 24 women who lead cheers and entertain fans at home games. The TopCats participate in both corporate and charity events. The team 's drumline is PurrCussion, an ensemble of snare, tenor, and bass drummers as well as cymbal players. PurrCussion performs for fans outside the stadium and introduces players prior to home games; it consists of drummers from across the Carolinas.
Starting with the 2012 season, the Panthers introduced the Keep Pounding Drum, inspired by the aforementioned motivational speech by Sam Mills before the team 's 2004 playoff game against the Cowboys. Prior to each home game, an honorary drummer hits the six - foot tall drum four times to signify the four quarters of an American football game. According to the team, the drummers "come from a variety of backgrounds and occupations, but all have overcome a great trial or adversity that has not only made them strong but also pushes them to make others around them stronger ''. Drummers have included current and former Panthers players, military veterans, Make - A-Wish children, and athletes from other sports, including NBA MVP and Charlotte native Stephen Curry, US women 's national soccer team players Whitney Engen and Heather O'Reilly, and 7 time NASCAR Cup Series champion Jimmie Johnson.
During the inaugural season of the Panthers, the team had an official fight song, which the team played before each home game. The song, "Stand and Cheer '', remains the team 's official fight song, but the team does not typically play it before home games. Due to negative fan reaction "Stand and Cheer '' was pulled in 1999. Since 2006, the song has returned. In recent seasons the team has played Neil Diamond 's "Sweet Caroline '' and Chairmen of the Board 's "I 'd Rather Be In Carolina '' immediately after home victories. A "keep pounding '' chant was introduced during the 2015 season which starts before the opening kickoff of each home game. As prompted by the video boards, one side of the stadium shouts "keep '' and the other side replies with "pounding ''. The chant is similar to ones that take place at college football games.
The Carolina Panthers support a variety of non-profits in North and South Carolina through the Carolina Panthers Charities. Four annual scholarships are awarded to student athletes through the Carolina Panthers Graduate Scholarship and the Carolina Panthers Players Sam Mills Memorial Scholarship programs. Carolina Panthers Charities also offers grants to non-profits that support education, athletics, and human services in the community. The Panthers and Fisher Athletic has provided six equipment grants to high school football teams in the Carolinas each year since 2010. Carolina Panthers Charities raises funds at three annual benefits: the Countdown to Kickoff Luncheon, the team 's first public event each season; Football 101, an educational workshop for fans; and the Weekend Warrior Flag Football Tournament, a two - day non-contact flag football tournament. Another annual benefit is Taste of the Panthers, a gourmet food tasting which raises funds for Second Harvest Food Bank of Metrolina.
In 2003 the Panthers and Carolinas HealthCare Foundation established the Keep Pounding Fund, a fundraising initiative to support cancer research and patient support programs. The Panthers community has raised more than $1.4 million for the fund through direct donations, charity auctions, blood drives, and an annual 5k stadium run. The Panthers and Levine Children 's Hospital coordinate monthly hospital visits and VIP game - day experiences for terminally ill or hospitalized children.
In addition to these team - specific efforts, the Panthers participate in a number of regular initiatives promoted by the NFL and USA Football, the league 's youth football development partner. These include USA Football Month, held throughout August to encourage and promote youth football; A Crucial Catch, the league 's Breast Cancer Awareness Month program; Salute to Service, held throughout November to support military families and personnel; and PLAY 60, which encourages young NFL fans to be active for at least 60 minutes each day.
Radio coverage is provided by flagship station WBT (1110 AM) and through the Carolina Panthers Radio Network, with affiliates throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, and Virginia. The Panthers ' radio broadcasting team is led by Mick Mixon, Eugene Robinson, and Jim Szoke. The radio network broadcasts pre-game coverage, games with commentary, and post-game wrap - ups. It also live - broadcasts Panther Talk, a weekly event at Bank of America Stadium which offers fans a chance to meet a player and ask questions of the staff.
National broadcasting and cable television networks cover regular season games, as well as some preseason games. Locally, Fox owned and operated station WJZY airs most regular - season games, while any home games against an AFC team air on CBS affiliate WBTV. Any appearances on Monday Night Football are simulcast on ABC affiliate WSOC - TV, while any late - season appearances on Thursday Night Football are simulcast on WBTV. Sunday night and some Thursday night games are aired on NBC affiliate WCNC - TV.
All preseason games and team specials are televised by the Carolina Panthers Television Network on flagship station WCCB in Charlotte and fourteen affiliate stations throughout the Carolinas, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee. The television broadcasting team consists of play - by - play commentator Mike Morgan, color analyst and former Panthers player Mike Rucker, and sideline reporter Pete Yanity. The network also hosts The Panthers Huddle, a weekly show focusing on the Panthers ' upcoming opponent. Panthers Gameday, the Panthers ' postgame show, is hosted by sports anchor Russ Owens and former Panthers lineman Kevin Donnalley on WCNC - TV.
The Panthers also offer game broadcasts in Spanish on an eight - station network fronted by WGSP - FM in Pageland, South Carolina, as well as additional radio affiliates in Mexico. Jaime Moreno provides the play - by - play while his nephew, Luis Moreno Jr., is the color commentator. They have become popular even among English - speaking Panther fans for their high - energy, colorful announcing style.
The Panthers have developed heated rivalries with the three fellow members of the NFC South (the Atlanta Falcons, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and New Orleans Saints). The team 's fiercest rivals are the Falcons and Buccaneers.
The Falcons are a natural geographic rival for the Panthers, as Atlanta is only 230 miles (370 kilometers) south on I - 85. The two teams have played each other twice a year since the Panthers ' inception, and games between the two teams feature large contingents of Panthers fans at Atlanta 's Mercedes - Benz Stadium.
The Panthers ' rivalry with Tampa Bay has been described as the most intense in the NFC South. The rivalry originated in 2002 with the formation of the NFC South, but became particularly heated before the 2003 season with verbal bouts between players on the two teams. It escalated further when the Panthers went to Tampa Bay and beat them in what ESPN.com writer Pat Yasinskas described as "one of the most physical contests in recent memory ''. The rivalry has resulted in a number of severe injuries for players on both teams, some of which were caused by foul play. One of these plays, an illegal hit on Tampa Bay punt returner Clifton Smith, sparked a brief melee between the teams in 2009.
During their time in the NFC West, the Panthers began developing a rivalry with the San Francisco 49ers. This rivalry faded after the NFL moved the Panthers out of the NFC West.
A relatively new rivalry, this one dates to the 2005 NFC Championship Game, in which the Seahawks won the game 31 -- 14. The rivalry started up again in 2012, when the Panthers lost a close regular season home game to a Seattle Seahawks team led by rookie quarterback Russell Wilson, 16 -- 12. In the 2013 season, the Panthers opened the season at home versus Seattle. They again lost a close game, with the final score 12 -- 7. The Seahawks would go on to win Super Bowl XLVIII. In the 2014 season, once more at Bank of America Stadium, the Seahawks defeated the Panthers in week eight, 13 -- 9. In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers faced Seattle in Seattle, notorious for being a tough opposing field to play in, and lost 31 -- 17. The Seahawks would go on to lose Super Bowl XLIX. In the 2015 season the next year, the teams faced off in Seattle, where the Panthers won another close game, 27 -- 23. In the divisional round of the playoffs, the Panthers faced Seattle at Bank of America stadium, where they had yet to beat a Russell Wilson - led Seahawks team. By halftime they led 31 -- 0, but the Seahawks rebounded and scored 24 unanswered points before the Panthers were able to seal the victory, 31 -- 24. The Panthers would go on to lose Super Bowl 50. In the 2016 season, the teams met in Seattle, where the Panthers were beaten, 40 -- 7. Since the 2012 season, Carolina is 2 -- 5 overall against Seattle and 1 -- 1 in the playoffs. The rivalry aspect stems from how close the majority of the matches have been and the fact that they have played each other seven times between 2012 and 2017 -- at least once a year. The teams did not face each other during the 2017 season.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated May 28, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 90 Active, 2 Inactive, 1 Unsigned
The Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor was established in 1997 to honor individuals for their contributions to the Carolina Panthers organization. Each inductee is honored with a life - sized bronze statue outside of Bank of America Stadium 's North Entrance, while the names of each original PSL owner are written on the black granite base at each of the six panther statues. A rule added in the mid-2000s by the Panthers organization requires all potential inductees to be retired for at least five years before they are eligible for induction.
Nominees for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, which "honor (s) individuals who have made outstanding contributions to professional football '', are determined by a 46 - member selection committee. At least 80 % of voters must approve the nominee for him to be inducted.
Jerry Richardson was the founder and original owner of the Carolina Panthers. Richardson and his family owned about 48 % of the team, with the remaining 52 % owned by a group of 14 limited partners. Richardson paid $206 million for the rights to start the team in 1993; according to Forbes, the Panthers are worth approximately $1 billion as of 2012. They ranked the Carolina Panthers as the 16th-most valuable NFL team and the 23rd most valuable sports team in the world.
Mike McCormack, a Hall of Fame lineman for the Cleveland Browns and former coach and executive for the Seattle Seahawks, was the Panthers ' first team president, presiding in that role from 1994 until his retirement in 1997; McCormack was inducted as the first person in the Carolina Panthers Hall of Honor later that year. Jerry Richardson 's son, Mark, was appointed as the team 's second president in 1997 and served in that role until he stepped down in 2009. His brother Jon, who had been president of Bank of America Stadium, stepped down at the same time. The resignations of Mark and Jon Richardson were unexpected, as it was thought that the two would eventually take over the team from their father. Mark Richardson was replaced by Danny Morrison, who had previously served as the athletic director of both Texas Christian University and Wofford College, Richardson 's alma mater.
On May 16, 2018, David Tepper, formerly a minority owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers finalized an agreement to purchase the Carolina Panthers, for more than $2.3 billion, a record at the time. The agreement was approved by the league owners on May 22, 2018.
The Carolina Panthers have had four head coaches. Dom Capers was the head coach from 1995 to 1998 and led the team to one playoff appearance. Counting playoff games, he finished with a record of 31 -- 35 (. 470). George Seifert coached the team from 1999 to 2001, recording 16 wins and 32 losses (. 333); he is the only head coach in team history not to have led the team to a playoff appearance. John Fox, the team 's longest - tenured head coach, led the team from 2002 to 2010 and coached the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl XXXVIII which the Panthers lost. Including playoff games, Fox ended his tenure with a 78 -- 74 (. 513) record, making him the only Panthers coach to finish his tenure with the team with a winning record. Ron Rivera, the team 's current head coach, has held the position since 2011 and has led the team to three playoff appearances including Super Bowl 50 which the Panthers also lost. Counting playoff games, he has a career record of 67 -- 51 -- 1 (. 567). Statistically, Rivera has the highest winning percentage of any Panthers head coach.
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Since they began playing football in 1995, the Panthers have been to four NFC Championship Games; they lost two (1996 and 2005) and won two (2003 and 2015). The Panthers have won six division championships: the NFC West championship in 1996 and the NFC South championship in 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014, and 2015. They are the first and only team to win the NFC South back to back and have won the NFC South more times than any other team in the division. They have finished as runners - up in their division six times, finishing second - place in the NFC West in 1997 and 1999 and finishing second - place in the NFC South in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2012. They have qualified for the playoffs 8 times, most recently in 2017.
Kicker John Kasay is the team 's career points leader. Kasay scored 1,482 points during his 16 seasons (1995 -- 2010) with the Panthers. Quarterback Cam Newton, who has played for the Panthers since 2011, is the career passing leader, having thrown for 20,257 yards over his six seasons with the team. Running back Jonathan Stewart is the career rushing leader for the Carolina Panthers. Stewart, during his tenure with the team (2008 -- 2018), rushed for 6,868 yards with the Panthers. Wide receiver Steve Smith, the team 's leading receiver, recorded 12,197 receiving yards during his 13 - year (2001 -- 2013) tenure with the team.
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who sings the song sign of the times | Sign of the Times (Harry Styles song) - wikipedia
"Sign of the Times '' is the debut solo single by English singer and songwriter Harry Styles for his self - titled debut studio album. It is his first single outside of the boy band One Direction. Released on 7 April 2017, by Erskine and Columbia Records, it was written by Styles, Ryan Nasci, Mitch Rowland and its producers Jeff Bhasker, Tyler Johnson, and Alex Salibian. Musically, it was defined by critics as a pop rock and soft rock ballad. Its music video was released on 8 May.
Early rumours about Styles going on a solo career sparkled in 2015, when it was reported that Sony Music wanted Styles to release a solo album during One Direction 's hiatus. By the end of 2015, four new songs written and performed by Styles were registered on the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) online database, which was believed to be for his potential debut solo album at the time. Shortly after, Styles signed up with American agent Jeffrey Azoff and moved to Columbia Records. In September 2016, Styles was on the cover of Another Man, which led the media to expect a new album in the future.
In February 2017, chairman and CEO of Columbia Records, Rob Stringer, admitted that the album was close to finish and called it "authentic ''. A month later, it was reported that the album sounded like David Bowie and Queen, while also being revealed that he worked on the album with only one producer, Jeff Bhasker. It was also hinted that the lead single would be released in late April or early May and it sounded "like it would be a smash in any decade ''. In the same month, US radio host Elvis Duran accidentally revealed during his show that Styles ' debut single would be released on 7 April 2017. On 25 March, Styles teased the new single with a television ad during The Voice UK. On 31 March, the singer revealed through social media that his single is titled "Sign of the Times ''. On 7 April, the song premiered during Nick Grimshaw 's breakfast show on BBC Radio 1.
The song is a pop rock, soft rock, piano ballad, with glam rock influences. According to a Billboard writer, it "folds in psychedelic soul, indie rock and spacey pop ''. The "apocalyptic '' power ballad shows influences from 1970s British rock. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Styles stated, "The song is written from a point of view as if a mother was giving birth to a child and there 's a complication. The mother is told, ' The child is fine, but you 're not going to make it. ' The mother has five minutes to tell the child, ' Go forth and conquer. ' ''
According to the song credits provided by Styles ' label, the track was co-written by the song 's producer, Jeff Bhasker, as well as his frequent collaborators and track co-producers Alex Salibian and Tyler Johnson. Songwriters also include Mitch Rowland, Ryan Nasci and Styles himself. Rowland played guitar and drums, Nasci the bass and Bhasker the piano, keyboard and lap steel parts. The track was recorded at Village Studios in Los Angeles and Geejam Hotel Recording Studio in Port Antonio, Jamaica. The song was mixed by Mark "Spike '' Stent.
Directed by Woodkid, the song 's music video was released on 8 May. It features Styles singing in a meadow, and soaring in the skies, walking on water. A writer from USA Today described Styles to be "auditioning to be Marvel Comics next superhero or in a new biblical epic ''. It was filmed on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. The video 's stunt pilot, Will Banks, stated that Styles flew more than 1,550 feet high during the shoot. Banks also claimed that no green screen or CGI effects were employed during filming. A stunt double was used for some scenes.
Billboard 's Gil Kaufman wrote, "Every artist is an accumulation of their influences, and in (this song) they come fast and furious, as Styles appears to be both showing his range and making a clear effort to step boldly away from the manufactured, plastic pop of his past ''. Kaufman opined it "rakes in influences from Pink Floyd and David Bowie to Queen, Spacehog, Suede, Coldplay, The Beatles, Eric Carmen and Prince ''. Also for Billboard, Jason Lipshutz wrote it is "resolute, determined, wholly committed to its messaging and sound, radio trends be damned. Although it wears its influences on its sleeve (Bowie) nothing about this single bends toward someone else 's expectations ''. He concluded saying the song "sounds effortless, but to arrive without any incomplete features is an accomplishment in a music industry where pop artists are expected to produce new music at an unsustainable rate ''.
Tim Jonze of The Guardian described it as "a ballad, but not so much in the boyband style '' and compared the song to the music of American indie rock band The Walkmen. Jonze also addressed early rumors that the song would be influenced by the music of David Bowie, noting "If it is indeed Bowie-esque, then it 's the Bowie of Hunky Dory ''. Jamieson Cox in Pitchfork felt the "skyscraping Bowie ballad '' manages to sound like both fun. 's "We Are Young '' and Coldplay 's "The Scientist ''. NPR 's Ann Powers argued the song mirrors more closely "Britpop anthems '' like Blur 's "Tender '' or The Verve 's "Bittersweet Symphony '' "than anything Bowie released in his prime ''.
Writing for Rolling Stone, Brittany Spanos thought it "aligns much more with the Seventies - inspired pop - rock of One Direction 's more recent albums like Made in the A.M. ''. Anjali Raguraman from The Straits Times considered it the "strongest '' track on the album, saying "the conviction of his delivery is beyond his years ''.
In The Atlantic, Spencer Kornhaber opined that the song "continues with One Direction 's po - mo project of recycling classic - rock sounds as bubblegum. But he 's now embracing such sounds with more abandon, less chirpiness, some trend bucking, and the kind of uplifting lyrics that nod to planetary anxiety ''. Kornhaber described the song opens with ballad piano, "encroaching '' violins, and Styles "crooning in pain '', "but then there 's the bwang of a guitar and the song rockets into an arena - rock reverie that feels so, so familiar to anyone who remembers the ' 90s but also so, so foreign to today 's landscape ''.
In The Telegraph, Alice Vincent described it as a "swooning piano ballad with somewhat overdone production '' and opined, "it is also... a little boring. A big, blousy singalong which shows off Styles 's vocal prowess -- especially with an unexpected, slightly yelping falsetto bridge -- but is n't enormously fun ''. Roising O'Connor of The Independent gave it three out of five stars, and concluded, "it 's going to take something bigger than this one track to assert Styles as a serious artist. '' Since it was released on the 30th anniversary of Prince 's Sign o ' the Times, Spin 's Andy Cush commented, "it 's clear that this is Styles 's attempt to distinguish himself as an artist with real depth. But the music itself has almost nothing to do with Prince -- instead, think Oasis, Elton John at his most bombastic, ' 70s John Lennon ''. Cush noted it "has only those three chords, and it goes straight for cruising altitude with an onslaught of cymbals and guitar on the first chorus, expecting you to be moved without pausing to consider why ''.
Rolling Stone ranked it as the best song released in 2017. Billboard staff considered it the 8th best song of the year. Spin staff ranked it as the 13th best boy - band solo debut single.
"Sign of the Times '' reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with a combined sales of 62,900 units. In its first week, it sold 39,000 downloads together with 3.5 million streams that give 23,472 equivalent units, pausing Ed Sheeran 's run of 13 weeks at the top of the chart with "Shape of You ''.
In the United States, the song debuted at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. In its first week, it sold 142,000 copies (topping Digital Songs), earned 16.5 million streams and 23 million airplay impressions.
Styles performed the song on 15 April 2017 episode of Saturday Night Live 's 42nd season. On 21 April, Styles appeared on the BBC 's The Graham Norton Show, for his first solo performance in his native UK. He also performed the song on The Late Late Show with James Corden. Styles performed the song on The Today Show on May 9. He also performed it at The Garage in London, England on 13 May and at the Troubadour in West Hollywood, California on 19 May. He performed it live on a French talk show, Quotidien, on 26 April 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who put their hand in the cookie jar | Who stole the cookie from the cookie jar? - Wikipedia
"Who Stole the Cookie from the Cookie Jar? '' or the Cookie Jar Song is a sing - along game of children 's music. The song is an infinite - loop motif, where each verse directly feeds into the next. The game begins with the children sitting or standing, arranged in an inward - facing circle.
The song usually begins with the group leader asking who stole a cookie from an imaginary (or sometimes real) cookie jar, followed by the name of one of the children in the circle. The child questions the "accusation, '' answered by an affirmation from the "accuser, '' followed by continued denial from the "accused. '' The accuser asks who stole the cookie, followed by the accused 's saying the name of another child in the circle. The call - and - answer is potentially infinitely recursive, limited only by the number of participants or the amount of time the participants wish to spend on it.
Sometimes, a clapping or snapping beat is used by the children in the circle. Sometimes, the other children in the group sing along with the "accuser '' after the "accused '' has been identified. Some variations on the theme include the use by teachers of the song as a lesson in keeping with a beat and improvisation. As with many children 's songs, there can be many variations on the execution of the performance.
The song 's lyrics are usually:
This is followed by the "accused '' saying the name of someone else, as "(name of a child in the circle) stole the cookie from the cookie jar, '' and the subsequent back - and - forth lines are repeated. The song may be repeated ad infinitum or it may end - if it is being performed as part of a game, where members of the group are eliminated by failing to keep up with the prescribed beat or eliminated as a result of being chosen as one of the accused.
The song, and game, is featured as one of the sequences in Grandpa 's Magical Toys; the only accusation that is missing is that of the Dutch Girl, and she reveals that she got all the toys and the last cookie. The song was also done on three episodes of Barney & Friends. A variation of the song has been used in Smart4life commercials in the US beginning in 2009. The song was also used in the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein. '' The song was used in The Simpsons episode "Kamp Krustier '' where Chief Wiggum arrests two kids after they sing it in a group activity.
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bulk and skull find out who the power rangers are | Bulk and Skull - wikipedia
Bulk and Skull are fictional characters in the Power Rangers universe. They appeared as permanent cast members from Mighty Morphin Power Rangers until Power Rangers in Space. Bulk (by himself) was a recurring character in Power Rangers Lost Galaxy and Skull made a cameo appearance in the first episode, making the pair the two longest consecutively appearing characters in the program. They later returned for a Power Rangers Wild Force cameo and in Power Rangers Samurai, where Bulk is teaching Skull 's son Spike how to be a samurai.
Farkas "Bulk '' Bulkmeier (Paul Schrier) and Eugene "Skull '' Skullovitch (Jason Narvy), from the very beginning, provided much of the comic relief in the series, usually through an over-the - top slapstick; their actions were often punctuated with cartoony sound effects, and they came with their own leitmotif, which Jason Narvy has said was based on Skull 's high pitched, whiny laugh and "fat guy: tuba ''. This was highlighted by their physical appearances: Bulk was heavyset and Skull was lean, similar in style to the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy. Bulk was the dominant member of the duo, and Skull would usually follow and attempt to emulate Bulk. Such is exemplified when Skull would repeat whatever Bulk had said, usually beginning with "Yeah ''.
In the pilot for the TV show, a gang of punk bullies included an unnamed character played by Paul Schrier. One of the gang members hits on Kimberly but she rejects his advances. This leads to the entire gang engaging in line dancing at a bowling alley with the five Rangers - to - be. Each one is disposed of by a typical gang manner, such as a generic "Punk # 5 '' played by Paul Schrier sliding into the bowling pins when kicked in the back by Jason. Another gang member is unwittingly hit by Billy. Jason Narvy is not present in the pilot. Schrier got the role, according to him, by turning up ten minutes earlier than the other auditioning actors, so the director standing in for "Punk # 5 '' at the audition got him to do it.
In a second pilot, shown at Power Morphicon 2007, Schrier was playing a named character (Bulk) and was now the leader of the gang, which included Jason Narvy as Skull. Narvy had originally auditioned for Billy and was called back to audition for Skull, as, according to Narvy, the actor who played "Punk # 1 '' in the pilot was thought to look too intimidating to play a comedic character. He turned up to his audition intending to be obnoxious, as he was tired of the industry at the time, which helped get the role; Narvy and Schrier quickly bonded during rehearsals.
This version of Bulk was defeated in a similar slapstick style to the show - he 's eventually tied up by a skipping rope - but is more menacing than he 'd be in the series, physically intimidating Kimberly (who sounds worried about angering him), using some of the lines from "Punk # 1 '', and throwing aside both the female punk & Skull when they get in his way. The debut of the pilot 's Bulk and Skull would end up as the ending scene in the episode "Big Sisters ''.
Bulk and Skull started out as bullies at Angel Grove High School, usually targeting the Power Rangers in the ' B plots ' of the episode. They were regulars at Angel Grove 's Youth Center. Their actions were motivated by greed and ego in the first season. Wacky schemes abound (such as creating an obviously - fake kung fu style called "Cockroach Kung Fu '' to attempting to catch fish or claiming reward money for themselves) always ends in failure and / or humiliation. They are also frequently put in detention by Angel Grove High 's somewhat - antagonistic principal, Mr. Caplan.
In early episodes, as with the second pilot, Bulk and Skull had accomplices: a female punk is with them in "Teamwork '' and "Food Fight '', and a black male punk in "Food Fight ''. Early scripts for Season 1 show the female punk was meant to be a recurring character named Sharkie. She was written into scripts up into "The Trouble With Shellshock '' (The name, was differently spelled, and was already in use on Fox Kids).
Skull had a crush on Kimberly, and Bulk appeared to want to win Trini 's heart, as well, in a few episodes. Whenever the girls were alone, they tried their best to win them over, although it resulted in Bulk and Skull 's humiliation. When Kimberly and Trini are with the four male Rangers, they are called six "nerds '' and "geeks '' (despite the fact that Kimberly originally appeared to be ditzy and materialistic, not intellectual), and occasionally "dorks '' and "losers '', as well, among other insults. This group of demeaning insults and name - calling would eventually turn against them by the time of the episode "A Friend in Need '', when two teenage girls call them as such throughout the episode. This was later explained by Paul Schrier himself that the two were being angry at the world and jealous of the ranger teens, hence the namecalling, shoving, and bullying that they originally did.
Often, the duo got themselves mixed up with some of the villains ' schemes. In "Green with Evil: Part IV '', the two tried to flee the city in a bus, but were taken hostage by the giant Goldar. The Power Rangers had to summon the Megazord to save them from being thrown over a cliff. In "The Wedding '', when they went to Australia with the Rangers for Spring Break, Alpha 5, who was under the influence of a brainwashing computer virus, sent them to the outback, where they encountered Australian wildlife up close. After Alpha recovered from the virus and sent them back, they decided that if anyone asked, "nothing happened! '' In the following episode, "Return of the Green Ranger: Part I '', the Wizard of Deception brainwashed them into going to get a lock of Tommy 's hair, but failed miserably. The Wizard angrily put Bulk and Skull to sleep for their failure.
During the early part of the first season, Bulk and Skull would occasionally be presented as threats, physically intimidating or attempting to assault the Rangers or others; Bulk even had a bench press record in "A Pressing Engagement ''. Over time, while still being antagonists, their more aggressive nature was toned down and they would get some more sympathetic portrayals. In the early "Foul Play in the Sky '', which had footage shot later in production and then edited in later, Bulk and Skull were even shown with a normal hobby (plane - spotting) and politely asking to join Kimberly; "A Pig Surprise '' would have them happily looking after a pig; and in the three - part '' A Ninja Encounter '' in season two, when Bulk spotted a runaway baby stroller he and Skull immediately sprang into action to help out, and the duo would spend the rest of the episode looking after the baby boy after his father was abducted by Goldar. This was also the first time the duo were seen on skateboards which, despite their generally unathletic nature, they appeared moderately skilled at. As noted, they would even get to save the Rangers and would sometimes be imperiled. Bulk and Skull even got to save the Rangers by fighting the Scatterbrain monster.
During the second season, they attempted to discover the secret identities of the Power Rangers and repeatedly failed, eventually giving up by the time of the episode "A Friend in Need Part III ''. During this, Bulk and Skull started showing greater intelligence and initiative than before, coming up with complicated plans and utilizing bizarre gadgets. Ironically enough, they discovered the Rangers ' identities twice. At one time, they saved the Rangers when the Ranger team lost their memories and de-morphed in front of them - Bulk and Skull tricked the Scatterbrain monster to fire his amnesia beam through a prism, distorting the beam and restoring the Rangers ' memories. Unfortunately, Bulk and Skull lost their short - term memories in the process due to being flung back by the amnesia beam and landing on their heads. The second time, a psychic pointed the Ranger teens out to Bulk, but he did not believe her as they were holding a picture of the morphed Ranger team at the time when it was just given to them by Ernie.
A change of direction for the duo occurred in the third season of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, when they joined the Angel Grove Junior Police Force (having heard girls like men in uniform) and first met Lieutenant Stone, explicitly changing from stereotypical bullies into good natured goofs; Ernie and the Rangers expressed pride at the duo for graduating police training. Lt. Stone became a permanent character himself, frequently giving Bulk and Skull orders that they failed to perform, leading eventually to his anger (rather than just their humiliation). Despite this, Bulk and Skull were close to Lt. Stone and would be shown trying to perform police duties (albeit incompetently) and occasionally try to help people out: in "The Changing of the Zords Part 1 '' they rushed to save children from drowning (who were not), in "Follow That Cab '' they tried to stop a thief who 'd stolen Kimberly 's car and managed to apprehend him, in "Rita 's Pita '' they used their own money as donations to an elderly home to cover for their mistake, and they assisted in a housing project in "Another Brick in the Wall ''.
A number of season three jokes would also be based around Bulk and Skull constantly running into monsters and being comically terrified; in "The Changing of the Zords '', Lt. Stone finally questioned why they always seem to run into monsters. The best way to describe them is "monster magnets ''.
Bulk and Skull are regressed to children due to Master Vile 's Orb of Doom. They would act like the bullies they were in the first season. Unlike what happened when Lord Zedd regressed time, Bulk and Skull did not have their memories altered to believe they were already acquainted with everyone they knew when Master Vile activated the orb. As a result, they did not recognize any of the rangers other than Billy. Bulk is briefly turned into the "Brat Boy '' monster by Rita and Zedd during the course of the mini-series and battles the Aquitian Rangers, but soon rebels against his masters as his human self surfaces from within, prompting Rita and Zedd to return him to normalacy in retaliation.
Paul Schrier directed a few "Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers '' episodes, including "Attack of the 60 ' Bulk '', which he also appeared in briefly, despite his character at the time being reduced to the age of a child. Schrier (under the name of Paul Schrier II) had also directed a few episodes of Power Rangers: Turbo during the first half of the season (while his character of Bulk was a chimp).
During Power Rangers Zeo, Bulk and Skull remained members of the Junior Police Force (even getting a new motorcycle with a sidecar). They remained members until Bulk 's attempts to woo the police chief 's daughter accidentally caused Lt. Stone to be fired. They quit the force out of loyalty to Stone and joined him when he opened his own detective agency. They later became full - fledged detectives after taking the required exams during a monster attack. They actually failed, but earned extra credit for taking the exam during a monster attack. (Having not seen the attack with their own eyes, the duo merely thought Stone was testing their resolve via elaborate methods. Upon learning the truth after getting their grades, they promptly fainted.) While they initially continued to be scared of monsters, their sub-plots would shift towards their detective work after they switched jobs. In "The Joke 's On Blue '', they also had to clash with a rival gang of detectives, Humphrey and Bogart, who were trying to frame a new student named Robert for a series of practical jokes all over town, until Kat and Tanya helped expose the rival detectives as the practical jokers with the help of the owner of the novelty shop in identifying both Humphrey and Bogart as his best customers.
Also, during this time, Bulk and Skull secretly hosted Rito and Goldar, who lost their memories after setting up the bomb that destroyed the Command Center at the end of Mighty Morphin ' Power Rangers, adopting them as their "pets '' (though the two monsters really were more like Bulk and Skull 's servants). However, when Rito and Goldar regained their memories, they turned on their masters and went back to Lord Zedd and Rita.
In one episode, Skull shows he is an adept classical pianist by playing Chopin 's Revolutionary Etude. While Skull enjoyed classical music, it was something of a hidden shame behind his tough guy image. Fearing mockery, he kept his talent hidden even from Bulk. This moment shows that the Rangers thought of Bulk and Skull as their friends and vice versa, when Skull confides in them about his talents and they offer him his support, advising Bulk would do the same if he were truly his friends. After seeing Skull perform at a recital, Bulk was honestly moved and praised his friend, joining him on stage to applaud him.
Perhaps Bulk and Skull 's greatest achievement during their time in the series occurred during this season. In the "King for a Day '' two - parter, they 're accidentally trapped in Prince Gasket 's prison while looking for a lost Tommy. They encountered another prisoner, a reptilian alien named Tritor, who believed them to be great heroic warriors that Gasket had abducted. The duo play up this facade, and end up being part of Tritor 's battle to bring down the prison. They get to defeat a squad of Cogs and help destroy the forcefield that trapped the Rangers in the Machine Arena. Before sending them back to Earth, Tritor says that they will be legends and honored on his homeworld of Horath (which they have just helped save). Nobody believes their later tale, except for Tommy, Katherine and Jason (who overhear them boasting about it). However, thinking they are just being further mocked, the duo storm off.
Zeo concluded with Bulk and Skull accepting an offer to work for an agency in France on a top secret mission, They departed much to the dismay and frustration of Stone. This major plot point was dropped without explanation in between Zeo and filming of Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie. The main reason being was that Zeo was originally the last series the duo were set to appear on, with a spin - off show being planned. However, this would be cancelled.
At the beginning of the movie, Bulk, Skull, and Lieutenant Stone are again seen working as police officers (the reason for this remains unexplained until the first episode of Power Rangers Turbo). Later, while on a secluded road, they are abducted by Elgar to be used as sacrifices for Maligore, scrambling their brains in the process to make them easier to deal with. When Divatox deems the pair inadequate as sacrifices, they are thrown below deck on the Subcraft. Due to the brain scramble, they come to be under the impression that they are Antonio Bandaras (Skull) and an unnamed German (Bulk), much to the annoyance of their inmates, Jason and Kimberly. In spite of their disoriented state of mind, they are able to successfully escape the Subcraft with Jason and Kimberly and are later rescued by the Power Rangers, who presumably help them restore their minds back to the way they were.
At the start of Power Rangers Turbo, Bulk and Skull are given a chance to rejoin the Police Force with Lt. Stone. Unfortunately, their assignment inadvertently brings them into contact with Elgar, who turns them into chimpanzees.
Bulk and Skull would remain chimpanzees for several episodes. They are voiced by the actors who play Bulk and Skull, however only the audience can understand them. Jerome Stone takes the chimpanzees into his care (claiming that they seem ' familiar '). They make several attempts to inform him and others of their true identities, but are unsuccessful. (They were transformed into Chimps so Narvy and Schrier would have time to work on a proposed spin - off series for the characters which would have seen them operate a hotel, featuring El Vez, the "Mexican Elvis '' (a local personality in Southern California). The attempts never made it to a final production, and the actors returned full - time to the series.)
Later, four of the Rangers are shrunk by one of Divatox 's monsters. They use one of her submarine 's torpedoes (her way of making monsters grow) to return to normal. Bulk and Skull happened to be near the impact site and are returned to normal as a result, though they are also temporarily made invisible. This state only lasts for a small number of episodes, until they become visible. When they return, Stone asks where they 've been, to which they reply, "Just monkeying around. ''
Out of high school and no longer on the force, Bulk and Skull needed something to do. Stone arranged for them to get jobs -- ranging from pizza delivery to construction. They were always fired from them, so they usually had new jobs in every episode they appeared in. Also during this time, they got to know the second generation of Turbo Rangers. During most of the season, the Rangers were used to their silly antics and tolerated them, but they seemed to like the two, with T.J. specifically treating them as his friends. Notably, in "Parts and Parcel '', Bulk and Skull are suspected of stealing and T.J. outright states to the Rangers that he knows they would not do that, and as the Red Ranger, he goes on to prove them innocent.
In "Save Our Ship, '' Bulk and Skull spot a UFO approaching Earth. They end up going to work for Professor Phenomenus, who is constantly on the search for aliens on Earth. The professor immediately proved to be very odd, but also quite brilliant. The trio 's antics frequently saw them crossing paths with the Space Rangers (whenever they were on Earth, of course). Due to the Ranger 's adventures often taking them off Earth, Bulk and Skull appeared less frequently than in previous seasons.
In "Countdown to Destruction '', Bulk and Skull undergo their most noteworthy change. The Space Rangers had battled the invading forces of Astronema, but were overwhelmed and forced to retreat. Astronema demanded that the Rangers be turned over to her or else Earth would be destroyed. When other civilians openly question the Ranger 's dependability, Bulk says, "The Rangers have never let us down before. We have to believe they 'll be here. '' The next morning, the Rangers (sans Andros, who left to board the Dark Fortress) intend to turn themselves in to save Earth. However, Bulk suddenly announces he 's a Ranger, prompting Skull, Professor Phenomenus and every other present civilian to do the same. A frustrated Astronema orders their destruction, but then the real Space Rangers reveal themselves (Bulk is stunned to learn the Rangers were "them ''). As the Rangers battle Elgar, the Quantrons and the Piranhatrons, Bulk & Skull have arguably their most defining moment. Bulk, inspired by the Rangers, rallies the civilians together to "get in there '' and he and Skull lead the charge to help the Rangers in battle, Bulk fighting off a Quantron to protect Zhane and Skull pulling a Piranhatron off Ashley and throwing it away. After Zordon 's energy wave destroys the invading forces, Bulk, Skull, and Professor Phenomenous are among those celebrating.
In the original plans for in Space, Bulk and Skull were going to form a volunteer Citizen Force Group to protect Angel Grove while the Rangers were away.
Bulk and Professor Phenomenus board the space station Terra Venture for its interstellar journey. Certain that they were forgetting something, Bulk and the Professor realized too late that Skull was not with them. Skull had overslept and did not wake up in time to join them.
Sometime into Terra Venture 's journey, the two were working at the station 's restaurant, the Comet Cafe. Mike Corbett thought they were supposed to be working in the science division. Despite Professor Phenomenus ' attempted spin, Bulk clarified that they had been fired. At the end of the series, Bulk and Phenomenus survived Terra Venture 's crash and evacuation to Mirinoi. After the Galaxy Rangers saved the people from Trakeena 's last attack, Bulk and the Professor were among those cheering them.
During the Power Rangers Wild Force episode "Forever Red '', Bulk and Skull made a special cameo appearance, though how Bulk returned from Mirinoi is never explained.
Bulk and Skull were shown as servers and managers of a tropical - themed bar called "Bulkmeier 's ''. Tommy Oliver, the veteran Power Ranger, is also present. In this episode, Bulk and Skull were shown having a conversation about the early days of Power Rangers - in particular, Bulk is bragging to Skull about how he once met Lord Zedd and Rita Repulsa. Skull feigns interest before pointedly reminding him that he did, too. Bulk takes a call from Andros that was meant for Tommy, and the two seemed somewhat intimidated by the idea of talking to Tommy despite having known him for years; they may be aware that he 's a Ranger.
In the original cut of "Forever Red '', their scene went on longer. The two would try to refer to more monsters to one - up each other (including later monsters they had not seen on screen; Skull stated he was avoiding Phenomenous; and the characters are wary of Tommy because he 's their boss and the real owner of Bulkmeier 's. (As this was never aired, it is not taken as canon and was contradicted by the later Power Rangers Dino Thunder.) In an earlier outline of Forever Red, Bulk & Skull were not going to be present but Tommy would pass up a T - shirt of "the famous two - man rock band Bulk & Skull ''.
This was Schrier 's final on - screen appearance for nine years until his return on Power Rangers Samurai, and Narvy 's final appearance until the Power Rangers Super Samurai episode "Samurai Forever ''. Between Lost Galaxy and Wild Force, Schrier was still involved with the PR Crew, voicing Infinitor in Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue and Severax in Power Rangers Time Force.
Power Rangers Samurai follows Bulk trying to train Skull 's son Spike in the ways of the Samurai, but failing each time. The two of them operated out of a converted garage. Due to Bulk 's sister 's marriage with Skull, Spike addresses him as "Uncle Bulk '' - he had to be reminded to call him "Sensei '' during training. Much like his father, Spike has a big crush on the Pink Ranger.
Skull made a brief appearance in the Power Rangers Super Samurai finale, "Samurai Forever '', where Skull picks up his son; he arrives in a limo with a suit. Bulk and Skull size each other up and Bulk remarks he 's changed, but after a brief tease of conflict they 're shown to still be friends. Skull remains accident - prone as he and Spike hit their heads on a sign when waving good - bye to Bulk.
In the original casting sides, Bulk and Spike were not present and the comic relief were two singing roadsweepers "Big Mack '' and "Skinny Jack ''.
Bulk and Skull participated in the charity skydive with the Ranger teens, but landed in a construction site. They 're later seen during a party at Ernie 's, and assist the rangers ' young friend Fred Kelman and the other kids in stopping the parents of Angel Grove from leaping to their deaths. When the movie ends with a celebration at Angel Grove harbor, thanking the Power Rangers for saving the world, Bulk and Skull are offended, even though they played a major part in saving lives.
Around the time of Zeo, Saban planned to make a Bulk and Skull comedy spinoff show, where they would run a hotel (Jason Narvy has said that he thinks it was "their grandmothers ' hotel ''). A Mexican Elvis impersonator was going to be a supporting character. Narvy claims that the video release The Good, The Bad, and the Stupid was put out as a "test market '' and when "no one out there bought it '', Saban cancelled the plans. This is also the reason why the characters were turned into chimpanzees in Turbo as the actors who played them were busy shooting the pilot for their spin - off.
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you don't bring me flowers neil diamond barbra streisand | You Do n't Bring Me Flowers - wikipedia
"You Do n't Bring Me Flowers '' is a song that hit the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1978. It is a song about two lovers who have drifted apart while they "go through the motions '' and heartache of life together.
The song was written by Neil Diamond with Alan Bergman and Marilyn Bergman for the ill - fated TV show All That Glitters. The song was intended to be the theme song, but Norman Lear changed the concept of the show and the song was no longer appropriate. Diamond then expanded the track from 45 seconds to 3: 17, adding instrumental sections and an additional verse. The Bergmans contributed to the song 's lyrics.
In 1977, Diamond released the album I 'm Glad You 're Here with Me Tonight, which included the track "You Do n't Bring Me Flowers '' as a solo performance. Early in 1978, Barbra Streisand covered the song on her album Songbird.
The roots of the duet version, as chronicled in myriad Streisand and Diamond biographies as well as Streisand 's Just for the Record box set, revolve around WAKY - AM / Louisville KY program director, Gary Guthrie, who spliced the two solo tracks together as a going away present to his wife, whom he had just divorced. As the real life fairytale behind the song unfolded, it triggered a media buzz worldwide from Good Morning America and People magazine to the BBC. Interest in the duet caused such a clamor on the retail level that Columbia Records was compelled to bring Streisand and Diamond into the studio to record an "official '' version in October 1978. The song reached number one on the Hot 100 chart for two non-consecutive weeks in December 1978, producing the third number - one hit for both singers. Acknowledgment and gratitude for Guthrie came from CBS with a Gold record plaque, flowers from Diamond and a telegram from Streisand. The duo performed the song at the 1980 Grammy Awards show, a performance released on the 1994 album Grammy 's Greatest Moments Volume I.
Chicago 's WGN radio personality Roy Leonard and producer Peter Marino are also credited for coming up with the idea to create this duet. Leonard and Marino had put the separately recorded versions together and played them on the air.
Radio personalities Jack Hood and Gene Kruszewski of WJR - AM / Detroit also cut a duet version of the song which was a local and regional hit and helped escalate the song 's novelty. Columbia Records granted gold records to Hood and Kruszewski in recognition of their efforts.
Diamond and Streisand had planned to star in a motion picture based on the song, but such plans were canceled when Diamond starred in a remake of The Jazz Singer.
Concurrent with the success of Diamond and Streisand 's version of the song, country singers Jim Ed Brown and Helen Cornelius released a country version of the song which reached number ten on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in early 1979. Also, in the same year, Lynda Carter (of Wonder Woman fame) re-performed this song on Dick Emery 's British variety show, The Dick Emery Hour.
In 1980 a cover version of the song was recorded by expatriate American singer Dean Reed and Hungarian vocalist Kati Kovács in German and in English.
In 1982 Julie Andrews covered the song for her country music inspired - album, Love Me Tender, though it was only included on the international version of the album.
In 1986 Norwegian soprano Sissel Kyrkjebø performed the song on Norwegian Television in the TV - show "Kanal 1 ''. In 2006 this performance was included on her album De beste, 1986 -- 2006.
In 1993 UK TV presenter Noel Edmonds was tricked into singing the whole song on his show, Noel 's House Party. Noel Edmonds had earlier recorded a duet of the song sung by fellow DJs John Peel and Tony Blackburn for use on his BBC Radio 1 show in 1979.
In 1996 the song was sung by rappers Ice - T and Tupac Shakur during a Saturday Night Live show.
In 1997 it was parodied by Bob Rivers as "You Do n't Smell Like Flowers Anymore ''. There is also a parody by Weird Al Yankovic which he performed on the Dr. Demento show, "You Do n't Take Your Showers ''.
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who won the battle of siege of yorktown | Siege of Yorktown - wikipedia
Decisive Franco - American victory
United States
Great Britain
George Washington Benjamin Lincoln Henry Knox Alexander Hamilton Marquis de Lafayette Baron von Steuben Thomas Nelson Moses Hazen Comte de Rochambeau Comte d'Aboville Marquis de Choisy
Lord Cornwallis Charles O'Hara Banastre Tarleton Robert Abercromby Thomas Dundas Thomas Symonds Matthew Fuchs
French: 7,800 -- 8,800 regulars 29 warships American: 8,000 regulars 3,100 militia
The Siege of Yorktown, also known as the Battle of Yorktown, the Surrender at Yorktown, German Battle or the Siege of Little York, ending on October 19, 1781, at Yorktown, Virginia, was a decisive victory by a combined force of American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington and French Army troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by British peer and Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis. The culmination of the Yorktown campaign, the siege proved to be the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War in the North American theater, as the surrender by Cornwallis, and the capture of both him and his army, prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict. The battle boosted faltering American morale and revived French enthusiasm for the war, as well as undermining popular support for the conflict in Great Britain.
In 1780, about 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to help their American allies fight the British troops who controlled New York City. Following the arrival of dispatches from France that included the possibility of support from the French West Indies fleet of the Comte de Grasse, Washington and Rochambeau decided to ask de Grasse for assistance either in besieging New York, or in military operations against a British army operating in Virginia. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his superior officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep - water port, which he began to do in Yorktown. Cornwallis ' movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette.
The French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasse 's decision arrived, both armies began moving south toward Virginia, engaging in tactics of deception to lead the British to believe a siege of New York was planned. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and creating a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege and payroll for the Continental Army. While in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of Carlos III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo. Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships. In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake. As a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any escape by sea for Cornwallis. By late September, Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army and naval forces completely surrounded Cornwallis.
After initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14, 1781, Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses. A French column under Wilhelm of the Palatinate - Zweibrücken took Redoubt No. 9 and an American column under Alexander Hamilton took Redoubt No. 10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel. With the American artillery closer and its bombardment more intense than ever, the British position began to deteriorate rapidly. Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on October 17. After two days of negotiation, the surrender ceremony occurred on October 19; Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1783.
On December 20, 1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the defending militia, from January 5 -- 7 before falling back to Portsmouth. Admiral Destouches, who arrived in Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780 with a fleet transporting 5,500 soldiers, was encouraged by Washington and French Lieutenant General Rochambeau to move his fleet south, and launch a joint land - naval attack on Arnold 's troops. The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault. However, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. After they proved ineffective, he took a larger force of 8 ships in March 1781, and fought a tactically inconclusive battle with the British fleet of Marriot Arbuthnot at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot and the British fleet in control of the bay 's mouth.
On March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces. Phillips resumed raiding, defeating the militia at Blandford, then burning the tobacco warehouses at Petersburg on April 25. Richmond was about to suffer the same fate, but Lafayette arrived. The British, not wanting to engage in a major battle, withdrew to Petersburg on May 10.
On May 20, Charles Cornwallis arrived at Petersburg with 1,500 men after suffering heavy casualties at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. He immediately assumed command, as Phillips had recently died of a fever. Cornwallis had not received permission to abandon the Carolinas from his superior, Henry Clinton, but he believed that Virginia would be easier to capture, feeling that it would approve of an invading British army.
With the arrival of Cornwallis and more reinforcements from New York, the British Army numbered 7,200 men. Cornwallis wanted to push Lafayette, whose force now numbered 3,000 men with the arrival of Virginia militia. On May 24, he set out after Lafayette, who withdrew from Richmond, and linked forces with those under the command of Baron von Steuben and Anthony Wayne. Cornwallis did not pursue Lafayette. Instead, he sent raiders into central Virginia, where they attacked depots and supply convoys, before being recalled on June 20. Cornwallis then headed for Williamsburg, and Lafayette 's force of now 4,500 followed him. General Clinton, in a confusing series of orders, ordered Cornwallis first to Portsmouth and then Yorktown, where he was instructed to build fortifications for a deep water port.
On July 6, the French and American armies met at White Plains, north of New York City. Although Rochambeau had almost 40 years of warfare experience, he never challenged Washington 's authority, telling Washington he had come to serve, not to command.
Washington and Rochambeau discussed where to launch a joint attack. Washington believed an attack on New York was the best option, since the Americans and French now outnumbered the British defenders 3 to 1. Rochambeau disagreed, arguing the fleet in the West Indies under Admiral de Grasse was going to sail to the American coast, where easier options than attacking New York could be attempted.
In early July, Washington suggested an attack be made at the northern part of Manhattan Island, but his officers and Rochambeau all disagreed. Washington continued to probe the New York area until August 14, when he received a letter from de Grasse stating he was headed for Virginia with 29 warships and 3,200 soldiers, but could only remain there until October 14. De Grasse encouraged Washington to move south so they could launch a joint operation. Washington abandoned his plan to take New York, and began to prepare his army for the march south to Virginia.
On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the "celebrated march. '' 4,000 French and 3,000 American soldiers began the march in Newport, Rhode Island, while the rest remained behind to protect the Hudson Valley. Washington wanted to maintain complete secrecy of their destination. To ensure this, he sent out fake dispatches that reached Clinton revealing that the Franco - American army was going to launch an attack on New York, and that Cornwallis was not in danger.
The French and American armies marched through Philadelphia from September 2 to 4, where the American soldiers announced they would not leave Maryland until they received one month 's pay in coin, rather than in the worthless Continental paper currency. General Rochambeau generously loaned Washington half of his supply of gold Spanish coins. This would be the last time the men would be paid. This strengthened French and American relations. On September 5, Washington learned of the arrival of de Grasse 's fleet off the Virginia Capes. De Grasse debarked his French troops to join Lafayette, and then sent his empty transports to pick up the American troops. Washington made a visit to his home, Mount Vernon, on his way to Yorktown.
In August, Admiral Sir Thomas Graves led a fleet from New York to attack de Grasse 's fleet. Graves did not realize how large the French fleet was, and neither did Cornwallis. The British fleet was defeated by de Grasse 's fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, and forced to fall back to New York. On September 14, Washington arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia.
On September 26, transports with artillery, siege tools, and some French infantry and shock troops from Head of Elk, the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, arrived, giving Washington command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals. Early on September 28, Washington led the army out of Williamsburg to surround Yorktown. The French took the positions on the left while the Americans took the position of honor on the right. Cornwallis had a chain of seven redoubts and batteries linked by earthworks along with batteries that covered the narrows of the York River at Gloucester Point. That day, Washington reconnoitered the British defenses and decided that they could be bombarded into submission. The Americans and the French spent the night of the 28th sleeping out in the open, while work parties built bridges over the marsh. Some of the American soldiers hunted down wild hogs to eat.
On September 29, Washington moved the army closer to Yorktown and British gunners opened fire on the infantry. Throughout the day, several British cannon fired on the Americans but there were few casualties. Fire was also exchanged between American riflemen and Hessian Jägers.
Cornwallis pulled back from all of his outer defenses, except for the Fusilier 's redoubt on the west side of the town and redoubts 9 and 10 in the east. Cornwallis had his forces occupy the earthworks immediately surrounding the town because he had received a letter from Clinton that promised relief force of 5,000 men within a week and he wished to tighten his lines. The Americans and the French occupied the abandoned defenses and began to establish their own batteries there. With the British outer defenses in their hands, allied engineers began to lay out positions for the artillery. The men improved their works and deepened their trenches. The British also worked on improving their defenses.
On September 30, the French attacked the British Fusiliers redoubt. The skirmish lasted two hours, in which the French were repulsed, suffering several casualties. On October 1, the allies learned from British deserters that, to preserve their food, the British had slaughtered hundreds of horses and thrown them on the beach. In the American camp, thousands of trees were cut down to provide wood for earthworks. Preparations for the parallel also began.
As the allies began to put their artillery into place, the British kept up a steady fire to disrupt them. British fire increased on the 2nd and the allies suffered moderate casualties. General Washington continued to make visits to the front, despite concern shown by several of his officers over the increasing enemy fire. On the night of October 2, the British opened a storm of fire to cover up the movement of the British cavalry to Gloucester where they were to escort infantrymen on a foraging party. On the 3rd, the foraging party, led by Banastre Tarleton, went out but collided with Lauzun 's Legion, and John Mercer 's Virginia militia, led by the Marquis de Choisy. The British cavalry quickly retreated back behind their defensive lines, losing 50 men.
By October 5, Washington was almost ready to open the first parallel. That night the sappers and miners worked, putting strips of pine on the wet sand to mark the path of the trenches.
After nightfall on October 6, troops moved out in stormy weather to dig the first parallel: the heavily overcast sky negated the waning full moon and shielded the massive digging operation from the eyes of British sentries. Washington ceremoniously struck several blows with his pick axe to begin the trench. The trench was to be 2,000 yards (1,800 m) long, running from the head of Yorktown to the York River. Half of the trench was to be commanded by the French, the other half by the Americans. On the northernmost end of the French line, a support trench was dug so that they could bombard the British ships in the river. The French were ordered to distract the British with a false attack, but the British were told of the plan by a French deserter and the British artillery fire turned on the French from the Fusiliers redoubt.
On October 7, the British saw the new allied trench just out of musket - range. Over the next two days, the allies completed the gun placements and dragged the artillery into line. The British fire began to weaken when they saw the large number of guns the allies had.
By October 9, all of the French and American guns were in place. Among the American guns there were three twenty - four pounders, three eighteen pounders, two eight - inch (203 mm) howitzers and six mortars, totaling fourteen guns. At 3: 00 pm, the French guns opened the barrage and drove the British frigate, HMS Guadeloupe across the York River, where she was scuttled to prevent capture. At 5: 00 pm, the Americans opened fire. Washington fired the first gun; legend has it that this shot smashed into a table where British officers were eating. The Franco - American guns began to tear apart the British defenses. Washington ordered that the guns fire all night so that the British could not make repairs. All of the British guns on the left were soon silenced. The British soldiers began to pitch their tents in their trenches and soldiers began to desert in large numbers. Some British ships were also damaged by cannonballs that flew across the town into the harbor.
On October 10, the Americans spotted a large house in Yorktown. Believing that Cornwallis might be stationed there, they aimed at it and quickly destroyed it. Cornwallis sank more than a dozen of his ships in the harbor. The French began to fire at the British ships and scored a hit on the British HMS Charon, which caught fire, and in turn set two or three other ships on fire. Cornwallis received word from Clinton that the British fleet was to depart on October 12, however Cornwallis responded by saying that he would not be able to hold out for long.
On the night of October 11, Washington ordered that the Americans dig a second parallel. It was 400 yards (370 m) closer to the British lines, but could not be extended to the river because the British number 9 and 10 redoubts were in the way. During the night, the British fire continued to land in the old line; Cornwallis did not suspect that a new parallel was being dug. By morning of the 12th, the allied troops were in position on the new line.
By October 14, the trenches were within 150 yards (140 m) of redoubts No. 9 and No. 10. Washington ordered that all guns within range begin blasting the redoubts to weaken them for an assault that evening. Washington planned to use the cover of a moonless night to gain the element of surprise. To reinforce the darkness, he added silence, ordering that no soldier should load his musket until reaching the fortifications - the advance would be made with only "cold steel. '' Redoubt 10 was near the river and held only 70 men, while redoubt 9 was a quarter of a mile inland, and was held by 120 British and Germans. Both redoubts were heavily fortified with rows of abatis surrounding them, along with muddy ditches that surrounded the redoubts at about 25 yards (23 m). Washington devised a plan in which the French would launch a diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt, and then a half an hour later, the French would assault redoubt 9 and the Americans redoubt 10. Redoubt 9 would be assaulted by 400 French regular soldiers under the command of the German Lieutenant Colonel Wilhelm von Zweibrücken and redoubt 10 would be assaulted by 400 light infantry troops under the command of Alexander Hamilton. There was a brief dispute as to who should lead the attack on Redoubt No. 10. Lafayette named his aide, Jean - Joseph Sourbader de Gimat, who commanded a battalion of Continental light infantry. However, Hamilton protested, saying that he was the senior officer. Washington concurred with Hamilton and gave him command of the attack.
At 6: 30 pm, gunfire announced the diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt. At other places in the line, movements were made as if preparing for an assault on Yorktown itself, which caused the British to panic. With bayonets fixed, the Americans marched towards Redoubt No. 10. Hamilton sent Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens around to the rear of the redoubt to prevent the British from escaping. The Americans reached the redoubt and began chopping through the British wooden defenses with their axes. A British sentry called a challenge, and then fired at the Americans. The Americans responded by charging with their bayonets towards the redoubt. They hacked through the abatis, crossed a ditch and climbed the parapet into the redoubt. The Americans forced their way into the redoubt falling into giant shell holes from the bombardment of the redoubts. The British fire was heavy, but the Americans overwhelmed them. Someone in the front shouted, "Rush on boys! The fort 's ours! '' The British threw hand grenades at the Americans with little effect. Men in the trench stood on the shoulders of their comrades to climb into the redoubt. The bayonet fight cleared the British out of the redoubt and almost the entire garrison was captured, including the commander of the redoubt, Major Campbell. In the assault, the Americans lost 9 dead and 25 wounded.
The French assault began at the same time, but they were halted by the abatis, which was undamaged by the artillery fire. The French began to hack at the abatis and a Hessian sentry came out and asked who was there. When there was no response, the sentry opened fire as did other Hessians on the parapet. The French soldiers fired back, and then charged the redoubt. The Germans charged the Frenchmen climbing over the walls but the French fired a volley, driving them back. The Hessians then took a defensive position behind some barrels but threw down their arms and surrendered when the French prepared a bayonet charge.
With the capture of redoubts 9 and 10, Washington was able to have his artillery shell the town from three directions and the allies moved some of their artillery into the redoubts. On October 15, Cornwallis turned all of his guns onto the nearest allied position. He then ordered a storming party of 350 British troops under the command of Colonel Robert Abercromby to attack the allied lines and spike the American and French cannon (i.e., plug the touch hole with an iron spike). The allies were sleeping and unprepared. As the British charged Abercromby shouted "Push on my brave boys, and skin the bastards! '' The British party spiked several cannon in the parallel and then spiked the guns on an unfinished redoubt. A French party came and drove them out of the allied lines and back to Yorktown. The British had been able to spike six guns, but by the morning they were all repaired. The bombardment resumed with the American and French troops engaged in competition to see who could do the most damage to the enemy defenses.
On the morning of October 16, more allied guns were in line and the fire intensified. In desperation, Cornwallis attempted to evacuate his troops across the York River to Gloucester Point. At Gloucester Point the troops might be able to break through the allied lines and escape into Virginia and then march to New York. One wave of boats made it across but a squall hit when they returned to take more soldiers across, making the evacuation impossible.
The fire on Yorktown from the allies was heavier than ever as new artillery pieces joined the line. Cornwallis talked with his officers that day and they agreed that their situation was hopeless.
On the morning of October 17, a drummer appeared, followed by an officer waving a white handkerchief. The bombardment ceased, and the officer was blindfolded and led behind the French and American lines. Negotiations began at the Moore House on October 18 between Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas and Major Alexander Ross (who represented the British) and Lieutenant Colonel Laurens (who represented the Americans) and Marquis de Noailles (who represented the French). To make sure that nothing fell apart between the French and Americans at the last minute, Washington ordered that the French be given an equal share in every step of the surrender process.
The articles of capitulation were signed on October 19, 1781. Signatories included Washington, Rochambeau, the Comte de Barras (on behalf of the French Navy), Cornwallis, and Captain Thomas Symonds (the senior Royal Navy officer present). Cornwallis ' British men were declared prisoners of war, promised good treatment in American camps, and officers were permitted to return home after taking their parole. At 2: 00 pm the allied army entered the British positions, with the French on the left and the Americans on the right.
The British had asked for the traditional honors of war, which would allow the army to march out with flags flying, bayonets fixed, and the band playing an American or French tune as a tribute to the victors. However, Washington firmly refused to grant the British the honors that they had denied the defeated American army the year before at the Siege of Charleston. Consequently, the British and Hessian troops marched with flags furled and muskets shouldered, while the band was forced to play "a British or German march. '' American history books recount the legend that the British band played "The World Turn 'd Upside Down '', but the story may be apocryphal.
Cornwallis refused to attend the surrender ceremony, citing illness. Instead, Brigadier General Charles O'Hara led the British army onto the field. O'Hara first attempted to surrender to Rochambeau, who shook his head and pointed to Washington. O'Hara then offered his sword to Washington, who also refused and motioned to Benjamin Lincoln. The surrender finally took place when Washington 's second - in - command accepted the sword of Cornwallis ' deputy.
The British soldiers marched out and laid down their arms in between the French and American armies, while many civilians watched. At this time, the troops on the other side of the river in Gloucester also surrendered. The British soldiers had been issued new uniforms hours before the surrender and until prevented by General O'Hara some threw down their muskets with the apparent intention of smashing them. Others wept or appeared to be drunk. In all, 8,000 troops, 214 artillery pieces, thousands of muskets, 24 transport ships, wagons and horses were captured.
The French casualties were 60 killed and 194 wounded and the American casualties were 28 killed and 107 wounded: a grand total of 88 killed and 301 wounded.
The British official casualty return for the siege listed 156 killed, 326 wounded and 70 missing. Cornwallis surrendered 7,087 officers and enlisted men in Yorktown when he capitulated and a further 840 sailors from the British fleet in the York River. Another 84 prisoners had been taken during the assault on the redoubts on October 16. Since only 70 men were reported as missing, this would suggest that 14 of the men officially marked down as ' killed ' had in fact been captured. This gives a grand total of 142 killed, 326 wounded prisoners and 7,685 other prisoners. Jerome A. Greene mentions a German account that gives much higher figures: 309 killed and 595 wounded.
George Washington refused to accept the Tenth Article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which granted immunity to American Loyalists, and Cornwallis failed to make any effort to press the matter. "The outcry against the Tenth Article was vociferous and immediate, as Americans on both sides of the Atlantic proclaimed their sense of betrayal. ''
Malaria was endemic in the marshlands of eastern Virginia during the time, and Cornwallis 's army suffered greatly from the disease; he estimated during the surrender that half of his army was unable to fight as a result. The Continental Army enjoyed an advantage, in that most of their members had grown up with malaria, and hence had acquired resistance to the disease. As malaria has a month - long incubation period, most of the French soldiers had not begun to exhibit symptoms before the surrender.
Five days after the battle ended, on October 24, 1781, the British fleet sent by Clinton to rescue the British army arrived. The fleet picked up several Loyalists who had escaped on October 18, and they informed Admiral Thomas Graves that they believed Cornwallis had surrendered. Graves picked up several more Loyalists along the coast, and they confirmed this fact. Graves sighted the French Fleet, but chose to leave because he was outnumbered by nine ships, and thus he sent the fleet back to New York.
After the British surrender, Washington sent Tench Tilghman to report the victory to Congress. After a difficult journey, he arrived in Philadelphia, which celebrated for several days. The British Prime Minister, Lord North, is reported to have exclaimed "Oh God, it 's all over '' when told of the defeat. Washington moved his army to New Windsor, New York where they remained stationed until the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the war.
On October 19, 1881, an elaborate ceremony took place to honor the battle 's centennial. U.S. naval vessels floated on Chesapeake Bay, and special markers highlighted where Washington and Lafayette 's siege guns were placed. President Chester Arthur, sworn in only thirty days before, following James Garfield 's death, made his first public speech as president. Also present were descendants of Lafayette, Rochambeau, de Grasse, and Steuben. To close the ceremony, Arthur gave an order to salute the British flag.
There is a belief that General Cornwallis 's sword, surrendered by Charles O'Hara after the battle, is to this day on display at the White House. However, U.S. National Park Service historian Jerome Green, in his 2005 history of the siege, The Guns of Independence, concurs with the 1881 centennial account by Johnston, noting simply that when Brigadier General O'Hara presented the sword to Major General Lincoln, he held it for a moment and immediately returned it to O'Hara.
The siege of Yorktown is also known in some German historiographies as "die deutsche Schlacht '' ("the German battle ''), because Germans played significant roles in all three armies, accounting for roughly one third of all forces involved. According to one estimate more than 2,500 German soldiers served at Yorktown with each of the British and French armies, and more than 3,000 German - Americans were in Washington 's army.
Four Army National Guard units (113th Inf, 116th Inf, 175th Inf and 198th Sig Bn) and one active Regular Army Field Artillery battalion (1 -- 5th FA) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Yorktown. There are thirty current U.S. Army units with lineages that go back the colonial era.
Five days after the British surrendered, Congress passed a resolution agreeing to erect a structure dedicated to commemorating those who participated in the battle. Construction of the monument was delayed, however, as the Confederation government had several other financial obligations that were considered to be of a more urgent nature. The battle 's centennial sparked renewed enthusiasm in the resolution and prompted the government to begin building the monument in 1881 amid national support. The structure was formally erected in 1884 and currently resides within Colonial National Historical Park.
A four - day celebration to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Siege took place in Yorktown from the 16th to the 19th October 1931. It was presided over by the Governor of Virginia John Garland Pollard and attended by then President, Herbert Hoover along with French representatives. The event included the official dedication of the Colonial National Historical Park.
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what are the physical requirements to be a marine | United States Marine Corps PHYSICAL Fitness test - wikipedia
The United States Marine Corps requires that all Marines perform a Physical Fitness Test (PFT) and a Combat Fitness Test (CFT) once per calendar year. Each test must have an interval of 6 months (same standards apply for reservists). The PFT ensures that Marines are keeping physically fit and in a state of physical readiness. It consists of pull - ups or push - ups, crunches and a 3 - mile run.
On 1 October 2008 the Marine Corps introduced the additional pass / fail Combat Fitness Test (CFT) to the fitness requirements. The CFT is designed to measure abilities demanded of Marines in a war zone.
Effective 1 January 2017, the PFT and CFT requirements have been updated to be somewhat more competitive. Up to date scoring charts can be found here.
For this test, Marines choose to either perform pull - ups or push - ups. However, the maximum score is only attainable if pull - ups are chosen.
The pull - ups may be done with either an overhand (pronated) grip or an underhand (supinated) "chin - up '' grip. Changes in grip are allowed as long as the feet do n't touch the ground and only the hands come in contact with the pull - up bar. The pull - up begins at the "dead - hang '' with arms extended and the body hanging motionless. A successful pull - up is performed without excess motion, the body rising until the chin is above the bar, and body lowered back to the "dead - hang '' position. There is no time limit.
Until 2017, male marines were required to perform pull - ups, and female Marines performed the flexed hang instead of the pull - up. The flexed hang was started with the chin above the pull - up bar. The timer was started and did not stop until the arms became fully extended. The feet could not touch the ground or any part of the pull - up bar at any time. The Marine Corps had originally indicated that, as of January 1, 2014, female Marines would be required to perform a minimum of three pull - ups in order to pass the PFT. However, when more than half of female recruits were unable to meet this standard, the change was delayed. In 2017, the flexed - arm hang event was eliminated, and both male and female marines were given the choice to do either push - ups or pull - ups for this event.
Crunches are executed while lying on the back with the feet flat on the ground together or 12 inches apart (whichever is more comfortable), knees bent at a 90 degree angle, and arms on the ribcage or chest. One crunch is completed when the upper body is lifted until both arms touch the thighs and then lowered until the shoulder blades touch the ground. The arms must be in constant contact with the chest or rib cage; the buttocks must be in constant contact with the ground. The exercise is performed with the heels of the feet kept in constant contact with the ground. The Marine is given two minutes to complete as many crunches as possible.
The Marine runs three miles on reasonably flat ground. (Actual distance may vary slightly.) The 3 miles is approximately 5 kilometers.
The scoring for each part of the test is dependent upon a Marine 's sex and age group.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
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