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Surgery_Schwartz_6802 | Surgery_Schwartz | aorta on the left.The abdominal portion of the esophagus is approximately 2 cm long and includes a portion of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). It starts as the esophagus passes through the diaphragmatic hiatus and is surrounded by the phrenoesopha-geal membrane, a fibroelastic ligament arising from the subdia-phragmatic fascia as a continuation of the transversalis fascia lining the abdomen (Fig. 25-7). The upper leaf of the membrane attaches itself in a circumferential fashion around the esopha-gus, about 1 to 2 cm above the level of the hiatus. These fibers blend in with the elastic-containing adventitia of the abdominal esophagus and the cardia of the stomach. This portion of the esophagus is subjected to the positive-pressure environment of the abdomen.The musculature of the esophagus can be divided into an outer longitudinal and an inner circular layer. The upper 2 to 6 cm of the esophagus contains only striated muscle fibers. From then on, smooth muscle fibers gradually | Surgery_Schwartz. aorta on the left.The abdominal portion of the esophagus is approximately 2 cm long and includes a portion of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). It starts as the esophagus passes through the diaphragmatic hiatus and is surrounded by the phrenoesopha-geal membrane, a fibroelastic ligament arising from the subdia-phragmatic fascia as a continuation of the transversalis fascia lining the abdomen (Fig. 25-7). The upper leaf of the membrane attaches itself in a circumferential fashion around the esopha-gus, about 1 to 2 cm above the level of the hiatus. These fibers blend in with the elastic-containing adventitia of the abdominal esophagus and the cardia of the stomach. This portion of the esophagus is subjected to the positive-pressure environment of the abdomen.The musculature of the esophagus can be divided into an outer longitudinal and an inner circular layer. The upper 2 to 6 cm of the esophagus contains only striated muscle fibers. From then on, smooth muscle fibers gradually |
Surgery_Schwartz_6803 | Surgery_Schwartz | can be divided into an outer longitudinal and an inner circular layer. The upper 2 to 6 cm of the esophagus contains only striated muscle fibers. From then on, smooth muscle fibers gradually become more abundant. Most clinically significant esophageal motility dis-orders involve only the smooth muscle in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. When a long surgical esophageal myotomy is indicated, the incision needs to extend only this distance.The longitudinal muscle fibers originate from a crico-esophageal tendon arising from the dorsal upper edge of the anteriorly located cricoid cartilage. The two bundles of mus-cle diverge and meet in the midline on the posterior wall of the esophagus about 3 cm below the cricoid (see Fig. 25-4). From this point on, the entire circumference of the esophagus is cAThymusPericardiumSuperior vena cavaTracheal carinaRight main stembronchusEsophagusAscending aortaLeft main stem bronchusBottom of aortic archDescendingaortaIVBaebdFigure 25-5. A. | Surgery_Schwartz. can be divided into an outer longitudinal and an inner circular layer. The upper 2 to 6 cm of the esophagus contains only striated muscle fibers. From then on, smooth muscle fibers gradually become more abundant. Most clinically significant esophageal motility dis-orders involve only the smooth muscle in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. When a long surgical esophageal myotomy is indicated, the incision needs to extend only this distance.The longitudinal muscle fibers originate from a crico-esophageal tendon arising from the dorsal upper edge of the anteriorly located cricoid cartilage. The two bundles of mus-cle diverge and meet in the midline on the posterior wall of the esophagus about 3 cm below the cricoid (see Fig. 25-4). From this point on, the entire circumference of the esophagus is cAThymusPericardiumSuperior vena cavaTracheal carinaRight main stembronchusEsophagusAscending aortaLeft main stem bronchusBottom of aortic archDescendingaortaIVBaebdFigure 25-5. A. |
Surgery_Schwartz_6804 | Surgery_Schwartz | the esophagus is cAThymusPericardiumSuperior vena cavaTracheal carinaRight main stembronchusEsophagusAscending aortaLeft main stem bronchusBottom of aortic archDescendingaortaIVBaebdFigure 25-5. A. Cross-section of the thorax at the level of the tracheal bifurcation. B. Computed tomographic scan at same level viewed from above: (a) ascending aorta, (b) descending aorta, (c) tracheal carina, (d) esophagus, (e) pulmonary artery. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101201/03/19 6:02 PM 1013ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25BAPericardiumRight ventricleRight atriumPericardiumPleuraVIIPleuraAortaEsophagusLeft atriumLeft ventriclefdecabgFigure 25-6. A. Cross-section of the thorax at the midleft atrial level. B. Computed tomographic scan at same level viewed from above: (a) aorta, (b) esophagus, (c) left atrium, (d) right atrium, (e) left ventricle, (f) right | Surgery_Schwartz. the esophagus is cAThymusPericardiumSuperior vena cavaTracheal carinaRight main stembronchusEsophagusAscending aortaLeft main stem bronchusBottom of aortic archDescendingaortaIVBaebdFigure 25-5. A. Cross-section of the thorax at the level of the tracheal bifurcation. B. Computed tomographic scan at same level viewed from above: (a) ascending aorta, (b) descending aorta, (c) tracheal carina, (d) esophagus, (e) pulmonary artery. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101201/03/19 6:02 PM 1013ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25BAPericardiumRight ventricleRight atriumPericardiumPleuraVIIPleuraAortaEsophagusLeft atriumLeft ventriclefdecabgFigure 25-6. A. Cross-section of the thorax at the midleft atrial level. B. Computed tomographic scan at same level viewed from above: (a) aorta, (b) esophagus, (c) left atrium, (d) right atrium, (e) left ventricle, (f) right |
Surgery_Schwartz_6805 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the thorax at the midleft atrial level. B. Computed tomographic scan at same level viewed from above: (a) aorta, (b) esophagus, (c) left atrium, (d) right atrium, (e) left ventricle, (f) right ventricle, (g) pulmonary vein. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Phreno-esophageal membrane(Ascending leaf)ParietalperitoneumVisceralperitoneumDiaphragmPara-esophageal fat padPhreno-esophageal membrane(Descending leaf)Figure 25-7. Attachments and structure of the phrenoesophageal membrane. Transversalis fascia lies just above the parietal peri-toneum. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)covered by a layer of longitudinal muscle fibers. This configura-tion of the longitudinal muscle fibers around the most proximal part of the esophagus leaves a V-shaped area in the posterior wall covered only with circular muscle fibers. | Surgery_Schwartz. of the thorax at the midleft atrial level. B. Computed tomographic scan at same level viewed from above: (a) aorta, (b) esophagus, (c) left atrium, (d) right atrium, (e) left ventricle, (f) right ventricle, (g) pulmonary vein. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Phreno-esophageal membrane(Ascending leaf)ParietalperitoneumVisceralperitoneumDiaphragmPara-esophageal fat padPhreno-esophageal membrane(Descending leaf)Figure 25-7. Attachments and structure of the phrenoesophageal membrane. Transversalis fascia lies just above the parietal peri-toneum. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)covered by a layer of longitudinal muscle fibers. This configura-tion of the longitudinal muscle fibers around the most proximal part of the esophagus leaves a V-shaped area in the posterior wall covered only with circular muscle fibers. |
Surgery_Schwartz_6806 | Surgery_Schwartz | fibers. This configura-tion of the longitudinal muscle fibers around the most proximal part of the esophagus leaves a V-shaped area in the posterior wall covered only with circular muscle fibers. Contraction of the longitudinal muscle fibers shortens the esophagus. The cir-cular muscle layer of the esophagus is thicker than the outer longitudinal layer. In situ, the geometry of the circular muscle is helical and makes the peristalsis of the esophagus assume a wormlike drive, as opposed to segmental and sequential squeez-ing. As a consequence, severe motor abnormalities of the esoph-agus assume a corkscrew-like pattern on the barium swallow radiogram.The cervical portion of the esophagus receives its main blood supply from the inferior thyroid artery. The thoracic por-tion receives its blood supply from the bronchial arteries, with 75% of individuals having one right-sided and two left-sided branches. Two esophageal branches arise directly from the aorta. The abdominal portion of the | Surgery_Schwartz. fibers. This configura-tion of the longitudinal muscle fibers around the most proximal part of the esophagus leaves a V-shaped area in the posterior wall covered only with circular muscle fibers. Contraction of the longitudinal muscle fibers shortens the esophagus. The cir-cular muscle layer of the esophagus is thicker than the outer longitudinal layer. In situ, the geometry of the circular muscle is helical and makes the peristalsis of the esophagus assume a wormlike drive, as opposed to segmental and sequential squeez-ing. As a consequence, severe motor abnormalities of the esoph-agus assume a corkscrew-like pattern on the barium swallow radiogram.The cervical portion of the esophagus receives its main blood supply from the inferior thyroid artery. The thoracic por-tion receives its blood supply from the bronchial arteries, with 75% of individuals having one right-sided and two left-sided branches. Two esophageal branches arise directly from the aorta. The abdominal portion of the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6807 | Surgery_Schwartz | supply from the bronchial arteries, with 75% of individuals having one right-sided and two left-sided branches. Two esophageal branches arise directly from the aorta. The abdominal portion of the esophagus receives its blood supply from the ascending branch of the left gastric artery and from inferior phrenic arteries (Fig. 25-8). On entering the wall of the esophagus, the arteries assume a T-shaped division to form a longitudinal plexus, giving rise to an intramural vascular network in the muscular and submucosal layers. As a conse-quence, the esophagus can be mobilized from the stomach to the level of the aortic arch without fear of devascularization and ischemic necrosis. Caution, however, should be exercised as to the extent of esophageal mobilization in patients who have had a previous thyroidectomy with ligation of the inferior thyroid arteries proximal to the origin of the esophageal branches.Blood from the capillaries of the esophagus flows into a submucosal venous plexus, and | Surgery_Schwartz. supply from the bronchial arteries, with 75% of individuals having one right-sided and two left-sided branches. Two esophageal branches arise directly from the aorta. The abdominal portion of the esophagus receives its blood supply from the ascending branch of the left gastric artery and from inferior phrenic arteries (Fig. 25-8). On entering the wall of the esophagus, the arteries assume a T-shaped division to form a longitudinal plexus, giving rise to an intramural vascular network in the muscular and submucosal layers. As a conse-quence, the esophagus can be mobilized from the stomach to the level of the aortic arch without fear of devascularization and ischemic necrosis. Caution, however, should be exercised as to the extent of esophageal mobilization in patients who have had a previous thyroidectomy with ligation of the inferior thyroid arteries proximal to the origin of the esophageal branches.Blood from the capillaries of the esophagus flows into a submucosal venous plexus, and |
Surgery_Schwartz_6808 | Surgery_Schwartz | thyroidectomy with ligation of the inferior thyroid arteries proximal to the origin of the esophageal branches.Blood from the capillaries of the esophagus flows into a submucosal venous plexus, and then into a periesophageal Left gastric arteryRight bronchialartery Inferior thyroid arterySuperior leftbronchial arteryInferior leftbronchial arteryAortic esophagealarteriesAscending branches ofleft gastric artery Esophageal branchFigure 25-8. Arterial blood supply of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101301/03/19 6:02 PM 1014SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIInferior thyroid veinsAccessory azygous veinHemiazygous veinShort gastric veinsSplenic veinSuperior mesenteric vein Portal vein Coronary vein Azygous vein Figure 25-9. Venous drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic | Surgery_Schwartz. thyroidectomy with ligation of the inferior thyroid arteries proximal to the origin of the esophageal branches.Blood from the capillaries of the esophagus flows into a submucosal venous plexus, and then into a periesophageal Left gastric arteryRight bronchialartery Inferior thyroid arterySuperior leftbronchial arteryInferior leftbronchial arteryAortic esophagealarteriesAscending branches ofleft gastric artery Esophageal branchFigure 25-8. Arterial blood supply of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101301/03/19 6:02 PM 1014SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIInferior thyroid veinsAccessory azygous veinHemiazygous veinShort gastric veinsSplenic veinSuperior mesenteric vein Portal vein Coronary vein Azygous vein Figure 25-9. Venous drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic |
Surgery_Schwartz_6809 | Surgery_Schwartz | veinSuperior mesenteric vein Portal vein Coronary vein Azygous vein Figure 25-9. Venous drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Left vagus nerveLeft recurrentlaryngeal nerveThoracic chainLeft or anteriorvagal trunkRight or posterior vagal trunkAnterior esophagealplexusRight recurrentlaryngeal nerveRight vagus nerveRecurrent laryngealnervesFigure 25-10. Innervation of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Internal jugularnodesParatrachealnodesSubcarinal nodesInferior paraesophagealnodesParahiatal nodes Splenic arterynodesCeliac artery nodes Hepatic artery nodesLeft gastric artery nodesPulmonary hilarnodesSuperiorparaesophageal nodesFigure 25-11. Lymphatic drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from DeMeester TR, Barlow AP. Surgery and cur-rent | Surgery_Schwartz. veinSuperior mesenteric vein Portal vein Coronary vein Azygous vein Figure 25-9. Venous drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Left vagus nerveLeft recurrentlaryngeal nerveThoracic chainLeft or anteriorvagal trunkRight or posterior vagal trunkAnterior esophagealplexusRight recurrentlaryngeal nerveRight vagus nerveRecurrent laryngealnervesFigure 25-10. Innervation of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Internal jugularnodesParatrachealnodesSubcarinal nodesInferior paraesophagealnodesParahiatal nodes Splenic arterynodesCeliac artery nodes Hepatic artery nodesLeft gastric artery nodesPulmonary hilarnodesSuperiorparaesophageal nodesFigure 25-11. Lymphatic drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from DeMeester TR, Barlow AP. Surgery and cur-rent |
Surgery_Schwartz_6810 | Surgery_Schwartz | gastric artery nodesPulmonary hilarnodesSuperiorparaesophageal nodesFigure 25-11. Lymphatic drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from DeMeester TR, Barlow AP. Surgery and cur-rent management for cancer of the esophagus and cardia: Part I, Curr Probl Surg. 1988 Jul;25(7):475-531.)venous plexus from which the esophageal veins originate. In the cervical region, the esophageal veins empty into the inferior thy-roid vein; in the thoracic region, they empty into the bronchial, azygos, or hemiazygos veins; and in the abdominal region, they empty into the coronary vein (Fig. 25-9). The submucosal venous networks of the esophagus and stomach are in continuity with each other, and, in patients with portal venous obstruction, this communication functions as a collateral pathway for portal blood to enter the superior vena cava via the azygos vein.The parasympathetic innervation of the pharynx and esophagus is provided mainly by the vagus nerves. The con-strictor muscles of the | Surgery_Schwartz. gastric artery nodesPulmonary hilarnodesSuperiorparaesophageal nodesFigure 25-11. Lymphatic drainage of the esophagus. (Reproduced with permission from DeMeester TR, Barlow AP. Surgery and cur-rent management for cancer of the esophagus and cardia: Part I, Curr Probl Surg. 1988 Jul;25(7):475-531.)venous plexus from which the esophageal veins originate. In the cervical region, the esophageal veins empty into the inferior thy-roid vein; in the thoracic region, they empty into the bronchial, azygos, or hemiazygos veins; and in the abdominal region, they empty into the coronary vein (Fig. 25-9). The submucosal venous networks of the esophagus and stomach are in continuity with each other, and, in patients with portal venous obstruction, this communication functions as a collateral pathway for portal blood to enter the superior vena cava via the azygos vein.The parasympathetic innervation of the pharynx and esophagus is provided mainly by the vagus nerves. The con-strictor muscles of the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6811 | Surgery_Schwartz | portal blood to enter the superior vena cava via the azygos vein.The parasympathetic innervation of the pharynx and esophagus is provided mainly by the vagus nerves. The con-strictor muscles of the pharynx receive branches from the pharyngeal plexus, which is on the posterior lateral surface of the middle constrictor muscle, and is formed by pharyngeal branches of the vagus nerves with a small contribution from cra-nial nerves IX and XI (Fig. 25-10). The cricopharyngeal sphinc-ter and the cervical portion of the esophagus receive branches from both recurrent laryngeal nerves, which originate from the vagus nerves—the right recurrent nerve at the lower margin of the subclavian artery and the left at the lower margin of the aortic arch. They are slung dorsally around these vessels and ascend in the groove between the esophagus and trachea, giving branches to each. Damage to these nerves interferes not only with the function of the vocal cords but also with the function of the | Surgery_Schwartz. portal blood to enter the superior vena cava via the azygos vein.The parasympathetic innervation of the pharynx and esophagus is provided mainly by the vagus nerves. The con-strictor muscles of the pharynx receive branches from the pharyngeal plexus, which is on the posterior lateral surface of the middle constrictor muscle, and is formed by pharyngeal branches of the vagus nerves with a small contribution from cra-nial nerves IX and XI (Fig. 25-10). The cricopharyngeal sphinc-ter and the cervical portion of the esophagus receive branches from both recurrent laryngeal nerves, which originate from the vagus nerves—the right recurrent nerve at the lower margin of the subclavian artery and the left at the lower margin of the aortic arch. They are slung dorsally around these vessels and ascend in the groove between the esophagus and trachea, giving branches to each. Damage to these nerves interferes not only with the function of the vocal cords but also with the function of the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6812 | Surgery_Schwartz | and ascend in the groove between the esophagus and trachea, giving branches to each. Damage to these nerves interferes not only with the function of the vocal cords but also with the function of the cricopharyngeal sphincter and the motility of the cervical esophagus, predisposing the individual to pulmonary aspiration on swallowing.Afferent visceral sensory pain fibers from the esophagus end without synapse in the first four segments of the thoracic spinal cord, using a combination of sympathetic and vagal path-ways. These pathways are also occupied by afferent visceral sensory fibers from the heart; hence, both organs have similar symptomatology.The lymphatics located in the submucosa of the esopha-gus are so dense and interconnected that they constitute a single plexus (Fig. 25-11). There are more lymph vessels than blood capillaries in the submucosa. Lymph flow in the submucosal plexus runs in a longitudinal direction, and, on injection of a contrast medium, the longitudinal | Surgery_Schwartz. and ascend in the groove between the esophagus and trachea, giving branches to each. Damage to these nerves interferes not only with the function of the vocal cords but also with the function of the cricopharyngeal sphincter and the motility of the cervical esophagus, predisposing the individual to pulmonary aspiration on swallowing.Afferent visceral sensory pain fibers from the esophagus end without synapse in the first four segments of the thoracic spinal cord, using a combination of sympathetic and vagal path-ways. These pathways are also occupied by afferent visceral sensory fibers from the heart; hence, both organs have similar symptomatology.The lymphatics located in the submucosa of the esopha-gus are so dense and interconnected that they constitute a single plexus (Fig. 25-11). There are more lymph vessels than blood capillaries in the submucosa. Lymph flow in the submucosal plexus runs in a longitudinal direction, and, on injection of a contrast medium, the longitudinal |
Surgery_Schwartz_6813 | Surgery_Schwartz | There are more lymph vessels than blood capillaries in the submucosa. Lymph flow in the submucosal plexus runs in a longitudinal direction, and, on injection of a contrast medium, the longitudinal spread is seen to be about six times that of the transverse spread. In the upper two-thirds of the esophagus, the lymphatic flow is mostly cephalad, and, in the lower third, caudad. In the thoracic portion of the esophagus, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101401/03/19 6:02 PM 1015ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25the submucosal lymph plexus extends over a long distance in a longitudinal direction before penetrating the muscle layer to enter lymph vessels in the adventitia. As a consequence of this nonsegmental lymph drainage, a primary tumor can extend for a considerable length superiorly or inferiorly in the submucosal plexus. Consequently, free tumor cells can follow the submu-cosal lymphatic plexus in either direction for a long distance before they pass through the | Surgery_Schwartz. There are more lymph vessels than blood capillaries in the submucosa. Lymph flow in the submucosal plexus runs in a longitudinal direction, and, on injection of a contrast medium, the longitudinal spread is seen to be about six times that of the transverse spread. In the upper two-thirds of the esophagus, the lymphatic flow is mostly cephalad, and, in the lower third, caudad. In the thoracic portion of the esophagus, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101401/03/19 6:02 PM 1015ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25the submucosal lymph plexus extends over a long distance in a longitudinal direction before penetrating the muscle layer to enter lymph vessels in the adventitia. As a consequence of this nonsegmental lymph drainage, a primary tumor can extend for a considerable length superiorly or inferiorly in the submucosal plexus. Consequently, free tumor cells can follow the submu-cosal lymphatic plexus in either direction for a long distance before they pass through the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6814 | Surgery_Schwartz | superiorly or inferiorly in the submucosal plexus. Consequently, free tumor cells can follow the submu-cosal lymphatic plexus in either direction for a long distance before they pass through the muscularis and on into the regional LNs. The cervical esophagus has more direct segmental lymph drainage into the regional nodes, and, as a result, lesions in this portion of the esophagus have less submucosal extension and a more regionalized lymphatic spread.The efferent lymphatics from the cervical esophagus drain into the paratracheal and deep cervical LNs, and those from the upper thoracic esophagus empty mainly into the paratracheal LNs. Efferent lymphatics from the lower thoracic esophagus drain into the subcarinal nodes and nodes in the inferior pulmo-nary ligaments. The superior gastric nodes receive lymph not only from the abdominal portion of the esophagus, but also from the adjacent lower thoracic segment.PHYSIOLOGYSwallowing MechanismThe act of alimentation requires the passage of | Surgery_Schwartz. superiorly or inferiorly in the submucosal plexus. Consequently, free tumor cells can follow the submu-cosal lymphatic plexus in either direction for a long distance before they pass through the muscularis and on into the regional LNs. The cervical esophagus has more direct segmental lymph drainage into the regional nodes, and, as a result, lesions in this portion of the esophagus have less submucosal extension and a more regionalized lymphatic spread.The efferent lymphatics from the cervical esophagus drain into the paratracheal and deep cervical LNs, and those from the upper thoracic esophagus empty mainly into the paratracheal LNs. Efferent lymphatics from the lower thoracic esophagus drain into the subcarinal nodes and nodes in the inferior pulmo-nary ligaments. The superior gastric nodes receive lymph not only from the abdominal portion of the esophagus, but also from the adjacent lower thoracic segment.PHYSIOLOGYSwallowing MechanismThe act of alimentation requires the passage of |
Surgery_Schwartz_6815 | Surgery_Schwartz | receive lymph not only from the abdominal portion of the esophagus, but also from the adjacent lower thoracic segment.PHYSIOLOGYSwallowing MechanismThe act of alimentation requires the passage of food and drink from the mouth into the stomach. One-third of this distance con-sists of the mouth and hypopharynx, and two-thirds is made up by the esophagus. To comprehend the mechanics of alimenta-tion, it is useful to visualize the gullet as a mechanical model in which the tongue and pharynx function as a piston pump with three valves, and the body of the esophagus and cardia function as a worm-drive pump with a single valve. The three valves in the pharyngeal cylinder are the soft palate, epiglottis, and cricopharyngeus. The valve of the esophageal pump is the LES. Failure of the valves or the pumps leads to abnormali-ties in swallowing—that is, difficulty in food propulsion from mouth to stomach—or regurgitation of gastric contents into the esophagus or pharynx.Food is taken into the | Surgery_Schwartz. receive lymph not only from the abdominal portion of the esophagus, but also from the adjacent lower thoracic segment.PHYSIOLOGYSwallowing MechanismThe act of alimentation requires the passage of food and drink from the mouth into the stomach. One-third of this distance con-sists of the mouth and hypopharynx, and two-thirds is made up by the esophagus. To comprehend the mechanics of alimenta-tion, it is useful to visualize the gullet as a mechanical model in which the tongue and pharynx function as a piston pump with three valves, and the body of the esophagus and cardia function as a worm-drive pump with a single valve. The three valves in the pharyngeal cylinder are the soft palate, epiglottis, and cricopharyngeus. The valve of the esophageal pump is the LES. Failure of the valves or the pumps leads to abnormali-ties in swallowing—that is, difficulty in food propulsion from mouth to stomach—or regurgitation of gastric contents into the esophagus or pharynx.Food is taken into the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6816 | Surgery_Schwartz | the pumps leads to abnormali-ties in swallowing—that is, difficulty in food propulsion from mouth to stomach—or regurgitation of gastric contents into the esophagus or pharynx.Food is taken into the mouth in a variety of bite sizes, where it is broken up, mixed with saliva, and lubricated. Once initiated, swallowing is entirely a reflex act. When food is ready for swallowing, the tongue, acting like a piston, moves the bolus into the posterior oropharynx and forces it into the hypopharynx (Fig. 25-12). Concomitantly with the posterior movement of the tongue, the soft palate is elevated, thereby closing the passage between the oropharynx and nasopharynx. This partitioning prevents pressure generated in the oropharynx from being dissipated through the nose. When the soft palate is paralyzed, for example, after a cerebrovascular accident, food is commonly regurgitated into the nasopharynx. During swal-lowing, the hyoid bone moves upward and anteriorly, elevating the larynx and opening | Surgery_Schwartz. the pumps leads to abnormali-ties in swallowing—that is, difficulty in food propulsion from mouth to stomach—or regurgitation of gastric contents into the esophagus or pharynx.Food is taken into the mouth in a variety of bite sizes, where it is broken up, mixed with saliva, and lubricated. Once initiated, swallowing is entirely a reflex act. When food is ready for swallowing, the tongue, acting like a piston, moves the bolus into the posterior oropharynx and forces it into the hypopharynx (Fig. 25-12). Concomitantly with the posterior movement of the tongue, the soft palate is elevated, thereby closing the passage between the oropharynx and nasopharynx. This partitioning prevents pressure generated in the oropharynx from being dissipated through the nose. When the soft palate is paralyzed, for example, after a cerebrovascular accident, food is commonly regurgitated into the nasopharynx. During swal-lowing, the hyoid bone moves upward and anteriorly, elevating the larynx and opening |
Surgery_Schwartz_6817 | Surgery_Schwartz | for example, after a cerebrovascular accident, food is commonly regurgitated into the nasopharynx. During swal-lowing, the hyoid bone moves upward and anteriorly, elevating the larynx and opening the retrolaryngeal space, bringing the epiglottis under the tongue (see Fig. 25-12). The backward tilt of the epiglottis covers the opening of the larynx to prevent aspi-ration. The entire pharyngeal part of swallowing occurs within 1.5 seconds.During swallowing, the pressure in the hypopharynx rises abruptly, to at least 60 mmHg, due to the backward movement of the tongue and contraction of the posterior pharyngeal con-strictors. A sizable pressure difference develops between the hypopharyngeal pressure and the less-than-atmospheric mid-esophageal or intrathoracic pressure (Fig. 25-13). This pressure 1. Elevation of tongue2. Posterior movement of tongue3. Elevation of soft palate4. Elevation of hyoid5. Elevation of larynx6. Tilting of epiglottis123456Figure 25-12. Sequence of events during | Surgery_Schwartz. for example, after a cerebrovascular accident, food is commonly regurgitated into the nasopharynx. During swal-lowing, the hyoid bone moves upward and anteriorly, elevating the larynx and opening the retrolaryngeal space, bringing the epiglottis under the tongue (see Fig. 25-12). The backward tilt of the epiglottis covers the opening of the larynx to prevent aspi-ration. The entire pharyngeal part of swallowing occurs within 1.5 seconds.During swallowing, the pressure in the hypopharynx rises abruptly, to at least 60 mmHg, due to the backward movement of the tongue and contraction of the posterior pharyngeal con-strictors. A sizable pressure difference develops between the hypopharyngeal pressure and the less-than-atmospheric mid-esophageal or intrathoracic pressure (Fig. 25-13). This pressure 1. Elevation of tongue2. Posterior movement of tongue3. Elevation of soft palate4. Elevation of hyoid5. Elevation of larynx6. Tilting of epiglottis123456Figure 25-12. Sequence of events during |
Surgery_Schwartz_6818 | Surgery_Schwartz | 1. Elevation of tongue2. Posterior movement of tongue3. Elevation of soft palate4. Elevation of hyoid5. Elevation of larynx6. Tilting of epiglottis123456Figure 25-12. Sequence of events during the oropharyngeal phase of swallowing. (Reproduced with permission from Zuidema GD, Orringer MB: Shackelford’s Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 1991.)gradient speeds the movement of food from the hypopharynx into the esophagus when the cricopharyngeus or upper esopha-geal sphincter relaxes. The bolus is both propelled by peristaltic contraction of the posterior pharyngeal constrictors and sucked into the thoracic esophagus. Critical to receiving the bolus is the compliance of the cervical esophagus; when compliance is lost due to muscle pathology, dysphagia can result. The upper esophageal sphincter closes within 0.5 seconds of the initiation of the swallow, with the immediate closing pressure reaching Pressure (mm Hg)% Esophagus | Surgery_Schwartz. 1. Elevation of tongue2. Posterior movement of tongue3. Elevation of soft palate4. Elevation of hyoid5. Elevation of larynx6. Tilting of epiglottis123456Figure 25-12. Sequence of events during the oropharyngeal phase of swallowing. (Reproduced with permission from Zuidema GD, Orringer MB: Shackelford’s Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 1991.)gradient speeds the movement of food from the hypopharynx into the esophagus when the cricopharyngeus or upper esopha-geal sphincter relaxes. The bolus is both propelled by peristaltic contraction of the posterior pharyngeal constrictors and sucked into the thoracic esophagus. Critical to receiving the bolus is the compliance of the cervical esophagus; when compliance is lost due to muscle pathology, dysphagia can result. The upper esophageal sphincter closes within 0.5 seconds of the initiation of the swallow, with the immediate closing pressure reaching Pressure (mm Hg)% Esophagus |
Surgery_Schwartz_6819 | Surgery_Schwartz | pathology, dysphagia can result. The upper esophageal sphincter closes within 0.5 seconds of the initiation of the swallow, with the immediate closing pressure reaching Pressure (mm Hg)% Esophagus length100–10–505101520253035408060Upright position40200DESGECPAirFigure 25-13. Resting pressure profile of the foregut showing the pressure differential between the atmospheric pharyngeal pressure (P) and the less-than-atmospheric midesophageal pressure (E) and greater-than-atmospheric intragastric pressure (G), with the inter-posed high-pressure zones of the cricopharyngeus (C) and distal esophageal sphincter (DES). The necessity for relaxation of the cri-copharyngeus and DES pressure to move a bolus into the stomach is apparent. Esophageal work occurs when a bolus is pushed from the midesophageal area (E), with a pressure less than atmospheric, into the stomach, which has a pressure greater than atmospheric (G). (Reproduced with permission from Waters PF, DeMeester TR: Foregut motor | Surgery_Schwartz. pathology, dysphagia can result. The upper esophageal sphincter closes within 0.5 seconds of the initiation of the swallow, with the immediate closing pressure reaching Pressure (mm Hg)% Esophagus length100–10–505101520253035408060Upright position40200DESGECPAirFigure 25-13. Resting pressure profile of the foregut showing the pressure differential between the atmospheric pharyngeal pressure (P) and the less-than-atmospheric midesophageal pressure (E) and greater-than-atmospheric intragastric pressure (G), with the inter-posed high-pressure zones of the cricopharyngeus (C) and distal esophageal sphincter (DES). The necessity for relaxation of the cri-copharyngeus and DES pressure to move a bolus into the stomach is apparent. Esophageal work occurs when a bolus is pushed from the midesophageal area (E), with a pressure less than atmospheric, into the stomach, which has a pressure greater than atmospheric (G). (Reproduced with permission from Waters PF, DeMeester TR: Foregut motor |
Surgery_Schwartz_6820 | Surgery_Schwartz | area (E), with a pressure less than atmospheric, into the stomach, which has a pressure greater than atmospheric (G). (Reproduced with permission from Waters PF, DeMeester TR: Foregut motor disorders and their surgical managemen, Med Clin North Am. 1981 Nov;65(6):1235-1268.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101501/03/19 6:02 PM 1016SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART II0102030405060mmHgSwallowSeconds01020304050SecondsSeconds01020304050Seconds01020304050Seconds01020304050StomachHigh pressure zoneEsophageal bodyCricopharyngeusPharynxFigure 25-14. Intraluminal esophageal pressures in response to swallowing. (Reproduced with permission from Waters PF, DeMeester TR: Foregut motor disorders and their surgical man-agemen, Med Clin North Am. 1981 Nov;65(6):1235-1268.)approximately twice the resting level of 30 mmHg. The postre-laxation contraction continues down the esophagus as a peri-staltic wave (Fig. 25-14). The high closing pressure and the initiation of the peristaltic wave prevents reflux | Surgery_Schwartz. area (E), with a pressure less than atmospheric, into the stomach, which has a pressure greater than atmospheric (G). (Reproduced with permission from Waters PF, DeMeester TR: Foregut motor disorders and their surgical managemen, Med Clin North Am. 1981 Nov;65(6):1235-1268.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101501/03/19 6:02 PM 1016SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART II0102030405060mmHgSwallowSeconds01020304050SecondsSeconds01020304050Seconds01020304050Seconds01020304050StomachHigh pressure zoneEsophageal bodyCricopharyngeusPharynxFigure 25-14. Intraluminal esophageal pressures in response to swallowing. (Reproduced with permission from Waters PF, DeMeester TR: Foregut motor disorders and their surgical man-agemen, Med Clin North Am. 1981 Nov;65(6):1235-1268.)approximately twice the resting level of 30 mmHg. The postre-laxation contraction continues down the esophagus as a peri-staltic wave (Fig. 25-14). The high closing pressure and the initiation of the peristaltic wave prevents reflux |
Surgery_Schwartz_6821 | Surgery_Schwartz | of 30 mmHg. The postre-laxation contraction continues down the esophagus as a peri-staltic wave (Fig. 25-14). The high closing pressure and the initiation of the peristaltic wave prevents reflux of the bolus from the esophagus back into the pharynx. After the peristaltic wave has passed farther down the esophagus, the pressure in the upper esophageal sphincter returns to its resting level.Swallowing can be started at will, or it can be reflexively elicited by the stimulation of areas in the mouth and pharynx, among them the anterior and posterior tonsillar pillars or the posterior lateral walls of the hypopharynx. The afferent sen-sory nerves of the pharynx are the glossopharyngeal nerves and the superior laryngeal branches of the vagus nerves. Once aroused by stimuli entering via these nerves, the swallowing center in the medulla coordinates the complete act of swallow-ing by discharging impulses through cranial nerves V, VII, X, XI, and XII, as well as the motor neurons of C1 to C3. | Surgery_Schwartz. of 30 mmHg. The postre-laxation contraction continues down the esophagus as a peri-staltic wave (Fig. 25-14). The high closing pressure and the initiation of the peristaltic wave prevents reflux of the bolus from the esophagus back into the pharynx. After the peristaltic wave has passed farther down the esophagus, the pressure in the upper esophageal sphincter returns to its resting level.Swallowing can be started at will, or it can be reflexively elicited by the stimulation of areas in the mouth and pharynx, among them the anterior and posterior tonsillar pillars or the posterior lateral walls of the hypopharynx. The afferent sen-sory nerves of the pharynx are the glossopharyngeal nerves and the superior laryngeal branches of the vagus nerves. Once aroused by stimuli entering via these nerves, the swallowing center in the medulla coordinates the complete act of swallow-ing by discharging impulses through cranial nerves V, VII, X, XI, and XII, as well as the motor neurons of C1 to C3. |
Surgery_Schwartz_6822 | Surgery_Schwartz | the swallowing center in the medulla coordinates the complete act of swallow-ing by discharging impulses through cranial nerves V, VII, X, XI, and XII, as well as the motor neurons of C1 to C3. Dis-charges through these nerves occur in a rather specific pattern and last for approximately 0.5 seconds. Little is known about the organization of the swallowing center, except that it can trigger swallowing after a variety of different inputs, but the response is always a rigidly ordered pattern of outflow. Following a cere-brovascular accident, this coordinated outflow may be altered, causing mild to severe abnormalities of swallowing. In more severe injury, swallowing can be grossly disrupted, leading to repetitive aspiration.The striated muscles of the cricopharyngeus and the upper one-third of the esophagus are activated by efferent motor fibers distributed through the vagus nerve and its recurrent laryngeal branches. The integrity of innervation is required for the cri-copharyngeus to | Surgery_Schwartz. the swallowing center in the medulla coordinates the complete act of swallow-ing by discharging impulses through cranial nerves V, VII, X, XI, and XII, as well as the motor neurons of C1 to C3. Dis-charges through these nerves occur in a rather specific pattern and last for approximately 0.5 seconds. Little is known about the organization of the swallowing center, except that it can trigger swallowing after a variety of different inputs, but the response is always a rigidly ordered pattern of outflow. Following a cere-brovascular accident, this coordinated outflow may be altered, causing mild to severe abnormalities of swallowing. In more severe injury, swallowing can be grossly disrupted, leading to repetitive aspiration.The striated muscles of the cricopharyngeus and the upper one-third of the esophagus are activated by efferent motor fibers distributed through the vagus nerve and its recurrent laryngeal branches. The integrity of innervation is required for the cri-copharyngeus to |
Surgery_Schwartz_6823 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the esophagus are activated by efferent motor fibers distributed through the vagus nerve and its recurrent laryngeal branches. The integrity of innervation is required for the cri-copharyngeus to relax in coordination with the pharyngeal contraction, and resume its resting tone once a bolus has entered the upper esophagus. Operative damage to the innervation can interfere with laryngeal, cricopharyngeal, and upper esophageal function, and predispose the patient to aspiration.The pharyngeal activity in swallowing initiates the esoph-ageal phase. The body of the esophagus functions as a worm-drive propulsive pump due to the helical arrangement of its circular muscles, and it is responsible for transferring a bolus of food into the stomach. The esophageal phases of swallow-ing represent esophageal work done during alimentation, in that food is moved into the stomach from a negative-pressure environment of –6 mmHg intrathoracic pressure, to a positive-pressure environment of 6 mmHg | Surgery_Schwartz. of the esophagus are activated by efferent motor fibers distributed through the vagus nerve and its recurrent laryngeal branches. The integrity of innervation is required for the cri-copharyngeus to relax in coordination with the pharyngeal contraction, and resume its resting tone once a bolus has entered the upper esophagus. Operative damage to the innervation can interfere with laryngeal, cricopharyngeal, and upper esophageal function, and predispose the patient to aspiration.The pharyngeal activity in swallowing initiates the esoph-ageal phase. The body of the esophagus functions as a worm-drive propulsive pump due to the helical arrangement of its circular muscles, and it is responsible for transferring a bolus of food into the stomach. The esophageal phases of swallow-ing represent esophageal work done during alimentation, in that food is moved into the stomach from a negative-pressure environment of –6 mmHg intrathoracic pressure, to a positive-pressure environment of 6 mmHg |
Surgery_Schwartz_6824 | Surgery_Schwartz | esophageal work done during alimentation, in that food is moved into the stomach from a negative-pressure environment of –6 mmHg intrathoracic pressure, to a positive-pressure environment of 6 mmHg intra-abdominal pressure, or over a gradient of 12 mmHg (see Fig. 25-13). Effective and coordinated smooth muscle function in the lower one-third of the esophagus is therefore important in pumping the food across this gradient.The peristaltic wave generates an occlusive pressure vary-ing from 30 to 120 mmHg (see Fig. 25-14). The wave rises to a peak in 1 second, lasts at the peak for about 0.5 seconds, and then subsides in about 1.5 seconds. The whole course of the rise and fall of occlusive pressure may occupy one point in the esophagus for 3 to 5 seconds. The peak of a primary peri-staltic contraction initiated by a swallow (primary peristalsis) moves down the esophagus at 2 to 4 cm/s and reaches the distal esophagus about 9 seconds after swallowing starts. Consecutive swallows produce | Surgery_Schwartz. esophageal work done during alimentation, in that food is moved into the stomach from a negative-pressure environment of –6 mmHg intrathoracic pressure, to a positive-pressure environment of 6 mmHg intra-abdominal pressure, or over a gradient of 12 mmHg (see Fig. 25-13). Effective and coordinated smooth muscle function in the lower one-third of the esophagus is therefore important in pumping the food across this gradient.The peristaltic wave generates an occlusive pressure vary-ing from 30 to 120 mmHg (see Fig. 25-14). The wave rises to a peak in 1 second, lasts at the peak for about 0.5 seconds, and then subsides in about 1.5 seconds. The whole course of the rise and fall of occlusive pressure may occupy one point in the esophagus for 3 to 5 seconds. The peak of a primary peri-staltic contraction initiated by a swallow (primary peristalsis) moves down the esophagus at 2 to 4 cm/s and reaches the distal esophagus about 9 seconds after swallowing starts. Consecutive swallows produce |
Surgery_Schwartz_6825 | Surgery_Schwartz | contraction initiated by a swallow (primary peristalsis) moves down the esophagus at 2 to 4 cm/s and reaches the distal esophagus about 9 seconds after swallowing starts. Consecutive swallows produce similar primary peristaltic waves, but when the act of swallowing is rapidly repeated, the esophagus remains relaxed and the peristaltic wave occurs only after the last move-ment of the pharynx. Progress of the wave in the esophagus is caused by sequential activation of its muscles, initiated by effer-ent vagal nerve fibers arising in the swallowing center.Continuity of the esophageal muscle is not necessary for sequential activation if the nerves are intact. If the muscles, but not the nerves, are cut across, the pressure wave begins dis-tally below the cut as it dies out at the proximal end above the cut. This allows a sleeve resection of the esophagus to be done without destroying its normal function. Afferent impulses from receptors within the esophageal wall are not essential for | Surgery_Schwartz. contraction initiated by a swallow (primary peristalsis) moves down the esophagus at 2 to 4 cm/s and reaches the distal esophagus about 9 seconds after swallowing starts. Consecutive swallows produce similar primary peristaltic waves, but when the act of swallowing is rapidly repeated, the esophagus remains relaxed and the peristaltic wave occurs only after the last move-ment of the pharynx. Progress of the wave in the esophagus is caused by sequential activation of its muscles, initiated by effer-ent vagal nerve fibers arising in the swallowing center.Continuity of the esophageal muscle is not necessary for sequential activation if the nerves are intact. If the muscles, but not the nerves, are cut across, the pressure wave begins dis-tally below the cut as it dies out at the proximal end above the cut. This allows a sleeve resection of the esophagus to be done without destroying its normal function. Afferent impulses from receptors within the esophageal wall are not essential for |
Surgery_Schwartz_6826 | Surgery_Schwartz | end above the cut. This allows a sleeve resection of the esophagus to be done without destroying its normal function. Afferent impulses from receptors within the esophageal wall are not essential for prog-ress of the coordinated wave. Afferent nerves, however, do go to the swallowing center from the esophagus because if the esoph-agus is distended at any point, a contraction wave begins with a forceful closure of the upper esophageal sphincter and sweeps down the esophagus. This secondary contraction occurs without any movements of the mouth or pharynx. Secondary peristalsis can occur as an independent local reflex to clear the esophagus of ingested material left behind after the passage of the primary wave. Current studies suggest that secondary peristalsis is not as common as once thought.Despite the powerful occlusive pressure, the propulsive force of the esophagus is relatively feeble. If a subject attempts to swallow a bolus attached by a string to a counterweight, the maximum | Surgery_Schwartz. end above the cut. This allows a sleeve resection of the esophagus to be done without destroying its normal function. Afferent impulses from receptors within the esophageal wall are not essential for prog-ress of the coordinated wave. Afferent nerves, however, do go to the swallowing center from the esophagus because if the esoph-agus is distended at any point, a contraction wave begins with a forceful closure of the upper esophageal sphincter and sweeps down the esophagus. This secondary contraction occurs without any movements of the mouth or pharynx. Secondary peristalsis can occur as an independent local reflex to clear the esophagus of ingested material left behind after the passage of the primary wave. Current studies suggest that secondary peristalsis is not as common as once thought.Despite the powerful occlusive pressure, the propulsive force of the esophagus is relatively feeble. If a subject attempts to swallow a bolus attached by a string to a counterweight, the maximum |
Surgery_Schwartz_6827 | Surgery_Schwartz | the powerful occlusive pressure, the propulsive force of the esophagus is relatively feeble. If a subject attempts to swallow a bolus attached by a string to a counterweight, the maximum weight that can be overcome is 5 to 10 g. Orderly contractions of the muscular wall and anchoring of the esopha-gus at its inferior end are necessary for efficient aboral propul-sion to occur. Loss of the inferior anchor, as occurs with a large hiatal hernia, can lead to inefficient propulsion.The LES provides a pressure barrier between the esopha-gus and stomach and acts as the valve on the worm-drive pump of the esophageal body. Although an anatomically distinct LES has been difficult to identify, microdissection studies show that, in humans, the sphincter-like function is related to the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101601/03/19 6:02 PM 1017ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Gastro-esophagealmuscular ringObliquefibersGreater curvaturewall thicknessLesser curvaturewall | Surgery_Schwartz. the powerful occlusive pressure, the propulsive force of the esophagus is relatively feeble. If a subject attempts to swallow a bolus attached by a string to a counterweight, the maximum weight that can be overcome is 5 to 10 g. Orderly contractions of the muscular wall and anchoring of the esopha-gus at its inferior end are necessary for efficient aboral propul-sion to occur. Loss of the inferior anchor, as occurs with a large hiatal hernia, can lead to inefficient propulsion.The LES provides a pressure barrier between the esopha-gus and stomach and acts as the valve on the worm-drive pump of the esophageal body. Although an anatomically distinct LES has been difficult to identify, microdissection studies show that, in humans, the sphincter-like function is related to the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101601/03/19 6:02 PM 1017ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Gastro-esophagealmuscular ringObliquefibersGreater curvaturewall thicknessLesser curvaturewall |
Surgery_Schwartz_6828 | Surgery_Schwartz | 101601/03/19 6:02 PM 1017ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Gastro-esophagealmuscular ringObliquefibersGreater curvaturewall thicknessLesser curvaturewall thicknessAnterior wall thicknessPhreno-esophagealmembraneSemi-circularfibers50-0-20--50-0 mm-20-50-0 mm-20Figure 25-15. Wall thickness and orientation of fibers on micro-dissection of the cardia. At the junction of the esophageal tube and gastric pouch, there is an oblique muscular ring composed of an increased muscle mass inside the inner muscular layer. On the lesser curve side of the cardia, the muscle fibers of the inner layer are oriented transversely and form semicircular muscle clasps. On the greater curve side of the cardia, these muscle fibers form oblique loops that encircle the distal end of the cardia and gastric fundus. Both the semicircular muscle clasps and the oblique fibers of the fundus contract in a circular manner to close the cardia. (Reproduced with permission from Glenn WWL: Thoracic and | Surgery_Schwartz. 101601/03/19 6:02 PM 1017ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Gastro-esophagealmuscular ringObliquefibersGreater curvaturewall thicknessLesser curvaturewall thicknessAnterior wall thicknessPhreno-esophagealmembraneSemi-circularfibers50-0-20--50-0 mm-20-50-0 mm-20Figure 25-15. Wall thickness and orientation of fibers on micro-dissection of the cardia. At the junction of the esophageal tube and gastric pouch, there is an oblique muscular ring composed of an increased muscle mass inside the inner muscular layer. On the lesser curve side of the cardia, the muscle fibers of the inner layer are oriented transversely and form semicircular muscle clasps. On the greater curve side of the cardia, these muscle fibers form oblique loops that encircle the distal end of the cardia and gastric fundus. Both the semicircular muscle clasps and the oblique fibers of the fundus contract in a circular manner to close the cardia. (Reproduced with permission from Glenn WWL: Thoracic and |
Surgery_Schwartz_6829 | Surgery_Schwartz | gastric fundus. Both the semicircular muscle clasps and the oblique fibers of the fundus contract in a circular manner to close the cardia. (Reproduced with permission from Glenn WWL: Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 4th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1983.)architecture of the muscle fibers at the junction of the esoph-ageal tube with the gastric pouch (Fig. 25-15). The sphincter actively remains closed to prevent reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus and opens by a relaxation that coincides with a pharyngeal swallow (see Fig. 25-14). The LES pressure returns to its resting level after the peristaltic wave has passed through the esophagus. Consequently, reflux of gastric juice that may occur through the open valve during a swallow is cleared back into the stomach.If the pharyngeal swallow does not initiate a peristaltic con-traction, then the coincident relaxation of the LES is unguarded and reflux of gastric juice can occur. This may be an explanation for the | Surgery_Schwartz. gastric fundus. Both the semicircular muscle clasps and the oblique fibers of the fundus contract in a circular manner to close the cardia. (Reproduced with permission from Glenn WWL: Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 4th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1983.)architecture of the muscle fibers at the junction of the esoph-ageal tube with the gastric pouch (Fig. 25-15). The sphincter actively remains closed to prevent reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus and opens by a relaxation that coincides with a pharyngeal swallow (see Fig. 25-14). The LES pressure returns to its resting level after the peristaltic wave has passed through the esophagus. Consequently, reflux of gastric juice that may occur through the open valve during a swallow is cleared back into the stomach.If the pharyngeal swallow does not initiate a peristaltic con-traction, then the coincident relaxation of the LES is unguarded and reflux of gastric juice can occur. This may be an explanation for the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6830 | Surgery_Schwartz | the pharyngeal swallow does not initiate a peristaltic con-traction, then the coincident relaxation of the LES is unguarded and reflux of gastric juice can occur. This may be an explanation for the observation of spontaneous lower esophageal relaxation, thought by some to be a causative factor in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The power of the worm-drive pump of the esophageal body is insufficient to force open a valve that does not relax. In dogs, a bilateral cervical parasympathetic blockade abolishes the relaxation of the LES that occurs with pharyngeal swallowing or distention of the esophagus. Conse-quently, vagal function appears to be important in coordinating the relaxation of the LES with esophageal contraction.The antireflux mechanism in human beings is composed of three components: a mechanically effective LES, efficient esophageal clearance, and an adequately functioning gastric reservoir. A defect of any one of these three components can lead to increased | Surgery_Schwartz. the pharyngeal swallow does not initiate a peristaltic con-traction, then the coincident relaxation of the LES is unguarded and reflux of gastric juice can occur. This may be an explanation for the observation of spontaneous lower esophageal relaxation, thought by some to be a causative factor in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The power of the worm-drive pump of the esophageal body is insufficient to force open a valve that does not relax. In dogs, a bilateral cervical parasympathetic blockade abolishes the relaxation of the LES that occurs with pharyngeal swallowing or distention of the esophagus. Conse-quently, vagal function appears to be important in coordinating the relaxation of the LES with esophageal contraction.The antireflux mechanism in human beings is composed of three components: a mechanically effective LES, efficient esophageal clearance, and an adequately functioning gastric reservoir. A defect of any one of these three components can lead to increased |
Surgery_Schwartz_6831 | Surgery_Schwartz | of three components: a mechanically effective LES, efficient esophageal clearance, and an adequately functioning gastric reservoir. A defect of any one of these three components can lead to increased esophageal exposure to gastric juice and the development of mucosal injury.Physiologic RefluxOn 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring, healthy individuals have occasional episodes of gastroesophageal reflux. This physi-ologic reflux is more common when awake and in the upright position than during sleep in the supine position. When reflux of gastric juice occurs, normal subjects rapidly clear the acid gastric juice from the esophagus regardless of their position.There are several explanations for the observation that physiologic reflux in normal subjects is more common when they are awake and in the upright position than during sleep in the supine position. First, reflux episodes occur in healthy vol-unteers primarily during transient losses of the gastroesophageal barrier, which may be due to | Surgery_Schwartz. of three components: a mechanically effective LES, efficient esophageal clearance, and an adequately functioning gastric reservoir. A defect of any one of these three components can lead to increased esophageal exposure to gastric juice and the development of mucosal injury.Physiologic RefluxOn 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring, healthy individuals have occasional episodes of gastroesophageal reflux. This physi-ologic reflux is more common when awake and in the upright position than during sleep in the supine position. When reflux of gastric juice occurs, normal subjects rapidly clear the acid gastric juice from the esophagus regardless of their position.There are several explanations for the observation that physiologic reflux in normal subjects is more common when they are awake and in the upright position than during sleep in the supine position. First, reflux episodes occur in healthy vol-unteers primarily during transient losses of the gastroesophageal barrier, which may be due to |
Surgery_Schwartz_6832 | Surgery_Schwartz | upright position than during sleep in the supine position. First, reflux episodes occur in healthy vol-unteers primarily during transient losses of the gastroesophageal barrier, which may be due to a relaxation of the LES or intra-gastric pressure overcoming sphincter pressure. Gastric juice can also reflux when a swallow-induced relaxation of the LES is not protected by an oncoming peristaltic wave. The average frequency of these “unguarded moments” or of transient losses of the gastroesophageal barrier is far less while asleep and in the supine position than while awake and in the upright posi-tion. Consequently, there are fewer opportunities for reflux to occur in the supine position. Second, in the upright position, there is a 12-mmHg pressure gradient between the resting, posi-tive intra-abdominal pressure measured in the stomach and the most negative intrathoracic pressure measured in the esophagus at midthoracic level. This gradient favors the flow of gastric juice up into the | Surgery_Schwartz. upright position than during sleep in the supine position. First, reflux episodes occur in healthy vol-unteers primarily during transient losses of the gastroesophageal barrier, which may be due to a relaxation of the LES or intra-gastric pressure overcoming sphincter pressure. Gastric juice can also reflux when a swallow-induced relaxation of the LES is not protected by an oncoming peristaltic wave. The average frequency of these “unguarded moments” or of transient losses of the gastroesophageal barrier is far less while asleep and in the supine position than while awake and in the upright posi-tion. Consequently, there are fewer opportunities for reflux to occur in the supine position. Second, in the upright position, there is a 12-mmHg pressure gradient between the resting, posi-tive intra-abdominal pressure measured in the stomach and the most negative intrathoracic pressure measured in the esophagus at midthoracic level. This gradient favors the flow of gastric juice up into the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6833 | Surgery_Schwartz | pressure measured in the stomach and the most negative intrathoracic pressure measured in the esophagus at midthoracic level. This gradient favors the flow of gastric juice up into the thoracic esophagus when upright. The gradi-ent diminishes in the supine position. Third, the LES pressure in normal subjects is significantly higher in the supine posi-tion than in the upright position. This is due to the apposition of the hydrostatic pressure of the abdomen to the abdominal portion of the sphincter when supine. In the upright position, the abdominal pressure surrounding the sphincter is negative compared with atmospheric pressure, and, as expected, the abdominal pressure gradually increases the more caudally it is measured. This pressure gradient tends to move the gastric con-tents toward the cardia and encourages the occurrence of reflux into the esophagus when the individual is upright. In contrast, in the supine position, the gastroesophageal pressure gradient diminishes, and the | Surgery_Schwartz. pressure measured in the stomach and the most negative intrathoracic pressure measured in the esophagus at midthoracic level. This gradient favors the flow of gastric juice up into the thoracic esophagus when upright. The gradi-ent diminishes in the supine position. Third, the LES pressure in normal subjects is significantly higher in the supine posi-tion than in the upright position. This is due to the apposition of the hydrostatic pressure of the abdomen to the abdominal portion of the sphincter when supine. In the upright position, the abdominal pressure surrounding the sphincter is negative compared with atmospheric pressure, and, as expected, the abdominal pressure gradually increases the more caudally it is measured. This pressure gradient tends to move the gastric con-tents toward the cardia and encourages the occurrence of reflux into the esophagus when the individual is upright. In contrast, in the supine position, the gastroesophageal pressure gradient diminishes, and the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6834 | Surgery_Schwartz | the cardia and encourages the occurrence of reflux into the esophagus when the individual is upright. In contrast, in the supine position, the gastroesophageal pressure gradient diminishes, and the abdominal hydrostatic pressure under the diaphragm increases, causing an increase in sphincter pressure and a more competent cardia.The LES has intrinsic myogenic tone, which is modu-lated by neural and hormonal mechanisms. α-Adrenergic neu-rotransmitters or β-blockers stimulate the LES, and α-blockers and β-stimulants decrease its pressure. It is not clear to what extent cholinergic nerve activity controls LES pressure. The vagus nerve carries both excitatory and inhibitory fibers to the esophagus and sphincter. The hormones gastrin and motilin have been shown to increase LES pressure; and cholecystokinin, estrogen, glucagon, progesterone, somatostatin, and secretin decrease LES pressure. The peptides bombesin, l-enkephalin, and substance P increase LES pressure; and calcitonin | Surgery_Schwartz. the cardia and encourages the occurrence of reflux into the esophagus when the individual is upright. In contrast, in the supine position, the gastroesophageal pressure gradient diminishes, and the abdominal hydrostatic pressure under the diaphragm increases, causing an increase in sphincter pressure and a more competent cardia.The LES has intrinsic myogenic tone, which is modu-lated by neural and hormonal mechanisms. α-Adrenergic neu-rotransmitters or β-blockers stimulate the LES, and α-blockers and β-stimulants decrease its pressure. It is not clear to what extent cholinergic nerve activity controls LES pressure. The vagus nerve carries both excitatory and inhibitory fibers to the esophagus and sphincter. The hormones gastrin and motilin have been shown to increase LES pressure; and cholecystokinin, estrogen, glucagon, progesterone, somatostatin, and secretin decrease LES pressure. The peptides bombesin, l-enkephalin, and substance P increase LES pressure; and calcitonin |
Surgery_Schwartz_6835 | Surgery_Schwartz | and cholecystokinin, estrogen, glucagon, progesterone, somatostatin, and secretin decrease LES pressure. The peptides bombesin, l-enkephalin, and substance P increase LES pressure; and calcitonin gene-related peptide, gastric inhibitory peptide, neuropeptide Y, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide decrease LES pressure. Some pharmacologic agents such as antacids, cholinergics, agonists, domperidone, metoclopramide, and prostaglandin F2 are known to increase LES pressure; and anticholinergics, barbiturates, cal-cium channel blockers, caffeine, diazepam, dopamine, meperi-dine, prostaglandin E1 and E2, and theophylline decrease LES pressure. Peppermint, chocolate, coffee, ethanol, and fat are all associated with decreased LES pressure and may be responsible for esophageal symptoms after a sumptuous meal.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101701/03/19 6:02 PM 1018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIASSESSMENT OF ESOPHAGEAL FUNCTIONA thorough understanding of the patient’s underlying anatomic | Surgery_Schwartz. and cholecystokinin, estrogen, glucagon, progesterone, somatostatin, and secretin decrease LES pressure. The peptides bombesin, l-enkephalin, and substance P increase LES pressure; and calcitonin gene-related peptide, gastric inhibitory peptide, neuropeptide Y, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide decrease LES pressure. Some pharmacologic agents such as antacids, cholinergics, agonists, domperidone, metoclopramide, and prostaglandin F2 are known to increase LES pressure; and anticholinergics, barbiturates, cal-cium channel blockers, caffeine, diazepam, dopamine, meperi-dine, prostaglandin E1 and E2, and theophylline decrease LES pressure. Peppermint, chocolate, coffee, ethanol, and fat are all associated with decreased LES pressure and may be responsible for esophageal symptoms after a sumptuous meal.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101701/03/19 6:02 PM 1018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIASSESSMENT OF ESOPHAGEAL FUNCTIONA thorough understanding of the patient’s underlying anatomic |
Surgery_Schwartz_6836 | Surgery_Schwartz | meal.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101701/03/19 6:02 PM 1018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIASSESSMENT OF ESOPHAGEAL FUNCTIONA thorough understanding of the patient’s underlying anatomic and functional deficits before making therapeutic decisions is fundamental to the successful treatment of esophageal disease. The diagnostic tests, as presently used, may be divided into four broad groups: (a) tests to detect structural abnormalities of the esophagus; (b) tests to detect functional abnormalities of the esophagus; (c) tests to detect increased esophageal expo-sure to gastric juice; and (d) tests of duodenogastric function as they relate to esophageal disease.Tests to Detect Structural AbnormalitiesEndoscopic Evaluation. The first diagnostic test in patients with suspected esophageal disease is usually upper gastrointesti-nal endoscopy. This allows assessment and biopsy of the mucosa of the stomach and the esophagus, as well as the diagnosis and assessment of obstructing lesions in | Surgery_Schwartz. meal.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101701/03/19 6:02 PM 1018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIASSESSMENT OF ESOPHAGEAL FUNCTIONA thorough understanding of the patient’s underlying anatomic and functional deficits before making therapeutic decisions is fundamental to the successful treatment of esophageal disease. The diagnostic tests, as presently used, may be divided into four broad groups: (a) tests to detect structural abnormalities of the esophagus; (b) tests to detect functional abnormalities of the esophagus; (c) tests to detect increased esophageal expo-sure to gastric juice; and (d) tests of duodenogastric function as they relate to esophageal disease.Tests to Detect Structural AbnormalitiesEndoscopic Evaluation. The first diagnostic test in patients with suspected esophageal disease is usually upper gastrointesti-nal endoscopy. This allows assessment and biopsy of the mucosa of the stomach and the esophagus, as well as the diagnosis and assessment of obstructing lesions in |
Surgery_Schwartz_6837 | Surgery_Schwartz | is usually upper gastrointesti-nal endoscopy. This allows assessment and biopsy of the mucosa of the stomach and the esophagus, as well as the diagnosis and assessment of obstructing lesions in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In any patient complaining of dysphagia, esophagoscopy is indicated, even in the face of a normal radiographic study.For the initial endoscopic assessment, the flexible fiber-optic esophagoscope is the instrument of choice because of its technical ease, patient acceptance, and the ability to simultane-ously assess the stomach and duodenum. Rigid endoscopy is now only rarely required, mainly for the disimpaction of diffi-cult foreign bodies impacted in the esophagus, and few individ-uals now have the skill set and experience to use this equipment.When GERD is the suspected diagnosis, particular atten-tion should be paid to detecting the presence of esophagitis and Barrett’s columnar-lined esophagus (CLE). When endoscopic esophagitis is seen, severity and the | Surgery_Schwartz. is usually upper gastrointesti-nal endoscopy. This allows assessment and biopsy of the mucosa of the stomach and the esophagus, as well as the diagnosis and assessment of obstructing lesions in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In any patient complaining of dysphagia, esophagoscopy is indicated, even in the face of a normal radiographic study.For the initial endoscopic assessment, the flexible fiber-optic esophagoscope is the instrument of choice because of its technical ease, patient acceptance, and the ability to simultane-ously assess the stomach and duodenum. Rigid endoscopy is now only rarely required, mainly for the disimpaction of diffi-cult foreign bodies impacted in the esophagus, and few individ-uals now have the skill set and experience to use this equipment.When GERD is the suspected diagnosis, particular atten-tion should be paid to detecting the presence of esophagitis and Barrett’s columnar-lined esophagus (CLE). When endoscopic esophagitis is seen, severity and the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6838 | Surgery_Schwartz | suspected diagnosis, particular atten-tion should be paid to detecting the presence of esophagitis and Barrett’s columnar-lined esophagus (CLE). When endoscopic esophagitis is seen, severity and the length of esophagitis involved are recorded. Whilst many different grading systems have been proposed, the commonest system now in use is the Los Angeles (LA) grading system. In this system, mild esopha-gitis is classified LA grade A or B—one or more erosions lim-ited to the mucosal fold(s) and either less than or greater than 5 mm in longitudinal extent respectively (Fig. 25-16). More severe esophagitis is classified LA grade C or D. In grade C, erosions extend over the mucosal folds but over less than three-quarters of the esophageal circumference; in grade D, confluent erosions extend across more than three-quarters of the esopha-geal circumference. In addition to these grades, more severe damage can lead to the formation of a stricture. A stricture’s severity can be assessed by the | Surgery_Schwartz. suspected diagnosis, particular atten-tion should be paid to detecting the presence of esophagitis and Barrett’s columnar-lined esophagus (CLE). When endoscopic esophagitis is seen, severity and the length of esophagitis involved are recorded. Whilst many different grading systems have been proposed, the commonest system now in use is the Los Angeles (LA) grading system. In this system, mild esopha-gitis is classified LA grade A or B—one or more erosions lim-ited to the mucosal fold(s) and either less than or greater than 5 mm in longitudinal extent respectively (Fig. 25-16). More severe esophagitis is classified LA grade C or D. In grade C, erosions extend over the mucosal folds but over less than three-quarters of the esophageal circumference; in grade D, confluent erosions extend across more than three-quarters of the esopha-geal circumference. In addition to these grades, more severe damage can lead to the formation of a stricture. A stricture’s severity can be assessed by the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6839 | Surgery_Schwartz | more than three-quarters of the esopha-geal circumference. In addition to these grades, more severe damage can lead to the formation of a stricture. A stricture’s severity can be assessed by the ease of passing a standard endo-scope. When a stricture is observed, the severity of the esopha-gitis above it should be recorded. The absence of esophagitis above a stricture suggests the possibility of a chemical-induced injury or a neoplasm as a cause. The latter should always be considered and is ruled out only by evaluation of a tissue biopsy of adequate size. It should be remembered that gastroesophageal reflux is not always associated with visible mucosal abnormali-ties, and patients can experience significant reflux symptoms, despite an apparently normal endoscopy examination.Barrett’s esophagus (BE) is a condition in which the tubu-lar esophagus is lined with columnar epithelium, as opposed to the normal squamous epithelium (see Fig. 25-16). Histologi-cally, it appears as intestinal | Surgery_Schwartz. more than three-quarters of the esopha-geal circumference. In addition to these grades, more severe damage can lead to the formation of a stricture. A stricture’s severity can be assessed by the ease of passing a standard endo-scope. When a stricture is observed, the severity of the esopha-gitis above it should be recorded. The absence of esophagitis above a stricture suggests the possibility of a chemical-induced injury or a neoplasm as a cause. The latter should always be considered and is ruled out only by evaluation of a tissue biopsy of adequate size. It should be remembered that gastroesophageal reflux is not always associated with visible mucosal abnormali-ties, and patients can experience significant reflux symptoms, despite an apparently normal endoscopy examination.Barrett’s esophagus (BE) is a condition in which the tubu-lar esophagus is lined with columnar epithelium, as opposed to the normal squamous epithelium (see Fig. 25-16). Histologi-cally, it appears as intestinal |
Surgery_Schwartz_6840 | Surgery_Schwartz | (BE) is a condition in which the tubu-lar esophagus is lined with columnar epithelium, as opposed to the normal squamous epithelium (see Fig. 25-16). Histologi-cally, it appears as intestinal metaplasia (IM). It is suspected at endoscopy when there is difficulty in visualizing the squamoco-lumnar junction at its normal location, and by the appearance of a redder, salmon-colored mucosa in the lower esophagus, with a clearly visible line of demarcation at the top of the Barrett’s esophagus segment. Its presence is confirmed by biopsy. Mul-tiple biopsy specimens should be taken in a cephalad direction to confirm the presence of IM, and to evaluate the Barrett’s epi-thelium for dysplastic changes. BE is susceptible to ulceration, bleeding, stricture formation, and, most important, malignant degeneration. The earliest sign of the latter is high grade dys-plasia or intramucosal adenocarcinoma (see Fig. 25-16). These dysplastic changes have a patchy distribution, so a minimum of four biopsy | Surgery_Schwartz. (BE) is a condition in which the tubu-lar esophagus is lined with columnar epithelium, as opposed to the normal squamous epithelium (see Fig. 25-16). Histologi-cally, it appears as intestinal metaplasia (IM). It is suspected at endoscopy when there is difficulty in visualizing the squamoco-lumnar junction at its normal location, and by the appearance of a redder, salmon-colored mucosa in the lower esophagus, with a clearly visible line of demarcation at the top of the Barrett’s esophagus segment. Its presence is confirmed by biopsy. Mul-tiple biopsy specimens should be taken in a cephalad direction to confirm the presence of IM, and to evaluate the Barrett’s epi-thelium for dysplastic changes. BE is susceptible to ulceration, bleeding, stricture formation, and, most important, malignant degeneration. The earliest sign of the latter is high grade dys-plasia or intramucosal adenocarcinoma (see Fig. 25-16). These dysplastic changes have a patchy distribution, so a minimum of four biopsy |
Surgery_Schwartz_6841 | Surgery_Schwartz | The earliest sign of the latter is high grade dys-plasia or intramucosal adenocarcinoma (see Fig. 25-16). These dysplastic changes have a patchy distribution, so a minimum of four biopsy samples spaced 2 cm apart should be taken from the Barrett’s-lined portion of the esophagus. Changes seen in one biopsy are significant. Nishimaki has determined that the tumors occur in an area of specialized columnar epithelium near the squamocolumnar junction in 85% of patients, and within 2 cm of the squamocolumnar junction in virtually all patients. Particular attention should be focused on this area in patients suspected of harboring a carcinoma.Abnormalities of the gastroesophageal flap valve can be visualized by retroflexion of the endoscope. Hill has graded the appearance of the gastroesophageal valve from I to IV according to the degree of unfolding or deterioration of the normal valve architecture (Fig. 25-17). The appearance of the valve correlates with the presence of increased esophageal | Surgery_Schwartz. The earliest sign of the latter is high grade dys-plasia or intramucosal adenocarcinoma (see Fig. 25-16). These dysplastic changes have a patchy distribution, so a minimum of four biopsy samples spaced 2 cm apart should be taken from the Barrett’s-lined portion of the esophagus. Changes seen in one biopsy are significant. Nishimaki has determined that the tumors occur in an area of specialized columnar epithelium near the squamocolumnar junction in 85% of patients, and within 2 cm of the squamocolumnar junction in virtually all patients. Particular attention should be focused on this area in patients suspected of harboring a carcinoma.Abnormalities of the gastroesophageal flap valve can be visualized by retroflexion of the endoscope. Hill has graded the appearance of the gastroesophageal valve from I to IV according to the degree of unfolding or deterioration of the normal valve architecture (Fig. 25-17). The appearance of the valve correlates with the presence of increased esophageal |
Surgery_Schwartz_6842 | Surgery_Schwartz | from I to IV according to the degree of unfolding or deterioration of the normal valve architecture (Fig. 25-17). The appearance of the valve correlates with the presence of increased esophageal acid exposure, occur-ring predominantly in patients with grade III and IV valves.A hiatal hernia is endoscopically confirmed by finding a pouch lined with gastric rugal folds lying 2 cm or more above the margins of the diaphragmatic crura, identified by having the patient sniff. A hernia is best demonstrated with the stomach fully insufflated and the gastroesophageal junction observed with a retroflexed endoscope. A prominent sliding hiatal hernia frequently is associated with increased esophageal exposure to gastric juice. When a paraesophageal hernia (PEH) is observed, particular attention is taken to exclude gastric (Cameron’s) ulcers or gastritis within the pouch. The intragastric retroflex or J maneuver is important in evaluating the full circumference of the mucosal lining of the | Surgery_Schwartz. from I to IV according to the degree of unfolding or deterioration of the normal valve architecture (Fig. 25-17). The appearance of the valve correlates with the presence of increased esophageal acid exposure, occur-ring predominantly in patients with grade III and IV valves.A hiatal hernia is endoscopically confirmed by finding a pouch lined with gastric rugal folds lying 2 cm or more above the margins of the diaphragmatic crura, identified by having the patient sniff. A hernia is best demonstrated with the stomach fully insufflated and the gastroesophageal junction observed with a retroflexed endoscope. A prominent sliding hiatal hernia frequently is associated with increased esophageal exposure to gastric juice. When a paraesophageal hernia (PEH) is observed, particular attention is taken to exclude gastric (Cameron’s) ulcers or gastritis within the pouch. The intragastric retroflex or J maneuver is important in evaluating the full circumference of the mucosal lining of the |
Surgery_Schwartz_6843 | Surgery_Schwartz | is taken to exclude gastric (Cameron’s) ulcers or gastritis within the pouch. The intragastric retroflex or J maneuver is important in evaluating the full circumference of the mucosal lining of the herniated stomach.When an esophageal diverticulum is seen, it should be carefully explored with the flexible endoscope to exclude ulceration or neoplasia. When a submucosal mass is identified, biopsy specimens are usually not performed. At the time of sur-gical resection, a submucosal leiomyoma or reduplication cyst can generally be dissected away from the intact mucosa, but if a biopsy sample is taken, the mucosa may become fixed to the underlying abnormality. This complicates the surgical dissec-tion by increasing the risk of mucosal perforation. Endoscopic ultrasound provides a better method for evaluating these lesions.Radiographic Evaluation. Barium swallow evaluation is under-taken selectively to assess anatomy and motility. The anatomy of large hiatal hernias is more clearly | Surgery_Schwartz. is taken to exclude gastric (Cameron’s) ulcers or gastritis within the pouch. The intragastric retroflex or J maneuver is important in evaluating the full circumference of the mucosal lining of the herniated stomach.When an esophageal diverticulum is seen, it should be carefully explored with the flexible endoscope to exclude ulceration or neoplasia. When a submucosal mass is identified, biopsy specimens are usually not performed. At the time of sur-gical resection, a submucosal leiomyoma or reduplication cyst can generally be dissected away from the intact mucosa, but if a biopsy sample is taken, the mucosa may become fixed to the underlying abnormality. This complicates the surgical dissec-tion by increasing the risk of mucosal perforation. Endoscopic ultrasound provides a better method for evaluating these lesions.Radiographic Evaluation. Barium swallow evaluation is under-taken selectively to assess anatomy and motility. The anatomy of large hiatal hernias is more clearly |
Surgery_Schwartz_6844 | Surgery_Schwartz | method for evaluating these lesions.Radiographic Evaluation. Barium swallow evaluation is under-taken selectively to assess anatomy and motility. The anatomy of large hiatal hernias is more clearly demonstrated by contrast radi-ology than endoscopy, and the presence of coordinated esopha-geal peristalsis can be determined by observing several individual swallows of barium traversing the entire length of the organ, with the patient in the horizontal position. Hiatal hernias are best demonstrated with the patient prone because the increased intra-abdominal pressure produced in this position promotes displace-ment of the esophagogastric junction above the diaphragm. To detect lower esophageal narrowing, such as rings and strictures, fully distended views of the esophagogastric region are crucial. The density of the barium used to study the esophagus can poten-tially affect the accuracy of the examination. Esophageal disorders shown clearly by a full-column technique include | Surgery_Schwartz. method for evaluating these lesions.Radiographic Evaluation. Barium swallow evaluation is under-taken selectively to assess anatomy and motility. The anatomy of large hiatal hernias is more clearly demonstrated by contrast radi-ology than endoscopy, and the presence of coordinated esopha-geal peristalsis can be determined by observing several individual swallows of barium traversing the entire length of the organ, with the patient in the horizontal position. Hiatal hernias are best demonstrated with the patient prone because the increased intra-abdominal pressure produced in this position promotes displace-ment of the esophagogastric junction above the diaphragm. To detect lower esophageal narrowing, such as rings and strictures, fully distended views of the esophagogastric region are crucial. The density of the barium used to study the esophagus can poten-tially affect the accuracy of the examination. Esophageal disorders shown clearly by a full-column technique include |
Surgery_Schwartz_6845 | Surgery_Schwartz | are crucial. The density of the barium used to study the esophagus can poten-tially affect the accuracy of the examination. Esophageal disorders shown clearly by a full-column technique include circumferential carcinomas, peptic strictures, large esophageal ulcers, and hia-tal hernias. A small hiatal hernia is usually not associated with significant symptoms or illness, and its presence is an irrelevant finding unless the hiatal hernia is large (Fig. 25-18) or the hernia 1Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101801/03/19 6:02 PM 1019ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-16. Complications of reflux disease as seen on endoscopy. A. Linear erosions of LA grade B esophagitis. B. Uncomplicated Barrett’s mucosa. C. High-grade dysplasia in Barrett’s mucosa. D. Early adenocarcinoma arising in Barrett’s mucosa.is of the paraesophageal variety. Lesions extrinsic but adjacent to the esophagus can be reliably detected by the full-column tech-nique if they contact the distended | Surgery_Schwartz. are crucial. The density of the barium used to study the esophagus can poten-tially affect the accuracy of the examination. Esophageal disorders shown clearly by a full-column technique include circumferential carcinomas, peptic strictures, large esophageal ulcers, and hia-tal hernias. A small hiatal hernia is usually not associated with significant symptoms or illness, and its presence is an irrelevant finding unless the hiatal hernia is large (Fig. 25-18) or the hernia 1Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101801/03/19 6:02 PM 1019ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-16. Complications of reflux disease as seen on endoscopy. A. Linear erosions of LA grade B esophagitis. B. Uncomplicated Barrett’s mucosa. C. High-grade dysplasia in Barrett’s mucosa. D. Early adenocarcinoma arising in Barrett’s mucosa.is of the paraesophageal variety. Lesions extrinsic but adjacent to the esophagus can be reliably detected by the full-column tech-nique if they contact the distended |
Surgery_Schwartz_6846 | Surgery_Schwartz | arising in Barrett’s mucosa.is of the paraesophageal variety. Lesions extrinsic but adjacent to the esophagus can be reliably detected by the full-column tech-nique if they contact the distended esophageal wall. Conversely, a number of important disorders may go undetected if this is the sole technique used to examine the esophagus. These include small esophageal neoplasms, mild esophagitis, and esophageal varices. Thus, the full-column technique should be supplemented with mucosal relief or double-contrast films to enhance detection of these smaller or more subtle lesions.Motion-recording techniques greatly aid in evaluating functional disorders of the pharyngoesophageal and esophageal phases of swallowing. The technique and indications for cineand videoradiography will be discussed in the section entitled “Videoand Cineradiography,” as they are more useful to evalu-ate function and seldom used to detect structural abnormalities.The radiographic assessment of the esophagus is not | Surgery_Schwartz. arising in Barrett’s mucosa.is of the paraesophageal variety. Lesions extrinsic but adjacent to the esophagus can be reliably detected by the full-column tech-nique if they contact the distended esophageal wall. Conversely, a number of important disorders may go undetected if this is the sole technique used to examine the esophagus. These include small esophageal neoplasms, mild esophagitis, and esophageal varices. Thus, the full-column technique should be supplemented with mucosal relief or double-contrast films to enhance detection of these smaller or more subtle lesions.Motion-recording techniques greatly aid in evaluating functional disorders of the pharyngoesophageal and esophageal phases of swallowing. The technique and indications for cineand videoradiography will be discussed in the section entitled “Videoand Cineradiography,” as they are more useful to evalu-ate function and seldom used to detect structural abnormalities.The radiographic assessment of the esophagus is not |
Surgery_Schwartz_6847 | Surgery_Schwartz | the section entitled “Videoand Cineradiography,” as they are more useful to evalu-ate function and seldom used to detect structural abnormalities.The radiographic assessment of the esophagus is not com-plete unless the entire stomach and duodenum have been examined. A gastric or duodenal ulcer, partially obstructing gastric neoplasm, or scarred duodenum and pylorus may contribute significantly to symptoms otherwise attributable to an esophageal abnormality.When a patient’s complaints include dysphagia and no obstructing lesion is seen on the barium swallow, it is useful to have the patient swallow a barium-impregnated marshmallow, a barium-soaked piece of bread, or a hamburger mixed with bar-ium. This test may bring out a functional disturbance in esopha-geal transport that can be missed when liquid barium is used.Tests to Detect Functional AbnormalitiesIn many patients with symptoms of an esophageal disorder, standard radiographic and endoscopic evaluation fails to dem-onstrate a | Surgery_Schwartz. the section entitled “Videoand Cineradiography,” as they are more useful to evalu-ate function and seldom used to detect structural abnormalities.The radiographic assessment of the esophagus is not com-plete unless the entire stomach and duodenum have been examined. A gastric or duodenal ulcer, partially obstructing gastric neoplasm, or scarred duodenum and pylorus may contribute significantly to symptoms otherwise attributable to an esophageal abnormality.When a patient’s complaints include dysphagia and no obstructing lesion is seen on the barium swallow, it is useful to have the patient swallow a barium-impregnated marshmallow, a barium-soaked piece of bread, or a hamburger mixed with bar-ium. This test may bring out a functional disturbance in esopha-geal transport that can be missed when liquid barium is used.Tests to Detect Functional AbnormalitiesIn many patients with symptoms of an esophageal disorder, standard radiographic and endoscopic evaluation fails to dem-onstrate a |
Surgery_Schwartz_6848 | Surgery_Schwartz | when liquid barium is used.Tests to Detect Functional AbnormalitiesIn many patients with symptoms of an esophageal disorder, standard radiographic and endoscopic evaluation fails to dem-onstrate a structural abnormality. In these situations, esophageal function tests are necessary to identify a functional disorder.Esophageal Motility. Esophageal motility is a widely used technique to examine the motor function of the esophagus and ABCDBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101901/03/19 6:02 PM 1020SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIBACFigure 25-17. A. Grade I flap valve appearance. Note the ridge of tissue that is closely approximated to the shaft of the retroflexed endoscope. It extends 3 to 4 cm along the lesser curve. B. Grade II flap valve appearance. The ridge is slightly less well defined than in grade I and it opens rarely with respiration and closes promptly. C. Grade III flap valve appearance. The ridge is barely present, and there is often failure to close around the endoscope. It | Surgery_Schwartz. when liquid barium is used.Tests to Detect Functional AbnormalitiesIn many patients with symptoms of an esophageal disorder, standard radiographic and endoscopic evaluation fails to dem-onstrate a structural abnormality. In these situations, esophageal function tests are necessary to identify a functional disorder.Esophageal Motility. Esophageal motility is a widely used technique to examine the motor function of the esophagus and ABCDBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 101901/03/19 6:02 PM 1020SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIBACFigure 25-17. A. Grade I flap valve appearance. Note the ridge of tissue that is closely approximated to the shaft of the retroflexed endoscope. It extends 3 to 4 cm along the lesser curve. B. Grade II flap valve appearance. The ridge is slightly less well defined than in grade I and it opens rarely with respiration and closes promptly. C. Grade III flap valve appearance. The ridge is barely present, and there is often failure to close around the endoscope. It |
Surgery_Schwartz_6849 | Surgery_Schwartz | than in grade I and it opens rarely with respiration and closes promptly. C. Grade III flap valve appearance. The ridge is barely present, and there is often failure to close around the endoscope. It is nearly always accompanied by a hiatal hernia. D. Grade IV flap valve appearance. There is no muscular ridge at all. The gastroesophageal valve stays open all the time, and squamous epithelium can often be seen from the retroflexed position. A hiatal hernia is always present. (Reproduced with permission from Hill LD, Kozarek RA, Kraemer SJ, et al: The gastroesophageal flap valve: in vitro and in vivo observations, Gastrointest Endosc. 1996 Nov;44(5):541-547.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102001/03/19 6:02 PM 1021ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-18. Radiogram of an intrathoracic stomach. This is the end stage of a large hiatal hernia, regardless of its initial classification.RIP = Respiratory inversion pointRIP43424140393837 cmOverall lengthPressure10 | Surgery_Schwartz. than in grade I and it opens rarely with respiration and closes promptly. C. Grade III flap valve appearance. The ridge is barely present, and there is often failure to close around the endoscope. It is nearly always accompanied by a hiatal hernia. D. Grade IV flap valve appearance. There is no muscular ridge at all. The gastroesophageal valve stays open all the time, and squamous epithelium can often be seen from the retroflexed position. A hiatal hernia is always present. (Reproduced with permission from Hill LD, Kozarek RA, Kraemer SJ, et al: The gastroesophageal flap valve: in vitro and in vivo observations, Gastrointest Endosc. 1996 Nov;44(5):541-547.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102001/03/19 6:02 PM 1021ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-18. Radiogram of an intrathoracic stomach. This is the end stage of a large hiatal hernia, regardless of its initial classification.RIP = Respiratory inversion pointRIP43424140393837 cmOverall lengthPressure10 |
Surgery_Schwartz_6850 | Surgery_Schwartz | of an intrathoracic stomach. This is the end stage of a large hiatal hernia, regardless of its initial classification.RIP = Respiratory inversion pointRIP43424140393837 cmOverall lengthPressure10 secEsophagealbaselinepressureAbdominal lengthGastricbaselinepressureFigure 25-19. Manometric pressure profile of the lower esophageal sphincter. The distances are measured from the nares. (Reproduced with permission from Zaninotto G, DeMeester TR, Schwizer W, et al: The lower esophageal sphincter in health and disease, Am J Surg. 1988 Jan;155(1):104-11.)DFigure 25-17. (Continued )its sphincters. The esophageal motility study (EMS) is indicated whenever a motor abnormality of the esophagus is suspected on the basis of complaints of dysphagia, odynophagia, or noncar-diac chest pain, and the barium swallow or endoscopy does not show a clear structural abnormality. EMS is particularly neces-sary to confirm the diagnosis of specific primary esophageal motility disorders (i.e., achalasia, diffuse | Surgery_Schwartz. of an intrathoracic stomach. This is the end stage of a large hiatal hernia, regardless of its initial classification.RIP = Respiratory inversion pointRIP43424140393837 cmOverall lengthPressure10 secEsophagealbaselinepressureAbdominal lengthGastricbaselinepressureFigure 25-19. Manometric pressure profile of the lower esophageal sphincter. The distances are measured from the nares. (Reproduced with permission from Zaninotto G, DeMeester TR, Schwizer W, et al: The lower esophageal sphincter in health and disease, Am J Surg. 1988 Jan;155(1):104-11.)DFigure 25-17. (Continued )its sphincters. The esophageal motility study (EMS) is indicated whenever a motor abnormality of the esophagus is suspected on the basis of complaints of dysphagia, odynophagia, or noncar-diac chest pain, and the barium swallow or endoscopy does not show a clear structural abnormality. EMS is particularly neces-sary to confirm the diagnosis of specific primary esophageal motility disorders (i.e., achalasia, diffuse |
Surgery_Schwartz_6851 | Surgery_Schwartz | swallow or endoscopy does not show a clear structural abnormality. EMS is particularly neces-sary to confirm the diagnosis of specific primary esophageal motility disorders (i.e., achalasia, diffuse esophageal spasm [DES], nutcracker esophagus, and hypertensive LES). It also identifies nonspecific esophageal motility abnormalities and motility disorders secondary to systemic disease such as sclero-derma, dermatomyositis, polymyositis, or mixed connective tis-sue disease. In patients with symptomatic GERD, manometry of the esophageal body can identify a mechanically defective LES and evaluate the adequacy of esophageal peristalsis and contraction amplitude. EMS has become an essential tool in the preoperative evaluation of patients before antireflux surgery, guiding selection of the appropriate procedure based upon the patient’s underlying esophageal function and excluding patients with achalasia who can be misdiagnosed with gastroesophageal reflux when clinical and endoscopic | Surgery_Schwartz. swallow or endoscopy does not show a clear structural abnormality. EMS is particularly neces-sary to confirm the diagnosis of specific primary esophageal motility disorders (i.e., achalasia, diffuse esophageal spasm [DES], nutcracker esophagus, and hypertensive LES). It also identifies nonspecific esophageal motility abnormalities and motility disorders secondary to systemic disease such as sclero-derma, dermatomyositis, polymyositis, or mixed connective tis-sue disease. In patients with symptomatic GERD, manometry of the esophageal body can identify a mechanically defective LES and evaluate the adequacy of esophageal peristalsis and contraction amplitude. EMS has become an essential tool in the preoperative evaluation of patients before antireflux surgery, guiding selection of the appropriate procedure based upon the patient’s underlying esophageal function and excluding patients with achalasia who can be misdiagnosed with gastroesophageal reflux when clinical and endoscopic |
Surgery_Schwartz_6852 | Surgery_Schwartz | appropriate procedure based upon the patient’s underlying esophageal function and excluding patients with achalasia who can be misdiagnosed with gastroesophageal reflux when clinical and endoscopic parameters alone are used for diagnosis.EMS is performed using electronic, pressure-sensitive transducers located within the catheter, or water-perfused cath-eters with lateral side holes attached to transducers outside the body. The traditional water perfused catheter has largely been replaced by high resolution motility (HRM), but knowledge of traditional methods of assessing esophageal motility is helpful for understanding esophageal physiology.As the pressure-sensitive station is brought across the gas-troesophageal junction (GEJ), a rise in pressure above the gas-tric baseline signals the beginning of the LES. The respiratory inversion point is identified when the positive excursions that occur in the abdominal cavity with breathing change to negative deflections in the thorax. The | Surgery_Schwartz. appropriate procedure based upon the patient’s underlying esophageal function and excluding patients with achalasia who can be misdiagnosed with gastroesophageal reflux when clinical and endoscopic parameters alone are used for diagnosis.EMS is performed using electronic, pressure-sensitive transducers located within the catheter, or water-perfused cath-eters with lateral side holes attached to transducers outside the body. The traditional water perfused catheter has largely been replaced by high resolution motility (HRM), but knowledge of traditional methods of assessing esophageal motility is helpful for understanding esophageal physiology.As the pressure-sensitive station is brought across the gas-troesophageal junction (GEJ), a rise in pressure above the gas-tric baseline signals the beginning of the LES. The respiratory inversion point is identified when the positive excursions that occur in the abdominal cavity with breathing change to negative deflections in the thorax. The |
Surgery_Schwartz_6853 | Surgery_Schwartz | beginning of the LES. The respiratory inversion point is identified when the positive excursions that occur in the abdominal cavity with breathing change to negative deflections in the thorax. The respiratory inversion point serves as a reference point at which the amplitude of LES pressure and the length of the sphincter exposed to abdominal pressure are measured. As the pressure-sensitive station is withdrawn into the body of the esophagus, the upper border of the LES is identified by the drop in pressure to the esophageal baseline. From these measurements, the pressure, abdominal length, and overall length of the sphincter are determined (Fig. 25-19). To Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102101/03/19 6:02 PM 1022SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IILALPLPARPRRA25050Figure 25-20. Radial configuration of the lower esophageal sphincter. A = anterior; L = left; LA = left anterior; LP = left pos-terior; P = posterior; R = right; RA = right anterior; RP = right pos-terior. (Reproduced with | Surgery_Schwartz. beginning of the LES. The respiratory inversion point is identified when the positive excursions that occur in the abdominal cavity with breathing change to negative deflections in the thorax. The respiratory inversion point serves as a reference point at which the amplitude of LES pressure and the length of the sphincter exposed to abdominal pressure are measured. As the pressure-sensitive station is withdrawn into the body of the esophagus, the upper border of the LES is identified by the drop in pressure to the esophageal baseline. From these measurements, the pressure, abdominal length, and overall length of the sphincter are determined (Fig. 25-19). To Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102101/03/19 6:02 PM 1022SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IILALPLPARPRRA25050Figure 25-20. Radial configuration of the lower esophageal sphincter. A = anterior; L = left; LA = left anterior; LP = left pos-terior; P = posterior; R = right; RA = right anterior; RP = right pos-terior. (Reproduced with |
Surgery_Schwartz_6854 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the lower esophageal sphincter. A = anterior; L = left; LA = left anterior; LP = left pos-terior; P = posterior; R = right; RA = right anterior; RP = right pos-terior. (Reproduced with permission from Winans CS: Manometric asymmetry of the lower-esophageal high-pressure zone, Am J Dig Dis. 1977 Apr;22(4):348-354.)Table 25-1Normal manometric values of the distal esophageal sphincter, n = 50 MEDIAN PERCENTILE2.597.5Pressure (mmHg)135.827.7Overall length (cm)3.62.15.6Abdominal length (cm)20.94.7 MEANMEAN – 2 SDMEAN + 2 SDPressure (mmHg)13.8 ± 4.64.623.0Overall length (cm)3.7 ± 0.82.15.3Abdominal length (cm)2.2 ± 0.80.63.8SD = standard deviation.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.account for the asymmetry of the sphincter (Fig. 25-20), the pressure profile is repeated with each of the five radially ori-ented transducers, and the average values for sphincter pressure above | Surgery_Schwartz. of the lower esophageal sphincter. A = anterior; L = left; LA = left anterior; LP = left pos-terior; P = posterior; R = right; RA = right anterior; RP = right pos-terior. (Reproduced with permission from Winans CS: Manometric asymmetry of the lower-esophageal high-pressure zone, Am J Dig Dis. 1977 Apr;22(4):348-354.)Table 25-1Normal manometric values of the distal esophageal sphincter, n = 50 MEDIAN PERCENTILE2.597.5Pressure (mmHg)135.827.7Overall length (cm)3.62.15.6Abdominal length (cm)20.94.7 MEANMEAN – 2 SDMEAN + 2 SDPressure (mmHg)13.8 ± 4.64.623.0Overall length (cm)3.7 ± 0.82.15.3Abdominal length (cm)2.2 ± 0.80.63.8SD = standard deviation.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.account for the asymmetry of the sphincter (Fig. 25-20), the pressure profile is repeated with each of the five radially ori-ented transducers, and the average values for sphincter pressure above |
Surgery_Schwartz_6855 | Surgery_Schwartz | for the asymmetry of the sphincter (Fig. 25-20), the pressure profile is repeated with each of the five radially ori-ented transducers, and the average values for sphincter pressure above gastric baseline, overall sphincter length, and abdominal length of the sphincter are calculated.Table 25-1 shows the values for these parameters in 50 normal volunteers without subjective or objective evidence of a foregut disorder. A mechanically defective sphincter is identified by having one or more of the following characteristics: an average LES pressure of <6 mmHg, an average length exposed to the positive-pressure environment in the abdomen of 1 cm or less, and/or an average overall sphincter length of 2 cm or less.High-Resolution Manometry. Esophageal manometry was introduced into clinical practice in the 1970s and, until recently, has changed little. In 1991, Ray Clouse introduced the concept of improving conventional manometry by increasing the number of recording sites and adding a | Surgery_Schwartz. for the asymmetry of the sphincter (Fig. 25-20), the pressure profile is repeated with each of the five radially ori-ented transducers, and the average values for sphincter pressure above gastric baseline, overall sphincter length, and abdominal length of the sphincter are calculated.Table 25-1 shows the values for these parameters in 50 normal volunteers without subjective or objective evidence of a foregut disorder. A mechanically defective sphincter is identified by having one or more of the following characteristics: an average LES pressure of <6 mmHg, an average length exposed to the positive-pressure environment in the abdomen of 1 cm or less, and/or an average overall sphincter length of 2 cm or less.High-Resolution Manometry. Esophageal manometry was introduced into clinical practice in the 1970s and, until recently, has changed little. In 1991, Ray Clouse introduced the concept of improving conventional manometry by increasing the number of recording sites and adding a |
Surgery_Schwartz_6856 | Surgery_Schwartz | practice in the 1970s and, until recently, has changed little. In 1991, Ray Clouse introduced the concept of improving conventional manometry by increasing the number of recording sites and adding a three-dimensional assessment. This “high-resolution manometry” is a variant of the conventional manometry in which multiple, circumferential recording sites are used, in essence creating a “map” of the esophagus and its sphincters. High-resolution catheters contain 36 miniaturized pressure sensors positioned every centimeter along the length of the catheter. The vast amount of data generated by these sensors is then processed and presented in traditional linear plots or as a visually enhanced spatiotemporal video tracing that is readily interpreted. The function of the esophageal body is assessed with 10 to 15 wet swallows. Amplitude, duration, and morphology of contractions following each swallow are visually displayed (Fig. 25-21).The relationship of the esophageal contractions following | Surgery_Schwartz. practice in the 1970s and, until recently, has changed little. In 1991, Ray Clouse introduced the concept of improving conventional manometry by increasing the number of recording sites and adding a three-dimensional assessment. This “high-resolution manometry” is a variant of the conventional manometry in which multiple, circumferential recording sites are used, in essence creating a “map” of the esophagus and its sphincters. High-resolution catheters contain 36 miniaturized pressure sensors positioned every centimeter along the length of the catheter. The vast amount of data generated by these sensors is then processed and presented in traditional linear plots or as a visually enhanced spatiotemporal video tracing that is readily interpreted. The function of the esophageal body is assessed with 10 to 15 wet swallows. Amplitude, duration, and morphology of contractions following each swallow are visually displayed (Fig. 25-21).The relationship of the esophageal contractions following |
Surgery_Schwartz_6857 | Surgery_Schwartz | with 10 to 15 wet swallows. Amplitude, duration, and morphology of contractions following each swallow are visually displayed (Fig. 25-21).The relationship of the esophageal contractions following a swallow is classified as peristaltic or simultaneous. The data are used to identify motor disorders of the esophagus.The position, length, and function of the lower esopha-geal sphincter (LES) are demonstrated by a high-pressure zone that should relax at the inception of swallowing and contract after the water or solid bolus passes through the LES. Simul-taneous acquisition of data for the upper esophageal sphinc-ter, esophageal body, LES, and gastric pressure minimizes the movement artifacts and study time associated with conven-tional esophageal manometry. This technology significantly enhances esophageal diagnostics, bringing it into the realm of “image”-based studies. High-resolution manometry may allow the identification of focal motor abnormalities previ-ously overlooked. It has | Surgery_Schwartz. with 10 to 15 wet swallows. Amplitude, duration, and morphology of contractions following each swallow are visually displayed (Fig. 25-21).The relationship of the esophageal contractions following a swallow is classified as peristaltic or simultaneous. The data are used to identify motor disorders of the esophagus.The position, length, and function of the lower esopha-geal sphincter (LES) are demonstrated by a high-pressure zone that should relax at the inception of swallowing and contract after the water or solid bolus passes through the LES. Simul-taneous acquisition of data for the upper esophageal sphinc-ter, esophageal body, LES, and gastric pressure minimizes the movement artifacts and study time associated with conven-tional esophageal manometry. This technology significantly enhances esophageal diagnostics, bringing it into the realm of “image”-based studies. High-resolution manometry may allow the identification of focal motor abnormalities previ-ously overlooked. It has |
Surgery_Schwartz_6858 | Surgery_Schwartz | esophageal diagnostics, bringing it into the realm of “image”-based studies. High-resolution manometry may allow the identification of focal motor abnormalities previ-ously overlooked. It has enhanced the ability to predict bolus propagation and increased sensitivity in the measurement of pressure gradients.Esophageal Impedance. Newer technology introduced into the clinical realm a decade ago allows measurement of esophageal function and gastroesophageal reflux in a way that was previously not possible. An intraluminal electrical imped-ance catheter is used to measure GI function. Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current, and is a measure of the electrical conductivity of a hollow organ and its contents. Intraluminal electrical impedance is inversely proportional to the electrical conductivity of the luminal contents and the cross-sectional area of the lumen. Air has a very low electrical conductivity and, therefore, high impedance. Saliva and food cause an imped-ance decrease | Surgery_Schwartz. esophageal diagnostics, bringing it into the realm of “image”-based studies. High-resolution manometry may allow the identification of focal motor abnormalities previ-ously overlooked. It has enhanced the ability to predict bolus propagation and increased sensitivity in the measurement of pressure gradients.Esophageal Impedance. Newer technology introduced into the clinical realm a decade ago allows measurement of esophageal function and gastroesophageal reflux in a way that was previously not possible. An intraluminal electrical imped-ance catheter is used to measure GI function. Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current, and is a measure of the electrical conductivity of a hollow organ and its contents. Intraluminal electrical impedance is inversely proportional to the electrical conductivity of the luminal contents and the cross-sectional area of the lumen. Air has a very low electrical conductivity and, therefore, high impedance. Saliva and food cause an imped-ance decrease |
Surgery_Schwartz_6859 | Surgery_Schwartz | conductivity of the luminal contents and the cross-sectional area of the lumen. Air has a very low electrical conductivity and, therefore, high impedance. Saliva and food cause an imped-ance decrease because of their increased conductivity. Luminal dilatation results in a decrease in impedance, whereas luminal contraction yields an impedance increase. Investigators have established the impedance waveform characteristics that define esophageal bolus transport. This allows for the characterization of both esophageal function, via quantification of bolus trans-port, and gastroesophageal reflux (Fig. 25-22). The probe mea-sures impedance between adjacent electrodes, with measuring segments located at 2, 4, 6, 8, 14, and 16 cm from the distal tip. An extremely low electric current of 0.00025 μW is transmitted across the electrodes at a frequency of 1 to 2 kHz and is limited Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102201/03/19 6:02 PM 1023ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure | Surgery_Schwartz. conductivity of the luminal contents and the cross-sectional area of the lumen. Air has a very low electrical conductivity and, therefore, high impedance. Saliva and food cause an imped-ance decrease because of their increased conductivity. Luminal dilatation results in a decrease in impedance, whereas luminal contraction yields an impedance increase. Investigators have established the impedance waveform characteristics that define esophageal bolus transport. This allows for the characterization of both esophageal function, via quantification of bolus trans-port, and gastroesophageal reflux (Fig. 25-22). The probe mea-sures impedance between adjacent electrodes, with measuring segments located at 2, 4, 6, 8, 14, and 16 cm from the distal tip. An extremely low electric current of 0.00025 μW is transmitted across the electrodes at a frequency of 1 to 2 kHz and is limited Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102201/03/19 6:02 PM 1023ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure |
Surgery_Schwartz_6860 | Surgery_Schwartz | μW is transmitted across the electrodes at a frequency of 1 to 2 kHz and is limited Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102201/03/19 6:02 PM 1023ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-21A. Normal high-resolution manometry motility study. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.UES19.0LES41.840.343.7Gastric 46.2PIP42.3EsophagusPharynxStomachBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102301/03/19 6:02 PM 1024SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 25-21B. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with mechanically defective lower esophageal sphincter. Note the absence of lower esophageal sphincter tone. Pressure measure-ments are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal | Surgery_Schwartz. μW is transmitted across the electrodes at a frequency of 1 to 2 kHz and is limited Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102201/03/19 6:02 PM 1023ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-21A. Normal high-resolution manometry motility study. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.UES19.0LES41.840.343.7Gastric 46.2PIP42.3EsophagusPharynxStomachBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102301/03/19 6:02 PM 1024SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 25-21B. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with mechanically defective lower esophageal sphincter. Note the absence of lower esophageal sphincter tone. Pressure measure-ments are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal |
Surgery_Schwartz_6861 | Surgery_Schwartz | esophageal sphincter tone. Pressure measure-ments are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.EsophagusStomachPharynxUES20.8LES41.9PIP41.841.342.7Gastric 50.3Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102401/03/19 6:02 PM 1025ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-21C. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with deficient esophageal body peristalsis. Note the very weak peristalsis in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.EsophagusPharynxUES18.740.944.6Gastric 47.5LES42.2PIP42.3StomachBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102501/03/19 6:02 PM 1026SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 25-21D. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with achalasia. Note the complete | Surgery_Schwartz. esophageal sphincter tone. Pressure measure-ments are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.EsophagusStomachPharynxUES20.8LES41.9PIP41.841.342.7Gastric 50.3Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102401/03/19 6:02 PM 1025ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-21C. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with deficient esophageal body peristalsis. Note the very weak peristalsis in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.EsophagusPharynxUES18.740.944.6Gastric 47.5LES42.2PIP42.3StomachBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102501/03/19 6:02 PM 1026SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 25-21D. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with achalasia. Note the complete |
Surgery_Schwartz_6862 | Surgery_Schwartz | 102501/03/19 6:02 PM 1026SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 25-21D. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with achalasia. Note the complete absence of esophageal body peristalsis, and the lack of relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.EsophagusUES18.0Gastric 48.542.745.7LES43.8PIP44.1StomachPharynxBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102601/03/19 6:03 PM 1027ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-21E. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with diffuse esophageal spasm. Note the very high amplitude contractions in the esophageal body. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.Gastric | Surgery_Schwartz. 102501/03/19 6:02 PM 1026SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 25-21D. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with achalasia. Note the complete absence of esophageal body peristalsis, and the lack of relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.EsophagusUES18.0Gastric 48.542.745.7LES43.8PIP44.1StomachPharynxBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102601/03/19 6:03 PM 1027ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Figure 25-21E. High-resolution manometry motility study in patient with diffuse esophageal spasm. Note the very high amplitude contractions in the esophageal body. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.Gastric |
Surgery_Schwartz_6863 | Surgery_Schwartz | body. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.Gastric 51.745.6PharynxEsophagusLES47.4PIP47.1UES20.349.7StomachBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102701/03/19 6:03 PM 1028SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIpH siteImpedence site17cm15cm9cm7cm5cmDistance above LESDistance above LES5cmLES3cmFigure 25-22. Esophageal impedance probe measures electrical resistance between evenly spaced electrodes. LES = lower esopha-geal sphincter.to 8 μA. This is below the stimulation threshold for nerves and muscles and is three orders of magnitude below the thresh-old of cardiac stimulation. A standard pH electrode is located 5 cm from the distal tip so that the acidic or nonacidic nature of refluxate can be correlated with the number of reflux events.Esophageal impedance has been validated as an appropri-ate method for the evaluation of GI function and is used | Surgery_Schwartz. body. Pressure measurements are recorded with color coding (red = high; blue = low). LES = lower esophageal sphincter; PIP = pressure inversion point; UES = upper esophageal sphincter.Gastric 51.745.6PharynxEsophagusLES47.4PIP47.1UES20.349.7StomachBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102701/03/19 6:03 PM 1028SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIpH siteImpedence site17cm15cm9cm7cm5cmDistance above LESDistance above LES5cmLES3cmFigure 25-22. Esophageal impedance probe measures electrical resistance between evenly spaced electrodes. LES = lower esopha-geal sphincter.to 8 μA. This is below the stimulation threshold for nerves and muscles and is three orders of magnitude below the thresh-old of cardiac stimulation. A standard pH electrode is located 5 cm from the distal tip so that the acidic or nonacidic nature of refluxate can be correlated with the number of reflux events.Esophageal impedance has been validated as an appropri-ate method for the evaluation of GI function and is used |
Surgery_Schwartz_6864 | Surgery_Schwartz | or nonacidic nature of refluxate can be correlated with the number of reflux events.Esophageal impedance has been validated as an appropri-ate method for the evaluation of GI function and is used selec-tively for the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux. It has been compared to cineradiography showing that impedance waves correspond well with actual bolus transport illustrated by radi-ography. Bolus entry, transit, and exit can be clearly identified by impedance changes in the corresponding measuring seg-ments. Studies comparing standard esophageal manometry with impedance measurements in healthy volunteers have shown that esophageal impedance correlates with peristaltic wave progres-sion and bolus length.Twenty-four-hour pH monitoring, the historical gold stan-dard for diagnosing and quantifying gastroesophageal reflux, has some significant limitations. With 24-hour ambulatory pH testing, reflux is defined as a drop in the pH below 4, which effectively “blinds” the test to reflux | Surgery_Schwartz. or nonacidic nature of refluxate can be correlated with the number of reflux events.Esophageal impedance has been validated as an appropri-ate method for the evaluation of GI function and is used selec-tively for the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux. It has been compared to cineradiography showing that impedance waves correspond well with actual bolus transport illustrated by radi-ography. Bolus entry, transit, and exit can be clearly identified by impedance changes in the corresponding measuring seg-ments. Studies comparing standard esophageal manometry with impedance measurements in healthy volunteers have shown that esophageal impedance correlates with peristaltic wave progres-sion and bolus length.Twenty-four-hour pH monitoring, the historical gold stan-dard for diagnosing and quantifying gastroesophageal reflux, has some significant limitations. With 24-hour ambulatory pH testing, reflux is defined as a drop in the pH below 4, which effectively “blinds” the test to reflux |
Surgery_Schwartz_6865 | Surgery_Schwartz | quantifying gastroesophageal reflux, has some significant limitations. With 24-hour ambulatory pH testing, reflux is defined as a drop in the pH below 4, which effectively “blinds” the test to reflux occurring at higher pH values. Furthermore, in patients with persistent symptoms on proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy, pH monitoring has lim-ited use as it can only detect abnormal acid reflux (pH <4), the occurrence of which has been altered by the antisecretory medi-cation. Given that PPI antisecretory therapy is highly effective in neutralizing gastric acid, the question of whether persistent symptoms are a result of persistent acid reflux, nonacid reflux, or are not reflux related becomes a key issue in surgical decision making. Until recently, this differentiation could not be made. Detection of both acid and nonacid reflux has potential to define these populations of patients and thus improve patient selection for antireflux surgery. Multichannel intraluminal impedance technology | Surgery_Schwartz. quantifying gastroesophageal reflux, has some significant limitations. With 24-hour ambulatory pH testing, reflux is defined as a drop in the pH below 4, which effectively “blinds” the test to reflux occurring at higher pH values. Furthermore, in patients with persistent symptoms on proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy, pH monitoring has lim-ited use as it can only detect abnormal acid reflux (pH <4), the occurrence of which has been altered by the antisecretory medi-cation. Given that PPI antisecretory therapy is highly effective in neutralizing gastric acid, the question of whether persistent symptoms are a result of persistent acid reflux, nonacid reflux, or are not reflux related becomes a key issue in surgical decision making. Until recently, this differentiation could not be made. Detection of both acid and nonacid reflux has potential to define these populations of patients and thus improve patient selection for antireflux surgery. Multichannel intraluminal impedance technology |
Surgery_Schwartz_6866 | Surgery_Schwartz | of both acid and nonacid reflux has potential to define these populations of patients and thus improve patient selection for antireflux surgery. Multichannel intraluminal impedance technology allows the measurement of both acid and nonacid reflux, with potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy.Using this technology, Balaji and colleagues showed that most gastroesophageal reflux remains despite acid suppression. Impedance pH may be particularly useful in evaluating patients with persistent symptoms despite PPI treatment, patients with respiratory symptoms, and postoperative patients who are hav-ing symptoms that are elusive to diagnosis.Esophageal Transit Scintigraphy. The esophageal transit of a 10-mL water bolus containing technetium-99m (99mTc) sulfur colloid can be recorded with a gamma camera. Using this tech-nique, delayed bolus transit has been shown in patients with a variety of esophageal motor disorders, including achalasia, scleroderma, DES, and nutcracker esophagus.Videoand | Surgery_Schwartz. of both acid and nonacid reflux has potential to define these populations of patients and thus improve patient selection for antireflux surgery. Multichannel intraluminal impedance technology allows the measurement of both acid and nonacid reflux, with potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy.Using this technology, Balaji and colleagues showed that most gastroesophageal reflux remains despite acid suppression. Impedance pH may be particularly useful in evaluating patients with persistent symptoms despite PPI treatment, patients with respiratory symptoms, and postoperative patients who are hav-ing symptoms that are elusive to diagnosis.Esophageal Transit Scintigraphy. The esophageal transit of a 10-mL water bolus containing technetium-99m (99mTc) sulfur colloid can be recorded with a gamma camera. Using this tech-nique, delayed bolus transit has been shown in patients with a variety of esophageal motor disorders, including achalasia, scleroderma, DES, and nutcracker esophagus.Videoand |
Surgery_Schwartz_6867 | Surgery_Schwartz | camera. Using this tech-nique, delayed bolus transit has been shown in patients with a variety of esophageal motor disorders, including achalasia, scleroderma, DES, and nutcracker esophagus.Videoand CineradiographyHigh-speed cinematic or video recording of radiographic studies allows re-evaluation by reviewing the studies at various speeds. This technique is more useful than manometry in the evaluation of the pharyngeal phase of swallowing. Observations suggesting oropharyngeal or cricopharyngeal dysfunction include misdirec-tion of barium into the trachea or nasopharynx, prominence of the cricopharyngeal muscle, a Zenker’s diverticulum, a narrow pharyngoesophageal segment, and stasis of the contrast medium in the valleculae or hypopharyngeal recesses (Fig. 25-23). These findings are usually not specific, but rather common manifesta-tions of neuromuscular disorders affecting the pharyngoesoph-ageal area. Studies using liquid barium, barium-impregnated solids, or radiopaque pills aid | Surgery_Schwartz. camera. Using this tech-nique, delayed bolus transit has been shown in patients with a variety of esophageal motor disorders, including achalasia, scleroderma, DES, and nutcracker esophagus.Videoand CineradiographyHigh-speed cinematic or video recording of radiographic studies allows re-evaluation by reviewing the studies at various speeds. This technique is more useful than manometry in the evaluation of the pharyngeal phase of swallowing. Observations suggesting oropharyngeal or cricopharyngeal dysfunction include misdirec-tion of barium into the trachea or nasopharynx, prominence of the cricopharyngeal muscle, a Zenker’s diverticulum, a narrow pharyngoesophageal segment, and stasis of the contrast medium in the valleculae or hypopharyngeal recesses (Fig. 25-23). These findings are usually not specific, but rather common manifesta-tions of neuromuscular disorders affecting the pharyngoesoph-ageal area. Studies using liquid barium, barium-impregnated solids, or radiopaque pills aid |
Surgery_Schwartz_6868 | Surgery_Schwartz | not specific, but rather common manifesta-tions of neuromuscular disorders affecting the pharyngoesoph-ageal area. Studies using liquid barium, barium-impregnated solids, or radiopaque pills aid the evaluation of normal and abnormal motility in the esophageal body. Loss of the normal stripping wave or segmentation of the barium column with the patient in the recumbent position correlates with abnormal motility of the esophageal body. In addition, structural abnor-malities such as small diverticula, webs, and minimal extrin-sic impressions of the esophagus may be recognized only with motion-recording techniques. The simultaneous computerized capture of videofluoroscopic images and manometric tracings is now available and is referred to as manofluorography. Mano-fluorographic studies allow precise correlation of the anatomic events, such as opening of the upper esophageal sphincter, with manometric observations, such as sphincter relaxation. Mano-fluorography, although not widely | Surgery_Schwartz. not specific, but rather common manifesta-tions of neuromuscular disorders affecting the pharyngoesoph-ageal area. Studies using liquid barium, barium-impregnated solids, or radiopaque pills aid the evaluation of normal and abnormal motility in the esophageal body. Loss of the normal stripping wave or segmentation of the barium column with the patient in the recumbent position correlates with abnormal motility of the esophageal body. In addition, structural abnor-malities such as small diverticula, webs, and minimal extrin-sic impressions of the esophagus may be recognized only with motion-recording techniques. The simultaneous computerized capture of videofluoroscopic images and manometric tracings is now available and is referred to as manofluorography. Mano-fluorographic studies allow precise correlation of the anatomic events, such as opening of the upper esophageal sphincter, with manometric observations, such as sphincter relaxation. Mano-fluorography, although not widely |
Surgery_Schwartz_6869 | Surgery_Schwartz | allow precise correlation of the anatomic events, such as opening of the upper esophageal sphincter, with manometric observations, such as sphincter relaxation. Mano-fluorography, although not widely available, is presently the best means available to evaluate complex functional abnormalities.Tests to Detect Increased Exposure to Gastric JuiceTwenty-Four-Hour Ambulatory pH Monitoring. The most direct method of measuring increased esophageal exposure to gas-tric juice is by an indwelling pH electrode, or, more recently, via a radiotelemetric pH monitoring capsule that can be clipped to the esophageal mucosa. The latter consists of an antimony pH elec-trode fitted inside a small, capsule-shaped device accompanied by a battery and electronics that allow 48-hour monitoring and transmission of the pH data via transcutaneous radio telemetry to a waist-mounted data logger. The device can be introduced either transorally or transnasally, and it can be clipped to the esophageal mucosa using | Surgery_Schwartz. allow precise correlation of the anatomic events, such as opening of the upper esophageal sphincter, with manometric observations, such as sphincter relaxation. Mano-fluorography, although not widely available, is presently the best means available to evaluate complex functional abnormalities.Tests to Detect Increased Exposure to Gastric JuiceTwenty-Four-Hour Ambulatory pH Monitoring. The most direct method of measuring increased esophageal exposure to gas-tric juice is by an indwelling pH electrode, or, more recently, via a radiotelemetric pH monitoring capsule that can be clipped to the esophageal mucosa. The latter consists of an antimony pH elec-trode fitted inside a small, capsule-shaped device accompanied by a battery and electronics that allow 48-hour monitoring and transmission of the pH data via transcutaneous radio telemetry to a waist-mounted data logger. The device can be introduced either transorally or transnasally, and it can be clipped to the esophageal mucosa using |
Surgery_Schwartz_6870 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the pH data via transcutaneous radio telemetry to a waist-mounted data logger. The device can be introduced either transorally or transnasally, and it can be clipped to the esophageal mucosa using endoscopic fastening techniques. It passes sponta-neously within 1 to 2 weeks. Prolonged monitoring of esophageal pH is performed by placing the pH probe or telemetry capsule 5 cm above the manometrically measured upper border of the dis-tal sphincter for 24 hours. It measures the actual time the esopha-geal mucosa is exposed to gastric juice, measures the ability of the esophagus to clear refluxed acid, and correlates esophageal acid exposure with the patient’s symptoms. A 24to 48-hour period is necessary so that measurements can be made over one or two complete circadian cycles. This allows measuring the effect of physiologic activity, such as eating or sleeping, on the reflux of gastric juice into the esophagus (Fig. 25-24).Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102801/03/19 6:03 PM | Surgery_Schwartz. of the pH data via transcutaneous radio telemetry to a waist-mounted data logger. The device can be introduced either transorally or transnasally, and it can be clipped to the esophageal mucosa using endoscopic fastening techniques. It passes sponta-neously within 1 to 2 weeks. Prolonged monitoring of esophageal pH is performed by placing the pH probe or telemetry capsule 5 cm above the manometrically measured upper border of the dis-tal sphincter for 24 hours. It measures the actual time the esopha-geal mucosa is exposed to gastric juice, measures the ability of the esophagus to clear refluxed acid, and correlates esophageal acid exposure with the patient’s symptoms. A 24to 48-hour period is necessary so that measurements can be made over one or two complete circadian cycles. This allows measuring the effect of physiologic activity, such as eating or sleeping, on the reflux of gastric juice into the esophagus (Fig. 25-24).Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102801/03/19 6:03 PM |
Surgery_Schwartz_6871 | Surgery_Schwartz | measuring the effect of physiologic activity, such as eating or sleeping, on the reflux of gastric juice into the esophagus (Fig. 25-24).Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102801/03/19 6:03 PM 1029ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25mpmppH8642mppH8642pH8642sp06:0000:0022:0002:0004:0022:0016:0014:0018:0020:0014:0008:0006:0010:0012:00Figure 25-24. Strip chart display of a 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring study in a patient with increased esophageal acid expo-sure. mp = meal period; sp = supine period. (Reproduced with per-mission from Zuidema GD, Orringer MB: Shackelford’s Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 1991.)BATable 25-2Normal values for esophageal exposure to pH <4 (n = 50)COMPONENTMEANSD95%Total time1.511.364.45Upright time2.342.348.42Supine time0.631.03.45No. of episodes19.0012.7646.90No. >5 min0.841.183.45Longest episode6.747.8519.80SD = standard deviation.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, | Surgery_Schwartz. measuring the effect of physiologic activity, such as eating or sleeping, on the reflux of gastric juice into the esophagus (Fig. 25-24).Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102801/03/19 6:03 PM 1029ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25mpmppH8642mppH8642pH8642sp06:0000:0022:0002:0004:0022:0016:0014:0018:0020:0014:0008:0006:0010:0012:00Figure 25-24. Strip chart display of a 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring study in a patient with increased esophageal acid expo-sure. mp = meal period; sp = supine period. (Reproduced with per-mission from Zuidema GD, Orringer MB: Shackelford’s Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 1991.)BATable 25-2Normal values for esophageal exposure to pH <4 (n = 50)COMPONENTMEANSD95%Total time1.511.364.45Upright time2.342.348.42Supine time0.631.03.45No. of episodes19.0012.7646.90No. >5 min0.841.183.45Longest episode6.747.8519.80SD = standard deviation.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, |
Surgery_Schwartz_6872 | Surgery_Schwartz | time0.631.03.45No. of episodes19.0012.7646.90No. >5 min0.841.183.45Longest episode6.747.8519.80SD = standard deviation.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.Figure 25-23. Esophagograms from a patient with cricopharyngeal achalasia. A. Anteropos-terior film showing retention of the contrast medium at the level of the vallecula and piriform recesses, with no barium passing into the esopha-gus. B. Lateral film, taken opposite the C5–C6 vertebrae, showing posterior indentation of the cricopharyngeus, retention in the hypopharynx, and tracheal aspiration. (Reproduced with per-mission from DeMeester TR, Matthews H: Inter-national Trends in General Thoracic Surgery. Vol 3. Benign Esophageal Disease. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 1987.)The 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring should not be con-sidered a test for reflux, but rather a measurement of the esopha-geal exposure to gastric juice. The | Surgery_Schwartz. time0.631.03.45No. of episodes19.0012.7646.90No. >5 min0.841.183.45Longest episode6.747.8519.80SD = standard deviation.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.Figure 25-23. Esophagograms from a patient with cricopharyngeal achalasia. A. Anteropos-terior film showing retention of the contrast medium at the level of the vallecula and piriform recesses, with no barium passing into the esopha-gus. B. Lateral film, taken opposite the C5–C6 vertebrae, showing posterior indentation of the cricopharyngeus, retention in the hypopharynx, and tracheal aspiration. (Reproduced with per-mission from DeMeester TR, Matthews H: Inter-national Trends in General Thoracic Surgery. Vol 3. Benign Esophageal Disease. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 1987.)The 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring should not be con-sidered a test for reflux, but rather a measurement of the esopha-geal exposure to gastric juice. The |
Surgery_Schwartz_6873 | Surgery_Schwartz | Disease. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 1987.)The 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring should not be con-sidered a test for reflux, but rather a measurement of the esopha-geal exposure to gastric juice. The measurement is expressed by the time the esophageal pH was below a given threshold during the 24-hour period (Table 25-3). This single assess-ment, although concise, does not reflect how the exposure has occurred; that is, did it occur in a few long episodes or several short episodes? Consequently, two other assessments are neces-sary: the frequency of the reflux episodes and their duration.The units used to express esophageal exposure to gastric juice are: (a) cumulative time the esophageal pH is below a cho-sen threshold, expressed as the percentage of the total, upright, and supine monitored time; (b) frequency of reflux episodes below a chosen threshold, expressed as number of episodes per 24 hours; and (c) duration of the episodes, expressed as the number of episodes >5 minutes per 24 | Surgery_Schwartz. Disease. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 1987.)The 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring should not be con-sidered a test for reflux, but rather a measurement of the esopha-geal exposure to gastric juice. The measurement is expressed by the time the esophageal pH was below a given threshold during the 24-hour period (Table 25-3). This single assess-ment, although concise, does not reflect how the exposure has occurred; that is, did it occur in a few long episodes or several short episodes? Consequently, two other assessments are neces-sary: the frequency of the reflux episodes and their duration.The units used to express esophageal exposure to gastric juice are: (a) cumulative time the esophageal pH is below a cho-sen threshold, expressed as the percentage of the total, upright, and supine monitored time; (b) frequency of reflux episodes below a chosen threshold, expressed as number of episodes per 24 hours; and (c) duration of the episodes, expressed as the number of episodes >5 minutes per 24 |
Surgery_Schwartz_6874 | Surgery_Schwartz | time; (b) frequency of reflux episodes below a chosen threshold, expressed as number of episodes per 24 hours; and (c) duration of the episodes, expressed as the number of episodes >5 minutes per 24 hours, and the time in minutes of the longest episode recorded. Table 25-2 shows the normal values for these components of the 24-hour record at the whole-number pH threshold derived from 50 normal asymptom-atic subjects. The upper limits of normal were established at the 95th percentile. Most centers use pH 4 as the threshold.Based on these studies and extensive clinical experience, 48-hour esophageal pH monitoring is considered to be the gold standard for the diagnosis of GERD.The Bravo pH Capsule (Medtronics, Minneapolis, MN) measures pH levels in the esophagus and transmits continuous Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102901/03/19 6:03 PM 1030SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART II210:0012:0014:0016:0018:0047pH218:0020:0022:0000:0002:0047202:0004:0006:0008:0010:0047pH probe5 cmabove5 | Surgery_Schwartz. time; (b) frequency of reflux episodes below a chosen threshold, expressed as number of episodes per 24 hours; and (c) duration of the episodes, expressed as the number of episodes >5 minutes per 24 hours, and the time in minutes of the longest episode recorded. Table 25-2 shows the normal values for these components of the 24-hour record at the whole-number pH threshold derived from 50 normal asymptom-atic subjects. The upper limits of normal were established at the 95th percentile. Most centers use pH 4 as the threshold.Based on these studies and extensive clinical experience, 48-hour esophageal pH monitoring is considered to be the gold standard for the diagnosis of GERD.The Bravo pH Capsule (Medtronics, Minneapolis, MN) measures pH levels in the esophagus and transmits continuous Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102901/03/19 6:03 PM 1030SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART II210:0012:0014:0016:0018:0047pH218:0020:0022:0000:0002:0047202:0004:0006:0008:0010:0047pH probe5 cmabove5 |
Surgery_Schwartz_6875 | Surgery_Schwartz | Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102901/03/19 6:03 PM 1030SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART II210:0012:0014:0016:0018:0047pH218:0020:0022:0000:0002:0047202:0004:0006:0008:0010:0047pH probe5 cmabove5 cmbelowBACombined 24-hourgastric and esophagealpH monitoringFigure 25-25. A. Combined esophageal and gastric pH monitoring showing position of probes in relation to the lower esophageal sphincter. B. Combined ambulatory esophageal (upper tracing) and gastric (lower tracing) pH monitoring showing duodenogastric reflux (arrows) with propagation of the alkaline juice into the esophagus of a patient with complicated Barrett’s esophagus. The gastric tracing (lower) is taken from a probe lying 5 cm below the upper esophageal sphincter. The esophageal tracing (upper) is taken from a probe lying 5 cm above the lower esophageal sphincter. Note that in only a small proportion of time does duodenogastric reflux move the pH of the esophagus above the threshold of 7, causing the iceberg effect. | Surgery_Schwartz. Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 102901/03/19 6:03 PM 1030SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART II210:0012:0014:0016:0018:0047pH218:0020:0022:0000:0002:0047202:0004:0006:0008:0010:0047pH probe5 cmabove5 cmbelowBACombined 24-hourgastric and esophagealpH monitoringFigure 25-25. A. Combined esophageal and gastric pH monitoring showing position of probes in relation to the lower esophageal sphincter. B. Combined ambulatory esophageal (upper tracing) and gastric (lower tracing) pH monitoring showing duodenogastric reflux (arrows) with propagation of the alkaline juice into the esophagus of a patient with complicated Barrett’s esophagus. The gastric tracing (lower) is taken from a probe lying 5 cm below the upper esophageal sphincter. The esophageal tracing (upper) is taken from a probe lying 5 cm above the lower esophageal sphincter. Note that in only a small proportion of time does duodenogastric reflux move the pH of the esophagus above the threshold of 7, causing the iceberg effect. |
Surgery_Schwartz_6876 | Surgery_Schwartz | 5 cm above the lower esophageal sphincter. Note that in only a small proportion of time does duodenogastric reflux move the pH of the esophagus above the threshold of 7, causing the iceberg effect. (Reproduced with permission from Zuidema GD, Orringer MB: Shackelford’s Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 1991.)Table 25-3Normal composite score for various pH thresholds: upper level of normal valuepH THRESHOLD95TH PERCENTILE<114.2<217.37<314.10<414.72<515.76<612.76>714.90>88.50Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.esophageal pH readings to a receiver worn on the patient’s belt or waistband (Fig. 25-25). Symptoms that the patient experi-ences are recorded in a diary and/or by pressing buttons on the receiver unit. Generally, 48 hours of pH data are measured with this probe. A recent study has shown that the addition of a second | Surgery_Schwartz. 5 cm above the lower esophageal sphincter. Note that in only a small proportion of time does duodenogastric reflux move the pH of the esophagus above the threshold of 7, causing the iceberg effect. (Reproduced with permission from Zuidema GD, Orringer MB: Shackelford’s Surgery of the Alimentary Tract, 3rd ed. Vol 1. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders; 1991.)Table 25-3Normal composite score for various pH thresholds: upper level of normal valuepH THRESHOLD95TH PERCENTILE<114.2<217.37<314.10<414.72<515.76<612.76>714.90>88.50Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.esophageal pH readings to a receiver worn on the patient’s belt or waistband (Fig. 25-25). Symptoms that the patient experi-ences are recorded in a diary and/or by pressing buttons on the receiver unit. Generally, 48 hours of pH data are measured with this probe. A recent study has shown that the addition of a second |
Surgery_Schwartz_6877 | Surgery_Schwartz | are recorded in a diary and/or by pressing buttons on the receiver unit. Generally, 48 hours of pH data are measured with this probe. A recent study has shown that the addition of a second day of pH monitoring increased the sensitivity of pH measurement by 22%. The capsule eventually detaches and passes through the digestive tract in 5 to 7 days.Radiographic Detection of Gastroesophageal Reflux. The definition of radiographic gastroesophageal reflux varies depend-ing on whether reflux is spontaneous or induced by various maneu-vers. In only about 40% of patients with classic symptoms of GERD is spontaneous reflux (i.e., reflux of barium from the stom-ach into the esophagus with the patient in the upright position) observed by the radiologist. In most patients who show spon-taneous reflux on radiography, the diagnosis of increased esophageal acid exposure is confirmed by 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring. Therefore, the radiographic demonstration of sponta-neous regurgitation of barium | Surgery_Schwartz. are recorded in a diary and/or by pressing buttons on the receiver unit. Generally, 48 hours of pH data are measured with this probe. A recent study has shown that the addition of a second day of pH monitoring increased the sensitivity of pH measurement by 22%. The capsule eventually detaches and passes through the digestive tract in 5 to 7 days.Radiographic Detection of Gastroesophageal Reflux. The definition of radiographic gastroesophageal reflux varies depend-ing on whether reflux is spontaneous or induced by various maneu-vers. In only about 40% of patients with classic symptoms of GERD is spontaneous reflux (i.e., reflux of barium from the stom-ach into the esophagus with the patient in the upright position) observed by the radiologist. In most patients who show spon-taneous reflux on radiography, the diagnosis of increased esophageal acid exposure is confirmed by 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring. Therefore, the radiographic demonstration of sponta-neous regurgitation of barium |
Surgery_Schwartz_6878 | Surgery_Schwartz | on radiography, the diagnosis of increased esophageal acid exposure is confirmed by 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring. Therefore, the radiographic demonstration of sponta-neous regurgitation of barium into the esophagus in the upright position is a reliable indicator that reflux is present. However, fail-ure to see this does not indicate the absence of disease, and for this reason this test is rarely used for clinical diagnosis.Tests of Duodenogastric FunctionEsophageal disorders are frequently associated with abnormali-ties of duodenogastric function. Abnormalities of the gastric res-ervoir or increased gastric acid secretion can be responsible for increased esophageal exposure to gastric juice. Reflux of alka-line duodenal juice, including bile salts, pancreatic enzymes, and bicarbonate, is thought to have a role in the pathogenesis of esophagitis and complicated Barrett’s esophagus. Furthermore, functional disorders of the esophagus are often not confined to | Surgery_Schwartz. on radiography, the diagnosis of increased esophageal acid exposure is confirmed by 24-hour esophageal pH monitoring. Therefore, the radiographic demonstration of sponta-neous regurgitation of barium into the esophagus in the upright position is a reliable indicator that reflux is present. However, fail-ure to see this does not indicate the absence of disease, and for this reason this test is rarely used for clinical diagnosis.Tests of Duodenogastric FunctionEsophageal disorders are frequently associated with abnormali-ties of duodenogastric function. Abnormalities of the gastric res-ervoir or increased gastric acid secretion can be responsible for increased esophageal exposure to gastric juice. Reflux of alka-line duodenal juice, including bile salts, pancreatic enzymes, and bicarbonate, is thought to have a role in the pathogenesis of esophagitis and complicated Barrett’s esophagus. Furthermore, functional disorders of the esophagus are often not confined to |
Surgery_Schwartz_6879 | Surgery_Schwartz | and bicarbonate, is thought to have a role in the pathogenesis of esophagitis and complicated Barrett’s esophagus. Furthermore, functional disorders of the esophagus are often not confined to 2Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 103001/03/19 6:03 PM 1031ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25the esophagus alone, but are associated with functional disor-ders of the rest of the foregut (i.e., stomach and duodenum). Tests of duodenogastric function that are helpful to investigate esophageal symptoms include gastric emptying studies, gastric acid analysis, and cholescintigraphy (for the diagnosis of patho-logic duodenogastric and/or duodenogastroesophageal reflux).Gastric Emptying Study. Gastric emptying studies are performed with radionuclide-labeled meals. Emptying of solids and liquids can be assessed simultaneously when both phases are marked with different tracers. After ingestion of a labeled standard meal, gamma camera images of the stomach are obtained at 5to 15-minute | Surgery_Schwartz. and bicarbonate, is thought to have a role in the pathogenesis of esophagitis and complicated Barrett’s esophagus. Furthermore, functional disorders of the esophagus are often not confined to 2Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 103001/03/19 6:03 PM 1031ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25the esophagus alone, but are associated with functional disor-ders of the rest of the foregut (i.e., stomach and duodenum). Tests of duodenogastric function that are helpful to investigate esophageal symptoms include gastric emptying studies, gastric acid analysis, and cholescintigraphy (for the diagnosis of patho-logic duodenogastric and/or duodenogastroesophageal reflux).Gastric Emptying Study. Gastric emptying studies are performed with radionuclide-labeled meals. Emptying of solids and liquids can be assessed simultaneously when both phases are marked with different tracers. After ingestion of a labeled standard meal, gamma camera images of the stomach are obtained at 5to 15-minute |
Surgery_Schwartz_6880 | Surgery_Schwartz | liquids can be assessed simultaneously when both phases are marked with different tracers. After ingestion of a labeled standard meal, gamma camera images of the stomach are obtained at 5to 15-minute inter-vals for 2 to 4 hours. After correction for decay, the counts in the gastric area are plotted as the percentage of total counts at the start of the imaging. The resulting emptying curve can be compared with data obtained in normal volunteers. In general, normal subjects will empty 59% of a meal within 90 minutes. Although delayed gas-tric emptying is often associated with gastroesophageal reflux, in general delayed emptying does not correlate with a poorer clinical outcome after antireflux surgery, and it should not be considered a contraindication to surgical treatment.GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASEGERD was not recognized as a significant clinical problem until the mid-1930s and was not identified as a precipitating cause for esophagitis until after World War II. In the early 21st | Surgery_Schwartz. liquids can be assessed simultaneously when both phases are marked with different tracers. After ingestion of a labeled standard meal, gamma camera images of the stomach are obtained at 5to 15-minute inter-vals for 2 to 4 hours. After correction for decay, the counts in the gastric area are plotted as the percentage of total counts at the start of the imaging. The resulting emptying curve can be compared with data obtained in normal volunteers. In general, normal subjects will empty 59% of a meal within 90 minutes. Although delayed gas-tric emptying is often associated with gastroesophageal reflux, in general delayed emptying does not correlate with a poorer clinical outcome after antireflux surgery, and it should not be considered a contraindication to surgical treatment.GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASEGERD was not recognized as a significant clinical problem until the mid-1930s and was not identified as a precipitating cause for esophagitis until after World War II. In the early 21st |
Surgery_Schwartz_6881 | Surgery_Schwartz | REFLUX DISEASEGERD was not recognized as a significant clinical problem until the mid-1930s and was not identified as a precipitating cause for esophagitis until after World War II. In the early 21st century, it has grown to be a very common problem and now accounts for a majority of esophageal pathology. It is recognized as a chronic disease, and when medical therapy is required, it is often lifelong treatment. Recent efforts at the development of various endoscopic antireflux interventions, although innovative, have not been successful in consistently controlling gastroesophageal reflux. Antireflux surgery is an effective and long-term therapy and is the only treatment that is able to restore the gastroesopha-geal barrier. Despite the common prevalence of GERD, it can be one of the most challenging diagnostic and therapeutic problems in clinical medicine. A contributing factor to this is the lack of a universally accepted definition of the disease.The most simplistic approach is to | Surgery_Schwartz. REFLUX DISEASEGERD was not recognized as a significant clinical problem until the mid-1930s and was not identified as a precipitating cause for esophagitis until after World War II. In the early 21st century, it has grown to be a very common problem and now accounts for a majority of esophageal pathology. It is recognized as a chronic disease, and when medical therapy is required, it is often lifelong treatment. Recent efforts at the development of various endoscopic antireflux interventions, although innovative, have not been successful in consistently controlling gastroesophageal reflux. Antireflux surgery is an effective and long-term therapy and is the only treatment that is able to restore the gastroesopha-geal barrier. Despite the common prevalence of GERD, it can be one of the most challenging diagnostic and therapeutic problems in clinical medicine. A contributing factor to this is the lack of a universally accepted definition of the disease.The most simplistic approach is to |
Surgery_Schwartz_6882 | Surgery_Schwartz | challenging diagnostic and therapeutic problems in clinical medicine. A contributing factor to this is the lack of a universally accepted definition of the disease.The most simplistic approach is to define the disease by its symptoms. However, symptoms thought to be indicative of GERD, such as heartburn or acid regurgitation, are very com-mon in the general population and many individuals consider them to be normal and do not seek medical attention. Even when excessive, these symptoms are not specific for gastroesophageal reflux. They can be caused by other diseases such as achalasia, DES, esophageal carcinoma, pyloric stenosis, cholelithiasis, gastritis, gastric or duodenal ulcer, and coronary artery disease.A thorough, structured evaluation of the patient’s symptoms is essential before any therapy, particularly any form of esopha-geal surgery. The presence and severity of both typical symp-toms of heartburn, regurgitation, and dysphagia, and atypical symptoms of cough, hoarseness, | Surgery_Schwartz. challenging diagnostic and therapeutic problems in clinical medicine. A contributing factor to this is the lack of a universally accepted definition of the disease.The most simplistic approach is to define the disease by its symptoms. However, symptoms thought to be indicative of GERD, such as heartburn or acid regurgitation, are very com-mon in the general population and many individuals consider them to be normal and do not seek medical attention. Even when excessive, these symptoms are not specific for gastroesophageal reflux. They can be caused by other diseases such as achalasia, DES, esophageal carcinoma, pyloric stenosis, cholelithiasis, gastritis, gastric or duodenal ulcer, and coronary artery disease.A thorough, structured evaluation of the patient’s symptoms is essential before any therapy, particularly any form of esopha-geal surgery. The presence and severity of both typical symp-toms of heartburn, regurgitation, and dysphagia, and atypical symptoms of cough, hoarseness, |
Surgery_Schwartz_6883 | Surgery_Schwartz | any therapy, particularly any form of esopha-geal surgery. The presence and severity of both typical symp-toms of heartburn, regurgitation, and dysphagia, and atypical symptoms of cough, hoarseness, chest pain, asthma, and aspira-tion should be discussed with the patient in detail. Many of these atypical symptoms may not be esophageal related and hence will not improve and may even worsen with antireflux surgery.Heartburn is generally defined as a substernal burning-type discomfort, beginning in the epigastrium and radiating upward. It is often aggravated by meals, spicy or fatty foods, chocolate, alcohol, and coffee and can be worse in the supine position. It is commonly, although not universally, relieved by antacid or antisecretory medications. Epidemiologic studies have shown that heartburn occurs monthly in as many as 40% Table 25-4American Gastroenterologic Association Gallup poll on nighttime gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms• 50 million Americans have nighttime | Surgery_Schwartz. any therapy, particularly any form of esopha-geal surgery. The presence and severity of both typical symp-toms of heartburn, regurgitation, and dysphagia, and atypical symptoms of cough, hoarseness, chest pain, asthma, and aspira-tion should be discussed with the patient in detail. Many of these atypical symptoms may not be esophageal related and hence will not improve and may even worsen with antireflux surgery.Heartburn is generally defined as a substernal burning-type discomfort, beginning in the epigastrium and radiating upward. It is often aggravated by meals, spicy or fatty foods, chocolate, alcohol, and coffee and can be worse in the supine position. It is commonly, although not universally, relieved by antacid or antisecretory medications. Epidemiologic studies have shown that heartburn occurs monthly in as many as 40% Table 25-4American Gastroenterologic Association Gallup poll on nighttime gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms• 50 million Americans have nighttime |
Surgery_Schwartz_6884 | Surgery_Schwartz | that heartburn occurs monthly in as many as 40% Table 25-4American Gastroenterologic Association Gallup poll on nighttime gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms• 50 million Americans have nighttime heartburn at least 1/wk• 80% of heartburn sufferers had nocturnal symptoms—65% both day & night• 63% report that it affects their ability to sleep and impacts their work the next day• 72% are on prescription medications• Nearly half (45%) report that current remedies do not relieve all symptomsto 50% of the Western population. The occurrence of heartburn at night and its effect on quality of life have recently been high-lighted by a Gallup poll conducted by the American Gastroen-terologic Society (Table 25-4).Regurgitation, the effortless return of acid or bitter gastric contents into the chest, pharynx, or mouth, is highly suggestive of foregut pathology. It is often particularly severe at night when supine or when bending over and can be secondary to either an incompetent or obstructed | Surgery_Schwartz. that heartburn occurs monthly in as many as 40% Table 25-4American Gastroenterologic Association Gallup poll on nighttime gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms• 50 million Americans have nighttime heartburn at least 1/wk• 80% of heartburn sufferers had nocturnal symptoms—65% both day & night• 63% report that it affects their ability to sleep and impacts their work the next day• 72% are on prescription medications• Nearly half (45%) report that current remedies do not relieve all symptomsto 50% of the Western population. The occurrence of heartburn at night and its effect on quality of life have recently been high-lighted by a Gallup poll conducted by the American Gastroen-terologic Society (Table 25-4).Regurgitation, the effortless return of acid or bitter gastric contents into the chest, pharynx, or mouth, is highly suggestive of foregut pathology. It is often particularly severe at night when supine or when bending over and can be secondary to either an incompetent or obstructed |
Surgery_Schwartz_6885 | Surgery_Schwartz | pharynx, or mouth, is highly suggestive of foregut pathology. It is often particularly severe at night when supine or when bending over and can be secondary to either an incompetent or obstructed GEJ. With the latter, as in achalasia, the regurgitant is often bland, as if food was put into a blender. When questioned, most patients can distinguish the two. It is the regurgitation of gastric contents that may result in associated pulmonary symptoms, including cough, hoarseness, asthma, and recurrent pneumonia. Bronchospasm can be precipitated by esophageal acidification and cough by either acid stimulation or distention of the esophagus.Dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing, is a relatively non-specific term but arguably the most specific symptom of foregut disease. It can be a sign of underlying malignancy and should be aggressively investigated until a diagnosis is established. Dyspha-gia refers to the sensation of difficulty in the passage of food from the mouth to the stomach and can | Surgery_Schwartz. pharynx, or mouth, is highly suggestive of foregut pathology. It is often particularly severe at night when supine or when bending over and can be secondary to either an incompetent or obstructed GEJ. With the latter, as in achalasia, the regurgitant is often bland, as if food was put into a blender. When questioned, most patients can distinguish the two. It is the regurgitation of gastric contents that may result in associated pulmonary symptoms, including cough, hoarseness, asthma, and recurrent pneumonia. Bronchospasm can be precipitated by esophageal acidification and cough by either acid stimulation or distention of the esophagus.Dysphagia, or difficulty swallowing, is a relatively non-specific term but arguably the most specific symptom of foregut disease. It can be a sign of underlying malignancy and should be aggressively investigated until a diagnosis is established. Dyspha-gia refers to the sensation of difficulty in the passage of food from the mouth to the stomach and can |
Surgery_Schwartz_6886 | Surgery_Schwartz | malignancy and should be aggressively investigated until a diagnosis is established. Dyspha-gia refers to the sensation of difficulty in the passage of food from the mouth to the stomach and can be divided into oropharyngeal and esophageal etiologies. Oropharyngeal dysphagia is charac-terized by difficulty transferring food out of the mouth into the esophagus, nasal regurgitation, and/or aspiration. Esophageal dys-phagia refers to the sensation of food sticking in the lower chest or epigastrium. This may or may not be accompanied by pain (ody-nophagia) that will be relieved by the passage of the bolus.Chest pain, although commonly and appropriately attrib-uted to cardiac disease, is frequently secondary to esophageal pathology as well. Nearly 50% of patients with severe chest pain, normal cardiac function, and normal coronary arterio-grams have positive 24-hour pH studies, implicating gastro-esophageal reflux as the underlying etiology. Exercise-induced gastroesophageal reflux is well | Surgery_Schwartz. malignancy and should be aggressively investigated until a diagnosis is established. Dyspha-gia refers to the sensation of difficulty in the passage of food from the mouth to the stomach and can be divided into oropharyngeal and esophageal etiologies. Oropharyngeal dysphagia is charac-terized by difficulty transferring food out of the mouth into the esophagus, nasal regurgitation, and/or aspiration. Esophageal dys-phagia refers to the sensation of food sticking in the lower chest or epigastrium. This may or may not be accompanied by pain (ody-nophagia) that will be relieved by the passage of the bolus.Chest pain, although commonly and appropriately attrib-uted to cardiac disease, is frequently secondary to esophageal pathology as well. Nearly 50% of patients with severe chest pain, normal cardiac function, and normal coronary arterio-grams have positive 24-hour pH studies, implicating gastro-esophageal reflux as the underlying etiology. Exercise-induced gastroesophageal reflux is well |
Surgery_Schwartz_6887 | Surgery_Schwartz | cardiac function, and normal coronary arterio-grams have positive 24-hour pH studies, implicating gastro-esophageal reflux as the underlying etiology. Exercise-induced gastroesophageal reflux is well known to occur, and may result in exertional chest pain similar to angina. It can be quite diffi-cult, if not impossible, to distinguish between the two etiologies, particularly on clinical grounds alone. Nevens and colleagues evaluated the ability of experienced cardiologists to differentiate pain of cardiac vs. esophageal origin. Of 248 patients initially seen by cardiologists, 185 were thought to have typical angina, and 63 were thought to have atypical chest pain. Forty-eight (26%) of those thought to have classic angina had normal coro-nary angiograms, and 16 of the 63 with atypical pain had abnor-mal angiogram. Thus, the cardiologists’ clinical impression was wrong 25% of the time. Finally, Pope and associates investi-gated the ultimate diagnosis in 10,689 patients presenting to an | Surgery_Schwartz. cardiac function, and normal coronary arterio-grams have positive 24-hour pH studies, implicating gastro-esophageal reflux as the underlying etiology. Exercise-induced gastroesophageal reflux is well known to occur, and may result in exertional chest pain similar to angina. It can be quite diffi-cult, if not impossible, to distinguish between the two etiologies, particularly on clinical grounds alone. Nevens and colleagues evaluated the ability of experienced cardiologists to differentiate pain of cardiac vs. esophageal origin. Of 248 patients initially seen by cardiologists, 185 were thought to have typical angina, and 63 were thought to have atypical chest pain. Forty-eight (26%) of those thought to have classic angina had normal coro-nary angiograms, and 16 of the 63 with atypical pain had abnor-mal angiogram. Thus, the cardiologists’ clinical impression was wrong 25% of the time. Finally, Pope and associates investi-gated the ultimate diagnosis in 10,689 patients presenting to an |
Surgery_Schwartz_6888 | Surgery_Schwartz | had abnor-mal angiogram. Thus, the cardiologists’ clinical impression was wrong 25% of the time. Finally, Pope and associates investi-gated the ultimate diagnosis in 10,689 patients presenting to an Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 103101/03/19 6:03 PM 1032SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-5Normal manometric values of the distal esophageal sphincter, n = 50PARAMETERMEDIAN VALUE2.5TH PERCENTILE97.5TH PERCENTILEPressure (mmHg)135.827.7Overall length (cm)3.62.15.6Abdominal length (cm)20.94.7emergency department with acute chest pain. Approximately 17% were found to have acute ischemia, 6% had stable angina, 21% had other cardiac causes, and 55% had noncardiac causes. The investigators concluded that the majority of people present-ing to the emergency department with chest pain do not have an underlying cardiac etiology for their symptoms. Chest pain pre-cipitated by meals, occurring at night while supine, nonradiat-ing, responsive to antacid medication, or accompanied by other | Surgery_Schwartz. had abnor-mal angiogram. Thus, the cardiologists’ clinical impression was wrong 25% of the time. Finally, Pope and associates investi-gated the ultimate diagnosis in 10,689 patients presenting to an Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 103101/03/19 6:03 PM 1032SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-5Normal manometric values of the distal esophageal sphincter, n = 50PARAMETERMEDIAN VALUE2.5TH PERCENTILE97.5TH PERCENTILEPressure (mmHg)135.827.7Overall length (cm)3.62.15.6Abdominal length (cm)20.94.7emergency department with acute chest pain. Approximately 17% were found to have acute ischemia, 6% had stable angina, 21% had other cardiac causes, and 55% had noncardiac causes. The investigators concluded that the majority of people present-ing to the emergency department with chest pain do not have an underlying cardiac etiology for their symptoms. Chest pain pre-cipitated by meals, occurring at night while supine, nonradiat-ing, responsive to antacid medication, or accompanied by other |
Surgery_Schwartz_6889 | Surgery_Schwartz | have an underlying cardiac etiology for their symptoms. Chest pain pre-cipitated by meals, occurring at night while supine, nonradiat-ing, responsive to antacid medication, or accompanied by other symptoms suggesting esophageal disease such as dysphagia or regurgitation should trigger the thought of possible esophageal origin. Furthermore, the distinction between heartburn and chest pain is also difficult and largely dependent upon the individual patient. One person’s heartburn is another’s chest pain.The precise mechanisms accounting for the generation of symptoms secondary to esophageal pathology remain unclear. Considerable insight has been acquired, however. Investiga-tions into the effect of luminal content, esophageal distention and muscular function, neural pathways, and brain localization have provided a basic understanding of the stimuli responsible for symptom generation. It is also clear that the visceroneural pathways of the foregut are complexly intertwined with that of | Surgery_Schwartz. have an underlying cardiac etiology for their symptoms. Chest pain pre-cipitated by meals, occurring at night while supine, nonradiat-ing, responsive to antacid medication, or accompanied by other symptoms suggesting esophageal disease such as dysphagia or regurgitation should trigger the thought of possible esophageal origin. Furthermore, the distinction between heartburn and chest pain is also difficult and largely dependent upon the individual patient. One person’s heartburn is another’s chest pain.The precise mechanisms accounting for the generation of symptoms secondary to esophageal pathology remain unclear. Considerable insight has been acquired, however. Investiga-tions into the effect of luminal content, esophageal distention and muscular function, neural pathways, and brain localization have provided a basic understanding of the stimuli responsible for symptom generation. It is also clear that the visceroneural pathways of the foregut are complexly intertwined with that of |
Surgery_Schwartz_6890 | Surgery_Schwartz | have provided a basic understanding of the stimuli responsible for symptom generation. It is also clear that the visceroneural pathways of the foregut are complexly intertwined with that of the tracheobronchial tree and heart. This fact accounts for the common overlap of clinical presentations with diverse disease processes in upper GI, cardiac, and pulmonary systems.The Human Antireflux Mechanism and the Pathophysiology of Gastroesophageal Reflux DiseaseThere is a high-pressure zone located at the esophagogastric junc-tion in humans. Although this is typically referred to as the lower esophageal “sphincter,” there are no distinct anatomical land-marks that define its beginning and end. Architecturally speak-ing, there is a specialized thickening in this region that is made up of the collar sling musculature and the clasp fibers. The collar sling is located on the greater curvature side of the junction, and the clasp fibers are located on the lesser curvature side. These muscles | Surgery_Schwartz. have provided a basic understanding of the stimuli responsible for symptom generation. It is also clear that the visceroneural pathways of the foregut are complexly intertwined with that of the tracheobronchial tree and heart. This fact accounts for the common overlap of clinical presentations with diverse disease processes in upper GI, cardiac, and pulmonary systems.The Human Antireflux Mechanism and the Pathophysiology of Gastroesophageal Reflux DiseaseThere is a high-pressure zone located at the esophagogastric junc-tion in humans. Although this is typically referred to as the lower esophageal “sphincter,” there are no distinct anatomical land-marks that define its beginning and end. Architecturally speak-ing, there is a specialized thickening in this region that is made up of the collar sling musculature and the clasp fibers. The collar sling is located on the greater curvature side of the junction, and the clasp fibers are located on the lesser curvature side. These muscles |
Surgery_Schwartz_6891 | Surgery_Schwartz | collar sling musculature and the clasp fibers. The collar sling is located on the greater curvature side of the junction, and the clasp fibers are located on the lesser curvature side. These muscles remain in tonic opposition until the act of swallowing, whereupon receptive relaxation occurs allowing passage of a food bolus into the stomach. In addition, the LES will also open when the gastric fundus is distended with gas and liquid, thus resulting in an unfolding of the valve and enabling venting of gas (a belch). Whether physiologic or pathologic, the common denominator for most episodes of gastroesophageal reflux is the loss of the high-pressure zone and thus a decrease in the resistance it imparts to the retrograde flow of gastric juice into the esophageal body.The Lower Esophageal Sphincter. As defined by esophageal manometry, there are three characteristics of the LES that work in unison to maintain its barrier function. These characteristics include the resting LES pressure, | Surgery_Schwartz. collar sling musculature and the clasp fibers. The collar sling is located on the greater curvature side of the junction, and the clasp fibers are located on the lesser curvature side. These muscles remain in tonic opposition until the act of swallowing, whereupon receptive relaxation occurs allowing passage of a food bolus into the stomach. In addition, the LES will also open when the gastric fundus is distended with gas and liquid, thus resulting in an unfolding of the valve and enabling venting of gas (a belch). Whether physiologic or pathologic, the common denominator for most episodes of gastroesophageal reflux is the loss of the high-pressure zone and thus a decrease in the resistance it imparts to the retrograde flow of gastric juice into the esophageal body.The Lower Esophageal Sphincter. As defined by esophageal manometry, there are three characteristics of the LES that work in unison to maintain its barrier function. These characteristics include the resting LES pressure, |
Surgery_Schwartz_6892 | Surgery_Schwartz | Sphincter. As defined by esophageal manometry, there are three characteristics of the LES that work in unison to maintain its barrier function. These characteristics include the resting LES pressure, its overall length, and the intra-abdominal length that is exposed to the positive pressure environment of the abdomen (Table 25-5). The resistance to gastroesophageal reflux is a function of both the resting LES pressure and length over which this pressure is exerted. Thus, as the sphincter becomes shorter, a higher pressure will be required in order to prevent a given amount of reflux (Fig. 25-26). Much like the neck of a balloon as it is inflated, as the stomach fills and distends, sphincter length decreases. Therefore, if the over-all length of the sphincter is permanently short from repeated distention of the fundus secondary to large volume meals, then with minimal episodes of gastric distention and pressure, there will be insufficient sphincter length for the barrier to remain | Surgery_Schwartz. Sphincter. As defined by esophageal manometry, there are three characteristics of the LES that work in unison to maintain its barrier function. These characteristics include the resting LES pressure, its overall length, and the intra-abdominal length that is exposed to the positive pressure environment of the abdomen (Table 25-5). The resistance to gastroesophageal reflux is a function of both the resting LES pressure and length over which this pressure is exerted. Thus, as the sphincter becomes shorter, a higher pressure will be required in order to prevent a given amount of reflux (Fig. 25-26). Much like the neck of a balloon as it is inflated, as the stomach fills and distends, sphincter length decreases. Therefore, if the over-all length of the sphincter is permanently short from repeated distention of the fundus secondary to large volume meals, then with minimal episodes of gastric distention and pressure, there will be insufficient sphincter length for the barrier to remain |
Surgery_Schwartz_6893 | Surgery_Schwartz | repeated distention of the fundus secondary to large volume meals, then with minimal episodes of gastric distention and pressure, there will be insufficient sphincter length for the barrier to remain competent, and reflux will occur.LES length (cm)LES pressure (mmHg)60012CompetentIncompetent345121824Figure 25-26. As the esophageal sphincter becomes shorter, increased pressure is necessary to maintain competence. LES = lower esophageal sphincter.A third characteristic of the LES that impacts its ability to prevent reflux is its position about the diaphragm. It is important that a portion of the total length of the LES be exposed to the effects of an intra-abdominal pressure. That is, during periods of elevated intra-abdominal pressure, the resistance of the barrier would be overcome if pressure were not applied equally to both the LES and stomach simultaneously. Thus, in the presence of a hiatal hernia, the sphincter resides entirely within the chest cavity and cannot respond to an | Surgery_Schwartz. repeated distention of the fundus secondary to large volume meals, then with minimal episodes of gastric distention and pressure, there will be insufficient sphincter length for the barrier to remain competent, and reflux will occur.LES length (cm)LES pressure (mmHg)60012CompetentIncompetent345121824Figure 25-26. As the esophageal sphincter becomes shorter, increased pressure is necessary to maintain competence. LES = lower esophageal sphincter.A third characteristic of the LES that impacts its ability to prevent reflux is its position about the diaphragm. It is important that a portion of the total length of the LES be exposed to the effects of an intra-abdominal pressure. That is, during periods of elevated intra-abdominal pressure, the resistance of the barrier would be overcome if pressure were not applied equally to both the LES and stomach simultaneously. Thus, in the presence of a hiatal hernia, the sphincter resides entirely within the chest cavity and cannot respond to an |
Surgery_Schwartz_6894 | Surgery_Schwartz | pressure were not applied equally to both the LES and stomach simultaneously. Thus, in the presence of a hiatal hernia, the sphincter resides entirely within the chest cavity and cannot respond to an increase in intra-abdominal pressure because the pinch valve mechanism is lost and gastro-esophageal reflux is more liable to occur.Therefore, a permanently defective sphincter is defined by one or more of the following characteristics: an LES with a mean resting pressure of less than 6 mmHg, an overall sphincter length of <2 cm, and intra-abdominal sphincter length of <1 cm. Compared to normal subjects without GERD these values are below the 2.5 percentile for each parameter. The most com-mon cause of a defective sphincter is an inadequate abdominal length.Once the sphincter is permanently defective, this condi-tion is irreversible, and although esophageal mucosal injury may be healed with antisecretory medication, reflux will continue to occur. Additionally, the presence of a | Surgery_Schwartz. pressure were not applied equally to both the LES and stomach simultaneously. Thus, in the presence of a hiatal hernia, the sphincter resides entirely within the chest cavity and cannot respond to an increase in intra-abdominal pressure because the pinch valve mechanism is lost and gastro-esophageal reflux is more liable to occur.Therefore, a permanently defective sphincter is defined by one or more of the following characteristics: an LES with a mean resting pressure of less than 6 mmHg, an overall sphincter length of <2 cm, and intra-abdominal sphincter length of <1 cm. Compared to normal subjects without GERD these values are below the 2.5 percentile for each parameter. The most com-mon cause of a defective sphincter is an inadequate abdominal length.Once the sphincter is permanently defective, this condi-tion is irreversible, and although esophageal mucosal injury may be healed with antisecretory medication, reflux will continue to occur. Additionally, the presence of a |
Surgery_Schwartz_6895 | Surgery_Schwartz | defective, this condi-tion is irreversible, and although esophageal mucosal injury may be healed with antisecretory medication, reflux will continue to occur. Additionally, the presence of a defective LES may be associated with reduced esophageal body function and thus decrease clearance times of refluxed material. In addition, the progressive loss of effective esophageal clearance may predis-pose the patient to severe mucosal injury, volume regurgitation, aspiration, and pulmonary injury. Reflux may occur in the face of a normal LES resting pressure. This condition is usually due to a functional problem of gastric emptying or excessive air swallowing. These conditions may lead to gastric disten-tion, increased intra-gastric pressure, a resultant shortening or Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 103201/03/19 6:03 PM 1033ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-6Complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease: 150 consecutive cases with proven gastroesophageal reflux | Surgery_Schwartz. defective, this condi-tion is irreversible, and although esophageal mucosal injury may be healed with antisecretory medication, reflux will continue to occur. Additionally, the presence of a defective LES may be associated with reduced esophageal body function and thus decrease clearance times of refluxed material. In addition, the progressive loss of effective esophageal clearance may predis-pose the patient to severe mucosal injury, volume regurgitation, aspiration, and pulmonary injury. Reflux may occur in the face of a normal LES resting pressure. This condition is usually due to a functional problem of gastric emptying or excessive air swallowing. These conditions may lead to gastric disten-tion, increased intra-gastric pressure, a resultant shortening or Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 103201/03/19 6:03 PM 1033ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-6Complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease: 150 consecutive cases with proven gastroesophageal reflux |
Surgery_Schwartz_6896 | Surgery_Schwartz | 103201/03/19 6:03 PM 1033ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-6Complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease: 150 consecutive cases with proven gastroesophageal reflux disease (24-hour esophageal pH monitoring endoscopy, and motility)COMPLICATIONNO.STRUCTURALLY NORMAL SPHINCTER (%)STRUCTURALLY DEFECTIVE SPHINCTER (%)None595842Erosive esophagitis472377aStricture191189Barrett’s esophagus250100Total150 aGrade more severe with defective cardia.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.unfolding of the LES, and subsequent reflux. The mechanism by which gastric distention contributes to LES unfolding pro-vides a mechanical explanation for “transient LES relaxation.” It is thought that with repeated gastric distention secondary to large meal volume or chronic air swallowing, there is repeated unfolding of the LES and subsequent attenuation of the collar sling | Surgery_Schwartz. 103201/03/19 6:03 PM 1033ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-6Complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease: 150 consecutive cases with proven gastroesophageal reflux disease (24-hour esophageal pH monitoring endoscopy, and motility)COMPLICATIONNO.STRUCTURALLY NORMAL SPHINCTER (%)STRUCTURALLY DEFECTIVE SPHINCTER (%)None595842Erosive esophagitis472377aStricture191189Barrett’s esophagus250100Total150 aGrade more severe with defective cardia.Reproduced with permission from Moody FG, Carey LC, Jones RS, et al: Surgical Treatment of Digestive Disease. Chicago, IL: Year Book Medical; 1990.unfolding of the LES, and subsequent reflux. The mechanism by which gastric distention contributes to LES unfolding pro-vides a mechanical explanation for “transient LES relaxation.” It is thought that with repeated gastric distention secondary to large meal volume or chronic air swallowing, there is repeated unfolding of the LES and subsequent attenuation of the collar sling |
Surgery_Schwartz_6897 | Surgery_Schwartz | It is thought that with repeated gastric distention secondary to large meal volume or chronic air swallowing, there is repeated unfolding of the LES and subsequent attenuation of the collar sling musculature. It is at this point that the physiologic and nor-mal mechanism of gastric venting is replaced with pathologic and severe postprandial reflux disease. In addition, patients with GERD will increase the frequency of swallowing in an effort to neutralize the refluxed acid with their saliva (pH 7.0). This phe-nomenon leads to increased air swallowing and further gastric distention, thus compounding the problem. Therefore, GERD may have its origins in the stomach secondary to gastric disten-tion due to overeating/drinking, air swallowing, or consump-tion of carbonated liquids, and this may be further compounded by the ingestion of fatty meals, which result in delayed gastric emptying.Relationship Between Hiatal Hernia and Gastroesopha-geal Reflux Disease. As the collar sling | Surgery_Schwartz. It is thought that with repeated gastric distention secondary to large meal volume or chronic air swallowing, there is repeated unfolding of the LES and subsequent attenuation of the collar sling musculature. It is at this point that the physiologic and nor-mal mechanism of gastric venting is replaced with pathologic and severe postprandial reflux disease. In addition, patients with GERD will increase the frequency of swallowing in an effort to neutralize the refluxed acid with their saliva (pH 7.0). This phe-nomenon leads to increased air swallowing and further gastric distention, thus compounding the problem. Therefore, GERD may have its origins in the stomach secondary to gastric disten-tion due to overeating/drinking, air swallowing, or consump-tion of carbonated liquids, and this may be further compounded by the ingestion of fatty meals, which result in delayed gastric emptying.Relationship Between Hiatal Hernia and Gastroesopha-geal Reflux Disease. As the collar sling |
Surgery_Schwartz_6898 | Surgery_Schwartz | this may be further compounded by the ingestion of fatty meals, which result in delayed gastric emptying.Relationship Between Hiatal Hernia and Gastroesopha-geal Reflux Disease. As the collar sling musculature and clasp fibers become attenuated with repeated gastric distention, the esophagogastric junction begins to assume an “upside down funnel” appearance, with progressive opening of the acute angle of His. This in turn may result in attenuation and stretching of the phrenoesophageal ligament, with subsequent enlargement of the hiatal opening and axial herniation. There is a high degree of correlation between reflux threshold and the degree of hiatal herniation (Fig. 25-27).Summary. It is believed that GERD has its origins within the stomach. Distention of the fundus occurs because of overeat-ing and delayed gastric emptying secondary to a high-fat diet. The resultant distention causes “unrolling” of the sphincter by the expanding fundus, and this subsequently exposes the squa-mous | Surgery_Schwartz. this may be further compounded by the ingestion of fatty meals, which result in delayed gastric emptying.Relationship Between Hiatal Hernia and Gastroesopha-geal Reflux Disease. As the collar sling musculature and clasp fibers become attenuated with repeated gastric distention, the esophagogastric junction begins to assume an “upside down funnel” appearance, with progressive opening of the acute angle of His. This in turn may result in attenuation and stretching of the phrenoesophageal ligament, with subsequent enlargement of the hiatal opening and axial herniation. There is a high degree of correlation between reflux threshold and the degree of hiatal herniation (Fig. 25-27).Summary. It is believed that GERD has its origins within the stomach. Distention of the fundus occurs because of overeat-ing and delayed gastric emptying secondary to a high-fat diet. The resultant distention causes “unrolling” of the sphincter by the expanding fundus, and this subsequently exposes the squa-mous |
Surgery_Schwartz_6899 | Surgery_Schwartz | and delayed gastric emptying secondary to a high-fat diet. The resultant distention causes “unrolling” of the sphincter by the expanding fundus, and this subsequently exposes the squa-mous epithelium in the region of the distal LES to gastric juice. Repeated exposure results in inflammation and the development of columnar epithelium at the cardia. This is the initial step of the development of carditis and explains why in early disease esophagitis is mild and commonly limited to the very distal aspect of the esophagus. The patient attempts to compensate for Yield pressure (mmHg)04No hernia< 3 cm hernia3 cm hernia81216202428323640Figure 25-27. Yield pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter decreases as hiatal hernia size increases.this by increased swallowing, allowing the saliva to neutralize the refluxed gastric juice and thus, alleviate the discomfort induced by the reflux event. The increased swallowing results in aeropha-gia, bloating, and belching. This in turn creates a | Surgery_Schwartz. and delayed gastric emptying secondary to a high-fat diet. The resultant distention causes “unrolling” of the sphincter by the expanding fundus, and this subsequently exposes the squa-mous epithelium in the region of the distal LES to gastric juice. Repeated exposure results in inflammation and the development of columnar epithelium at the cardia. This is the initial step of the development of carditis and explains why in early disease esophagitis is mild and commonly limited to the very distal aspect of the esophagus. The patient attempts to compensate for Yield pressure (mmHg)04No hernia< 3 cm hernia3 cm hernia81216202428323640Figure 25-27. Yield pressure of the lower esophageal sphincter decreases as hiatal hernia size increases.this by increased swallowing, allowing the saliva to neutralize the refluxed gastric juice and thus, alleviate the discomfort induced by the reflux event. The increased swallowing results in aeropha-gia, bloating, and belching. This in turn creates a |
Surgery_Schwartz_6900 | Surgery_Schwartz | neutralize the refluxed gastric juice and thus, alleviate the discomfort induced by the reflux event. The increased swallowing results in aeropha-gia, bloating, and belching. This in turn creates a vicious cycle of increased gastric distention and thus further exposure and repeti-tive injury to the distal esophagus. The development of carditis explains the complaint of epigastric pain often experienced by patients with early reflux disease. Additionally, this process can lead to a fibrotic mucosal ring located at the squamocolumnar junction, which is termed a “Schatzki ring” and which may result in dysphagia. This inflammatory process may extend into muscu-laris propria and thus result in a progressive loss in the length and pressure of the LES. This explanation for the pathophysiology of GERD is supported by the observation that severe esophagitis is almost always associated with a defective LES.Complications Associated With Gastroesophageal Reflux DiseaseThe complications of | Surgery_Schwartz. neutralize the refluxed gastric juice and thus, alleviate the discomfort induced by the reflux event. The increased swallowing results in aeropha-gia, bloating, and belching. This in turn creates a vicious cycle of increased gastric distention and thus further exposure and repeti-tive injury to the distal esophagus. The development of carditis explains the complaint of epigastric pain often experienced by patients with early reflux disease. Additionally, this process can lead to a fibrotic mucosal ring located at the squamocolumnar junction, which is termed a “Schatzki ring” and which may result in dysphagia. This inflammatory process may extend into muscu-laris propria and thus result in a progressive loss in the length and pressure of the LES. This explanation for the pathophysiology of GERD is supported by the observation that severe esophagitis is almost always associated with a defective LES.Complications Associated With Gastroesophageal Reflux DiseaseThe complications of |
Surgery_Schwartz_6901 | Surgery_Schwartz | of GERD is supported by the observation that severe esophagitis is almost always associated with a defective LES.Complications Associated With Gastroesophageal Reflux DiseaseThe complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease may result from the direct injurious effects of gastric fluid on the mucosa, larynx, or respiratory epithelium. Complications due to repetitive reflux are esophagitis, stricture, and BE; repetitive aspiration may lead to progressive pulmonary fibrosis. The severity of the complications is directly related to the prevalence of a structurally defective sphincter (Table 25-6). The observation that a structurally defective sphincter occurs in 42% of patients without complications (most of whom have one or two components failed) suggests that disease may be confined to the sphincter due to compensation by a vigorously contracting esophageal body. Eventually, all three components of the sphincter fail, allowing unrestricted reflux of gastric juice into the esophagus | Surgery_Schwartz. of GERD is supported by the observation that severe esophagitis is almost always associated with a defective LES.Complications Associated With Gastroesophageal Reflux DiseaseThe complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease may result from the direct injurious effects of gastric fluid on the mucosa, larynx, or respiratory epithelium. Complications due to repetitive reflux are esophagitis, stricture, and BE; repetitive aspiration may lead to progressive pulmonary fibrosis. The severity of the complications is directly related to the prevalence of a structurally defective sphincter (Table 25-6). The observation that a structurally defective sphincter occurs in 42% of patients without complications (most of whom have one or two components failed) suggests that disease may be confined to the sphincter due to compensation by a vigorously contracting esophageal body. Eventually, all three components of the sphincter fail, allowing unrestricted reflux of gastric juice into the esophagus |
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