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Surgery_Schwartz_7102 | Surgery_Schwartz | myotomy2%—9%Megaesophagus2%——Poor emptying4%3%—Persistent chest pain1%——Data from Malthaner RA, et al. Long-term results in surgically managed esophageal achalasia. Ann Thorac Surg. 1994;58:1343; Ellis FH, Jr. Oesophagomyotomy for achalasia: a 22-year experience. Br J Surg. 1993;80:882; and Goulbourne IA, et al. Long-term results of Heller’s operation for achalasia. J R Coll Surg Edinb. 1985;30:101.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 106701/03/19 6:05 PM 1068SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIThe outcome of laparoscopic myotomy and hemifun-doplication has been well documented. Two reports of over 100 patients have documented relief of dysphagia in 93% of patients. Richter and coworkers reviewed published reports to date, including 254 patients with an average success rate of 93% at 2.5 years. Conversion to an open procedure occurs in 0% to 5% of patients. Complications are uncommon, occurring in <5% of patients. Intraoperative complications consist largely of mucosal perforation, and have | Surgery_Schwartz. myotomy2%—9%Megaesophagus2%——Poor emptying4%3%—Persistent chest pain1%——Data from Malthaner RA, et al. Long-term results in surgically managed esophageal achalasia. Ann Thorac Surg. 1994;58:1343; Ellis FH, Jr. Oesophagomyotomy for achalasia: a 22-year experience. Br J Surg. 1993;80:882; and Goulbourne IA, et al. Long-term results of Heller’s operation for achalasia. J R Coll Surg Edinb. 1985;30:101.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 106701/03/19 6:05 PM 1068SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIThe outcome of laparoscopic myotomy and hemifun-doplication has been well documented. Two reports of over 100 patients have documented relief of dysphagia in 93% of patients. Richter and coworkers reviewed published reports to date, including 254 patients with an average success rate of 93% at 2.5 years. Conversion to an open procedure occurs in 0% to 5% of patients. Complications are uncommon, occurring in <5% of patients. Intraoperative complications consist largely of mucosal perforation, and have |
Surgery_Schwartz_7103 | Surgery_Schwartz | Conversion to an open procedure occurs in 0% to 5% of patients. Complications are uncommon, occurring in <5% of patients. Intraoperative complications consist largely of mucosal perforation, and have been more likely to occur after botulinum toxin injection. The incidence of objective reflux dis-ease as evidenced by abnormal acid exposure is <10%.A number of randomized clinical trials in the past decade have compared the outcomes of laparoscopic Heller myotomy to pneumatic dilation and to botulinum toxin injection. In each of these trials, laparoscopic Heller myotomy and partial fun-doplication was superior to the alternative treatment. Lastly, a randomized clinical trial examining the need for fundoplica-tion following Heller myotomy demonstrated a great deal more reflux in patients without fundoplication, and no better swallow-ing in the Heller-only group. The best treatment for achalasia is a laparoscopic Heller myotomy and partial fundoplication. The role of POEM in the management | Surgery_Schwartz. Conversion to an open procedure occurs in 0% to 5% of patients. Complications are uncommon, occurring in <5% of patients. Intraoperative complications consist largely of mucosal perforation, and have been more likely to occur after botulinum toxin injection. The incidence of objective reflux dis-ease as evidenced by abnormal acid exposure is <10%.A number of randomized clinical trials in the past decade have compared the outcomes of laparoscopic Heller myotomy to pneumatic dilation and to botulinum toxin injection. In each of these trials, laparoscopic Heller myotomy and partial fun-doplication was superior to the alternative treatment. Lastly, a randomized clinical trial examining the need for fundoplica-tion following Heller myotomy demonstrated a great deal more reflux in patients without fundoplication, and no better swallow-ing in the Heller-only group. The best treatment for achalasia is a laparoscopic Heller myotomy and partial fundoplication. The role of POEM in the management |
Surgery_Schwartz_7104 | Surgery_Schwartz | fundoplication, and no better swallow-ing in the Heller-only group. The best treatment for achalasia is a laparoscopic Heller myotomy and partial fundoplication. The role of POEM in the management of classic (nonspastic) achalasia is yet to be established.Esophageal Resection for End-Stage Motor Disorders of the EsophagusPatients with dysphagia and long-standing benign disease, whose esophageal function has been destroyed by the disease process or multiple previous surgical procedures, are best man-aged by esophagectomy. Fibrosis of the esophagus and cardia can result in weak contractions and failure of the distal esopha-geal sphincter to relax. The loss of esophageal contractions can result in the stasis of food, esophageal dilatation, regurgitation, and aspiration. The presence of these abnormalities signals end-stage motor disease. In these situations, esophageal replace-ment is usually required to establish normal alimentation. Before proceeding with esophageal resection for | Surgery_Schwartz. fundoplication, and no better swallow-ing in the Heller-only group. The best treatment for achalasia is a laparoscopic Heller myotomy and partial fundoplication. The role of POEM in the management of classic (nonspastic) achalasia is yet to be established.Esophageal Resection for End-Stage Motor Disorders of the EsophagusPatients with dysphagia and long-standing benign disease, whose esophageal function has been destroyed by the disease process or multiple previous surgical procedures, are best man-aged by esophagectomy. Fibrosis of the esophagus and cardia can result in weak contractions and failure of the distal esopha-geal sphincter to relax. The loss of esophageal contractions can result in the stasis of food, esophageal dilatation, regurgitation, and aspiration. The presence of these abnormalities signals end-stage motor disease. In these situations, esophageal replace-ment is usually required to establish normal alimentation. Before proceeding with esophageal resection for |
Surgery_Schwartz_7105 | Surgery_Schwartz | these abnormalities signals end-stage motor disease. In these situations, esophageal replace-ment is usually required to establish normal alimentation. Before proceeding with esophageal resection for patients with end-stage benign disease, the choice of the organ to substitute for the esophagus (i.e., stomach, jejunum, or colon) should be considered. The choice of replacement is affected by a num-ber of factors, as described later in “Techniques of Esophageal Reconstruction.” If minimally invasive esophagectomy is to be performed, thoracoscopic dissection should be combined with abdominal dissection. Attempts at MIS transhiatal esophagec-tomy for the massively dilated esophagus may result in large volume bleeding from mediastinal vessels that become enlarged with esophageal dilation, and such bleeding must be directly controlled for hemostasis to be adequate and the operation to be safe.CARCINOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSquamous carcinoma accounts for the majority of esophageal carcinomas | Surgery_Schwartz. these abnormalities signals end-stage motor disease. In these situations, esophageal replace-ment is usually required to establish normal alimentation. Before proceeding with esophageal resection for patients with end-stage benign disease, the choice of the organ to substitute for the esophagus (i.e., stomach, jejunum, or colon) should be considered. The choice of replacement is affected by a num-ber of factors, as described later in “Techniques of Esophageal Reconstruction.” If minimally invasive esophagectomy is to be performed, thoracoscopic dissection should be combined with abdominal dissection. Attempts at MIS transhiatal esophagec-tomy for the massively dilated esophagus may result in large volume bleeding from mediastinal vessels that become enlarged with esophageal dilation, and such bleeding must be directly controlled for hemostasis to be adequate and the operation to be safe.CARCINOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSquamous carcinoma accounts for the majority of esophageal carcinomas |
Surgery_Schwartz_7106 | Surgery_Schwartz | such bleeding must be directly controlled for hemostasis to be adequate and the operation to be safe.CARCINOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSquamous carcinoma accounts for the majority of esophageal carcinomas worldwide. Its incidence is highly variable, ranging from approximately 20 per 100,000 in the United States and Britain, to 160 per 100,000 in certain parts of South Africa and the Henan Province of China, and even 540 per 100,000 in the Guriev district of Kazakhstan. The environmental factors responsible for these localized high-incidence areas have not been conclusively identified, though additives to local foodstuffs (nitroso compounds in pickled vegetables and smoked meats) and mineral deficiencies (zinc and molybdenum) have been suggested. In Western societies, smoking and alcohol consumption are strongly linked with squamous carcinoma. Other definite associations link squamous carcinoma with long-standing achalasia, lye strictures, tylosis (an autosomal dominant disorder characterized | Surgery_Schwartz. such bleeding must be directly controlled for hemostasis to be adequate and the operation to be safe.CARCINOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSquamous carcinoma accounts for the majority of esophageal carcinomas worldwide. Its incidence is highly variable, ranging from approximately 20 per 100,000 in the United States and Britain, to 160 per 100,000 in certain parts of South Africa and the Henan Province of China, and even 540 per 100,000 in the Guriev district of Kazakhstan. The environmental factors responsible for these localized high-incidence areas have not been conclusively identified, though additives to local foodstuffs (nitroso compounds in pickled vegetables and smoked meats) and mineral deficiencies (zinc and molybdenum) have been suggested. In Western societies, smoking and alcohol consumption are strongly linked with squamous carcinoma. Other definite associations link squamous carcinoma with long-standing achalasia, lye strictures, tylosis (an autosomal dominant disorder characterized |
Surgery_Schwartz_7107 | Surgery_Schwartz | are strongly linked with squamous carcinoma. Other definite associations link squamous carcinoma with long-standing achalasia, lye strictures, tylosis (an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by hyperkeratosis of the palms and soles), and human papillomavirus.Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, once an unusual malig-nancy, is diagnosed with increasing frequency (Fig. 25-66) and now accounts for more than 50% of esophageal cancer in most Western countries. The shift in the epidemiology of esophageal cancer from predominantly squamous carcinoma seen in associ-ation with smoking and alcohol to adenocarcinoma in the setting of BE is one of the most dramatic changes that has occurred in the history of human neoplasia. Although esophageal carcinoma is a relatively uncommon malignancy, its prevalence is explod-ing, largely secondary to the well-established association among gastroesophageal reflux, BE, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Although BE was once a nearly uniformly lethal disease, | Surgery_Schwartz. are strongly linked with squamous carcinoma. Other definite associations link squamous carcinoma with long-standing achalasia, lye strictures, tylosis (an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by hyperkeratosis of the palms and soles), and human papillomavirus.Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, once an unusual malig-nancy, is diagnosed with increasing frequency (Fig. 25-66) and now accounts for more than 50% of esophageal cancer in most Western countries. The shift in the epidemiology of esophageal cancer from predominantly squamous carcinoma seen in associ-ation with smoking and alcohol to adenocarcinoma in the setting of BE is one of the most dramatic changes that has occurred in the history of human neoplasia. Although esophageal carcinoma is a relatively uncommon malignancy, its prevalence is explod-ing, largely secondary to the well-established association among gastroesophageal reflux, BE, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Although BE was once a nearly uniformly lethal disease, |
Surgery_Schwartz_7108 | Surgery_Schwartz | is explod-ing, largely secondary to the well-established association among gastroesophageal reflux, BE, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Although BE was once a nearly uniformly lethal disease, sur-vival has improved slightly because of advances in the under-standing of its molecular biology, screening and surveillance practices, improved staging, minimally invasive surgical tech-niques, and neoadjuvant therapy.Furthermore, the clinical picture of esophageal adenocar-cinoma is changing. It now occurs not only considerably more frequently but also in younger patients, and it is often detected at an earlier stage. These facts support rethinking the traditional approach of assuming palliation is appropriate in all patients. The historical focus on palliation of dysphagia in an elderly patient with comorbidities should change when dealing with a young patient with dependent children and a productive life ahead. The potential for cure becomes of paramount importance.The gross appearance | Surgery_Schwartz. is explod-ing, largely secondary to the well-established association among gastroesophageal reflux, BE, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. Although BE was once a nearly uniformly lethal disease, sur-vival has improved slightly because of advances in the under-standing of its molecular biology, screening and surveillance practices, improved staging, minimally invasive surgical tech-niques, and neoadjuvant therapy.Furthermore, the clinical picture of esophageal adenocar-cinoma is changing. It now occurs not only considerably more frequently but also in younger patients, and it is often detected at an earlier stage. These facts support rethinking the traditional approach of assuming palliation is appropriate in all patients. The historical focus on palliation of dysphagia in an elderly patient with comorbidities should change when dealing with a young patient with dependent children and a productive life ahead. The potential for cure becomes of paramount importance.The gross appearance |
Surgery_Schwartz_7109 | Surgery_Schwartz | with comorbidities should change when dealing with a young patient with dependent children and a productive life ahead. The potential for cure becomes of paramount importance.The gross appearance resembles that of squamous cell car-cinoma. Microscopically, adenocarcinoma almost always origi-nates in Barrett’s mucosa and resembles gastric cancer. Rarely, it arises in the submucosal glands and forms intramural growths that resemble the mucoepidermal and adenoid cystic carcinomas of the salivary glands.The most important etiologic factor in the development of primary adenocarcinoma of the esophagus is a metaplastic columnar-lined or Barrett’s esophagus, which occurs in approxi-mately 10% to 15% of patients with GERD. When studied pro-spectively, the incidence of adenocarcinoma in a patient with BE is one in 100 to 200 patient-years of follow-up (i.e., for every 100 patients with BE followed for 1 year, one will develop adenocarcinoma). Although this risk appears to be small, it is at | Surgery_Schwartz. with comorbidities should change when dealing with a young patient with dependent children and a productive life ahead. The potential for cure becomes of paramount importance.The gross appearance resembles that of squamous cell car-cinoma. Microscopically, adenocarcinoma almost always origi-nates in Barrett’s mucosa and resembles gastric cancer. Rarely, it arises in the submucosal glands and forms intramural growths that resemble the mucoepidermal and adenoid cystic carcinomas of the salivary glands.The most important etiologic factor in the development of primary adenocarcinoma of the esophagus is a metaplastic columnar-lined or Barrett’s esophagus, which occurs in approxi-mately 10% to 15% of patients with GERD. When studied pro-spectively, the incidence of adenocarcinoma in a patient with BE is one in 100 to 200 patient-years of follow-up (i.e., for every 100 patients with BE followed for 1 year, one will develop adenocarcinoma). Although this risk appears to be small, it is at |
Surgery_Schwartz_7110 | Surgery_Schwartz | with BE is one in 100 to 200 patient-years of follow-up (i.e., for every 100 patients with BE followed for 1 year, one will develop adenocarcinoma). Although this risk appears to be small, it is at least 40 to 60 times that expected for a similar population without BE. This risk is similar to the risk for developing lung cancer in a person with a 20-pack-per-year history of smoking. Endoscopic surveillance for patients with BE is recommended for two reasons: (a) at present there is no reliable evidence that medical therapy removes the risk of neoplastic transformation, and (b) malignancy in BE is curable if detected at an early stage.Clinical ManifestationsEsophageal cancer generally presents with dysphagia, although increasing numbers of relatively asymptomatic patients are now identified on surveillance endoscopy, or present with nonspecific upper GI symptoms and undergo screening endoscopy. Extension of the primary tumor into the tracheobronchial tree can occur primarily with | Surgery_Schwartz. with BE is one in 100 to 200 patient-years of follow-up (i.e., for every 100 patients with BE followed for 1 year, one will develop adenocarcinoma). Although this risk appears to be small, it is at least 40 to 60 times that expected for a similar population without BE. This risk is similar to the risk for developing lung cancer in a person with a 20-pack-per-year history of smoking. Endoscopic surveillance for patients with BE is recommended for two reasons: (a) at present there is no reliable evidence that medical therapy removes the risk of neoplastic transformation, and (b) malignancy in BE is curable if detected at an early stage.Clinical ManifestationsEsophageal cancer generally presents with dysphagia, although increasing numbers of relatively asymptomatic patients are now identified on surveillance endoscopy, or present with nonspecific upper GI symptoms and undergo screening endoscopy. Extension of the primary tumor into the tracheobronchial tree can occur primarily with |
Surgery_Schwartz_7111 | Surgery_Schwartz | on surveillance endoscopy, or present with nonspecific upper GI symptoms and undergo screening endoscopy. Extension of the primary tumor into the tracheobronchial tree can occur primarily with squamous cell carcinoma and can cause stridor, tracheoesophageal fistula, and resultant coughing, choking, and aspiration 6Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 106801/03/19 6:05 PM 1069ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25U.S. esophageal cancer incidence19851993199720012005Incidence per 100,00002520151051989NCI esophageal cancer research investment$21.8M$21.7M$21.6M srallod fo snoilliMilliBo snolod fsralFiscal year020032004200520062007252015105054321Esophageal cancer funding Total NCI budget $22.3M$4.8B$4.7B$4.7B$4.6B$4.8B$22.7MU.S. esophageal cancer mortalityMortality per 100,000198519931997200120050252015105White malesOverall rateAfrican American malesWhite femalesAfrican American females1989Figure 25-66. Incidence and mortality rate trends for esophageal cancer. NCI = National Cancer | Surgery_Schwartz. on surveillance endoscopy, or present with nonspecific upper GI symptoms and undergo screening endoscopy. Extension of the primary tumor into the tracheobronchial tree can occur primarily with squamous cell carcinoma and can cause stridor, tracheoesophageal fistula, and resultant coughing, choking, and aspiration 6Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 106801/03/19 6:05 PM 1069ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25U.S. esophageal cancer incidence19851993199720012005Incidence per 100,00002520151051989NCI esophageal cancer research investment$21.8M$21.7M$21.6M srallod fo snoilliMilliBo snolod fsralFiscal year020032004200520062007252015105054321Esophageal cancer funding Total NCI budget $22.3M$4.8B$4.7B$4.7B$4.6B$4.8B$22.7MU.S. esophageal cancer mortalityMortality per 100,000198519931997200120050252015105White malesOverall rateAfrican American malesWhite femalesAfrican American females1989Figure 25-66. Incidence and mortality rate trends for esophageal cancer. NCI = National Cancer |
Surgery_Schwartz_7112 | Surgery_Schwartz | malesOverall rateAfrican American malesWhite femalesAfrican American females1989Figure 25-66. Incidence and mortality rate trends for esophageal cancer. NCI = National Cancer Institute. (Reproduced with permis-sion from the National Cancer Institute. Last updated September, 2008.)pneumonia. Rarely, severe bleeding from the primary tumor or from erosion into the aorta or pulmonary vessels occurs. Either vocal cord may be invaded, causing paralysis, but most commonly, paralysis is caused by invasion of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve by the primary tumor or LN metastasis. Systemic organ metastases are usually manifested by jaundice or bone pain. The situation is different in high-incidence areas where screening is practiced. In these communities, the most prominent early symptom is pain on swallowing rough or dry food. In patients that present with back pain at the time of esophageal cancer diagnosis, there is usually distant metastasis or celiac encasement.Dysphagia usually presents | Surgery_Schwartz. malesOverall rateAfrican American malesWhite femalesAfrican American females1989Figure 25-66. Incidence and mortality rate trends for esophageal cancer. NCI = National Cancer Institute. (Reproduced with permis-sion from the National Cancer Institute. Last updated September, 2008.)pneumonia. Rarely, severe bleeding from the primary tumor or from erosion into the aorta or pulmonary vessels occurs. Either vocal cord may be invaded, causing paralysis, but most commonly, paralysis is caused by invasion of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve by the primary tumor or LN metastasis. Systemic organ metastases are usually manifested by jaundice or bone pain. The situation is different in high-incidence areas where screening is practiced. In these communities, the most prominent early symptom is pain on swallowing rough or dry food. In patients that present with back pain at the time of esophageal cancer diagnosis, there is usually distant metastasis or celiac encasement.Dysphagia usually presents |
Surgery_Schwartz_7113 | Surgery_Schwartz | swallowing rough or dry food. In patients that present with back pain at the time of esophageal cancer diagnosis, there is usually distant metastasis or celiac encasement.Dysphagia usually presents late in the natural history of the disease because the lack of a serosal layer on the esopha-gus allows the smooth muscle to dilate with ease. As a result, the dysphagia becomes severe enough for the patient to seek medical advice only when more than 60% of the esophageal circumference is infiltrated with cancer. Consequently, the dis-ease is usually advanced if symptoms herald its presence. Tra-cheoesophageal fistula may be present in some patients on their first visit to the hospital, and more than 40% will have evidence of distant metastases. With tumors of the cardia, anorexia and weight loss usually precede the onset of dysphagia. The physical signs of esophageal tumors are those associated with the pres-ence of distant metastases.General Approach to Esophageal CancerTherapy of | Surgery_Schwartz. swallowing rough or dry food. In patients that present with back pain at the time of esophageal cancer diagnosis, there is usually distant metastasis or celiac encasement.Dysphagia usually presents late in the natural history of the disease because the lack of a serosal layer on the esopha-gus allows the smooth muscle to dilate with ease. As a result, the dysphagia becomes severe enough for the patient to seek medical advice only when more than 60% of the esophageal circumference is infiltrated with cancer. Consequently, the dis-ease is usually advanced if symptoms herald its presence. Tra-cheoesophageal fistula may be present in some patients on their first visit to the hospital, and more than 40% will have evidence of distant metastases. With tumors of the cardia, anorexia and weight loss usually precede the onset of dysphagia. The physical signs of esophageal tumors are those associated with the pres-ence of distant metastases.General Approach to Esophageal CancerTherapy of |
Surgery_Schwartz_7114 | Surgery_Schwartz | loss usually precede the onset of dysphagia. The physical signs of esophageal tumors are those associated with the pres-ence of distant metastases.General Approach to Esophageal CancerTherapy of esophageal cancer is dictated by the stage of the can-cer at the time of diagnosis. Put simply, one needs to determine if the disease is confined to the esophagus, (T1–T2, N0), locally advanced (T1–3, N1), or disseminated (any T, any N, M1). If cancer is confined to the esophagus, removal of the tumor with adjacent lymph nodes may be curative. Very early tumors con-fined to the mucosa (T in situ, T1a, intramucosal cancer) may be addressed with endoscopic treatment. When the tumor is locally aggressive, modern therapy dictates a multimodality approach in a surgically fit patient. Multimodality therapy is either che-motherapy followed by surgery or radiation and chemotherapy followed by surgery. When given before surgery, these treat-ments are referred to as neoadjuvant or induction therapy. For | Surgery_Schwartz. loss usually precede the onset of dysphagia. The physical signs of esophageal tumors are those associated with the pres-ence of distant metastases.General Approach to Esophageal CancerTherapy of esophageal cancer is dictated by the stage of the can-cer at the time of diagnosis. Put simply, one needs to determine if the disease is confined to the esophagus, (T1–T2, N0), locally advanced (T1–3, N1), or disseminated (any T, any N, M1). If cancer is confined to the esophagus, removal of the tumor with adjacent lymph nodes may be curative. Very early tumors con-fined to the mucosa (T in situ, T1a, intramucosal cancer) may be addressed with endoscopic treatment. When the tumor is locally aggressive, modern therapy dictates a multimodality approach in a surgically fit patient. Multimodality therapy is either che-motherapy followed by surgery or radiation and chemotherapy followed by surgery. When given before surgery, these treat-ments are referred to as neoadjuvant or induction therapy. For |
Surgery_Schwartz_7115 | Surgery_Schwartz | is either che-motherapy followed by surgery or radiation and chemotherapy followed by surgery. When given before surgery, these treat-ments are referred to as neoadjuvant or induction therapy. For disseminated cancer, treatment is aimed at palliation of symp-toms. If the patient has dysphagia, as many do, the most rapid form of palliation is the endoscopic placement of an expandable esophageal stent. For palliation of GEJ cancer, radiation may be the first choice, as stents placed across the GEJ create a great deal of gastroesophageal reflux.Staging of Esophageal CancerChoosing the best therapy for an individual patient requires accurate staging. Staging starts with the history and physical. LN disease remote from the tumor, particularly in the cervi-cal region, may be palpable on neck examination and generally indicates cancer dissemination. This is often referred to as M1a disease, indicating that these patients should not be treated with therapy directed toward locally advanced | Surgery_Schwartz. is either che-motherapy followed by surgery or radiation and chemotherapy followed by surgery. When given before surgery, these treat-ments are referred to as neoadjuvant or induction therapy. For disseminated cancer, treatment is aimed at palliation of symp-toms. If the patient has dysphagia, as many do, the most rapid form of palliation is the endoscopic placement of an expandable esophageal stent. For palliation of GEJ cancer, radiation may be the first choice, as stents placed across the GEJ create a great deal of gastroesophageal reflux.Staging of Esophageal CancerChoosing the best therapy for an individual patient requires accurate staging. Staging starts with the history and physical. LN disease remote from the tumor, particularly in the cervi-cal region, may be palpable on neck examination and generally indicates cancer dissemination. This is often referred to as M1a disease, indicating that these patients should not be treated with therapy directed toward locally advanced |
Surgery_Schwartz_7116 | Surgery_Schwartz | examination and generally indicates cancer dissemination. This is often referred to as M1a disease, indicating that these patients should not be treated with therapy directed toward locally advanced cancer. Other meta-static LNs are rarely palpable but are equally ominous, espe-cially the umbilical LN in GEJ cancer.Computed tomographic (CT) scanning of the chest, abdo-men, and pelvis provides information on local invasion of the primary cancer, LN involvement, or disseminated disease. The most common sites of esophageal cancer metastases are lung, liver, and peritoneal surfaces, including the omentum and small bowel mesentery. If masses are identified that are Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 106901/03/19 6:05 PM 1070SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IInot characteristic for cancer or are in a location that precludes resection with the cancer specimen, positron emission tomogra-phy (PET) scanning may be able to tell whether the masses are metabolically active (likely to be cancer) or | Surgery_Schwartz. examination and generally indicates cancer dissemination. This is often referred to as M1a disease, indicating that these patients should not be treated with therapy directed toward locally advanced cancer. Other meta-static LNs are rarely palpable but are equally ominous, espe-cially the umbilical LN in GEJ cancer.Computed tomographic (CT) scanning of the chest, abdo-men, and pelvis provides information on local invasion of the primary cancer, LN involvement, or disseminated disease. The most common sites of esophageal cancer metastases are lung, liver, and peritoneal surfaces, including the omentum and small bowel mesentery. If masses are identified that are Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 106901/03/19 6:05 PM 1070SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IInot characteristic for cancer or are in a location that precludes resection with the cancer specimen, positron emission tomogra-phy (PET) scanning may be able to tell whether the masses are metabolically active (likely to be cancer) or |
Surgery_Schwartz_7117 | Surgery_Schwartz | in a location that precludes resection with the cancer specimen, positron emission tomogra-phy (PET) scanning may be able to tell whether the masses are metabolically active (likely to be cancer) or not. A PET active focus corresponding to a mass on CT scan outside of the field of esophageal resection should be biopsied before resection is performed.The introduction of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has made it possible to identify patients who are potentially curable before surgical therapy. Using an endoscope, the depth of the wall penetration by the tumor and the presence of LN metasta-ses can be determined with 80% accuracy. A curative resection should be encouraged if EUS indicates that the tumor has not invaded adjacent organs (T4b), and/or fewer than six enlarged LNs are imaged. Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic staging of esophageal cancer may add benefit when the nature of enlarged LNs remote from the cancer cannot be determined or when advanced imaging systems (PET and | Surgery_Schwartz. in a location that precludes resection with the cancer specimen, positron emission tomogra-phy (PET) scanning may be able to tell whether the masses are metabolically active (likely to be cancer) or not. A PET active focus corresponding to a mass on CT scan outside of the field of esophageal resection should be biopsied before resection is performed.The introduction of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has made it possible to identify patients who are potentially curable before surgical therapy. Using an endoscope, the depth of the wall penetration by the tumor and the presence of LN metasta-ses can be determined with 80% accuracy. A curative resection should be encouraged if EUS indicates that the tumor has not invaded adjacent organs (T4b), and/or fewer than six enlarged LNs are imaged. Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic staging of esophageal cancer may add benefit when the nature of enlarged LNs remote from the cancer cannot be determined or when advanced imaging systems (PET and |
Surgery_Schwartz_7118 | Surgery_Schwartz | Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic staging of esophageal cancer may add benefit when the nature of enlarged LNs remote from the cancer cannot be determined or when advanced imaging systems (PET and high-resolution spiral CT) are not available.Occasionally, diagnostic laparoscopy and jejunostomy tube placement may precede induction chemoradiation in the patient with severe dysphagia and weight loss from a locally advanced cancer. In summary, esophageal cancer is diagnosed with endoscopic biopsy and is staged with CT scanning of the chest and abdomen, EUS, and PET scan for all patients with CT or EUS evidence of advanced disease (T2 or greater, N1-2 or NX). Experience with esophageal resection in patients with early stage disease has identified characteristics of esophageal cancer that are associated with improved survival. A number of studies suggest that only metastasis to LNs and tumor penetration of the esophageal wall have a significant and independent influence on prognosis. Factors | Surgery_Schwartz. Thoracoscopic and laparoscopic staging of esophageal cancer may add benefit when the nature of enlarged LNs remote from the cancer cannot be determined or when advanced imaging systems (PET and high-resolution spiral CT) are not available.Occasionally, diagnostic laparoscopy and jejunostomy tube placement may precede induction chemoradiation in the patient with severe dysphagia and weight loss from a locally advanced cancer. In summary, esophageal cancer is diagnosed with endoscopic biopsy and is staged with CT scanning of the chest and abdomen, EUS, and PET scan for all patients with CT or EUS evidence of advanced disease (T2 or greater, N1-2 or NX). Experience with esophageal resection in patients with early stage disease has identified characteristics of esophageal cancer that are associated with improved survival. A number of studies suggest that only metastasis to LNs and tumor penetration of the esophageal wall have a significant and independent influence on prognosis. Factors |
Surgery_Schwartz_7119 | Surgery_Schwartz | with improved survival. A number of studies suggest that only metastasis to LNs and tumor penetration of the esophageal wall have a significant and independent influence on prognosis. Factors known to be important in the survival of patients with advanced disease, such as cell type, degree of cellular differentiation, or location of tumor in the esophagus, have no effect on survival of patients who have undergone resection for early disease. Studies also showed that patients having five or fewer LN metastases have a better outcome. Using these data, Skinner developed the wall penetration, LN, and distant organ metastases system for staging.The wall penetration, LN, and distant organ metastases system differed somewhat from the previous efforts to develop a satisfactory staging criteria for carcinoma of the esophagus. Most surgeons agreed that the 1983 tumor, nodes, and metastasis system left much to be desired. In the third edition of the manual for Staging of Cancer of the American | Surgery_Schwartz. with improved survival. A number of studies suggest that only metastasis to LNs and tumor penetration of the esophageal wall have a significant and independent influence on prognosis. Factors known to be important in the survival of patients with advanced disease, such as cell type, degree of cellular differentiation, or location of tumor in the esophagus, have no effect on survival of patients who have undergone resection for early disease. Studies also showed that patients having five or fewer LN metastases have a better outcome. Using these data, Skinner developed the wall penetration, LN, and distant organ metastases system for staging.The wall penetration, LN, and distant organ metastases system differed somewhat from the previous efforts to develop a satisfactory staging criteria for carcinoma of the esophagus. Most surgeons agreed that the 1983 tumor, nodes, and metastasis system left much to be desired. In the third edition of the manual for Staging of Cancer of the American |
Surgery_Schwartz_7120 | Surgery_Schwartz | carcinoma of the esophagus. Most surgeons agreed that the 1983 tumor, nodes, and metastasis system left much to be desired. In the third edition of the manual for Staging of Cancer of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) in 1988, an effort was made to provide a finer discrimination between stages than had been contained in the previous edition in 1983. In 2016, further refinements of the staging system of esophageal cancer were approved by the AJCC, recognizing the difference in survival afforded by resection of limited LN disease adjacent to the tumor, compared to multilevel LN disease and positive LNs remote from the primary. Table 25-11 shows the AJCC definitions for the primary tumor, lymph nodes, distant metastasis, and overall staging schema for both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.Clinical Approach to Carcinoma of the Esophagus and CardiaThe selection of a curative vs. a palliative operation for cancer of the esophagus is based on the location of the tumor, | Surgery_Schwartz. carcinoma of the esophagus. Most surgeons agreed that the 1983 tumor, nodes, and metastasis system left much to be desired. In the third edition of the manual for Staging of Cancer of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) in 1988, an effort was made to provide a finer discrimination between stages than had been contained in the previous edition in 1983. In 2016, further refinements of the staging system of esophageal cancer were approved by the AJCC, recognizing the difference in survival afforded by resection of limited LN disease adjacent to the tumor, compared to multilevel LN disease and positive LNs remote from the primary. Table 25-11 shows the AJCC definitions for the primary tumor, lymph nodes, distant metastasis, and overall staging schema for both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.Clinical Approach to Carcinoma of the Esophagus and CardiaThe selection of a curative vs. a palliative operation for cancer of the esophagus is based on the location of the tumor, |
Surgery_Schwartz_7121 | Surgery_Schwartz | and adenocarcinoma.Clinical Approach to Carcinoma of the Esophagus and CardiaThe selection of a curative vs. a palliative operation for cancer of the esophagus is based on the location of the tumor, the patient’s age and health, the extent of the disease, and preoperative stag-ing. Figure 25-67 shows an algorithm of the clinical decisions important in the selection of curative or palliative therapy.Tumor Location. The selection of surgical therapy for patients with carcinoma of the esophagus depends not only on the ana-tomic stage of the disease and an assessment of the swallowing capacity of the patient but also on the location of the primary tumor.It is estimated that 8% of the primary malignant tumors of the esophagus occur in the cervical portion (Fig. 25-68). They are almost always squamous cell cancer, with a rare adenocar-cinoma arising from a congenital inlet patch of columnar lining. These tumors, particularly those in the postcricoid area, repre-sent a separate pathologic | Surgery_Schwartz. and adenocarcinoma.Clinical Approach to Carcinoma of the Esophagus and CardiaThe selection of a curative vs. a palliative operation for cancer of the esophagus is based on the location of the tumor, the patient’s age and health, the extent of the disease, and preoperative stag-ing. Figure 25-67 shows an algorithm of the clinical decisions important in the selection of curative or palliative therapy.Tumor Location. The selection of surgical therapy for patients with carcinoma of the esophagus depends not only on the ana-tomic stage of the disease and an assessment of the swallowing capacity of the patient but also on the location of the primary tumor.It is estimated that 8% of the primary malignant tumors of the esophagus occur in the cervical portion (Fig. 25-68). They are almost always squamous cell cancer, with a rare adenocar-cinoma arising from a congenital inlet patch of columnar lining. These tumors, particularly those in the postcricoid area, repre-sent a separate pathologic |
Surgery_Schwartz_7122 | Surgery_Schwartz | squamous cell cancer, with a rare adenocar-cinoma arising from a congenital inlet patch of columnar lining. These tumors, particularly those in the postcricoid area, repre-sent a separate pathologic entity for two reasons: (a) they are more common in females and appear to be a unique entity in this regard; and (b) the efferent lymphatics from the cervical esophagus drain completely differently from those of the tho-racic esophagus. The latter drain directly into the paratracheal and deep cervical or internal jugular LNs with minimal flow in a longitudinal direction. Except in advanced disease, it is unusual for intrathoracic LNs to be involved.Cervical esophageal cancer is frequently unresectable because of early invasion of the larynx, great vessels, or trachea. Radical surgery, including esophagolaryngectomy may occa-sionally be performed for these lesions, but the ensuing mor-bidity makes this a less than desirable approach in the face of uncertain cure. Thus, for most patients | Surgery_Schwartz. squamous cell cancer, with a rare adenocar-cinoma arising from a congenital inlet patch of columnar lining. These tumors, particularly those in the postcricoid area, repre-sent a separate pathologic entity for two reasons: (a) they are more common in females and appear to be a unique entity in this regard; and (b) the efferent lymphatics from the cervical esophagus drain completely differently from those of the tho-racic esophagus. The latter drain directly into the paratracheal and deep cervical or internal jugular LNs with minimal flow in a longitudinal direction. Except in advanced disease, it is unusual for intrathoracic LNs to be involved.Cervical esophageal cancer is frequently unresectable because of early invasion of the larynx, great vessels, or trachea. Radical surgery, including esophagolaryngectomy may occa-sionally be performed for these lesions, but the ensuing mor-bidity makes this a less than desirable approach in the face of uncertain cure. Thus, for most patients |
Surgery_Schwartz_7123 | Surgery_Schwartz | esophagolaryngectomy may occa-sionally be performed for these lesions, but the ensuing mor-bidity makes this a less than desirable approach in the face of uncertain cure. Thus, for most patients with cervical esophageal cancer, stereotactic radiation with concomitant chemotherapy is the most desirable treatment.Tumors that arise within the middle third of the esopha-gus are squamous carcinomas most commonly and are fre-quently associated with LN metastasis, which are usually in the thorax but may be in the neck or abdomen, and may skip areas in between. Although it is generally felt that individu-als with midthoracic cancer and abdominal LN metastases are incurable with surgery, there are some emerging data that suggest that cervical LN metastases, if isolated, can be resected with benefit. Generally, T1 and T2 cancers with-out LN metastases are treated with resection only, but there is more and more data to suggest that LN involvement or transmural cancer (T3) warrants treatment with | Surgery_Schwartz. esophagolaryngectomy may occa-sionally be performed for these lesions, but the ensuing mor-bidity makes this a less than desirable approach in the face of uncertain cure. Thus, for most patients with cervical esophageal cancer, stereotactic radiation with concomitant chemotherapy is the most desirable treatment.Tumors that arise within the middle third of the esopha-gus are squamous carcinomas most commonly and are fre-quently associated with LN metastasis, which are usually in the thorax but may be in the neck or abdomen, and may skip areas in between. Although it is generally felt that individu-als with midthoracic cancer and abdominal LN metastases are incurable with surgery, there are some emerging data that suggest that cervical LN metastases, if isolated, can be resected with benefit. Generally, T1 and T2 cancers with-out LN metastases are treated with resection only, but there is more and more data to suggest that LN involvement or transmural cancer (T3) warrants treatment with |
Surgery_Schwartz_7124 | Surgery_Schwartz | Generally, T1 and T2 cancers with-out LN metastases are treated with resection only, but there is more and more data to suggest that LN involvement or transmural cancer (T3) warrants treatment with neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy followed by resection. Although some surgeons prefer a transhiatal esophagectomy for all tumor locations, most surgeons believe that resection of mid-esophageal cancer should be performed under direct vision with either thoracoscopy (video-assisted thoracic surgery [VATS]) or with thoracotomy.Tumors of the lower esophagus and cardia are usually adenocarcinomas. Unless preoperative and intraoperative stag-ing clearly demonstrate an incurable lesion, resection in con-tinuity with a LN dissection should be performed. Because of the propensity of GI tumors to spread for long distances sub-mucosally, long lengths of grossly normal GI tract should be resected. The longitudinal lymph flow in the esophagus can result in skip areas, with small foci of tumor above | Surgery_Schwartz. Generally, T1 and T2 cancers with-out LN metastases are treated with resection only, but there is more and more data to suggest that LN involvement or transmural cancer (T3) warrants treatment with neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy followed by resection. Although some surgeons prefer a transhiatal esophagectomy for all tumor locations, most surgeons believe that resection of mid-esophageal cancer should be performed under direct vision with either thoracoscopy (video-assisted thoracic surgery [VATS]) or with thoracotomy.Tumors of the lower esophagus and cardia are usually adenocarcinomas. Unless preoperative and intraoperative stag-ing clearly demonstrate an incurable lesion, resection in con-tinuity with a LN dissection should be performed. Because of the propensity of GI tumors to spread for long distances sub-mucosally, long lengths of grossly normal GI tract should be resected. The longitudinal lymph flow in the esophagus can result in skip areas, with small foci of tumor above |
Surgery_Schwartz_7125 | Surgery_Schwartz | for long distances sub-mucosally, long lengths of grossly normal GI tract should be resected. The longitudinal lymph flow in the esophagus can result in skip areas, with small foci of tumor above the primary lesion, which underscores the importance of a wide resection of esophageal tumors. Wong has shown that local recurrence at the anastomosis can be prevented by obtaining a 10-cm margin of normal esophagus above the tumor. Anatomic studies have also shown that there is no submucosal lymphatic barrier between the esophagus and the stomach at the cardia, and Wong has Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107001/03/19 6:05 PM 1071ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-11American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Staging Schema for Esophageal CancerTXT0TisT1T1aT1bT2T3T4T4aT4bNXN0N1N2N3M0M1Primary tumor cannot be assessed.No evidence of primary tumor.High-grade dysplasia.Tumor invades lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, or submucosa.Tumor invades lamina propria or muscularis | Surgery_Schwartz. for long distances sub-mucosally, long lengths of grossly normal GI tract should be resected. The longitudinal lymph flow in the esophagus can result in skip areas, with small foci of tumor above the primary lesion, which underscores the importance of a wide resection of esophageal tumors. Wong has shown that local recurrence at the anastomosis can be prevented by obtaining a 10-cm margin of normal esophagus above the tumor. Anatomic studies have also shown that there is no submucosal lymphatic barrier between the esophagus and the stomach at the cardia, and Wong has Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107001/03/19 6:05 PM 1071ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-11American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Staging Schema for Esophageal CancerTXT0TisT1T1aT1bT2T3T4T4aT4bNXN0N1N2N3M0M1Primary tumor cannot be assessed.No evidence of primary tumor.High-grade dysplasia.Tumor invades lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, or submucosa.Tumor invades lamina propria or muscularis |
Surgery_Schwartz_7126 | Surgery_Schwartz | tumor cannot be assessed.No evidence of primary tumor.High-grade dysplasia.Tumor invades lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, or submucosa.Tumor invades lamina propria or muscularis mucosae.Tumor invades submucosa.Tumor invades muscularis propria.Tumor invades adventitia.Tumor invades adjacent structures.Resectable tumor invading pleura, pericardium, or diaphragm.Unresectable tumor invading other adjacent structures, such as aorta, vertebral body, trachea, etc.Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed.No regional lymph node metastasis.Metastases in 1–2 regional lymph nodes.Metastases in 3–6 regional lymph nodes.Metastases in ≥7 regional lymph nodes.No distant metastasis.Distant metastasis.SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA Pathological (pTNM)When And And And And Then the stagepT is... pN is... M is... G is... location is... group is...Tis N0 M0 N/A Any 0T1a N0 M0 G1 Any IAT1a N0 M0 G2–3 Any IBT1a N0 M0 GX Any IAT1b N0 M0 G1–3 Any IBT1b N0 M0 GX Any IBT2 N0 M0 G1 Any IBT2 N0 M0 G2–3 Any | Surgery_Schwartz. tumor cannot be assessed.No evidence of primary tumor.High-grade dysplasia.Tumor invades lamina propria, muscularis mucosae, or submucosa.Tumor invades lamina propria or muscularis mucosae.Tumor invades submucosa.Tumor invades muscularis propria.Tumor invades adventitia.Tumor invades adjacent structures.Resectable tumor invading pleura, pericardium, or diaphragm.Unresectable tumor invading other adjacent structures, such as aorta, vertebral body, trachea, etc.Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed.No regional lymph node metastasis.Metastases in 1–2 regional lymph nodes.Metastases in 3–6 regional lymph nodes.Metastases in ≥7 regional lymph nodes.No distant metastasis.Distant metastasis.SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA Pathological (pTNM)When And And And And Then the stagepT is... pN is... M is... G is... location is... group is...Tis N0 M0 N/A Any 0T1a N0 M0 G1 Any IAT1a N0 M0 G2–3 Any IBT1a N0 M0 GX Any IAT1b N0 M0 G1–3 Any IBT1b N0 M0 GX Any IBT2 N0 M0 G1 Any IBT2 N0 M0 G2–3 Any |
Surgery_Schwartz_7127 | Surgery_Schwartz | is... G is... location is... group is...Tis N0 M0 N/A Any 0T1a N0 M0 G1 Any IAT1a N0 M0 G2–3 Any IBT1a N0 M0 GX Any IAT1b N0 M0 G1–3 Any IBT1b N0 M0 GX Any IBT2 N0 M0 G1 Any IBT2 N0 M0 G2–3 Any IIAT2 N0 M0 GX Any IIAT3 N0 M0 G1–3 Lower IIAT3 N0 M0 G1 Upper/middle IIAT3 N0 M0 G2–3 Upper/middle IIBClinical (cTNM)When And And Then the cT is... cN is... M is... stage group is...Tis N0 M0 0T1 N0–1 M0 IT2 N0–1 M0 IIT3 N0 M0 IIT3 N1 M0 IIIT1–3 N2 M0 IIIT4 N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBPostneoadjuvant Therapy (ypTNM)When yp And yp And Then the stageT is... N is... M is... group is...T0–2 N0 M0 IT3 N0 M0 IIT0–2 N1 M0 IIIAT3 N1 M0 IIIBT0–3 N2 M0 IIIBT4a N0 M0 IIIBT4a N1–2 M0 IVAT4a NX M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBClinical (cTNM)When And And Then the cT is... cN is... M is... stage group is...Tis N0 M0 0T1 N0 M0 IT1 N1 M0 IIAT2 N0 M0 IIBT3 N0 M0 GX Lower/upper/middle IIBT3 N0 M0 Any Location | Surgery_Schwartz. is... G is... location is... group is...Tis N0 M0 N/A Any 0T1a N0 M0 G1 Any IAT1a N0 M0 G2–3 Any IBT1a N0 M0 GX Any IAT1b N0 M0 G1–3 Any IBT1b N0 M0 GX Any IBT2 N0 M0 G1 Any IBT2 N0 M0 G2–3 Any IIAT2 N0 M0 GX Any IIAT3 N0 M0 G1–3 Lower IIAT3 N0 M0 G1 Upper/middle IIAT3 N0 M0 G2–3 Upper/middle IIBClinical (cTNM)When And And Then the cT is... cN is... M is... stage group is...Tis N0 M0 0T1 N0–1 M0 IT2 N0–1 M0 IIT3 N0 M0 IIT3 N1 M0 IIIT1–3 N2 M0 IIIT4 N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBPostneoadjuvant Therapy (ypTNM)When yp And yp And Then the stageT is... N is... M is... group is...T0–2 N0 M0 IT3 N0 M0 IIT0–2 N1 M0 IIIAT3 N1 M0 IIIBT0–3 N2 M0 IIIBT4a N0 M0 IIIBT4a N1–2 M0 IVAT4a NX M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBClinical (cTNM)When And And Then the cT is... cN is... M is... stage group is...Tis N0 M0 0T1 N0 M0 IT1 N1 M0 IIAT2 N0 M0 IIBT3 N0 M0 GX Lower/upper/middle IIBT3 N0 M0 Any Location |
Surgery_Schwartz_7128 | Surgery_Schwartz | T Any N M1 IVBClinical (cTNM)When And And Then the cT is... cN is... M is... stage group is...Tis N0 M0 0T1 N0 M0 IT1 N1 M0 IIAT2 N0 M0 IIBT3 N0 M0 GX Lower/upper/middle IIBT3 N0 M0 Any Location X IIBT1 N1 M0 Any Any IIBT1 N2 M0 Any Any IIIAT2 N1 M0 Any Any IIIAT2 N2 M0 Any Any IIIBT3 N1–2 M0 Any Any IIIBT4a N0–1 M0 Any Any IIIBT4a N2 M0 Any Any IVAT4b N0–2 M0 Any Any IVAAny T N3 M0 Any Any IVAAny T Any N M1 Any Any IVB(Continued)ADENOCARCINOMAT2 N1 M0 IIIT3 N0–1 M0 IIIT4a N0–1 M0 IIIT1–4a N2 M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107101/03/19 6:05 PM 1072SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-11American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Staging Schema for Esophageal CancerPostneoadjuvant Therapy (ypTNM)When yp And yp And Then the stage T is... N is... M is... group is...T0–2 N0 M0 IT3 N0 M0 IIT0–2 N1 M0 IIIAT3 N1 M0 IIIBT0–3 N2 M0 IIIBT4a N0 M0 IIIBT4a N1–2 M0 IVAT4a NX M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any | Surgery_Schwartz. T Any N M1 IVBClinical (cTNM)When And And Then the cT is... cN is... M is... stage group is...Tis N0 M0 0T1 N0 M0 IT1 N1 M0 IIAT2 N0 M0 IIBT3 N0 M0 GX Lower/upper/middle IIBT3 N0 M0 Any Location X IIBT1 N1 M0 Any Any IIBT1 N2 M0 Any Any IIIAT2 N1 M0 Any Any IIIAT2 N2 M0 Any Any IIIBT3 N1–2 M0 Any Any IIIBT4a N0–1 M0 Any Any IIIBT4a N2 M0 Any Any IVAT4b N0–2 M0 Any Any IVAAny T N3 M0 Any Any IVAAny T Any N M1 Any Any IVB(Continued)ADENOCARCINOMAT2 N1 M0 IIIT3 N0–1 M0 IIIT4a N0–1 M0 IIIT1–4a N2 M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBBrunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107101/03/19 6:05 PM 1072SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-11American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Staging Schema for Esophageal CancerPostneoadjuvant Therapy (ypTNM)When yp And yp And Then the stage T is... N is... M is... group is...T0–2 N0 M0 IT3 N0 M0 IIT0–2 N1 M0 IIIAT3 N1 M0 IIIBT0–3 N2 M0 IIIBT4a N0 M0 IIIBT4a N1–2 M0 IVAT4a NX M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any |
Surgery_Schwartz_7129 | Surgery_Schwartz | Then the stage T is... N is... M is... group is...T0–2 N0 M0 IT3 N0 M0 IIT0–2 N1 M0 IIIAT3 N1 M0 IIIBT0–3 N2 M0 IIIBT4a N0 M0 IIIBT4a N1–2 M0 IVAT4a NX M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBUsed with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Pathological (pTNM)When And And And Then the stage pT is... pN is... M is... G is... group is...Tis N0 M0 N/A 0T1a N0 M0 G1 IAT1a N0 M0 GX IAT1a N0 M0 G2 IBT1b N0 M0 G1–2 IBT1b N0 M0 GX IBT1 N0 M0 G3 ICT2 N0 M0 G1–2 ICT2 N0 M0 G3 IIAT2 N0 M0 GX IIAT1 N1 M0 Any IIBT3 N0 M0 Any IIBT1 N2 M0 Any IIIAT2 N1 M0 Any IIIAT2 N2 M0 Any IIIBT3 N1–2 M0 Any IIIBT4a N0–1 M0 Any IIIBT4a N2 M0 Any IVAT4b N0–2 M0 Any IVAAny T N3 M0 Any IVAAny T Any N M1 Any IVB*Could include combined Rx and chemo neoadjuvant therapyprior to resection to increase resectability and potentialsurvival in patients 75 or under.Curative enbloc | Surgery_Schwartz. Then the stage T is... N is... M is... group is...T0–2 N0 M0 IT3 N0 M0 IIT0–2 N1 M0 IIIAT3 N1 M0 IIIBT0–3 N2 M0 IIIBT4a N0 M0 IIIBT4a N1–2 M0 IVAT4a NX M0 IVAT4b N0–2 M0 IVAAny T N3 M0 IVAAny T Any N M1 IVBUsed with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Pathological (pTNM)When And And And Then the stage pT is... pN is... M is... G is... group is...Tis N0 M0 N/A 0T1a N0 M0 G1 IAT1a N0 M0 GX IAT1a N0 M0 G2 IBT1b N0 M0 G1–2 IBT1b N0 M0 GX IBT1 N0 M0 G3 ICT2 N0 M0 G1–2 ICT2 N0 M0 G3 IIAT2 N0 M0 GX IIAT1 N1 M0 Any IIBT3 N0 M0 Any IIBT1 N2 M0 Any IIIAT2 N1 M0 Any IIIAT2 N2 M0 Any IIIBT3 N1–2 M0 Any IIIBT4a N0–1 M0 Any IIIBT4a N2 M0 Any IVAT4b N0–2 M0 Any IVAAny T N3 M0 Any IVAAny T Any N M1 Any IVB*Could include combined Rx and chemo neoadjuvant therapyprior to resection to increase resectability and potentialsurvival in patients 75 or under.Curative enbloc |
Surgery_Schwartz_7130 | Surgery_Schwartz | T N3 M0 Any IVAAny T Any N M1 Any IVB*Could include combined Rx and chemo neoadjuvant therapyprior to resection to increase resectability and potentialsurvival in patients 75 or under.Curative enbloc resectionIntraoperativestagingAgePhysiologicfitnessClinical stagingEndoscopicultrasoundPalliation75 yearsPalliation FEV1 1.25 Ejection fraction 40%PalliationRecurrent nerve paralysisHorner's syndromePersistent spinal painParalysis of diaphragmFistula formationMalignant pleural effusionEndoscopic tumor length 9 cmAbnormal esophageal axisMultiple enlarged nodes or distantorgan metastasis on CTMore than 20% weight lossLoss of appetite (relative)PalliationTransmural tumors with 4enlarged nodesPalliationUnresectable primaryCavitary spreadDistant metastasisExtension through mediastinal wallMultiple gross lymph node metastasesMicroscopic nodal metastasis at margins ofthe en bloc dissectionPalliative symptomsDysphagiaObstructionPain of ulcerationBleedingInfectionAnxietyRequirements for | Surgery_Schwartz. T N3 M0 Any IVAAny T Any N M1 Any IVB*Could include combined Rx and chemo neoadjuvant therapyprior to resection to increase resectability and potentialsurvival in patients 75 or under.Curative enbloc resectionIntraoperativestagingAgePhysiologicfitnessClinical stagingEndoscopicultrasoundPalliation75 yearsPalliation FEV1 1.25 Ejection fraction 40%PalliationRecurrent nerve paralysisHorner's syndromePersistent spinal painParalysis of diaphragmFistula formationMalignant pleural effusionEndoscopic tumor length 9 cmAbnormal esophageal axisMultiple enlarged nodes or distantorgan metastasis on CTMore than 20% weight lossLoss of appetite (relative)PalliationTransmural tumors with 4enlarged nodesPalliationUnresectable primaryCavitary spreadDistant metastasisExtension through mediastinal wallMultiple gross lymph node metastasesMicroscopic nodal metastasis at margins ofthe en bloc dissectionPalliative symptomsDysphagiaObstructionPain of ulcerationBleedingInfectionAnxietyRequirements for |
Surgery_Schwartz_7131 | Surgery_Schwartz | gross lymph node metastasesMicroscopic nodal metastasis at margins ofthe en bloc dissectionPalliative symptomsDysphagiaObstructionPain of ulcerationBleedingInfectionAnxietyRequirements for palliative transhiatal resection* Free of distant organ metastases Complete excision of primary tumor possibleNonsurgicalpalliationFigure 25-67. Algorithm for the evaluation of esophageal cancer patients to select the proper therapy: curative en bloc resection, palliative transhiatal resection, or nonsurgical palliation. CT = computed tomography; FEV1 = forced expiratory volume in 1 second. (Reproduced with permission from DeMeester TR: Esophageal carcinoma: current controversies, Semin Surg Oncol. 1997 Jul-Aug;13(4):217-233.)shown that 50% of the local recurrences in patients with esopha-geal cancer who are resected for cure occur in the intrathoracic stomach along the line of the gastric resection. Considering that the length of the esophagus ranges from 17 to 25 cm, and | Surgery_Schwartz. gross lymph node metastasesMicroscopic nodal metastasis at margins ofthe en bloc dissectionPalliative symptomsDysphagiaObstructionPain of ulcerationBleedingInfectionAnxietyRequirements for palliative transhiatal resection* Free of distant organ metastases Complete excision of primary tumor possibleNonsurgicalpalliationFigure 25-67. Algorithm for the evaluation of esophageal cancer patients to select the proper therapy: curative en bloc resection, palliative transhiatal resection, or nonsurgical palliation. CT = computed tomography; FEV1 = forced expiratory volume in 1 second. (Reproduced with permission from DeMeester TR: Esophageal carcinoma: current controversies, Semin Surg Oncol. 1997 Jul-Aug;13(4):217-233.)shown that 50% of the local recurrences in patients with esopha-geal cancer who are resected for cure occur in the intrathoracic stomach along the line of the gastric resection. Considering that the length of the esophagus ranges from 17 to 25 cm, and |
Surgery_Schwartz_7132 | Surgery_Schwartz | with esopha-geal cancer who are resected for cure occur in the intrathoracic stomach along the line of the gastric resection. Considering that the length of the esophagus ranges from 17 to 25 cm, and the length of the lesser curvature of the stomach is approximately 12 cm, a curative resection requires a cervical division of the esophagus and a >50% proximal gastrectomy in most patients with carcinoma of the distal esophagus or cardia.Age. Resection for cure of carcinoma of the esophagus in a patient older than 80 years is rarely indicated because of the additional operative risk and the shorter life expectancy. Despite this general guideline, octogenarians with a high-performance status and excellent cardiopulmonary reserve may be consid-ered candidates for esophagectomy, and recent case series have established its success in highly selected patients. It is in this group of patients that the lesser physiologic impact of minimally (Continued)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd | Surgery_Schwartz. with esopha-geal cancer who are resected for cure occur in the intrathoracic stomach along the line of the gastric resection. Considering that the length of the esophagus ranges from 17 to 25 cm, and the length of the lesser curvature of the stomach is approximately 12 cm, a curative resection requires a cervical division of the esophagus and a >50% proximal gastrectomy in most patients with carcinoma of the distal esophagus or cardia.Age. Resection for cure of carcinoma of the esophagus in a patient older than 80 years is rarely indicated because of the additional operative risk and the shorter life expectancy. Despite this general guideline, octogenarians with a high-performance status and excellent cardiopulmonary reserve may be consid-ered candidates for esophagectomy, and recent case series have established its success in highly selected patients. It is in this group of patients that the lesser physiologic impact of minimally (Continued)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd |
Surgery_Schwartz_7133 | Surgery_Schwartz | case series have established its success in highly selected patients. It is in this group of patients that the lesser physiologic impact of minimally (Continued)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107201/03/19 6:05 PM 1073ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25LocationIncidenceCervicalUpperthoracicMiddlethoracicLowerthoracicCardia8%3%32%25%32%Figure 25-68. Incidence of carcinoma of the esophagus and cardia based on tumor location.induction chemoradiation therapy, more pronounced dysphagia and associated malnutrition should be addressed before the initiation of chemoradiation. A laparoscopic jejunostomy tube can be placed prior to induction therapy or at the time of esophagectomy. There are emerging data that 5 days’ pretreatment with immune-enhancing nutrition, rich in fish oils, decreases cardiac and other complications, following esophagectomy.Clinical Staging. Clinical factors that indicate an advanced stage of carcinoma and exclude surgery with curative intent are recurrent | Surgery_Schwartz. case series have established its success in highly selected patients. It is in this group of patients that the lesser physiologic impact of minimally (Continued)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107201/03/19 6:05 PM 1073ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25LocationIncidenceCervicalUpperthoracicMiddlethoracicLowerthoracicCardia8%3%32%25%32%Figure 25-68. Incidence of carcinoma of the esophagus and cardia based on tumor location.induction chemoradiation therapy, more pronounced dysphagia and associated malnutrition should be addressed before the initiation of chemoradiation. A laparoscopic jejunostomy tube can be placed prior to induction therapy or at the time of esophagectomy. There are emerging data that 5 days’ pretreatment with immune-enhancing nutrition, rich in fish oils, decreases cardiac and other complications, following esophagectomy.Clinical Staging. Clinical factors that indicate an advanced stage of carcinoma and exclude surgery with curative intent are recurrent |
Surgery_Schwartz_7134 | Surgery_Schwartz | cardiac and other complications, following esophagectomy.Clinical Staging. Clinical factors that indicate an advanced stage of carcinoma and exclude surgery with curative intent are recurrent nerve paralysis, Horner’s syndrome, persistent spinal pain, paralysis of the diaphragm, fistula formation, and malig-nant pleural effusion. Factors that make surgical cure unlikely include a tumor >8 cm in length, abnormal axis of the esopha-gus on a barium radiogram, more than four enlarged LNs on CT, a weight loss more than 20%, and loss of appetite. Stud-ies indicate that there are several favorable parameters associ-ated with tumors <4 cm in length, there are fewer with tumors between 4 and 8 cm, and there are no favorable criteria for tumors >8 cm in length. Consequently, the finding of a tumor >8 cm in length should exclude curative resection; the finding of a smaller tumor should encourage an aggressive approach.Preoperative Staging With Advanced Imaging. For years, clinical staging, | Surgery_Schwartz. cardiac and other complications, following esophagectomy.Clinical Staging. Clinical factors that indicate an advanced stage of carcinoma and exclude surgery with curative intent are recurrent nerve paralysis, Horner’s syndrome, persistent spinal pain, paralysis of the diaphragm, fistula formation, and malig-nant pleural effusion. Factors that make surgical cure unlikely include a tumor >8 cm in length, abnormal axis of the esopha-gus on a barium radiogram, more than four enlarged LNs on CT, a weight loss more than 20%, and loss of appetite. Stud-ies indicate that there are several favorable parameters associ-ated with tumors <4 cm in length, there are fewer with tumors between 4 and 8 cm, and there are no favorable criteria for tumors >8 cm in length. Consequently, the finding of a tumor >8 cm in length should exclude curative resection; the finding of a smaller tumor should encourage an aggressive approach.Preoperative Staging With Advanced Imaging. For years, clinical staging, |
Surgery_Schwartz_7135 | Surgery_Schwartz | >8 cm in length should exclude curative resection; the finding of a smaller tumor should encourage an aggressive approach.Preoperative Staging With Advanced Imaging. For years, clinical staging, contrast radiography, endoscopy, and CT scan-ning formed the backbone of esophageal cancer staging. More recently, preoperative decision making is guided by endoscopic ultrasonography and PET scanning.EUS provides the most reliable method of determining depth of cancer invasion. In the absence of enlarged LNs, the degree of wall invasion dictates surgical therapy. If a small focus of esophageal cancer is confined to the mucosa, endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) is a preferable option. If the tumor invades into the submucosa, without visible lymph node involvement, most individuals would suggest esophagectomy with LN dissection, as positive nodes can be found in 20% to 25% of those with cancer limited to the mucosa and submucosa. If EUS demonstrates spread through the wall of the esophagus, | Surgery_Schwartz. >8 cm in length should exclude curative resection; the finding of a smaller tumor should encourage an aggressive approach.Preoperative Staging With Advanced Imaging. For years, clinical staging, contrast radiography, endoscopy, and CT scan-ning formed the backbone of esophageal cancer staging. More recently, preoperative decision making is guided by endoscopic ultrasonography and PET scanning.EUS provides the most reliable method of determining depth of cancer invasion. In the absence of enlarged LNs, the degree of wall invasion dictates surgical therapy. If a small focus of esophageal cancer is confined to the mucosa, endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) is a preferable option. If the tumor invades into the submucosa, without visible lymph node involvement, most individuals would suggest esophagectomy with LN dissection, as positive nodes can be found in 20% to 25% of those with cancer limited to the mucosa and submucosa. If EUS demonstrates spread through the wall of the esophagus, |
Surgery_Schwartz_7136 | Surgery_Schwartz | esophagectomy with LN dissection, as positive nodes can be found in 20% to 25% of those with cancer limited to the mucosa and submucosa. If EUS demonstrates spread through the wall of the esophagus, especially if LNs are enlarged, then induction chemoradiation therapy (neoadjuvant therapy) should be strongly considered. Lastly, when the EUS demonstrates invasion of the trachea, bronchus, aorta, or spine, then surgical resection is rarely indicated. If there is invasion into the pleura (T4a), then surgical resection can be considered in the absence of a malignant effusion. Thus, it can be seen that the therapy of esophageal cancer is largely driven by the findings of an endoscopic ultrasonography. It is difficult to provide modern treatment of esophageal cancer without access to this modality.PET scanning, usually combined with an axial CT scan (CTPET), usually is performed on patients with locally advanced cancer or questionable lesions on CT scan to deter-mine whether metastases are | Surgery_Schwartz. esophagectomy with LN dissection, as positive nodes can be found in 20% to 25% of those with cancer limited to the mucosa and submucosa. If EUS demonstrates spread through the wall of the esophagus, especially if LNs are enlarged, then induction chemoradiation therapy (neoadjuvant therapy) should be strongly considered. Lastly, when the EUS demonstrates invasion of the trachea, bronchus, aorta, or spine, then surgical resection is rarely indicated. If there is invasion into the pleura (T4a), then surgical resection can be considered in the absence of a malignant effusion. Thus, it can be seen that the therapy of esophageal cancer is largely driven by the findings of an endoscopic ultrasonography. It is difficult to provide modern treatment of esophageal cancer without access to this modality.PET scanning, usually combined with an axial CT scan (CTPET), usually is performed on patients with locally advanced cancer or questionable lesions on CT scan to deter-mine whether metastases are |
Surgery_Schwartz_7137 | Surgery_Schwartz | scanning, usually combined with an axial CT scan (CTPET), usually is performed on patients with locally advanced cancer or questionable lesions on CT scan to deter-mine whether metastases are present. The PET scan uses the injection of radiolabeled deoxyglucose, which is taken up in metabolically active tissues such as cancer. PET-positive areas must be correlated with the CT scan findings to assess the sig-nificance of “hot spots.” CTPET scanning has been especially useful before the initiation of chemoradiation therapy. An early response to chemoradiotherapy, by PET scan, improves the prognosis whether or not resection is ultimately performed. Conversely, if a PET-avid tumor shows no change in metabolic activity after 2 weeks of induction chemoradiation therapy, it is unlikely that further chemoor radiation therapy will be of invasive surgery may reduce the morbidity and mortality associ-ated with open twoor three-field esophagectomy.Cardiopulmonary Reserve. Patients undergoing | Surgery_Schwartz. scanning, usually combined with an axial CT scan (CTPET), usually is performed on patients with locally advanced cancer or questionable lesions on CT scan to deter-mine whether metastases are present. The PET scan uses the injection of radiolabeled deoxyglucose, which is taken up in metabolically active tissues such as cancer. PET-positive areas must be correlated with the CT scan findings to assess the sig-nificance of “hot spots.” CTPET scanning has been especially useful before the initiation of chemoradiation therapy. An early response to chemoradiotherapy, by PET scan, improves the prognosis whether or not resection is ultimately performed. Conversely, if a PET-avid tumor shows no change in metabolic activity after 2 weeks of induction chemoradiation therapy, it is unlikely that further chemoor radiation therapy will be of invasive surgery may reduce the morbidity and mortality associ-ated with open twoor three-field esophagectomy.Cardiopulmonary Reserve. Patients undergoing |
Surgery_Schwartz_7138 | Surgery_Schwartz | further chemoor radiation therapy will be of invasive surgery may reduce the morbidity and mortality associ-ated with open twoor three-field esophagectomy.Cardiopulmonary Reserve. Patients undergoing esophageal resection should have sufficient cardiopulmonary reserve to tol-erate the proposed procedure. The respiratory function is best assessed with the forced expiratory volume in 1 second, which ideally should be 2 L or more. Any patient with a forced expi-ratory volume in 1 second of <1.25 L is a poor candidate for thoracotomy because he or she has a 40% risk of dying from respiratory insufficiency within 4 years. In patients with poor pulmonary reserve, the transhiatal esophagectomy should be considered, as the pulmonary morbidity of this operation is less than is seen following thoracotomy. Clinical evaluation and electrocardiogram are not sufficient indicators of cardiac reserve. Echocardiography and dipyridamole thallium imaging provide accurate information on wall motion, | Surgery_Schwartz. further chemoor radiation therapy will be of invasive surgery may reduce the morbidity and mortality associ-ated with open twoor three-field esophagectomy.Cardiopulmonary Reserve. Patients undergoing esophageal resection should have sufficient cardiopulmonary reserve to tol-erate the proposed procedure. The respiratory function is best assessed with the forced expiratory volume in 1 second, which ideally should be 2 L or more. Any patient with a forced expi-ratory volume in 1 second of <1.25 L is a poor candidate for thoracotomy because he or she has a 40% risk of dying from respiratory insufficiency within 4 years. In patients with poor pulmonary reserve, the transhiatal esophagectomy should be considered, as the pulmonary morbidity of this operation is less than is seen following thoracotomy. Clinical evaluation and electrocardiogram are not sufficient indicators of cardiac reserve. Echocardiography and dipyridamole thallium imaging provide accurate information on wall motion, |
Surgery_Schwartz_7139 | Surgery_Schwartz | Clinical evaluation and electrocardiogram are not sufficient indicators of cardiac reserve. Echocardiography and dipyridamole thallium imaging provide accurate information on wall motion, ejection fraction, and myocardial blood flow. A defect on thallium imaging may require further evaluation with preoperative coronary angiogra-phy. A resting ejection fraction of <40%, particularly if there is no increase with exercise, is an ominous sign. In the absence of invasive testing, observed stair-climbing is an economical (albeit not quantitative) method of assessing cardiopulmonary reserve. Most individuals who can climb three flights of stairs without stopping will do well with two-field open esophagectomy, espe-cially if an epidural catheter is used for postoperative pain relief.Nutritional Status. The factor most predictive of postoperative complication is the nutritional status of the patient. Profound weight loss, more than 20 lb, associated with hypoalbuminemia (albumin <3.5 g/dL) is | Surgery_Schwartz. Clinical evaluation and electrocardiogram are not sufficient indicators of cardiac reserve. Echocardiography and dipyridamole thallium imaging provide accurate information on wall motion, ejection fraction, and myocardial blood flow. A defect on thallium imaging may require further evaluation with preoperative coronary angiogra-phy. A resting ejection fraction of <40%, particularly if there is no increase with exercise, is an ominous sign. In the absence of invasive testing, observed stair-climbing is an economical (albeit not quantitative) method of assessing cardiopulmonary reserve. Most individuals who can climb three flights of stairs without stopping will do well with two-field open esophagectomy, espe-cially if an epidural catheter is used for postoperative pain relief.Nutritional Status. The factor most predictive of postoperative complication is the nutritional status of the patient. Profound weight loss, more than 20 lb, associated with hypoalbuminemia (albumin <3.5 g/dL) is |
Surgery_Schwartz_7140 | Surgery_Schwartz | factor most predictive of postoperative complication is the nutritional status of the patient. Profound weight loss, more than 20 lb, associated with hypoalbuminemia (albumin <3.5 g/dL) is associated with a much higher rate of complications and mortality than patients who enter curative surgery in better nutritional condition. Because malnourished patients generally have locally advanced esophageal cancer, if not metastatic disease, one should consider the placement of a feeding tube before the beginning of induction chemoradiation therapy. Although mild amounts of dysphagia are improved by Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107301/03/19 6:05 PM 1074SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIany benefit. These patients have a worse prognosis and may be referred for resection or palliation without incurring the morbid-ity or expense of a full course of chemoand radiation therapy.Palliation of Esophageal CancerPalliation of esophageal cancer is indicated for individuals with metastatic esophageal | Surgery_Schwartz. factor most predictive of postoperative complication is the nutritional status of the patient. Profound weight loss, more than 20 lb, associated with hypoalbuminemia (albumin <3.5 g/dL) is associated with a much higher rate of complications and mortality than patients who enter curative surgery in better nutritional condition. Because malnourished patients generally have locally advanced esophageal cancer, if not metastatic disease, one should consider the placement of a feeding tube before the beginning of induction chemoradiation therapy. Although mild amounts of dysphagia are improved by Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107301/03/19 6:05 PM 1074SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIany benefit. These patients have a worse prognosis and may be referred for resection or palliation without incurring the morbid-ity or expense of a full course of chemoand radiation therapy.Palliation of Esophageal CancerPalliation of esophageal cancer is indicated for individuals with metastatic esophageal |
Surgery_Schwartz_7141 | Surgery_Schwartz | the morbid-ity or expense of a full course of chemoand radiation therapy.Palliation of Esophageal CancerPalliation of esophageal cancer is indicated for individuals with metastatic esophageal cancer or cancer invading adjacent organs (T4b) who are unable to swallow, or individuals with fistulae into the tracheobronchial tree. Aortic esophageal fistulas are extremely rare and nearly 100% lethal. Dysphagia as a result of esophageal cancer can be graded from grade I, eating normally, to grade VI, unable to swallow saliva (Table 25-12). Grades I to III often can be managed with radiation therapy, usually in combination with chemotherapy. When surgical resection is not anticipated in the future, this is termed definitive chemoradia-tion therapy and usually is palliative. Radiation dose is increased from 45 Gy to 60 Gy administered over 8 weeks, rather than the 4 weeks given for chemoradiation induction therapy. In 20% of patients, a complete response to chemoradiation therapy will not only | Surgery_Schwartz. the morbid-ity or expense of a full course of chemoand radiation therapy.Palliation of Esophageal CancerPalliation of esophageal cancer is indicated for individuals with metastatic esophageal cancer or cancer invading adjacent organs (T4b) who are unable to swallow, or individuals with fistulae into the tracheobronchial tree. Aortic esophageal fistulas are extremely rare and nearly 100% lethal. Dysphagia as a result of esophageal cancer can be graded from grade I, eating normally, to grade VI, unable to swallow saliva (Table 25-12). Grades I to III often can be managed with radiation therapy, usually in combination with chemotherapy. When surgical resection is not anticipated in the future, this is termed definitive chemoradia-tion therapy and usually is palliative. Radiation dose is increased from 45 Gy to 60 Gy administered over 8 weeks, rather than the 4 weeks given for chemoradiation induction therapy. In 20% of patients, a complete response to chemoradiation therapy will not only |
Surgery_Schwartz_7142 | Surgery_Schwartz | from 45 Gy to 60 Gy administered over 8 weeks, rather than the 4 weeks given for chemoradiation induction therapy. In 20% of patients, a complete response to chemoradiation therapy will not only palliate the symptoms but will also leave the patient with undetectable cancer of the esophagus. Although some of these patients are truly cured, cancer will recur in many either locally or systemically 1 to 5 years following definitive chemo-radiation. In a few patients, definitive chemoradiation will be successful in all sites but the esophagus. After a 12-month wait from initial treatment and no other sites of tumor detectable except the esophagus, some of these patients may be candidates for salvage esophagectomy.For individuals with dysphagia grades IV and higher, addi-tional treatment generally is necessary. The mainstay of therapy is in-dwelling esophageal stents. Covered removable stents may be used to seal fistulae or when stent removal becomes desir-able in the future. When large, | Surgery_Schwartz. from 45 Gy to 60 Gy administered over 8 weeks, rather than the 4 weeks given for chemoradiation induction therapy. In 20% of patients, a complete response to chemoradiation therapy will not only palliate the symptoms but will also leave the patient with undetectable cancer of the esophagus. Although some of these patients are truly cured, cancer will recur in many either locally or systemically 1 to 5 years following definitive chemo-radiation. In a few patients, definitive chemoradiation will be successful in all sites but the esophagus. After a 12-month wait from initial treatment and no other sites of tumor detectable except the esophagus, some of these patients may be candidates for salvage esophagectomy.For individuals with dysphagia grades IV and higher, addi-tional treatment generally is necessary. The mainstay of therapy is in-dwelling esophageal stents. Covered removable stents may be used to seal fistulae or when stent removal becomes desir-able in the future. When large, |
Surgery_Schwartz_7143 | Surgery_Schwartz | is necessary. The mainstay of therapy is in-dwelling esophageal stents. Covered removable stents may be used to seal fistulae or when stent removal becomes desir-able in the future. When large, locally invasive tumors or meta-static esophageal cancer precludes any future hope of resection, uncovered expandable metal stents are the treatment of choice. The major limitations to stenting exist in cancers at the GEJ. A stent placed across the GEJ will result in severe gastroesopha-geal reflux and heartburn that can be quite disabling. In cancers at this level, radiation therapy alone may be preferable. If feed-ing access is desirable, a laparoscopic jejunostomy is usually the procedure of choice.Surgical TreatmentThe surgical treatment of esophageal cancer is dependent upon the location of the cancer, the depth of invasion, LN metastases, the fitness of the patient for operation, and the culture and beliefs of the individuals and institutions in which the treatment is performed. In an | Surgery_Schwartz. is necessary. The mainstay of therapy is in-dwelling esophageal stents. Covered removable stents may be used to seal fistulae or when stent removal becomes desir-able in the future. When large, locally invasive tumors or meta-static esophageal cancer precludes any future hope of resection, uncovered expandable metal stents are the treatment of choice. The major limitations to stenting exist in cancers at the GEJ. A stent placed across the GEJ will result in severe gastroesopha-geal reflux and heartburn that can be quite disabling. In cancers at this level, radiation therapy alone may be preferable. If feed-ing access is desirable, a laparoscopic jejunostomy is usually the procedure of choice.Surgical TreatmentThe surgical treatment of esophageal cancer is dependent upon the location of the cancer, the depth of invasion, LN metastases, the fitness of the patient for operation, and the culture and beliefs of the individuals and institutions in which the treatment is performed. In an |
Surgery_Schwartz_7144 | Surgery_Schwartz | the cancer, the depth of invasion, LN metastases, the fitness of the patient for operation, and the culture and beliefs of the individuals and institutions in which the treatment is performed. In an ideal world, there would be a single, stage-specific method of treating esophageal cancer because the evidence would be unassailable and noncontroversial. Randomized clinical trials and meta-analyses would prove beyond a shadow of a doubt the value of surgery vs. nonoperative therapy and would dictate the type and extent of surgery that would optimally balance immediate morbidity and mortality with duration and quality of life conferred by the procedure and the perioperative management of the esophagectomy patient. Despite many noble attempts to establish this high level of evidence, many questions relating to the appropriate therapy of esophageal cancer remain. About the only area of complete agreement is that esophagectomy should not be performed if an R0 resection is not possible. In | Surgery_Schwartz. the cancer, the depth of invasion, LN metastases, the fitness of the patient for operation, and the culture and beliefs of the individuals and institutions in which the treatment is performed. In an ideal world, there would be a single, stage-specific method of treating esophageal cancer because the evidence would be unassailable and noncontroversial. Randomized clinical trials and meta-analyses would prove beyond a shadow of a doubt the value of surgery vs. nonoperative therapy and would dictate the type and extent of surgery that would optimally balance immediate morbidity and mortality with duration and quality of life conferred by the procedure and the perioperative management of the esophagectomy patient. Despite many noble attempts to establish this high level of evidence, many questions relating to the appropriate therapy of esophageal cancer remain. About the only area of complete agreement is that esophagectomy should not be performed if an R0 resection is not possible. In |
Surgery_Schwartz_7145 | Surgery_Schwartz | relating to the appropriate therapy of esophageal cancer remain. About the only area of complete agreement is that esophagectomy should not be performed if an R0 resection is not possible. In other words, if the surgeon does not believe he or she can remove all LNs invaded by cancer and provide a tumor-free radial margin and esophagus and stomach margins that are tumor free, then a resection should not be performed.Mucosally Based Cancer. In patients with BE, and especially those with high-grade dysplasia, subcentimeter nodules are frequently discovered. Nodules should be resected in entirety, as they often harbor adenocarcinoma. Five years ago, such resection was performed with a transhiatal esophagectomy, but more recently EMR offers another method for removing intramucosal cancer. In this clinical situation, EMR is typi-cally combined with EUS to rule out more invasive disease. EUS, however, is unable to differentiate between cancer that is confined to the mucosa (T1a) and that | Surgery_Schwartz. relating to the appropriate therapy of esophageal cancer remain. About the only area of complete agreement is that esophagectomy should not be performed if an R0 resection is not possible. In other words, if the surgeon does not believe he or she can remove all LNs invaded by cancer and provide a tumor-free radial margin and esophagus and stomach margins that are tumor free, then a resection should not be performed.Mucosally Based Cancer. In patients with BE, and especially those with high-grade dysplasia, subcentimeter nodules are frequently discovered. Nodules should be resected in entirety, as they often harbor adenocarcinoma. Five years ago, such resection was performed with a transhiatal esophagectomy, but more recently EMR offers another method for removing intramucosal cancer. In this clinical situation, EMR is typi-cally combined with EUS to rule out more invasive disease. EUS, however, is unable to differentiate between cancer that is confined to the mucosa (T1a) and that |
Surgery_Schwartz_7146 | Surgery_Schwartz | this clinical situation, EMR is typi-cally combined with EUS to rule out more invasive disease. EUS, however, is unable to differentiate between cancer that is confined to the mucosa (T1a) and that which invades the submu-cosa (T1b). Tumors invading the submucosa are not amenable to endoscopic mucosal resection because of the high-frequency (20–25%) concurrent finding of positive LNs, which cannot be removed without esophagectomy. On the other hand, intramu-cosal cancers have little risk of spreading to regional LNs. The current approach used involves performing EMR on all nodules identified in a field of Barrett’s esophagus, and then T staging is performed by histologic analysis. This approach dictates the need for future therapy such as esophagectomy.For this reason, small intramucosal carcinomas may be removed with EMR in the following manner. The area beneath the nodule is infiltrated with saline through a sclerotherapy needle. A specialized suction cap is mounted on the end of | Surgery_Schwartz. this clinical situation, EMR is typi-cally combined with EUS to rule out more invasive disease. EUS, however, is unable to differentiate between cancer that is confined to the mucosa (T1a) and that which invades the submu-cosa (T1b). Tumors invading the submucosa are not amenable to endoscopic mucosal resection because of the high-frequency (20–25%) concurrent finding of positive LNs, which cannot be removed without esophagectomy. On the other hand, intramu-cosal cancers have little risk of spreading to regional LNs. The current approach used involves performing EMR on all nodules identified in a field of Barrett’s esophagus, and then T staging is performed by histologic analysis. This approach dictates the need for future therapy such as esophagectomy.For this reason, small intramucosal carcinomas may be removed with EMR in the following manner. The area beneath the nodule is infiltrated with saline through a sclerotherapy needle. A specialized suction cap is mounted on the end of |
Surgery_Schwartz_7147 | Surgery_Schwartz | carcinomas may be removed with EMR in the following manner. The area beneath the nodule is infiltrated with saline through a sclerotherapy needle. A specialized suction cap is mounted on the end of the endoscope, and the nodule is drawn up into the cap; a snare is then applied to resect the tissue. Alternatively, a rubber band can be delivered, and the snare can be used to resect above the level of the rubber band. This specimen is then removed and sent to pathology. As long as the tumor is found to be confined to the mucosa and all margins are negative, the resection is complete. A positive margin or involvement of the submucosa warrants esophagectomy. Most importantly, these patients are at high risk for developing small nodular carcinomas elsewhere in their Barrett’s segment, and routine surveillance on a 3to 6-month basis must be continued indefinitely. Alternatively, one can consider radiofrequency ablation of the remainder of the high-grade dysplasia after careful surveillance | Surgery_Schwartz. carcinomas may be removed with EMR in the following manner. The area beneath the nodule is infiltrated with saline through a sclerotherapy needle. A specialized suction cap is mounted on the end of the endoscope, and the nodule is drawn up into the cap; a snare is then applied to resect the tissue. Alternatively, a rubber band can be delivered, and the snare can be used to resect above the level of the rubber band. This specimen is then removed and sent to pathology. As long as the tumor is found to be confined to the mucosa and all margins are negative, the resection is complete. A positive margin or involvement of the submucosa warrants esophagectomy. Most importantly, these patients are at high risk for developing small nodular carcinomas elsewhere in their Barrett’s segment, and routine surveillance on a 3to 6-month basis must be continued indefinitely. Alternatively, one can consider radiofrequency ablation of the remainder of the high-grade dysplasia after careful surveillance |
Surgery_Schwartz_7148 | Surgery_Schwartz | surveillance on a 3to 6-month basis must be continued indefinitely. Alternatively, one can consider radiofrequency ablation of the remainder of the high-grade dysplasia after careful surveillance biopsy specimens demonstrate no further sign of cancer. This approach to the early esophageal cancer Table 25-12Functional grades of dysphagiaGRADEDEFINITIONINCIDENCE AT DIAGNOSIS (%)IEating normally11IIRequires liquids with meals21IIIAble to take semisolids but unable to take any solid food30IVAble to take liquids only40VUnable to take liquids, but able to swallow saliva7VIUnable to swallow saliva12Data from Takita H, Vincent RG, Caicedo V, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus: a study of 153 cases, J Surg Oncol. 1977;9(6):547-554.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107401/03/19 6:05 PM 1075ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25should not be used when there is any suspicion of mediastinal or abdominal lymphadenopathy. Although it is currently rare that EMR provides | Surgery_Schwartz. surveillance on a 3to 6-month basis must be continued indefinitely. Alternatively, one can consider radiofrequency ablation of the remainder of the high-grade dysplasia after careful surveillance biopsy specimens demonstrate no further sign of cancer. This approach to the early esophageal cancer Table 25-12Functional grades of dysphagiaGRADEDEFINITIONINCIDENCE AT DIAGNOSIS (%)IEating normally11IIRequires liquids with meals21IIIAble to take semisolids but unable to take any solid food30IVAble to take liquids only40VUnable to take liquids, but able to swallow saliva7VIUnable to swallow saliva12Data from Takita H, Vincent RG, Caicedo V, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus: a study of 153 cases, J Surg Oncol. 1977;9(6):547-554.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107401/03/19 6:05 PM 1075ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25should not be used when there is any suspicion of mediastinal or abdominal lymphadenopathy. Although it is currently rare that EMR provides |
Surgery_Schwartz_7149 | Surgery_Schwartz | 6:05 PM 1075ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25should not be used when there is any suspicion of mediastinal or abdominal lymphadenopathy. Although it is currently rare that EMR provides definitive therapy of small nodular esophageal cancers, this may become more of the norm as greater surveillance reveals earlier cancers and proficiency of the technique by surgeons and gastroenterologists increases.Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy. Minimally invasive transhiatal esophagectomy is an increasingly popular procedure; however, the number of these operations performed around the world remains small. Mini-invasive surgery (MIS) transhiatal esophagectomy was first performed by Aureo DePaula in Brazil and has been modified and adopted by many individuals around the world. This operation combines the advantages of transhiatal esophagectomy at minimizing pulmonary complications with the advantages of laparoscopy (less pain, quicker rehabilitation). Several variations of | Surgery_Schwartz. 6:05 PM 1075ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25should not be used when there is any suspicion of mediastinal or abdominal lymphadenopathy. Although it is currently rare that EMR provides definitive therapy of small nodular esophageal cancers, this may become more of the norm as greater surveillance reveals earlier cancers and proficiency of the technique by surgeons and gastroenterologists increases.Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy. Minimally invasive transhiatal esophagectomy is an increasingly popular procedure; however, the number of these operations performed around the world remains small. Mini-invasive surgery (MIS) transhiatal esophagectomy was first performed by Aureo DePaula in Brazil and has been modified and adopted by many individuals around the world. This operation combines the advantages of transhiatal esophagectomy at minimizing pulmonary complications with the advantages of laparoscopy (less pain, quicker rehabilitation). Several variations of |
Surgery_Schwartz_7150 | Surgery_Schwartz | This operation combines the advantages of transhiatal esophagectomy at minimizing pulmonary complications with the advantages of laparoscopy (less pain, quicker rehabilitation). Several variations of MIS transhiatal esophagectomy have been developed. For the earliest lesions, such as high-grade dysplasia or intramucosal carcinoma, a vagal sparing procedure can be entertained. In such a procedure, the vagal trunks are separated from the esophagus at the level of the diaphragm and the lesser curvature dissection of the stomach allows the vagus and left gastric pedicle to remain intact. Clearly, this dissection, which hugs the stomach and esophagus, provides no LN staging and is thus inadequate for all high-grade dysplasia and intramucosal cancer.MIS transhiatal esophagectomy is usually performed through five or six small incisions in the upper abdomen and a transverse cervical incision for removing the specimen and performing the cervical esophagogastrostomy. To remove the esophagus | Surgery_Schwartz. This operation combines the advantages of transhiatal esophagectomy at minimizing pulmonary complications with the advantages of laparoscopy (less pain, quicker rehabilitation). Several variations of MIS transhiatal esophagectomy have been developed. For the earliest lesions, such as high-grade dysplasia or intramucosal carcinoma, a vagal sparing procedure can be entertained. In such a procedure, the vagal trunks are separated from the esophagus at the level of the diaphragm and the lesser curvature dissection of the stomach allows the vagus and left gastric pedicle to remain intact. Clearly, this dissection, which hugs the stomach and esophagus, provides no LN staging and is thus inadequate for all high-grade dysplasia and intramucosal cancer.MIS transhiatal esophagectomy is usually performed through five or six small incisions in the upper abdomen and a transverse cervical incision for removing the specimen and performing the cervical esophagogastrostomy. To remove the esophagus |
Surgery_Schwartz_7151 | Surgery_Schwartz | through five or six small incisions in the upper abdomen and a transverse cervical incision for removing the specimen and performing the cervical esophagogastrostomy. To remove the esophagus from the posterior mediastinum, especially the area behind the pulmonary vessels and the tracheal bifurcation, which cannot be visualized even with a long laparoscope placed in the posterior mediastinum, it is preferred to use a vein stripping “inversion” technique (Fig. 25-69A). The details of this operation are too lengthy to include in this text, but include the laparoscopic creation of a neo-esophagus (gastric conduit) along the greater curvature of the stomach using the right gastroepiploic artery as the primary vascular pedicle. The conduit can be created through a mini-laparotomy or laparoscopically. A Kocher maneuver releases the duodenum, and a pyloroplasty may be performed (optional). Retrograde esophageal stripping is performed by dividing the esophagus below the GEJ and sliding a vein | Surgery_Schwartz. through five or six small incisions in the upper abdomen and a transverse cervical incision for removing the specimen and performing the cervical esophagogastrostomy. To remove the esophagus from the posterior mediastinum, especially the area behind the pulmonary vessels and the tracheal bifurcation, which cannot be visualized even with a long laparoscope placed in the posterior mediastinum, it is preferred to use a vein stripping “inversion” technique (Fig. 25-69A). The details of this operation are too lengthy to include in this text, but include the laparoscopic creation of a neo-esophagus (gastric conduit) along the greater curvature of the stomach using the right gastroepiploic artery as the primary vascular pedicle. The conduit can be created through a mini-laparotomy or laparoscopically. A Kocher maneuver releases the duodenum, and a pyloroplasty may be performed (optional). Retrograde esophageal stripping is performed by dividing the esophagus below the GEJ and sliding a vein |
Surgery_Schwartz_7152 | Surgery_Schwartz | A Kocher maneuver releases the duodenum, and a pyloroplasty may be performed (optional). Retrograde esophageal stripping is performed by dividing the esophagus below the GEJ and sliding a vein stripper from the neck down into the abdomen followed by an inversion of the esophagus in the posterior mediastinum and removal through the neck (Fig. 25-69B). This technique is reserved for patients with high-grade dysplasia. For small cancers at the GEJ, the esophagus can be stripped in an antegrade fashion by sliding the vein stripper down from the cervical incision and out the tail of the lesser curvature (Fig. 25-69C). The tail of the lesser curvature is pulled out a port site high in the epigastrium while the esophagus is inverted into itself. For GEJ cancers, a wide celiac access LN dissection, splenic artery, hepatic artery, and posterior mediastinal LN dissection can be performed as well or better than through a laparotomy. The gastric conduit is pulled up to the neck with a chest tube | Surgery_Schwartz. A Kocher maneuver releases the duodenum, and a pyloroplasty may be performed (optional). Retrograde esophageal stripping is performed by dividing the esophagus below the GEJ and sliding a vein stripper from the neck down into the abdomen followed by an inversion of the esophagus in the posterior mediastinum and removal through the neck (Fig. 25-69B). This technique is reserved for patients with high-grade dysplasia. For small cancers at the GEJ, the esophagus can be stripped in an antegrade fashion by sliding the vein stripper down from the cervical incision and out the tail of the lesser curvature (Fig. 25-69C). The tail of the lesser curvature is pulled out a port site high in the epigastrium while the esophagus is inverted into itself. For GEJ cancers, a wide celiac access LN dissection, splenic artery, hepatic artery, and posterior mediastinal LN dissection can be performed as well or better than through a laparotomy. The gastric conduit is pulled up to the neck with a chest tube |
Surgery_Schwartz_7153 | Surgery_Schwartz | splenic artery, hepatic artery, and posterior mediastinal LN dissection can be performed as well or better than through a laparotomy. The gastric conduit is pulled up to the neck with a chest tube and anastomosed to the cervical esophagus in an end-to-side fashion using a surgical stapler or with a handsewn anastomosis. Complications of this technique are primarily limited to leak from the esophagogastric anastomosis, which is self-limited and usually heals within 1 to 3 weeks, spontaneously.Figure 25-69. A. Laparoscopic retrograde inversion. B. Laparo-scopic antegrade inversion. A silk suture holds the tunnel after the esophagus is removed. C. The esophageal conduit is returned to the neck after passing a chest tube down the tunnel and suturing the conduit to the chest tube.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107501/03/19 6:05 PM 1076SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIOpen Transhiatal Esophagectomy. Transhiatal esophagec-tomy, also known as blunt esophagectomy or esophagectomy without a | Surgery_Schwartz. splenic artery, hepatic artery, and posterior mediastinal LN dissection can be performed as well or better than through a laparotomy. The gastric conduit is pulled up to the neck with a chest tube and anastomosed to the cervical esophagus in an end-to-side fashion using a surgical stapler or with a handsewn anastomosis. Complications of this technique are primarily limited to leak from the esophagogastric anastomosis, which is self-limited and usually heals within 1 to 3 weeks, spontaneously.Figure 25-69. A. Laparoscopic retrograde inversion. B. Laparo-scopic antegrade inversion. A silk suture holds the tunnel after the esophagus is removed. C. The esophageal conduit is returned to the neck after passing a chest tube down the tunnel and suturing the conduit to the chest tube.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107501/03/19 6:05 PM 1076SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIOpen Transhiatal Esophagectomy. Transhiatal esophagec-tomy, also known as blunt esophagectomy or esophagectomy without a |
Surgery_Schwartz_7154 | Surgery_Schwartz | 107501/03/19 6:05 PM 1076SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIOpen Transhiatal Esophagectomy. Transhiatal esophagec-tomy, also known as blunt esophagectomy or esophagectomy without a thoracotomy, was first performed in 1933 by a British surgeon, but was popularized in the last quarter of the 20th century by Mark Orringer from the University of Michigan. Although this operation may violate many of the principles of cancer resec-tion, including extended radical LN dissection, this operation has performed as well as any of the more radical procedures in randomized trials, and in large database analyses. With transhia-tal esophagectomy, the elements of dissection are similar to that described in the section entitled Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy, including the creation of the gastric tube and the posterior mediastinal dissection through the hiatus. Because this dissection is performed with the fingertips rather than under direct vision with surgical instruments, it requires an | Surgery_Schwartz. 107501/03/19 6:05 PM 1076SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIOpen Transhiatal Esophagectomy. Transhiatal esophagec-tomy, also known as blunt esophagectomy or esophagectomy without a thoracotomy, was first performed in 1933 by a British surgeon, but was popularized in the last quarter of the 20th century by Mark Orringer from the University of Michigan. Although this operation may violate many of the principles of cancer resec-tion, including extended radical LN dissection, this operation has performed as well as any of the more radical procedures in randomized trials, and in large database analyses. With transhia-tal esophagectomy, the elements of dissection are similar to that described in the section entitled Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy, including the creation of the gastric tube and the posterior mediastinal dissection through the hiatus. Because this dissection is performed with the fingertips rather than under direct vision with surgical instruments, it requires an |
Surgery_Schwartz_7155 | Surgery_Schwartz | tube and the posterior mediastinal dissection through the hiatus. Because this dissection is performed with the fingertips rather than under direct vision with surgical instruments, it requires an enlargement of the diaphragmatic hiatus. The lower mediastinal LN basins can be resected as can the upper abdominal LNs, making this an attrac-tive option for GEJ cancers. The mediastinal LNs above the infe-rior pulmonary vein are not removed with this technique, but they rarely result in a point of isolated cancer recurrence.Of all procedures for esophageal cancer, this operation is the quickest to perform in experienced hands and lies in an intermedi-ate position between minimally invasive esophagectomy and the Ivor Lewis procedure with respect to complications and recovery.Minimally Invasive Twoand Three-Field Esophagectomy. After a rocky start, minimally invasive esophagectomy using a thoracic dissection through VATS has become reasonably popular. In general, this operation is performed | Surgery_Schwartz. tube and the posterior mediastinal dissection through the hiatus. Because this dissection is performed with the fingertips rather than under direct vision with surgical instruments, it requires an enlargement of the diaphragmatic hiatus. The lower mediastinal LN basins can be resected as can the upper abdominal LNs, making this an attrac-tive option for GEJ cancers. The mediastinal LNs above the infe-rior pulmonary vein are not removed with this technique, but they rarely result in a point of isolated cancer recurrence.Of all procedures for esophageal cancer, this operation is the quickest to perform in experienced hands and lies in an intermedi-ate position between minimally invasive esophagectomy and the Ivor Lewis procedure with respect to complications and recovery.Minimally Invasive Twoand Three-Field Esophagectomy. After a rocky start, minimally invasive esophagectomy using a thoracic dissection through VATS has become reasonably popular. In general, this operation is performed |
Surgery_Schwartz_7156 | Surgery_Schwartz | Three-Field Esophagectomy. After a rocky start, minimally invasive esophagectomy using a thoracic dissection through VATS has become reasonably popular. In general, this operation is performed with an anastomosis created in the neck (three-field), but it may be performed with the anastomosis stapled in the high thorax (two-field). Both procedures will be described.With a minimally invasive three-field esophagectomy, the patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus position. Double lumen intubation is required. Videoscopic access to the thorax is obtained in the midaxillary line in the ninth intercostal space and an angled telescope illuminates the chest superiorly. A mini-thoracotomy at about the sixth intercostal space anteriorly allows introduction of conventional surgical instruments, and a high trocar allows retraction of the lung away from the esophagus. In a three-field approach, the esophagus is dissected along its length to include division of the azygos vein and | Surgery_Schwartz. Three-Field Esophagectomy. After a rocky start, minimally invasive esophagectomy using a thoracic dissection through VATS has become reasonably popular. In general, this operation is performed with an anastomosis created in the neck (three-field), but it may be performed with the anastomosis stapled in the high thorax (two-field). Both procedures will be described.With a minimally invasive three-field esophagectomy, the patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus position. Double lumen intubation is required. Videoscopic access to the thorax is obtained in the midaxillary line in the ninth intercostal space and an angled telescope illuminates the chest superiorly. A mini-thoracotomy at about the sixth intercostal space anteriorly allows introduction of conventional surgical instruments, and a high trocar allows retraction of the lung away from the esophagus. In a three-field approach, the esophagus is dissected along its length to include division of the azygos vein and |
Surgery_Schwartz_7157 | Surgery_Schwartz | instruments, and a high trocar allows retraction of the lung away from the esophagus. In a three-field approach, the esophagus is dissected along its length to include division of the azygos vein and harvesting of the LNs in the upper, middle, and lower posterior mediastinum. Hilar, and posterior mediastinal nodes are all removed and sent with the specimen or individually. The thoracic duct is divided at the level of the diaphragm and removed with the specimen.Following complete intrathoracic dissection, the patient is placed in the supine position and five laparoscopic ports are placed as with the MIS transhiatal esophagectomy. The abdominal portions of the operation are identical to those described previously in the section entitled “Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy,” and the gastric conduit is then sewn to the tip of the fully mobilized GEJ and lesser curvature sleeve. A feeding tube is placed, and the pyloroplasty may be performed laparoscopically. A transverse | Surgery_Schwartz. instruments, and a high trocar allows retraction of the lung away from the esophagus. In a three-field approach, the esophagus is dissected along its length to include division of the azygos vein and harvesting of the LNs in the upper, middle, and lower posterior mediastinum. Hilar, and posterior mediastinal nodes are all removed and sent with the specimen or individually. The thoracic duct is divided at the level of the diaphragm and removed with the specimen.Following complete intrathoracic dissection, the patient is placed in the supine position and five laparoscopic ports are placed as with the MIS transhiatal esophagectomy. The abdominal portions of the operation are identical to those described previously in the section entitled “Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy,” and the gastric conduit is then sewn to the tip of the fully mobilized GEJ and lesser curvature sleeve. A feeding tube is placed, and the pyloroplasty may be performed laparoscopically. A transverse |
Surgery_Schwartz_7158 | Surgery_Schwartz | and the gastric conduit is then sewn to the tip of the fully mobilized GEJ and lesser curvature sleeve. A feeding tube is placed, and the pyloroplasty may be performed laparoscopically. A transverse cervical incision and dissection between the sternocleidomastoid and the anterior strap muscles allows access to the cervical esophagus. Great care is made to avoid stretching the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The esophagus and proximal stomach is then pulled up into the neck with the gastric conduit following. Cervical anastomosis is then performed.The MIS transthoracic two-field esophagectomy is slightly different. In this operation, the abdominal portions of the operation are done first, including placement of the feeding tube, the creation of the conduit, and the sewing of the tip of the conduit to the fully dissected GEJ. The patient is then rolled into the left lateral decubitus position and, through right thoracoscopy, the esophagus is dissected and divided 10 cm above the tumor. Once | Surgery_Schwartz. and the gastric conduit is then sewn to the tip of the fully mobilized GEJ and lesser curvature sleeve. A feeding tube is placed, and the pyloroplasty may be performed laparoscopically. A transverse cervical incision and dissection between the sternocleidomastoid and the anterior strap muscles allows access to the cervical esophagus. Great care is made to avoid stretching the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The esophagus and proximal stomach is then pulled up into the neck with the gastric conduit following. Cervical anastomosis is then performed.The MIS transthoracic two-field esophagectomy is slightly different. In this operation, the abdominal portions of the operation are done first, including placement of the feeding tube, the creation of the conduit, and the sewing of the tip of the conduit to the fully dissected GEJ. The patient is then rolled into the left lateral decubitus position and, through right thoracoscopy, the esophagus is dissected and divided 10 cm above the tumor. Once |
Surgery_Schwartz_7159 | Surgery_Schwartz | to the fully dissected GEJ. The patient is then rolled into the left lateral decubitus position and, through right thoracoscopy, the esophagus is dissected and divided 10 cm above the tumor. Once freed, the specimen is pulled out through the mini-thoracotomy, and an end-to-end anastomosis stapler is introduced through the high corner of the gastric conduit and out a stab wound along the greater curvature. The anvil of the stapler is placed in the proximal esophagus and held with a purse-string, the stapler is docked, the anastomosis is created, and a gastrotomy is then closed with another firing of the GIA stapler. The three-field esophagectomy has the advantage of placing the anastomosis in the neck where leakage is unlikely to create a severe systemic consequence. On the other hand, placement of the anastomosis in the high chest minimizes the risks of injury to structures in the neck, particularly the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Although the leak of the intrathoracic anastomosis may | Surgery_Schwartz. to the fully dissected GEJ. The patient is then rolled into the left lateral decubitus position and, through right thoracoscopy, the esophagus is dissected and divided 10 cm above the tumor. Once freed, the specimen is pulled out through the mini-thoracotomy, and an end-to-end anastomosis stapler is introduced through the high corner of the gastric conduit and out a stab wound along the greater curvature. The anvil of the stapler is placed in the proximal esophagus and held with a purse-string, the stapler is docked, the anastomosis is created, and a gastrotomy is then closed with another firing of the GIA stapler. The three-field esophagectomy has the advantage of placing the anastomosis in the neck where leakage is unlikely to create a severe systemic consequence. On the other hand, placement of the anastomosis in the high chest minimizes the risks of injury to structures in the neck, particularly the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Although the leak of the intrathoracic anastomosis may |
Surgery_Schwartz_7160 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the anastomosis in the high chest minimizes the risks of injury to structures in the neck, particularly the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Although the leak of the intrathoracic anastomosis may be more likely to bear septic consequences, the incidence of leak is diminished. Other complications of this approach relate to pulmonary and cardiac status. In many series, the most common complication is pneumonia, the second is atrial fibrillation, and the third is anastomotic leak.Ivor Lewis (En Bloc) Esophagectomy. The theory behind radical transthoracic esophagectomy is that greater removal of LNs and periesophageal tissues diminishes the chance of a posi-tive radial margin and LN recurrence. Although there are no ran-domized data demonstrating this to be superior to other forms of esophagectomy, there are many retrospective data demonstrat-ing improved survival with greater numbers of LNs harvested. A recent study from Sloan-Kettering demonstrates a direct rela-tionship between the number | Surgery_Schwartz. of the anastomosis in the high chest minimizes the risks of injury to structures in the neck, particularly the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Although the leak of the intrathoracic anastomosis may be more likely to bear septic consequences, the incidence of leak is diminished. Other complications of this approach relate to pulmonary and cardiac status. In many series, the most common complication is pneumonia, the second is atrial fibrillation, and the third is anastomotic leak.Ivor Lewis (En Bloc) Esophagectomy. The theory behind radical transthoracic esophagectomy is that greater removal of LNs and periesophageal tissues diminishes the chance of a posi-tive radial margin and LN recurrence. Although there are no ran-domized data demonstrating this to be superior to other forms of esophagectomy, there are many retrospective data demonstrat-ing improved survival with greater numbers of LNs harvested. A recent study from Sloan-Kettering demonstrates a direct rela-tionship between the number |
Surgery_Schwartz_7161 | Surgery_Schwartz | there are many retrospective data demonstrat-ing improved survival with greater numbers of LNs harvested. A recent study from Sloan-Kettering demonstrates a direct rela-tionship between the number of negative nodes harvested and long-term survival. Although such a survival advantage may be related to the completeness of resection, extended radical resec-tions may also be a surrogate for experienced surgeons working in great institutions. As a time-honored operation, there is no doubt that en bloc esophagectomy is the standard to which less radical techniques must be compared.Generally, this operation is started in the abdomen with an upper midline laparotomy and extensive LN dissection in and about the celiac access and its branches, extending into the porta hepatis and along the splenic artery to the tail of the pan-creas. All LNs are removed en bloc with the lesser curvature of the stomach. Unless the tumor extends into the stomach, recon-struction is performed with a greater | Surgery_Schwartz. there are many retrospective data demonstrat-ing improved survival with greater numbers of LNs harvested. A recent study from Sloan-Kettering demonstrates a direct rela-tionship between the number of negative nodes harvested and long-term survival. Although such a survival advantage may be related to the completeness of resection, extended radical resec-tions may also be a surrogate for experienced surgeons working in great institutions. As a time-honored operation, there is no doubt that en bloc esophagectomy is the standard to which less radical techniques must be compared.Generally, this operation is started in the abdomen with an upper midline laparotomy and extensive LN dissection in and about the celiac access and its branches, extending into the porta hepatis and along the splenic artery to the tail of the pan-creas. All LNs are removed en bloc with the lesser curvature of the stomach. Unless the tumor extends into the stomach, recon-struction is performed with a greater |
Surgery_Schwartz_7162 | Surgery_Schwartz | artery to the tail of the pan-creas. All LNs are removed en bloc with the lesser curvature of the stomach. Unless the tumor extends into the stomach, recon-struction is performed with a greater curvature gastric tube. For GEJ cancers extending significantly into the gastric cardia or fundus, the proximal stomach is removed, and reconstruction is performed with an isoperistaltic section of left colon between the upper esophagus and the remnant stomach, or the colon is connected to a Roux-en-Y limb of jejunum, if total gastrectomy is necessary. In the majority of cases, colon interposition is unnecessary, and a gastric conduit is used.Following closure of the abdominal incision, the patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus position and an anterolateral thoracotomy is performed through the sixth intercostal space. The azygos vein is divided and the posterior mediastinum is entirely cleaned out to include the thoracic duct, all periaor-tic tissues, and all tissue in the upper | Surgery_Schwartz. artery to the tail of the pan-creas. All LNs are removed en bloc with the lesser curvature of the stomach. Unless the tumor extends into the stomach, recon-struction is performed with a greater curvature gastric tube. For GEJ cancers extending significantly into the gastric cardia or fundus, the proximal stomach is removed, and reconstruction is performed with an isoperistaltic section of left colon between the upper esophagus and the remnant stomach, or the colon is connected to a Roux-en-Y limb of jejunum, if total gastrectomy is necessary. In the majority of cases, colon interposition is unnecessary, and a gastric conduit is used.Following closure of the abdominal incision, the patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus position and an anterolateral thoracotomy is performed through the sixth intercostal space. The azygos vein is divided and the posterior mediastinum is entirely cleaned out to include the thoracic duct, all periaor-tic tissues, and all tissue in the upper |
Surgery_Schwartz_7163 | Surgery_Schwartz | the sixth intercostal space. The azygos vein is divided and the posterior mediastinum is entirely cleaned out to include the thoracic duct, all periaor-tic tissues, and all tissue in the upper mediastinum along the course of the current laryngeal nerves and in the peribronchial, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107601/03/19 6:05 PM 1077ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25hilar, and tracheal LN stations. The proximal stomach is pulled up into the thorax where a conduit is created (if not performed previously) and a handsewn or stapled anastomosis is made between the upper thoracic esophagus and the gastric conduit or transverse colon. Chest tubes are placed, and the patient is taken to the intensive care unit.Because this is the most radical of dissections, com-plications are most common, including pneumonia, respira-tory failure, atrial fibrillation, chylothorax, anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, gastrocutaneous fistula, and, if dissection is too near the recurrent | Surgery_Schwartz. the sixth intercostal space. The azygos vein is divided and the posterior mediastinum is entirely cleaned out to include the thoracic duct, all periaor-tic tissues, and all tissue in the upper mediastinum along the course of the current laryngeal nerves and in the peribronchial, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107601/03/19 6:05 PM 1077ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25hilar, and tracheal LN stations. The proximal stomach is pulled up into the thorax where a conduit is created (if not performed previously) and a handsewn or stapled anastomosis is made between the upper thoracic esophagus and the gastric conduit or transverse colon. Chest tubes are placed, and the patient is taken to the intensive care unit.Because this is the most radical of dissections, com-plications are most common, including pneumonia, respira-tory failure, atrial fibrillation, chylothorax, anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, gastrocutaneous fistula, and, if dissection is too near the recurrent |
Surgery_Schwartz_7164 | Surgery_Schwartz | are most common, including pneumonia, respira-tory failure, atrial fibrillation, chylothorax, anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, gastrocutaneous fistula, and, if dissection is too near the recurrent laryngeal nerves, hoarseness will occur with an increased risk of aspiration. Tracheobronchial injury resulting in fistulas between the bronchus and conduit may also occur, however rarely. Although this procedure and three-field esophagectomy are fraught with the highest complica-tion rate, the long-term outcome of this procedure provides the greatest survival in many single-center series and retrospective reviews.Three-Field Open Esophagectomy. Three-field open esoph-agectomy is very similar to a minimally invasive three-field except that all access is through open incisions. This proce-dure is preferred by certain Japanese surgeons and LN counts achieved through this kind of operation may run from 45 to 60 LNs. Most Western surgeons question the benefit of such radical surgery when it | Surgery_Schwartz. are most common, including pneumonia, respira-tory failure, atrial fibrillation, chylothorax, anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, gastrocutaneous fistula, and, if dissection is too near the recurrent laryngeal nerves, hoarseness will occur with an increased risk of aspiration. Tracheobronchial injury resulting in fistulas between the bronchus and conduit may also occur, however rarely. Although this procedure and three-field esophagectomy are fraught with the highest complica-tion rate, the long-term outcome of this procedure provides the greatest survival in many single-center series and retrospective reviews.Three-Field Open Esophagectomy. Three-field open esoph-agectomy is very similar to a minimally invasive three-field except that all access is through open incisions. This proce-dure is preferred by certain Japanese surgeons and LN counts achieved through this kind of operation may run from 45 to 60 LNs. Most Western surgeons question the benefit of such radical surgery when it |
Surgery_Schwartz_7165 | Surgery_Schwartz | is preferred by certain Japanese surgeons and LN counts achieved through this kind of operation may run from 45 to 60 LNs. Most Western surgeons question the benefit of such radical surgery when it is hard to define a survival advantage. Nonetheless, high intrathoracic cancers probably deserve such an aggressive approach if cure is the goal.Salvage Esophagectomy. Salvage esophagectomy is the nomenclature applied to esophagectomy performed after failure of definitive radiation and chemotherapy. The most frequent scenario is one in which distant disease (bone, lung, brain, or wide LN metastases) renders the patient nonoperable at initial presentation. Then, systemic chemotherapy, usually with radiation of the primary tumor, destroys all foci of metastasis, as demonstrated by CT and CT-PET, but the primary remains present and symptomatic. Following a period of observation, to make sure no new disease will become evident, salvage esophagectomy is performed, usually with an open two-field | Surgery_Schwartz. is preferred by certain Japanese surgeons and LN counts achieved through this kind of operation may run from 45 to 60 LNs. Most Western surgeons question the benefit of such radical surgery when it is hard to define a survival advantage. Nonetheless, high intrathoracic cancers probably deserve such an aggressive approach if cure is the goal.Salvage Esophagectomy. Salvage esophagectomy is the nomenclature applied to esophagectomy performed after failure of definitive radiation and chemotherapy. The most frequent scenario is one in which distant disease (bone, lung, brain, or wide LN metastases) renders the patient nonoperable at initial presentation. Then, systemic chemotherapy, usually with radiation of the primary tumor, destroys all foci of metastasis, as demonstrated by CT and CT-PET, but the primary remains present and symptomatic. Following a period of observation, to make sure no new disease will become evident, salvage esophagectomy is performed, usually with an open two-field |
Surgery_Schwartz_7166 | Surgery_Schwartz | but the primary remains present and symptomatic. Following a period of observation, to make sure no new disease will become evident, salvage esophagectomy is performed, usually with an open two-field approach. Surprisingly, the cure rate of salvage esophagectomy is not inconsequential. One in four patients undergoing this operation will be disease free 5 years later, despite the presence of residual cancer in the operative specimen. Because of the dense scarring created by radiation treatment, this procedure is the most technically challenging of all esophagectomy techniques.Comparative Studies of Esophagectomy TechniqueTransthoracic vs. Transhiatal Esophagectomy. There has been a great debate as to whether en bloc esophagectomy will provide a greater long-term benefit and cure rate in esophageal cancer than transhiatal esophagectomy. In a recent 7-year fol-low-up of a Dutch study addressing GEJ and lower esophageal cancers, there does not appear to be any benefit to the more | Surgery_Schwartz. but the primary remains present and symptomatic. Following a period of observation, to make sure no new disease will become evident, salvage esophagectomy is performed, usually with an open two-field approach. Surprisingly, the cure rate of salvage esophagectomy is not inconsequential. One in four patients undergoing this operation will be disease free 5 years later, despite the presence of residual cancer in the operative specimen. Because of the dense scarring created by radiation treatment, this procedure is the most technically challenging of all esophagectomy techniques.Comparative Studies of Esophagectomy TechniqueTransthoracic vs. Transhiatal Esophagectomy. There has been a great debate as to whether en bloc esophagectomy will provide a greater long-term benefit and cure rate in esophageal cancer than transhiatal esophagectomy. In a recent 7-year fol-low-up of a Dutch study addressing GEJ and lower esophageal cancers, there does not appear to be any benefit to the more |
Surgery_Schwartz_7167 | Surgery_Schwartz | in esophageal cancer than transhiatal esophagectomy. In a recent 7-year fol-low-up of a Dutch study addressing GEJ and lower esophageal cancers, there does not appear to be any benefit to the more extensive dissection despite higher morbidity and mortality. In a subgroup analysis of those with one to eight positive LNs, it did appear that the en bloc transthoracic resection may add to longevity. In another large database analysis of the Surveil-lance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, transthoracic and transhiatal esophagectomy were compared. In this study, the transhiatal esophagectomy had a greater long-term survival, but when adjusted by cancer stage, this survival benefit disap-peared. The mortality and morbidity after transhiatal esopha-gectomy appeared to be less. Suffice it to say that this debate over the best procedure for esophagectomy remains an open question.The role of the minimally invasive surgical procedures for a cancer cure will require further study and longer | Surgery_Schwartz. in esophageal cancer than transhiatal esophagectomy. In a recent 7-year fol-low-up of a Dutch study addressing GEJ and lower esophageal cancers, there does not appear to be any benefit to the more extensive dissection despite higher morbidity and mortality. In a subgroup analysis of those with one to eight positive LNs, it did appear that the en bloc transthoracic resection may add to longevity. In another large database analysis of the Surveil-lance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, transthoracic and transhiatal esophagectomy were compared. In this study, the transhiatal esophagectomy had a greater long-term survival, but when adjusted by cancer stage, this survival benefit disap-peared. The mortality and morbidity after transhiatal esopha-gectomy appeared to be less. Suffice it to say that this debate over the best procedure for esophagectomy remains an open question.The role of the minimally invasive surgical procedures for a cancer cure will require further study and longer |
Surgery_Schwartz_7168 | Surgery_Schwartz | say that this debate over the best procedure for esophagectomy remains an open question.The role of the minimally invasive surgical procedures for a cancer cure will require further study and longer follow-up. It would appear from preliminary analysis that the transhiatal esophagectomy, like its open cousin, may be performed with less morbidity and mortality than the VATS procedure. Long-term survival analyses will require careful follow-up for at least 5 to 10 years after cancer treatment. A recent European multi-center randomized trial comparing open and minimally invasive approaches revealed a highly significant reduction in pulmo-nary complications in the patients who underwent the minimally invasive approach. There was no difference in procedure-related mortality between the approaches.Alternative TherapiesRadiation Therapy. Primary treatment with radiation ther-apy does not produce results comparable with those obtained with surgery. Currently, the use of radiotherapy is | Surgery_Schwartz. say that this debate over the best procedure for esophagectomy remains an open question.The role of the minimally invasive surgical procedures for a cancer cure will require further study and longer follow-up. It would appear from preliminary analysis that the transhiatal esophagectomy, like its open cousin, may be performed with less morbidity and mortality than the VATS procedure. Long-term survival analyses will require careful follow-up for at least 5 to 10 years after cancer treatment. A recent European multi-center randomized trial comparing open and minimally invasive approaches revealed a highly significant reduction in pulmo-nary complications in the patients who underwent the minimally invasive approach. There was no difference in procedure-related mortality between the approaches.Alternative TherapiesRadiation Therapy. Primary treatment with radiation ther-apy does not produce results comparable with those obtained with surgery. Currently, the use of radiotherapy is |
Surgery_Schwartz_7169 | Surgery_Schwartz | TherapiesRadiation Therapy. Primary treatment with radiation ther-apy does not produce results comparable with those obtained with surgery. Currently, the use of radiotherapy is restricted to patients who are not candidates for surgery, and it is usually combined with chemotherapy. Radiation alone is used for pal-liation of dysphagia, but the benefit is short lived, lasting only 2 to 3 months. Furthermore, the length and course of treatment are difficult to justify in patients with a limited life expectancy. Radiation is effective in patients who have hemorrhage from the primary tumor.Adjuvant Chemotherapy. The proposal to use adjuvant che-motherapy in the treatment of esophageal cancer began when it became evident that most patients develop postoperative sys-temic metastasis without local recurrence. This observation led to the hypothesis that undetected systemic micrometasta-sis had been present at the time of diagnosis, and if effective systemic therapy was added to local regional | Surgery_Schwartz. TherapiesRadiation Therapy. Primary treatment with radiation ther-apy does not produce results comparable with those obtained with surgery. Currently, the use of radiotherapy is restricted to patients who are not candidates for surgery, and it is usually combined with chemotherapy. Radiation alone is used for pal-liation of dysphagia, but the benefit is short lived, lasting only 2 to 3 months. Furthermore, the length and course of treatment are difficult to justify in patients with a limited life expectancy. Radiation is effective in patients who have hemorrhage from the primary tumor.Adjuvant Chemotherapy. The proposal to use adjuvant che-motherapy in the treatment of esophageal cancer began when it became evident that most patients develop postoperative sys-temic metastasis without local recurrence. This observation led to the hypothesis that undetected systemic micrometasta-sis had been present at the time of diagnosis, and if effective systemic therapy was added to local regional |
Surgery_Schwartz_7170 | Surgery_Schwartz | recurrence. This observation led to the hypothesis that undetected systemic micrometasta-sis had been present at the time of diagnosis, and if effective systemic therapy was added to local regional therapy, survival should improve.Recently, this hypothesis has been supported by the obser-vation of epithelial tumor cells in the bone marrow in 37% of patients with esophageal cancer who were resected for cure. These patients had a greater prevalence of relapse at 9 months after surgery compared to those patients without such cells. Such studies emphasize that hematogenous dissemination of viable malignant cells occurs early in the disease, and that sys-temic chemotherapy may be helpful if the cells are sensitive to the agent. On the other hand, systemic chemotherapy may be a hindrance, because of its immunosuppressive properties, if the cells are resistant. Unfortunately, current technology is not able to test tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs. This requires that the | Surgery_Schwartz. recurrence. This observation led to the hypothesis that undetected systemic micrometasta-sis had been present at the time of diagnosis, and if effective systemic therapy was added to local regional therapy, survival should improve.Recently, this hypothesis has been supported by the obser-vation of epithelial tumor cells in the bone marrow in 37% of patients with esophageal cancer who were resected for cure. These patients had a greater prevalence of relapse at 9 months after surgery compared to those patients without such cells. Such studies emphasize that hematogenous dissemination of viable malignant cells occurs early in the disease, and that sys-temic chemotherapy may be helpful if the cells are sensitive to the agent. On the other hand, systemic chemotherapy may be a hindrance, because of its immunosuppressive properties, if the cells are resistant. Unfortunately, current technology is not able to test tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs. This requires that the |
Surgery_Schwartz_7171 | Surgery_Schwartz | because of its immunosuppressive properties, if the cells are resistant. Unfortunately, current technology is not able to test tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs. This requires that the choice of drugs be made solely on the basis of their clinical effectiveness against grossly similar tumors.The decision to use preoperative rather than postopera-tive chemotherapy was based on the ineffectiveness of chemo-therapeutic agents when used after surgery, and animal studies suggesting that agents given before surgery were more effec-tive. The claim that patients who receive chemotherapy before resection are less likely to develop resistance to the drugs is unsupported by hard evidence. The claim that drug delivery is enhanced because blood flow is more robust before patients undergo surgical dissection is similarly flawed, due to the fact that if enough blood reaches the operative site to heal the wound or anastomosis, then the flow should be sufficient to | Surgery_Schwartz. because of its immunosuppressive properties, if the cells are resistant. Unfortunately, current technology is not able to test tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs. This requires that the choice of drugs be made solely on the basis of their clinical effectiveness against grossly similar tumors.The decision to use preoperative rather than postopera-tive chemotherapy was based on the ineffectiveness of chemo-therapeutic agents when used after surgery, and animal studies suggesting that agents given before surgery were more effec-tive. The claim that patients who receive chemotherapy before resection are less likely to develop resistance to the drugs is unsupported by hard evidence. The claim that drug delivery is enhanced because blood flow is more robust before patients undergo surgical dissection is similarly flawed, due to the fact that if enough blood reaches the operative site to heal the wound or anastomosis, then the flow should be sufficient to |
Surgery_Schwartz_7172 | Surgery_Schwartz | patients undergo surgical dissection is similarly flawed, due to the fact that if enough blood reaches the operative site to heal the wound or anastomosis, then the flow should be sufficient to Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107701/03/19 6:05 PM 1078SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIdeliver chemotherapeutic drugs. There are, however, data sup-porting the claim that preoperative chemotherapy in patients with esophageal carcinoma can, if effective, facilitate surgical resection by reducing the size of the tumor. This is particularly beneficial in the case of squamous cell tumors above the level of the carina. Reducing the size of the tumor may provide a safer margin between the tumor and the trachea and allow an anastomosis to a tumor-free cervical esophagus just below the cricopharyngeus. Involved margin at this level usually requires a laryngectomy to prevent subsequent local recurrence.Preoperative Chemotherapy. Eight randomized prospec-tive studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. | Surgery_Schwartz. patients undergo surgical dissection is similarly flawed, due to the fact that if enough blood reaches the operative site to heal the wound or anastomosis, then the flow should be sufficient to Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107701/03/19 6:05 PM 1078SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIdeliver chemotherapeutic drugs. There are, however, data sup-porting the claim that preoperative chemotherapy in patients with esophageal carcinoma can, if effective, facilitate surgical resection by reducing the size of the tumor. This is particularly beneficial in the case of squamous cell tumors above the level of the carina. Reducing the size of the tumor may provide a safer margin between the tumor and the trachea and allow an anastomosis to a tumor-free cervical esophagus just below the cricopharyngeus. Involved margin at this level usually requires a laryngectomy to prevent subsequent local recurrence.Preoperative Chemotherapy. Eight randomized prospec-tive studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. |
Surgery_Schwartz_7173 | Surgery_Schwartz | Involved margin at this level usually requires a laryngectomy to prevent subsequent local recurrence.Preoperative Chemotherapy. Eight randomized prospec-tive studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. surgery alone have demonstrated mixed results. For adenocarcinomas of the distal esophagus and proximal stomach, preoperative neoadju-vant 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and cisplatin chemotherapy has been shown to provide a survival advantage over surgery alone in a well-powered study from the United Kingdom (MRC trial). This trial is one of the few to include enough patients (800) to detect small differences. The trial had a 10% absolute survival benefit at 2 years for the neoadjuvant chemotherapy group. In a second trial from the United Kingdom (MAGIC trial) of distal esopha-geal and proximal gastric adenocarcinomas, the use of epirubi-cin in combination with cisplatin and 5-FU also demonstrated a survival advantage for the induction chemotherapy arm with 4 years median follow-up. As a result of | Surgery_Schwartz. Involved margin at this level usually requires a laryngectomy to prevent subsequent local recurrence.Preoperative Chemotherapy. Eight randomized prospec-tive studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. surgery alone have demonstrated mixed results. For adenocarcinomas of the distal esophagus and proximal stomach, preoperative neoadju-vant 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and cisplatin chemotherapy has been shown to provide a survival advantage over surgery alone in a well-powered study from the United Kingdom (MRC trial). This trial is one of the few to include enough patients (800) to detect small differences. The trial had a 10% absolute survival benefit at 2 years for the neoadjuvant chemotherapy group. In a second trial from the United Kingdom (MAGIC trial) of distal esopha-geal and proximal gastric adenocarcinomas, the use of epirubi-cin in combination with cisplatin and 5-FU also demonstrated a survival advantage for the induction chemotherapy arm with 4 years median follow-up. As a result of |
Surgery_Schwartz_7174 | Surgery_Schwartz | adenocarcinomas, the use of epirubi-cin in combination with cisplatin and 5-FU also demonstrated a survival advantage for the induction chemotherapy arm with 4 years median follow-up. As a result of these two trials, stan-dard treatment of locally advanced adenocarcinoma in Europe calls for neoadjuvant chemotherapy with one of these two regi-mens. Most failures are due to distant metastatic disease, under-scoring the need for improved systemic therapy. Postoperative septic and respiratory complications may be more common in patients receiving chemotherapy.Preoperative Combination Chemoand Radiotherapy. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy using cisplatin and 5-FU in combination with radiotherapy has been reported by several investigators to be beneficial in both adenocarcinoma and squa-mous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. There have been 10 randomized prospective studies (Table 25-13). A recent meta-analysis of these trials demonstrates a 13% survival advantage for neoadjuvant | Surgery_Schwartz. adenocarcinomas, the use of epirubi-cin in combination with cisplatin and 5-FU also demonstrated a survival advantage for the induction chemotherapy arm with 4 years median follow-up. As a result of these two trials, stan-dard treatment of locally advanced adenocarcinoma in Europe calls for neoadjuvant chemotherapy with one of these two regi-mens. Most failures are due to distant metastatic disease, under-scoring the need for improved systemic therapy. Postoperative septic and respiratory complications may be more common in patients receiving chemotherapy.Preoperative Combination Chemoand Radiotherapy. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy using cisplatin and 5-FU in combination with radiotherapy has been reported by several investigators to be beneficial in both adenocarcinoma and squa-mous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. There have been 10 randomized prospective studies (Table 25-13). A recent meta-analysis of these trials demonstrates a 13% survival advantage for neoadjuvant |
Surgery_Schwartz_7175 | Surgery_Schwartz | cell carcinoma of the esophagus. There have been 10 randomized prospective studies (Table 25-13). A recent meta-analysis of these trials demonstrates a 13% survival advantage for neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy, which is more pro-nounced for patients with adenocarcinoma than for those with squamous carcinoma (Table 25-14). It was also observed that the benefit for chemotherapy alone (7%) was not as dramatic as for chemoradiotherapy used in the neoadjuvant setting. Addi-tionally, other work has demonstrated the importance of obtain-ing an R0 (tumor-free) resection as the most important variable determining long-term survival. Although there are no direct, randomized comparisons between chemotherapy and chemora-diation therapy, it appears that the addition of radiation may improve local response of the tumor and may allow a greater opportunity for the surgeon to obtain an R0 resection.The timing of surgery after chemoradiation induction is generally felt to be optimal between 6 and 8 | Surgery_Schwartz. cell carcinoma of the esophagus. There have been 10 randomized prospective studies (Table 25-13). A recent meta-analysis of these trials demonstrates a 13% survival advantage for neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy, which is more pro-nounced for patients with adenocarcinoma than for those with squamous carcinoma (Table 25-14). It was also observed that the benefit for chemotherapy alone (7%) was not as dramatic as for chemoradiotherapy used in the neoadjuvant setting. Addi-tionally, other work has demonstrated the importance of obtain-ing an R0 (tumor-free) resection as the most important variable determining long-term survival. Although there are no direct, randomized comparisons between chemotherapy and chemora-diation therapy, it appears that the addition of radiation may improve local response of the tumor and may allow a greater opportunity for the surgeon to obtain an R0 resection.The timing of surgery after chemoradiation induction is generally felt to be optimal between 6 and 8 |
Surgery_Schwartz_7176 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the tumor and may allow a greater opportunity for the surgeon to obtain an R0 resection.The timing of surgery after chemoradiation induction is generally felt to be optimal between 6 and 8 weeks following the completion of induction therapy. Earlier than this time, active inflammation may make the resection hazardous, and the patients have not had time to recover fully from the chemoradia-tion. After 8 weeks, edema in the periesophageal tissue starts to turn to scar tissue, making dissection more difficult.With chemoradiation, the complete response rates for ade-nocarcinoma range from 17% to 24% (Table 25-15). No tumor is detected in the specimen after esophagectomy. Patients dem-onstrating a complete response to chemoradiation have a better survival rate than those without complete response, but distant failure remains common.At present, the strongest predictors of outcome of patients with esophageal cancer are the anatomic extent of the tumor at diagnosis and the completeness of | Surgery_Schwartz. of the tumor and may allow a greater opportunity for the surgeon to obtain an R0 resection.The timing of surgery after chemoradiation induction is generally felt to be optimal between 6 and 8 weeks following the completion of induction therapy. Earlier than this time, active inflammation may make the resection hazardous, and the patients have not had time to recover fully from the chemoradia-tion. After 8 weeks, edema in the periesophageal tissue starts to turn to scar tissue, making dissection more difficult.With chemoradiation, the complete response rates for ade-nocarcinoma range from 17% to 24% (Table 25-15). No tumor is detected in the specimen after esophagectomy. Patients dem-onstrating a complete response to chemoradiation have a better survival rate than those without complete response, but distant failure remains common.At present, the strongest predictors of outcome of patients with esophageal cancer are the anatomic extent of the tumor at diagnosis and the completeness of |
Surgery_Schwartz_7177 | Surgery_Schwartz | but distant failure remains common.At present, the strongest predictors of outcome of patients with esophageal cancer are the anatomic extent of the tumor at diagnosis and the completeness of tumor removal by surgical resection. After incomplete resection of an esophageal cancer, the 5-year survival rates are 0% to 5%. In contrast, after com-plete resection, independent of stage of disease, 5-year sur-vival ranges from 15% to 40%, according to selection criteria and stage distribution. The importance of early recognition and adequate surgical resection cannot be overemphasized. Figure 25-70 is a global algorithm for the management of esophageal carcinoma.SARCOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSarcomas and carcinosarcomas are rare neoplasms, account-ing for approximately 0.1% to 1.5% of all esophageal tumors. They present with the symptom of dysphagia, which does not differ from the dysphagia associated with the more common epithelial carcinoma. Tumors located within the cervical or high thoracic | Surgery_Schwartz. but distant failure remains common.At present, the strongest predictors of outcome of patients with esophageal cancer are the anatomic extent of the tumor at diagnosis and the completeness of tumor removal by surgical resection. After incomplete resection of an esophageal cancer, the 5-year survival rates are 0% to 5%. In contrast, after com-plete resection, independent of stage of disease, 5-year sur-vival ranges from 15% to 40%, according to selection criteria and stage distribution. The importance of early recognition and adequate surgical resection cannot be overemphasized. Figure 25-70 is a global algorithm for the management of esophageal carcinoma.SARCOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSarcomas and carcinosarcomas are rare neoplasms, account-ing for approximately 0.1% to 1.5% of all esophageal tumors. They present with the symptom of dysphagia, which does not differ from the dysphagia associated with the more common epithelial carcinoma. Tumors located within the cervical or high thoracic |
Surgery_Schwartz_7178 | Surgery_Schwartz | tumors. They present with the symptom of dysphagia, which does not differ from the dysphagia associated with the more common epithelial carcinoma. Tumors located within the cervical or high thoracic esophagus can cause symptoms of pulmonary aspiration secondary to esophageal obstruction. Large tumors originating at the level of the tracheal bifurcation can produce symptoms of airway obstruction and syncope by direct com-pression of the tracheobronchial tree and heart (Fig. 25-71). The duration of dysphagia and age of the patients affected with these tumors are similar to those with carcinoma of the esophagus.A barium swallow usually shows a large polypoid intralu-minal esophageal mass, causing partial obstruction and dilata-tion of the esophagus proximal to the tumor (Fig. 25-72). The smooth polypoid nature of the lesion, although not diagnostic, is distinctive enough to suggest the presence of a sarcoma rather than the more common ulcerating, stenosing carcinoma.Esophagoscopy | Surgery_Schwartz. tumors. They present with the symptom of dysphagia, which does not differ from the dysphagia associated with the more common epithelial carcinoma. Tumors located within the cervical or high thoracic esophagus can cause symptoms of pulmonary aspiration secondary to esophageal obstruction. Large tumors originating at the level of the tracheal bifurcation can produce symptoms of airway obstruction and syncope by direct com-pression of the tracheobronchial tree and heart (Fig. 25-71). The duration of dysphagia and age of the patients affected with these tumors are similar to those with carcinoma of the esophagus.A barium swallow usually shows a large polypoid intralu-minal esophageal mass, causing partial obstruction and dilata-tion of the esophagus proximal to the tumor (Fig. 25-72). The smooth polypoid nature of the lesion, although not diagnostic, is distinctive enough to suggest the presence of a sarcoma rather than the more common ulcerating, stenosing carcinoma.Esophagoscopy |
Surgery_Schwartz_7179 | Surgery_Schwartz | The smooth polypoid nature of the lesion, although not diagnostic, is distinctive enough to suggest the presence of a sarcoma rather than the more common ulcerating, stenosing carcinoma.Esophagoscopy commonly shows an intraluminal necrotic mass. When biopsy is attempted, it is important to remove the necrotic tissue until bleeding is seen on the tumor’s surface. When this is not done, the biopsy specimen will show only tis-sue necrosis. Even when viable tumor is obtained on biopsy, it has been these authors’ experience that it cannot be defini-tively identified as carcinoma, sarcoma, or carcinosarcoma on the basis of the histology of the portion biopsied. Biopsy results cannot be totally relied on to identify the presence of sarcoma, and it is often the polypoid nature of the lesion that arouses sus-picion that it may be something other than carcinoma.Polypoid sarcomas of the esophagus, in contrast to infil-trating carcinomas, remain superficial to the muscularis propria and are less | Surgery_Schwartz. The smooth polypoid nature of the lesion, although not diagnostic, is distinctive enough to suggest the presence of a sarcoma rather than the more common ulcerating, stenosing carcinoma.Esophagoscopy commonly shows an intraluminal necrotic mass. When biopsy is attempted, it is important to remove the necrotic tissue until bleeding is seen on the tumor’s surface. When this is not done, the biopsy specimen will show only tis-sue necrosis. Even when viable tumor is obtained on biopsy, it has been these authors’ experience that it cannot be defini-tively identified as carcinoma, sarcoma, or carcinosarcoma on the basis of the histology of the portion biopsied. Biopsy results cannot be totally relied on to identify the presence of sarcoma, and it is often the polypoid nature of the lesion that arouses sus-picion that it may be something other than carcinoma.Polypoid sarcomas of the esophagus, in contrast to infil-trating carcinomas, remain superficial to the muscularis propria and are less |
Surgery_Schwartz_7180 | Surgery_Schwartz | arouses sus-picion that it may be something other than carcinoma.Polypoid sarcomas of the esophagus, in contrast to infil-trating carcinomas, remain superficial to the muscularis propria and are less likely to metastasize to regional LNs. In one series of 14 patients, local extension or tumor metastasis would have prevented a potentially curative resection in only five. Thus, the presence of a large polypoid tumor should not deter the surgeon from resecting the lesion.Sarcomatous lesions of the esophagus can be divided into epidermoid carcinomas with spindle cell features, such as car-cinosarcoma, and true sarcomas that arise from mesenchymal tissue, such as leiomyosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and rhabdo-myosarcoma. Based on current histologic criteria for diagno-sis, fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma of the esophagus are extremely rare lesions.Surgical resection of polypoid sarcoma of the esophagus is the treatment of choice because radiation therapy has little | Surgery_Schwartz. arouses sus-picion that it may be something other than carcinoma.Polypoid sarcomas of the esophagus, in contrast to infil-trating carcinomas, remain superficial to the muscularis propria and are less likely to metastasize to regional LNs. In one series of 14 patients, local extension or tumor metastasis would have prevented a potentially curative resection in only five. Thus, the presence of a large polypoid tumor should not deter the surgeon from resecting the lesion.Sarcomatous lesions of the esophagus can be divided into epidermoid carcinomas with spindle cell features, such as car-cinosarcoma, and true sarcomas that arise from mesenchymal tissue, such as leiomyosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and rhabdo-myosarcoma. Based on current histologic criteria for diagno-sis, fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma of the esophagus are extremely rare lesions.Surgical resection of polypoid sarcoma of the esophagus is the treatment of choice because radiation therapy has little |
Surgery_Schwartz_7181 | Surgery_Schwartz | fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma of the esophagus are extremely rare lesions.Surgical resection of polypoid sarcoma of the esophagus is the treatment of choice because radiation therapy has little Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107801/03/19 6:05 PM 1079ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-13Randomized trials of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy vs. surgery, or neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. surgeryYEAR ACTIVATEDTREATMENT SCHEDULE (RADIOTHERAPY)TREATMENT SCHEDULE (CHEMOTHERAPY)CONCURRENT OR SEQUENTIALTUMOR TYPESAMPLE SIZEMEDIAN FOLLOWUP (MO)Chemoradiotherapy198335 Gy, 1.75 Gy/fraction over 4 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; bleomycin 5 mg/m2 d 1–5SequentialSCC7818a198640 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 4 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–4ConcurrentSCC6912a198820 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 12 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 600 mg/m2 d 2–5, 22–25SequentialSCC8612a198945 Gy, 1.5 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: | Surgery_Schwartz. fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma of the esophagus are extremely rare lesions.Surgical resection of polypoid sarcoma of the esophagus is the treatment of choice because radiation therapy has little Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107801/03/19 6:05 PM 1079ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-13Randomized trials of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy vs. surgery, or neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. surgeryYEAR ACTIVATEDTREATMENT SCHEDULE (RADIOTHERAPY)TREATMENT SCHEDULE (CHEMOTHERAPY)CONCURRENT OR SEQUENTIALTUMOR TYPESAMPLE SIZEMEDIAN FOLLOWUP (MO)Chemoradiotherapy198335 Gy, 1.75 Gy/fraction over 4 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; bleomycin 5 mg/m2 d 1–5SequentialSCC7818a198640 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 4 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–4ConcurrentSCC6912a198820 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 12 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 600 mg/m2 d 2–5, 22–25SequentialSCC8612a198945 Gy, 1.5 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: |
Surgery_Schwartz_7182 | Surgery_Schwartz | d 1–4ConcurrentSCC6912a198820 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 12 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 600 mg/m2 d 2–5, 22–25SequentialSCC8612a198945 Gy, 1.5 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; 5-fluorouracil 300 mg/m2 d 1–21; vinblastine 1 mg/m2 d 1–4ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma10098198937 Gy, 3.7 Gy/fraction over 2 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 0–2SequentialSCC29355199040 Gy, 2.7 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 75 mg/m2 d 7; 5-fluorouracil 15 mg/kg d 1–5ConcurrentAdenocarcinoma11324199040 Gy, 2.7 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 75 mg/m2 d 7; 5-fluorouracil 15 mg/kg d 1–5ConcurrentSCC6110199435 Gy, 2.3 Gy/fraction over 3 wkOne cycle: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 800 mg/m2 d 2–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma25665200650.4 Gy, 1.8 Gy/fraction over 5.6 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma5660199945.6 Gy, 1.2 Gy/fraction over 28 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 | Surgery_Schwartz. d 1–4ConcurrentSCC6912a198820 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 12 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 600 mg/m2 d 2–5, 22–25SequentialSCC8612a198945 Gy, 1.5 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; 5-fluorouracil 300 mg/m2 d 1–21; vinblastine 1 mg/m2 d 1–4ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma10098198937 Gy, 3.7 Gy/fraction over 2 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 0–2SequentialSCC29355199040 Gy, 2.7 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 75 mg/m2 d 7; 5-fluorouracil 15 mg/kg d 1–5ConcurrentAdenocarcinoma11324199040 Gy, 2.7 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 75 mg/m2 d 7; 5-fluorouracil 15 mg/kg d 1–5ConcurrentSCC6110199435 Gy, 2.3 Gy/fraction over 3 wkOne cycle: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 800 mg/m2 d 2–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma25665200650.4 Gy, 1.8 Gy/fraction over 5.6 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma5660199945.6 Gy, 1.2 Gy/fraction over 28 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 |
Surgery_Schwartz_7183 | Surgery_Schwartz | Gy, 1.8 Gy/fraction over 5.6 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma5660199945.6 Gy, 1.2 Gy/fraction over 28 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC10125Chemotherapy1982—Two cycles: cisplatin 120 mg/m2 d 1; vindesine 3 mg/m2 d 1, 8; bleomycin 10 U/m2 d 3–6—SCC39201983—Two cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; bleomycin 5 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC10618a1988c—Three cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC46751988—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; bleomycin 10 mg/m2 d 3–8; vinblastine 3 mg/m2 d 1, 8—SCC4617a1989—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC147171990—Two cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; etoposide 200 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC16019a1990—Three cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 days 1–5—SCC and adeno-carcinoma467561992—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC96241992—Two cycles: | Surgery_Schwartz. Gy, 1.8 Gy/fraction over 5.6 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma5660199945.6 Gy, 1.2 Gy/fraction over 28 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC10125Chemotherapy1982—Two cycles: cisplatin 120 mg/m2 d 1; vindesine 3 mg/m2 d 1, 8; bleomycin 10 U/m2 d 3–6—SCC39201983—Two cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; bleomycin 5 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC10618a1988c—Three cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC46751988—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; bleomycin 10 mg/m2 d 3–8; vinblastine 3 mg/m2 d 1, 8—SCC4617a1989—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC147171990—Two cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; etoposide 200 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC16019a1990—Three cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 days 1–5—SCC and adeno-carcinoma467561992—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC96241992—Two cycles: |
Surgery_Schwartz_7184 | Surgery_Schwartz | cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 days 1–5—SCC and adeno-carcinoma467561992—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC96241992—Two cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–4—SCC and adeno-carcinoma80237aEstimated as median survival.bUnpublished thesis.cYear of activation not reported, but imputed.dOnly available as an abstract.SCC = squamous cell carcinoma.Reproduced with permission from Gebski V, Burmeister B, Smithers BM, et al: Survival benefits from neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy or chemotherapy in oesophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Mar;8(3):226-234.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107901/03/19 6:05 PM 1080SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-14Results of the meta-analysis applied to effects of preoperative chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy on 2-y survival for patients with various levels of riskRISK GROUP2-Y SURVIVAL RATE (%)EXPECTED 2-Y MORTALITYCONTROL (%)TREATEDa (%)ARR | Surgery_Schwartz. cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 days 1–5—SCC and adeno-carcinoma467561992—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC96241992—Two cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–4—SCC and adeno-carcinoma80237aEstimated as median survival.bUnpublished thesis.cYear of activation not reported, but imputed.dOnly available as an abstract.SCC = squamous cell carcinoma.Reproduced with permission from Gebski V, Burmeister B, Smithers BM, et al: Survival benefits from neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy or chemotherapy in oesophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Mar;8(3):226-234.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107901/03/19 6:05 PM 1080SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-14Results of the meta-analysis applied to effects of preoperative chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy on 2-y survival for patients with various levels of riskRISK GROUP2-Y SURVIVAL RATE (%)EXPECTED 2-Y MORTALITYCONTROL (%)TREATEDa (%)ARR |
Surgery_Schwartz_7185 | Surgery_Schwartz | effects of preoperative chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy on 2-y survival for patients with various levels of riskRISK GROUP2-Y SURVIVAL RATE (%)EXPECTED 2-Y MORTALITYCONTROL (%)TREATEDa (%)ARR (%)NNTChemoradiotherapyHigh208064.815.27Medium356552.712.38Low505040.59.510ChemotherapyHigh208072.012.08Medium356558.56.515Low505045.05.020aBased on a 19% relative mortality reduction for those receiving concurrent chemoradiotherapy and a 10% relative mortality reduction for those receiving chemotherapy.ARR = absolute risk reduction; NNT = number needed to treat to prevent one death.Reproduced with permission from Gebski V, Burmeister B, Smithers BM, et al: Survival benefits from neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy or chemotherapy in oesophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Mar;8(3):226-234.success and the tumors remain superficial, with local invasion or distant metastases occurring late in the course of the disease. As with carcinoma, the absence of both wall penetration and | Surgery_Schwartz. effects of preoperative chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy on 2-y survival for patients with various levels of riskRISK GROUP2-Y SURVIVAL RATE (%)EXPECTED 2-Y MORTALITYCONTROL (%)TREATEDa (%)ARR (%)NNTChemoradiotherapyHigh208064.815.27Medium356552.712.38Low505040.59.510ChemotherapyHigh208072.012.08Medium356558.56.515Low505045.05.020aBased on a 19% relative mortality reduction for those receiving concurrent chemoradiotherapy and a 10% relative mortality reduction for those receiving chemotherapy.ARR = absolute risk reduction; NNT = number needed to treat to prevent one death.Reproduced with permission from Gebski V, Burmeister B, Smithers BM, et al: Survival benefits from neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy or chemotherapy in oesophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Mar;8(3):226-234.success and the tumors remain superficial, with local invasion or distant metastases occurring late in the course of the disease. As with carcinoma, the absence of both wall penetration and |
Surgery_Schwartz_7186 | Surgery_Schwartz | and the tumors remain superficial, with local invasion or distant metastases occurring late in the course of the disease. As with carcinoma, the absence of both wall penetration and LN metastases is necessary for curative treatment, and surgi-cal resection is consequently responsible for the majority of the reported 5-year survivals. Resection also provides an excellent means of palliating the patient’s symptoms. The surgical tech-nique for resection and the subsequent restoration of the GI con-tinuity is similar to that described for carcinoma.In these authors’ experience, four of the eight patients with carcinosarcoma survived for 5 years or longer. Even though this number is small, it suggests that resection produces better Table 25-15Results of neoadjuvant therapy in adenocarcinoma of the esophagusINSTITUTIONYEARNO. OF PATIENTSREGIMENCOMPLETE PATHOLOGIC RESPONSE (%)SURVIVALMD Anderson199035P, E, 5-FU342% at 3 ySLMC199218P, 5-FU, RT1740% at 3 yVanderbilt199339P, E, 5-FU, RT1947% | Surgery_Schwartz. and the tumors remain superficial, with local invasion or distant metastases occurring late in the course of the disease. As with carcinoma, the absence of both wall penetration and LN metastases is necessary for curative treatment, and surgi-cal resection is consequently responsible for the majority of the reported 5-year survivals. Resection also provides an excellent means of palliating the patient’s symptoms. The surgical tech-nique for resection and the subsequent restoration of the GI con-tinuity is similar to that described for carcinoma.In these authors’ experience, four of the eight patients with carcinosarcoma survived for 5 years or longer. Even though this number is small, it suggests that resection produces better Table 25-15Results of neoadjuvant therapy in adenocarcinoma of the esophagusINSTITUTIONYEARNO. OF PATIENTSREGIMENCOMPLETE PATHOLOGIC RESPONSE (%)SURVIVALMD Anderson199035P, E, 5-FU342% at 3 ySLMC199218P, 5-FU, RT1740% at 3 yVanderbilt199339P, E, 5-FU, RT1947% |
Surgery_Schwartz_7187 | Surgery_Schwartz | the esophagusINSTITUTIONYEARNO. OF PATIENTSREGIMENCOMPLETE PATHOLOGIC RESPONSE (%)SURVIVALMD Anderson199035P, E, 5-FU342% at 3 ySLMC199218P, 5-FU, RT1740% at 3 yVanderbilt199339P, E, 5-FU, RT1947% at 4 yMichigan199321P, VBL, 5-FU, RT2434% at 5 yMGH199416P, 5-FU042% at 4 yMGH199422E, A, P558% at 2 yA = doxorubicin; E = etoposide; 5-FU = 5-fluorouracil; MGH = Massachusetts General Hospital; P = cisplatin; RT = radiation therapy; SLMC = St. Louis University Medical Center; VBL = vinblastine.Reproduced with permission from Wright CD, Mathisen DJ, Wain JC, et al: Evolution of treatment strategies for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction, Ann Thorac Surg. 1994 Dec;58(6):1574-1578.results in epithelial carcinoma with spindle cell features than in squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Similarly, with leiomyosarcoma of the esophagus, the same scattered reports exist with little information on survival. Of seven patients with leiomyosarcoma, two died from their | Surgery_Schwartz. the esophagusINSTITUTIONYEARNO. OF PATIENTSREGIMENCOMPLETE PATHOLOGIC RESPONSE (%)SURVIVALMD Anderson199035P, E, 5-FU342% at 3 ySLMC199218P, 5-FU, RT1740% at 3 yVanderbilt199339P, E, 5-FU, RT1947% at 4 yMichigan199321P, VBL, 5-FU, RT2434% at 5 yMGH199416P, 5-FU042% at 4 yMGH199422E, A, P558% at 2 yA = doxorubicin; E = etoposide; 5-FU = 5-fluorouracil; MGH = Massachusetts General Hospital; P = cisplatin; RT = radiation therapy; SLMC = St. Louis University Medical Center; VBL = vinblastine.Reproduced with permission from Wright CD, Mathisen DJ, Wain JC, et al: Evolution of treatment strategies for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction, Ann Thorac Surg. 1994 Dec;58(6):1574-1578.results in epithelial carcinoma with spindle cell features than in squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Similarly, with leiomyosarcoma of the esophagus, the same scattered reports exist with little information on survival. Of seven patients with leiomyosarcoma, two died from their |
Surgery_Schwartz_7188 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the esophagus. Similarly, with leiomyosarcoma of the esophagus, the same scattered reports exist with little information on survival. Of seven patients with leiomyosarcoma, two died from their disease—one in 3 months and the other 4 years and 7 months after resection. The other five patients were reported to have survived more than 5 years.It is difficult to evaluate the benefits of resection for leio-myoblastoma of the esophagus because of the small number of reported patients with tumors in this location. Most leiomyo-blastomas occur in the stomach, and 38% of these patients suc-cumb to the cancer in 3 years. Fifty-five percent of patients with extragastric leiomyoblastoma also die from the disease, within an average of 3 years. Consequently, leiomyoblastoma should be considered a malignant lesion and apt to behave like a leiomyosarcoma. The presence of nuclear hyperchromatism, increased mitotic figures (more than one per high-power field), tumor size larger than 10 cm, and | Surgery_Schwartz. of the esophagus. Similarly, with leiomyosarcoma of the esophagus, the same scattered reports exist with little information on survival. Of seven patients with leiomyosarcoma, two died from their disease—one in 3 months and the other 4 years and 7 months after resection. The other five patients were reported to have survived more than 5 years.It is difficult to evaluate the benefits of resection for leio-myoblastoma of the esophagus because of the small number of reported patients with tumors in this location. Most leiomyo-blastomas occur in the stomach, and 38% of these patients suc-cumb to the cancer in 3 years. Fifty-five percent of patients with extragastric leiomyoblastoma also die from the disease, within an average of 3 years. Consequently, leiomyoblastoma should be considered a malignant lesion and apt to behave like a leiomyosarcoma. The presence of nuclear hyperchromatism, increased mitotic figures (more than one per high-power field), tumor size larger than 10 cm, and |
Surgery_Schwartz_7189 | Surgery_Schwartz | a malignant lesion and apt to behave like a leiomyosarcoma. The presence of nuclear hyperchromatism, increased mitotic figures (more than one per high-power field), tumor size larger than 10 cm, and clinical symptoms of longer than 6 months’ duration are associated with a poor prognosis.BENIGN TUMORS AND CYSTSBenign tumors and cysts of the esophagus are relatively uncom-mon. From the perspectives of both the clinician and the patholo-gist, benign tumors may be divided into those that are within the muscular wall and those that are within the lumen of the esophagus.Intramural lesions are either solid tumors or cysts, and the vast majority are leiomyomas. They are made up of varying por-tions of smooth muscle and fibrous tissue. Fibromas, myomas, fibromyomas, and lipomyomas are closely related and occur rarely. Other histologic types of solid intramural tumors have been described, such as lipomas, neurofibromas, hemangiomas, osteochondromas, granular cell myoblastomas, and glomus | Surgery_Schwartz. a malignant lesion and apt to behave like a leiomyosarcoma. The presence of nuclear hyperchromatism, increased mitotic figures (more than one per high-power field), tumor size larger than 10 cm, and clinical symptoms of longer than 6 months’ duration are associated with a poor prognosis.BENIGN TUMORS AND CYSTSBenign tumors and cysts of the esophagus are relatively uncom-mon. From the perspectives of both the clinician and the patholo-gist, benign tumors may be divided into those that are within the muscular wall and those that are within the lumen of the esophagus.Intramural lesions are either solid tumors or cysts, and the vast majority are leiomyomas. They are made up of varying por-tions of smooth muscle and fibrous tissue. Fibromas, myomas, fibromyomas, and lipomyomas are closely related and occur rarely. Other histologic types of solid intramural tumors have been described, such as lipomas, neurofibromas, hemangiomas, osteochondromas, granular cell myoblastomas, and glomus |
Surgery_Schwartz_7190 | Surgery_Schwartz | related and occur rarely. Other histologic types of solid intramural tumors have been described, such as lipomas, neurofibromas, hemangiomas, osteochondromas, granular cell myoblastomas, and glomus tumors, but they are medical curiosities.Intraluminal lesions are polypoid or pedunculated growths that usually originate in the submucosa, develop mainly into the lumen, and are covered with normal stratified squamous epi-thelium. The majority of these tumors are composed of fibrous tissue of varying degrees of compactness with a rich vascular supply. Some are loose and myxoid (e.g., myxoma and myxo-fibroma), some are more collagenous (e.g., fibroma), and some contain adipose tissue (e.g., fibrolipoma). These different types of tumor are frequently collectively designated fibrovascular Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108001/03/19 6:05 PM 1081ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Barium swallow, endoscopyTumor staging(CT chest and abdomen,endoscopic ultrasonography)Late disease | Surgery_Schwartz. related and occur rarely. Other histologic types of solid intramural tumors have been described, such as lipomas, neurofibromas, hemangiomas, osteochondromas, granular cell myoblastomas, and glomus tumors, but they are medical curiosities.Intraluminal lesions are polypoid or pedunculated growths that usually originate in the submucosa, develop mainly into the lumen, and are covered with normal stratified squamous epi-thelium. The majority of these tumors are composed of fibrous tissue of varying degrees of compactness with a rich vascular supply. Some are loose and myxoid (e.g., myxoma and myxo-fibroma), some are more collagenous (e.g., fibroma), and some contain adipose tissue (e.g., fibrolipoma). These different types of tumor are frequently collectively designated fibrovascular Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108001/03/19 6:05 PM 1081ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Barium swallow, endoscopyTumor staging(CT chest and abdomen,endoscopic ultrasonography)Late disease |
Surgery_Schwartz_7191 | Surgery_Schwartz | 108001/03/19 6:05 PM 1081ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Barium swallow, endoscopyTumor staging(CT chest and abdomen,endoscopic ultrasonography)Late disease orsignificant comorbidityDistant organ metastasisImminent cardiac pulmonary or hepatic failureSevere debilityAdvanced diseaseSupportive careCurativeen bloc resectionPalliative surgeryLocal recurrenceNo metastasesComplete excisionpossibleUnresectable proximalor bleeding tumorLaser ablative therapyStentAirway fistula orunresectable primarytumor or localrecurrenceChemotherapyEarly diseaseTumor suspected notto be through the wall and/or less than8 lymph nodes involvedThrough the wall and multiplelymph node metastasisAdvanced diseaseChemoradiationPreoperative chemoradiation followed by en bloc resectionClinical evaluationTreatment failure orrecurrenceDistant metastasisNo local recurrenceFigure 25-70. Suggested global algorithm for the management of carcinoma of the esophagus. CT = computed tomography.polyps, or simply | Surgery_Schwartz. 108001/03/19 6:05 PM 1081ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Barium swallow, endoscopyTumor staging(CT chest and abdomen,endoscopic ultrasonography)Late disease orsignificant comorbidityDistant organ metastasisImminent cardiac pulmonary or hepatic failureSevere debilityAdvanced diseaseSupportive careCurativeen bloc resectionPalliative surgeryLocal recurrenceNo metastasesComplete excisionpossibleUnresectable proximalor bleeding tumorLaser ablative therapyStentAirway fistula orunresectable primarytumor or localrecurrenceChemotherapyEarly diseaseTumor suspected notto be through the wall and/or less than8 lymph nodes involvedThrough the wall and multiplelymph node metastasisAdvanced diseaseChemoradiationPreoperative chemoradiation followed by en bloc resectionClinical evaluationTreatment failure orrecurrenceDistant metastasisNo local recurrenceFigure 25-70. Suggested global algorithm for the management of carcinoma of the esophagus. CT = computed tomography.polyps, or simply |
Surgery_Schwartz_7192 | Surgery_Schwartz | failure orrecurrenceDistant metastasisNo local recurrenceFigure 25-70. Suggested global algorithm for the management of carcinoma of the esophagus. CT = computed tomography.polyps, or simply as polyps. Pedunculated intraluminal tumors should be removed. If the lesion is not too large, endoscopic removal with a snare is feasible.LeiomyomaLeiomyomas constitute more than 50% of benign esophageal tumors. The average age at presentation is 38, which is in sharp contrast to that seen with esophageal carcinoma. Leiomyomas are twice as common in males. Because they originate in smooth muscle, 90% are located in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. They are usually solitary, but multiple tumors have been found on occasion. They vary greatly in size and shape. Actually, tumors as small as 1 cm in diameter and as large as 10 lb have been removed.Typically, leiomyomas are oval. During their growth, they remain intramural, having the bulk of their mass protruding toward the outer wall of the | Surgery_Schwartz. failure orrecurrenceDistant metastasisNo local recurrenceFigure 25-70. Suggested global algorithm for the management of carcinoma of the esophagus. CT = computed tomography.polyps, or simply as polyps. Pedunculated intraluminal tumors should be removed. If the lesion is not too large, endoscopic removal with a snare is feasible.LeiomyomaLeiomyomas constitute more than 50% of benign esophageal tumors. The average age at presentation is 38, which is in sharp contrast to that seen with esophageal carcinoma. Leiomyomas are twice as common in males. Because they originate in smooth muscle, 90% are located in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. They are usually solitary, but multiple tumors have been found on occasion. They vary greatly in size and shape. Actually, tumors as small as 1 cm in diameter and as large as 10 lb have been removed.Typically, leiomyomas are oval. During their growth, they remain intramural, having the bulk of their mass protruding toward the outer wall of the |
Surgery_Schwartz_7193 | Surgery_Schwartz | in diameter and as large as 10 lb have been removed.Typically, leiomyomas are oval. During their growth, they remain intramural, having the bulk of their mass protruding toward the outer wall of the esophagus. The overlying mucosa is freely movable and normal in appearance. Dysphagia and pain are the most common complaints, the two symptoms occurring more frequently together than separately. Bleeding directly related to the tumor is rare, and when hematemesis or melena occur in a patient with an esophageal leiomyoma, other causes should be investigated.A barium swallow is the most useful method to demon-strate a leiomyoma of the esophagus (Fig. 25-73). In profile, the tumor appears as a smooth, semilunar, or crescent-shaped filling defect that moves with swallowing, is sharply demarcated, and is covered and surrounded by normal mucosa. Esophagoscopy should be performed to exclude the reported observation of a coexistence with carcinoma. The freely movable mass, which bulges into the | Surgery_Schwartz. in diameter and as large as 10 lb have been removed.Typically, leiomyomas are oval. During their growth, they remain intramural, having the bulk of their mass protruding toward the outer wall of the esophagus. The overlying mucosa is freely movable and normal in appearance. Dysphagia and pain are the most common complaints, the two symptoms occurring more frequently together than separately. Bleeding directly related to the tumor is rare, and when hematemesis or melena occur in a patient with an esophageal leiomyoma, other causes should be investigated.A barium swallow is the most useful method to demon-strate a leiomyoma of the esophagus (Fig. 25-73). In profile, the tumor appears as a smooth, semilunar, or crescent-shaped filling defect that moves with swallowing, is sharply demarcated, and is covered and surrounded by normal mucosa. Esophagoscopy should be performed to exclude the reported observation of a coexistence with carcinoma. The freely movable mass, which bulges into the |
Surgery_Schwartz_7194 | Surgery_Schwartz | and is covered and surrounded by normal mucosa. Esophagoscopy should be performed to exclude the reported observation of a coexistence with carcinoma. The freely movable mass, which bulges into the lumen, should not be biopsied because of an increased chance of mucosal perforation at the time of surgical enucleation. Endoscopic ultrasound is also a useful adjunct in the workup of leiomyoma and provides detail related to the ana-tomic extent and relationship to surrounding structures.Despite their slow growth and limited potential for malig-nant degeneration, leiomyomas should be removed unless there are specific contraindications. The majority can be removed by simple enucleation. If, during removal, the mucosa is inadver-tently entered, the defect can be repaired primarily. After tumor removal, the outer esophageal wall should be reconstructed by closure of the muscle layer. The location of the lesion and the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108101/03/19 6:05 PM 1082SPECIFIC | Surgery_Schwartz. and is covered and surrounded by normal mucosa. Esophagoscopy should be performed to exclude the reported observation of a coexistence with carcinoma. The freely movable mass, which bulges into the lumen, should not be biopsied because of an increased chance of mucosal perforation at the time of surgical enucleation. Endoscopic ultrasound is also a useful adjunct in the workup of leiomyoma and provides detail related to the ana-tomic extent and relationship to surrounding structures.Despite their slow growth and limited potential for malig-nant degeneration, leiomyomas should be removed unless there are specific contraindications. The majority can be removed by simple enucleation. If, during removal, the mucosa is inadver-tently entered, the defect can be repaired primarily. After tumor removal, the outer esophageal wall should be reconstructed by closure of the muscle layer. The location of the lesion and the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108101/03/19 6:05 PM 1082SPECIFIC |
Surgery_Schwartz_7195 | Surgery_Schwartz | removal, the outer esophageal wall should be reconstructed by closure of the muscle layer. The location of the lesion and the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108101/03/19 6:05 PM 1082SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 25-71. A. Computed tomographic scan of a leiomyosarcoma (black arrow) that caused compression of the heart and symptoms of syncope. B. Surgical specimen of leiomyosarcoma shown in A with a pedunculated luminal lesion (white arrow) and a large extraesophageal component (black arrow). There was no evidence of lymph node metastasis at the time of operation.ABFigure 25-72. A. Barium swallow showing a large polypoid intraluminal esophageal mass causing partial obstruction and dilation of the proximal esophagus. B. Operative specimen showing 9-cm polypoid leiomyoblastoma.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108201/03/19 6:05 PM 1083ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25extent of surgery required will dictate the approach. Lesions of the proximal and middle | Surgery_Schwartz. removal, the outer esophageal wall should be reconstructed by closure of the muscle layer. The location of the lesion and the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108101/03/19 6:05 PM 1082SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 25-71. A. Computed tomographic scan of a leiomyosarcoma (black arrow) that caused compression of the heart and symptoms of syncope. B. Surgical specimen of leiomyosarcoma shown in A with a pedunculated luminal lesion (white arrow) and a large extraesophageal component (black arrow). There was no evidence of lymph node metastasis at the time of operation.ABFigure 25-72. A. Barium swallow showing a large polypoid intraluminal esophageal mass causing partial obstruction and dilation of the proximal esophagus. B. Operative specimen showing 9-cm polypoid leiomyoblastoma.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108201/03/19 6:05 PM 1083ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25extent of surgery required will dictate the approach. Lesions of the proximal and middle |
Surgery_Schwartz_7196 | Surgery_Schwartz | 108201/03/19 6:05 PM 1083ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25extent of surgery required will dictate the approach. Lesions of the proximal and middle esophagus require a right thoracotomy, whereas distal esophageal lesions require a left thoracotomy. Vid-eothoracoscopic and laparoscopic approaches are now frequently used. The mortality rate associated with enucleation is low, and success in relieving the dysphagia is near 100%. Large lesions or those involving the GEJ may require esophageal resection.Esophageal CystCysts may be congenital or acquired. Congenital cysts are lined wholly or partly by columnar ciliated epithelium of the respiratory type, by glandular epithelium of the gastric type, by squamous epithelium, or by transitional epithelium. In some, epithelial lining cells may be absent. Confusion over the embry-ologic origin of congenital cysts has led to a variety of names, such as enteric, bronchogenic, duplication, and mediastinal cysts. Acquired retention | Surgery_Schwartz. 108201/03/19 6:05 PM 1083ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25extent of surgery required will dictate the approach. Lesions of the proximal and middle esophagus require a right thoracotomy, whereas distal esophageal lesions require a left thoracotomy. Vid-eothoracoscopic and laparoscopic approaches are now frequently used. The mortality rate associated with enucleation is low, and success in relieving the dysphagia is near 100%. Large lesions or those involving the GEJ may require esophageal resection.Esophageal CystCysts may be congenital or acquired. Congenital cysts are lined wholly or partly by columnar ciliated epithelium of the respiratory type, by glandular epithelium of the gastric type, by squamous epithelium, or by transitional epithelium. In some, epithelial lining cells may be absent. Confusion over the embry-ologic origin of congenital cysts has led to a variety of names, such as enteric, bronchogenic, duplication, and mediastinal cysts. Acquired retention |
Surgery_Schwartz_7197 | Surgery_Schwartz | cells may be absent. Confusion over the embry-ologic origin of congenital cysts has led to a variety of names, such as enteric, bronchogenic, duplication, and mediastinal cysts. Acquired retention cysts also occur, probably as a result of obstruction of the excretory ducts of the esophageal glands.Enteric and bronchogenic cysts are the most common, and they arise as a result of developmental abnormalities dur-ing the formation and differentiation of the lower respiratory tract, esophagus, and stomach from the foregut. During its embryologic development, the esophagus is lined successively with simple columnar, pseudostratified ciliated columnar, and, finally, stratified squamous epithelium. This sequence probably accounts for the fact that the lining epithelium may be any or a combination of these; the presence of cilia does not necessarily indicate a respiratory origin.Cysts vary in size from small to very large, and they are usually located intramurally in the middleto lower-third | Surgery_Schwartz. cells may be absent. Confusion over the embry-ologic origin of congenital cysts has led to a variety of names, such as enteric, bronchogenic, duplication, and mediastinal cysts. Acquired retention cysts also occur, probably as a result of obstruction of the excretory ducts of the esophageal glands.Enteric and bronchogenic cysts are the most common, and they arise as a result of developmental abnormalities dur-ing the formation and differentiation of the lower respiratory tract, esophagus, and stomach from the foregut. During its embryologic development, the esophagus is lined successively with simple columnar, pseudostratified ciliated columnar, and, finally, stratified squamous epithelium. This sequence probably accounts for the fact that the lining epithelium may be any or a combination of these; the presence of cilia does not necessarily indicate a respiratory origin.Cysts vary in size from small to very large, and they are usually located intramurally in the middleto lower-third |
Surgery_Schwartz_7198 | Surgery_Schwartz | of these; the presence of cilia does not necessarily indicate a respiratory origin.Cysts vary in size from small to very large, and they are usually located intramurally in the middleto lower-third of the esophagus. Their symptoms are similar to those of a leio-myoma. The diagnosis similarly depends on radiographic, endoscopic, and endosonographic findings. Surgical excision by enucleation is the preferred treatment. During removal, a fistulous tract connecting the cysts to the airways should be sought, particularly in patients who have had repetitive bron-chopulmonary infections.ESOPHAGEAL PERFORATIONPerforation of the esophagus constitutes a true emergency. It most commonly occurs following diagnostic or therapeutic pro-cedures. Spontaneous perforation, referred to as Boerhaave’s syndrome, accounts for only 15% of cases of esophageal per-foration, foreign bodies for 14%, and trauma for 10%. Pain is a striking and consistent symptom and strongly suggests that an esophageal rupture | Surgery_Schwartz. of these; the presence of cilia does not necessarily indicate a respiratory origin.Cysts vary in size from small to very large, and they are usually located intramurally in the middleto lower-third of the esophagus. Their symptoms are similar to those of a leio-myoma. The diagnosis similarly depends on radiographic, endoscopic, and endosonographic findings. Surgical excision by enucleation is the preferred treatment. During removal, a fistulous tract connecting the cysts to the airways should be sought, particularly in patients who have had repetitive bron-chopulmonary infections.ESOPHAGEAL PERFORATIONPerforation of the esophagus constitutes a true emergency. It most commonly occurs following diagnostic or therapeutic pro-cedures. Spontaneous perforation, referred to as Boerhaave’s syndrome, accounts for only 15% of cases of esophageal per-foration, foreign bodies for 14%, and trauma for 10%. Pain is a striking and consistent symptom and strongly suggests that an esophageal rupture |
Surgery_Schwartz_7199 | Surgery_Schwartz | accounts for only 15% of cases of esophageal per-foration, foreign bodies for 14%, and trauma for 10%. Pain is a striking and consistent symptom and strongly suggests that an esophageal rupture has occurred, particularly if located in the cervical area following instrumentation of the esophagus, or sub-sternally in a patient with a history of resisting vomiting. If sub-cutaneous emphysema is present, the diagnosis is almost certain.Spontaneous rupture of the esophagus is associated with a high mortality rate because of the delay in recognition and treat-ment. Although there usually is a history of resisting vomiting, in a small number of patients, the injury occurs silently, without any antecedent history. When the chest radiogram of a patient with an esophageal perforation shows air or an effusion in the pleural space, the condition is often misdiagnosed as a pneumo-thorax or pancreatitis. An elevated pleural amylase caused by the extrusion of saliva through the perforation may fix | Surgery_Schwartz. accounts for only 15% of cases of esophageal per-foration, foreign bodies for 14%, and trauma for 10%. Pain is a striking and consistent symptom and strongly suggests that an esophageal rupture has occurred, particularly if located in the cervical area following instrumentation of the esophagus, or sub-sternally in a patient with a history of resisting vomiting. If sub-cutaneous emphysema is present, the diagnosis is almost certain.Spontaneous rupture of the esophagus is associated with a high mortality rate because of the delay in recognition and treat-ment. Although there usually is a history of resisting vomiting, in a small number of patients, the injury occurs silently, without any antecedent history. When the chest radiogram of a patient with an esophageal perforation shows air or an effusion in the pleural space, the condition is often misdiagnosed as a pneumo-thorax or pancreatitis. An elevated pleural amylase caused by the extrusion of saliva through the perforation may fix |
Surgery_Schwartz_7200 | Surgery_Schwartz | an effusion in the pleural space, the condition is often misdiagnosed as a pneumo-thorax or pancreatitis. An elevated pleural amylase caused by the extrusion of saliva through the perforation may fix the diag-nosis of pancreatitis in the mind of an unwary physician. If the chest radiogram is normal, a mistaken diagnosis of myocardial infarction or dissecting aneurysm is often made.Spontaneous rupture usually occurs into the left pleural cavity or just above the GEJ. About 50% of patients have concomitant GERD, suggesting that minimal resistance to the transmission of abdominal pressure into the thoracic esophagus is a factor in the pathophysiology of the lesion. During vomiting, high peaks of intragastric pressure can be recorded, frequently exceeding 200 mmHg, but because extragastric pressure remains almost equal to intragastric pressure, stretching of the gastric wall is minimal. The amount of pressure transmitted to the esophagus varies considerably, depending on the position of | Surgery_Schwartz. an effusion in the pleural space, the condition is often misdiagnosed as a pneumo-thorax or pancreatitis. An elevated pleural amylase caused by the extrusion of saliva through the perforation may fix the diag-nosis of pancreatitis in the mind of an unwary physician. If the chest radiogram is normal, a mistaken diagnosis of myocardial infarction or dissecting aneurysm is often made.Spontaneous rupture usually occurs into the left pleural cavity or just above the GEJ. About 50% of patients have concomitant GERD, suggesting that minimal resistance to the transmission of abdominal pressure into the thoracic esophagus is a factor in the pathophysiology of the lesion. During vomiting, high peaks of intragastric pressure can be recorded, frequently exceeding 200 mmHg, but because extragastric pressure remains almost equal to intragastric pressure, stretching of the gastric wall is minimal. The amount of pressure transmitted to the esophagus varies considerably, depending on the position of |
Surgery_Schwartz_7201 | Surgery_Schwartz | remains almost equal to intragastric pressure, stretching of the gastric wall is minimal. The amount of pressure transmitted to the esophagus varies considerably, depending on the position of the GEJ. When it is in the abdomen and exposed to intra-abdominal pressure, the pressure transmitted to the esophagus is much less than when it is exposed to the negative thoracic pressure. In the latter situation, the pressure in the lower esophagus will frequently equal intragastric pressure if the glottis remains closed. Cadaver studies have shown that when this pressure exceeds 150 mmHg, rupture of the esophagus is apt to occur. When a hiatal hernia is present and the sphincter remains exposed to abdominal pressure, the lesion produced is usually a Mallory-Weiss mucosal tear, and bleeding rather than perforation is the problem. This is due to the stretching of the supradiaphragmatic portion of the gastric wall. In this situation, the hernia sac represents an extension of the abdominal cavity, | Surgery_Schwartz. remains almost equal to intragastric pressure, stretching of the gastric wall is minimal. The amount of pressure transmitted to the esophagus varies considerably, depending on the position of the GEJ. When it is in the abdomen and exposed to intra-abdominal pressure, the pressure transmitted to the esophagus is much less than when it is exposed to the negative thoracic pressure. In the latter situation, the pressure in the lower esophagus will frequently equal intragastric pressure if the glottis remains closed. Cadaver studies have shown that when this pressure exceeds 150 mmHg, rupture of the esophagus is apt to occur. When a hiatal hernia is present and the sphincter remains exposed to abdominal pressure, the lesion produced is usually a Mallory-Weiss mucosal tear, and bleeding rather than perforation is the problem. This is due to the stretching of the supradiaphragmatic portion of the gastric wall. In this situation, the hernia sac represents an extension of the abdominal cavity, |
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