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23 April 2014 by Kay
This makeshift collecting tin was used by the Kirkby Miners’ Support Committee, Kirkby Unemployed Centre, to raise money for striking miners 1984-5.
Thousands of coal miners across the country started industrial action in March 1984 when the government announced their intention to close 20 coal mines, as well as the plan, in the long-term, to close over 70 pits. Mass walk-outs and strikes began, leading to clashes between miners and the police.
Many miners and their families suffered extreme poverty struggling to survive without wages. People from across Merseyside showed solidarity and support for the miners by raising money and sending food and essentials to the struggling families.
We have a number of items in the museum’s collection reflecting local support from Kirkby, Granby and Ellesmere Port.
The strike finally ended on 3 March 1985, nearly a year after it had begun.
The tin, along with vouchers and tickets in aid of the Miners’ Strike are on display in The People’s Republic Gallery, Museum of Liverpool.
(Comments are closed for this post.)
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A new system devised by MIT engineers could provide a low-cost source of drinking water for parched cities around the world while also cutting power plant operating costs.
About 39 percent of all the fresh water withdrawn from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in the U.S. is earmarked for the cooling needs of electric power plants that use fossil fuels or nuclear power, and much of that water ends up floating away in clouds of vapor. But the new MIT system could potentially save a substantial fraction of that lost water — and could even become a significant source of clean, safe drinking water for coastal cities where seawater is used to cool local power plants.
The principle behind the new concept is deceptively simple: When air that’s rich in fog is zapped with a beam of electrically charged particles, known as ions, water droplets become electrically charged and thus can be drawn toward a mesh of wires, similar to a window screen, placed in their path. The droplets then collect on that mesh, drain down into a collecting pan, and can be reused in the power plant or sent to a city’s water supply system.
The system, which is the basis for a startup company called Infinite Cooling that last month won MIT’s $100K Entrepreneurship Competition, is described in a paper published today in the journal Science Advances, co-authored by Maher Damak PhD ’18 and associate professor of mechanical engineering Kripa Varanasi. Damak and Varanasi are among the co-founders of the startup, and their research is supported in part by the Tata Center for Technology and Design.
Varanasi’s vision was to develop highly efficient water recovery systems by capturing water droplets from both natural fog and plumes of industrial cooling towers. The project began as part of Damak’s doctoral thesis, which aimed to improve the efficiency of fog-harvesting systems that are used in many water-scarce coastal regions as a source of potable water. Those systems, which generally consist of some kind of plastic or metal mesh hung vertically in the path of fogbanks that regularly roll in from the sea, are extremely inefficient, capturing only about 1 to 3 percent of the water droplets that pass through them. Varanasi and Damak wondered if there was a way to make the mesh catch more of the droplets — and found a very simple and effective way of doing so.
The reason for the inefficiency of existing systems became apparent in the team’s detailed lab experiments: The problem is in the aerodynamics of the system. As a stream of air passes an obstacle, such as the wires in these mesh fog-catching screens, the airflow naturally deviates around the obstacle, much as air flowing around an airplane wing separates into streams that pass above and below the wing structure. These deviating airstreams carry droplets that were heading toward the wire off to the side, unless they were headed bang-on toward the wire’s center.
The result is that the fraction of droplets captured is far lower than the fraction of the collection area occupied by the wires, because droplets are being swept aside from wires that lie in front of them. Just making the wires bigger or the spaces in the mesh smaller tends to be counterproductive because it hampers the overall airflow, resulting in a net decrease in collection.
But when the incoming fog gets zapped first with an ion beam, the opposite effect happens. Not only do all of the droplets that are in the path of the wires land on them, even droplets that were aiming for the holes in the mesh get pulled toward the wires. This system can thus capture a much larger fraction of the droplets passing through. As such, it could dramatically improve the efficiency of fog-catching systems, and at a surprisingly low cost. The equipment is simple, and the amount of power required is minimal.
Next, the team focused on capturing water from the plumes of power plant cooling towers. There, the stream of water vapor is much more concentrated than any naturally occurring fog, and that makes the system even more efficient. And since capturing evaporated water is in itself a distillation process, the water captured is pure, even if the cooling water is salty or contaminated. At this point, Karim Khalil, another graduate student from Varanasi’s lab joined the team.
“It’s distilled water, which is of higher quality, that’s now just wasted,” says Varanasi. “That’s what we’re trying to capture.” The water could be piped to a city’s drinking water system, or used in processes that require pure water, such as in a power plant’s boilers, as opposed to being used in its cooling system where water quality doesn’t matter much.
A typical 600-megawatt power plant, Varanasi says, could capture 150 million gallons of water a year, representing a value of millions of dollars. This represents about 20 to 30 percent of the water lost from cooling towers. With further refinements, the system may be able to capture even more of the output, he says.
What’s more, since power plants are already in place along many arid coastlines, and many of them are cooled with seawater, this provides a very simple way to provide water desalination services at a tiny fraction of the cost of building a standalone desalination plant. Damak and Varanasi estimate that the installation cost of such a conversion would be about one-third that of a building a new desalination plant, and its operating costs would be about 1/50. The payback time for installing such a system would be about two years, Varanasi says, and it would have essentially no environmental footprint, adding nothing to that of the original plant.
“This can be a great solution to address the global water crisis,” Varanasi says. “It could offset the need for about 70 percent of new desalination plant installations in the next decade.”
In a series of dramatic proof-of-concept experiments, Damak, Khalil, and Varanasi demonstrated the concept by building a small lab version of a stack emitting a plume of water droplets, similar to those seen on actual power plant cooling towers, and placed their ion beam and mesh screen on it. In video of the experiment, a thick plume of fog droplets is seen rising from the device — and almost instantly disappears as soon as the system is switched on.
The team is currently building a full-scale test version of their system to be placed on the cooling tower of MIT’s Central Utility Plant, a natural-gas cogeneration power plant that provides most of the campus’ electricity, heating, and cooling. The setup is expected to be in place by the end of the summer and will undergo testing in the fall. The tests will include trying different variations of the mesh and its supporting structure, Damak says.
That should provide the needed evidence to enable power plant operators, who tend to be conservative in their technology choices, to adopt the system. Because power plants have decades-long operating lifetimes, their operators tend to “be very risk-averse” and want to know “has this been done somewhere else?” Varanasi says. The campus power plant tests will not only “de-risk” the technology, but will also help the MIT campus improve its water footprint, he says. “This can have a high impact on water use on campus.”
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a) Just use a scientific calculator, find the tan button and locate the 2nd function button on the calculator, press the 2nd function button then the tan button then open parentheses and type (sqrt3/3) then hit equal. Also note that sqrt3/3 = 1/sqrt3 (check with calculator for proof, or multiply (1/sqrt3) by (sqrt3/sqrt3) ), which is the ratio of tan 30 degrees in this special 30–60–90 degrees triangle and based on the image provided, the angle 30 satisfies tan^-1 (1/sqrt3).
b) I am not sure I understand the question, can you verify it please.
c)csc (x) is equal to sin (1/x) . Therefor, csc^-1 (sqrt2) = sin^-1 (1/sqrt2) , same principal as in part a): Use a calculator or NOTE that sqrt2 is part of another special triangle: and based on the diagram I gave you, the angle 45 satisfies this problem since sine is opp/hyp, and the ratio of angle 45 (sin) is 1 /sqrt2 .
d) You should try this question using a calculator and the special triangles I provided. Hint cot (x) = tan (1/x)
If you have more questions please ask!
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“We came up with the idea of using the genetic information of the skin they were written on to investigate the possible connection between different fragments.”
Category: Knowledge Increased
MIGAL and IIBR are both testing potential COVID-19 vaccinations on mammals
Scientists at the Casey Eye Institute, in Portland, Ore., have have injected a harmless virus containing CRISPR gene-editing instructions inside the retinal cells of a patient with a rare form of genetic blindness.
KTSDesign/Getty Images/Science Photo Library
A team of Israeli scientists are on the cusp of developing the first vaccine against coronavirus, according to Israel’s Minister of Science and Technology, Ofir Akunis. If all goes as planned, the vaccine could be ready within three weeks and available in 90 days.
Researchers have managed to quantum teleport information between two computer chips for the first timenicholashan/Depositphotos
“Prime editing” is more precise and more efficient than CRISPR and could herald a new era of genetic manipulation.
Study the Life and Ministry of Jesus Christ!
Free Registration: Sign up today!
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The year 2009 marks the bicentennial of Abraham Lincoln’s birth, and it provides an occasion to honor the memory of America’s greatest president: the savior of the Union and the emancipator of America’s slaves. The festivities have already begun, and they will continue for many months.
Yet it would be a missed opportunity if we simply celebrated Lincoln’s extraordinary achievements. It may sound paradoxical, but by treating Lincoln as a demigod, a person apart, we actually risk devaluing his accomplishments. Before he became a marble monument, before his murder made him a secular saint, he was a thoroughly human being: a man with the temptations of any man, a lawyer who defended causes worthy and questionable, a politician who understood that the prerequisite to effecting his vision for America was getting elected, a president forced to feel his way along a dark path trod by no other occupant of the White House, a commander in chief compelled to master a horrifically daunting craft by trial and error.
Tracing the emergence of Lincoln’s genius requires something that sounds counterintuitive, especially to students of history: We must relinquish the perspective of hindsight. To understand Lincoln we have to put ourselves in his place and time; we have to forget what we know of how his future unfolded; we have to encounter and engage him as he was when that future was as uncertain as the future always is.
In the present issue of American History, and the five issues to follow in 2009, we turn back the clock to six crucial moments in Lincoln’s career—six episodes that tested, revealed and enlarged Lincoln’s character and made him the towering figure he became. Our guide on this journey is historian H.W. Brands, the author of 22 books including Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (November 2008), Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times (2005) and the Pulitzer Prize–nominated The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000). In “Dangerous Ambition,” p. 28, Brands introduces us to Lincoln as a middle-aged lawyer with frustrated ambitions who restarts his political career in the summer of 1858 by running for the Senate from Illinois. He challenges Stephen A. Douglas, the great compromiser on sectional disputes, by asserting a radical claim: that the nation cannot continue to exist half-slave and half-free.
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Exactly how virtual memory is implemented is complex, but as an over-simplification:
- You run programs that need memory. The operating system takes care of tracking which program is using what portions of memory, and allocating each program the amount of memory it needs.
- Those programs will need more memory as they do their jobs. Opening a large document may cause your word processor to request additional memory from the operating system in order to hold the document.
- If there isn’t enough RAM available to satisfy a request, the operating system may decide that another program’s needs are less “important.” Some of that program’s memory will be freed, first by writing the contents to disk (the memory is “swapped out”), and then allocated to the program making the request.
- Later, when the program whose memory was swapped out needs it back, that memory can be “swapped in” by reading it back from disk. This might cause memory from another program to be swapped out to disk to make room.
Remember that the operating system itself is just a program; needs memory too. It can allocate memory to itself, and its memory may get swapped out to disk as other needs arise.
(This is an excerpt from the lengthier Ask Leo! article: What is Virtual Memory?)« Back to Glossary Index
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Antonia Frasers biography of King Charles the Second was first published in 1979 by Weidenfeld and Nicholson, and it has been sitting on my book shelf, unopened, for a long time. I finally got around to reading it last month and it was well worth the time. By ancestry, Charles Stuart was a quarter Scots, a quarter Danish, a quarter French and a quarter Italian, and yet from 1660 he was King of England, Ireland and Scotland. Both his mother, his paternal grandmother, his only brother James, and his wife were all Catholics but, until he became Catholic himself on his death bed, he was a member and head of the Church of England.
THE FATHER OF THE PRESENT BRITISH ARISTOCRACY
He was married to Catherine of Braganza, but they had no children. He had numerous mistresses, and six of his illegitimate sons became Dukes. In fact his descendants make up a big portion of the English aristocracy. Apparently the late Princess Diana, as well as both the current Duchesses of Cornwall, Camilla, and also the Duchess of York, former wife of Prince Andrew, are, all three of them, directly descended from King Charles the Second in this way. When Princess Diana’s son, Prince William, becomes King, a direct descendant of Charles the Second will finally be on the throne , over three hundred years late! When his father, King Charles the First, lost the Civil War to Oliver Cromwell, and was subsequently executed, the younger Charles had to spend a great deal of time in exile in continental Europe, often leaving unpaid bills behind him, and living in the homes of supporters, like Thomas Preston, Viscount Tara, whose family still live in County Meath.
RELIANCE ON FRENCH SUBSIDIES
Mainly, he was subsidized during his exile by King Louis the Fourteenth of France. He eventually was restored to the throne in 1660 because Richard Cromwell, successor to his father Oliver as Lord Protector, was unable to maintain order and security, and the head of the English Army, General Monck, felt that order could best be secured by the restoration of the monarchy. Even after his restoration to the throne, Charles had to rely on subsidies from King Louis the Fourteenth, because the English Parliament was inclined to impose unwelcome conditions on any money it might vote to cover the Kings military and other expenses. This, of course, constrained Charles’ foreign policy.
LINKS TO IRELAND
It was during the reign of Charles the Second that Oliver Plunkett was condemned to death on trumped up charges. Charles did not do anything to stop this happening, despite his private Catholic sympathies. It was also during his reign that the Phoenix Park in Dublin was set aside as a public park. Apparently one of Charles former mistresses wanted it for herself, but she was blocked by the Earl of Essex, who was the Lord Lieutenant of the time. Antonia Fraser’s book is an entertaining account of Charles’ relationship with his wife, his mistresses and with his brother James. He managed to keep them all reasonably happy. It also brings out how central religious questions were in seventeenth century politics, notwithstanding the disorderly private lives of many of the leading protagonists. Charles was forced to accept a Test Act which excluded from public office all who did not attend Church of England services. The persistent attempts to exclude James from succession to the throne, simply because he was a Catholic, were a recurring theme in Charles’ reign. James did succeed when Charles died, but was overthrown by a military coup d’etat led by his son in law, William of Orange. As with Charles, Louis the Fourteenth came to James’ aid, sending an army to Ireland to fight in his behalf along with James’ Irish supporters. They were finally defeated at the Battle of Aughrim, in Co Galway, in 1691.
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Hannibal Lecter can probably feel for his victims, but only if you ask him.
A brain-imaging study of 18 violent, psychopathic criminals in the Netherlands, the largest such study undertaken, suggests they can summon empathy when prompted.
The report, published last week in the journal Brain, showed that empathic circuits that are unconsciously activated in the brains of normal people may be dormant or switched off in psychopaths — not absent, as commonly thought. Those circuits, the study showed, can be activated after psychopaths are prompted to see a situation from someone else’s point of view.
“They do have empathy; it’s just that it’s not always on,” said neuroscientist Christian Keysers of the Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, lead author of the study, undertaken in Groningen, Netherlands.
Keysers and his team were given access to offenders who committed violent crimes, such as rape and murder, but who were found not responsible due to a psychopathy diagnosis. The offenders are housed in forensic psychiatric facilities, which are obligated to make them available for clinical study.
Each of the diagnosed psychopaths was connected to a functional magnetic resonance imaging machine while he watched video segments showing two hands approaching each other and either caressing, hitting, pushing away or touching the other in a neutral fashion. They were not told what the experiment was about.
The imagery showed that frontal lobe circuits associated with vicarious experience were not activated nearly as much as were those of a control group.
At a second viewing, however, a researcher asked each to put himself in the point of view of one of the actors’ hands. The empathy circuits became more active.
Working with psychopaths is never easy, and rehabilitation that occurs in a psychiatric facility frequently fails in the outside world. Psychopaths are known for adroit social skills that allow them to manipulate people for nefarious ends.
“I don’t think they were manipulating their brain waves to give us what we wanted, which is what they do do when you give them a questionnaire,” Keysers said. “The simple reason is that during the first run when they just watched the movies, we didn’t give them any instruction and they didn’t have any empathy.”
Public fascination with psychopathy has been consistently high, driven in large part by horror movies, novels and pop-psychology treatments. But peer-reviewed academic studies also have linked psychopathic tendencies with the charming, manipulative, grandiose, risky and seemingly guiltless behavior of many leaders, such as politicians, chief executive officers and other telegenic public figures. A 2010 study of 204 corporate professionals found that about 4 percent met the clinical threshold for psychopathy based on their scores on a psychopathy checklist developed by Dr. Robert Hare at the University of British Columbia.
Theories of psychopathy’s origins center around deficits in instrumental learning and attention. Keyser’s conclusions merge with those hypotheses. Of particular note were scans that showed abnormal activation in the amygdala, an area of the paralimbic system associated with emotional learning. Psychopaths may lack clues to the salience of social stimuli, an attribute shared to a certain degree with autism spectrum disorder. Psychopaths therefore may not be able to develop more complex structures of rules and morals, said Keysers.
“They don’t have this tendency that we normally have to be drawn into what the other person is feeling, and you can rephrase that as an attentional deficit,” Keysers said. “They simply don’t attend to what is going on with other people, automatically.”
Kent Kiehl, a neuroscientist at the University of New Mexico who has amassed the largest collection of brain data on criminals, said other evidence supports Keysers’ conclusions.
“I agree with the paper’s thesis that psychopathy is associated with a general lack of responsivity in the paralimbic system, but with effort, attention, manipulation and treatment, we believe psychopaths can increase activity in these regions,” said Kiehl, who was not involved in the Dutch study. “The big question is whether their ability to increase empathy can be regulated in such a manner that they use it in the real world to improve outcomes.”
But there is a substantial gulf between automatic empathic responses and those that result from cognitive control. Because a psychopath likely cannot be “trained” to summon up empathy to counterbalance manipulative and violent behavior, therapies would have to focus on embedding the process where it belongs: in the largely unconscious emotional regulating centers of the brain.
“From a therapeutical point of view, the big implication of our study is it does not seem to be the case that they have broken empathy per se,” Keysers said. “That would suggest that what therapies need to do is not so much try to create empathy in them, but try to make empathy more automatic and potentially do so by making the social cues of others more salient, so they will always be drawn into this empathy mode that they can activate when they want to.”
A brain study of violent, psychopathic criminals shows that they don’t lack empathy but can switch it off.
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Age Group: 6-8 months
1/4 cup ground barley (barley ground in blender or food processor)
1 cup water
Method of cooking:
1. Bring water to a boil. Add the barley and simmer for 10 minutes, whisking constantly
2. Mix in formula or breast milk or juice and add fruits if desired
3. Serve warm
Eating barley is believed to help regulate blood sugar, lower cholesterol and prevent heart disease and certain types of cancer. Interestingly, research has shown that it is also useful in protecting against childhood asthma.
It contains amino acids, lots of fibre (ounce for ounce, three times as much fibre as oatmeal), B vitamins, iron, selenium, copper, manganese and phosphorus.
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Severe Sea States
Severe seas of any kind are dangerous if you are not prepared. You should take special care in the following situations.
In beam seas, excessive roll can cause cargo to shift, creating a dangerous list. This could cause the vessel to capsize. Strong breaking waves could also capsize the vessel.
In following seas, a vessel may lose stability on a wave crest. If the vessel is overtaken by a wave crest, broaching may occur.
In quartering seas, the problems of beam and following seas are combined. Quartering seas represent the most dangerous situation in severe weather.
- Date modified:
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The Supreme must be an entity in which the two are one; it will, therefore, be a Seeing that lives, not an object of vision like things existing in something other than themselves: what exists in an outside element is some mode of living-thing; it is not the Self-Living.
– Plotinus: ‘The Six Enneads’
Plotinus has given its fullest development to Neo-Platonism. We will follow his working out of the two fundamental ideas which, in his view, sum up all philosophy.
(1) The Process of Emanation from a Supreme Principle, the one source of all existing things, explains the physical and the metaphysical worlds. According as this principle gives out its energy, it exhausts itself; its determinations follow a descending scale, becoming less and less perfect. The following are the successive steps in the process:
At the head of the intelligible world, far removed from the world of sense (Plato), reigns One Supreme Essence. To safeguard its transcendence, Piotinus states it to be absolutely indeterminate (apeiron). No quality marks or defines it; nothing can determine it, for all determination implies limitation (negative theodicy). The Supreme Being has no attribute, not even intellect or will: knowledge and volition suppose a duality of knower and thing known, of that which wills and that which is willed; and all duality is irreconcilable with the infinitely perfect. However, as this negative concept has for basis the Divine perfection, Plotinus has recourse to positive descriptions, the insufficiency of which, moreover, he fully recognises. By preference he describes the Supreme Being as the First (to prôton), the One, the Universal Cause, Goodness (Plato), Light. Immutable in itself, this First Unitary Being does not diffuse its substance into other beings, as the advocates of substantialist pantheism maintain; but it permeates them by its activity (dynamic pantheism); and what we call the proper, specific substantiality of things is simply the product of this activity. Furthermore, this outflow of the Divine activity into all other beings is not direct and immediate; it is effected through the agency of intermediary forces which emanate successively from one another. And as the effect is always less perfect than the cause, these activities are arranged in gradation according to their respective degrees of perfection, each one occupying a position which is lower the greater the number of intermediate steps by which it communicates with the Divine energy. What are these intermediaries into which the Divine energy flows, as it were, by cascades? Plotinus reduces them to three: Intelligence and the World-Soul in the suprasensible order; and, in the sensible order, Matter.
– Maurice De Wulf: ‘History of Medieval Philosophy’, 1909
Only blankness, complete awareness, distinterestedness; the “artist-as-artist” only, of one and rational mind, “vacant and spiritual, empty and marvelous,” in symmetries and regularities only; the changeless “human content,” the timeless “supreme principle,” the ageless “universal formula” of art, nothing else.
– Ad Reinhardt, ‘Timeless in Asia’, Art News, January 1960
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The German Military System
Section I. INTRODUCTION
I. Total War
The Germans have long devoted a large part of their national energies to both the study and the application of the science of war. The German Army which was built up under the Nazi regime and which challenged the world in 1939 was the final product of this study. It represented the fruition of decades of long-range planning, organization, experimentation, and mechanical development directed toward the sole end of creating a military instrument which would be a match for any foreseeable combination of adversaries. Supported by the entire economic, political, and psychological resources of a totalitarian government, it was destined to overrun almost the whole of Europe in a series of victorious campaigns unequalled since the days of Napoleon. The three greatest nations on earth were forced to muster all their human and material power to crush the German military machine by the only possible method--overwhelming superiority of force.
Total war is neither a modern invention nor a German monopoly. But total mobilization, in the sense of the complete and scientific control of all the efforts of the nation for the purposes of war, and total utilization of war as an instrument of national policy have been developed to their highest degree by the German militarists. Central control and careful coordination, by qualified experts, of a military machine which is built with all the best available materials and put together for the highest efficiency of operation have been the secret of such military victories as the Germans have achieved.
It is the purpose of this Handbook to describe this military machine in all its aspects. No one of the supporting pillars of the German Army--its personnel, its High Command, its administrative structure, its unit organization, its weapons, its tactical doctrines--can stand or fall alone. The various chapters and sections which follow must be studied together as various facets of a whole.
2. The German Army Today
When the German Panzer divisions struck out across the Polish frontier at dawn on 1 September 1939, no one could predict the scope, intensity, and duration of the armed conflict which they were precipitating. The German Army then was fresh, vigorous, expansive, and obviously superior to its contemporaries. Its weapons were new and shiny; its tactics and techniques--the old doctrines adapted to the new conditions--were untried; its officers and men were young and full of enthusiasm. A career of easy conquest seemed to open up before it.
After five and a half years of ever growing battle against ever-stronger enemies, the German Army in 1945 looks, at first glance, much the worse for wear. It is beset on all sides and is short of everything. It has suffered appalling casualties and must resort to old men, boys, invalids, and unreliable foreigners for its cannon fodder. Its weapons and tactics seem not to have kept pace with those of the armies opposing it; its supply system in the field frequently breaks down. Its position is obviously hopeless, and it can only be a question of time until the last German soldier is disarmed, and the once proud German Army of the great Frederick and of Scharnhorst, of Ludendorff and of Hitler, exists no more as a factor to be reckoned with.
Yet this shabby, war-weary machine has struggled on in a desperate effort to postpone its inevitable demise. At the end of 1944 it was still able to mount an offensive calculated to delay for months the definitive piercing of the western
bulwarks of Germany. Despite the supposed chronic disunity at the top, disaffection among the officer corps, and disloyalty in the rank and file, despite the acute lack of weapons, ammunition, fuel, transport, and human reserves, the German Army seems to function with its old precision and to overcome what appear to be insuperable difficulties with remarkable speed. Only by patient and incessant hammering from all sides can its collapse be brought about.
The cause of this toughness, even in defeat, is not generally appreciated. It goes much deeper than the quality of weapons, the excellence of training and leadership, the soundness of tactical and strategic doctrine, or the efficiency of control at all echelons. It is to be found in the military tradition which is so deeply ingrained in the whole character of the German nation and which alone makes possible the interplay of these various factors of strength to their full effectiveness.
The German Army of 1939 was a model of efficiency, the best product of the concentrated military genius of the most scientifically military of nations. A study of the German Army of 1945, however, older and wiser, hardened and battle-tested, cornered and desperate as it is, will show best how this military science and military genius operate in the practical exigencies of long-drawn-out total war.
Section II. THE GERMAN SOLDIER
1. Fanatic or Weakling?
The German soldier who faces the Allies on the home fronts in 1945 is a very different type from the members of the Army of 1939 which Hitler called "an Army such as the world has never seen". The German soldier is one of several different types depending on whether he is a veteran of 4 or 5 years, or a new recruit. The veteran of many fronts and many retreats is a prematurely aged, war weary cynic, either discouraged and disillusioned or too stupefied to have any thought of his own. Yet he is a seasoned campaigner, most likely a noncommissioned officer, and performs his duties with the highest degree of efficiency.
The new recruit, except in some crack SS units, is either too young or too old and often in poor health.
He has been poorly trained for lack of time but, if too young, he makes up for this by a fanaticism bordering on madness. If too old, he is driven by the fear of what his propagandists have told him will happen to the Fatherland in case of an Allied victory, and even more by the fear of what he has been told will happen to him and his family if he does not carry out orders exactly as given. Thus even the old and sick perform, to a certain point, with the courage of despair.
The German High Command has been particularly successful in placing the various types of men where they best fit, and in selecting those to serve as cannon fodder, who are told to hold out to the last man, while every effort is made to preserve the elite units, which now are almost entirely part of the Waffen-SS. The German soldier in these units is in a preferred category and is the backbone of the German Armed Forces. He is pledged never to surrender and has no moral code except allegiance to his organization. There is no limit to his ruthlessness.
The mentality of the German soldier of 1945 is the final result of that policy of militarism which, even in the 19th century, caused a famous German general to recommend that soldiers should be trained to ask of their superiors: "Master, order us where we may die."
2. Manpower Problems
a. ANNUAL CLASS SYSTEM. When Hitler reintroduced general conscription in 1935, the greatest possible care was taken to create a strong military force without disrupting the economic life of the nation. Men were registered by annual classes and during the years before the war those of the older classes were called only in small groups to attend training exercises of limited duration. Even for the younger classes, all feasible arrangements were made for the deferment of students and of those engaged in necessary occupations. Men accepted for active service were called to the colors by individual letter rather than by public announcement for their annual class. This system was continued in the gradual mobilization which preceded the outbreak of the war in such a way that the wartime Army could be built up organically and the normal course of life was not seriously upset.
b. WAR DEVELOPMENTS. As long as the war was conducted on a limited scale, the Armed Forces were very liberal in granting occupational and medical discharges. As the war progressed and grew in scope and casualties mounted, it became necessary to recall many of these men and eventually to reach increasingly into both the older and the younger age groups.
After Germany changed from the offensive to the defensive in 1943, it became both possible and necessary to transfer an increasing number of Air Force and naval personnel to the Army, to enforce "voluntary" enlistment in the Waffen-SS, and to commit line-of-communication units to regular combat not only against partisans but against regular enemy forces.
The increasingly heavy losses of the Russian campaign forced Hitler to cancel his order exempting "last sons" of decimated families and fathers of large families from front-line combat duty. Prisons and concentration camps were combed out for men who could be used in penal combat units with the inducement of possible later reinstatement of their civic rights.
Although a "total mobilization" was carried out in the spring of 1943, after Stalingrad, it became necessary by the end of that year to lower the physical classification standards drastically and to register men up to 60 years of age for military service. Even men with severe stomach ailments were drafted into special-diet battalions. During the summer of 1944, civilian occupations were reduced to an absolutely necessary minimum. Finally, the remaining male civilians from 16 to 60 were made liable for home defense combat service in the "Volkssturm" and even Hitler Youth boys and girls were called up as auxiliaries.
Along with these measures there went a continuous reorganization of combat as well as administrative units for the purpose of increasing efficiency and saving personnel.
The strength of divisions was lowered while their firepower was increased and their components were made more flexible. Severe comb-outs were made among rear-area personnel and technical specialists. The strongest possible measures were introduced against waste of manpower, inefficiency, and desertions, particularly after the Army was brought under the ever increasing control of the SS, in the summer and autumn of 1944.
After the Allied breakthrough in France, Himmler was appointed Commander of the Replacement Army and as such made the Waffen-SS the backbone of German national defense. Whole units of the Air Force and Navy were taken over and trained by the Waffen-SS and then distributed among depleted field units. The organization and employment of the Volkssturm is under Himmler's direct control.
The complicated record system of the Armed Forces was maintained in principle but streamlined for the sake of saving manpower.
c. FOREIGN ELEMENTS. (1) Original policy. In their attempts to solve their ever acute manpower problems, the Germans have not neglected to make the fullest possible use of foreign elements for almost every conceivable purpose and by almost every conceivable method. Originally, great stress was laid on keeping the Armed Forces nationally "pure". Jews and Gypsies were excluded from military service. Foreign volunteers were not welcomed. Germans residing abroad and possessing either German or dual citizenship were rounded up through the German consulates from 1937 on. When Germany set out to invade other countries, beginning with Austria, only the inhabitants of these countries who were held to be of German or related blood became liable to German military service; the Czech minority in Austria, for example, was exempted.
(2) Recruiting of foreigners. With the invasion of Russia in June 1941, German propagandists set themselves to the task of changing the whole aspect of the war from a national German affair to a "European war of liberation from Communism". In this way the Nazis were able to obtain a considerable number of volunteers from occupied and even neutral countries, who were organized in combat units of their own in German uniforms and under German training. The original policy was to incorporate racially related "Germanic" people, such as the Dutch and Scandinavians, into the Waffen-SS and non-Germanic people such as the Croats into the Army. When the failures in Russia and other increasing difficulties began to affect the morale of the foreigners, their "voluntary recruitment" became more and more a matter of compulsion and their service in separate national units had to be brought under more rigid supervision. The organization of such units, therefore, was turned over in increasing measure to the Waffen-SS, even in the case of racially non-Germanic elements.
At the same time, it became necessary for the Army to fill its own depleted German units by adding a certain percentage of foreign recruits. This was done partly by declaring the inhabitants of annexed territories, such as the Polish Corridor, to be "racial Germans" (Volksdeutsche),
making them provisional German citizens subject to induction into the Armed Forces. A considerable source of manpower was Soviet prisoners of war of different national origins. Some of these were put into regular German units as "racial" Germans; others were employed in such units as "auxiliary volunteers". Separate national units also were created from Cossacks and from the numerous peoples who inhabit the Caucasus and Turkestan and are collectively referred to by the Germans as "Eastern Peoples" (Ostvölker). Every possible inducement has been used for the recruiting of foreigners, including their religion, as in the case of the Mohammedans in the Balkans. Only in the case of Jews and Gypsies was the original policy of exclusion not only upheld but extended during the war to include those of 50 per cent Jewish descent.
3. Duties and Rights of the Soldier
a. THE OATH. Every German soldier, upon induction, is compelled to affirm his legally established military obligation by means of the following oath (vow, for atheists): "I swear by God this holy oath (I vow) that I will render unconditional obedience to the Fuhrer of Germany and of her people, Adolf Hitler, the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, and that, as a brave soldier, I will be prepared to stake my life for this oath (vow) at any time." If, because of an oversight, the oath has not been administered to a soldier, he is held to be in the same position as though he had sworn it; the oath is regarded only as the affirmation of an inherent legal duty.
b. MILITARY DISCIPLINE. The German system of military discipline is rigorous, and excesses are severely punished. In principle, absolute and unquestioning obedience towards superiors is required. However, since the summer of 1944, when the Army came under the political influence of the Nazi Party, new orders were issued providing that disloyal superiors not only need not be obeyed but in emergencies may be liquidated by their own men. Officers who do not lead their men into combat or show other signs of cowardice or who, for any reason, mutilate themselves, are normally condemned to death. Divisional commanders and other high-ranking combat officers are specifically ordered to set an example of leadership in the front lines; this explains the high casualty rate among German generals.
Traditionally, German superior officers were addressed only indirectly, in the third person, as "Herr Major is absolutely right." Hitler, however, is addressed directly as "My Leader". Therefore, the Nazis made use of the direct form of address toward superior officers at first optional, then compulsory. Superior officers and noncommissioned officers are addressed as "Mr." (Herr) followed by their rank; in the Waffen-SS, however, only by their rank: "Herr Leutnant!", but "Untersturmfuhrer!"
Originally, a distinction was made between the regular military salute and the "German salutation" (Deutscher Gruss) which consists of saying "Heil Hitler!" with the right arm outstretched. In August 1944 the latter type of salute was made compulsory throughout. Everyone salutes his own superiors as well as others entitled to a salute according to the following general rules: Every officer is the superior of all lower-ranking officers and all enlisted men; every noncommissioned officer is the superior of all privates; every noncommissioned officer in one of the first three grades is the superior of lower-grade noncommissioned officers in his own unit. There is no general rank superiority otherwise among noncommissioned officers or among the various grades of privates; however, all members of the Armed Forces are obligated to "greet" one another as a matter of military etiquette.
Members of the Armed Forces are forbidden to associate with foreigners even if they are racially related; marriages between soldiers and non-German women are subject to approval, which is given only after a very thorough investigation; the offspring of such marriages are considered to be German. In the Waffen-SS, such marriages are entirely prohibited for German personnel.
Men who severely and repeatedly violate military discipline, but not to an extent that warrants a death sentence, are transferred to correction battalions for a probationary period and given arduous and dangerous assignments; if incorrigible, they are then turned over to the police for extreme punishment.
c. PRESERVATION OF HONOR. Honor is considered the soldier's highest possession. Except in extreme cases, he may be given the opportunity to redeem himself for a dishonorable action by a heroic death in battle or, in milder cases, by exceptionally brave and meritorious service in the lowest grade of private to which he is reduced from his former rank. However, there also exists a rigid personal honor code for officers. Under
its provisions, they are obligated to defend their own personal honor as well as the good name of their wives by every possible means and are held to account for violations committed by themselves or their wives. According to the German conception, special honor rules apply to officers and those civilians who are socially their equals. These rules provide in extreme cases for settlement by duel with pistols until one of the two parties is fully incapacitated. This is a leftover from feudal times; before Hitler's assumption of power, a half-hearted attempt was made to outlaw duelling by officers, but the penalties provided were light and did not carry moral stigma. It is significant that under Hitler, duelling of officers was legalized in cases where all efforts at settlement by an officers' court of honor (appointed by a regimental or higher commander) fail; however, for duels between two officers, but not between an officer and a civilian, a decision must first be obtained from the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. Their medieval conception of honor has a strong influence on the mentality and actions of many German officers. An officer is obligated to react to deliberate insults instantaneously, in a positive and masterly fashion, and to protect other officers from becoming the object of public disgrace.
In the SS, "qualified" enlisted men (i.e. those who carry the dagger) are subject to the same honor rules as officers, being obligated to "defend their honor by force of arms".
4. Morale Factors
a. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OFFICERS AND MEN. The opening of the officer's career to the common German man of the people was a revolutionary change in the German social system brought about by Hitler. It has created an entirely different type of relationship among the ranks than existed in the armies of Imperial Germany.
No one can become an officer without being a certified Nazi, even if not a member of the Party, and without being considered capable of imbuing his men with the Nazi spirit. Thus, the social mingling between officers and men in off-duty hours, which has been encouraged by the Nazis to some extent, appears to have a strong propagandist purpose. A sincere personal interest of the officer in his men is encouraged, the all-important requirement being that he must have their confidence. In case of death, the soldier's next of kin receive their firstnotification through a personal letter from hiscompany commander, which is handed to themby the local leader of the Nazi Party.
b. POLITICS IN THE ARMED FORCES. Traditionally, all German military personnel is barred from all political activities including the right to vote. Hitler, when introducing general conscription, maintained this tradition in order to obtain the full support of the military and decreed that membership in the Nazi Party and all political activities would be dormant during the period of any man's active service. In the later stages of the war, however, serious reverses and the increasing danger of sagging morale caused the official introduction of politics into the German Armed Forces. This occurred progressively from the latter part of 1943 on, by appointment of National-Socialist guidance officers (NS-Führungsoffiziere) on all staffs, the organization of political meetings, and other efforts at raising morale, as well as through the merciless terrorization of wavering officers and soldiers by the "strong men" of the Waffen-SS.
c. AWARDS. A very extended and clever use has been made of honorary titles for units, medals and awards for individual achievements, and commemorative decorations for participation in outstanding combat engagements. It is significant, for instance, that because the German is basically averse to hand-to-hand combat, the golden close-combat bar was created in 1944, which is bestowed by Hitler personally at his headquarters, as the highest honor offered the German soldier. Himmler shortly thereafter created the golden partisan-combat bar which he bestows personally at his headquarters. The requirements for winning either bar are extremely severe so that soldiers will do their utmost. Awards and decorations may be held to have acted as very important morale-builders for the German Armed Forces.
a. RANK GROUPS AND CLASSES. German soldiers are divided into the following four rank-groups:
- Officers (Offiziere):
1st rank class: general officers (Generale).
2nd rank class: field officers (Stabsoffiziere).
3rd rank class: captains (Hauptleute und Rittmeister).
4th rank class: lieutenants (Leutnante).
- Musicians (activities suspended in November 1944).
- Noncommissioned Officers (Unteroffiziere):
1st rank class: fortress shop-foremen and horseshoeing instructors (see table).
2d rank class: noncommissioned officers of the 1st, 2d, and 3d grades. (Unteroffiziere mit Portepee)
3d rank class: officer candidates and noncommissioned officers of the 4th and 5th grades. (Fähnriche und Unteroffiziere ohne Portepee)
- Privates (Mannschaften).
Figures 1 and 2 show tables of U.S. and German equivalent ranks.
b. OFFICERS. Nearly all German officer ranks correspond to U.S. Army rank, although their terminology differs for general officers, a Generalmajor being the equivalent of a brigadier general. The functions, however, do not always correspond. This is partly due to the fact that German wartime ranks are permanent, which makes it often impossible for German officers to be promoted to the higher rank which their wartime appointment actually would warrant.
c. NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS. The noncommissioned officer ranks are divided into two groups: the first group corresponds to the first three grades in the U.S. Army. There is no rank of first sergeant; rather, this is a position usually held by a master sergeant or technical sergeant. A corporal in the German Army functions as acting sergeant and normally is promoted to the rank of staff sergeant rather than sergeant; as to the latter rank, see paragraph e.
d. PRIVATES. There are three grades in the group which correspond to U.S. privates first class, and a soldier may be promoted from any of them to become a corporal. They may be described as chief private first class in administrative position (Stabsgefreiter), senior private first class who functions as acting corporal (Obergefreiter), and ordinary private first class (Gefreiter). A soldier cannot become chief private first class without having been a senior private first class. In most branches there are senior privates first class (Obergrenadiere in infantry, Oberkanoniere in artillery; the Oberjäger, however, in the light, mountain, and parachute divisions, is a corporal) and ordinary privates (Grenadiere, Kanoniere, etc.).
e. PROMOTION OF ENLISTED MEN. In most branches, a soldier cannot become a private first class without having been a senior private and he cannot become a corporal without having been
U.S. Army Equivalent German Basic Rank Special Designation Type of Personnel General of the Army Generalfeldmarschall General Generaloberst Lieutenant General General der Infanterie, etc.
Major General Generalleutnant Generalstabs-
Arzt, etc. as above
Medical, etc. as above
Brigadier General Generalmajor General-
Arzt, etc. as above
Medical, etc. as above
Colonel Oberst Oberst-
Arzt, etc. as above
Medical, etc. as above
Lieutenant Colonel Oberstleutnant Oberfeld-
Arzt, etc. as above
Medical, etc. as above
Major Major Oberstabs-
Arzt, etc. as above
Medical, etc. as above
Captain Hauptmänn Rittmeister (cav) Stabs-
Arzt, etc. as above
Medical, etc. as above
First Lieutenant Oberleutnant Ober-
Second Lieutenant Leutnant Assistenz-
Figure 1.--Table of officer ranks.
U.S. Army Equivalent German Basic Rank Special Designation Type of Personnel none Festungsober-Werkmeister Fortress Chief Shop man Oberhufbeschlags-Lehrmeister Chief Horseshoeing Instructor none Festungs-Werkmeister Fortress Shop-Foreman Hufbeschlags-Lehrmeister Horseshoeing Instructor Master Sergeant Stabsfeldwebel Stabs-- Wachtmeister Arty, Cav, AA Beschlagmeister Horseshoeing Feuerwerker Ordnance Schirrmeister Supply Funkmeister Signal Brieftaubenmeister Pigeoneer Technical Sergeant Oberfeldwebel Ober-- Wachtmeister etc., as above Arty, Cav, AA as above Oberfähnrich Senior Officer Candidate Unter-- Arzt Medical Veterinär Veterinary Staff Sergeant Feldwebel Wachtmeister etc., as above Arty, Cav, AA as above Fahnenjunker-Feldwebel Advanced Officer Candidate Sergeant Unterfeldwebel Unterwachtmeister Arty, Cav, AA Fahnenjunker Officer Candidate Corporal Unteroffizier Oberjäger Light and Mt Inf. Private First Class (administrative) Stabsgefreiter Hauptgefreiter Air Force (acting corporal) Obergefreiter (ordinary) Gefreiter Private (Senior) Obersoldat
Oberschütze Tanks, Antitank Ober-
Cavalry Kanonier Artillery Pionier Engineers Funker Signal Fahrer Transport (horse-drawn) Kraftfahrer Motor Transport Sanitätssoldat Medical (ordinary) Soldat
Panzer-Grenadier (Schutze) Armored Infantry Jager Light Mountain Infantry Flieger Air Force Reiter, etc., as above Cavalry, etc., as above
Figure 2.--Table of enlisted ranks.
Promotions to all noncommissioned officer ranks except sergeant and master sergeant normally are dependent upon tables of organization, in addition to the following specifications:
From To After 4 months service in combat unit other field unit after: Private First Class (Ordinary, Senior, Chief) Corporal 2 years total service no limitation Corporal or Sergeant Staff Sergeant 1 year in grade 2 years in grade Corporal or Sergeant or Staff Sergeant Technical Sergeant in First Sergeant position 1 year in grade 2 years in grade Staff Sergeant Technical Sergeant 1 year in grade 2 years in grade From To After 4 months service in combat unit other field unit Otherwise after a total active service period of: after Senior Private Private First Class (Ordinary) 6 months 1 year 2 years Private First Class (Ordinary) Senior Private First Class 2 years 2 years 3 years Senior Private First Class Chief Private First Class 5 years (2 in grade) 5 years (2 in grade) 6 years (2 in grade)
at least an ordinary private first class (Gefreiter). Parachutists (Fallschirmjäger) may be privates to begin with, but the lowest rank provided for in their table of organization is corporal (Oberjäger), in lieu of a pay bonus. Otherwise, the designation (Ernennung) as senior private, which does not involve an increase in pay, is now automatic in principle upon completion of the basic training period. Promotions to any grade of private first class are dependent on time limits and merit, but not on tables of organization, as shown in the table above.
Promotions to the ranks of sergeant and master sergeant are not dependent on tables of organization; a corporal who has served the maximum time in grade without having been promoted to staff sergeant may be promoted to sergeant; having served the maximum time in that grade without having been promoted to technical sergeant, he may be promoted to master sergeant, as shown in table below.
After 4 months of service in a combat unit, privates of any rank who are squad leaders may be promoted to corporals and corporals who are platoon leaders may be promoted to staff sergeants, regardless of length of total service or service in grade.
Honorary promotions may be awarded for distinguished conduct in battle (posthumously to those killed in action).
From To After 4 months service in combat unit other field unit Otherwise after a total active service period of: after Corporal Sergeant 6 years (3 in grade) 6 years (3 in grade) 6 years (4 in grade) Sergeant or Technical Sergeant Master Sergeant 12 years 12 years 12 years
a. TABLE OF BASE PAY. Every member of the German Armed Forces in active wartime service (except when a prisoner of war) receives tax-free war service pay (Wehrsold), paid to him in advance, monthly or at shorter intervals of not less than 10 days, by his unit paymaster. If he has dependents, he receives (also when a prisoner of war) family support payable direct to his dependents through the civilian authorities.
A professional soldier receives, in addition to war service pay (but also when a prisoner of war) the equivalent of his regular peacetime pay (Friedensbesoldung) consisting of base pay (Grundgehalt), quarters allowance (Wohnungssuschlag), and allowance for children (Kinderzuschlag), less a wartime deduction (Ausgleichsbetrag) which in the ranks from major upward cancels out the war service pay and in the lower ranks offsets it in part according to a sliding scale. This compensation is known as Armed Forces regular pay (Wehrmachtbesoldung); its recipients are not entitled to civilian family support. Payments, usually by check, are made by a local garrison administration in Germany (usually near the man's home) for two months in advance (until 1 January 1945 it was one month in advance) to the soldier's bank account or to his dependents, if any. These payments are subject to an income-tax deduction at the source according to a sliding scale based on the amount of pay and the number as well as category of dependents.
Rank Column 1
(or Wartime) Regular Pay
War Service Pay
Pay Group Dollars (Less Tax) Pay Group Dollars General of the Army W 1 1,120 (438) 1a 120 (with official quarters) 1,008 (394) 120 General W 2 771 (295) 1b 108 Lieutenant General W 3 708 (264) 2 96 Major General W 4 560 (203) 3 84 Brigadier General W 5 467 (164) 4 72 Colonel W 6 372 (125) 5 60 Lieutenant Colonel W 7 284 (87) 6 48 Major W 8 237 (68) 7 43 Captain W 9 171 (39) 8 38 First Lieutenant W 10 109 (16) 9 32 Second Lieutenant W 11 80 (7) 10 28 Master Sergeant W 19 70 (6) 11 24 Technical Sergeant W 20 68 (5) 11 24 less than 12 yrs W 21 62 (4) 24 Staff Sergeant W 22 64 (4) 12 21 less than 12 yrs W 23 60 (4) 21 Sergeant W 24 63 (4) 13 18 less than 12 yrs W 25 55 (3) 18 Corporal W 26 56 (3) 14 16 less than 12 yrs W 27 46 (2) 16 Chief Private First Class W 30 36 (1/2) 15 14 Senior Private First Class W 31 31 (--) 15 14 Private First Class 15 14 Senior Private, or Private with 15 14 less than 2 yrs 16 12 Regardless of rank: Commander in Chief of a branch of the Armed Forces (Army, etc.); Chief of the Armed Forces High Command.
Pay Groups W 12-W 16: Musicians; activities suspended in Nov. 44.
W 17-W 18: Fortress Shop-Foremen and Horseshoeing Instructors.
W 28-W 29: Navy only.
Total length of active service.
Figure 3.--Table of base pay (per month).
Professional Armed Forces officials (Wehrmachtbeamte) receive, in addition to war service pay, their peacetime, salaries and allowances (Friedensgebührnisse), less a wartime deduction offsetting their war service pay as a whole or in part in the same manner as for professional soldiers who receive Armed Forces regular pay.
Non-professional soldiers from the rank of senior private first class (Obergefreiter) upward may apply for wartime regular pay (Kriegsbesoldung). They are then paid exactly like professional soldiers and consequently are not entitled to civilian family support. Therefore, soldiers with dependents will not make this application if the amount of their civilian family support is higher than their wartime pay would be.
Armed Forces officials who have no peace time salary receive war time regular pay without having to apply for it.
In the foregoing table, column 1 shows the Armed Forces regular pay (Wehrmachtbesoldung) for professional soldiers or wartime regular pay (Kriegsbesoldung) for non-professional soldiers in ranks from senior private first class (Obergefreiter) upward and for wartime officials. The amounts quoted represent the minimum base pay for single men without dependents before deduction of the income tax, which is shown in parenthesis at the minimum rate applying when the soldier has no additional income. All figures are quoted according to the most recent revision, on 9 November 1944, of the Military War Compensation Law of 1939. The pay rises for men with dependents according to a scale which provides for additional amounts up to 10 children. Column 2 shows the war service pay (Wehrsold) for all members of the Armed Forces, including officials, regardless of whether they are also paid under column 1 or not. The amounts are shown in U.S. dollars at the basic rate of exchange (1 Reichsmark equal to $0.40).
b. ALLOWANCES. All soldiers in ranks from general to private receive $0.40 daily as combat area service compensation (Frontzulage). This is granted not because of the danger to life and limb but for the "more difficult living conditions". On trips taken in the line of duty, the soldier, regardless of rank, receives an allowance for overnight quarters and $2.40 per diem additional.
Every member of the Armed Forces is entitled to free rations, quarters, and clothing; those who must or are allowed to take their meals outside receive $1.20 per diem as ration money. No additional allowance is paid for living quarters in view of the fact that this is already included in the regular pay, whereas soldiers who receive only war service pay are entitled to civilian family support. Clothing is free except for officers, who receive a one-time clothing allowance of $180.00 ($280.00 for those wearing the blue naval uniform) and a monthly upkeep allowance of $12.00. Soldiers contracting for professional service receive a cash bonus, known as Kapitulantenhandgeld, of $120.00 (12-year contract) or $40.00 (41/2-year contract).
c. PENSIONS. Regular officers and professional soldiers are entitled to various benefits upon their discharge; the extent of these depends on length of service. They include lump-sum compensations, unemployment assistance, and, in some cases, pensions. Discharged professional noncommissioned officers are encouraged to go into civil service or agriculture; particularly in the latter case they receive substantial cash sums for the purchase or lease of l,and. All honorably discharged soldiers receive a mustering-out pay of $20.00.
d. LEAVES, ETC. Leaves and furloughs are classified according to their purpose such as recreation, convalescence, occupational, bombing, or emergency. Transportation is free, in principle. The considerable liberality regarding leaves that was practiced in the early stages of the war was radically curtailed under the strain of the later emergencies, which in 1944 led to their complete freezing, except, possibly, in the case of convalescents.
7. Categories of Officers and Other Personnel
a. REGULAR OFFICERS (aktive Offiziere). The small corps of regular officers inherited by the Nazi regime from the pre-1935 German Reichswehr was substantially increased, before the war, by the recall of all suitable retired officers, the absorption of many police officers, and the creation of new officers from volunteer officer candidates and suitable noncommissioned officers and privates from the regular ranks. At the beginning of the war, suitable professional noncommissioned officers were given temporary officer ranks (as "Kriegsoffiziere"), which were made permanent in 1942.
Special categories of regular officers are medical officers (Sanitätsoffiziere), veterinary officers (Veterinäroffiziere), and ordnance officers (Waffenoffiziere,
commonly designated as Offiziere (W)).
After 1934, a number of First World War officers were recalled, mostly in administrative positions, as supplementary officers (Ergänzungsoffiziere) and designated as aktive Offiziere (E); the (E) has since been dropped and those who were qualified have been taken into the regular officer corps. Many officers who had been retired as "officers not in service" (Offiziere ausser Dienst--a.D.) as well as many regular officers eligible for retirement were designated as subject to active service in recalled status "at the disposal of a branch of the Armed Forces (Army, Air Force, or Navy)" (Offiziere zur Verfugung eines Wehrmachtteiles--z.V.). Retired officers designated z.V. were normally not recalled to active service before mobilization, but a number of them were appointed in peacetime to fill certain open officer positions as "officers recalled to service" (Offiziere zur Dienstleistung--z.D.). During the war, the designation z.D. has been used for certain officers whose qualifications are in doubt and whose final status (regular or reserve) is not determined. The designation of regular officers subject to retirement as z.V. continues in wartime, which means that such officers, immediately upon their discharge as regular officers, are retained in active service in recalled status in any position in which they may be needed.
b. GENERAL STAFF CORPS OFFICERS (Generalstabsoffiziere, Offz.i.G.). General Staff Corps officers are carefully selected and trained to represent the German General Staff Corps in both command and staff functions. On division staffs, as "la", they hold the position of operational chiefs of staff, and as "Ib" they are chiefs of the rear echelon. In the higher echelons, the intelligence and training staff sections are likewise in the personal charge of General Staff Corps officers.
c. RESERVE OFFICERS (Reserveoffiziere).
The nucleus of the reserve officer corps consists of conscripts who because of their qualifications and performance during their first year of service were accepted in peacetime as reserve officer aspirants (Reserve-Offizier-Anwärter--R.O.A.), received special training in platoon-leadership during their second year, and were designated reserve officers after their discharge and subsequent recall for a four-week exercise period with their old unit. Suitable professional noncommissioned officers were made reserve second lieutenants upon being discharged at the end of their contractual period.
In wartime, there cannot be any reserve officer candidates of the peacetime type, as conscripts are not being discharged upon completion of a compulsory two-year service period; instead, qualified volunteers and suitable conscripts from the ranks are designated as reserve officer applicants (Reserve-Offizier-Bewerber--R.O.B.).
Originally, there were two age groups of reserve officers, those of the reserve class under the age of 35, designated as Offiziere der Reserve --O.d.R., and those of the Landwehr reserve class above 35, designated as Offiziere der Landwehr--O.d.L. Both types of officers, collectively, were called "officers in inactive status" (Offiziere des Beurlaubtenstandes--O.d.B.). During the war, the designation O.d.L. has been eliminated, so that all reserve officers are O.d.R. as well as O.d.B.
d. ARMED FORCES OFFICIALS (Wehrmachtbeamte). Officials in administrative, legal, and technical service positions are a category peculiar to the German Armed Forces. They consist of civil service personnel performing functions within the Armed Forces and are recruited, in part, from former professional noncommissioned officers who became military candidates for civil service (Militäranwärter) at the end of their 12-year contractual period of active military service. Until 1944, none of these officials were classified as soldiers, but certain groups have now been converted into officers in the Special Troop Service (Truppensonderdienst--TDS). These are the higher administrative officers (Intendanten) in ranks from captain to lieutenant general; the lower administrative officers (Zahlmeister) in the ranks of first and second lieutenant, and the judge advocates (Richter) in ranks from captain to lieutenant general. It was also made possible for reserve technical service officials to become reserve officers of the motor maintenance troops if qualified.
In addition to regular Armed Forces officials, there are the categories of reserve officials (Beamte des Beurlaubtenstandes--B.d.B., also referred to as B.d.R.), officials in recalled status "at the disposal of the Army, etc." (Beamte zur Verfugung--B.z.V.), and officials appointed for the duration (Beamte auf Kriegsdauer--B.a.K.). These three categories are collectively referred to as supplementary Armed Forces officials (Ergänzungswehrmachtbeamte).
Functionaries of the military administration in occupied areas (Militärverwaltungsbeamte) who are not civil service officials in peacetime are treated in the same manner as these three categories in matters of compensation.
e. SPECIALIST LEADERS. Certain positions in ranks from major to lieutenant and in all noncommissioned officer ranks except sergeant may be filled by specialists in foreign languages, propaganda work, and similar matters, who have been trained to fill such positions as "Specialist leader" (Sonderführer). They receive the pay applicable to the position they are holding, but only by virtue of their appointment to the temporary position and without the disciplinary powers vested in the rank.
f. NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS (Unteroffiziere). Professional noncommissioned officers are under either a 12-year or a 41/2-year service contract, except officer applicants, who are under contract for an indefinite period of service. Nonprofessionals are designated as reserve corporals, etc. (Unteroffiziere, etc., d.R.); the same applies if they are reserve officer candidates (Fahnenjunker, etc., d.R.).
g. WOMEN AUXILIARIES (Helferinnen). There are several women's auxiliary corps in the German Armed Forces, known as the corps of the headquarters auxiliaries (Stabshelferinnen); signal corps auxiliaries (Nachrichtenhelferinnen) of the Army, Air Force, Waffen-SS, and Navy; and antiaircraft auxiliaries (Flakwaffenhelferinnen) of the Air Force. All wear uniforms and are under military discipline, receiving free rations, quarters, and clothing. However, they are paid according to civil service rates and are not considered members of the Armed Forces. The ranks of their female leaders (Führerinnen) do not correspond to officer ranks. It is possible that they have been upgraded in status under recent total mobilization measures.
h. "CIVILIAN" SOLDIERS (Volkssturm). In October 1944, all German male civilians from 16 to 60 were made liable to emergency defense service under the Armed Forces in a national militia known as the "Volkssturm". They are distinguished by armbands and are stated to have military status. It is believed that they do not receive any service pay while in training but that they may be compensated when mobilized for combat away from their home area.
i. OTHER ARMED FORCES PERSONNEL (Wehrmachtgefolge). A distinction must be made between members of the Armed Forces (Wehrmachtangehörige) who may be either soldiers or officials (Beamte), and persons employed by or attached to the Armed Forces (Zugehörige zur Wehrmacht), who are collectively referred to as Armed Forces auxiliaries (Wehrmachtgefolge). The women auxiliaries described above, as well as the numerous Party organizations when they operate with the Armed Forces, are in this general category.
8. Personal Documentation
a. SERVICE RECORD (Wehrpass). The basic personal record of the members of the Armed Forces is their service record. This is a book of passport size issued to them at the time of their first physical examination for military service. It contains a complete record of their pre-military service in the German Labor Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst), their military status at all times, and all their military activities until the expiration of their liability to military service. This book is in their personal possession only while they are in inactive status, and is retained at their company headquarters as long as they are on active service. In exchange for it, as soldiers, they carry on their person a pay and identification book issued to them at the time of their first induction.
b. PAYBOOK (Soldbuch). The paybook of the German soldier is his official means of identification and contains, in addition to personal data, a record of all units in which he has served and their replacement affiliations; his clothing and equipment record, inoculations, hospitalization; his promotions, pay rate group, payments received from units other than his own, decorations, furloughs, and other data pertaining to his person or his active service. The paybook contains both the soldier's military registration number (Wehrnummer), under which his service record was issued to him before his actual induction, and the inscription and number on his identification disc (Beschriftung und Nummer der Erkennungsmarke).
c. IDENTIFICATION DISC (Erkennungsmarke). The identification disc which the German soldier wears around his neck consists of two halves, both with identical inscriptions. It is issued to him by the unit (normally at company level) into which he is first inducted; both the name of that unit and the serial number under which the disc was issued to him are inscribed on it, as well as
his blood type. Any unit, however, may issue a disc to a member who has lost his original one, with its own name and a new serial number.
d. UNIT ROSTER SHEET (Kriegsstammrollenblatt). Every Field Army unit and those units of the Replacement Army which are of Field Army or training type keep an individual roster sheet on every one of their members, containing the record of the individual's service in the unit. This sheet is to be closed upon the termination of that service and then forwarded direct to the soldier's home recruiting station (Wehrersatzdienststelle), where his basic military records are kept. There are two different forms: one for officers and officials of all ranks, the other for enlisted men.
e. BASIC MILITARY RECORDS. At the time of the first physical examination when the service record (Wehrpass) is issued to the soldier by his recruiting sub-area headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommando), the latter opens a corresponding basic military record book (Wehrstammbuch) for him, together with an accompanying health record book (Gesundheitsbuch) and a classification card (Verwendungskarte). His military registration card (Wehrstammkarte), which was made out by the police authorities as part of his military registration record (Wehrstammblatt), is pasted inside the front cover of the Wehrstammbuch. Actually, this card is an open envelope with the soldier's registration record on its face and containing a police report (Polizeibericht) on his conduct prior to registration.
f. MILITARY REGISTRATION NUMBER (Wehrnummer). This is determined at the time the Wehrpass is issued to the soldier; in other words, while he is still a civilian. He retains it permanently, regardless of whether he is in active service or not, as his identifying number with the authorities which administer the conscription laws. It normally consists of the following five elements (although there are some variations):
Name of the Wehrbezirkskommando.
Last two digits of the year of birth.
Number of military registration police precinct (in certain larger cities, number corresponding to first letter of family name).
Serial number of the conscription (or volunteer) roster sheet (Wehrstammrollenblatt).
Number indicating registrant's place on that sheet (from 1 to 10).
g. UPKEEP OF MILITARY RECORDS. The basic military records accompany the soldier to his first induction unit, but upon his transfer from it are returned to and kept at his home recruiting station (Wehrersatzdienststelle), which normally is a recruiting sub-area headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommando) for officers or a subordinate military reporting office (Wehrmeldeamt) for enlisted men. The soldier's unit roster sheets, which are closed and forwarded to his home recruiting station upon his transfer from one unit to another, are filed in the inside rear cover pocket of his Wehrstammbuch. Since the autumn of 1944, the transfer into the Wehrstammbuch of entries from these or other documents that are received for filing in the pocket has been suspended until after the war; it is planned that the entries then be made from the Wehrpass, which is kept up at all times by the unit in which the soldier is serving.
The Wehrersatzdienststelle is the home recruiting station of all Germans who are subject to conscription and therefore is responsible for all members of the German Armed Forces, including volunteers, regardless of whether they serve in the Army, Air Force, Navy, or Waffen-SS. The Wehrstammbuch of naval personnel, however, is kept by their own home base replacement units. It does not contain any unit roster sheets (Kriegsstammrollenblatter), as these are replaced, in the Navy, by a conduct book (Führungsbuch) for enlisted men which follows them from unit to unit, as does their Wehrpass. The health record book (Gesundheitsbuch), which otherwise is kept at the Wehrersatzdienststelle together with the Wehrstammbuch, is in the personal possession of naval personnel as is, of course, their paybook.
Before 1944, the classification card (Verwendungskarte) was used for entering the soldier's training record and was forwarded to his first field unit for inspection, to be returned within 3 days to the home recruiting station. Since the autumn of 1944, the card has not been sent to the field; but the same purpose is served by the detailed training record sheet (Ausbildungsnachweis). introduced in 1943, which the soldier, upon his transfer to the field, carries in the pocket of his paybook; it is supposed to be destroyed by the field unit, but this is not always done.
Records peculiar to the Waffen-SS are the SS basic record card (SS-Stammkarte), which follows the soldier from unit to unit as does his Wehrpass, and the SS control card (SS-Uberwachungskarte), which is kept by his replacement unit and never follows him into the field.
h. OFFICER RECORDS. Officers, in addition to the basic records described above have a personal record folder (Personalnachweis). In the Navy, which has no unit roster sheets for either officers or enlisted men, the officer's Personalnachweis takes the place of the enlisted men's Führungsbuch. Otherwise, the officer's Personalnachweis normally is kept in several copies, which may be found at the replacement unit of his peacetime unit; at the corps area headquarters (Wehrkreiskommando); at the Army Personnel Office (Heerespersonalamt); or in the case of reserve officers at their recruiting sub-area headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommando).
Tn case of discharge or death, one copy is in all cases forwarded to the Armed Forces Welfare and Pension Office (Wehrmachtfürsorgeund Versorgungsamt) accompanied by the officer's medical record papers (Krankenpapiere).
i. PUNISHMENT RECORDS. An individual excerpt from the unit punishment book (Auszug aus dem Strafbuch) is forwarded upon the transfer of an enlisted man, together with his Wehrpass, whereas the punishment record of an officer appears in his character and efficiency report (Beurteilungsnotiz). In the event of a disciplinary reduction in rank, the soldier's Soldbuch, Wehrpass, and Kriegsstammrollenblatt are closed by his unit and forwarded, for filing in the Wehrstammbuch pocket, to his home recruiting station, which issues a new Wehrpass. The unit itself issues a new Soldbuch at once, and a new Kriegsstammrollenblatt is opened which, in the case of a former officer, must be of the enlisted man type. The reduction is entered only on the closed Kriegsstammrollenblatt. The records of a degraded regular Air Force officer must be requested from the Air Force Personnel Office. In the Navy, the Personalnachweis of a degraded officer is closed, the reduction having been entered on it, is sent to his home recruiting station, and is replaced by an enlisted man's Führungsbuch; whereas the Führungsbuch of a degraded noncommissioned officer is continued after the reduction has been entered. In no case is the reduction entered in either the old or the new Soldbuch or Wehrpass.
j. TERMINATION OF SERVICE. The Wehrpass is given to the soldier upon his honorable discharge from active service, even when such a discharge is temporary (e.g. for occupational reasons). In the latter case, his Soldbuch is returned to him in exchange for the Wehrpass when he is recalled to active duty. Otherwise, the Soldbuch and all other basic military records remain on file at his home recruiting station. Discharged soldiers are given a discharge certificate (Entlassungsschein).
In case of death, all basic military records of the soldier are filed by the home recruiting station except his Wehrpass, which is given to the next of kin. A report on his death and burial, together with the broken-off lower half of his identification disc and a description of the grave, is sent to the Armed Forces Information Bureau for War Casualties and Prisoners of War, which is the only agency authorized to handle inquiries. However, the Waffen-SS had its own information bureau.
Section III. THE HIGH COMMAND
The basic principle under the German military system is unity of command. This principle is exemplified in the highest as well as the lower echelons. Under this system the Army, Navy, and Air Force are regarded as branches of a single service (Die Wehrmacht), headed by the Armed Forces High Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht or OKW)(1) [See Section IV for an explanation of the use of these numbers]. The OKW controls all matters of inter-service policy in both peace and war. It is responsible for all preparation for national defense in time of peace, and for the conduct of operations in time of war. The head of the OKW is a cabinet member and represents the joint interest of the three branches with respect to other departments of the Government.
In effect, therefore, the German High Command is divided into four parts, as follows: Armed Forces High Command--Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW)(2); Army High Command--Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH)(3); Navy High Command--Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine (OKM)(3); Air Force High Command--Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL)(4).
Under this system it is not unusual in a task force for units of one branch of the Armed Forces to come under the immediate command of another branch. All personnel may be transferred from one branch to another in the same or equivalent rank. This, in fact, has been done on a very considerable scale in 1943 and 1944, with a transfer of thousands of members of the Air Force and Navy to the Army.
The OKW is supreme and responsible for the coordination of the active war effort by the three subordinate branches, while the OKH is responsible for all purely Army matters, just as each of the other two High Commands is responsible for the application of general policies within its own sphere.
In wartime, each High Command has a forward echelon (1. Staffel)(5) and a rear echelon (2. Staffel). The forward echelon moves to a location appropriate to the theater of main operations, while the rear echelon remains in Berlin. (Almost all elements of the rear echelon were evacuated from Berlin beginning in October 1943.) The object of this division is to insure that all purely routine and administrative matters will be handled in the rear and not obtrude themselves into the actual conduct of operations by the forward headquarters.
There is a fairly standardized method of indicating the relative size and importance of the various subdivisions within a high command. In descending order, these units with the accepted translations used in this book are:
In general (with some exceptions) an Amt or Amtsgruppe is headed by a general officer and an Abteilung by a field officer.
However, these subdivisions are not necessarily subordinate to one another schematically; i.e., the channel downward from an Amt may skip Amtsgruppe and go direct to Abteilung or even to Referat.
The following description gives the nomenclature and function of only the more important subdivisions of the Armed Forces High Command (OKW) and the Army High Command (OKH). All the German abbreviations used are explained in a glossary at the end of the section. It should be noted that this is the organization existing at the beginning of 1945, and that under present circumstances the High Command, like all other aspects of the German Armed Forces, is subject to rapid and unforeseen changes.
2. The OKW (11)
Hitler himself is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht) (12). Under him, Keitel is the Chief of the Armed Forces High Command (Chef des OKW) (13) and as such serves as Hitler's chief executive officer in the administration of the Armed Forces and the application of his policies and plans.
The operational part of the OKW is the Armed Forces Operations Staff (Wehrmachtführungsstab). which constitutes the main advisory body to Hitler on strategy and planning. It is located at the field headquarters of the OKW, which is known as the Führerhauptquartier (14). The other subdivisions of the OKW are mostly
Figure 4.--Armed Forces High Command
with the rear echelon and deal with numerous administrative matters of joint interest to the three branches of the Armed Forces.
The accompanying chart (Figure 4) shows the principal branches of the OKW and their subordination. Their functions are discussed in the following paragraphs.
a. ARMED FORCES CENTRAL OFFICE (Wehrmachtzentralamt--WZA) (15). The officer in charge of this agency is responsible for central organizational matters, such as increasing or reducing the personnel of branches of the High Command. The office also includes the Armed Forces Central Group (Ag WZ) (16).
b. CHIEF OF ARMED FORCES MOTOR TRANSPORTATION (Chef des Wehrmachtkraftfahrwesens --Chef WKW) (17). This officer is administrative head of all matters concerning motor transportation. At the same time he holds the position of Chief Motor Transport Officer in the Army General Staff (Gen St d H/Gen Qu/Gen d Kfw) and controls the Inspectorate of Motor Transport in the General Army Office (AHA/Gen d Kfw/Jn 12). His activities are subject to the close supervision of Hitler's personal appointee, the Inspector General of Motor Transport (Gen Insp Kfw).
c. CHIEF OF ARMED FORCES TRANSPORTATION (RAIL AND WATER) (Chef des Transportwesens der Wehrmacht--Chef Trspw d W) (18). This officer is administrative head of all rail and water transportation and also is believed to be the Chief Army Transportation Officer in the Army General Staff (Gen St d H/Chef d Trspw). Subordinate to him are the Field Transportation Branch (F Abt) (19), the Central Armed Forces Transportation Command (W Trsp Ltg Mitte) (20), and the Traffic Branch (Verk Abt) (21).
d. CHIEF OF THE ARMED FORCES PATROL SERVICE (Chef des Wehrmachtstreifendienstes--Chef W Str D) (22). This officer, appointed in March 1944, is head of all Armed Forces patrols and all welfare matters concerning troops away from their field units. The welfare function concerning troops in transit was formerly the responsibility of the General for Special Employment IV (Gen.z.b.V. IV) (23) in the OKH, an office which apparently was superseded by that of the Chief of the Armed Forces Patrol Service.
e. ARMED FORCES SURGEON GENERAL (Chef des Wehrmachtsanitätswesens--Chef W San) (24). Subordinate to the Chief of the OKW and, in medical matters, to the Commissioner General of Medicine and Sanitation (General-Kommissar des Fuhrers für das Sanitäts- und Gesundheitswesen). The Armed Forces Surgeon General formerly also held the positions of Chief Army Medical Inspector (H San Insp) and Army Surgeon (H Arzt). In August 1944, the personal union was dissolved, but the latter two positions, as well as the equivalent positions in the Navy and Air Force, are all subject to the supervision and control of the Armed Forces Surgeon General in medical matters.
f. CHIEF OF ARMY STAFF WITH CHIEF OKW (Chef des Heeresstäbes beim Chef OKW--Chef H St b Chef OKW) (25). Chief Liaison Officer of the Army at Keitel's field headquarters.
g. BUREAU OF ECONOMIC WARFARE (Sonderstab für Handelskrieg und wirtschaftliche Kampfmassnahmen--Sd St HWK) (26). This is a small agency to represent the interests of the Armed Forces with other government agencies concerned with economic warfare and to coordinate global economic policies with Japan.
h. INSPECTOR GENERAL FOR PRISONER OF WAR AFFAIRS (Generalinspekteur für das Kriegsgefangenenwesen der Wehrmacht--Gen Insp Kriegsgef) (27). This personal appointee of Hitler is responsible for insuring the security of prisoner of war installations in Germany and the most effective employment of prisoner-of-war labor. He may issue orders to other OKW and OKH agencies concerned with prisoners of war.
i. ARMED FORCES BUDGET BRANCH (Wehrmachthaushaltsabteilung--WH) (28). This is concerned only with the budget of the OKW and not with those of the other high commands.
j. ARMED FORCES JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL (Wehrmachtrechtsabteilung--WR) (29).
k. ARMED FORCES OPERATIONS STAFF (Wehrmachtführungsstab--WFSt) (30). This is a joint general staff containing officers from all three branches. It is responsible for over-all planning and strategy and advises and assists Hitler in the planning and execution of military operations. It includes:
(1) Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces Operations Staff (Stellvertretender Chef des Wehrmachtfuhrungsstäbes--Stellv Chef WFSt) (31). This officer controls the staff proper, which consists of sections concerned with operations, organization, intelligence, and supply. Each
of these sections includes officers representing all three branches of the Armed Forces. (The intelligence section now embodies elements of the former counterintelligence branch and other operational portions of the old Foreign and Counterintelligence Office of the OKW, the bulk of which was taken over by the SS in the middle of 1944.)
(2) Foreign Group (Amtsgruppe Ausland--Ag Ausl) (32). This includes the Branch for Military Attachés of the OKH (Att Abt d OKH) (33). It also is concerned with acquisition of foreign newspapers, rules on travel to foreign countries, and relations of German military personnel with foreigners.
(3) Armed Forces Signal Communications Group (Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtnachrichtenverbindungen--Ag WNV) (34). This group maintains the trunk communications between the high commands and is the nerve center of the top command echelons. It has at least two signal regiments of the Army at its disposal to maintain a special network of land cables and radio channels linking the OKW, OKH, OKL, and OKM and the principal subordinate headquarters. It contains a radio communications branch (Ag WNV/ Fu) (35) and a wire communications branch (Ag WNV/KF) (36).
(4) Cryptographic Branch (Chiffrier-Abteilung--Chi) (37).
(5) Armed Forces Historical Branch (Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung der Wehrmacht--W Kr Gesch) (38). Headed by the Fuhrer's Official Military Historian (Der Beauftr d Führers für die mil Geschichtsschr. This officer also heads the Army Historical Branch (Kr Gesch Heer) and other historical agencies in the OKH. This branch records all military history which concerns the three branches of the Armed Forces as a whole.
(6) Armed Forces Propaganda Branch (Abteilung für Wehrmachtpropaganda--W Pr) (39). Headed by the Chief of the Propaganda Troops (Chef Pr Tr) (40), this branch is responsible for all types of military propaganda except that which is fed to the troops by the National-Socialist Guidance Staffs (NSFSt) of the various high commands. It includes sections for the administration of the propaganda troops, propaganda to the home front, military censorship, propaganda to foreign countries, and counter-propaganda.
l. GENERAL ARMED FORCES OFFICE (Allgemeines Wehrmachtamt--AW A) (41). This office is composed of independent branches in the OKW, grouped together for administrative purposes. It contains:
(1) General Armed Forces Branch (Allgemeine Abteilung--W Allg) (42).
(2) Armed Forces Administration Group (Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtverwaltung--Ag WV) (43). Responsible for the administration of all OKW agencies and OKW personnel and for certain fiscal matters.
(3) Chief of Prisoners of War (Chef des Kriegsgefangenenwesens--Chef Kriegsgef) (44). The administrative head of all matters relating both to German and to Allied prisoners of war, he also performs the function of inspector of prisoner-of-war installations. In this latter capacity he acts under the directives of the Inspector General for Prisoner-of-War Affairs (Gen Insp Kriegsgef), who comes directly under the Chief of the OKW. The agency is divided into a General Branch (Kriegsgef Allg.) (45) which deals with treatment, exchange, and release of prisoners; administrative and punitive matters; and relations with the protective powers and with the International Red Cross; and an Organization Branch (Kriegsgef. Org.) (46), which deals with the employment and living conditions of prisoners of war in German hands.
(4) Inspectorate for Welfare and Pensions Agencies (Inspektion der Fürsorge und Versorgungsdienststellen im OKW--Jn FV) (47). Welfare and pension matters for all branches of the Armed Forces are controlled by this agency. Subordinate to it are the Armed Forces Welfare and Pensions Branch (W Vers) (48), the Civilian Pensions Branch (Abt. Reichsvers.) (49), and the Armed Forces Education Branch (WU) (50). Until 1944 the Armed Forces Education Branch was a separate branch of the AW A.
(5) Armed Forces Casualty Branch (Abteilung Wehrmachtverlustwesen--WVW) (51).
(6) Armed Forces Plenipotentiary For Settlement (Bevollmachtigter des OKW für Siedlungsfragen--BW Sied) (52). Arranges for resettlement of Germans in annexed territory.
(7) Hitler Youth Liaison (Vertreter der Wehrmacht beim Jugendfuhrer des Deutschen Reichs--AW A/HJ) (53). Represents the interests of the Armed Forces in the Hitler Youth organization.
(8) Military Science Branch (Abteilung Wissenschaft--W Wiss) (54). Studies developments
of the physical sciences which affect the military.
m. ARMED FORCES ECONOMIC OFFICE (Wehrwirtschaftsamt--Wi A) (55). This office is responsible for long-range military-economic planning, the economic exploitation of occupied areas, and representing the interests of the Armed Forces with other government departments concerned with production, raw materials, labor, agriculture; and foreign trade. It contains:
(1) Armed Forces Economic Branch (Wehrwirtschaftliche Abteilung--Wi) (56). Concerned with general planning matters and control of the subordinate regional agencies of the office.
(2) Raw Materials Branch (Rohstoffabteilung --Ro) (57). This agency has been transferred to the control of the Ministry of Armament and War Production for the duration of the war. It included or cooperated with the Central Raw Materials Branch (Ro St A) (58), the Armed Forces Tire Center (W R St) (59) (still under the Armed Forces Economic Office), the Central Petroleum Branch (Min St A) (60), and the Economic Experts Personnel Section (Stab W Each) (61) (still under the Armed Forces Economic Office).
(3) Contracts and Price Control Branch (Vertrags- und Preisprufwesen--Preispr) (62). The fixing of prices for Armed Forces Contracts is supervised by this branch. It is now under the Ministry of Armament and War Production.
n. CONSCRIPTION AND RECRUITING OFFICE (Wehrersatzamt--WEA) (63). This office was created in the summer of 1943, when the function of controlling recruiting and conscription for the three branches of the Armed Forces was transferred from the Army High Command to the OKW. It controls the Replacement Branch (Abt. E) (64), which was formerly part of the Group for Replacement and General Troop Matters (Ag E Tr) in the OKH.
o. NATIONAL-SOCIALIST GUIDANCE STAFF OF THE OKW (Nationalsozialistischer Führungsstab des OKW--NSF/OKW) (65). Established in December 1943, this agency is to ensure uniform political indoctrination in the Armed Forces, in cooperation with the Party chancellery. It includes:
(1) Interior Group (Amtsgruppe Inland--Ag J) (66). Formerly a branch (Abt.) of the General Armed Forces Office (AWA), this was upgraded to a group (Ag.) and transferred to the National-Socialist Guidance Staff of the OKW during February 1944. It maintains liaison between the OKW and civilian agencies in Germany. It contains a domestic security branch (Ag J/1) (67), and an ideological guidance branch (Ag J/2) (68).
(2) Party Liaison (Gruppe z.b.V.--Gr.z.b. V.) (69). Formerly part of the General Armed Forces Office (AW A), this section was transferred to the control of the National-Socialist Guidance Staff of the OKW in 1944. It is believed to maintain the liaison with the National-Socialist Party and to control such matters as collections for charitable or Party purposes within the Armed Forces.
p. INSPECTOR GENERAL OF MOTOR TRANSPORT (Generalinspekteur für das Kraftfahrwesen--Gen Insp Kfw) (70). He is immediately subordinate to Hitler and coordinates all matters regarding motor transport. He may issue orders to other OKW and OKH offices concerned with motor transport.
3. The Army High Command (OKH)
a. GENERAL. Since the Army is by far the largest and most important of the three branches of the German Armed Forces, it was, from the outbreak of the war, the branch which Hitler was most anxious to control directly. Its headquarters in the field always has been located in the immediate vicinity of the Führerhauptquartier. In December 1941, after the failure of the Moscow offensive, Hitler removed Brauchitsch as Commander-in-Chief of the Army (Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (70a) ) and took over personal command himself. He has exercised this command ever since, and the result has been a partial merging or overlapping of the functions of the OKW and of the OKH. Keitel, while still Chief of the OKW, nevertheless also acts as Hitler's executive officer in matters pertaining to the Army alone. Similarly, it is often difficult to draw the line between the de facto authority and functions of the Army General Staff and those of the Armed Forces Operations Staff.
The accompanying chart (Figure 5) shows the principal branches of the OKH and their subordination. Their functions are discussed in the following paragraphs.
b. ARMY GENERAL STAFF (Generalstab des Heeres--Gen St d H) (71). This organization, which is a functional part of the Army High Command, must not be confused with the General Staff Corps. The latter, called in German
Figure 5.--Army High Command.
simply Generalstab, is a category of specially selected and carefully trained officers who fill almost all the important command as well as staff positions throughout the Army. The Army General Staff, on the other hand, occupies a position analogous to that of the War Department General Staff; it is the main advisory body to the Commander-in-Chief on operations, intelligence, organization, supply, and general matters of Army policy.
Both the Army General Staff and the General Staff Corps are headed by the Chief of the Army General Staff (Chef des Generalstabs des Heeres (72), also referred to simply as Chef des Generalstabs).
In time of war the Army General Staff is stationed at field headquarters, leaving only a small rear echelon in Berlin.
The Army General Staff basically consists of 12 branches which cover all the proper staff and planning functions and which are grouped under five senior officers known as Oberquartiermeister I--V (73). In wartime, a number of additional high-ranking officers are appointed as chief advisers on the employment of the various arms and services in the field and on certain other technical matters; some of these officers and the sections which they control are absorbed organically into the Army General Staff for the duration of the war, while others are regarded as attached to it. By far the most important of them is the Chief Supply and Administration Officer (Generalquartiermeister) (74), who is responsible for the whole supply and administrative structure of the Field Army. Since he and the other wartime appointees perform the functions of some of the regular branches of the General Staff, it is believed that the separate functioning of these particular branches is largely suspended in wartime. Moreover, with the partial merging of the field headquarters of the OKW and the OKH under Hitler's personal command at the end of 1941, some of the other normal functions of branches of the Army General Staff have been wholly or partly taken over by the Armed Forces Operations Staff (WFSt). Thus the grouping under Oberquartiermeister seems to have become largely meaningless, and it is even doubtful whether these positions are actually filled at the present time. Since, however, they are a part of the permanent organization of the Army General Staff, they are given here and on the accompanying chart with their appropriate functions and subordinate branches. It is indicated in each case below wherever the functions of a particular branch are believed to have been largely or wholly suspended or transferred to some other agency:
Central Branch (Zentralabteilung--GZ) (75). This branch is concerned principally with central administrative matters pertaining to the General Staff Corps rather than with the functions of the Army General Staff. Until 1943 it made all appointments and promotions of General Staff Corps officers at all echelons; this responsibility then was transferred to Branch 3 of the Army Personnel Office (PA/P 3).
FIRST SENIOR GENERAL STAFF OFFICER (Oberquartiermeister I--O Qu I) (76). This office which deals with operations and related matters is reported to have been vacant for some time, its function being performed largely by the operations sections of the Armed Forces Operations Staff (WFSt). The grouping O Qu I includes:
Branch 1 (1. Abteilung or Op Abt) (77). This branch, concerned with operations, develops and disseminates basic tactical rules and methods of conducting warfare. Its function of advising the Chief of Staff and Commander-in-Chief on actual operations and strategy has largely lapsed.
Branch 5 (5. Abteilung) (78). The function of this branch which deals with transport, has been handled since the beginning of the war by the Chief Transportation Officer attached to the General Staff (Gen St d H/Chef Trspw).
Branch 6 (6. Abteilung) (79). Functions of this branch which is concerned with rear echelons have been handled since the beginning of the war by the Chief Supply and Administration Officer (Gen St d H/Gen Qu).
Branch 9 (9. Abteilung) (80). Topography, specific responsibility of this branch, has been handled since 1941 by the Chief of Mapping and Survey in the General Staff (Gen St d II/Kr Kart Verm Chef).
Branch 10 (10. Abteilung) (81). Maneuvers and operational planning, now for the most part are divided among a number of other agencies of the OKW and OKH, both at field headquarters and at the rear echelon.
SECOND SENIOR GENERAL STAFF OFFICER (Oberquartiermeister II--O Qu II) (82). The training functions of this grouping largely are taken over in wartime by the Home Command; it includes:
Branch 4 (4. Abteilung or Ausb. Abt.) (83). This branch is responsible in wartime only for
training within the Theater of Operations; all training in the Zone of the Interior is under the Chief of Training in the Replacement Army (Chef Ausb).
Branch 11 (11. Abteilung) (84). Military schools and officer training which are the functions of this branch are now entirely under the Home Command, especially the Inspector General for Potential Officers NCOs (GJF).
THIRD SENIOR GENERAL STAFF OFFICER (Oberquartiermeister III--O Qu III) (85). This grouping, responsible for organization includes:
Branch 2 (2. Abteilung or Org. Abt.) (86). This branch is responsible for laying down rules relating to various aspects of organization in the field and, in conjunction with the chiefs of arms and services attached to the General Staff, recommending to the General Army Office (AHA) the issuance of changes in the existing Tables of Organization.
Branch 8 (8. Abteilung) (87). The function of this branch which was concerned with technical services is now probably handled by other agencies such as the Chief of Technical Troops under the Chief Supply and Administration Officer (Gen Qu/Gen d Techn Tr).
FOURTH SENIOR GENERAL STAFF OFFICEr (Oberquartiermeister IV--O Qu IV) (88). The intelligence branch is probably the only one of the five major groupings in the Army General Staff which is still fully operative. Its two geographical branches are subdivided into various geographical sections which collect and evaluate information and disseminate intelligence regarding the armies of the various countries in the form of printed manuals and periodic reports. The grouping includes:
Branch 3, Eastern Armies (3. Abteilung, Frd Heere Ost) (89). Deals with the armies of the Soviet Union, Scandinavia, the lower Balkans, Africa, and the Far East.
Branch 12, Western Armies (12. Abteilung, Frd Heere West) (90). Deals with the armies of Western Europe (Section II), Great Britain (Section III), the upper Balkans (Section IV), and the Western Hemisphere (Section V). The Western Hemisphere section was transferred from the Eastern Armies Branch to Western Armies Branch after Pearl Harbor.
FIFTH SENIOR GENERAL STAFF OFFICER (Oberquartiermeister V--O Qu V) (91). Deals with military history. This group formerly included special sections for historical research, Army libraries, and Army archives, all of which were transferred in 1942 to the Führer's Official Military Historian (D. Beauftr d Führers für die mil Geschichtsschr) (92). It still nominally includes Branch 7, Military Science Branch (7. Abteilung or Kr Wiss Abt) (93), but the functions of this branch are also believed to have been largely taken over by the new Army Historical Branch (Kr Gesch Heer) under the Führer's Official Military Historian.
CHIEF SUPPLY AND ADMINISTRATION OFFICER (Generalquartiermeister--Gen Qu) (94). This officer does not belong to the basic organization of the Army General Staff in peacetime but was appointed at the beginning of the war, in accordance with previous plans, to take charge of the whole supply and administrative structure of the Field Army. He was given an elaborate organization, described below, including a number of attached officers as chiefs of the various services for the Field Army; these officers bear the same relationship to the General Staff as the chiefs of arms except that they come under the Chief Supply and Administrative Officer instead of being attached directly to the Chief of General Staff.
The organization given below is basically that which applied in the early stages of the war and takes into account only the more important of the temporary modifications which have occurred since. It should be noted that the first three sections, called supply sections (Quartiermcister-Gruppen 1, 2, 3) (95) are concerned with the planning, organization, and general operation of the services in the field; they are each headed by a General Staff Corps officer and may be regarded as constituting the G-4 division of the Army General Staff. All the other sections, which are numbered according to the standard German staff organization, deal with the actual functioning of the various services and are headed by the chiefs of these services for the Field Army.
Section Qu 1 (Gruppe Qu 1) (96). General planning and organization of supply in the field, establishment of communication lines and rear boundaries of the Theater of Operations, transport questions in conjunction with the Chief Army Transportation Officer (Chef Trspw), and control of those service troops not sub-allotted to army groups and armies.
Section Qu 2 (Gruppe Qu 2) (97). Civil affairs policies in the communications zone, especially the exploitation of the country for military
purposes; evacuation, booty, and prisoners of war.
Section Qu 3 (Gruppe Qu 3) (98). Action on supply requisitions from army groups and armies for ordnance, fuel, and engineer equipment. These requisitions are adjusted in accordance with over-all plans and policies and are then forwarded to the authorities in the Zone of the Interior.
Section II a (Gruppe II a, Adjutantur) (99). Personnel and security matters within the staff of the Chief Supply and Administration Officer.
Section III, Field Legal Administration (Gruppe III, Feldjustizverwaltung) (100). Headed by the chief of the Judge Advocate General's Department in the field, responsible for questions of military law and jurisprudence. This section was upgraded to a branch and transferred to the control of the General for Special Employment (Gen z b V) sometime after the beginning of the Russian campaign.
Section IV a, Chief Army Administrative Officer (Gruppe IVa, Heeresintendant) (101). Responsible for the general control of administrative matters and the personnel who deal with them throughout the Field Army. These matters include pay, clothing, personal equipment, rations, billeting, and fiscal matters.
Section IV b, Army Surgeon (Gruppe IV b, Heeresarzt--H Arzt) (102). Controls all medical matters and medical personnel throughout the Field Army, subject to the direction of the Chief Army Medical Inspector (H San Insp). (At present these two positions are believed to be united in one person.)
Section IV c, Army Veterinarian (Gruppe IV c, Heeresveterinär--H Vet) (103). Controls all veterinary matters and veterinary personnel in the Field Army, subject to the direction of the Chief Veterinary Inspector (Vet Insp).
Section V, Chief Motor Transport Officer (Gruppe V, General des Kraftfahrwesens--Gen d Kfw) (104). Controls the motor maintenance troops in the Field Army and is responsible for general questions of availability and utilization of motor transport. He is simultaneously in charge of a group in the General Army Office (AHA) responsible for the same matters in the Zone of the Interior, and holds concurrently the office of Chief of Armed Forces Motor Transportation (Chef WKW) under the OKW.
Section Z, Civil Commissioner (Gruppe Z, Zivilbeauftragter) (105). Resp6nsible for non-military matters in the civil administration of occupied areas in the Theater of Operations, including relations with the civil authorities and the discipline of the population; cooperates with Sections Qu 2 and III above. This section is believed to have been renamed Qu 5.
Chief of Supply Troops (General der Nachschubtruppen) (106). Controls all General Headquarters supply troops, working in cooperation with Section Qu 3 on questions of their employment. Known as Heeresnachschubführer until October 1942.
Section F. P., Army Postmaster (Gruppe F. P., Heeresfeldpostmeister) (107). Responsible for all questions relating to the Army Postal Service in the Field Army.
Chief of Technical Troops (General der Technisehen Truppen--Gen d Techn Tr) (108). Chief adviser on the organization and employment of the technical troops. These troops, while classified as a combat arm, perform a number of highly technical services requiring specialized equipment for the armies in the field.
Senior Military Police Officer (Höherer Feldgendarmerie-Offizier--Höh Feldgen Offz) (109). Responsible for all matters concerning the organization and employment of the military police in the Field Army.
c. CHIEFS OF BRANCHES ATTACHED TO THE GENERAL STAFF. The Commander-in-Chief of the Army and the Chief of the Army General Staff have at their disposal in wartime a group of general officers representing the various combat arms who serve as the principal advisers on the organization, training, equipment, and tactical employment of their respective arms in the field. They usually have no actual command authority but may issue instructions and suggestions to the troops based on the evaluation of experience in the field. For the publication of technical manuals and the like they collaborate with the inspectorates of their branches in the General Army Office. They may also recommend changes in the organization or equipment of the troops to the Organization Branch of the General Staff (Gen St d H/Org Abt) for forwarding to the inspectorates.
Three officers in this category, whose titles begin with Chef instead of General, are regarded as organically absorbed into the General Staff for the duration of the war instead of being attached to it like the others.
The chiefs of those branches of the German
Army which are classified as service troops are likewise attached to the General Staff in wartime but, as has been shown above, are placed under the Chief Supply and Administration Officer. (The Chief of Technical Troops, which are officially classified as a combat arm, is nevertheless under the Chief Supply and Administration Officer since these troops actually have the function of service troops.)
The absence of a representative of the Panzer troops from this group of senior officers is explained by the creation in 1943 of the Inspector General of Panzer Troops (Gen Insp d Pz Tr) to supersede the previous Chief of Mobile Troops, who had been attached to the General Staff like the other chiefs of branches. The Inspector General of Panzer Troops is represented in the General Staff by his Chief Antitank Officer for All Arms (Gen d Pz Abw aller Waffen).
(1) Chief Infantry Officer (General der Infanterie--Gen d Inf) (110). Responsible for regular infantry, light infantry, mountain infantry, cavalry, and reconnaissance matters.
(2) Chief of Armored Trains (Kommandeur der Eisenbahn-Panserzuge--Kdr d Eish Pz Züge) (111).
(3) Chief Artillery Officer (General der Artillerie--Gen d Art) (112). Controls the Chief Coast and Fortress Artillery Officer (Gen d H Kust u Fest Art) (113), the Chief Army Anti-aircraft Artillery Officer (Gen d H Flak Tr) (114), and the Chief Armored Artillery Officer (Höh Offz Pz Art) (115).
(4) Chief of Mapping and Survey (Chef des Kriegskarten- und Vermessungswesens--Kr Kart Verm Chef) (116). This officer is a part of the rear echelon of the General Staff (Gen St d H/2. Staffel) and is represented at field headquarters by the Commander of Mapping and Survey Troops (Kdr d Kart u Verm Tr) (117), who is his direct subordinate.
(5) Chief Signal Officer (Chef des Heeresnachrichtenwesens--Chef HNW) (118). Part of the General Staff in wartime, with offices at the rear echelon as well as at field headquarters.
(6) Chief Engineer and Fortifications Officer (General der Pioniere und Festungen----Gen d Pi u Fest) (119). Controls the Inspector of Fortifications (Insp Fest) (120) and shares with the General Army Office control of the Chief of Amphibious Engineers (Höh Ldgs Pi Fu) (121).
(7) Chief Chemical Warfare Officer (General der Nebeltruppen--Gen d Nbl Tr) (122).
(8) Chief of Volunteer Units (General der Freiwilligenverbande--Gen d Freiw Verb) (123). This post was created in January 1944 to replace that of the former General of Eastern Troops (Gen d Ost Tr) (124). It deals with the organization, equipment, training, and employment of units formed from impressed Soviet prisoners of war. The Chief of Volunteer Units is subordinate to the Chief of the Army General Staff in matters concerning the Field Army and to the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army (Chef H Rüst u. BdE) in matters affecting the Zone of the Interior. His permanent representative in the Replacement Army is the Commander of Volunteer Units (Kdr d Freiw Verb) (125).
(9) Chief Army Transportation Officer (Chef des Transportwesens--Chef Trspw) (126). Also believed to hold the post of Chief of Armed Forces Transportation (Chef Trspw dW). Part of the Army General Staff, responsible for rail and water transportation. He controls the Chief of Railway Troops (Gen d Eisb Tr) (127).
(10) General for Special Employment (Discipline) (General zu besonderer Verwendung--Gen z b V) (128). Responsible for the maintenance of discipline, counter-espionage, and legal matters in the Field Army. Controls the Branch for Army Matters (Heer Wes Abt), which is concerned with the maintenance of discipline; the Penal Section (Gr Str); and the Army Field Legal Branch (H Feld Just Abt), which was formerly the Field Legal Administration Section under the Chief Supply and Administration Officer.
d. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY INSPECTORS. The following chief inspectors are in charge of all medical and veterinary matters throughout the German Army and are directly under the Commander-in-Chief:
(1) Chief Army Medical Inspector (Heeres-Sanitätsinspekteur--H San Insp) (129). Instructs the Army Surgeon (H Arzt) on medical matters in the Field Army and controls medical matters in the Replacement Army, in the same manner as the inspectors of branches, through the Medical Inspectorate (S Jn) in the General Army Office. His activities are subject to the supervision and control of the Armed Forces Surgeon General (Chef W San). (At present the Chief Army Medical Inspector is believed to hold concurrently the office of Army Surgeon.)
(2) Chief Veterinary Inspector (Veterinärinspekteur--Vet Insp) (130).
Instructs the Army Veterinary (H Vet) on veterinary matters in the Field Army and controls veterinary matters in the Replacement Army, in the same manner as the inspectors of branches, through the Veterinary Inspectorate (V Jn) in the General Army Office.
e. ARMY PERSONNEL OFFICE (Heerespersonalamt--PA) (131). This office is independent of both the General Staff and the Home Command and comes under the direct control of the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. It is responsible for all appointments, transfers, promotions, and other matters concerning all types of officers in the German Army. It therefore has been a powerful instrument in exercising control over the officer corps.
The order for the promotion of an officer to the rank of colonel or above is issued by Hitler himself on the recommendation of the Personnel Office. In lower ranks it makes the promotions on its own responsibility.
The authority to transfer various types of specialist officers (medical, veterinary, ordnance, motor maintenance, and Special Troop Service) is delegated by the Personnel Office, so far as the lower ranks are concerned, to the technical branches which deal with these services; for the upper ranks, the Personnel Office orders the transfers on the recommendation of the technical branches.
The Personnel Office does not concern itself with Armed Forces officials, who are dealt with exclusively by the Army Administration Office (VA); it should be noted, however, that two important former categories of these officials are now classified as officers in the new Special Troop Service and are therefore handled by the Personnel Office.
The Personnel Office includes seven main subdivisions designated as P 1, P 2, etc. Three of these are now groups (Amtsgruppen) with several subordinate branches each, while the others are independent branches (Abteilungen). Group P 6 is a recent offshoot of the basic Group P 1, and for this reason its subordinate branches are numbered consecutively with those of P 1.
While the bulk of the Personnel Office is normally stationed in wartime with the rear echelon of the High Command, each of its branches also has a forward echelon at field headquarters, where the major decisions in personnel matters are made.
(1) Group P 1 (Amtsgruppe P 1--Ag P 1) (132). Responsible for all officers' records, appointments, transfers, and promotions as well as for basic directives regarding the handling of officer personnel matters. Its various branches deal with officers according to categories or branches of service. It includes:
(a) Branch 1, Central Branch (1. Zentral-Abteilung) (133). Handles basic policies and directives, including such general matters as the transfer of large groups of officers from other branches of the Armed Forces to the Army.
(b) Branch 2 (2. Abteilung) (134). Infantry and cavalry officers.
(c) Branch 3 (3. Abteilung) (135). Officers of the Panzer troops and of the supply troops.
(d) Branch 4 (4. Abteilung) (136). Artillery and chemical warfare officers.
(e) Branch 5 (5. Abteilung) (137). Engineer and signal officers.
(f) Branch 6 (6. Abteilung) (138). Reserve officers and officers in recalled status (Offiziere z. V.).
Branch 7, which deals with specialist officers (medical, veterinary, ordnance, motor maintenance), is believed to have formed the nucleus for the new Group P 6 formed in May 1944 (see below).
(2) Group P 2 (Amtsgruppe P 2--Ag P 2) (139). Responsible for officer education and welfare. It was expanded from a branch in August 1942 when "ideological training" for the officer corps was added to its functions. It includes:
(a) Policy Section, formerly Branch 1 (Chefgruppe, formerly 1. Abteilung) (140). Education, questions of honor among officers, political matters, special cases involving general officers and high staff officers.
(b) Branch 2 (2. Abteilung) (141). Final decisions in all individual cases involving honor, court-martial, and officer behavior.
(c) Branch 3 (3. Abteilung) (142). Complaints, questions of Aryan ancestry, marriage, welfare measures, and personal assistance for officers and their dependents.
(3) Branch P 3 (Heeres-Personalabteilung 3--P 3) (143). Responsible for all General Staff Corps officers, including their selection and training as well as their transfer and promotion. It took over full responsibility for these functions from the Central Branch of the Army General Staff (Gen St d H/GZ) in March 1943.
(4) Branch P 4 (Heeres-Personalabteilung 4--P 4) (144). Responsible for officer replacements. Lays down general directives for the Inspector
General for Potential Officers and Noncommissioned officers (GJF).
(5) Branch P 5 (Heeres-Personalabteilung 5--P 5) (145). Responsible for decorations and awards. Divided into several sections, each dealing with a different type of decoration or award.
(6) Group P 6 (Amtsgruppe P 6--Ag P 6) (146). Responsible for personnel matters of officers in the specialist careers (Sonderlaufbahnen) and of specialist leaders (Sonderführer). It was formed in May 1944 as an offshoot of Group P 1 as a result of the creation of the Special Troop Service (TSD), comprising the administrative officers (Intendanten) and the judge advocates (Wehrmachtrichter), who were formerly classified as Armed Forces officials and dealt with by the Army Administration Office. The numbers of the branches in this group follow those of Group P 1. It includes:
(a) Branch 7 (7. Abteilung) (147). Medical, veterinary, ordnance, and motor maintenance officers. In the lower ranks the authority to transfer these officers is delegated to the Chief Army Medical Inspector (H San Insp), the Chief Veterinary Inspector (Vet Insp), the Ordnance Inspectorate (Fz Jn), and the Chief Motor Transport Officer (Gen d Kfw); in the upper ranks, transfers are made on the recommendation of these agencies.
(b) Branch 8, General Branch (8. Allg.) Abteilung) (148). Handles basic policies and issues general directives regarding officers controlled by the group.
(c) Branch 9 (9. Abteilung) (149). Probably handles the officers in the Special Troop Service (TSD).
(d) Branch 10 (10. Abteilung (Sdf.)) (150). Responsible for personnel matters of specialist leaders (Sdf) (such as interpreters). They were formerly taken care of by Branch 7 when it was still part of Group 1.
(7) Branch P 7 (Heeres-Personalabteilung 7--P 7) (151). Responsible for personnel matters of all officers belonging to Field Army units under the control of Himmler, primarily Volks Grenadier divisions (VD). This branch was formed in October 1944.
(8) Special Section (Gruppe z b V) (152). This section contains the officers who are charged with the handling out of decorations and medals and the performance of other ceremonial functions. It was formerly called Section for Representation and Honors (Gruppe Rep/E).
(9) Courses for Senior Personnel Officers (Lehrgänge für höhere Adjutanten--Lehrg j höhere Adj) (153). This section deals with the administration of special six to eight-week courses given by the Army Personnel Office for Senior Personnel Officers. These consist mainly of lectures on the functioning and policies of the Army Personnel Office and affiliated agencies.
f. CHIEF OF ARMY EQUIPMENT AND COMMANDER OF THE REPLACEMENT ARMY (Chef der Heeresrustung und Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres--Chef H Rüst u BdE) (154). This officer is the wartime deputy of the Commander-in-Chief of the Army charged with all the functions of the Zone of the Interior. These are primarily the conscription, training, and replacement of personnel; the procurement, storage, and issue of equipment; and territorial administration. He controls all the principal offices of the High Command which are left behind as the rear echelon on mobilization, with the exception of the Personnel Office. These are discussed in the following six lettered paragraphs.
g. GENERAL ARMY OFFICE (Allgemeines Heeresamt--AHA) (155). Similar in function to the General Armed Forces Office in the OKW (AWA), this office is composed of a number of important, but partly unrelated, branches in the OKH, grouped together for administrative purposes. Its chief is believed to act as the deputy to the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army. It is used by various agencies both in the Home Command and in the Field Army and does most of the paper work for the OKH. It contains:
(1) Staff (Stab AHA) (156). The staff of the General Army Office is a central agency which approves the publications written by subordinate units and issues tables of organization, tables of equipment, manuals, and other publications. It includes the Army Regulations Administration (Heeres-Druckvorschriftenverwaltung--HDvV) (157), a section which issues all directives on clothing and uniforms (Stab/Bkl) (158), and a section concerned with technical developments in weapons and equipment (Sonderstab A) (159).
(2) Inspectorates of Arms and Services. There are approximately 15 of these inspectorates, grouped under the General Army Office, which are the principal agencies for handling the paper work for their respective arms and services. They have no command functions themselves but keep records and publish orders, directives, training manuals, and other material on behalf of the two
types of chiefs of arms and services: the inspectors (Waffeninspekteure) in the Replacement Army and the chiefs of branches (Waffengenerale) attached to the General Staff in the Field Army. They are referred to either as inspectorates (Inspektionen--Jn) or as branches (Waffenabteilungen). Most of them have numbers, ranging between 2 and 13, but several have been upgraded to the status of a group (Amtsgruppe) and control two numbered branches. Jn 1, the Inspectorate of Cadet Schools (Inspektion der Kriegsschulen), was in peacetime directly subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief of the Army; its function has now been taken over by the Inspector General for Potential Officers and Noncommissioned officers (GJF). The present inspectorates of arms and services are as follows:
(a) Infantry Branch--Inspectorate 2 (Infanterieabteilung--Jn 2) (160). Attached to the Infantry Branch is the Senior Infantry Officer for Land Fortifications (Höh Inf Offz für die Landesbef) (161), who is directly subordinate to the Chief of the General Army Office. He assists the Chief Engineer and Fortifications Officer (Inspector of Fortifications) (Insp Fest) at the Army General Staff in fortification matters concerning the infantry. He is also responsible for the uniform training of officers charged with the defense of fortifications.
(b) Riding and Driving Branch--Inspectorate 3 (Abteilung Reit- und Fahrwesen--Jn 3) (162). Concerned with the training of men who handle horses as riders or drivers.
(c) Artillery Group (Amtsgruppe Artillerie--Ag Art) (163). Formed in July 1944 to control the following two inspectorates:
Artillery Branch--Inspectorate 4 (Artillerieabteilung--Jn 4) (164).
Army Antiaircraft Artillery Branch--Inspectorate 13 (Heeres-Flakartillerieabtetilung--Jn 13) (165).
(d) Engineer Branch--Inspectorate 5 (Pionierabteilung--Jn 5) (166).
(e) Inspectorate of Fortifications (Inspektion der Festungen--Jn Fest) (167). Concerned with the training of fortress engineers.
(f) Panzer Troop Branch--Inspectorate 6 [Abteilung Panzertruppe--Jn 6) (168). Believed transferred to the control of the Inspector General of Panzer Troops (Gen Insp d Pz Tr) when that office was created in 1943.
(g) Signal Group (Amtsgruppe Nachrichtenwesen) (169). Formed in December 1943 with the expansion of Inspectorate 7. May be controlled by the Chief of Training (Chef Ausb) as well as the General Army Office. It includes:
Signal Branch--Inspectorate 7 (Nachrichtentruppen-Abteilung--Jn 7) (170).
Signal Equipment Branch (Nachrichtengerat-Abteilung--N. Ger. Abt) (171).
Army Communications Branch (Heeresnachrichtenverbindungs-Abteilung--HNV). Similar in function to the Armed Forces Communications Group in the OKW (Ag WNV) (172).
(h) Supply Branch--Inspectorate 8 (Abteilung Nachschubtruppen--Jn 8) (173). Attached to this branch is the Senior Officer of Administrative Troops (Höh Off d Verw Tr) (174), responsible for the uniform training of the administrative troops in the Replacement Army under the directives of the Chief of Training.
(i) Chemical Warfare and Air Raid Protection Branch--Inspectorate 9 (Abteilung Nebeltruppe, Gasabwehr und Luftschutz--Jn 9) (175).
(j) Railway Engineer Branch-- Inspectorate 10 (Eisenbahnpionier-Abteilung--Jn 10) (176).
(k) Branch for Technical Troops--Inspectorate 11 (Abteilung Technische Truppen--Jn 11) (177).
(l) Group of the Chief Motor Transport Officer (General des Kraftfahrwesens--Gen d Kfw) (178). Formerly called Chief of Motorization (Gen d Mot) (179).The Chief Motor Transport Officer, in addition to being responsible for all motor transport in the field, also controls the following agencies in the General Army Office:
Motor Transport Branch--Inspectorate 12 (Abteilung Kraftfahrwesen--Jn 12) (180).
Chief of Motor Repair (Chef des Instandsetzungswesen--Chef Inst) (181).
Senior Motor Maintenance Troop Officer (Höherer Offizier der Kraftfahrparktruppe--Hdh Offz d Kf Pk Tr) (182). He supervises the training of motor maintenance troops in the Replacement Army and his position is equivalent to that of an inspector.
(m) Medical Inspectorate (Heeres-Sanitätsinspektion--S Jn) (183). This inspectorate also contains the staff of the Chief Army Medical Inspector (HSan Insp) and is equivalent to a group. It includes:
Personnel Branch (Personalabteilung--S Jn/ Pers) (184).
Organization Branch (Organisationsabteilung--S Jn/Org) (185).
Branch for Medical Science and Hygiene (Abteilung für Wissenschaft und Gesundheitsführung--S Jn/Wi G) (186).
(n) Veterinary Inspectorate (Veterinärinspektion--V Jn) (187). This inspectorate also contains the staff of the Chief Veterinary Inspector (Vet Insp).
(o) Ordnance Inspectorate (Feldzeuginspektion--Fz Jn) (188). The head of the inspectorate also holds the position of Chief Army Ordnance Officer (Heeresfeldzeugmeister) (189). As such he controls the entire system of ordnance depots in Germany.
(3) Group for Replacement and General Troop Matters (Amtsgruppe Ersatzwesen und Allgemeine Truppenangelegenheiten--Ag E Tr) (190). This group has generally the same responsibilities toward enlisted personnel as the Army Personnel Office (PA) has toward officers, except that it does not concern itself with individuals. It establishes policies and issues directives on all types of personnel matters. Until the summer of 1943 it included the Replacement Branch (Abt E), which has since been incorporated into the Conscription and Recruiting Office (WEA) in the OKW. It is believed that nevertheless the name of the group has thus far remained unchanged. It contains:
(a) Branch for General Troop Matters (Abteilung für Allgemeine Truppenangelegenheiten--Tr Abt) (191). This is the most important branch in the group, and probably of larger size than its name implies. It issues all types of orders to the troops, such as transfer regulations, promotion policies, and regulations regarding welfare and personal affairs. It includes a penal section, a section for noncommissioned officer affairs, and a section for German prisoners of war in Allied hands.
(b) Chaplains Section (Gruppe Seelsorge--Gr S) (192).
(c) Branch for Billets and Maneuver Areas (Abteilung Unterkunft und Truppenübungsplätze--Abt U) (193). Arranges for the requisition of premises needed for military purposes.
(4) Army Judge Advocate General's Group (Amtsgruppe Heeresrechtswesen--Ag HR Wes) (194). Contains a Judge Advocate's branch (HR) (195) and a legal section (Just).
(5) Unit Inactivation Staff (Abwicklungsstab--Abw St) (196). After Stalingrad an inactivation staff was set up to liquidate the affairs of units which were destroyed in the Sixth Army. It later was expanded to deal with those destroyed in Army Group Africa. In the summer of 1944 this staff was made a permanent part of the High Command structure, with the mission of inactivating all units destroyed on any front. It takes charge of any remaining funds which were the property of such units.
(6) Demobilization Branch (Abteilung Demobilmachung--Abt Demob) (197). Issues rules and directives for future demobilization.
(7) Chief of Army Museums (Chef der Heeresmuseen--Chef Heer Mus) (198).
h. CHIEF OF TRAINING IN THE REPLACEMENT ARMY (Chef des Ausbildungswesens im Ersatzheer--Chef Ausb) (199). Appointed in October 1942, this officer is immediately subordinate to the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army. He controls all training conducted within the Replacement Army, using as his representatives the inspectors of arms and services (Waffeninspekteure) (200) listed below. Through these inspectors he utilizes the facilities of the inspectorates of the corresponding arms and services in the General Army Office for working out the details of training programs and methods, the issuance of directives and manuals, and other paper work. The Chief of Training is not responsible for the specialized training of the medical, veterinary, ordnance, and motor maintenance troops, as this is handled by the inspectorates of these branches in the General Army Office operating under the direct control of their own independent inspectors.
The following are subordinate to the Chief of Training:
(1) Inspector of Infantry (Inspekteur der Infanterie--Insp d Inf) (201).
(2) Inspector of Riding and Driving (Inspekteur des Reit- und Fahrwesens) (202).
(3) Inspector of Artillery (Inspekteur der Artillerie--Insp d Art) (203).
(4) Inspector of Army Antiaircraft Troops (Inspekteur der Heeresflaktruppen--Insp H Flak) (204).
(5) Inspector of Engineers and Railway Engineers (Inspekteur der Pioniere und Eisenbahnpioniere--Insp d Pi u Eisb Pi) (205).
(6) Inspector of Construction Troops (Inspekteur der Bautruppen--Insp d Bau Tr) (206).
(7) Inspector of Signal Troops (Inspekteur
der Nachrichtentruppen--Insp d Nachr Tr) (207).
(8) Inspector of Supply Troops (Inspekteur der Nachschubtruppen--Insp d Nachsch Tr) (208).
(9) Inspector of Chemical Troops (Inspekteur der Nebeltruppen--Insp d Nbl Tr) (209).
(10) Training Film Branch (Abteilung Lehrfilm) (210). Controls the archives of the Army, the production and proper distribution of training films, and the training of film operators.
i. ARMY ORDNANCE OFFICE (Heereswaffenamt--Wa A) (211). This office is responsible for the design, testing, development, and acceptance of all ordnance equipment. It works in very close collaboration with the Ministry of Armament and War Production (Reichsministerium für Bewaffnung und Kriegsproduktion) some of whose branches are even located at the Army Ordnance Office. It is organized as follows:
(1) Central Group (Zentral-Amtsgruppe des Heereswaffenamts--Wa Z) (212). This group has no special ordnance functions but is only an administrative agency. It includes:
(a) Organization Branch (Organisationsabteilung--Wa Z 1) (213). Issues general directives on organization to subordinate ordnance agencies.
(b) Administrative Section (Gruppe für Allgemeine Verwaltungsangelegenheiten--Wa Z 2) (214). Responsible for general administrative matters.
(c) Branch for Plant Efficiency (Betriebswirtschaftliche Abteilung--Wa Z 3) (215).
(d) Regulations Branch (Vorschriftenabteilung--Wa Z 4) (216). Publishes all orders, manuals and directives originating in the Army Ordnance Office.
(e) Branch for Housing, Construction, and Guard Matters (Allgemeine Unterbringungs-, Ban- und Überwachungsangelegenheiten--Wa Z 6) (217). Responsible for the acquisition of premises and the construction and patrolling of Army Ordnance Office buildings.
(2) Development and Testing Group (Amtsgruppe für Entwicklung und Prüfung--Wa Prüf) (218). This group is responsible for the development and testing of ordnance equipment for all arms and services. Besides certain subdivisions which have special fields, there are those dealing with ordnance equipment of each combat arm; the numbers assigned to these branches correspond mostly to those of the inspectorates of the same arm in the General Army Office. This group is composed of:
(a) Ballistic and Ammunition Branch (Ballistische und Munitionsabteilung--Wa Prüf 1) (219). Responsible for the development and testing of all types of ammunition. Divided into various sections dealing with ammunition of the different arms, special types of ammunition, firing tables, explosives, and other special technical matters connected with projectiles.
(b) Infantry Branch (Infanterieabteilung--Wa Prüf 2) (220).
(c) Artillery Branch (Artillerieabteilung--Wa Prüf 4) (221).
(d) Engineer and Railway Engineer Branch (Pionier- und Eisenbahnpionier-Abteilung--Wa Prüf 5) (222). Composed of sections dealing with engineer combat equipment, bridging and other river-crossing materials, engineering machines, water supply equipment, work tools, engineer transport vehicles, special construction equipment, and equipment for railway and waterway operation.
(e) Fortress Engineer Branch (Festungspionierabteilung--Prüf Fest) (223).
(f) Panzer and Motorized Equipment Branch (Panzer- und Motorisierungsabteilung--Wa Prüf 6) (224). Divided into a separate section for the development and testing of tanks and motorized equipment.
(g) Signal Branch (Nachrichtenabteilung--Wa Prüf 7) (225).
(h) Branch for Optical, Survey, Meteorological, Artillery Fire Control, and Map-Printing Equipment (Abteilung für Optik, Messwesen, Heereswetterdienst, Feuerleitung und Kartendruck--Wa Prüf 8) (226).
(i) Gas Protection Branch (Gasschutzabteilung--Wa Prüf 9). Controls the Army Gas Protection laboratories at Spandau (Heeres-Gasschutzlaboratorien Spandau) (227).
(j) Special Equipment Branch (Abteilung für Sondergerut--Wa Prüf 11) (228). Possibly the branch responsible for the development of some of the V weapons.
(k) Branch for Proving Grounds (Abteilung für Versuchsplatze--Wa Prüf 12) (229). Controls the experimental stations which are located at most maneuver areas (Truppenübungsplätze).
(3) Group for Weapons and Equipment Manufacture (Amtsgruppe für Industrielle Rustling--Waffen und Gerat--Wa J Rü--W u G)
(230). This group is responsible for the procurement of all ordnance materiel except ammunition. Its main function is the placing of orders with industry. Here too the numbers of the branches mostly correspond to those of inspectorates of the same branch of service in the General Army Office. It includes:
(a) Branch for General Army Equipment (Allgemeines Heeresgerat--Wa J Rü--W u G 1) (231). Handles all types of equipment, including medical and veterinary.
(b) Weapons Branch (Waffenabteilung--Wa J Rü--W u G 2) (232). Divided into sections responsible for weapons of the various arms.
(c) Engineer, Railway Engineer, and Fortress Equipment Branch (Pionier-, Eisenbahnpionier-, und Festungs-Geräteabteilung--Wa J Rü--W u G 5) (233).
(d) Tanks and Tractors Branch (Panzerkampfwagen- und Zugkraftwagen-Abteilung--Wa J Rü--W u G 6) (234)
(e) Signal Equipment Branch (Nachrichtengerätabteilung--Wa J Rü--W u G 7) (235).
(f) Optical and Precision Instruments Branch (Abteilung für optisches und feinmechanisches Gerdt--Wa J Rü--W u G 8/ZO) (236). Composed of various sections responsible for general optical instruments for all three services, special army optical instruments, precision antiaircraft artillery parts, artillery fire control parts, and the like.
(g) Motor Vehicle Equipment Branch (Kraftwagengeratäbteilung--Wa J Rü--W u G 12) (237).
(4) Group for Ammunition Manufacture (Amtsgruppe für Industrielle Rüstung (Munition)--Wa J Rü Mun) (238). This group is responsible for all ordnance equipment. It includes:
(a) Ammunition Branch 1 (Munitionsabteilung 1--Wa J Rü Mun 1) (239).
(b) Ammunition Branch 2 (Munitionsabteilung 2--Wa J Rü Mun 2) (240).
(c) Ammunition Branch 3 (Munitionsabteilung 3--Wa J Rü Mun 3 uzbV) (241). Probably manufactures special types of munitions.
(d) Ammunition Branch 4 (Munitionsabteilung 4--Wa J Rü Mun 4) (242).
(e) Ammunition Branch 5 (Munitionsabteilung 5--Wa J Rü Mun 5) (243).
(5) Acceptance Group (Amstgruppe für Abnahme--Wa Abn) (244). This group is responsible for seeing that all ordnance materiel is manufactured according to specifications and for accepting it on behalf of the Army. It controls the Acceptance Inspectors (Abnahmeinspizienten) (245) located in each Wehrkreis. It is composed of a Central Branch and Branches 1 and 2.
(6) Chief Ordnance Engineer Group (Amtsgruppe Chefingenieur--Wa Chef Ing) (246). This group contains various technical branches which design and supervise the manufacture of certain ordnance parts. It includes:
(a) The Chief Designer's Branch (Chefkonstrukteur--Wa Chef Ing 1) (247) contains a section which maintains liaison with the Reich Patent Office (Reichspatentamt).
(b) Pig Iron Branch (Halbzeugstelle--Wa Chef Ing 3/Hz) (248).
(c) The Manufacture Branch (Fabrikalionsabteilung--Wa Chef Ing 4) (249) contains various sections for studying methods of manufacture of weapons, vehicles, and other equipment.
(d) The Machine Recording Branch (Maschinelles Berichtwesen--Wa Chef Ing 5 M B) (250) is responsible for punch-card machines and other mechanical office aids.
(e) Section for the Manufacture of Machine Tools, Gauges, and Tools (Fabrikationsgruppe Werkzeugmaschinen, Lehren und Werkzeuge--Wa Chef Ing 6) (251).
(f) Section for the Manufacture of Ammunition (Fabrikationsgruppe Munition--Wa Chef Ing 7) (252).
(7) Group for Antiaircraft Artillery Development (Amtsgruppe für Flakentwicklung--GL/ Flak-E) (253). Includes:
(a) Branch for Ballistics and Development of Antiaircraft Ammunition (Abteilung für Ballistik und Entwicklung der Flakmunition--GL/ Flak-E/1) (254).
(b) Branch for the Development of Antiaircraft Equipment (Abteilung für Gerätentwicklung--GL/Flak-E/2) (255).
(c) Branch for Technical and General Matters (Abteilung für technische und allgemeine Angelegenheiten--GL/Flak-E/3) (256).
(d) Branch for Weapons Development (Abteilung für Waffenentwicklung--GL/Flak-E/4) (257).
(e) Antiaircraft Armament Branch (Abteilung Flakrustung--GL/Flak-Rü) (258).
(8) Ordnance Research Branch (Forschungsabteilung--Wa F).
j. ARMY ADMINISTRATION OFFICE (Heeresverwaltungsamt--V A) (259). This office is responsible for what is defined by the Germans as Army Administration (Heeresvcrwaltung). Its responsibilities include mainly the procurement of rations, billets, pay, and clothing for the Army. Until May 1944 the personnel connected with Army Administration normally were Armed Forces officials (Wehrmachtbeamte), divided into a large number of technical and non-technical "careers" (Laufbahnen). At that time those in the important careers of the Administrative Service (Verwaltungsdienst) and of the judge Advocates (Wehrmachtrichter) were made into a new category of officers in the Special Troop Service (Truppensonderdienst--TSD) (260). Their activities still are controlled by the Army Administration Office, but their promotions and transfers are now the responsibility of the Army Personnel Office (PA). The Administration Office includes: (1) Group for Officials and Civilian Workers (Amtsgruppe Allgemeine Heeresbeamten-, Angestellten-, Arbeiter- und Kassenangelegenheiten --Ag V 1) (261). Responsible for personnel administration and pay for Armed Forces officials, salaried workers (Angestellte), and wage earners (Arbeiter). Consists of:
(a) Branch for Army Officials (Heeresbeamtenabteilung--V 1) (262).
(b) Branch for Civilian Workers (Abteilung für Gefolgschaftsangelegenheiten des Heeres--V 8) (263).
(c) Branch for Army Accounts and Pay of Officials (Heereskassen- und Beamtenbesoldungsabteilung--V 9) (264).
(d) Cashier of the OKH (Amtskasse des Oberkommandos des Heeres--AK (OKH)) (265) is responsible for paying personnel of the OKH. (e) Pay and Allowance Department of the OKH (Gebührnisstelle des Oberkommandos des Heeres--G St OKH) (266) handles pay and allowances of military personnel and Armed Forces officials in the OKH.
(f) Wage and Salary Office (Lohnstelle des Oberkommandos des Heeres--Lohnst OKH) (267) has sections concerned with salaried employees, wage earners, and various types of pay deductions.
(g) Accounting Offices of the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army (Zahlmeistereien des Ch H Rüst u. B d E) (268) have four accounting offices carrying the Roman numerals I to IV.
(2) Group for Real Estate, Agriculture, and Forests (Amtsgruppe Liegenschaften, Land- und Forstwirtschaft--Ag V II) (269). Includes:
(a) Branch for Real Estate of Garrisons and Procurement of Quarters (Abteilung für Liegenschaften der Standorte und Wohnungsfürsorge--V 2) (270).
(b) Branch for the Administration of Maneuver Areas (Abteilung für Verwaltung von Übungsplätzen--V 6) (271).
(c) Army Forestry Branch (Heeresforstabteilung--V 10) (272).
(3) Rations and Procurement Group (Amtsgruppe Heeresverpflegungs- und -Beschajfungswesen--Ag V III) (273). Responsible for the procurement and administration of rations. Includes:
(a) Army Rations Branch (Heeresverpflegungsabteilung--V 3) (274).
(b) Army Procurements Branch (Heeresbeschaffungsabteilung--V 5) (275).
(c) Rations Inspector in the OKH (Verpflegungsinspekteur im OKH--Verpfl Insp OKH) (276) is responsible for over-all planning of rations supplies in the whole Theater of War.
(4) Construction Group (Amtsgruppe Bau--Ag V IV) (277). Responsible for all army construction. Includes:
(a) Branch for Administration of Army Construction (Heeresbauverwaltungsabteilung--V 4) (278).
(b) Branch for Army Construction Activities (Heeresbauwirtschaftsabteilung--V 7) (279).
(5) Budget Group (Amstgruppe Haushaltsund Besoldungswesen--Ag Haushalt) (280). This group was formed in February 1944 by an amalgamation of four independent branches connected with budget and finance matters. Up to August 1944 it was immediately under the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army; it was placed under the control of the Chief of the Army Administration Office. It includes:
(a) Army Budget Branch (Heeres-Haushaltsabteilung--H Haush) (281).
(b) Central Branch in the OKH (Zentralabteilung im OKH (Chef H Rüst u, BdE)--Z) (282).
(c) Army Pay Branch (Heeresbesoldungsabteilung--H Bes Abt) (283).
(d) Army Finance Branch (Heeres-Finanzierungsabteilung) (284).
k. INSPECTOR GENERAL FOR POTENTIAL OFFICERS AND NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS (Generalinspekteur für den Führernachwuchs des Heeres--GJF) (285). Formerly the Inspector of Army (Training and Education (In EB) (286); renamed and broadened in scope and authority in March 1944. Subordinate to the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army (Chef H Rüst u BdE). He is responsible for the uniform recruiting, National-Socialist instruction and guidance, and uniform training of all potential officers and noncommissioned officers (Führernachwuchs). He is in charge of all officer candidate and noncommissioned officer schools and determines the subject-matter and methods of instruction, particularly the political aspects. He controls:
(1) Branch for the Procurement of Leaders (Abteilung Heeresnachwuchs--Abt. HN) (287). This branch was independent up to 1944 but became subordinate to the Inspector General for Potential Officers and Noncommissioned Officers when he was appointed. This branch represents the Army in dealing with other services and agencies in all questions concerning the procurement of leaders.
(2) Cadet School Branch (Abteilung Kriegsschulen--KS) (288). Previously called Inspectorate 1 (In 1) and directly under the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army. Administers all officer candidate schools.
(3) Noncommissioned Officer School Branch (Abteilung Unteroffizier-Vorschulen u. -Schulen --US) (289).
(4) Inspector of Army Officer Procurement Offices (Inspekteur der Annahmestellen für Offizierbewerber des Heeres--Insp d Annst) (290). Set up in 1943 as an independent agency in the Army Personnel Office; transferred to the control of the Inspector General for Potential Officer and noncommissioned officers in 1944. Controls the officer candidate acceptance centers located in each Wehrkreis.
l. MISCELLANEOUS AGENCIES. The following are independent agencies, all immediately subordinate to the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army (Chef H Rüst u. BdE):
(1) Signal Communications Branch of the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army (Nachrichten-Betriebs-Abteilung des Ch H Rüst u. BdE) (291). Contains a telephone operating company, a telegraph company, a signal exploitation company, and a radio transmission center.
(2) Army Raw Materials Branch (Heeres-Rohstoffabteilung--H Ro) (292). Charged with the procurement of raw materials for the OKH. Formerly a subordinate unit of the Army Ordnance Office (Rohstoffstelle OKH--Wa Chef Ing 2/Wa Ro) (293), it was made an independent branch in 1942.
(3) Army Map Service (Heeresplankammer--HPK) (294). Contains a foreign maps branch, and a map production branch.
(4) Army Technical Bureau (Hewrwstwchnisches Büro (HTB) (295). Believed to be a staff of engineers at the disposal of the OKH.
(5) Women's Auxiliary Corps (Nachrichtenhelferinnen-Einsatzabteilung--NH-Einsatzabteilung) (296). The women's auxiliary corps is believed to be subordinate to the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army. It is formed into special battalions (Einsatzabteilungen) and used throughout the Field and Replacement Armies for signal communications and office work at higher headquarters.
m. NATIONAL-SOCIALIST GUIDANCE STAFF OF THE ARMY (Nationalsozialistischer Führungsstab des Heeres--NSF St d H) (297). Established in March 1944 to control the uniform National-Socialist indoctrination and guidance in the Army. Directly subordinate to Hitler but attached to the Army High Command. Issues directives to the National-Socialist Guidance Officers (NSFO) in the field.
n. THE FÜHRER'S OFFICIAL MILITARY HISTORIAN (Der Beauftragte des Führers für die militärische Geschichtsschreibung--D Beauftr d Führers für die mil Geschichtsschr) (298). Appointed in 1942 to take charge of the writing of military history of World War II. Directly subordinate to Hitler but attached to the Army High Command. Upon his appointment, the agencies connected with military history in the Army were transferred from the jurisdiction of the Fifth Senior General Staff Officer (O Qu V) to his control but remained subordinate to the OKH. In addition, historical branches were set up at both the OKW and the OKH to record the war for the Armed Forces and for the Army respectively.
This obviated the need for the Military Science Branch still under the O Qu V, and it is believed that its existence is only nominal. The Führer's Official Military Historian controls within the OKH:
(1) Army Historical Branch (Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung des Heeres--Kr Gesch Heer) (299). Established in 1942. Probably took over all the functions of the Military Science Branch (Kr Wiss Abt.) in the Army General Staff. It includes the editorial staff of the magazine "Military Science Review" (Militärwissenschaftliche Rundschau).
(2) Military History Research Institute (Kriegswissenschaftliche Forschungs-Anstalt) (300). Originally under the control of the Army General Staff but believed to have been transferred to the control of the Führer's Official Military Historian, sometime after 1942.
(3) Chief of Army Archives (Chef der Heeresarchive--Chef H Arch) (301). Transferred from the Army General Staff in 1942. Army archives have been kept in Potsdam, with a branch office at Liegnitz.
(4) Chief of Army Libraries (Chef der Heeresbüchereien--Chef H Buch) (302). This position was created in 1942, first under the control of the Army General Staff and then transferred to Führer's Official Military Historian. Responsible for the administration of all military literature.
(5) Captured Documents Exploitation Center (Wehrmacht-Sichtungsstelle--We Sist) (303). Exploits captured documents (Beuteakten) for the whole of the Armed Forces.
o. INSPECTOR GENERAL OF PANZER TROOPS (Generalinspekteur der Panzertruppen--Gen Insp d Pz Tr) (304). Appointed in 1943 as a successor to the Chief of Mobile Troops (General der Schnellen Truppen) (305) who had been attached to the Army General Staff. Directly subordinate to Hitler but attached to the Army High Command. Controls the whole Panzer arm; responsible for its organization, training, and replacement system. His prerogative extend to the Air Force and Waffen-SS Panzer units. He controls:
(1) Chief Antitank Officer for All Arms (General der Panzer abwehr aller Waffen) (306). Appointed in November 1944 to coordinate antitank tactics throughout the Armed Forces. He also acts as liaison officer for the Panzer troops at the Army General Staff replacing the former Panzer Officer at the Army General Staff (Pz Offz b Gen St d H) (307).
(2) Inspector of Panzer Troops (Inspekteur der Panzertruppen--Insp d Pz Tr) (308). Has a function similar to that of the other inspectors in the OKH except that he is not controlled by the Chief of Training in the Replacement Army (Chef Ausb). He controls the Panzer Troop Branch, Inspectorate 6 (Jn 6) (309), although the latter may still be administratively under the General Army Office.
(3) Field Army Branch (Abteilung Feldheer) (310). This branch maintains liaison between the Inspector General of Panzer Troops and the Field Army. It is responsible for the proper evaluation and use of all combat experience and makes suggestions on the organization, training, and development of the Panzer arm.
(4) Training Branch (Ausbildungs-Abteilung--Ausb Abt) (311). Formed in 1944, this branch took over the administration of the training of Panzer troops from Inspectorate 6. It issues a regular monthly periodical dealing with the experience of Panzer troops in the field.
4. Glossary and Index of German Terms and Abbreviations
This glossary consists of German designations for all the principal agencies of the Armed Forces and Army High Commands, together with their usual abbreviations and approximate translations. The glossary is designed to assist the reader in finding an explanation of the function of each agency. The numbers following the terms serve as a cross-reference to paragraph 3. where the explanations are numbered serially.
Abnahmeinspizient (Acceptance Inspector) 245
Abt--Abteilung (Branch) 8
1. Abt 77
1. (Zentral) Abt 133
2. Abt 86, 134, 141
3. Abt 89, 135, 142
4. Abt 83, 136
5. Abt 78, 137
6. Abt 79, 138
7. Abt 93, 147
8. Abt 878. (Allg) Abt 148
9. Abt 80, 149
10. Abt 81, 150
11. Abt 84
Abt Allgemeines Kriegsgefangenenwesen (General Branch for Prisoner of War Matters) 45
Abt Demobil--Abteilung Demobilmachung (Demobilization Branch) 197
Abt E--Abteilung Ersatzwesen (Replacement Branch) 64
Abt Ersatzwesen (Replacement Branch) 64
Abt Feldheer (Field Army Branch) 310
Abt für Allgemeine Truppenangelegenheiten (Branch for General Troop Matters) 191
Abt für Wehrmachtfachschulunterricht (Armed Forces Educational Branch) 50
Abt für Wehrmachtpropaganda (Armed Forces Propaganda Branch) 39
Abt HN--Abteilung Heeresnachwuchs (Branch for the Procurement of Leaders) 787
Abt Kraftfahrwesen--Jn 12 (Motor Transport Branch--Inspectorate 12) 180
Abt Kriegsschulen (Cadet School Branch) 288
Abt Lehrfilm (Training Film Branch) 210
Abt Nachschubtruppen--Jn 8 (Supply Troops Branch Inspectorate 8) 173
Abt Nebeltruppe, Gasabwehr, und Luftschutz--Jn 9 (Chemical Warfare and Air Raid Protection Branch--Inspectorate 9) 175
Abt Organisation des Kriegsgefangenenwesens (Organization Branch for Prisoners of War) 46
Abt Reichsvers--Reichsversorgungsabteilung (Civilian Pensions Branch) 49
Abt Reit- und Fahrwesen--Jn 3 (Riding and Driving Branch--Inspectorate 3) 162
Abt Technische Truppen--Jn 11 (Branch for Technical Troops--Inspectorate 11) 177
Abt U--Unterkunft and Truppenübungsplätze (Branch for Billets and Maneuver Areas) 193
Abt Unterofizier-Vorschulen und -Schulen--(NCO Schools Branch) 289
Abt Wehrmachtnachrichtenverbindungen Funkwesen (Armed Forces Radio Communications Branch) 35
Abt Wehrmachtverlustwesen--(Armed Forces Casualty Branch) 51
Abt Wissenschaft--(Military Science Branch) 54
Abwicklungsstab (Unit Inactivation Staff) 196
Adjutantur (Personnel Section) 99
Ag--Amtsgruppe (Group) 7Ag Art--Amtsgruppe Artillerie (Artillery Group) 13
Ag Ausl--Amtsgruppe Ausland (Foreign Group) 32
Ag Chefingeuieur (Chief Ordnance Engineer Group) 246
Ag E Tr--Ersatzwesen und Allgemeine Truppen-Angelegenheiten (Group for Replacement and General Troop Matters) 190
Ag für Abnahme (Acceptance Group) 244
Ag für Industrielle Rüstung--Waffen und Gerat (Group for Weapons and Equipment Manufacture) 230, 138
Ag GL/Flak-E--Amtsgruppe für Flakentwicklung (Group for Antiaircraft Artillery Development) 253
Ag Haushalt--Amtsgruppe Haushalts- und Besoldungswesen (Budget Group) 280
Ag HR--Heeresrechtswesen (Army Judge Advocate General's Group) 194
Ag J--Ag Jnland (Interior Group) 66
Ag Nachrichtenwesen (Signal Group) 169
Ag P 1 (Group P 1, Officers' Records, Transfers and Promotions) 132
Ag P 2 (Group P 2, Officers' Education and Welfare) 139
Ag P 6--Amtsgruppe P 6 (Group P 6, Specialist Officers) 146
Ag V I--Allgemeine Heeresbeamten- Angestellten-, Arbeiter- und Kassenangelegenheiten (Group for Officials and Civilian Workers) 261
Ag V II--Amtsgruppe Liegenschaften, Land- und Forstwirtschaft (Group for Real Estate, Agriculture, and Forests) 269
Ag V III--Amtsgruppe Heeresverpflegungs- und Beschaffungswesen (Rations and Procurement Group) 273
Ag V IV--Amtsgruppe Bau (Construction Group) 277
Ag WNV--Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtnachrichten-Verbindungen (Armed Forces Communications Group) 34
Ag WNV/Fu--Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtnachrichten-Verbindungen, Abteilung Funkwesen (Armed Forces Radio Communications Branch) 35
Ag WNV/KF--Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtnachrichten - Verbindungen, Kriegsfernmelde - Abteilung (Armed Forces Wire Communications Branch) 36
Ag WV--Amtsgruppe Wehrmachtverwaltung (Armed Forces Administration Group) 43
AHA--Allgemeines Heeresamt (General Army Office) 155
AK (OKH)--Amtskasse des Oberkommandos des Heeres (Cashier of the OKH) 205
Allgemeine Abteilung (General Armed Forces Branch) 42
Allgemeines Heeresamt (General Army Office) 155
Amt (Office) 6 Amtsgruppe--see Ag Amtskasse des Oberkommandos des Heeres (Cashier of the OKH) 265
Artillerieabteilung--Jn 4 (Artillery Branch, Inspectorate 4) 164
Att Abt d OKH--Attacheabteilung des OKH (Branch for Military Attachés of the OKH) 33
Ausb. Abt--Ausbildungs-Abteilung (Training Branch) 83, 311
AWA--Allgemeines Wehrmachtamt (General Armed Forces Office) 41
AWA/HJ--Vertreter der Wehrmacht beim Jugendführer des Deutschen Reichs (Hitler Youth Liaison) 53
BW Sied--Bevollmachtigter des OKW für Siedlugsfragen (Armed Forces Plenipotentiary for Settlement) 52
Chef Ausb--Chef des Ausbildungswesen im Ersatzheer (Chief of Training in the Replacement Army) 199
Chef der Heeresarchive (Chief of Army Archives) 301
Chef der Heeresbüchereien (Chief of Army Libraries) 302
Chef der Heeresmuseen (Chief of Army Museums) 198
Chef der Propagandatruppen (Chief of the Propaganda Troops) 40
Wa J Rü--WuG 12--Kraftwagengeratabteihmg (Motor Vehicle Equipment Branch) 237
Chef des Ausbildungswesens im Ersatzheer (Chief of Training in the Replacement Army) 199
Chef Gen St d H--Chef des Generalstabs des Heeres (Chief of General Staff) 72
Chef des Heeresstäbes beim Chef OKW (Chief of Army Staff with Chief OKW) 25
Chef HNV--Chef des Heeresnachrichtenwesens (Chief Signal Officer) 118
Chef des Instandsetzungswesens (Chief of Motor Repair) 181
Chef des Kriegsgefangenenwesens (Chief of Prisoners of War) 44
Chef des Kriegskarten- und Vermessungswesens (Chief of Mapping and Survey) 116
Chef des OKW (Chief of the Armed Forces High Command) 13
Chef des Transportwesens (Chief Army Transportation Officer) 126
Chef des Wehrmachtkraftfahrwesens (Chief of Armed Forces Motor Transportation) 17
Chef des Transportwesens der Wehrmacht (Chief of Armed Forces Transportation (Rail and Water) 18
Chef des Wehrmachtsanitätswesens (Armed Forces Surgeon General) 24
Chef des Wehrmachtstreifendienstes (Chief of the Armed Forces Patrol Service) 22
Chefgruppe (Policy Section) 140
Chef H Arch--Chef der Heeresarchive (Chief of Army Archives) 301
Chef H Buch--Chef der Heeresbüchereien (Chief of Army Libraries) 302
Ch H Rüst u. BdE--Chef der Heeresrustung und Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres (Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army) 154
Chef H St b Chef OKW--Chef des Heeresstäbes beim Chef OKW (Chief of Army Staff with Chief OKW) 25
Chef Inst--Chef des Instandsetzungswesens (Chief of Motor Repair) 181
Chef Kriegsgef--Chef des Kriegsgefangenenwesens (Chief of Prisoners of War) 44
Chef Pr Tr--Chef der Propagandatruppen (Chief of the Propaganda Troops) 40
Chef Trspw--Chef des Transportwesens (Chief Army Transport Officer) 126
Chef Trspw d W--Chef des Transportwesens der Wehrmacht (Chief of Armed Forces Transportation (Rail and Water)) 18
Chef WKW--Chef des Wehrmachtkraftfahrwesens (Chief of Armed Forces Motor Transportation) 17
Chef W San--Chef des Wehrmachtsanitätswesens (Armed Forces Surgeon General) 24
Chef W Str D (Chief of the Armed Forces Patrol Service) 22
Chi--Chiffrier-Abteilung (Cryptographic Branch) 37
Der Beauftr d Führers für die mil Geschichtsschr--Der Beauftragte des Führers für die militärische Geschichtsschreibung (Führer's official military historian) 38, 92, 298
Eisenbahnpionierabteilung--Jn 10 (Railway Engineer Branch, Inspectorate 10) 176
F Abt--Feldtransportabteilung (Field Transportation Branch) 19
Feldzeuginspektion--Fz Jn (Ordnance Inspectorate) 188
Forschungsabteilung (Ordnance Research Branch) 258
Frd Heere Ost--Fremde Heere Ost (Eastern Armies Branch) 89
Frd Heere West--Fremde Heere West (Western Armies Branch) 90
Führerhauptquartier (Field Headquarters of the OKW) 14
Fz Jn--Feldzeuginspektion (Ordnance Inspectorate) 188
Gen--See GeneralGeneral der Artillerie (Chief Artillery Officer) 112
General der Eisenbahntruppen (Chief of Railway Troops) 127
General der Freiwilligenverbande (Chief of Volunteer Units) 123
General der Heeres-Flaktruppen (Chief Army Anti-Aircraft Artillery Officer) 114
General der Heereskusten- und Festungsartillerie (Chief Coast and Fortress Artillery Officer) 113
General der Motorisierung (changed to Gen d Kfw) 179
General der Nachschubtruppen (Chief of Supply Troops) 106
General der Nebeltruppen (Chief Chemical Warfare Officer) 122
General der Osttruppen (changed to Gen d Freiw Verb) 124
General der Pioniere und Festungen (Chief Engineer and Fortifications Officer) 120
General der Panzerabwehr aller Waffen (Chief Antitank Officer for All Arms) 306
General der Schnellen Truppen (changed to Gen Insp d Pz Tr) 10
General des Kraftfahrwesens (Chief Motor Transport Officer) 104
General des Kraftfahrwesens/AHA (Group of the Chief Motor Transport Officer in the General Army Office) 178
General zu besonderer Verwendung (General for Special Employment (Discipline)) 128
Generalinspekteur der Panzertruppen (Inspector General of Panzer Troops) 304
Generalinspekteur des Kraftfahrwesens (Inspector General of Motor Transport) 70
Generalinspekteur für das Kriegsgefangenwesen der Wehrmacht (Inspector General for Prisoner of War Affairs) 27
Generalinspekteur für den Führernachwuchs des Heeres (Inspector General for Potential Officers and NCOs) 285
Generalquartiermeister (Chief Supply and Administration Officer) 74, 94
Generalstab des Heeres (Army General Staff) 71
General z b V IV (General for Special Employment IV--now Chef W Str D) 23
Gen Insp d Pz Tr--Generalinspekteur der Panzertruppen (Inspector General of Panzer Troops) 304
Gen Insp Kfw--Generalinspekteur für das Kraftfahrwesen (Inspector General of Motor Transport) 70
Gen Insp Kriegsgef--Generalinspekteur für das Kriegsgefangenenwesen der Wehrmacht (Inspector General for Prisoner of War Affairs) 27
Gen Qu--Generalquartiermeister (Chief Supply and Administration Officer) 74, 94
Gen St d H--Generalstab des Heeres (Army General Staff) 71
GJF--Generalinspekteur für den Führernachwuchs des Heeres (Inspector General for Potential Officers and NCOs) 285
GL/Flak-E--Amtsgruppe für Flakentwicklung (Group for Antiaircraft Artillery Development) 253
GL/Flak-E/1--Abteilung für Ballistik und Entwicklung der Flakmunition (Branch for Ballistics and Development of Antiaircraft Equipment) 254
GL/Flak-E/2--Abteilung für Gerätentwicklung (Branch for the Development of Antiaircraft Equipment) 255
GL/Flak-E/3--Abteilung für technische und allgemeine Angelegenheiten (Branch for Technical and General Matters)
GL/Flak-E/4--Abteilung für Waffenentwicklung (Branch for the Development of AA Weapons) 257
GL/Flak-Rü--Abteilung Flakrustung (Antiaircraft Armament Branch) 258
G St OKH--Gebührnisstelle des OKH (Pay and Allowance Department of the OKH) 266
Gr S--Gruppe Seelsorge (Chaplains' Section) 192
Gruppe (Section) 9
Gruppe IIa--Adjutantur (Personnel Section) 99
Gruppe III--Feldjustizverwaltung (Field Legal Administration Section) 100
Gruppe IVa--Heeres-Intendant (Chief Army Administration Officer) 101
Gruppe IVb--Heeresarzt (Army Surgeon) 102
Gruppe IVc--Heeresveterinär (Army Veterinarian) 103
Gruppe V--General des Kraftfahrwesens (Chief Motor Transport Officer) 104
Gruppe Z--Zivilbeauftragter (Civil Commissioner) 105
Gruppe FP--Heeresfeldpostmeister (Army Postmaster) 107
Gruppe z b V--Gruppe zur besonderen Verwendung (Party Liaison) 69
Gruppe z b V--Gruppe zur besonderen Verwendung (Ceremonial occasions) 152
G St OKH--Gebührnisstelle des OKH (Pay and Allowance Department of the OKH) 266
GZ--Zentralabteilung (Central Branch of Army General Staff) 75
H Arzt--Heeresarzt (Army Surgeon) 102
H Bes Abt--Heeresbesoldungsabteilung (Army Pay Branch) 283
Heeresbesoldungsabteilung (Army Pay Branch) 283
Heeresdruckvorschriftenverwaltung (Army Regulations administration) 157
Heeresfeldzeugmeister (Chief Army Ordnance Officer) 189
Heeres-Finanzierungstabteilung (Army Finance Branch) 284
Heeres-Flakartillerieabteilung--Jn 13 (Army Anti-aircraft Artillery Branch, Inspectorate 13) 165
Heeres-Haushaltsabteilung (Army Budget Branch) 281
Heeres-Intendant (Chief Army Administrative Officer) 101
Heeres - Nachrichtenverbindungs - Abteilung (Army Communication Branch) 172
Heeres-Personalabteilung 3--P 3 (Branch P 3 General Staff Officers) 143
Heeres-Personalabteilung 4--P 4 (Branch P 4, Officer Replacements) 144
Heeres-Personalabteilung 5--P 5 (Branch P 5, Decorations and Medals) 145
Heeres-Personalabteilung 7--P 7 (Branch P 7, Officers in Volksgrenadier Units) 151
Heerespersonalamt (Army Personnel Office) 131
Heeresplankammer (Army Map Service) 294
Heeres-Rohstoffabteilung (Army Raw Materials Branch) 292
Heeres-Sanitätsinspekteur (Chief Army Medical Inspector) 129
Heeres-Sanitätinspektion S Jn (Medical Inspectorate) 183
Heerestechnisches Büro (Army Technical Bureau) 295
Heeresverwaltungsamt (Army Administration Office) 259
Heereswaffenamt (Army Ordnance Office) 21
Heeresforstabteilung (Army Forestry Branch) 272
H Haush--Heereshaushaltsabteilung (Army Budget Branch) 281
HNV--Heeresnachrichtenverbindungsabteilung (Army Communication Branch) 172
Höherer Offizier der Kraftfahrparktruppe (Motor Maintenance Troops Officer) 182
Höh Inf Offz für die Landesbef--Höherer Infanterieoffizier für die Landesbefestigungen (Senior Infantry Officer for Land Fortifications) 161
Höh Ldgs Pi Fu--Höherer Landungspionier-Führer (Chief of Amphibious Engineers) 121
Höh Offz d Kf Pk Tr--Höherer Offizier der Kraftfahrparktruppe (Senior Motor Maintenance Troops Officer) 182
Höh Offz d Verw Tr--Höherer Offizier der Verwaltungstruppen (Senior Officer of Administrative Troops) 174
HPK--Heeresplankammer (Army Map Service) 294
HR--Heeresrechtsabteilung (Judge Advocate General's Branch) 195
H Ro--Heeres-Rohstoffabteilung (Army Raw Materials Branch) 292
H San Insp--Heeres-Sanitätsinspekteur (Chief Army Medical Inspector) 129
HTB--Heerestechnisches Büro (Army Technical Bureau) 295
H Vet--Heeresveterinär (Army Veterinarian) 103
Infanterieabteilung--Jn 2 (Infantry Branch--Inspectorate 2) 160
In FV--Inspekteur der Fürsorge- und Versorgungsdienststellen (Inspector for Welfare and Pensions Agencies) 47
Insp d Annst--Inspekteur der Annahmestellen für Offizierbewerber des Heeres (Inspector of Army Officer Procurement Offices) Insp d Pz Tr--Inspekteur der Panzertruppen (Inspector of Panzer Troops) 308
Inspekteur der Annahmestellen für Offizierbewerber des Heeres (Inspector of Army Officer Procurement Offices) 290
Inspekteur der Artillerie (Inspector of Artillery) 203
Inspekteur der Bautruppen (Inspector of Construction Troops) 206
Inspekteur der Festungen (Inspector of Fortifications) 120
Inspekteur der Heeresflaktruppen (Inspector of Army Antiaircraft Troops) 204
Inspekteur der Infanterie (Inspector of Infantry) 201
Inspekteur der Nachrichtentruppen (Inspector of Signal Troops) 207
Inspekteur der Nachschubtruppen (Inspector of Supply Troops) 208
Inspekteur der Nebeltruppen (Inspector of Chemical Troops) 209
Inspekteur der Panzertruppen (Inspector of Panzer Troops) 308
Inspekteur der Pioniere und Eisenbahnpioniere (Inspector of Engineers and Railway Engineers) 205
Inspekteur des Reit- und Fahrwesens (Inspector of Riding and Driving) 202
Inspektion der Fürsorge- und Versorgungsdienststellen im OKW (Inspectorate for Welfare and Pensions Agencies) 47
Insp Fest--Inspekteur der Festungen (Inspector of Fortifications) 120
Jn 1--Kriegsschulenabteilung (Cadet School Branch--Inspectorate 1) 288
Jn 2--Infanterieabteilung (Infantry Branch--Inspectorate 2) 160
Jn 3--Reit- und Fahrwesen (Riding and Driving Branch--Inspectorate 3) 162
Jn 4--Artillerieabteilung (Artillery Branch--Inspectorate 4) 164
Jn 5--Pionierabteilung (Engineer Branch--Inspectorate 5) 166
Jn 6--Panzertruppenabteilung (Panzer Troops Branch--Inspectorate 6) 168, 309
Jn 7--Nachrichtentruppenabteilung (Signal Branch--Inspectorate 7) 170
Jn 8--Abteilung Nachschubtruppen (Supply Branch--Inspectorate 8) 173
Jn 9--Abteilung Nebeltruppe, Gasabwehr, und Luftschutz (Chemical Warfare and Air Raid Protection Branch--Inspectorate 3) 175
Jn 10--Eisenbahnpionierabteilung (Railway Engineer Branch--Inspectorate 10) 176
Jn 11--Abteilung Technische Truppen (Branch for Technical Troops--Inspectorate 11) 177
Jn 12--Abteilung Kraftfahrwesen (Motor Transport Branch--Inspectorate 12) 180
Jn 13--Heeres-Flakartillerieabteilung (Army Antiaircraft Artillery Branch--Inspectorate 13) 165
Jn EB--Inspektion des Erziehungs- und Bildungswesens des Heeres (Inspectorate of Army Training and Education) 286
Jn Fest--Inspektion der Festungen (Inspectorate of Fortifications) 167
Jn FV--Inspektion der Fürsorge- und Versorgungsdienststellen im OKW (Inspectorate for Welfare and Pensions Agencies) 47
Just--Justiziare des OKH (Legal section in the OKH) 195
Kdr d Eisb Pz Züge--Kommandeur der Eisenbahn-Panzer-Züge (Chief of Armored Trains) 111
Kdr d Freiw Verb--Kommandeur der Freiwilligen Verbande (Commander of Volunteer Units) 125
KF--Kriegsfernmeldeabteilung (Armed Forces Wire Communications Branch) Kr Gesch Heer--Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung des Heeres (Army Historical Branch) 299
Kr Kart Verm Chef--Chef des Kriegskarten- und Vermessungswesens (Chief of Mapping and Survey) 116
Kriegsgef Allg--Allgemeine Abteilung des Kriegsgefangenenwesens (General PW Affairs Branch)
Kriegsgef Org--Organisationsahteilung des Kriegsgefangenenwesens (PW Affairs Organization Branch) 46
Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung des Heeres (Army Historical Branch) 299
Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces Historical Branch) 38
Kriegswissenschaftliche Forschungs-Anstalt des Heeres (Military History Research Institute) 300
Kr Wiss Abt--Kriegswissenschaftliche Abteilung (Military Science Branch) 93
Kr Wiss Forsch Anst--Kriegswissenschaftliche Forschungsanstalt (Military History Research Institute) 300
KS--Abteilung Kriegsschulen (Cadet School Branch) 288
Lehrgänge für höhere Adjutanten (Courses for Senior Personnel Officers) 153
Lohnst OKH--Lohnstelle des Oberkommandos des Heeres (Wage and Salary Office of the OKH)
Militärwissenschaftliche Rundschau (Military Science Review) Min St A--Mineralölstammabteilung (Central Petroleum Branch) 60
Nachrichtenbetriebsabteilung des Ch H Rüst u. BdE (Signal communications branch of the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army) 292
Nachrichtengerätabteilung (Signal Equipment Branch) 171, 235
Nachrichtenhelferinnen-Einsatzabteilung (Female Auxiliary Corps) 296
Nachrichtentruppenabteilung--Jn 7 (Signal Branch, Inspectorate 7) 170
Nationalsozialistischer Führungsstab des Heeres (National Socialist Guidance Staff of the Army) 297
N Ger Abt--Nachrichtengerätabteilung (Signal Equipment Branch) 171, 235
NH--Einsatzabteilung--Nachrichtenhelferinnen-Einsatzabteilung (Female Auxiliary Corps) 296
NSF/OKW--Nationalsozialistischer Führungsstab des OKW (National-Socialist Guidance Staff of the OKW) 65
NSF St d H--Nationalsozialistischer Führungsstab des Heeres (National-Socialist Guidance Staff of the Army) 297
Ob d H--Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) 70a
Oberkommando des Heeres (Army High Command) 3, 70a
Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine (Navy High Command) 3O
berkommando der Luftwaffe (Air Force High Command) 4
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command) 1, 2, 11
Oberquartiermeister--See O Qu
O Qu--Oberquartiermeister (Senior General Staff Officer) 73
I 73, 76 II 73, 82 III 73, 85 IV 73, 88 V 73, 91
Op Abt--Operationsabteilung (Operations Branch) 77
Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces) 12
Obst Bfh d Wm--Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces) 12OKH--Oberkommando des Heeres (Army High Command) 3
OKL--Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (Air Force High Command) 4
OKM--Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine (Navy High Command) 3
OKW--Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command) 1, 2, 11
Org Abt--Organisationsabteilung (Organization Branch) 86
Qu--Quartiermeistergruppe (Supply section) 95
I 95, 96 II 95, 97 III 95, 98
P 3--Heeres-Personalabteilung (Branch P 3, General Staff Officers) 143
P 4--Heeres-Personalabteilung (Branch P 4, Officer Replacements) 144
P 5--Heeres-Personalabteilung (Branch P 5, Decorations and Awards) 145
P 7--Heeres-Personalabteilung 7 (Branch P 7, Officers in Volksgrenadier units) 151
PA--Heerespersonalamt (Army Personnel Office) 131
Panzertruppenabteilung--Jn 6 (Panzer Troops Branch Inspectorate 6) 168, 309
Pionierabteilung--Jn 5 (Engineer Branch--Inspectorate 5) 166
Preispr--Vertrags- und Preisprufwesen (Contracts and Price Control Branch) 62
Pruf Fest--Festungspionierabteilung (Fortress Engineer Branch) 223
Pz Offz b Gen St d H--Panzeroffizier beim Generalstab des Heeres (Panzer Troops Liaison Officer at the Army General Staff) 307
Referat (Desk) 10
Reichsversorgungsabteilung (Civilian Pensions Branch) 49
Ro--Rohstoffabteilung (Raw Materials Branch) 57
Rohstoffstelle OKH (Army Raw Materials Center 293
Ro St A--Rohstoff-Stammabteilung (Central Raw Materials Branch) 58
Sdf--Sonderführer (Specialist Leaders) 150
Sd St HWK--Sonderstab für Handelskrieg und wirtschaftliche Kampfmassnahmen (Bureau of Economic Warfare) 26S
Jn--Heeres Sanitätsinspektion (Medical Inspectorate) 183
S Jn/Org--Organisationsabteilung (Organization Branch of the Medical Inspectorate) 185
S Jn/Pers--Personalabteilung (Personnel Branch of the Medical Inspectorate) 184
S Jn/Wi G--Abteilung für Wissenschaft und Gesundheitsführung (Branch for Science and Hygiene of the Medical Inspectorate) 186
Sonderstab A (Special Staff A) 159
Sonderstab für Handelskrieg und wirtschaftliche Kampfmassnahmen (Bureau of Economic Warfare) 26
Stab AHA--(Staff of the General Army Office) 156
Stab/Bk1--(Clothing Staff of the General Army Office) 158
Stab W Fach--Stab für wehrwirtschaftliche Fachkrafte (Economic Experts Personnel Section) 61
1. (Forward Echelon) 5
2. (Rear Echelon) 5
Stellv Chef WFSt--Stellvertretender Chef des Wehrmachtfuhrungsstäbes (Deputy Chief of the Armed Forces Operations Staff) 31
Tr Abt--Abteilung für Allgemeine Truppenangelegenheiten (Branch for General Troop Matters) 191
TSD--Truppensonderdienst (Special Troop Service) 260
US--Abteilung Unteroffizier-Vorschulen u. -Schulen (NCO School Branch) 289
V 1--Heeresbeamtenabteilung (Branch for Army Officials) 262
V 2--Abteilung der Liegenschaften der Standorte und Wohnungsfürsorge (Branch for Real Estate of Garrisons and procurement of Quarters) 270
V 3--Heeresverpflegungsabteilung (Army Rations Branch) 274
V 4--Heeresbauverwaltungsabteilung (Branch for the Administration of Army Construction) 278
V 5--Heeresbeschaffungsabteilung (Army Procurements Branch) 275
V 6--Abteilung für Verwaltung von Übungsplätzen (Branch for the Administration of Maneuver Areas) 271
V 7--Heeresbauwirtschaftsabteilung (Branch for Army Construction Activities) 279
V 8--Abteilung für Gefolgschaftsangelegenheiten des Heeres (Branch for Civilian Workers) 263
V 9--Heereskassen und Beamtenbesoldungsabteilung (Branch for Army Accounts and Pay of Officials) 264
V 10--Heeresforstabteilung (Army Forestry Branch) 272
V A--Heeresverwaltungsamt (Army Administration Office) 259
Verk Abt--Verkehrsabteilung (Traffic Branch) 21
Verpfl Insp OKH--Verpflegungsinspekteur im OKH (Rations Inspector of the OKH) 276
Vertrags- und Preisprufwesen (Contracts and Price Control Branch) 62
Vertreter der Wehrmacht beim Jugendführer des Deutschen Reichs (Hitler Youth Liaison) 53
Veterinärinspekteur (Chief Veterinary Inspector) 131
VJ--Veterinärinspektion (Veterinary inspectorate) 187
Wa A--Heereswaftenamt (Army Ordnance Office) 211
Wa Abn--Amtsgruppe für Abnahme (Acceptance group) 244
Wa Chef Ing--Amtsgruppe Chefingenieur (Chief Ordnance Engineer Group) 246
Wa Chef Ing 1--Chefkonstrukteur (Chief Designer's Branch) 247
Wa Chef Ing 2/Wa Ro--Rohstoffstelle OKH (Army Raw Materials Center) 293
Wa Chef Ing 3/Hz--Halbzeugstelle (Pig Iron Branch) 248
Wa Chef Ing 4--Fabrikationsabteilung (Wa Chef Ing 4) 249
Wa Chef Ing 5 M B--Maschinelles Berichtwesen (Machine Recording Branch) 250
Wa Chef Ing 6--Fabrikationsgruppe Werkzeugmaschinen, Lehren und Werkzeuge (Section for the Manufacture of Machine Tools, Patterns, and Tools) 251
Wa Chef Ing 7--Fabrikationsgruppe Munition (Section for the Manufacture of Munition) 252
Wa F--Forschungsabteilung (Ordnance Research Branch) 258
Waffengenerale--(Chiefs of arms and services) 110
Waffeninspekteure--(Inspectors of arms and services) 200
Wa J Rü-Mun--Amtsgruppe für Industrielle Rüstung (Munition) (Group for Ammunition Manufacture) 238
Wa J Rü-Mun 1--Munitionsabteilung 1 (Ammunition Branch 1) 239
Wa J Rü-Mun 2--Munitionsabteilung 2 (Ammunition Branch 2) 240
Wa J Rü-Mun 3 u zbV--Munitionsabteilung 3 u zbV (Special Purpose Ammunition Branch) 241
Wa J Rü-Mun 4--Munitionsabteilung 4 (Ammunition Branch 4) 242
Wa J Rü-Mun 5--Munitionsabteilung 5 (Ammunition Branch 5) 243
Wa J Rü-WuG--Amtsgruppe für Industrielle Rüstung--Waffen und Gerat (Group for Weapons and Equipment Manufacture) 230
Wa J Rü-WuG 1--Allgemeines Heeresgerat (Branch for General Army Equipment) 231
Wa J Rü-WuG 2--Waffenabteilung (Weapons Branch) 232
Wa J Rü-WuG 5--Pionier-, Eisenbahnpionier- und Festungs-Geräteabteilung (Engineer, Railway Engineer, and Fortress Equipment Branch) 233
Wa J Rü-WuG 6--Panzerkraftwagen und Zugkraftwagenabteilung (Tanks and Tractors Branch) 234
Wa J Rü-WuG 7--Nachrichtengerätabteilung (Signal Equipment Branch) 235
Wa J Rü-WuG 8/ZO--Abteilung für optisches und feinmechanisches Gerat (Optical and Precision Instruments Branch) 236
W Allg--Allgemeine Abteilung (General Armed Forces Branch) 42
Wa Prüf--Amtsgruppe für Entwicklung und Prüfung (Development and Testing Group) 218
Wa Prüf 1--Ballistische und Munitionsabteilung (Ballistical and Ammunition Branch) 219
Wa Prüf 2--Infanterieabteilung (Infantry Branch) 200
Wa Prüf 4--Artillerieabteilung (Artillery Branch) 221
Wa Prüf 5--Pionier- und Eisenbahnpionier-Abteilung (Engineer and Railway Engineer Branch) 222
Wa Prüf 6--Panzer- und Motorisierungs-Abteilung (Panzer and Motorized Equipment Branch) 224
Wa Prüf 7--Nachrichtenabteilung (Signal Branch) 22S
Wa Prüf 8--Abteilung für Optik, Messwesen, Heereswetterdienst, Feuerleitung und Kartendruck (Branch for Optical, Survey, Meteorological, Artillery Fire Control and Map Printing Equipment) 226
Wa Prüf 9--Gasschutzabteilung (Gas Protection Branch) 227
Wa Prüf 11--Abteilung für Sondergerat (Special Equipment Branch) 228
We Prüf 12--Abteilung für Versuchsplatze (Branch for Proving Grounds) 229
Wa Prüf Fest (See Prüf Fest)
Wa Z--Zentral-Amtsgruppe des Heereswaffenamts (Central Group of Army Ordnance Office) 212
Wa Z 1--Organisationsabteilung (Organization Branch) 213
Wa Z 2--Gruppe für Allgemeine Verwaltungsangelegenheiten (Administrative Section) 214
Wa Z 3--Betriebswirtschaftliche Abteilung (Branch for internal office management) 215
Wa Z 4--Vorschriftenabteilung (Directive Branch) 216
Wa Z 6--Allgemeine Unterbringungs-, Bau- und Oberwachungsangelegenheiten (Branch for Housing, Construction and Guard Matters) 217
WEA--Wehrersatzamt (Conscription and Recruiting Office) 63
Wehrmachtführungsstab (Armed Forces Operations Staff) 30
Wehrmacht-Haushaltsabteilung (Armed Forces Budget Branch) 28
Wehrmacht-Rechtsabteilung (Armed Forces Judge Advocate General) 29
Wehrmacht-Reifenstelle (Armed Forces Tire Center) 59
Wehrmacht-Sichtungsstelle (Captured Documents Exploitation) 303
Wehrmacht-Transportleitung Mitte (Central Armed Forces Transportation Command) 20
Wehrmacht-Versorgungsabteilung (Armed Forces Welfare and Pensions Branch) 48
Wehrmachtzentralamt (Armed Forces Central Office) 15
Wehrwirtschaftliche Abteilung (Armed Forces Economic Branch) 56
Wehrwirtschaftsamt (Armed Forces Economic Office) 55
We Sist--Wehrmacht-Sichtungstelle (Captured Documents Exploitation Center) 303
WFSt--Wehrmachtführungsstab (Armed Forces Operations Staff) 30
WH--Wehrmacht-Haushaltsabteilung (Armed Forces Budget Branch) 28
Wi--Wehrwirtschaftliche Abteilung (Armed Forces Economic Branch) 56
Wi A--Wehrwirtschaftsamt (Armed Forces Economic Office) 55
W Kr Gesch--Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces Historical Branch) 38
W Pr--Abteilung für Wehrmachtpropaganda (Armed Forces Propaganda Branch) 39
WR--Wehrmachtrechtsabteilung (Armed Forces Judge Advocate General) 29
W R St--Wehrmachtreifenstelle (Armed Forces Tire Center) 59
W Trsp Ltg Mitte--Wehrmachttransporleitung Mitte (Central Armed Forces Transportation Command) 20
WU--Abteilung für Wehrmachtfachschulunterricht (Armed Forces Education Branch)
W Vers--Wehrmachtversorgungsabteilung (Armed Forces Welfare and Pensions Branch) 48
WVW--Abteilung Wehrmachtverlustwesen (Armed Forces Casualty Branch) 51
W Wiss--Abteilung Wissenschaft (Military Science Branch) 54
WZA--Wehrmachtzentralamt (Armed Forces Central Office) 15
Zahlmeisterei des Ch H Rüst u. BdE (Accounting Office of the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army) 268
1. Zentral-Abt (Branch 1, Central Branch) 133
Z--Zentralabteilung im OKH (Chief H Rüst u. BdE) (Central Branch in the OKH) 282
Zentral-Amtsgruppe des OKW (Armed Forces Central Group) 16
Zentral-Amtsgruppe des Heereswaffenamts (Central Group of the Army Ordance Office) 212
Section IV. ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY FOR WAR
I. Territorial Basis
In peacetime the organization and administration of the German Army were based on the division of the national territory into fifteen corps areas (Wehrkreise). Each one of these contained the headquarters and component divisions of a corps and was as the same time the main territorial echelon for conscription, the administration of army property, local defense, and nearly all other military matters. The commander of the corps area was simultaneously the commanding general of the corps, which he was destined to lead into the field on the outbreak of war.
The corps areas as well as the corps were numbered with Roman numerals from I to XIII plus XVII and XVIII in Austria. Thus the I Corps was located in Corps Area I, and so on. The missing numbers--XIV, XV, and XVI-- were used for three non-territorial corps set up to control the motorized, light, and Panzer divisions respectively. After the annexation of Austria, another non-territorial corps, XIX, was set up to control Austrian Panzer and light divisions.
By 1939 the German Army had been expanded from the seven divisions of the old Reichswehr to a total of 51 divisions plus corps troops. These consisted of 36 infantry and motorized divisions, numbered from 1 to 36, in Germany proper; three infantry divisions in Austria and the Sudeten areas; five Panzer divisions; four light divisions; and three mountain divisions. They were organized as follows:
Headquarters Divisions I Königsberg 1 11 21 II Stettin 12 32 III Berlin 3 23 IV Dresden 4 14 24 V Stuttgart 5 25 35 VI Münister 6 16 26 VII München 7 27 1 Mt VIII Breslau 8 18 28 IX Kassel 9 15 X Hamburg 22 30 XI Hannover 19 31 XII Wiesbaden 33 34 36 XIII Nürnberg 10 17 46 XVII Wien 44 45 XVIII Salzburg 2 Mt 3 Mt Non-territorial
XIV Magdeburg 2 Mtz 13 Mtz
20 Mtz 29 Mtz
XV Jena 1L 2L 3L XVI Berlin 1 Pz 3 Pz
4 Pz 5Pz
XIX Wien 2 Pz 4L
After the Polish campaign in 1939, two new corps areas, XX and XXI, were created in annexed territory in the east; subsequently Corps Areas Böhmen und Mähren and Generalgouvernement were added.
2. Mobilization Plan
The German mobilization for the present war was a gradual process lasting several months. The High Command was determined to avoid the mistakes of 1914, when millions of men were drawn into the Army almost overnight to form second-rate reserve and Landwehr divisions with serious disruption of the economic life of the country. This time the reservists were called up individually and deliberately were mixed with the personnel of regular divisions so that most of the new units formed during the summer of 1939 were fully as efficient and well organized as the original ones. Most of the regular regiments added one or more supplementary battalions, composed of men of the older age classes who had had only 8 or 12 weeks of training; these battalions exchanged personnel with the regular battalions and were then organized into new divisions just before the attack on Poland.
3. Creation of the Field Army
On 27 August 1939, in accordance with carefully laid plans which had been developing since the latter part of June, the entire German Army was split from top to bottom into two mutually exclusive parts, which were to perform two distinct functions for the duration of the war. One part was to be concerned only with military operations and was known as the Field Army (Feldheer); the other part was devoted to training, procurement, and administration in the Zone of the Interior and was called the Replacement Army (Ersatzheer). The operational parts of the High Command, including the Commander-in-Chief and the bulk of the General Staff, established a field headquarters away from Berlin to control the Field Army. The rest of the High Command was placed under a deputy of
Figure 6.--German corps areas.
the Commander-in-Chief to be known as the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army (Chef der Heeresrustung und Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres), responsible for maintaining the Field Army by the dispatch of replacements, the formation of new units, and the supply of materiel, as well as continuing the normal military functions at home.
At the same time each of the active corps took the field under its commanding general, and the corps areas were placed under deputy commands to control the Replacement Army, the permanent installations, and the conscription and training system. The new commander in each corps area was to be known by the dual title of Deputy Commanding General and Commander of the Corps Area (Stellvertretender Kommandierender General und Befehlshaber im Wehrkreis). In his capacity as Deputy Commanding General he was to be responsible for all matters having to do with troop units of the Army, particularly the operation of the replacement system; as Commander of the Corps Area he was to exercise all territorial functions, such as conscription, control of permanent installations, and local defense, on behalf of the entire Armed Forces.
The corps of the new Field Army were organized into armies (Armeen)--an administrative and tactical echelon which had not existed in peacetime. These, in turn, were placed under the tactical control of army groups (Heeresgruppen), which were directly responsible to field headquarters for the conduct of operations.
At the lower levels, each unit which took the field in 1939 left behind at its home station a rear echelon which was known as its replacement training unit (Ersatzeinheit). An infantry regiment, for example, left behind an infantry replacement training battalion, bearing the same number, which was thenceforth to induct and train recruits, dispatch them to the field regiment as needed, and receive personnel back from the field unit if they were to be discharged or when they came out of general hospitals.
4. Functions of the Home Command
The functions of the wartime command for the Zone of the Interior may be described as threefold:
a. PERSONNEL. Conscription, training and replacement of personnel include control of mobilization policies and the actual call-up and induction of men; all types of military training, including the selection and schooling of officers and noncommissioned officers; the dispatch of personnel replacements to field units in response to their requisitions; and the organization of new units.
b. EQUIPMENT. Design, procurement, acceptance, and storage of equipment of all kinds, and its dispatch to the Field Army, involve: assessment of the future needs of the field; planning of production; obtaining the necessary raw materials and labor; development and testing of new weapons; fiscal matters; maintenance of suitable storage and transport facilities, and of headquarters to control them; and organization of the channels for supply requisitions and deliveries.
c. ADMINISTRATION. Administration of the permanent military installations in the Zone of the Interior and emergency defense of the home territory also are responsibilities of the Home Command. The latter function (which would become operative, for example, in case of a surprise airborne invasion of the heart of Germany) would be exercised by the Home Command only until an adequate Field Army force could be assembled to take charge of the operations.
The above functions of the Home Command are discussed in detail in Sections V and VI, of this chapter and in Chapter VI below.
5. Organization of the Theater of War
On the outbreak of war, all the parts of Europe and its adjacent waters which might be the scene of operations became, from the German point of view, the Theater of War (Kriegsgebiet). Within this area the Germans distinguish between the Theater of Operations (Operationsgebiet) and the Zone of the Interior (Heimatkriegsgebiet). Since, in the German concept, wars should be conducted as far as possible beyond their own frontiers, the military nomenclature also provides for an intermediate area known as the Zone of Military Administration (Gebeit der Kreigsverwaltung) or Occupied Territory (Besetztes Gebiet); in fact, much of Europe was in this category during the years when the German armies were fighting in the distant steppes of Russia and in Africa.
The Theater of Operations itself is divided into the Combat Zone (Gefechtsgebiet) and the Communications Zone (Rückwärtiges Gebiet). The latter may be entirely taken up by the Army Rear Areas (Rückwärtige Armeegebiete) or,
if the line of communications is long, its rearward part may be the Army Group Rear Area (Rückwärtiges Heeresgebiet).
Each of the above subdivisions of the Theater of War is subject to a different type of administration by the military, mixed military and civil, or only the civil authorities. The arrangement is shown schematically in Figure 7.
The Zone of the Interior was extended in 1941 and 1942 to include Denmark, Alsace, Lorraine, Luxemburg, and those parts of Poland incorporated in the so-called Government General; it already included Bohemia and Moravia. By contrast, much of Germany itself was within the Theater of Operations and even within the Combat Zone by the end of 1944.
The Zone of the Interior is in general the area under the command of the Chief of Army Equipment and Commander of the Replacement Army. Special regulations provide for the division of authority whenever units or installations of the Replacement Army are stationed within the Theater of Operations, as has happened with the pushing back of the front lines into Germany. In such cases the field commander has no authority over the units or installations in question; he may not conscript German males found in the area or make requisitions of horses or motor vehicles, for example, since this would upset the long-range and nation-wide programs of the Home Command for the utilization of personnel and equipment. Only under absolute military necessity may a field commander assume control of units or installations of the Replacement Army, and he must then immediately notify the Commander of the Replacement Army. The latter, on the other hand, must consult the field commander on any matter of fundamental importance affecting the area of joint interest. This arrangement well illustrates the careful distinction which the Germans make between the functions and authority of the Field Army and those of the Home Command.
Within the Communications Zone, the Army Group Rear Area (when it exists) is placed under the authority of a Commander of Army Group Rear Area (Befehlshaber des rückwärtigen Heeresgebiets), who has the status of a corps commander and is responsible to the Commander of the Army Group. His main tasks are to provide for the military administration of the area and to protect the security of the lines of communication
Figure 7.--Organization of the Theater of War.
so that the army group commander can devote himself entirely to combat operations. Similarly, the Army Rear Area is controlled by a Commander of Army Rear Area (Kommandant des rückwärtigen Armeegebiets) with the status of a division commander. The rear area commanders have at their disposal security (Sicherungs) units and police troops and set up various types of administrative headquarters.
6. Administration of Occupied Territory
In occupied territory, or the Zone of Military Administration (which in some cases has been the "friendly" territory of nations allied to Germany), the administrative structure is distinct from the operational control of any German combat units stationed in it. In France before the Allied landing in 1944, for example, the Military Administration under General von Stulpnagel was responsible for local security and for dealing with the French authorities and the population, but had no direct connection with von Rundstedt's army group which was stationed there for operational purposes. Distinct from both these commands were the training units in reserve divisions stationed in France, which came under the control of the Commander of the Replacement Army in Berlin for training and replacement purposes.
Typical of the flexibility of the German system was the great variety shown in the forms of military administration in the different occupied countries. In each case the form of German military control was adapted to the strategic needs as well as to the political, economic, and psychological factors. In Denmark there was officially no control at all, since the country was regarded as "protected" and not occupied; the German troops stationed there came under a Commander of German Troops in Denmark, while the administration of the country was left to the constitutional Danish government, subject only (until 1944) to German diplomatic pressure. At the opposite extreme was Poland, where no remnant of the previous native administration remained and the Germans had to have tight military control and even do most of the local policing. In France and some other countries the Germans worked largely through the native authorities but also set up their own administrative area headquarters (Oberfeldkommandanturen) and sub-area headquarters (Feldkommandanturen) as the local garrison commands.
Section V. FUNCTIONS OF THE CORPS AREA
As has been shown, the Home Command in wartime is responsible for the replacement of personnel, the procurement of equipment, and territorial administration and defense. Most of these functions are exercised through the regional corps areas, which are the permanent basis for the organization and administration of the German Army. It is these functions which are discussed in this section.
A few functions of the Home Command are performed on a basis other than the territorial one of corps areas and are not included here. By far the most important of these is the procurement, acceptance, storage, and issue of ordnance materiel, which is handled by the Army Ordnance Office and the Ordnance Inspectorate operating through their own regional organization; this function is discussed in detail in Chapter VI below. Other types of supplies, with the exception of gasoline and lubricants, are administered by the corps areas after procurement policies have been established by the High Command.
2. Corps Area Responsibilities
The functions of the corps area headquarters in wartime may be divided into those which it performs as a territorial command and those which accrue to it as the deputy headquarters of a peacetime army corps which is now in the field. As a territorial command it is responsible to the Armed Forces High Command and has responsibilities affecting all three branches of the Armed Forces; in this capacity it is officially referred to as Corps Area Headquarters . . . (Wehrkreiskommando . . . ). In its other capacity it is under the Army High Command alone and is referred to as Deputy Headquarters of the . . . Army Corps (Stellvertretendes Generalkommando . . . Armeekorps); as such it is responsible for the replacement training system for all the field units which are affiliated with it.
The following are the principal responsibilities of this combined headquarters:
Conscription of manpower, carried out through a system of conscription offices. (See Section VI of this chapter below.) Training, conducted in training units which come under controlling staffs of regimental and
division status and in military schools. (See Section VI.) Replacement of personnel for the affiliated field units and formation of new units. (See Section VI.)
Local defense is provided for, in the first instance, by static units of various types, particularly the local defense battalions (Landesschützen-Bataillone), local construction units (Landesbaupioniere), and river guard units (Landespioniere). Such units are controlled by a special administrative division staff (Divisions-Kommando z.b.V.), of which one was set up in each corps area early in the war. They provide guards for vital installations and for prisoner of war camps and furnish personnel for local garrison battalions (Standortbataillone) and companies. In case of emergency the corps area commander has extraordinary powers over civilian agencies as well as the military units and installations in his territory; he may then, for example, issue orders to the provincial and local authorities, commandeer transport and supplies, and take any other steps necessary until outside help arrives.
Any General Headquarters units of the Field Army which are temporarily stationed in the corps area are controlled by the corps area headquarters through its special administrative division staff (Div. Kdo. z.b.V.) or other appropriate command channel.
Auditing of the accounts of all field units affiliated with the corps area is another responsibility.
All military personnel, regardless of their own unit affiliation, are subject to the curfews and other disciplinary regulations issued by the local garrison commander within the corps area. These regulations are enforced by a patrol service maintained by the corps area headquarters as well as by the garrison headquarters. In all territorial matters the corps area commander has a large degree of autonomy. He allots units to garrisons and determines the areas controlled by the garrison commanders. He also controls the Corps Area Administration (Wehrkreisverwaltung) and its subordinate administrative offices so far as their activity concerns the troops stationed in the corps area.
3. Corps Area Headquarters Organization
The various responsibilities of the corps area commander and the corps area headquarters are reflected in the composition and functions of his regular staff and attached special command staffs.
In principle, the staff is organized like any normal corps staff. The differences result from the fact that it has, not an operational, but a replacement mission; furthermore it is not a mobile, but a static organization. Thus, for example, Section 1 b, which in a field unit handles supply of equipment and ammunition, is in this case also responsible for the supply of manpower and for sending replacements to the Field Army; Section I c, normally intelligence, is not primarily concerned with obtaining information about the enemy but with counterintelligence and security; and Sections II, personnel, and IV a. administration, are expanded, Section II serving also as the depository for personnel records while Section IV a is incorporated into the large and semi-autonomous organization of the Corps Area Administration (Wehrkreisverwaltung).
The staff is headed by a Chief of Staff (Chef des Stabes) and includes the following sections:
Section I is responsible for such matters as training, quarters, air raid protection, gas defense, transportation, training films, surveying and mapping, engineer units, and technical supervision of utilities in military installations.
Signal matters are handled in the I a Section by the Commander of Signal Troops (Kommandeur der Nachrichtentruppen). He in turn has a staff of his own concerned with training, activation, and replacement of signal units, supervision of radio traffic, static telephone installations, signal equipment, and female auxiliaries.
Section I b handles the supply of ordnance equipment and ammunition for units stationed in the corps area. As an echelon in the control of manpower, this section supervises the conscription offices (Wehrersatzdienststellen) and is responsible for issuing the orders for the transfer of replacements to units of the Field Army in response to their requisitions.
Section I c handles counterintelligence and security to the limited extent that the corps area headquarters participates in these activities. It also is concerned with Armed Forces propaganda and press relations, as well as the training and employment of interpreters. Formerly this section also handled troop welfare, morale building, and recreational activities; later, these became the responsibility of the National-Socialist Guidance Officer (Nationalsozialistischer Führungsoffizier) who is an independent staff officer in charge of a newly created section of the staff.
Section II, the personnel section, is divided into
Subsections II a, dealing with officer personnel, and II b, concerned with enlisted personnel. Subsection II a keeps individual records for all professional officers regardless of where they are employed and handles the recruiting of officer candidates and awards of decorations. Subsection II b deals with transfers and detachment of individual enlisted men to schools or for other duty. It does not keep individual records for enlisted personnel, as these are kept by the conscription offices. It also handles the recruiting of potential officer and noncommissioned officer candidates (Annahmestellen für den Führernachwuchs), deferment of essential workers, and furloughs and discharges.
Section III is headed by the corps judge (Korpsrichter); however the corps area headquarters is not an important echelon for legal matters.
Section IV a, administration, is headed by the Korpsintendant who at the same time has charge of the Corps Area Administration (Wehrkreisverwaltung).
Section IV b is headed by the Deputy Corps Surgeon (Stellvertretender Korpsarzt, also called Wehrkreisarzt), who advises the commander on medical questions and has a staff of his own. Under him special medical officers (Truppenärzte) supervise discharges for medical reasons which are handled through army discharge bureaus (Heercsentlassungsstellen).
Section IV c is the Deputy Corps Veterinarian (Stellvertretender Korpsveterinär, also called Wehrkreisveterinär), who has his own separate staff.
Section IV d comprises the Protestant and Catholic corps area chaplains (Wehrkreispfarrer).
Motor transport (Heeres-Motorisierung) is handled by a separate staff section, sometimes called Section V or referred to as the Corps Area Motor Transport Officer (Wehrkreiskraftfahroffizier). It deals with the issue of licenses for military drivers and vehicles; allocation and distribution of military vehicles, tires, equipment, gasoline, and oil; traffic control; and the supply of vehicles.
Independently of this section there exists a Commander of Motor Maintenance Troops (Kommandeur der Kraftfahrparktruppe), who controls motor maintenance training units, motor maintenance and repair parks, and parks for spare parts and tires. This commander is sometimes, if not always, the same man as the Corps Area Motor Transport Officer.
On the staff of each corps area headquarters a Section F, Welfare (Fürsorge), controls the activities of welfare officers (Fürsorge-Offiziere) who give advice and assistance to professional soldiers who are discharged or about to be discharged. All discharged non-professional soldiers are taken care of by the Ministry of Labor.
This section represents that part of the German Welfare and Pensions (Fürsorge und Versorgung) organization which is administered by the corps area commander. The other part, Pensions (Versorgung), is handled on a different level, the chain of command going from the Armed Forces High Command to one of three regional Welfare Groups (Versorgungsgruppen) which are located at Berlin, Breslau, and Munich. These control the Welfare and Pension Offices (Fürsorge- und Versorgungsämter), of which there is one in each corps area. These offices, which do not form part of the corps area organization, grant pensions for discharged professional soldiers and their dependents. The reason for the separation of these offices from the control of the corps area commander is the desire to achieve uniformity in the administration of pensions throughout the entire Reich.
Attached to the staff of each corps area headquarters is a Commander of Prisoners of War (Kommandceur der Kriegsgefangenen im Wehrkreis . . .), who is in charge of all prisoner of war camps in the corps area. He controls camps for officers (Offizierslager or Oflag) and camps for enlisted personnel (Mannschafts-Stammlager or Stalag), both types being designated by the Roman numeral of the corps area and distinguished by letters, as XII A, B, etc.
The Commander of Military Police Patrols (Kommandeur des Streifendienstes) is the superior of all road and railway patrols. He is directly subordinate to the corps area commander and works in close liaison with the garrison commanders.
The Officer for Military Economic Affairs (Wehrwirtschaftsoffizier) handles, for the corps area commander, all questions of military economics having a territorial bearing; he is at the same time a direct representative of the Armed Forces Economic Office in the Armed Forces High Command and liaison officer to the regional armament inspectorates (Rüstungsinspektionen) of the Ministry for Armaments and War Production (Ministerium für Rüstung und Kriegsproduktion).
4. Garrison Headquarters
The local territorial responsibilities of the corps area commander are exercised through Armed Forces Senior Garrison Officers (Wehrmacht-Standortalteste). In garrisons with permanent headquarters (Kommandanturen), or on maneuver areas (Truppenübungsplätze), the commander (Kommandant) is automatically the senior garrison officer.
If the majority of the units or installations in a garrison belong to the Navy or Air Force, the senior garrison officer may be taken from these branches of the Armed Forces instead of from the Army, but he remains subordinate to the corps area commander.
The area of the garrison town and its immediate vicinity is designated as the garrison district (Standortbezirk), its boundaries fixed by the senior garrison officer with the approval of the corps area commander. Within this district the senior garrison officer is fully responsible for discipline, local defense, and related matters on behalf of the entire Armed Forces; enlisted personnel, for example, require a pass to leave the garrison district.
All parts of the corps area which are not included in garrison districts are allotted by the corps area commander to so-called garrison areas (Standortbereiche), which are placed under the control of existing senior garrison officers for the exercise of the same functions as within the districts.
If there is an airport (Fliegerhorst) within the garrison district, it is treated as an autonomous district and placed under the command of a German Air Force officer.
The senior garrison officer is authorized to commandeer soldiers and horse-drawn vehicles in his area to do work for the general purposes of the garrison. In case of emergency he may mobilize special detachments.
The senior garrison officer issues regulations for garrison guards and patrols and cooperates with units of the Armed Forces Patrol Service (Wehrmacht-Streifendienst). He is responsible for local defense measures, especially for the air raid protection of all installations belonging to the Armed Forces, and for the efficiency of the air raid protection services.
The senior garrison officer is responsible for the maintenance of military discipline among all members of the Armed Forces within his territory; all military personnel on leave have to report at the garrison headquarters within 48 hours, and the senior garrison officer may declare certain restaurants or streets off limits.
5. Corps Area Administration
a. GENERAL. All administrative matters in the German Army are controlled at the top by the Army Administration Office (Heeresverwaltungsamt) in the Army High Command. Under this office the administrative agencies within Germany are organized on a territorial basis, with the Corps Area Administration (Wehrkreisverwaltung) as the next lower echelon. Below this, these matters are handled by the local garrison administrations (Heeres-Standortverwaltungen) and other specialized types of local administrative agencies. This entire system operates independently of the tactical chain of command. The word "administration" (Verwaltung) in the German Army covers primarily pay, rations, clothing, and billeting.
b. DUAL POSITION OF THE CORPS AREA ADMINISTRATION. The degree of independent authority of the Corps Area Administration in carrying out its duties depends on the nature of the subject matter, which is divided into two basic categories: those in which the Corps Area Administration acts independently of the Corps Area Headquarters and is responsible only to the Army Administration Office, and those in which it acts on the orders of the corps area commander. In the latter type of subject, the Corps Area Administration functions as the IV a, or administrative section, of the corps area staff, and these subjects are usually referred to as "IV a matters". They are mostly matters connected with the administration of the corps area headquarters itself or of the units directly subordinate to it.
The matters in which the Corps Area Administration acts independently are those which derive from its status as a responsible echelon in the territorial administrative structure. In these matters it has its own direct administrative channels, upwards to the Army Administration Office and downwards to the local garrison administrations. They include the following categories:
Pay, accounting, social insurance, and allowances.
Procurement, storage, and issue of utensils and general equipment.
Supervision of the handling of food in processing plants and in the ration depots.
Billeting, so far as it is not determined by the military decision of the corps area commander.
Building and civilian contracts.
Personnel matters of all administrative officers in the Corps Area Administration, its subordinate agencies, and Field Army units maintained by the corps area.
Training of administrative officers. In principle this separation into "IV a matters" and independently handled administrative matters is carried down to the lowest administrative echelons, although the scope of their independent authority is less comprehensive than that of the Corps Area Administration. This basic division of the administrative authority is characteristic of the dual functions and responsibilities of the administrative service of the German Army.
The head of the Corps Area Administration is an administrative officer in the Special Troop Service (Truppensonderdienst) with the title Korpsintendant who is at the same time the head of Section IV a of the staff of the corps area commander. As head of the Corps Area Administration the Korpsintendant is directly subordinate to the Army Administration Office; as a staff officer he is subordinate to the commanding general.
c. FUNCTIONS OF THE CORPS AREA ADMINISTRATION. The principal function of the Corps Area Administration consists in supervising the various local offices in the corps area which constitute the executive organs of administration. The local administrative offices are:
Army garrison administrations (Heeres-Standortverwaltungen).
Army ration main depots (Heeres-Verpflegungshauptämter) and army ration depots (Heeres-Verpflegungsämter).
Hospital administrations (Lazarettverwaltungen).
Clothing offices (Bekleidungsämter).
Construction offices (Heeresbauämter).
Administrative offices of units of battalion or higher status located in the corps area (Zahlmeistereien).
An additional function of the Corps Area Administration is auditing the accounts of the battalion administrative officers (Truppenzahlmeister) of Field Army units affiliated with the corps area, wherever they are located. It may issue instructions to these officers, but they are technically subordinate not to it but to the Field
Figure 8.--Corps Area Administration.
Army administrative headquarters at higher echelons.
The Corps Area Administration is also responsible for personnel matters of administrative officers in units affiliated with the corps area and serves as their replacement unit. It also trains such officers.
d. ORGANIZATION OF THE CORPS AREA ADMINISTRATION. Corresponding to its responsibilities the Corps Area Administration is subdivided into the following sections (Sachgebicte):
Section A: Fiscal matters; interpretation of pay regulations; travel, moving, and transportation allowances; welfare and pensions; vocational schools of the Army; office equipment; libraries; general rules for cashiers, bookkeepers, and auditors; office regulations for paymasters.
Section B: For the duration of the war this section is known as the auditing office (Abrechnungsintendantur). It audits the accounts of unit paymasters in the field and of ordnance installations in the corps area.
Section C: Rations; procurement, administration, and issue of rations through the ration depots; procurement of forage for the remount depots; bakeries; troop-kitchens; ration supply for the troops while on maneuvers; auditing of the accounts of the ration depots and of those garrison administrations with a "rations" department; auditing of the accounts of the remount depots.
Section D: Supervision of the garrison administrations; auditing of their accounts; billeting; administration of real estate.
Section E: Administration of hospitals; auditing of their accounts; questions concerning civilian workers; legal matters so far as not dealt with in any of the other sections; clothing; supervision of clothing depots and auditing of their accounts.Section F: Construction matters; supervision of the construction offices; civilian contracts.
Section G: Procurement of living quarters for members of the staff of the Corps Area Administration.
Section P: (P I) Personnel matters of the administrative officers. (P II) Personnel matters of civilian workers.
e. SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE HEADQUARTERS. (Comparable with the Corps Area Administrations, but in a special position, is the Administration for Central Army Tasks (Verwaltung für Zentralaufgaben des Heeres). This office is organized in the name way as the Corps Area Administrations and carries out the administration for OKH-controlled establishments in Corps Area III such as demonstration units, army specialist schools, academies, and other institutions.
f. SUBORDINATE ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES. Of the various local administrative agencies subordinate to the Corps Area Administration, those which deal with rations and clothing form part of the organization of supply and are therefore dealt with in detail in Chapter VI below.
The most important of the remaining local offices are the garrison administrations (Heeres-Standortverwaltungen).
As a rule there is a garrison administration in every garrison and on every maneuver area; it is always designated by the name of the garrison town. Large cities may have more than one garrison administration.
The head of the garrison administration is an administrative officer who is appointed by the Army High Command and who is directly subordinate to the Korpsintendant. The head of the garrison administration is not on the staff of the garrison commander, and there is no subordination of the garrison administration to the garrison commander. The two are expected to cooperate closely, but in practice this dual authority leads at times to difficulties which have to be adjusted by agreement between the Corps Area Administration and the corps area commander.
The garrison administration normally consists of the following departments:
Real estate management (Grundstücksverwaltung).
Garrison finance office (Heeresstandortkasse).
Pay records for civilian workers (Standortlohnstelle).
Pay records for soldiers (Standortgebührnisstelle).
Utensils and general equipment depot (Gerätclager).
The real estate department handles the main task of the garrison administration, which is the management and utilization of the real estate including training area, and the erection, maintenance, and administration of the buildings and other installations owned or rented by the Army. Excluded from these are the garrison hospitals (Standortlazarette) and the installations of the remount depots, which are taken care of by these organizations themselves.
The garrison finance office has the task of making payments and keeping books and accounts
for the garrison administration and the construction offices (Heeresbauämter). It also keeps the surplus cash for other local offices of the Army. Affiliated with a garrison finance office are all small unit pay offices (Zahlstellen) and branch pay offices (Nebenzahlstellen), which are only allowed to make cash payments and which therefore use the garrison finance office for other types of payment.
The pay office for civilian workers keeps the pay records for these groups and instructs the garrison finance office to make the corresponding payments.
The department handling pay records of soldiers in the field determines the regular service pay (Wehrmachtbesoldung for professional soldiers and Kriegsbesoldung for all other soldiers) and makes the corresponding payments through the garrison finance office to their accounts or dependents.
The utensils and general equipment depots store tools, utensils, and office equipment used in barracks and other installations. Such utensils and general equipment are procured by the Corps Area Administration, which orders one or several of the larger garrison administrations to effect the purchases for the entire area and store the goods.
Another type of local administrative agency is the hospital administration (Lazarettverwaltung). This is subordinate to the Corps Area Administration as well as to the medical officer in charge of the hospital. It deals independently, under the supervision of the Corps Area Administration, with payments, bookkeeping, and accounting for the hospital. In its concern for the medical personnel, officials, and hospitalized soldiers in matters of pay, rations, and clothing it occupies the same position as the administrative office (Zahlmeister) of a unit staff. With regard to the administration of the real estate and buildings belonging to the hospital it has the same responsibilities as the garrison administration has for other property.
Army construction offices (Heeresbauämter and Heeresneubauämter) are established by the Army High Command, which also appoints the head of the office and determines the size of his staff. The work of the construction offices is supervised by the Director of Construction (Section F) in the Corps Area Administration. Within their district Army construction offices deal with the technical side of the construction, repair, and maintenance of buildings owned or rented by the Army and give advice to the other administrative agencies.
6. Medical Service and Installations
a. MEDICAL SERVICE. Within the Armed Forces the administration of the medical services and the use of the medical installations and facilities in Germany have been centralized to a high degree. In considering the medical organization of the Replacement Army it should be borne in mind that these facilities, to a varying degree, are also at the disposal of the other branches of the Armed Forces and of the Waffen-SS.
The Chief Army Medical Inspector (Heeressanitätsinspekteur), whose activities are supervised by the Armed Forces Surgeon General (Chef des Wehrmachtsanitätswesens), is stationed at the headquarters of the Commander of the Replacement Army but does not form part of his staff. He works through his own staff, the Army Medical Inspectorate (Heeressantitätsinspektion), which is part of the General Army Office (Allgemeines Heeresamt). He is the head of the medical services of the Field Army as well as of the Replacement Army. The Chief Army Medical Inspector is the superior of the medical personnel of the Army in disciplinary matters and questions concerning medical work. He decides on the assignment and promotion of medical officers.
Within the limits of the directives issued by the Armed Forces Surgeon General he has the following responsibilities:
Training of medical personnel.
Direction of the medical service including hygienic and sanitary measures in the Army.
Evacuation and hospitalization of casualties and the administration of all military hospitals.
Supply of drugs and medical equipment for the Army.
The permanent medical installations in Germany comprise medical units, hospitals, and supply installations which are all organized on a strictly territorial basis.
b. CORPS AREA SURGEONS. In the Replacement Army the channels of command go through the chief medical officers of the corps areas. These officers have a dual title. They are called deputy corps surgeon (Stellvertretender Korpsarzt) for orders which concern the troops and emanate from the deputy corps headquarters (Stellvertretendes Generalkommando), and corps
area surgeon (Wehrkreisarzt) in all territorial matters which are handled under the authority of the corps area headquarters (Wehrkreiskommando). In this dual capacity they are on the staff of the corps area commander and head the IV b (medical) section of this staff. They are therefore subordinate to the commander of the corps area as well as to the Chief Army Medical Inspector. Within their territory the chief medical officers of the corps areas have the same functions and responsibilities as the Chief Army Medical Inspector.
c. MEDICAL UNITS. The corps area surgeons control the medical replacement battalions (Sanitäts-Ersatzabteilungen), one in each corps area, which train medical replacements for the Field Army. They also control the medical battalions (Sanitäts-Abteilungen), which during the war comprise all the medical personnel other than those in training, serving in the Replacement Army with units or in general hospitals. Each corps area usually has two or three medical battalions, which are designated by their headquarters town.
The medical battalions are composed of medical sections (Heeres-Sanitätsstaffeln) of varying size. The medical sections are the local sub-units of the medical battalions and generally can be found in every permanent garrison and every maneuver area. They are designated by the name of the garrison town.
The commander of the medical section is the local representative of the corps area surgeon and also serves as the garrison surgeon (Standortarzt) and head of the IV b section on the staff of the senior garrison officer. The garrison surgeon is therefore subordinate to the senior garrison officer as well as to the corps area surgeon. The garrison surgeon also controls the military hospitals in his area.
d. HOSPITALS. In peacetime all the larger garrisons had permanent garrison hospitals (Sandort-Lazarette). In addition there existed several Army tüberculosis hospitals (Lazarette für Lungenkranke des Heeres) and Army sanatoriums (Kurlazarette des Heeres).
In wartime all these hospitals are designated general hospitals (Reservelazarette). Thus the garrison hospitals became Reservelazarette, the tüberculosis hospitals Reserve-Lazarette für Lungenkranke, and the sanatoriums Reserve-Kurlazarrete. In addition Army convalescents' homes (Heeres-Genesungsheime), general hospitals for prisoners of war (Reservelazarette für Kriegsgefangene), and other types were created.
Since the peacetime facilities were entirely inadequate for the wartime needs, a large number of civilian institutions and suitable buildings such as civilian hospitals, hotels, and schools were taken over and converted into general hospitals. The general hospitals are designated by the name of the town, and Roman numerals if there is more than one general hospital in the town--for example Reservelazarett Kassel III. If a general hospital controls wards in separate buildings these usually are called part-hospitals (Teillazarette). The capacity of a general hospital may vary anywhere from 100 to 1,000 or more beds.
The medical personnel of a general hospital belong to the medical section (Heeressanitätsstaffel) which is stationed in that particular town or district. They therefore are affiliated permanently with one of the medical battalions (Sanitätsabteilungen) of the corps area.
For the purposes of medical supervision, general hospitals, with an aggregate of about 5,000 beds in a given area of the Wehrkreis, are grouped together into general hospital districts (Reservelazarett-Bezirke) which are under the supervision of senior medical officers.
The majority of the general hospitals are equipped and staffed to deal with a fairly wide range of casualties and diseases, but a few of them specialize, such as general hospitals for blind soldiers or for soldiers with brain injuries. In the military medical organization, the main types of casualties and diseases are indicated by a system of code numbers, running from 1 to 21, in order to facilitate the distribution of casualties to those hospitals which are best fitted for their treatment.
For the purposes of evacuation and distribution of casualties each general hospital in a given area is subordinate to a transportation headquarters (Transport-Kommandantur), where a medical liaison officer handles all these questions. The distribution itself is based on daily reports from the general hospitals to their local distributing centers (Kranken-Verteilungs-Stelle) giving the number of unoccupied beds.
All general hospitals form part of the Replacement Army and therefore, as a rule, all soldiers sent to a general hospital automatically are transferred from the Field Army to the Replacement Army. At times, when the Theater of Operations has extended into Germany proper, this rule has
been modified, so that soldiers who are sent to general hospitals in the corps areas near the combat zone are transferred to the Replacement Army only after having stayed in the general hospital for 8 weeks; this is the same period that applies to field hospitals.
7. Veterinary Service
a. CONTROL. At the head of the veterinary services of the Armed Forces is the Veterinary Inspector (Veterinärinspekteur), who is stationed at the heaquarters of the Commander of the Replacement Army. Although subordinate to the latter, he receives his instructions regarding questions concerning both the Field Army and the Replacement Army direct from the Commander-in-Chief of the Army.
The staff of the Veterinary Inspector is the Veterinary Inspectorate in the General Army Office (Allgemeines Heeresamt).
The Veterinary Inspector is the superior of all veterinary and horse-shoeing personnel in all matters concerning their professional or vocational activity. He makes suggestions to the Army Personnel Office for the appointment of the higher ranking veterinary officers of the Army and makes these appointments himself for the lower ranks.
He instructs the Army Veterinarian (Heeres-Veterinär) with regard to the veterinary service in the Field Army, the evacuation of horses, and the replacement of horses and veterinary equipment.
In the Replacement Army the Veterinary Inspector directs the veterinary service in accordance with instructions given by the Commander of the Replacement Army. He is responsible for the training of veterinary and horse-shoeing personnel and the replacement of veterinary equipment. He gives the instructions for the distribution of horses evacuated from the field and their allocation to home horse hospitals (Heimat-Pferde-Lazarette).
In the Zone of the Interior the authority of the Veterinary Inspector is exercised through the deputy corps veterinarian (Stellvertretender Korpsveterinär), who is on the staff of the deputy corps commander as his IVc. He holds the alternative title of Corps Area Veterinarian (Wehrkreisveterinär) for his territorial functions.
Under the deputy corps veterinarian are the veterinary personnel and the veterinary installations located in his territory.
b. VETERINARY INSTALLATIONS. Each corps area has home horse hospitals (Heimat-Pferdelazarette), to which are evacuated the horses which cannot be treated at the installations of the Field Army, and sick horses from the Replacement Army. The home horse hospitals are numbered with the Arabic number of the corps area, and if there is more than one horse hospital in a corps area they will be distinguished by adding 100, 200, etc., to the number.
Horses that have been cured go from the home horse hospital to a home horse park (Heimatpferdepark). Each corps area has one home horse park. The Corps Veterinarian orders which horses from the home horse park are to go to the Field Army and which to the Replacement Army.
8. Other Installations
a. REMOUNTS. Army remount purchasing commissions (Heeres-Remontierungskommissionen) procure young horses for the Army. These commissions are outside the corps area structure and directly subordinate to the Army High Command.
The young horses purchased for the Army are stabled and maintained by Army remount depots (Heeres-Remonteämter) until they have reached the age for training in corps area riding and driving schools or delivery to troop units. The remount depots are independent of the remount purchasing commissions. They are subordinate to the corps area commander, but in certain respects they are under direct control of the Inspector of Riding and Driving at the Army High Command (Inspekteur des Reit- und Fahrwesens) so as to assure uniformity throughout all corps areas.
b. FORESTRY. The Army Forest and Fisheries Control Offices (Heeres-Forstaufsichtsämter) supervise the administration and utilization of forests and fisheries connected with properties belonging to the Army, such as maneuver areas. In Germany proper there are two of these control offices, at Berlin and Wiesbaden, controlling the local offices in the Corps Areas I-XIII.
These local offices are called Army Forest Offices (Heeres-Forstämter); they in turn supervise forestry offices (Heeres-Oberförstereien and Heeres-Revierförstereien).
The Army forest and fisheries control offices act in conjunction with the respective corps area headquarters on matters concerning the troops and with the corps area administrations in fiscal and bookkeeping questions.
c. MILITARY PRISONS. Military prisons are inter-service institutions. They are not organized
on a territorial basis but generally have several corps areas allotted to them.
There are various kinds of military prisons, each kind receiving prisoners of a different category. These prisoners originate from the Replacement Army as well as from the Field Army.
Wehrmacht-Gefängnisse, which are responsible directly to the Armed Forces High Command, receive soldiers who are condemned to terms for more than 3 months. They are also used for prisoners of war who are sentenced to terms of imprisonment.
Wehrmacht-Untersuchungsgefängnisse accept prisoners with sentences of up to 3 months.
Wehrmacht-Haftanstalten are subordinate to garrison headquarters and take prisoners with sentences of up to 6 weeks.
There is one Wehrmacht-Festungshaftanstalt, which takes soldiers whose sentences specify that they are to be confined to a fortress, i.e., that their offense is not a dishonorable one.
d. ARMED FORCES SIGNAL HEADQUARTERS (Wehrmacht-Nachrichtenkommandanturen) are designated by the towns in which they are located. They are regional liaison offices between the Armed Forces and the German Postal Service (Deutsche Reichspost). In addition to their liaison functions they collect data on installations for long-distance communications which are of military importance.
Section VI. CONSCRIPTION, REPLACEMENT, AND TRAINING
This section deals with the entire system of personnel replacement for the Field Army. The units of the Field Army do not procure their own replacements independently. Replacements for the field units are obtained only through the specified units of the Replacement Army, and those for the units of the Replacement Army in turn come only through the home recruiting stations. Thus, the following main divisions of the replacement system are obvious:
Conscription--the function of the home recruiting stations (Wehrersatzdienststellen) under the Armed Forces High Command (OKW).
Replacement and Training--the primary function of the Replacement Army (Ersatzheer).
The following pages describe the machinery for the registration and supervision of those liable to service, their induction and training in one of the numerous replacement and training units and schools of the Replacement Army, their dispatch to a field unit, and their return to a replacement unit. The principle of affiliation between field and replacement units, the fact that developments in the Field Army are often preceded by corresponding developments in the Replacement Army, and the presence of units of the Replacement Army on the fighting fronts show that, although the German Army was divided into two parts in 1939, the Field Army and Replacement Army are closely interlinked and cannot be fully understood except as complementary parts of a whole.
2. Conscription System
a. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. Systematic universal military training in modern times is an invention of the Germans and has been developed to its highest degree of refinement by them. It grew out of the mass armies which were necessary to overthrow Napoleon and was introduced by a Prussian law of 3 September 1814 as a part of the far-reaching army reforms initiated by Scharnhorst and his colleagues to cope with the new forms of warfare. Ever since then universal compulsory military service has existed in Germany, with the exception of the period from 1918 to 1935, when it was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles.
b. BASIC LAWS. On 16 March 1935 the universal service system (allegemeine Wehrpflicht) was reintroduced by the Law Regarding the Structure of the Armed Forces (Gesetz über den Aufbau der Wehrmacht). This law stated in three short sentences that military service was to be based on the principle of universal liability, and that the Army was to be expanded (initially) to a strength of 36 divisions. This was followed on 21 May 1935 by the Military Service Law (Wehrgesetz), which established the purpose and scope of universal service, administrative control of civilian manpower, categories of manpower according to age and training status, rights and duties of military personnel, and methods of call-up and discharge. This law, and the decrees issued under it, still govern the German conscription system after 5 years of war.
c. CONTROLLING AGENCIES. The execution of the system for exercising military supervision of men liable to military service and for examining and conscripting them from civilian life into the Armed Forces is a joint responsibility of the German civilian and military authorities.
(1) Civilian. The Minister of the Interior, controlling all police authorities and the ordinary local registration of the civilian population, is responsible for the registration of men liable for military service. This occurs through the local and district police authorities.
(2) Civilian and military. The Minister of the Interior and the Minister of War jointly issued and jointly apply the Decree regarding Military Examination and Drafting (Verordnung über die Musterung und Aushebung), which involves collaboration of the civilian and military authorities during the phase between first registration and induction. They were also jointly responsible for dividing each corps area into suitable recruiting areas and sub-areas in such a way as both to meet the military needs and to fit, so far as possible, the existing civilian administrative subdivisions of the country.
(3) Military. The Armed Forces High Command controls the machinery for the call-up, induction, and discharge of personnel. This includes the recruiting area and sub-area headquarters which examine and draft recruits and represent the military interests in the administrative control of civilian manpower before and after service.
(4) Chain of military command. This being a matter which concerns all three branches of the Armed Forces, it is supervised by the Replacement Branch (Abteilung Ersatzwesen) of the Conscription and Recruiting Office (Wehrersatzamt) in the Armed Forces High Command (OKW). Emanating from this agency, orders are issued through the various Wehrkreis headquarters (Wehrkreiskommandos, Wkr.Kdo.) to the recruiting area inspectorates (Wehrersatzinspektionen, W.E.I.) and from there to the recruiting sub-area headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommandos, W.B.K.). These control the Military Reporting Offices (Wehrmeldeamter, W.M. A.) and set up from time to time in their districts the examining boards (Musterungsstäbe, Must. Stb.). Most Wehrkreise contain two or three recruiting areas, but Wehrkreis VI, comprising the populous Ruhr and Rhineland region, has four, while Wehrkreise VII, XX, XXI, Böhmen und Mähren, and Generalgouvernement consist of only one such area each. The number of recruiting sub-areas in each area varies between four and a dozen according to local needs. Each recruiting area is controlled by an Inspector of Recruiting Area (Wehrersatzinspekteur), who is a general officer with the status and disciplinary authority of a division commander. (In some cases he may be a naval or air officer, since the recruiting system operates jointly for all three branches.) Recruiting sub-areas are commanded by lieutenant colonels or colonels selected from the class of officers whose suitability for active service in the field has ceased. They have the status of regimental commanders.
There are two recruiting sub-area headquarters which do not come under any Wehrkreis headquarters but directly under the Armed Forces High Command. The Recruiting Sub-Area Headquarters "Ausland" (Wehrbesirkskommando Ausland in Berlin) deals with the registration, control, deferment, and call-up of German citizens in foreign countries (occupied or neutral). During the war it has established branches abroad in occupied countries; in neutral countries it is assisted in its mission by the German consulates. The Maritime Recruiting Sub-Area Headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommando See), with its seat at Hamburg, has the supervision of manpower of all Germans in the merchant marine.
d. CLASSIFICATION OF MANPOWER. (1) Basic concept. "Military service is honorary service to the German people. Every German is liable to military service. In time of war, in addition to liability to military service, every German man and every German women is liable to service to the Fatherland." These are the opening clauses of the Military Service Law of 21 May 1935.
(2) Extent of liability. In time of peace all German males were liable to military service from their 18th birthday until the 31 March following their 45th birthday. (31 March is the end of the German fiscal year.) In East Prussia (separated from the rest of Germany by the Polish corridor), liability was extended until the 31 March following the 55th birthday. The Minister of War was empowered to extend liability in either direction in time of war, and it now extends from 17 (the class born in 1928) to 61 (the 1884 class).
(3) Reserve status. All men not doing their active military service are classified into the following categories:
Reserve I: Those under 35 who have completed their regular period of active service and been discharged. There are only very few fit men in this group today.
Reserve II: Those under 35 who have been
through a period of short-term training. This applied before the war to some of the older classes.
Ersatzreserve I: Fit men under 35 who have not been trained.
Ersatzreserve II: Unfit and limited-service men under 35 who have not been trained.
Landwehr I: Trained men between 35 and 45 (actually from 31 March of the year in which the 35th birthday occurs until the 31 March following the 45th birthday).
Landwehr II: Untrained men between 35 and 45.
Landsturm I: Trained men between 45 and 55 (actually from the 31 March following the 45th birthday until the 31 March following the 55th birthday).
Landsturm II: Untrained men between 45 and 55. (The two categories of Landsturm applied in peacetime only to East Prussia; they now include men up to 61.)
(4) Exclusion. The following categories of men are described as "unworthy to bear arms" and therefore "excluded from military service":
Those sentenced to penal servitude (Zuchthaus). Those who do not possess the honorary civil rights.Those subjected to "security and improvement" measures (concentration camp for supposed habitual criminals).
Those deprived of their "worthiness to bear arms" by a court martial.
Those sentenced for activities inimical to the state.
Jews also are excluded from military service, but in wartime are required to do other types of service.
(5) Exemption. Completely unfit men are released from liability to military service. Roman Catholics who have taken holy orders (Subdiakonatsweihe) were not conscripted in time of peace. No other category of person is exempt.
(6) Deferment. No German can be deferred for military service in peace or war for purely personal reasons or by reason of his dependency status except in cases of extreme hardship. Deferment of indispensable employees in essential industries may be applied for by the employer, but it is granted only according to a very rigid quota system. No general class of men is deferred, and each case is judged on its merits. Application for deferment must be repeated at frequent intervals.
e. CONSCRIPTION PROCEDURE. (1) Registration. Usually in the spring of each year in peacetime, under directives issued by the High Command, the incoming class (normally those who were turning 20 during the year) was summoned by the district police authorities (Kreispolizeibehörde) by means of public notices to appear at the local police stations for military registration (polizeiliche Erfassung). It should be noted that under the German administration system the local police always have a complete roster of all residents of their precincts, based on the required registration of residents.
After the outbreak of the war the older classes who had not been covered by this system were registered in a similar manner, and by the end of 1940 all the classes back to those born in 1900 had been registered. The upper age limit was later extended to the 1897 class, then to 1894, and finally in 1944 to the 1884 class. The incoming classes have been registered systematically, each class being summoned at a slightly earlier age than the previous one.
(2) First examination. Shortly after the registration the recruiting sub-area headquarters (Wehrbezirkskommando) issues orders for the holding of the first examination (Musterung) of the registrants. This is carried out according to local registration districts by an examining board (Musterungsstab) which included representatives of the military authorities, the district and local police, the civilian administrative authorities (municipalities or rural district), and the German Labor Service, as well as medical officers. On this occasion the registrants are classified according to their physical fitness. Since December 1943 the categories used have been: fit for regular service (Kriegsverwendungsfähig--Kv.); fit for limited service in the field (bedingt kriegsverwendungsfähig); fit only for labor service (arbeitsverwendungsfähig--av.); totally unfit (wehruntauglich--wu.); and temporarily unfit (zeitlich untauglich). Medical standards have been lowered progressively since 1942.
Following their medical classification the registrants are placed in a reserve category (normally Ersatzreserve I).
(3) Drafting. In peacetime final action on the question of whether or not each individual was to be called up for regular service was taken at a second examination or drafting (Aushebung). This was conducted by the same authorities as the first examination and resulted
either in a deferment or in definite assignment to a branch of service. The registrant then was told to go home and await orders. In wartime the procedure has been accelerated, and the drafting is now combined with the call-up.
(4) Call-up. The actual call-up (Einberufung) is issued by mail by the recruiting sub-area headquarters in the form of an induction order (Gestellungsbefehl) directing the registrant to report at a specified time at the headquarters of a unit (in wartime a replacement unit).
(5) Induction. Recruits reporting at a battalion headquarters are first subjected to roll-call and then distributed to the subordinate companies, where the final medical examination and actual induction (Einstellung) takes place. Induction is followed by a mental and physical test to determine the most suitable employment of each man and the administration of the oath of allegiance.
(6) Volunteers. Volunteer applicants for the officer and noncommissioned officer careers apply at reception centers for potential officers and noncommissioned officers (Annahmestellen für den Führernachwuchs), which come under the Inspector General for Potential Officers and noncommissioned officers (GJF). Within limits, the volunteers are given the privilege of selecting their arm or branch of service.
In January 1945 these reception centers were combined with the recruiting centers for the Waffen-SS to form new "Combined Recruiting Centers of the Army and Waffen-SS" (Ergänzungsstellen des Heeres und der Waffen-SS). Under Himmler's orders, one of these was established in each Wehrkreis, with branch offices in all major cities. They also deal with volunteers to the ranks for Volks Grenadier divisions and thus facilitate the distribution of manpower under SS control.
Volunteers to the ranks have been numerous during the war, though much less so than in 1914-1918. At the beginning of the war the lower age limit was 17 (instead of 18 for conscripts); it later was lowered to 161/2 and then (in 1944) to 16. In the past 2 years a large proportion of the youngest age class has been induced by various kinds of pressure to volunteer, largely for the Waffen-SS.
(7) Discharge. Discharge before completion of the normal period of service was possible in peacetime if a man became "unworthy to bear arms" (by reason of conviction for a major criminal offense) or totally unfit, or if it was discovered that he had been inducted by error. Both this type of discharge and the normal discharge after two years of service were carried out by the unit itself. In wartime this has been modified. In order to be discharged from active service members of the Field Army first must be transferred to the Replacement Army, either by their own unit or by a hospital. In order to relieve these units, however, and to reduce the distance which the infirm soldier must travel to his place of discharge, army discharge centers (Heeres-Entlassungs-Stellen) have been established to handle medical discharge cases. The Waffen-SS has its own corresponding medical discharge center. In the German Air Force, the physical examinations for reception and discharge are given in both combined reception and discharge centers (Annahme- und Entlassungsstellen), which handle either procedure all the way through.
(8) Foreigners. Foreigners and stateless persons, in case they are classified as "racial" Germans, may volunteer for service in the German Army. If they live within Germany, applications are handled by the competent recruiting sub-area headquarters; if they live in foreign countries, they are dealt with by the Recruiting Sub-area Headquarters Ausland in Berlin. Volunteers from the Nordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium) may be inducted without the acquisition of German citizenship. Applications are handled by the Recruiting Sub-area Headquarters Ausland in Berlin.
Since about 1943 virtually all "racial" Germans living in Balkan countries under German domination have been required to "volunteer". The concept of "racial" Germans (Volksdeutsche) has been interpreted very widely by the High Command with the growing stringency of the manpower situation. Especially in the annexed areas of Poland, people who knew scarcely a word of German were classified as belonging to Section 3 of the German Racial List (Abteilung 3 der Deutschen Volksliste); this meant that they were vested with German citizenship for a probationary period of 10 years and were liable to military service but could not rise above the rank of private first class.
Many thousands of genuine foreigners from other occupied countries have been persuaded to join the German Army, often through political or economic pressure. The procedure for their
enlistment has varied widely for different nationalities and at different times.
f. HANDLING OF CONSCRIPTS. The three branches of the Armed Forces submit to the Armed Forces High Command, their personnel requirements on the 15th of each month for the second month, following. According to the demands and the general replacement situation the various Wehrkreis headquarters then receive orders specifying how many men are to be inducted for each branch of the Armed Forces.
The Armed Forces High Command determines which age groups are to be drawn upon according to the type of service for which they are required. The Wehrkreis headquarters are bound by these arrangements but may accept volunteers of all age groups.
If men of a certain type are not available within the Wehrkreis where they are required, the Armed Forces High Command may order the transfer of recruits from one Wehrkreis to another.
Within the Wehrkreis, the Wehrkreis headquarters is responsible for distributing the replacement requisitions among the recruiting area and sub-area headquarters as rapidly as possible and with due regard to the varying characteristics of the population in different districts. City areas provide the best material for motorized units, country areas for cavalry and horse-drawn units. A mixing of rural and urban elements is to be aimed at in the interests of regional and national solidarity.
The Navy accepts volunteers from all parts of the Reich. For its seagoing personnel it has a priority on recruits who, by reason of their place of residence or previous experience, are classified as belonging to the "seafaring population" (seemännische Bevölkerung); to man its shore installations it takes conscripts from the Maritime Wehrkreise--I, II, X, and XX. The Air Force has a similar priority on conscripts (classified as part of the "aeronautical population" (fliegerische Bevölkerung), which includes those who have belonged to gliding clubs or who joined the aviation branch of the Hitler Youth.
The Army aims at assigning every individual conscript to the type of unit for which his physical condition, his civilian background, and his special abilities best fit him. With this in view, certain standing regulations have been introduced. Thus mountaineers called up in Wehrkreise that maintain no mountain units automatically are transferred to Wehrkreise which do--from Wehrkreise VI, XII, and XX to Wehrkreis VII and from Wehrkreise II, III, IV, VIII, IX, X, XI, XXI, and Böhmen und Mähren to Wehrkreis XVIII.
In general, transfers from one Wehrkreis to another are not made unless there is a cogent reason for them, and they were not frequent until growing man-power difficulties began to make it impossible for some Wehrkreise to meet their obligations from their own resources. In principle, a conscript trains and fights in the company of men from his own province. One significant deviation from this policy was in the treatment of conscripts from the annexed areas of Poland, France, and Yugoslavia. Alsatians generally were sent for training to northeastern Germany (Wehrkreis II) and Poles to the Berlin area (Wehrkreis III) or to the southwest (Wehrkreis V).
3. Replacement Training System
a. BASIC PRINCIPLE. Every unit in the Field Army is affiliated for personnel replacement purposes with a specific unit of the Replacement Training Army, located in its own original Wehrkreis and known as an Ersatz unit. The function of the latter is to induct recruits, to provide for their training, and to see that they are held in readiness to be sent off to the field unit in batches or individually as required.
The normal location of the Ersatz unit is the home station of the affiliated field unit, to which the soldiers expect ultimately to return for their discharge or for reassignment. For example, a soldier who is wounded and goes to a reserve hospital in the Zone of the Interior will be sent, on leaving the hospital, to his affiliated Ersatz unit before being returned to the field.
Whenever feasible, trained replacements are sent by an Ersatz unit to a field unit with which it is affiliated. If, however, a man for any reason is diverted to a different field unit, or if he subsequently is transferred from one field unit to another, the affiliated Ersatz unit of his new field unit must be entered on Page 4 of his paybook under the heading "present competent Ersatz unit" (jetzt zuständiger Ersatztruppenteil).
In order to understand the intricacies of the present Ersatz system it is well to trace the successive stages of its development.
b. ORIGINAL OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM. Each infantry regiment which took to the field at
Figure 9.--Control of replacement and training units.
the beginning of the war left behind at its home station a battalion cadre bearing its own number and known as its Ersatz battalion. The primary purpose of this battalion was to receive recruits, train them, and dispatch them as replacements to the field regiment. At any given time it included one or more of each of the following types of companies:
Reception companies (Stammkompanien), consisting of new recruits and cadre personnel.
Training companies (Ausbildungskompanien), also known as Rekruteneinheiten. These companies provided for the training of the inducted untrained volunteers. After the training was finished the recruits joined the transfer company, if they were not transferred to the Field Army immediately.
Transfer companies (Marschkompanien) which were pools of trained replacements ready to depart for the field unit.
Convalescent companies (Genesendenkompanien), consisting of men released from reserve hospitals who were being prepared for return to the field. All other replacement training units are organized in a corresponding manner.
c. ORIGINAL AFFILIATION SYSTEM. The three replacement training battalions corresponding to the three infantry regiments of a field division were controlled by an infantry replacement training regimental staff (Grenadier-Ersatz-Regiment--Gr.Ers.Rgt.) bearing the number of the division. Thus, the 2d. 23d, and 44th Infantry Regiments, belonging to the 11th Infantry Division, were represented by the 2d, 23d, and 44th Infantry Replacement Training Battalions controlled by the 11th Infantry Replacement Training Regimental Staff at Allenstein in Wehrkreis I, the home station of the division. Replacement training regimental staffs usually were commanded by colonels.
The replacement training regimental staff also controlled from three to five infantry specialist replacement training companies which provided the personnel for the infantry howitzer companies, antitank companies, signal sub-units, engineer platoons, and mounted platoons of the three infantry field regiments.
The other components of the field division--the artillery regiment, reconnaissance battalion, antitank battalion, engineer battalion, and signal battalion, were affiliated in a similar way with replacement training units of their respective arms back in the Wehrkreis from which they came.
All the artillery replacement training battalions in any Wehrkreis were controlled by two or more artillery replacement training regimental staffs bearing the numbers of artillery field regiments originally raised in that Wehrkreis. The replacement training battalions for the smaller divisional components likewise bore the numbers of some of the corresponding field units from the Wehrkreis, but usually one such replacement training battalion would provide replacements for the corresponding field battalions of several divisions. Altogether over 50 types of regular replacement training units existed.
d. CHAIN OF COMMAND IN THE REPLACEMENT ARMY. The replacement training units are subordinate to the Wehrkreis Headquarters (Wehrkreiskommandos) in their capacity as Deputy Corps Headquarters (Stellvertretende Generalkommandos, Stv.Gen.Kdo.) through the following intermediate staffs:
One or more Replacement Division Staffs (Division Nummer ...., Div. Nr.....) controlling the replacement training units either directly, as in the case of independent units of the supporting arms and services (reconnaissance, engineer, supply troop replacement training battalions) or through several infantry and artillery replacement training regimental staffs (Grenadier-Ersatz-Regiment, Gr.Ers.Rgt. and Artillerie-Ersatz-Regiment, Art Ers. Rgt.).
Possibly one Panzer Replacement Division Staff (Panzer-Division Nummer...., Pz.Div.Nr....) or a Commander of Panzer Troops (Kommandeur der Panzertruppen, Kdr.d.Pz.Tr.) of either brigade or regimental status, controlling the replacement training units either directly, as in the case of the independent battalions (tank, antitank, and Panzer reconnaissance replacement training battalions) or through one or two motorized infantry or Panzer Grenadier replacement training regimental staffs.
The Commander of Motor Maintenance Units (Kommandeur der Kraftfahrparktruppe, Kdr.d. Kf.Pk.Tr.), controlling motor maintenance replacement training units.
The Commander of Signal Troops (Kommandeur der Nachrichtentruppe, Kdr.d.Nachr.Tr.), controlling signal replacement training battalions.
Wehrkreis Surgeon (Wehrkreisarzt in his capacity as Stellvertretender Korpsarzt), controlling medical replacement training units.
Wehrkreis Veterinarian (Wehrkreisveterinär in his capacity as Stellvertretender Korpsveterinär).
The Deputy Corps Commanders, who are not
only the commanders of the replacement training units but also commanders in the Wehrkreis, are subordinate to the Commander of the Replacement Army (Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres). They have the right to shift the location of units of the Replacement Army within their areas but must notify the Commander of the Replacement Army.
The responsibility of the Commander of the Replacement Army and of his subordinate headquarters and offices for maintaining the Field Army on a wartime footing remains in effect when parts of the Replacement Army are located in the Theater of Operations.
The number of replacement division staffs in each Wehrkreis is regulated by the Army High Command. They are responsible for the uniformity of training in their subordinate replacement training units. They are to be kept free from all administrative duties. Regarding correspondence they are to participate only in what concerns the training, arming and equipment of replacement training units, as well as the maintenance of discipline (including proceedings of law) and the personal matters of their subordinate officers and officials. Should there be several replacement division staffs in one Wehrkreis, the deputy corps headquarters orders which replacement training units are subordinated to either one.
e. REQUISITIONING OF REPLACEMENTS. The field unit may request replacements if there is a deficiency of more than 10 per cent of their table of organization strength. Replacements for specialists, such as communication personnel or technicians, are to be requested as soon as their absence would hamper the efficiency of the field unit. Every independent field unit (regiment, independent battalion) sends its requests for replacements through channels to the division headquarters. The division forwards them direct to the competent deputy corps headquarters.
The deputy corps headquarters thereupon issues orders to the appropriate replacement units. The replacement division staffs usually are consulted only with regard to the state of training of the replacements before the deputy corps commander disposes of them. The commanders of the replacement training regimental staffs participate fully in this matter. If the records which every deputy corps headquarters has to keep show that the competent replacement training unit cannot provide all or any of the replacements, the deputy corps headquarters passes this order to another replacement training unit. If an adjustment is not possible within the competent area, the Commander of the Replacement Army is notified and orders another Wehrkreis to provide the replacements. The replacement training units have to notify the deputy corps headquarters at once on what date the replacements will be ready to leave.
Although the requisitions are strictly channelized, direct relations between the field unit and the competent training unit at home always were considered desirable, in order to strengthen the feeling of comradeship. This was achieved not only through the personal connections but also through circular letters and newspapers.
f. LATER MODIFICATIONS OF THE REPLACEMENT TRAINING SYSTEM, 1939-AUTUMN 1942. (1) Early change in the affiliation system. The system of numerical affiliation between replacement training units and field units, applying particularly to the infantry units, was valid in general for the four initial waves of divisions sent to the field by each Wehrkreis in the summer and autumn of 1939. These were the "active", or peacetime, divisions, numbered from 1 to 36, 44, 45 and 46; those raised from reservists, numbered 52 to 98; those raised from Landwehr personnel, from 205 to 246; and those formed from so-called Ergänzungs units (special "supplementary" peacetime units for short-term training of men in the intermediate classes 1901 to 1913), from 251 to 269.
The component units of divisions formed subsequent to the initial mobilization period, on the other hand, usually were not given new replacement training units of their own, but were assigned, through the corresponding Deputy Corps Headquarters, an affiliation with existing replacement training units of their respective arms. Thus each infantry replacement training battalion eventually had to feed replacements to several field regiments, only one of which bore its own number. Similarly, when the infantry component in the Panzer divisions was increased from one regiment to two in 1940, the second regiment usually was affiliated with the existing replacement training battalion of the original regiment. Some replacement training units were converted outright into field units; on the other hand some field units were later dissolved. These changes tended to upset the principle of numerical affiliation, which underwent further changes in the following years.
It was the practice from the very beginning to collect groups of trained replacements of the various
arms in the Wehrkreis and assemble them into loosely organized special personnel transfer battalions known later as Marschbataillone for the purpose of conducting them to the combat zone. Originally each such transfer unit normally was destined for a particular division, and often carried the number of that division, preceded by the Roman numeral of the Wehrkreis and followed by a serial number. Such battalions usually were attached to the rear echelon of the division in the field, and from there the personnel was filtered into the various divisional components as needed, or they filled up field replacement pools.
After the start of the Russian campaign, it was found expedient, in view of the long distances involved, to draw on these field replacement pools in some cases without regard to their Wehrkreis of origin or the division for which they originally were intended. Thus a division which had suffered particularly heavy losses might receive a large portion of the personnel which had been trained and dispatched to the field for a different division in an adjacent and less active sector. In other cases, all the divisions under a given corps or in a particular area would share a single field replacement battalion. In the African theater, for a time at least, there was only one field replacement battalion for all the divisions of the Africa Corps, although they came from different Wehrkreise. In the middle of 1941, moreover, all units in Africa were assigned affiliations with replacement training units in Wehrkreise III and XII, regardless of the location of their previous replacement training units; this was done in order to concentrate the specialized training which the men required for operations in the desert.
All such measures resulted in a further breaking down of the system of numerical affiliation and in some cases even a departure from the rule that the great majority of men in a given unit should come from the same Wehrkreis. It must be borne in mind, however, that all these, as well as all subsequent modifications up to the beginning of 1945 in the detailed operations of the replacement training systems, never have violated its basic principle: namely, that every field unit at all times must be affiliated with a specified replacement training unit to which all men leaving the Field Army are automatically sent.
(2) Early movements of replacement training units. Despite the fact that the original replacement training units were intended to remain at the home stations of their corresponding field units, acting more or less as the rear echelon of the latter, there have been numerous shifts of units in the Replacement Army from one part of Germany to another and from Germany into occupied countries and back again for varying reasons. From 1939 to 1941, when Germany still had neighbors to be attacked, the replacement training units were withdrawn from the border regions several months before an offensive was to commence in order to free the barrack space and other military facilities for the assembling of field forces. After the area was no longer being used for this purpose, the replacement training units generally returned to their home stations.
Replacement training units, with their controlling replacement division staffs temporarily thus transferred to another Wehrkreis, are subordinate to the deputy corps headquarters of this Wehrkreis for administrative purposes as well as for the general supervision of their training; the replacement division staffs, however, are the direct recipients of requisitions of replacements from the field units in this case, and at the same time the contact with the home Wehrkreis was not completely broken off. New conscripts, normally given orders by their local recruiting sub-area headquarters to report to a replacement training unit not far from their home town, were sent in these cases either individually, or in small groups, on long train journeys before induction or were assembled in special collecting points known as Wehrkreis Ersatz-Depots. The latter were also used for receiving men who returned from the field as convalescents or for any other reason. After the units returned to the Wehrkreis these depots were dissolved.
All these moves and a number of others, concurrent with or subsequent to them, served the additional purpose of garrisoning the annexed or conquered areas adjacent to Germany proper and thus relieved the field forces of this responsibility. At the same time barracks and training grounds in Germany were freed for the formation of new units for the constantly expanding German Army, and the recruits were given training away from home and under conditions more like those in the field. All these moves prior to the autumn of 1942 (except those whose primary motive was the evacuation of assembly areas) were by units in border Wehrkreise into adjacent occupied or annexed territory immediately across the border. The movements thus amounted to a
slight extension of the German Zone of the Interior in all directions.
g. REORGANIZATION OF THE REPLACEMENT ARMY IN THE AUTUMN OF 1942. (1) Principle. The most far reaching change in the replacement training system took place on or about 1 October 1942 when all basic replacement training units were broken up into their two elements--one to handle induction and replacement and the other to handle training. The induction and replacement unit retained the designation Ersatz. But henceforth it was concerned only with receipt of recruits from the conscription offices; issue of their personal equipment and their paybooks; short military indoctrination of recruits; forwarding of recruits as speedily as possible to its sister training unit; receipt of convalescents and sending them back to a field unit; and with the processing of men from its affiliated field units who for any reason were to be discharged. The newly created training unit (Ausbildungseinheit) bore the same number as the Ersatz unit and was to receive the men from the Ersatz unit, give them their training, and then dispatch them to an affiliated field unit.
(2) Movements following the reorganization. The purpose of this measure apparently was to facilitate a shift of most training activities farther into the occupied countries, particularly in the west, without seriously affecting the efficiency of the induction and replacement procedure back in the Wehrkreise.
The disadvantages of the earlier removal of the replacement training units from their home stations, from the administrative point of view, were almost sufficient to outweigh the advantages. For this reason, none of the earlier moves except those dictated by military necessity were very far from home, and the practice of garrisoning more distant occupied territories with replacement training units never was resorted to under the old system. It was probably these considerations, as much as it was the growing shortage of man-power, which caused the German authorities, in September 1942, to divide all the basic replacement training units into their two parts, even though in some cases they were reunited under a new name. This made it possible for the replacement units to occupy their home stations, and for the training units to enjoy complete freedom of movement. The latter henceforth were used in large numbers to occupy different parts of France, the Low Countries, Denmark, Poland, Lithuania, the Soviet Union, and northern Italy in the form of reserve divisions. Combined training thus could be carried on under more realistic conditions, and numerous fully organized field divisions were released for service on active fighting fronts. In most cases the units from a given Wehrkreis went to the country nearest them. In the case of the basic infantry training units, approximately two-thirds moved out in this way, and only one-third remained within greater Germany.
(3) Changes at battalion level. Under the original system each infantry replacement training battalion, as already indicated, normally contained a reception company, four training companies, and one or more convalescent and transfer companies. At the time of the reorganization the training companies were withdrawn under the battalion staff, and a new replacement battalion staff was created to control the remaining components having purely replacement functions. In some cases, apparently, the new training battalion established a transfer company of its own as a pool for trained men awaiting transfer to the Field Army, while in other cases it seemed to send them to the transfer company of the replacement battalion.
In practice, the change took place in either one or the other of the following ways: In the case of replacement training units which were already in newly acquired or occupied territories in the autumn of 1942, the replacement elements in some cases returned to their home stations to resume their normal induction and replacement functions and retained the name Grenadier-Ersatz-Bataillon, etc. The training elements then usually were incorporated into reserve divisions and moved farther afield, receiving the name reserve battalion (Reserve-Bataillon), etc.; if they remained in Greater Germany they were called training battalions (Ausbildungs Bataillone), etc. In other cases (both in Germany and in adjacent occupied or annexed territory) both elements remained in the same area and took the form of combined replacement and training battalions (Ersatz- und Ausbildungsbataillone).
The above remarks apply to the various other arms as well as to the infantry. Most of the service troops remained at their home stations as combined replacement and training battalions.
(4) Changes at regimental level. Many of their replacement training regimental staffs became staffs of reserve regiments (Reserve-Regiment) in occupied territory. The only regimental
staffs remaining in the Wehrkreise after the reorganization were combined replacement and training regimental staffs (Ersatz- und Ausbildungs-Regimenter). These controlled combined replacement and training battalions and specialists companies remaining in the Wehrkreise. In addition, new infantry replacement regimental staffs (Grenadier-Ersatz-Regimenter) were created to control replacement battalions and specialist replacement companies whose training elements had become reserve units. These new regimental staffs received new numbers mostly in the 500 series, and had no affiliation with a field division bearing the same number. However, some of the companies controlled by these new staffs retained their original numbers. Thus the original numerical affiliation system had almost disappeared at regimental level.
In the artillery the original regimental staffs that remained in the Wehrkreis took over the functions of those which went out to reserve divisions.
(5) Changes at division level. For occupational and defensive purposes, as well as for the conduct of combined training exercises, the reserve units in occupied territory were organized into a new type of training division known as a reserve division (Reservedivision) which still remained part of the Replacement Army. This was done in all cases except one by the conversion of one of the former replacement division staffs in the Wehrkreise. If not enough staffs remained in a Wehrkreis to supervise the induction and replacement activities of replacement units as well as the training of combined replacement and training units, a new staff was created, sometimes taking a number 300 higher than that of the departed reserve division. Other new replacement division staffs were created by conversions of special administrative division staffs (Divisionskommando z.b.V., Div. Kdo. z.b.V.) As a result the number of the replacement division staffs was only slightly diminished from 34 in September, 1942 to 29 in 1943. Each reserve division controlled a group of reserve regiments and supporting units from its own Wehrkreis, but the allotment of battalions within the regiment no longer followed the original pattern based on the subordination of infantry regiments to the field division of the same number. Sometimes the battalions took the numbers I, II, and III, and the regimental number, with or without addition of their own original numbers. In other respects, also, the reserve divisions took on the character of defensive field divisions. For instance, some of them received divisional rear service units, numbered 900 plus the reserve division number. These services were part of the Field Army. This system of reserve divisions was developed steadily throughout 1943. After the summer of 1943 new reserve divisions also were formed from Panzer and motorized training units (Reserve-Panzer-Divisionen) which until then had been stationed in the Zone of the Interior.
(6) Reserve corps. To control the replacement functions of reserve divisions (i.e., the dispatch of trained replacements to the Field Army) a number of reserve corps (Reservekorps) and one or more reserve Panzer corps (Reserve-Panzerkorps) were formed. Orders issued to deputy corps headquarters relating to these functions were now also addressed to the reserve corps, indicating that they acted as channels for replacement requisitions in the same manner as deputy corps headquarters. However, at least some reserve corps controlled one or more defensive infantry divisions of the Field Army as well as their reserve divisions.
h. THE ULTIMATE FATE OF THE RESERVE DIVISIONS. Altogether, the training units of the different Wehrkreise formed 26 reserve divisions in 1942 and 1943, four of which were reserve Panzer divisions. Thirteen were in the West, seven in the East, three in Denmark, two in Croatia, and one in Italy. From this large number it is evident that field divisions were relieved from defensive and occupational duties to an appreciable extent. In 1943, even before the last reserve divisions were formed, a number of them were converted into divisions of the Field Army. Two of them in the East became field training divisions (Feldausbildungsdivisionen, Feld-Ausb. Div.), which, although retaining training functions in addition to their line of communication duties, no longer formed part of the replacement and training structure of their Wehrkreise. A third reserve division in Croatia was converted into a light (Jäger) division, and three other reserve divisions received the designation static (bodenständige) divisions.
Thus by the end of 1943, 23 reserve divisions were in existence including the three static divisions. During 1943 several of these divisions were engaged against partisans while others became firmly established along the Channel coast.
During 1944 the reserve divisions rapidly disintegrated.
Of the five reserve divisions in the East, two were destroyed or disbanded, and three went into combat. The remaining reserve division in Croatia apparently was disbanded early in the year. All the 13 reserve divisions in the West disappeared. Three reserve Panzer divisions were merged with remnants of Panzer or Panzer Grenadier field divisions and lost their identity. Three reserve divisions on the Channel coast were converted to field divisions in February, 1944. Two others were disbanded in July and August, after giving up most of their personnel to divisions that had suffered heavy losses in the Invasion. The five reserve divisions in southern France and on the Biscay coast were engaged against the Allied landing in southern France and upgraded to field divisions. The reserve mountain division in Italy also may have been upgraded to a field division during the year. Of the three reserve divisions in Denmark, two appear to have remained intact during 1944, while the third was in the process of being converted. Thus by the end of 1944, a maximum of six to seven reserve divisions remained, of which perhaps only two were able to fulfill the functions for which they were originally created.
The reserve divisions had definite disadvantages as well as advantages. They were good for training and garrison functions during the winter of 1942-43 and for the greater part of 1943. But when they received definite defense assignments, especially on the Channel coast, they no longer could concern themselves with training. Neither could they afford to send trained replacements to field divisions and to replace them with untrained recruits and thereby imperil their combat effectiveness.
The seriousness of the situation was intensified by the fact that during 1942-43 two-thirds of the "training" had been moved out of Germany to take place in these reserve divisions. As a result, at a critical period the continuity of training had to be interrupted, and a new start made in the Wehrkreise within Germany.
i. RESUMPTION OF TRAINING WITHIN GERMANY. New training facilities had to be provided as one reserve division after another ceased its training functions. For a time, some of the reserve divisions had training battalions (Ausbildungs-Bataillone) which could train personnel without interfering with the new defense responsibilities of the reserve divisions. But following the Invasion in June 1944, recruits no longer were sent to the reserve divisions in the West.
Training gradually was resumed within Germany. At first some Wehrkreise dispatched recruits to existing training or combined replacement and training units of their own Wehrkreise within Greater Germany, and in one case even to the training units of a neighboring Wehrkreis. Subsequently first one and then other training companies were added within the different Wehrkreise, and replacement units were expanded into combined replacement and training units. By the late summer of 1944, virtually all replacement units in some Wehrkreise had regained their training functions and had become combined replacement and training units. This was especially the case with the replacement units of the former reserve Panzer divisions in the West. Other Wehrkreise did not start expanding their training facilities until late in 1944. In some cases the reforming of artillery training units preceded the reforming of infantry training units. In some instances, to help control combined replacement and training battalions in the infantry and facilitate their possible employment in the field, the old ratio of three replacement and training battalions to one staff was restored through a new wave of combined replacement and training regimental staffs.
The resumption of training was aided by the fact that pure replacement battalions had always maintained a skeleton force of instructors and cadre personnel to provide a minimum of training in the reception, transfer, and convalescent companies. Also many reserve divisions returned their instructors and cadres to their Wehrkreis when they were converted or disbanded.
j. DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE SUMMER AND AUTUMN OF 1944. In the summer of 1944, when the Reichsführer-SS took over the command of the Replacement Army, a number of trends became emphasized. Training hours were lengthened, and the training period was reduced to an average of 6 weeks. Air Force and Navy personnel were retained for the Army, and the Volkssturm was created. Paper work was simplified, and Wehrkreis borders were adjusted. Economy and simplification were achieved through:
(1) Changes in the affiliation system. A basic change of the affiliation system for infantry regiments occurred. A single infantry replacement battalion became the competent replacement unit
for all the infantry regiments of one infantry division or two static or security divisions. As a result, infantry regiments no longer had a replacement battalion carrying their own number, and the traditional relationship that originally existed between the old units of the Replacement Army and the Field Army thereby practically was abolished.
(2) Economy measures. Several infantry specialist replacement and training companies were combined, as were also some infantry specialist replacement and training battalions. A number of replacement and training battalions for service troops, especially for veterinary units, were disbanded.
(3) New methods of transferring replacements to the Field Army. New methods for requesting and transferring men from the Replacement Army to the Field Army were established in the first half of 1944. The manpower problem did not permit an even distribution of replacements (with the exception of specialists), but demanded a concentrated supply of men to units with the highest priority. To achieve this purpose army groups and independent army headquarters were charged with the allocation of replacements. The transfer of men from the units of the Replacement Army no longer took place by means of loosely organized groups but in one of the following principal ways: In combat transfer battalions (Kampfmarschbataillone) having a strength of about 900 men with better armament and larger cadre personnel than before; in transfer battalions of 700 to 1000 men; or in transfer companies of 100 to 250 men. The combat transfer battalion was newly created, whereas the transfer battalion for infantry and Panzer troops received the table of organization of the field replacement battalion. Convalescents were returned to the field in convalescent transfer companies (Genesenen-Marschkompanien) of 100 to 250 men. In general, however, the importance of the transfer battalion was diminished, in part because of the rapidly changing situation in the west. The name "combat transfer battalion" indicates that the battalion" as such is considered a fighting unit.
k. REPLACEMENT ARMY UNITS IN COMBAT. In the first years of the war, replacement and training units as such took part in combat only in isolated instances. Yet during the Allied advance through France and Belgium in August 1944, and at the time of the Allied airborne landing in Holland, five or more replacement division
|Wehrkreis||Inf Repl Bns
|Inf Repl Bns (Panzer arm)||Tk Repl
|AT Repl Bns||Arty Repl Bns||CW
|Total of Repl Bns
for Combat Troops
|Affiliated Fld Divs|
|(Inf arm)||(Panzer arm)|
Figure 10.--Distribution of combined replacement and training battalions for combat troops and affiliated field divisions by Wehrkreise at the end of 1944.
staffs from the four western Wehrkreise were transferred to the Western Front with the combat elements of their subordinate units.
The untrained recruits, unfit convalescents, and cadre personnel necessary for maintaining the replacement and training schedule remained behind. In some instances, a "reserve" staff probably stayed at the home station to control replacement elements and rebuild the training structure. These hastily collected divisions received a variety of names, of which "combat divisions" (Kampfdivision, also Div. Nr..... (K)) seems to have been the most common. Five such divisions were actually in line, and a sixth was in charge of fortification work. The subordinate units originally kept the numbers they had in the Replacement Army, but later were renumbered as organic field units. Four of the former replacement division staffs were upgraded to field divisions, and a fifth was dissolved. In addition, the border Wehrkreis furnished numerous independent battle groups, block units (Sperrverbände), and other units, which eventually were absorbed by various field units at the front. Local defense duties of the replacement and training units are fulfilled by alarm units (Alarmeinheiten).
l. STRENGTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE REPLACEMENT ARMY AT THE END OF 1944. The accompanying table (Figure 10) shows by Wehrkreise the distribution of replacement battalions for combat troops and affiliated field divisions at the end of 1944.
Each of the 15 Wehrkreise existing at the outbreak of the war has, in addition to the replacement battalions for combat troops, one to three replacement division staffs, and two to five infantry replacement regimental staffs. Most of the latter control three to four infantry specialist replacement companies. Each of these Wehrkreise (except I and XVIII) also has one to two Panzer Grenadier or motorized replacement regimental staffs, containing two or three specialist replacement companies and one to two artillery replacement regimental staffs. The infantry replacement battalions of both these arms contain reconnaissance battalions. In addition, there are two chemical warfare replacement regimental staffs in Wehrkreis X. The many other replacement units--mostly of service troops, such as supply troops, motor maintenance troops, and medical troops--are not represented in the table since there is generally only one in each Wehrkreis.
Also not represented are the four important replacement and training brigades for the Grossdeutschland, Feldherrnhalle, Croatian, and "999" units, which are outside the regular series of replacement units.
Wehrkreis XVIII has mostly mountain troops. Wehrkreis XX, XXI, Böhmen und Mähren, and Generalgouvernement are omitted, since they control only a very few units. Since units in Wehrkreise XX and XXI are connected with Wehrkreis II, and units in Wehrkreis Böhmen und Mähren properly belong to Wehrkreise XIII and XVII, they are listed under Wehrkreise II, XIII, and XVII, respectively. In general, units are listed under the Wehrkreis that controls them, and not necessarily under the Wehrkreis in which they are located. Although the units in the table have been designated simply as replacement units most of them are actually combined replacement and training units.
The strength of battalions will fluctuate greatly, depending upon whether they have just received new recruits or convalescents or depleted their organization by sending replacements to the field. Thus some battalions in the table may have a strength of 500 men and others over 1500.
Affiliated field divisions are given to permit a comparison between the replacement units and "their" field units. General Headquarters troops and disbanded or destroyed field divisions are not included, and converted field divisions could not be attributed to a specific Wehrkreis. The present affiliation is the controlling one, even though the division was mobilized in another Wehrkreis.
Demonstration regiments and battalions and the many military schools contain additional reserves of manpower. With the latter, however, attached "kommandiert" personnel is carried by the old unit and not by the school.
At the end of 1943 there were possibly 2,000,000 men in the Replacement Army; at the end of 1944 there were probably considerably less. On the whole, units of the Replacement Army were remarkably stable during the 5 years of war, with regard to type, number, and in some cases also with regard to the location of the replacement elements.
However, major changes did occur in the replacement division staffs, regimental staffs, and specialist companies in the years 1942 to 1944. Most of the units dissolved were in the artillery battalion series. Additional units or new types
of units were created whenever necessary, often preceding developments in the Field Army, as witnessed by the formation of assault gun, and Panzer howitzer replacement and training battalions, mortar training companies, and replacement and training battalions for troops with stomach and ear ailments.
m. EXAMPLE OF AFFILIATION BETWEEN A FIELD DIVISION AND ITS REPLACEMENT AND TRAINING UNITS. The table above shows how the replacement training system, although greatly modified, is worked out to the smallest detail. The table was valid for a Folks Grenadier division as late as November 1944. The replacement units shown are mostly of the combined replacement and training type, even though they are designated as replacement units.
n. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS. After the Allied advance through France in August 1944, most of the replacement and training units from the outlying areas of the western Wehrkreise were withdrawn farther east within the Wehrkreise. Evidently
Headquarters Infantry Division Headquarters Infantry Division Infantry Replacement and Training Battalion Division Map Section 3d Battalion Motorized Artillery Demonstration Regiment Military Police Squad Military Police Replacement Regiment Infantry Regiment
(2d and 3d Regiments like the 1st Regiment)
Headquarters Company Infantry Replacement and Training Battalion Cyclist Platoon Reconnaissance Replacement and Training Battalion Engineer Platoon Infantry Engineer Replacement and Training Company Communication Platoon Infantry Signal Replacement and Training Company Infantry Battalion
(2d Battalion like the 1st Battalion)
Infantry Replacement and Training Battalion Infantry Howitzer Company Infantry Howitzer Replacement and Training Company Antitank Company Infantry Antitank Replacement and Training Company Division Fusilier Company Reconnaissance Replacement and Training Battalion Antitank Battalion Motorized Antitank Company Antitank Replacement and Training Battalion Armored Tank Destroyer Company Antitank Replacement and Training Battalion Antiaircraft Machine-gun Company Antiaircraft Machine-gun Replacement and Training Battalion Artillery Regiment Headquarters Battery Light Artillery Replacement and Training Battalion 1st Antitank Artillery Battalion Light Motorized Artillery and Training Battalion 2d and 3d Artillery Battalions Light Artillery Replacement and Training Battalion 4th Artillery Battalion Medium Artillery Replacement and Training Battalion Engineer Battalion Engineer Replacement and Training Battalion. Signal Battalion Signal Replacement and Training Battalion Field Replacement Battalion Cadre Personnel Infantry Replacement and Training Battalion Supply Regiment Headquarters Troop Motor Transport Supply Troop Replacement and Training Battalion Motor Transport Supply Company Motor Transport Supply Troop Replacement and Training Battalion Supply Troop (Horse-Drawn) Supply Troop Replacement and Training Battalion Supply Platoon Supply Troop Replacement and Training Battalion (Horse-Drawn) Ordnance Company Local Defense Replacement and Training Battalion Workshop Company Motor Maintenance Replacement and Training Battalion Administrative Company Bakers and Butchers Administrative Training Replacement and Training Battalion Drivers Motor Transport Training Replacement and Training Battalion Other Personnel Local Defense Replacement and Training Battalion Medical Company Medical Replacement and Training Battalion Ambulance Platoon Medical Replacement and Training Battalion Veterinary Company Veterinary Replacement and Training Battalion Field Post Office Field Post Replacement and Training Battalion Figure 11.--Replacement affiliation of a division, late 1944.
efforts were being made to preserve the replacement and training structure within the Wehrkreise, even though they were part of the Theater of Operations. A similar attempt was made in Wehrkreis I on the Eastern Front. In some instances, replacement units were moved to another Wehrkreis, but then only to locations just across the boundary.
Late in 1944, Wehrkreis XII, the middle one of the western Wehrkreise, moved some of its replacements far inland into the central Wehrkreise. These units, however, still remain at the disposal of Wehrkreis XII.
Early in 1945 affiliation between replacement units and field units was still valid as affiliation from the field unit to the replacement unit, but generally not in the other direction.
a. INTRODUCTION. (1) Types of training establishments. The general military training of the German soldier takes place principally in the training units of the Replacement Army, although a certain amount of training also is given in its replacement units. Training units also are prepared to conduct special courses in order to provide some types of specialized personnel, as required by the Field Army, and to secure a pool of personnel trained with particular care as potential officers and noncommissioned officers. In addition to these general training units, numerous schools and courses have been established with the specific purpose of training potential officers and noncommissioned officers. Other schools, designated as special-service schools (Waffenschulen), have the function of providing specialized training for officers and enlisted men of their particular branch of service, developing its arms, equipment, and tactics with the help of their demonstration units, and furnishing instructors for the Army. In addition, specialist training schools are established to provide instruction for ordnance officers, technical officials, and particularly noncommissioned officer-technicians, or for officers and noncommissioned officers of all arms and services as specialists in certain particular functions, such as air raid and gas protection.
(2) Chain of command. The training in most types of replacement and training units, which are under the command of the Wehrkreis headquarters exercised through intermediate staffs, is coordinated by the Chief of Training in the Replacement Army. He exercises his authority through the Inspectors of Arms and Services, who issue directives regarding the particular training in their arms to the Wehrkreis headquarters. These directives are based on tactical doctrines worked out in detail by the Inspectorates of Arms and Services in the General Army Office, which, in turn, follow instructions from the Chief of Training and his Inspectors.
The directives for the training of Panzer troops are issued by the Inspector General of Panzer Troops, who is directly subordinate to Hitler. The training of medical troops is directed by the Chief Army Medical Inspector, who is directly subordinate to the Army High Command, and that of veterinary troops by the Chief Veterinary Inspector, immediately under the Armed Forces High Command.
The training of potential officers and noncommissioned officers wherever it occurs, takes place either under the command or under the supervision of the Inspector General for Potential Officers and noncommissioned officers. His authority is restricted to supervision when this type of training takes place in establishments under the command of the Chief of Training, the Inspector General of Panzer Troops, or any Wehrkreis headquarters. Special-service schools and specialist training schools are under the command of the Chief of Training with the exception of the Schools for Panzer Troops, which are commanded by the Inspector General of Panzer Troops.
(3) Supplementary training. The paragraphs below describe how the various types of training units and schools discharge their functions. It should be kept in mind that these functions are supplemented in many ways. A considerable part of the military training in Germany is given in the form of pre-Army training by other military and auxiliary organizations. Special abilities found in various civilian occupations are put to use by the Army, and only personnel with a certain professional background are trained for a number of technical employments within the Army. Civilian establishments sometimes are used for the training of Army personnel; for example, technical courses often are conducted in factories producing special types of equipment.
b. GENERAL TRAINING. (1) Organization of training units. In principle, the training unit is a true image of the field unit which it supplies with trained replacements. Thus, the infantry
Figure 12.--Control of training of potential officers and noncommissioned officers.
training battalion, just like any battalion of an infantry regiment, consists of the 1st, 2d, and 3d rifle training companies, and the 4th machine-gun training company. This principle has been somewhat modified, however, in order to take advantage of specialized training personnel and to expedite the training; thus, drivers of horse-drawn vehicles, for example, usually are not trained within each training company but combined into a special detachment within the battalion. The infantry training regimental staff, in accordance with the normal (pre-1944) composition of a regular infantry regiment, usually controls three infantry training battalions, a 13th infantry-howitzer training company, and a 14th infantry antitank training company; in addition, however, it often has controlled a 15th infantry signal training company, and every second or third staff a 16th infantry engineer training company to furnish trained personnel for the signal platoons in battalion headquarters and the signal and engineers platoons in the regimental headquarters company. Recently, a 17th mortar training company has been added to train crews for the heavy mortars, introduced into the 4th and 8th companies of the infantry regiments of regular infantry divisions. Only one training company for infantry mounted platoons in each Wehrkreis trained replacements for the mounted platoons of all the infantry regiments under its responsibility.
Recent developments, including the introduction of new weapons and the growing scarcity of training personnel in conjunction with the increasing pressure of time, have accentuated the tendency of concentration and specialization of training, and continuous reorganizations of the field divisions have made the similarity between field and training units less and less evident.
(2) Program in training units. The main responsibility for the training of recruits rests with the commander of the training unit of company size (company, battery, troop). The detailed training schedule is prepared within the framework of the company. The battalion commander supervises the progress of the training in the companies of his battalion and inspects the recruits at the end of their basic training. The commanders of higher echelons coordinate the training in the units under their command and supervise it. They arc also responsible for the education and training of officers and potential officers and noncommissioned officers within these units. The latter are often placed in special companies within the training battalions and regiments.
The basic training (Grundausbildung) in infantry training units normally is planned for 16 weeks; actually this period now is reduced to 8 weeks in most cases. This period may be followed by an indefinite period of advanced training (Erweiterungsausbildung), lasting up to the time of transfer of the recruits to a field unit. The basic training usually is divided into three parts, the first of which is devoted to individual training, the second to the training of the individual recruit within the framework of the squad, and the third to the training of the squad within the framework of the platoon. During the advanced training period, the scope of training is amplified to include exercises on reinforced company or, in artillery and chemical warfare troops, even battalion level. The basic training components, listed in order of the importance attributed to them, are: combat training, firing, lectures, drilling, sports. The drill for the modern German soldier is far from what is generally believed; drilling of the famous goose-step is not permitted, and "present arms" is not taught.
(3) Training in replacement units. Although according to their organization basically not equipped for training purposes, the replacement units nevertheless perform training functions on a reduced scale. This is done in three ways:
After their induction into a replacement unit which is not stationed in the same location as its corresponding training unit, the recruits immediately are combined into training groups to undergo a one to three-week period of preparatory training (Vor-Ausbildung) until they can be sent to a training unit.
Regular training functions are performed in the convalescent components of replacement units. Their purpose is to restore the health and physique of convalescents until they regain full fitness for field duty, and also to select and train instructors for the training units. For the latter purpose special courses are conducted by the convalescent units.
After regaining their fitness for field duty, the convalescents are sent to the transfer components (Marschkompanien, etc.) of their replacement units, where they are given advanced training until the time of their transfer to a field unit.
c. NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER TRAINING. (1) General categories. The two basic categories of
noncommissioned officers are the ones enlisting for either 12 or 41/2 years, called active or professional noncommissioned officers, and the conscripts promoted to noncommissioned officer's rank, called reserve noncommissioned officers. The active noncommissioned officers may either serve in ordinary noncommissioned officers' functions in the various arms and services or they may receive specialized training as technicians. Typical training establishments for ordinary noncommissioned officers are the Army noncommissioned officers' schools (Heeres-Unteroffizier-Schulen), for technicians the specialist training schools and the special-service schools (Waffen-Schulen) of chemical warfare troops, engineers, and signal troops. In peacetime, noncommissioned officers serving 12 years were, at the end of their service, trained for civilian occupations in Army vocational schools (Heeresfachschulen) and Armed Forces vocational schools (Wehrmachtfachschulen); in wartime, this vocational training is restricted to the rehabilitation of men no longer fit for service. The reserve noncommissioned officers receive special training in noncommissioned officer courses (Unterführer-Lehrgänge), which may be conducted in the Field Army as well as in the Replacement Army at various echelons.
(2) Ordinary noncommissioned officers. (a) Selection. In peacetime and to an even larger degree, in wartime, the German High Command considers the possession of a highly qualified noncommissioned officer corps as of vital importance for the effectiveness of the Army and endeavors by all means of propaganda to fill its ranks. For the professional noncommissioned officer corps two sources are open:
Volunteers for the noncommissioned officer career may apply at the age of 161/2 years and, if accepted by a selection center for potential Army officers and noncommissioned officers, enter the Army at the age of 17 as noncommissioned officer applicants (Unteroffizier-Bewerber, usually abbreviated U.B.). Some of these may have had pre-Army training for this career as junior cadets (Jungschützen) in Army noncommissioned officer preparatory schools (Heeres-Unteroffizier-Vorschulen).
Conscripts already in service who wish to enlist for either 12 or 41/2 years must have a good record as leaders in combat, instructors, and disciplinarians. They can enlist only after one year's service and are finally accepted only after 2 years' service. Only those are accepted for a 12-year term who will be not over 38 years of age at the end of their service period; the age limit for men enlisting for 41/2 years is 28 years. If acceptable, these men are appointed noncommissioned officer applicants by their battalion commanders.
(b) Training of noncommissioned officer applicants. The noncommissioned officer applicants belonging to units of the Replacement Army are normally educated and trained at the Army noncommissioned officer schools. Up to February 1944, the training period of a noncommissioned officer applicant volunteer at an Army noncommissioned officer school was 10 months. The first 4 months were devoted to basic training, and during the remaining 6 months the applicant received training as a squad leader in his particular branch of service. In February 1944, the basic training was removed entirely from the Army noncommissioned officer schools, and the applicant volunteers thenceforth were to be sent to training units of their appropriate arms for basic training, together with the other recruits inducted at the same time. The advanced training period, for applicant volunteers and appointed applicants alike, was reduced to 5 months for branches having Army noncommissioned officer schools of their own, and to 3 months for some specialized branches, whose applicants are trained at schools of related branches. These periods may be supplemented by an additional period of 1 or 3 months, respectively, spent in training units, making a total advanced training period of 6 months before the applicants graduate from the Army noncommissioned officer school and are promoted to privates first class (Gefreite). They then are transferred to a field unit.
At present, there are about 22 Army noncommissioned officer schools for infantry, one for mountain infantry, seven for Panzer troops, two for artillery, two for engineers, and one for signal troops. These schools are usually organized like a battalion of their respective arms; the Army noncommissioned officer schools for Panzer troops are specialized in one of the main branches of this arm (Panzer Grenadiers, tank crews, antitank personnel, Panzer reconnaissance personnel).
Men enlisting for long-term service while serving in the Field Army (Kapitulanten des Feldheeres) may take part either in a noncommissioned officer applicant course conducted by a field headquarters, especially in a divisional combat school, or in a course at a field noncommissioned officer school (Feld-Unteroffizier-Schule). In
their training, these schools approach field conditions to a much larger degree than the Army noncommissioned officer schools; their training periods last only about months. There is one field noncommissioned officer school for each of the three most important arms: infantry, Panzer troops, and artillery. They originally were located in occupied territories, but now apparently have been removed to Germany proper. They are believed to be organized like a regiment of their respective arms, including some or all of its more important special branches.
(3) Noncommissioned officer technicians. (a) Selection. A number of careers as technicians (Sonderlaufbahnen) are open for active noncommissioned officers who, as a rule, must have enlisted for 12 years; exceptions are the medical technicians, blacksmith technicians, and musicians, who will also be accepted if they enlist for the 41/2-year period. For most of these careers, qualified professional backgrounds are required. Upon terminating their enlistment period, most of these technicians have the opportunity, after taking additional courses at the appropriate specialist training schools, to become advanced technical or administrative officials.
(b) Training. In addition to an apprenticeship in Army units or headquarters required for most of the technician careers, courses of varying length are conducted for the various types of technicians at the specialist training schools and some special-service schools. In many cases, short or wartime courses have been established to supply sufficient personnel for the wartime Army; the men participating in these courses, however, usually will not become full-fledged technicians upon graduating from these courses but only after taking additional courses at a later opportunity. These men are not necessarily active soldiers; if they did not enlist for long-term service, they are designated as reserve noncommissioned officer technicians.
NCO Technician German Designation Training School Length of Course Peace War
Supply Technician (H-Dr T) Schirrmeister (F) Army Riding and Driving School 12 months Supply Technician (MT) Schirrmeister (K) School for Army Motorization 4 months Supply Technician (Engr) Schirrmeister (P) Engineer School 2 3 months Supply Technician (Tech Engr) Schirrmeister (PT) Supply Technician (Ry Engr) Schirrmeister (EP) Railway Engineer School Supply Technician (CW) Schirrmeister (Ch) School for Chemical Warfare Troops 7 months 41/2 months Supply Technician (SL) Schirrmeister (Sch) Spandau Army Equipment Depot 6 months Supply Technician (Ord) Schirrmeister (Fz) Ordnance Technician Feuerwerker Army Ordnance Technician Schools I and II 18 months 6 months Weapon Technician Waffen-Unteroffizier Army Weapon Technician Schools I and II 12 months 3-5 months Signal Supply Technician Funkmeister Army Signal School II 9 months 3 months Pigeoneer Brieftaubenmeister School for Dog and Pigeon Service 7 months Fortress-Engineer Technician Festungspioneir-Unteroffizier Fortress Engineer School 3 years Fortress Maintenance Technician Wall-Unteroffizier Fortress Maintenance School 12 months Medical Technician Sanitäts-Unteroffizier Medical schools 9 months Blacksmith Technician Beschalgsmied-Unteroffizier Army Blacksmith schools 4 months 2 months Musician Technician Musiker
The table on page 73 shows the various types of technicians, the duration of their courses, and the schools conducting these courses.
(4) Training of reserve noncommissioned officer applicants. Conscripts who are acceptable as future noncommissioned officers and are considered for promotion, but who are not enlisting for a definite service period, are appointed reserve noncommissioned officer applicants (Reserve-Unteroffizier-Bewerber usually abbreviated R.U. B.) by their battalion commanders. The training of the reserve officer applicants normally takes place at Wehrkreis noncommissioned officer courses (Wehrkreis-Unterführer-Lehrgänge), although reserve officer applicants recently have also been trained at Army noncommissioned officer schools. Each of the original Wehrkreise has one Wehrkreis noncommissioned course, usually located at a maneuver area within the Wehrkreis itself or in a neighboring Wehrkreis. These courses are more or less organized like infantry regiments, but often include, in addition to regular infantry components, other types of specialist sub-units, such as a reconnaissance troop, a mortar training company, or a field howitzer battery. In some Wehrkreise, sub-units of the Wehrkreis noncommissioned officer course for arms other than infantry may be established with existing training units or Army noncommissioned officer schools of these arms. In Wehrkreis IX, in addition to its regular Wehrkreis noncommissioned officer course, such a course for Panzer troops has been identified.
(5) Training of noncommissioned officers for special functions. A number of noncommissioned officers are employed in functions requiring special training without being technicians. These may be trained within their own or other units or headquarters by practical experience and apprenticeship, or in special courses conducted by units or headquarters (in the field usually by the division combat schools, in the Replacement Army by the Wehrkreise), or at specialist training schools.
(a) Training by practical experience. First sergeants (Hauptfeldwebel), clothing supply sergeants (Bekleidungs-Unteroffiziere), and similar types of special function noncommissioned officers usually are trained in this manner.
(b) Training in special courses conducted by units and headquarters. This type of training usually applies to company clerks (Rechnungsführer) and to supply sergeants for weapons and equipment (Gerat-Unteroffiziere).
(c) Training at specialist training schools. Gas protection noncommissioned officers (Gasschutz-Unteroffiziere) take courses at Army Gas Protection Schools 1 and 2, or at the Wehrkreis gas protection courses. Other noncommissioned officers receive special training in fire fighting at the Army Air Raid Protection School or at the Wehrkreis air raid protection courses. Field cook noncommissioned officers (Feldkoch-Unteroffiziere), mess sergeants (Kuchen-Unteroffiziere), and mess clerks (Küchenbuchführer) are trained at Wehrkreis cook schools or by field cook instruction staffs.
(6) Training of intelligence personnel. Linguists who may be employed as interpreters (Dolmetscher) in all branches of the Army, but particularly as intelligence personnel, usually hold the position of specialist leaders (Sonder-führer) regardless of their actual noncommissioned officer or officer rank. They receive linguistic and intelligence training in the interpreter companies, of which there is one in each Wehrkreis, and in the Interpreter Demonstration Battalion. In addition, a Signal Interpreter Replacement and Training Battalion trains signal intelligence personnel.
d. THE TRAINING OF POTENTIAL OFFICERS. (1) General. The system for training German officer replacements in wartime normally extends over a period of between 16 and 20 months (including prescribed service in the field) and is divided into three main phases. These phases differ slightly for active and reserve officer replacements, but the duration and standard of training are identical. The only difference between active and reserve officers is that the former enroll for an unlimited period of service and have to meet slightly higher physical requirements. For both categories, the training during the three main phases takes place in schools and courses devoted to this particular purpose. In the first phase, these are either officer applicant courses or reserve officer applicant courses; in the second phase officer candidate schools or courses; and in the third phase advanced officer candidate courses.
In certain cases selected enlisted men who are over 30 years old and have served in the field in combat units may become officers without attending officer candidate schools or courses but
merely after a very few months of additional service in the field as officer candidates.
The following paragraphs outline the normal procedure for selecting and training active and reserve officer replacements.
(2) Potential active officers (aktiver Offizier-Nachwuchs). (a) Selection. Future active officers are selected in the following three ways:
Untrained volunteers, usually at the age of 16 or 17, after a preliminary selection by a selection center for future Army officers and noncommissioned officers (Annahmestelle für den Führernachwuchs des Heeres), enroll for an unlimited period and enter the Army as officer applicants (Offizier-Bewerber, usually abbreviated O.B.).
Conscripts already serving who are under 28 and decide to apply for the active officer career first are appointed reserve officer applicants (Reserve-Offizier-Bewerber, usually abbreviated R.O.B.), or if they have already attained noncommissioned officer grade, reserve officer candidates (Fahnenjunker der Reserve, usually abbreviated Fhj.d.R.), by their regimental (or independent battalion) commanders. A note is added to the record indicating that they intend to adopt the active officer career. They are accepted for this career upon graduating from the officer candidate course, but they must first attend a reserve officer applicant course if they have not already attained noncommissioned officer grade.
Professional noncommissioned officers may, after at least 2 months of service in the field, be appointed officer candidates (Fahnenjunker, usually abbreviated Fhj.) and be sent to an officer candidate course.
(b) Officer applicant training. This first phase of the training of future officers lasts 10 months and is designed for the untrained volunteer officer applicants. It is divided into the following two periods:
Four months of basic training in a training unit.
Six months of noncommissioned officer training in an officer applicant course (O.B.-Lehrgang). These courses usually lake place at Army noncommissioned officer schools, some of which are reserved exclusively to this type of course In some special branches, officer applicant courses are held at the special-service schools or at training units. Upon graduation from the course, in which they are especially trained as squad leaders, the applicants are usually promoted to noncommissioned officers.
(c) Officer candidate training. After completion of their training in the Replacement Army, the officer applicants are transferred to a field unit for a period of not longer than 3 months in order to demonstrate their leadership abilities in the field. The latest tendency has been to reduce this period as much as possible, even down to a very few days, in order to preserve the potential officers who, after completion of 10 months of training in the Replacement Army, represent a valuable investment of the Army. As soon as they have proved themselves in the field they are appointed officer candidates (Fahnenjunker) and sent to an officer candidate course (Fhj.-Lehrgang) of 3 to 4 months' duration. These courses are usually conducted at the special-service schools; the infantry, Panzer troops, and artillery, however, have separate officer candidate schools and courses. It should be noted that these courses are not only attended by personnel who have passed through the officer applicant training period but also by conscript and professional noncommissioned officers who have been appointed reserve officer candidates by their regimental (or independent battalion) commanders. Toward the middle of the course, the candidates are promoted to officer candidate-staff sergeants (Fahnenjunker-Feldwebel, usually abbreviated Fhj. Fw.); upon graduation they are promoted to advanced officer candidates (Oberfähnriche, usually abbreviated Obfähnr.).
(d) Advanced officer candidate training. After completing the officer candidate course, the candidates attend an advanced officer candidate course (Oberfähnr.Lehrgang) lasting 3 months. These courses usually are conducted at the special-service schools. For advanced officer candidates of the infantry they may be conducted at especially designated infantry officer candidate schools, and for those of the Panzer troops at the Panzer troop advanced officer candidate schools. Upon graduation from these courses, the candidates are promoted to second lieutenants (Leutnant, usually abbreviated Lt.) (The word "promote"--befördern is always used; German officers are not commissioned).
(3) Potential reserve officers (Reserve-Offizier-Nachwuchs). (a) Selection. Potential reserve officers are selected in the following ways:
Untrained volunteers may be accepted by the selection center for potential Army officers and noncommissioned officers as aspirants for the reserve officer career (Anwarter für die Reserve-Offizier-Laufbahn).
They are appointed reserve officer applicants by the regimental (or independent battalion) commander of their responsible replacement unit after 4 months' service.
During the conscription procedure suitable men may be selected by the commanders of recruiting sub-area headquarters. They have a similar career to that of the untrained volunteers described above.
Conscripts in basic training may be appointed reserve officer applicants by the regimental (or independent battalion) commander of their replacement or training unit.
Conscripts already serving for some time may be appointed reserve officer applicants, or, if they have already attained noncommissioned officer grade and, within 1 year previous to the date of their appointment, have proved themselves in a field unit, may be appointed reserve officer candidates, by the regimental (or independent battalion) commander of their field or replacement unit.
(b) Reserve officer applicant training. Untrained potential reserve officers first undergo 4 months of basic training, after which they are appointed reserve officer applicants. Reserve officer applicants who have had their basic training spend 6 months in a reserve officer applicant course (R.O.B.-Lehrgang). These courses usually are conducted by the headquarters of replacement and training units, and some infantry and artillery replacement regiments have special officer replacement companies and batteries (Offizier-Nachwuchs-Kompanien-Batterien) for this purpose. Recently, however, the ones for infantry officer applicants have been more and more concentrated on Wehrkreis level; the Wehrkreis headquarters may designate a particular infantry replacement battalion as an officer replacement battalion (Offizier-Nachwuchs-Bataillon), or conduct a special Wehrkreis reserve officer applicant course (Wkr. R.O.B.-Lehrgang). Upon conclusion of this course, in which they are primarily trained as squad leaders, the applicants are usually promoted to noncommissioned officers.
(c) Reserve officer candidate training. After completion of their training in the Replacement Army, the reserve officer applicants, just like the active officer applicants, are transferred to a field unit to prove themselves worthy, and then are appointed reserve officer candidates. Subsequently, they attend the same officer candidate schools or courses as the active officer candidates. During these courses, they are promoted to reserve officer candidate-staff sergeants (Fhj.Fw.d.R.), and upon their termination to advanced reserve officer candidates (Oberfähnrich der Reserve, usually abbreviated Oberfähnr.d.R.).
(d) Advanced reserve officer candidate training. The courses for advanced reserve officer candidates usually are conducted by the Wehrkreis headquarters. Upon graduation from these courses, the candidates are promoted to reserve second lieutenants (Leutnant der Reserve, usually abbreviated Lt.d.R.).
(4) Potential officer specialists. Slightly different rules apply for the training of potential officers in specialist careers who, in addition to their military education, require a certain type of professional training. These are the careers of medical officer, veterinary officer, ordnance officer, and officer of the motor maintenance troops. In addition, the administrative officer and judge advocate careers in the Special Troop Service require special rules regarding the replacement of their officers.
(a) Potential medical officers (Sanitäts-Offizier-Nachwuchs). Active medical officer applicants are selected from secondary school graduate volunteers by the Wehrkreis surgeon in connection with the recruiting sub-area commander. They take part in the officer applicant training conducted for potential infantry officers, and after its conclusion and a short assignment to a field unit are appointed officer candidates. At that time, they are assigned to the Medical Officer Academy and begin taking medical courses at the university. After a certain period of time they are promoted to medical technical sergeant (Feldunterarzt). Upon passing their medical examination, they become officers. Soldiers of the Field and Replacement Army may be accepted for this career if they fulfill the requirements. Doctors and medical students may become reserve medical officers. While taking medical courses at universities, the reserve medical officer candidates are assigned to medical officer feeder battalions (Sanitätsoffizier-Ergänzungs-Abteilungen).
(b) Potential veterinary officers (Veterinär-Offizier-Nachwuchs). Like the medical officer applicants, the active veterinary officer applicants are selected from young civilian volunteers and from soldiers of the Field and Replacement Armies. Their officer applicant training takes place in a mounted replacement and training unit. After their promotion to officer candidates they
are assigned to the Army Veterinary Academy. They become active officers upon passing their veterinarian examinations. Veterinarians and veterinary students may become reserve veterinary officers.
(c) Potential ordnance officers (Offizier (W) -Nachwuchs). Active ordnance officers are recruited from active ordnance technicians; reserve ordnance officers from ordnance technicians with wartime training who did not enlist for the 12-year period. They are selected by their regimental (or independent battalion) commander and sent to an ordnance officer candidate course (Fahnenjunker (W) -Lehrgang) at Army Ordnance School I. During this course, which lasts 3 months for active ordnance technicians, and 9 months for reserve ordnance technicians, they are appointed ordnance officer candidates (Fahnenjunker (W)) by the commander of the Army Ordnance School. Upon graduating from these courses, they are promoted to ordnance lieutenants (Leutnant (W)).
(d) Potential officers of the motor maintenance troops (Offizier-Nachwuchs der Kraftfahrparktruppe). Active motor maintenance officers are recruited from supply technicians (MT) who are appointed officer candidates by their regimental (or independent battalion) commander and sent to officer candidate courses at the Motor Maintenance Troop School. In addition, active or reserve advanced officer candidates of other arms may be taken over into the motor maintenance troops to receive 2 to 3 months of special training at the Motor Maintenance Troop School, provided they have the required technical background. Soldiers in motor maintenance units who are over 38 years old, after at least 18 months of service, may be sent to the officer candidate courses at the Motor Maintenance Troop School; younger men may be transferred to a tank or Panzer Grenadier regiment and sent to a Panzer troop officer candidate course, to become a reserve motor maintenance officers.
(e) Potential officers of the Special Troop Service (Offizier-Nachwuchs des Truppensonderdientes). The Special Troop Service includes the administrative career (Laufbahn des Verwaltungsdienstes) and the judge advocate career (Laufbahn der Wehrmachtrichter). The officers of the administrative career are recruited from soldiers acceptable as officers of the fighting troops. Officer candidates of this career in the lower brackets are trained at the Army Administration School; active officer candidates in the higher brackets are believed to be assigned to the Administrative Academy while taking law courses at the University of Berlin. The officers of the judge advocate career are recruited from soldiers who are acceptable as officers of the fighting troops and, at the same time, have the professional qualifications to become judge advocates.
(5) The training of officers for special functions. Officers employed in specialized functions within the scope of their particular branch of service are trained for these functions at the special-service schools of their arm. The most important ones of these are: Infantry School, Mountain Infantry School, Reconnaissance and Cavalry School, Bergen and Krampnitz Schools for Panzer Troops, Artillery Schools I and II, School for Chemical Warfare Troops, Engineer Schools 1 and 2, Army Signal Schools I and II, Army Supply Troop School, Motor Maintenance Troop School, Army Administration School.
Officers who are employed in special functions not in connection with their branch of service are trained in schools or courses established for this purpose which are described below.
General Staff Corps Officers (Generalstabs-Offiziere) belong to the General Staff Corps (Generalstab), and usually are appointed either to the Army General Staff (Generalstab des Heeres) or to one of the General Staff assignments (Generalstabsstellen) on lower staffs. These latter are believed to be the assignments as chief of staff, assistant chief of staff for operations--G-3 (I-a), assistant chief of staff for supply--G-4 (Quartiermeister, I-b), assistant chief of staff for intelligence--G-2 (I-c) of headquarters down to corps, and as G-3 in divisions. Active officers, usually with the rank of captain, who are not over 28 years old, have exceptional personalities, arc qualified for a leading position, and have shown exceptional performance in at least 6 months of service at the front may be recommended for General Staff Corps training by their commanding officers. If accepted, they are, according to to the regular training schedule, assigned to the War Academy for a period of 1 year.
The first month of this period is spent at a special school and the next 6 months at the War Academy itself. The aspirants then are attached to the General Staff Corps (Generalstab) for 5 months and are taken into it permanently if accepted.
(6) Senior personnel officers (Höhere Adjutanten). Courses for senior personnel officers are conducted by the Army Personnel Office. They are usually held at leading Army schools, such as the War Academy or a special-service school.
(7) Battalion commanders (Btl.- (Abt.-) Führer). Special courses for battalion commanders are conducted at an Army School for Battalion Commanders.
(8) Company commanders (Kompanieführer). Schools for company commanders may be established by armies or army groups in their rear areas.
(9) National-Socialist guidance officers (NS-Führungsoffiziere), usually abbreviated (NSFO). National-Socialist guidance officers for divisions and higher headquarters take part in courses conducted by an Instruction Staff for NS Indoctrination.
(10) Gas protection officers (Gasabwehr-Offiziere) usually abbreviated Gabo). Courses for gas protection officers are conducted at Army Gas Protection Schools 1 and 2.
Table of Contents
Next Chapter (2)
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Learn more about the Psychology program and its concentrations.
The Psychology program seeks to develop caring, analytical, and ethical individuals with a solid knowledge of the numerous and dynamic forces influencing human behavior.
To accomplish this goal, students in psychology acquire a sound theoretical knowledge of the various aspects of human behavior, such as personality, social development, physical development, and abnormal behavior. The theoretical knowledge provides a foundation for the development of the students’ research projects which are completed their senior year. The internships provide the students with an opportunity to apply this knowledge in community settings outside of the classroom.
The Psychology program fully conforms with the guidelines established by the American Psychological Association for undergraduate education in psychology. These guidelines provide the means to assess our curriculum and insure that our course offerings are current and serve the needs of today’s students.
The knowledge and ability acquired in the classroom and through the internship, prepares students for employment or admission into graduate school. Many of our students continue on to complete advanced degrees in psychology. Our graduates report that the knowledge obtained from each of the program’s components were critical in securing employment and/or gaining admission into graduate school.
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Formerly the largest boat belonging to a ship, built so as to carry a great weight. A long-boat is often from 30 to 40 feet long, having a beam from 29 to 25 of its length. It has a heavy flat floor, and is carvel built.
Source: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, E. Cobham Brewer, 1894
More on Longboat from Fact Monster:
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In ‘A Confession of Unfaith,’ Howard Phillips Lovecraft remarked that he was a “genuine pagan” in his youth, having acquired from his “intoxication with the beauty of Greece” a “half-sincere belief in the old gods and Nature-spirits.” His discovery of Edgar Allan Poe’s Gothic tales darkened the mythological faith of his childhood with “the miasmal exhalations of the tomb!”1 He elsewFhere declared his uncompromising aesthetic distaste for the “
Howard phillips lovecraft scholars, like sunand tryambak joshI, emphasised how howard phillips lovecraft never intended to remythicise reality, the mythic background of his tales viewed instead as an “antI-mythology.” unlike the concern of most myths with the foundation of an ordered cosmos, which establish anthropomorphised or magical relations between nature, human, and the divine, an antI-mythology constantly disrupts any kind of vital connection with the cosmos. howard phillips lovecraft was an outspoken atheist and mechanical materialist, who viewed the universe as a mindless mechanism ruled by fixed laws having no inherent purpose, meaning, or destiny. according to sunand tryambak joshI, howard phillips lovecraft maintains an ironic, sceptical, and disinterested attitude towards his artificial mythology, which is viewed as a dramatisation of his philosophical pessimism. one could equally see this enlightenment-based, reasonable outlook as an artificial literary device used in his fiction, fabricating a rational structure only to dismantle and hurl it into a world of horror and disorder. his fictional universe creates a paranoid and misanthropic vision of human life as a disease and the reality beneath the veil of ordinary life as a creeping, crawling chaos that would blight the mind if ever fully revealed. the opening of the tale ‘facts concerning the late arthur jermyn and his family’ (1921) epitomises this bleak vision, revealing how the light of reason, according to its own principles, becomes the darkness of unreason: “life is a hideous thing, and from the background behind what we know of it peer demoniacal hints of truth which make it sometimes a thousandfold more hideous.” arthur jermyn decides to terminate his existence after his genealogical investigations uncover the terrible truth that he was maternally descended from a white ape. this early tale illustrated how the impersonality of howard phillips lovecraft’s cosmic perspective was grotesquely embodied in nightmarish projections of sexual dissolution, miscegenation, and the reversion to type-fears that are condensed into arthur jermyn’s discovery of a monstrous, aboriginal self within a white body.
The fear that the search for knowledge, holding nature up to inspection and analysis, results in madness, annihilation, or some monstrous transformation is also a recurring theme in Arthur Machen’s horror tales. For example, in ‘The Great God Pan,’ lifting the veil from reality does not raise the self to a transcendental realm, but instead induces a horrible mutation of the human form, which disintegrates and passes through all the abject disorderly phases of its evolution before it finally dissolves back into the primordial slime. As with Howard Phillips Lovecraft’s tale of Arthur Jermyn, Arthur Machen’s story reveals that “when the house of life is thus thrown open, there may enter in that for which we have no name, and human flesh may become the veil of a horror one dare not express.” This perennial quest for secret and forbidden knowledge is also linked to the excavation of mythic origins. Both Arthur Machen and Howard Phillips Lovecraft created in their fantastic fiction
Howard Phillips Lovecraft’s ‘The Call of the Cthulhu’ was the first in a series of tales which developed the mythology of the “Old Ones,” an alien race who had once inhabited the earth, but were driven underground after their civilisation was destroyed, although traces of their existence survive in occult lore, Cyclopean ruins, and the hidden and subterranean cults formed around their worship in preparation for their return. One of the provocative elements of this celebrated tale is the inclusion of actual works among the mythical documents titled ‘Cthulhu Cult’ which cites both Sir James George Frazer’s ‘The Golden Bough’ and Margaret Alice Murray’s ‘The Witch-Cult in Western Europe’ as “anthropological source-books.” Published in 1921, Margaret Alice Murray’s work advanced the provocative theory of medieval witchcraft as the survival of an ancient pagan religion. According to Margaret Alice Murray, the cult worshipped a horned god who embodied the generative forces in nature and which was later identified with the Christian Devil. Some of the rites included feasting, dancing in animal costumes, magic, flagellation, ritual sacrifice, and the unleashing of the driving instinctual forces in human nature through sexual orgy in order to promote fertility.
Howard Phillips Lovecraft was attracted to Margaret Alice Murray’s theory partly because he had been reading Arthur Machen’s tales about the “Little People.” Arthur Machen similarly posited the existence of a pre-Aryan pygmy race that practised black magic and human sacrifice, still secretly dwelling in the inmost recesses of the earth. Like Margaret Alice Murray, Arthur Machen identified these ancient pagan peoples with the fairies, dwarves, and goblins of Celtic myth and folklore, who disguised their dark, brutish nature under “charming forms,” although withering glimpses of the stark reality behind the myth live on in the “dread of witch and wizard, the lurid evil of the Sabbath, and the hint of demons who mingled with the daughters of men.” Ronald Hutton sees the popularisation of Arthur Murray’s ideas as an extension of nineteenth-century primitivism; he shows how Victorian folklorists and anthropologists like James George Frazer constructed a discourse of pagan origins, unaware that their accounts of savage beliefs and customs may have encouraged the very paganism they purported to discover and explain: “It appealed to so many of the emotional impulses of the age; to the notion of the English countryside as a timeless place full of ancient secrets, to the literary cult of Pan as its deity, to the belief that until comparatively recently Christianity had represented only a veneer of elite religion covering a persistence of paganism among the masses, and to the characterization of modern folk customs as survivals from that paganism.”6
This rural nostalgia for a vanishing tradition-soaked past was expressed in Arthur Machen’s belief that all fine literature aspires to the awakening of ecstasy, which should transform life into a hieroglyph or holy sacrament reproducing “the primitive man before he was defiled, artistically, by the horrors of civilisation.”7 In his fiction, however, wonder and horror are never clearly distinguished. In ‘The Great God Pan,’ the horned god does not evoke a benevolent vision of pagan antiquity as a Golden Age of man’s childhood restoring his lost intimacy with nature, but is a monstrous and devouring darkness, dismembering the self in a tormenting ecstasy. According to Ronald Hutton, the modern image of the Devil as “a being with cloven hoofs, goat’s horns, and pointed beard” is a product of nineteenth-century neo-paganism — a conservative reaction to the growing literary cult of Pan started by the Romantics. The origins of this Satanic imagery of paganism are perhaps more difficult to determine when applied to Arthur Machen’s Pan, who is never directly objectified or visibly present in the tale, an absence which intensifies his very ubiquity as a personification of the inescapable existential realities of sex and death. It is interesting that Margaret Alice Murray also identified both Jeanne d’Arc and Gilles de Montmorency-Laval, Baron de Rais, as members of the witch-cult and interpreted their executions as human sacrifices according to James George Frazer’s theory of divine kingship in ‘The Golden Bough.’
The Satanic imagery of paganism goes as far back as the Old Testament, but it is interesting how it resurfaces within a modern secular context to create a gothic iconography of paganism that was used by writers and scholars alike. James George Frazer’s ‘The Golden Bough,’ published in 1890 — the period when Arthur Machen was writing his decadent horror fiction —- exemplifies how this biblical tradition blended with reports by Victorian travellers and missionaries of the unruly, bestial nature of tribal peoples to paint a picture of pagan antiquity as a “Hell on Earth,” an atavistic descent into a primitive world of filth, magic, grisly human sacrifices, and orgiastic devil-worship. Ironically, this may have been a more faithful representation of Christian Europe than ancient paganism. At one point, Frazer, sounding almost like Howard Phillips Lovecraft, regards with horrified fascination the “solid layer of savagery” hidden underneath modern civilisation which “may at any moment be rent by the subterranean forces slumbering below.”8 This grim undercurrent of barbarism pervading humanity’s childhood introduces an element of gothic horror and tragedy to the primitive past that subverts the nostalgic religious yearning found in Arthur Machen for a sense of order, orientation, and stability through a restoration of mythic origins.
Victorian and Edwardian projections of irrational, primitive savagery resurface in a letter Howard Phillips Lovecraft wrote about prehistoric man, in which he makes the grotesque observation that “it is not extravagant to imagine the existence of a sort of sadistic cult among such beasts, which might later develop into a formal Satanism.”9 Howard Phillips Lovecraft mentioned “Gilles de Retz” in his tale ‘The Rats in the Walls,’ (1924) which involves an ancient, Satanic cult, a theme that he also associated with Huysmans and the Decadents, who “liked to pretend that they belonged to all sorts of diabolic black mass cults & possessed all sorts of frightful occult information.” Although Howard Phillips Lovecraft mocked the Decadent Movement for its adolescent obsession with outmoded religious concepts of sin and evil, his attraction to Margaret Alice Murray’s theory can also be seen as a symptom of Decadence, for example when he speculates in a letter that the witch-cult “would have virtually wrecked European civilisation.” His first explicit use of Margaret Alice Murray’s theory occurs in ‘The Festival.’ In this early tale, the protagonist travels to the ancient sea town of Kingsport on Christmas, answering the call of heredity to participate in a secret pagan ritual blindly perpetuated by his mysterious kinsmen throughout the centuries. Near the end of the story, the narrator follows a nocturnal procession to a cave concealed beneath the crypt of a mouldering church in which he witnesses what he believes is a fertility ritual enacted on the edge of a vertiginous abyss: “It was the Yule-rite, older than man and fated to survive him; the primal rite of the solstice and of spring’s promise beyond the snows; the rite of fire and evergreen, light and music.”1 Behind this subterranean Sabbat-orgy lurks a strange something radically opposed to fertility or renewal, which cares nothing for its human devotees; however, it may indulge their appetites or take on a human semblance. At the end of the tale, a nightmare so hideous is revealed that the narrator hurls himself into the void only to awaken in a hospital nearly insane. Unlike Arthur Machen, who borrowed from his native mythic traditions for his own dark folklore, Howard Phillips Lovecraft creates gods who are not of the earth, but alien invaders from Beyond, their wider context of associations in mythology and tradition merely dark fictions maintained in order to keep humanity from awakening to the horrible truth. This begs the question whether this fabricated body of myth was merely an artificial symbolism.
Howard Phillips Lovecraft’s embrace of Margaret Alice Murray’s thesis is perhaps illuminated by Timothy K. Beal’s argument that modern primitivism emerged out of nineteenth-century cultural anthropology, which disrupted the conventional hierarchy of “civilised” and “primitive” by projecting the latter into the prehistoric past as the origin of civilisation. As was earlier illustrated by James George Frazer, these colonial discourses of “official” primitivism banished unacceptable, destructive forces within
Howard Phillips Lovecraft never fully embraced those projections of monstrosity rejected by the official culture, which never lose their mysterious otherness in his fiction. Baron Levi St. Armand describes his creation of the “Cthulhu Mythos” as a “
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Studying online is a nice idea especially if you are new to it – you can learn a lot online. It is a fantastic way of learning to increase your skills and knowledge.
However, the online environment has its positives and negatives and there are ways to strengthen your online study habits.
There are many skills required in order to successfully make use of the intent for educational purposes. It requires discipline, time management skills, willpower, and strong motivation.
Despite this, the traditional learning methods should not be fully ignored. Hard copy still has lots of advantages, even though soft copy is the current trend available now.
In the field of writing, many students also make use of college essay writing services for all their written projects and assignments.
Don’t be afraid to poke around the internet to find a service that best suits your needs.
Most of the common challenges faced by students when they try to study online is caused by lack of discipline and other distractions such as lack of good internet connectivity, device malfunction, etc.
Here are important tips and advice to stick to that will help you to successfully study online:
1. Have a Study Schedule
Continuous study with a strict routine requires a study schedule. A study schedule makes it easy for you to easily develop an online study habit.
Make a study schedule of your own that fits your lifestyle and also provide enough time for you each week.
2. Set your Goals
For anyone attending or considering an online class or online study, what are your reasons for such? What goals have you set? What are you planning to achieve at the end of the study?
You need to know all these things and set your mind on them so that you do not deviate from the goal – even though sometimes there are lots of unforeseen circumstances that can put us in a difficult situation.
Striving to succeed is what will keep you going when you know you have a goal that must lie achieved at the end of the whole study period.
Setting goals grows your passion to try as much as possible to achieve them.
3. Manage Your Time Carefully
Time management is also important for your online studies.
Just like in traditional school, there is a certain time assigned to every course and in between courses breaks are taken. Then this means that time management is necessary if you want to successfully study online.
Complete and submit your assignments when necessary, keep time to study what you have learned and ensure you don’t miss any of your online classes.
All this can be achieved by careful planning and good time management skills.
4. Good and Reliable Internet
Anything that has to do with computers, software or technology is always subject to malfunction when studying online. Internet connectivity is necessary so take note of it and ensure you have good internet access.
Imagine undergoing a video tutorial and because bad network buffering occurs, it does not allow a good flow of knowledge.
Other malfunctions such as computer crashes could occur and can be avoided by always ensuring you save your work to cloud storage like dropbox.
Then always make sure you have a backup to your online course and assignments.
5. Take Study Breaks
You cannot study 24/7. Moreover, your performance will be on the decline if you do not have enough time to rest and take regular breaks.
There should be some personal time included in your routine. This time is what you use to do other things aside from study, then hobbies you love asides study can be carried out by you during this period.
Other activities such as exercise, swimming, taking a walk can help you maintain balance, renew yourself and have a clear refreshed mind for more studies.
6. Take Part in Online Discussions
Online learning does not mean learning in isolation but also learning and interacting with your fellow online classmates.
Every course usually has an online forum where issues concerning the course are being discussed.
Active participation in group activities, bringing in new ideas and asking questions openly to the group will help you have more understanding of the course and also build your confidence.
7. Stay Motivated
Motivation is what keeps one going. It is the drive that helps you keep your head high when it feels you are going to be swallowed by deep waters.
Sometimes we want to give up or we feel very frustrated. This is the time we need every form of encouragement to uplift our spirit and keep us motivated.
A word of encouragement from a family member, parents, guardian, a school counselor can uplift your mood and help you when you are in a depressed state.
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Child labour is generally speaking work for children that harm them in someway physically,mentally,socially. In india children labour increased day to day.The poor and illitarate parents sent their children to earn money for survive them. It is very harmful and also spoil their future.
Children are not born for work.child labour in india is the practice where children engage in economic activity on part time or fulltime. It is harmful for their physical and mental devolopment.
India is sadly to the home to the largest number of child labour in the world. The census fund on increase in the number of child labours from 11 million in 1991 to 12 million in 2001. M.V foudation in Andhra pradesh found nearly 40,000 children mostly girls between 7-14 years of age working for 14-16 hours a day in cuttonseed production across the country of which 90% are employed in Andhra pradesh. NGO have discovered the use of child labours at mining industry in karnataka. In urban areas there is high employment of children in Zari and Embrodery industry.
Poverty and lack of social school sequrity are the main cause of child labour. The increasing gap between the rich and poor,privatization basic cause of these. Entry of the multi national companies are lead to use of child labour. Lack of quality education has also responsible for that children dropping out of school and entering the labour force.
Child labour are mostly come from low caste groups such as tribal groups. Because their parents are not much of litarate. They can not understand the value of education and not understand the facilities which is given by govt for them. They have not sufficient resources to give quality education to their children. They want money for daily survive. So they don’t care about yheir children future. Child labour are very high risk for phisical and sexual abuse and sometime leading to death…
The constitution of India in the fundamental rights and directive principle of state policy prohibits children labour below the age of 14 years in any factory or any hazardous employment (art-24). The constitution provide infastructure and resources for free and compulsory education to all children for the age 6-14 years (art- 21 and 24)……..
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Vratislaus II of Bohemia
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2008)|
|Vratislaus II of Bohemia|
|Duke and King of Bohemia|
|Birthplace||Bohemia, Czech Republic|
|Died||14 January 1092|
|Place of death||Bohemia, Czech Republic|
|Predecessor||Spytihněv II of Bohemia|
|Successor||Conrad I of Bohemia|
Adelaide of Hungary
Świętosława of Poland
|Issue||Soběslav I of Bohemia|
|Royal House||Přemyslid dynasty|
|Father||Bretislaus I of Bohemia|
|Mother||Judith of Schweinfurt|
Vratislaus (or Wratislaus) II (Czech: Vratislav II.) (d. 14 January 1092), the son of Bretislaus I and Judith of Schweinfurt, was the first King of Bohemia as of 15 June 1085. The royal title was merely a lifetime grant from Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, however, and was not hereditary. Before being raised to the royal dignity, he had ruled Bohemia as duke since 1061. He was one of the greatest of the medieval Bohemian rulers.
On his father's death in 1055, Vratislaus became duke of Olomouc. He fell out with his brother Spytihněv II and was exiled to Hungary. Vratislaus regained his Moravian ducal throne with Hungarian assistance and eventually reconciled with his brother and succeeded him as duke of Bohemia.
Campaigns of Henry IV
Vratislaus was an ally of the Emperor Henry IV. He supported Henry in both the Investiture Controversy against the popes and the rebellions in Saxony that dominated his long reign. Pope Gregory VII, having already gained the support of Bolesław II of Poland, was keen on roping in the duke of Bohemia to surround the emperor with adversaries fighting for the church. The pope confirmed Vratislaus in the privilege of wearing the mitre and tunic which his predecessors had. The pope also expressed gratitude for the regular payment of tribute to the Holy See.
Vratislaus was often at odds with his brother Jaromír, the bishop of Prague, and he wore his religious vestments around the bishop to irritate him. Jaromír, for his part, ignored the creation of a new Moravian diocese by Vratislaus in 1063. Jaromir even went so far as to take by arms the relics removed from Prague to Moravia. Despite the pope's support for Vratislaus' new see, the Bohemian duke was unswayed in his loyalty to the emperor.
The Saxons revolted under Duke Magnus of Saxony and Otto of Nordheim, Duke of Bavaria, in 1070 and Boleslaus of Poland attacked Bohemia in 1071. In August 1073, Henry responded with an invasion of Poland, but a new Saxon revolt drew him back in 1075. Vratislaus joined him, and they defeated the rebels on 9 June at the First Battle of Langensalza. The Bohemian troops showed conspicuous bravery. Henry then took Jaromír to Germany to be his chancellor under the name of Gebhard and Vratislaus was greatly relieved.
Vratislaus also took part in the wars against the anti-kings who opposed Henry's rule and were elected by a faction of the nobility to replace him. At the Battle of Flarchheim, only through the aid of Vratislaus' contingent was the imperial army capable of overcoming the rebels of the papally-approved claimant Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Duke of Swabia. Vratislaus even succeeded in seizing Rudolf's golden sword. The golden sword was then carried in front of Vratislaus on state occasions.
Relations with the papacy
Vratislaus raised an army to serve in Henry's Italian campaign of 1081. In 1083, Vratislaus and his Bohemians were with Henry when they entered Rome itself.
Despite his serving an excommunicated emperor, Vratislaus maintained good relations with the papacy. Nonetheless, Gregory refused to grant Vratislaus permission to use the Slavonic liturgy. Never, however, did Vratislaus link his fate with that of Henry's antipope, Clement III.
Vratislaus coveted the largely Slavic marches of Meissen and Lusatia, but, in spite of Henry's promises and Bohemian successes against the rebellious margraves, he never received them. He held Lower Lusatia between 1075 and 1086, but in 1088, with the insurrection of Egbert II of Meissen, Henry granted the region to Henry of Ostmark. Vratislaus was thereafter cool to Henry's military adventures. He never wavered in his loyalty, but he abstained from giving the emperor martial aid.
It was a Přemyslid tradition that Moravia would be entrusted to the younger brothers of the ruling prince. In Vratislaus' case, his two younger brothers Conrad and Otto inherited Brno and Olomouc and the youngest, Jaromír, entered the church. However, enmity grew between the brothers. It was then that Vratislaus founded the diocese of Olmütz (diocese of Olomouc), under the Archbishopric of Mainz, to counter Otto's authority within his province. Both pope and emperor took a hand in mediating the conflict, which was partially fixed with Henry's appointment of Jaromír as chancellor in 1077. In April 1085, a reichstag convened in Mainz suppressed the Moravian see, but Vratislaus later re-founded see. Jaromír protested in Rome to Pope Urban II, but died in 1090 before a pope ruled on the matter.
Sadly for Vratislaus, his last years were occupied by dynastic quarrelling. When his brother Otto died in 1086, he gave Olomouc to his son Boleslaus, which was seen to be an act against the interests of Conrad. Vratislaus raised an army against Conrad and sent it out under his other son Bretislaus. This son turned on him. Vratislaus, in keeping with Bohemian custom, designated an heir: Conrad. Thus reconciled, the two attacked Bretislaus, who fled to Hungary.
By (re)creation of the Bishopric of Olomouc (1063) and creation of the Vyšehrad Chapter (1070 - richly endowed, independent from the Prague bishop, subjected directly to the Holy See) and also by his obstinacy in conflict with the Prague bishop Jaromír, Vratislaus ultimately little depressed importance of bishop of Prague in domestic Bohemian politics, enabling thus more unified rule over the country for all following dukes and kings. Vratislaus's policy towards the Holy Roman Empire set an example to follow for the next (12.) century, leading ultimately to permanent elevation of Bohemia to kingdom in the beginning of 13. century. His marriage policy not only shows the rising position of Premyslids among European dynasties (Vratislaus's father Bretislaus had to abduct his wife Judith of Schweinfurt in 1019), but also set direction for his followers (as to dynastic bonds to pursue towards Poland and Hungary).
Vratislaus was married three times. His first wife Maria died during premature childbirth. He married the second time in 1057 to Adelaide, daughter of Andrew I of Hungary, who died in 1061. They had four children:
- Vratislaus (-1061)
- Judith (1056/58-1086), married to Ladislaus I Herman, son of Casimir I of Poland
- Ludmila (-after 1100)
- Bretislaus II of Bohemia (c. 1060–December 22, 1100), Duke of Bohemia
- Boleslaus (-1091)
- Bořivoj II of Bohemia (c. 1064-February 2, 1124), Duke of Bohemia
- Vladislaus I of Bohemia (-April 12, 1125), Duke of Bohemia
- Soběslav I of Bohemia (-February 14, 1140), Duke of Bohemia
- Judith (c. 1066-9 December 1108), married to Wiprecht II of Groitzsch
|Ancestors of Vratislaus II of Bohemia|
- František Palacký: Dějiny národa českého v Čechách i v Moravě, book III
- Vratislav Vaníček: Vratislav II. (I.). První český král. Vyšehrad 2004, ISBN 80-7021-655-7
- Hans Patze: Die Pegauer Annalen, die Königserhebung Wratislaws v. Böhmen und die Anfänge der Stadt Pegau. JGMODtl 12, 1963, 1-62
- Percy Ernst Schramm: Böhmen und das Regnum: Die Verleihung der Königswürde an die Herzöge von Böhmen (1085/86,1158,1198/1203) (Adel und Kirche. G. Tellenbach z. 65. Geb. Hrsg. J. Fleckenstein-K. Schmid, 1968), 346-364.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vratislaus II of Bohemia.|
|Duke of Bohemia
Title next held byConrad I
|King of Bohemia
Title next held byVladislaus II
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| 0.944208 | 2,138 | 3.03125 | 3 |
I include Warm ups with a Rubric as part of my daily routine. My goal is to allow students to work on Math Practice 3 each day. Grouping students into homogeneous pairs provides an opportunity for appropriately differentiated math conversations. The lesson"s Warm Up- Systems of Equations Day 2 has students write a system of equations whose solution is (1,3). There will be many answers to this question as well as many strategies on how to produces these equations which will provide some excellent discussion.
Solving systems is a foundation skill from Algebra 1 that students often need gentle reminders about, so the goal of this lesson is to present systems of equations to the students through the lens of Math Practice 5 (Use appropriate tools strategically). After ensuring all students are familiar with the term system of equations, I give them an activity sheet that asks them to identify which of three separate methods of solution is the best choice. Specifics on this activity can be found in the PowerPoint - Systems of Equations, which includes detailed presentation notes.
My second goal for this formative assessment activity is to determine student comfort level for each method of solving systems of equations. I use a thumbs-up method to get information like this. I ask students to give me a thumbs-up if they know something really well, a side-thumb if they kind of know it, and a thumbs-down if they are really unsure. For classes where only a few students are unsure, I allow them to keep the activity sheets and arrange for a one-on-one session. If a larger number of students are unsure, I would do guided practice in class. For this practice I generate examples myself or use some from our Algebra 2 text.
Next, I ask them to determine the best method of solving a group of systems. I have students confer with their partner and then hold up one finger for graphing, two fingers for substitution, and three fingers for elimination (combination). I also call on students to explain their reasoning. I like this activity because there isn’t one best method. Students can have differing opinions and then have the opportunity to justify their choice (Math Practice 3).
Finally, students generate a list of the pros and cons for each method. This is done in with the groups formed in the original activity and then shared as a class.
Detailed presentation notes are included in the PowerPoint.
My students have already looked at the graphical representation of no solution and infinite solutions in the lesson Selling Cake Pops Day 4. We are going to look at this again reinforce this information. I first ask them to do a think-pair-share on the question”How do you know if there is no solution to a system of equations?” We then do the same thing for the question “How do you know if there are infinite solutions to a system of equations?” The key is that they can recognize both the graphical and algebraic representations of these types of solutions. If the students are struggling with the algebraic portion, I may set up a simple system of either parallel or equivalent lines and have them solve it. Detailed presentation notes can be found in the PowerPoint located in Sections 2.
I use an exit ticket each day to provide a quick formative assessment to judge the success of the lesson.
Today's Exit Ticket, located in the PowerPoint, asks the students to solve a system as well as explain the method they chose to use.
The Assignment assignment has to distinct parts. The first part addressed the lesson’s objective where students choose a method (Math Practice 5) for solving a given system of equations. The second section is an extension (Math Practice 1) introducing non-linear systems and encouraging critical thinking as students compare and contrast linear and nonlinear systems.
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Iodization of salt
Iodine deficiency is the main cause of preventable brain damage and reduced IQ in children worldwide. It also negatively affects women's health, as well as economic productivity and quality of life.
Most people need an additional source of iodine as it is found in relatively small amounts in the diet. WHO recommends universal salt iodization – the fortification with iodine of all salt used for human and animal consumption – as the main strategy for eliminating iodine deficiency.
The public health goals of reducing salt and increasing iodine intake through salt iodization are compatible as the concentration of iodine in salt can be adjusted as needed. Monitoring the levels of iodine in salt and the iodine status of the population are critical for ensuring that the population's needs are met and not exceeded.
Status: not currently available
Other guidance documents
Recommended iodine levels in salt and guidelines for monitoring their adequacy and effectiveness
Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients
Related Cochrane reviews
Other related systematic reviews
Fortified salt for preventing iodine deficiency disorders: a systematic review
Iodized salt for iodine deficiency disorders: a systematic review
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Throughout the 1980s raccoons in the Everglades National Park were such a nuisance, a special program had to be initiated to keep them under control. Yet today the number of raccoons has decreased by over 90 percent. What is causing the raccoon and other mammals in the park to decline? An invasive python imported by the pet trade.
The Burmese Python (Python molurus bivittatus), a large constrictor from South East Asia, can grow up to 19 feet in length making them one of the largest snakes in the world. Pythons are a popular pet but since they are so large they can be difficult to take care of or simply grow too big to be kept as pets by inexperienced owners. Such people often will release their snake into the wild instead of putting in the effort to find it a new home. In most areas in the US, these released snakes or escapees would simply die. However, the Florida everglades are a perfect home for them. The pythons released in Florida mingled with some that escaped during the destruction of Hurricane Andrew have thrived and formed their own population. The snakes are now breeding in the wild and have established a range spanning thousands of kilometers including the Everglades National Park (1.5 million acres).
Severe mammal decline coincides with proliferation of invasive Burmese pythons in Everglades National Park, a recent study lead by Michael Dorcas, is the first study to show these snakes are having an ecological effect on their new home. To try to determine the impact the pythons are having on native species, researchers compared road survey data from before and after the introduction of the python. Road surveys are a simple procedure where researchers drive down certain roads and record the number of observed live and road kill species. The surveys in this study were conducted at night on Main Park Road and Research Road in the Everglades National Park.
Their data showed that prior to the introduction of the pythons, native mammals like raccoons, opossums, and rabbits were the most common animals found in Everglades National Park. Data from 2003-2011, after the introduction of the python, showed a 99.3% decrease in raccoons, 98.9% decrease in in opossums, 94.1% decrease in white tailed deer, and 87.5% decrease in bobcats. Additionally, no rabbits or foxes could be found in the pythons’ range.
Scientists believe that the pythons are responsible for the reduced mammal populations for several reasons. The timing of the pythons’ introduction to the area coincides with the beginning of the mammal disappearances. Data also showed that in areas where the pythons were only introduced recently, the populations of native vertebrates had not declined as much as in areas where they have been long established. Most of the species that have been declining are known to be prey of the pythons. Since the number of snakes has been increasing, it makes sense that the missing mammals are feeding the growing population. Some people have suggested that the decline in these species could be attributed to a disease. However experts disagree, arguing that the likelihood of a disease affecting such a broad range of mammals in separate families is extremely low. Scientists have also ruled out human interference as the cause since the Everglades National Park is protected from hunting and trapping.
Because of the effects of this and other studies, the Burmese Python has been labeled as an invasive species in the United States. The term invasive species refers to a non-native group of animals that adversely affects the habitat they invade. Other invasive snakes have been implicated in native vertebrate decline in the past. In the case of the Brown Tree Snake, it took more than 30 years for their impact in Guam to be recognized. Cases like these need to be learned from so that similar mistakes are not made. Large scale efforts need to be made to remove the python now before irrevocable damage occurs.
Since so many common species are declining, researchers are concerned that rare species may be on the menu as well. In addition to eating medium sized mammals, the pythons are consuming endangered species like the Wood Stork and the Key Largo Woodrat along with (can you believe it?) American Alligators and White tailed deer. Conservationists fear that since the pythons are already consuming such large prey, they may expand their diet to include the highly endangered Florida panther. This species is already so threatened that adding a powerful predator like the python may wipe it out completely. Since the pythons have been known to consume leopards in Asia, steps need to be taken to ensure the panthers’ safety.
However, some ecologists remain skeptical about the threat. Whit Gibbons, head of outreach for the Savannah River Ecology Lab at the University of Georgia, believes the native species that have been declining will adapt the longer the python remains in Florida and their numbers will again increase. Regardless, scientists agree that although it is unlikely that common species will become extinct in Florida, conservation efforts need to be made to remain proactive in this fight. They can’t wait until the python wipes out an endangered species to their threat seriously. Action needs to be taken now.
Luckily, some conservation efforts are already underway. Workers in the Everglades National Park have been removing snakes as quickly as they can find them but the numbers have grown so large that it’s difficult to keep up. In 2010 over 300 snakes were caught and removed from the park. This number has been drastically increasing from 2000 when the snakes were first established there. To attempt to prevent more snakes from being introduced to the area, on January 17th the US Department of the Interior banned importation of a number of snakes including the Burmese python. The Nature Conservancy’s “Python Patrol” is also hard at work taking steps to ensure that the pythons don’t spread to the Florida Keys.
The invasion of the Burmese python is just one more example of the ecological implications of importing foreign species. The potential effects of such invasive like the Burmese python, Gypsy moth, Kudzu, Zebra muscle, and Multiflora rose were not considered before their introduction to the United States. Now they are producing devastating ecological effects. To prevent future invasives, stricter regulation of importation of non-native species needs to be implemented. In addition, people who choose to own exotic pets like the Burmese need to be educated about their pets beforehand and tighter restriction should be placed on owners of such pets to ensure that they understand the responsibilities involved. I believe that if proper education of such people had occurred when they were first considering owning such a large snake, many would have chosen to purchase a better “starter” snake that they could have provided appropriate care for. In addition, even experienced owners should make sure that their snakes are in good quality cages to prevent escapees from adding to the problem. I just hope that the python can be stopped before it is responsible for the extinction of one of Florida’s endangered species.
Disclaimer: Photos do not belong to me. They link to their source.
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| 0.965436 | 1,479 | 3.4375 | 3 |
Traditio-Historical origin of the Psalter
I have produced an outline of how I believe the Psalter to have developed. It is in no way complete and needs a great deal of work but it sets out in brief the trajectory upon which I see the final form of the Psalter to have developed.
When you read the attached diagram keep in mind the following statement made by Frank Cross in his “The Song of the Sea and Canaanite Myth”.
We must posit two New Year’s festivals in the early cult of Israel, both covenant-renewal festivals. The autumn festival, falling on the New Year common to Canaan and Egypt, in Israel became the great feast of the era of kingship, both in Jerusalem and Beth’el. The spring New Year, with its ultimately Mesopotamian connections, appears to have been the time of the major festival at the old league sanctuaries of Gilgal and Shiloh, a covenant festival which virtually disappeared during the monarchy as a national pilgrimage feast, until the archaizing reforms of Josiah (2 Kings 23:22; cf. 2 Chron. 30:1-26). The associations of the Gilgal rites with the spring, with the covenant, with the sea crossing and the ‘ritual conquest,’ seems very clear indeed.
My outline is to be found here: psalmtraditiohistory I am no Clarence Larkin and apologise in advance!
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| 0.950433 | 304 | 2.8125 | 3 |
The Benefits of Vitamin C
What can vitamin C do for your health?
Vitamin C is one of the safest and most effective
nutrients, experts say. It may not be the cure for the common cold (though it's thought
to help prevent more serious complications). But the benefits of vitamin C may
include protection against immune system deficiencies, cardiovascular disease,
prenatal health problems, eye disease, and even skin wrinkling.
A recent study published in Seminars in Preventive and Alternative
Medicine that looked at over 100 studies over 10 years revealed a growing
list of benefits of vitamin C.
"Vitamin C has received a great deal of
attention, and with good reason. Higher blood levels of vitamin C may be the
ideal nutrition marker for overall
health," says study researcher Mark Moyad, MD, MPH, of the University of
Michigan. "The more we study vitamin C, the better our understanding of how
diverse it is in protecting our health, from cardiovascular, cancer, stroke, eye health [and] immunity to
"But," Moyad notes, "the ideal dosage may be higher than the recommended
How Much Vitamin C Is Enough?
Most of the studies Moyad and his colleagues
examined used 500 daily milligrams of vitamin C to achieve health results.
That's much higher than the RDA of 75-90 milligrams a day for adults. So unless
you can eat plenty of fruits and vegetables, you may
need to take a dietary supplement of vitamin C to gain all the benefits, Moyad
says. He suggests taking 500 milligrams a day, in addition to eating five
servings of fruits and vegetables.
"It is just not practical for most people to consume the required servings
of fruits and vegetables needed on a consistent basis, whereas taking a
once-daily supplement is safe, effective, and easy to do," Moyad says. He also
notes that only 10% to 20% of adults get the recommended nine servings of
fruits and vegetables daily.
Moyad says there is no real downside to taking a 500-milligram supplement,
except that some types may irritate the stomach. That's why he recommends
taking a non-acidic, buffered form of the vitamin. "The safe upper limit for
vitamin C is 2,000 milligrams a day, and there is a great track record with
strong evidence that taking 500 milligrams daily is safe," he says.
Still, American Dietetic Association spokeswoman
Dee Sandquist, RD, suggests doing your best to work more fruits and vegetables
into your diet before taking supplements.
"Strive to eat nine servings of fruits and vegetables daily, because you
will get a healthy dose of vitamin C along with an abundance of other vitamins,
minerals, and phytochemicals that are good for disease prevention and overall
health," she says.
While a cup of orange juice or a half-cup of red pepper would be enough to
meet your RDA for Vitamin C, here are all the foods and beverages you'd need to
consume to reach 500 milligrams (mg):
- Cantaloupe, 1 cup (8 ounces): 59mg
- Orange juice, 1 cup: 97mg
- Broccoli, cooked, 1 cup: 74mg
- Red cabbage, 1/2 cup: 40mg
- Green pepper, 1/2 cup, 60mg
- Red pepper, 1/2 cup, 95mg
- Kiwi, 1 medium: 70mg
- Tomato juice, 1 cup: 45mg.
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| 0.920717 | 761 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Does “budget” sound like a four-letter word? For many people it does. Or maybe the reality is it’s just hard to know where to get started.
In its most simple format, a budget is simply an exercise in building a “list” that captures your income and your expenses. You don’t need any really fancy software or apps - take a moment – pull out a piece of paper, open up Excel or Google Sheets and get started. The hardest part of budgeting is simply getting started.
Once you start building a budget, you’ll get the hang of it. Keep working on it. Over time it will become a habit. And budgeting is a very important personal finance habit.
Over time, you want to make sure that your income is greater than your expenses. If you make this a habit you will see the benefits start to “accrue” and you’ll feel less stressed about money.
Don’t forget to pay yourself first – carve out some savings and investment money right off the top.
Save your surplus (i.e. the leftover money) – over time you will build up a cushion to cover the unexpected.
The first step is to take stock of your current financial situation. Rather not look at your checking account for fear your balance is too low? If you don’t know what you have, how do you know how much you can spend?
Gathering information about what you have and what you owe is essential for making the right decisions about your money. For a step-by-step guide on taking stock of your finances, click here.
After you've assessed your current financial situation, you should set some goals. Financial goals, like anything else, should be measurable and attainable.
Be realistic about the goals you set. Setting a goal to save $1 million by tomorrow would be nearly impossible to achieve (unless you win the lottery – we can all dream!). Even if you did win the lottery, you would still need goals and a budget! Click here for help on setting financial goals.
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| 0.941229 | 437 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Quality, Convenient Healthcare in Minutes.
Acute inflammation is the body’s normal immune response to injury to or infection of body tissues. The inflammation process helps the body contain and eliminate damaged tissue and infectious “pathogens” (bacterial, viral, or fungal) so healing can begin.
Although acute inflammation is a natural and necessary process, accompanying symptoms can interfere with daily activities and quality of life. These include:
Inflammation symptoms like edema and pain sometimes can be alleviated with an over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) like Advil or Tylenol and other at-home remedies. But if these methods are ineffective and symptoms persist or worsen, medical attention and a prescription medication may be warranted.
Many inflammatory conditions have a name ending in “-itis.” Bursitis and tendonitis, for example, involve inflammation of the soft tissues around muscles and bones—most often in the shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, or ankle.
Treating bursitis, tendonitis, tennis elbow and other inflammatory conditions involves reducing edema to relieve pain.
Muscle spasms, or cramps, are involuntary muscle contractions. They occur suddenly and are often painful, but usually resolve relatively quickly on their own. Muscle spasms often can be treated at home with massage, stretching and icing/heating. However, if muscle spasms involve any of the following, professional medical attention may be required:
Although most muscle spasms are harmless, some may be related to an underlying medical condition such as nerve compression, inadequate blood supply, or mineral depletion. Treating the condition can resolve the muscle spasms.
Whiplash is a neck injury resulting from forceful, rapid back-and-forth movement of the neck—like the cracking of a lion tamer’s whip. The whiplash motion can injure bones in the spine; disks between the bones; and ligaments, muscles, nerves and other tissues of the neck, as well as trigger inflammation. The most common cause of whiplash is a rear-end auto accident but the injury can also result from a sports accident, physical abuse or other trauma.
Whiplash symptoms usually develop within 24 hours of the injury and can include neck pain and stiffness, tenderness/pain in the upper back, shoulder or arms, loss of range of motion in the neck, and headaches (typically starting at the base of the skull). If you experience neck pain, upper back pain, or other whiplash symptoms following a traumatic injury, it is important to get a prompt and accurate diagnosis to rule out fractures or other damage that may be contributing to symptoms.
When you need medical care now, walk into any HealthMed Urgent Care clinic without an appointment and receive prompt, expert attention from skilled clinicians for non-life- or limb-threatening conditions including:
To reach us, please call 732-544-1777 or visit one of our NJ urgent care locations during our extended urgent care hours: Click for hours
We accept most insurance as well as cash and major credit cards.
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| 0.932851 | 644 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Sources of maternal odors and the development of odor preferences in baby pigs.J Anim Sci. 1990 Nov; 68(11):3563-71.JA
Seven experiments utilizing 77 litters of piglets were conducted to determine the relative preferences or aversion of piglets for maternal olfactory cues. A Y-maze was used to test piglet preferences for two substances at any one time. A preference index was calculated from Y-maze data to identify whether piglets expressed a preference or aversion to the two substances tested in each session. The first two experiments examined piglet preferences for maternal fecal odors, colostrum, milk, urine and skin washings at 12 h and 7 d of age. Piglets preferred the odor of nipple washings and sow feces at 12 h of age. Piglets preferred sow fecal odors at 7 d of age in one study. The third study showed that piglets could discriminate between their mother's fecal odor and fecal odors from other sows. The fourth study examined piglet preferences for maternal fecal odors at birth, 12 h and 1, 3 and 7 d of age. At all ages tested except birth, piglets preferred sow fecal odors over water. The final three studies showed that piglets did not prefer to be near novel odors (orange and banana odors), nor did they prefer to be near the putative rat maternal pheromone, deoxycholic acid. In conclusion, piglets learn their mother's odor within the first 12 h of life. Piglets are most attracted to the odors associated with maternal feces and skin secretions. Piglet odor discriminatory ability is specific for maternal odors (not just odorous substances) and very acute (they can discriminate between mother and non-mother odors). When modifying piglet behavior to improve survival, the piglet's well-developed olfactory ability should be considered.
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CC-MAIN-2021-31
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en
| 0.918005 | 394 | 3.15625 | 3 |
What is Iron Ore?
Iron Ore Introduction
Iron (Fe) is one of the most abundant rock-forming elements, constituting about 5% of the Earth's crust. It is the fourth most abundant element after oxygen, silicon and aluminium and, after aluminium, the most abundant and widely distributed metal. Iron is indispensable to modern civilisation and people have been skilled in its use for more than 3,000 years. However, its use only became widespread in the 14th century, when smelting furnaces (the forerunner of blast furnaces) began to replace forges.
Iron ores are rocks from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. These rocks are usually found in the form of hematite (Fe2O3) or magnetite (Fe3O4). About 98% of world iron ore production is used to make iron in the form of steel. Iron ore provides the foundation for one of Australia’s major export industries.
Most iron ores mined today comprise the iron oxide minerals hematite, Fe2O3 (70% Fe); goethite, Fe2O3s H2O, (63% Fe); limonite, a mixture of hydrated iron oxides (up to 60% Fe); and magnetite, Fe3O4 (72% Fe).
Most of the world's important iron ore resources occur in iron-rich sedimentary rocks known as banded iron formations (BIFs), which are almost exclusively of Precambrian age (i.e. greater than 541 million years old). BIFs occur on all continents. In many instances they are mined as iron ores but, most importantly, they are the source rocks for most of the large high-grade concentrations of iron ore currently mined throughout the world.
In the Hamersley Province in the Pilbara district of Western Australia there are three main types of deposit: iron oxide enrichments within BIFs; iron oxides deposited along ancient, mainly Tertiary age river channels (palaeochannels); and iron oxide deposits formed from the erosion of existing orebodies (detrital iron ore deposits).
The BIF enrichment deposits comprising hematite and hematite goethite are the most important in regard to resources and production. The iron content of these ores varies widely and until recently most deposits needed to have an average grade of more than 60% Fe for mining to be commercially viable. However, some deposits can now have iron grades between 56%-59% Fe and be commercially viable.
The palaeochannel deposits composed of pisolitic limonite are the next in importance and are prized for their low impurities such as phosphorus. They are not as rich in iron as the BIF enrichment ores. Those mined usually contain 57%-59% Fe.
Detrital iron ore deposits, including scree and canga deposits, are found downhill of the BIF enrichment deposits from which they have been eroded. They are usually easily recovered and have a grade of between 40%-55% Fe. BIF enrichment deposits also occur elsewhere in Western Australia in the Pilbara and the Yilgarn Block and in South Australia
Numerous magnetite deposits of igneous origin or association occur in most States and uneconomic sedimentary sideritic (those containing the mineral siderite, FeCO3) iron ore deposits occur in Queensland and the Northern Territory.
Although iron ore resources occur in all the Australian States and Territories, almost 90% of identified resources (totalling 54 billion tonnes) occur in Western Australia, including almost 80% in the Hamersley Province, one of the world's major iron ore provinces.
In 2014 Australia's economic demonstrated resources (i.e. those that have been sufficiently tested by drilling and that could be economically extracted at current prices with existing technology) totalled 54 billion tonnes and ranked Australia first (with 29%) in the world followed by Brazil (16%).
As with most iron ore mines throughout the world, all the major Australian iron ore mines are open cut. The ores from the major mines in Western Australia's Pilbara region are hauled from working faces to crushing and screening plants using trucks that can carry over 300 tonnes. The ore is then transported for further treatment and blending to port sites in trains consisting of up to three locomotives and over 250 wagons. Trains of this size are over 2 kilometres long and contain loads in excess of 25,000 tonnes. There are three major Pilbara iron ore producers: BHP Billiton Ltd (BHP), Rio Tinto Ltd (Rio) and Fortescue Metals Group Ltd (FMG)
Concentration includes all the processes that will increase (upgrade) the iron content of an ore by removing impurities. Beneficiation, a slightly broader term, includes these processes as well as those that make an ore more usable by improving its physical properties (e.g. pelletising and sintering). Many of the iron ore mines employ some form of beneficiation to improve the grade and properties of their products. At many operating mines, including Mount Tom Price, Paraburdoo, Mount Whaleback and Christmas Creek, ore processing facilities (OPF) have been constructed to enable beneficiation of low-grade iron ores, including ores which have been contaminated with shale, to be mined and, after upgrading, sold as high-grade products. The operation of the OPFs has also increased the iron ore resources available at these mines.
Pelletising is a treatment process used for very fine or powdery ores. Pellets are an ideal blast furnace feed because they are hard and of regular size and shape. In Australia, concentrates pumped from Savage River are pelletised at Port Latta for shipment to domestic and overseas markets and fine Middleback Range ores are pelletised prior to smelting in the Whyalla blast furnace.
Sintering is a process used to agglomerate iron ore fines in preparation for blast-furnace smelting and is usually carried out at iron and steelmaking centres. It involves the incorporation of crushed limestone, coke and other additives available from iron and steelmaking operations. These additives include wastes extracted from furnace exhaust gases, scale produced during rolling mill operations, and coke fines produced during coke screening.
Pig iron is an intermediate step in the production of steel and is produced by smelting iron ore (commonly in lump, pellet or sinter form) in blast furnaces. Blast furnaces in Australia are located at Port Kembla and Whyalla. The removal, by oxidation, of impurities in pig iron such as silicon, phosphorus and sulfur and the reduction in the carbon content, results in the production of steel.
Steel is produced at Port Kembla and Whyalla. In 2014-15 financial year, Australian iron and steel production, including recovery from scrap, totalled 4.3 million tonnes which, although locally significant, is small on a world scale.
Although iron in cast form has many specific uses (e.g. pipes, fittings, engine blocks) its main use is to make steel. Steel is the most useful metal known being used 20 times more than all other metals put together. Steel is strong, durable and extremely versatile. The many different kinds of steel consist almost entirely of iron with the addition of small amounts of carbon (usually less than 1%) and of other metals to form different alloys (e.g. stainless steel). Pure iron is quite soft, but adding a small amount of carbon makes it significantly harder and stronger. Most of the additional elements in steel are added deliberately in the steelmaking process (e.g. chromium, manganese, nickel, molybdenum). By changing the proportions of these additional elements, it is possible to make steels suitable for a great variety of uses.
Steel's desirable properties and its relatively low cost make it the main structural metal in engineering and building projects, accounting for about 90% of all metal used each year. About 60% of iron and steel products are used in transportation and construction, 20% in machinery manufacture, and most of the remainder in cans and containers, in the oil and gas industries, and in various appliances and other equipment.
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April 17th, 2019
Sunscreen Myths Debunked
Life is riddled with old wives’ tales: don’t sit too close to the TV or you’ll go blind, don’t swim 30 minutes after eating, don’t cross your eyes or they’ll get stuck that way — you’ve probably even heard a few sunscreen myths. Given all the scientific advancements of the past century, you’d think that belief in these myths would be dwindling, but it’s not. Mothers everywhere still tell their children to back away from the TV, and people still pick up pennies off the sidewalk hoping for good luck. Regardless of whether there is any validity to these superstitions, people will do just about anything to feel a little safer, healthier, or happier. Let’s take a look at a few of the most commonly believed sunscreen myths.
Sunscreen Lotion Isn’t Always Necessary
Many people believe that sunscreen isn’t always necessary, especially on cloudy days or when they don’t plan to spend much time outside, but the truth is that ultraviolet rays are always present, whether you can see the sun or not. Even spending a few minutes outside a day without protection can add up, leading to sun spots, wrinkles, and even scarring. Vanity aside, daily sunscreen usage also dramatically decreases your risk of developing skin cancer. According to a clinical study published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology, regular sunscreen use reduced the incidence of melanoma by 50–73 percent.
Sunscreen Is Bad for You
This myth stems from an antiquated study conducted on oxybenzone, an active ingredient in many sunscreens. In the study, rats exposed to oxybenzone experienced negative side effects. However, according to a research letter posted to the Archives of Dermatology, the levels of oxybenzone exposure in this study were extremely high and not attainable in humans, even with regular and liberal application. It should also be noted that the rats were exposed to oxybenzone orally and not topically, greatly increasing absorption. So, unless you’re eating sunscreen daily, you’ll be alright. For those that are still hesitant about oxybenzone, many sunscreen products — including our Cabana collection — are made without the use of oxybenzone.
People with Dark Skin Don’t Need Sunscreen
It’s a common misconception that people with more melanin do not need sunscreen. While melanin does diffuse UVB rays and, to some extent, offer protection against sunburns, it does not protect against UVA damage, the main cause of premature skin aging and wrinkles. Furthermore, a study published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology found that cancer survival rates were lower in people with darker skin. So, whether you have dark skin or not, it’s still recommended that you take precaution when spending time in the sun.
You Can’t Tan While Wearing Sunscreen
First off, we’d like to say that there’s no such thing as a safe tan. A tan is literally your body’s response to being injured by UV exposure. Yet, people still see it as a sign of health and beauty. Sunscreen helps to protect your skin against UVB and UVA rays but does not offer complete protection. It is still possible to get a tan while using sunscreen, even with regular reapplication. In the long run, the better you protect your skin from the sun, the healthier your skin will remain as you age. If you just can’t say no to that golden glow, we recommend exploring sunless tanners that can help you achieve that bronzed look without putting your skin in jeopardy.
All Sunscreens are the Same
It’s a common misconception that sunscreen is sunscreen, but this simply isn’t true. Different sunscreens offer different levels of protection. Most sprays and lotions have different SPF coverages, and some active ingredients, such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, work to filter out UVB and UVA rays. Other ingredients, such as avobenzone, work as chemical blockers. This is why it’s important to choose a broad-spectrum sunscreen that works to protect your skin in different ways. As far as choosing the right SPF for your skin type, the Skin Cancer Foundation recommends a water-resistant, broad-spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of 30 or higher for any extended outdoor activity. Regardless of the SPF, though, it’s important to apply one ounce 30 minutes before going outside and reapply it every two hours or immediately after swimming or sweating.
While these are just a few of the many misconceptions about sunscreen, understanding the truth about these myths can help you use sunscreen more effectively. As general advice, no matter the weather or your location, you should wear at least an SPF 30 daily to help protect your skin from harmful UVB and UVA rays.
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By Kevin Longino, CEO of National Kidney Foundation and kidney transplant patient
You’ve been reading in my blogs about how COVID-19 is causing acute kidney injury in people with no history of kidney disease, and the devastating toll the virus takes on kidney patients, especially transplant patients. But COVID-19 is unduly devastating to minority communities and NKF has been working to put a spotlight on it to drive change.
Finding the Answers
Yesterday, along with the NAACP, NKF hosted a briefing for Congressional staff on Kidneys and COVID-19: Navigating Health Disparities in Minority Communities. A distinguished panel of experts discussed some of the reasons why minority communities are so disproportionately affected by coronavirus and outlined what we can do to help address these challenges.
First, the facts on minority communities and kidney disease: African Americans are 13% of the U.S. population, but represent 32% of those with kidney failure. Hispanics and Native Americans are two times as likely as Caucasians to develop kidney failure. The two main causes of kidney disease are diabetes and high blood pressure, which are more prevalent in African American and Hispanic communities. People facing housing insecurity are three times more likely to develop early kidney disease. Low income individuals are twice as likely as high income individuals to develop kidney failure.
What about the risks related to COVID-19?
During her presentation, Francesca Weaks, Policy and Research Manager at the NAACP discussed that in some states African Americans are six to seven times more likely to die from COVID-19 than white residents. In states like Missouri and Michigan, the disparity between the percent of population African Americans represent versus the percent of those diagnosed with COVID-19 is nearly 30%. Nationwide, African Americans represent 12.9% of the population, but have suffered 25.1% of deaths – roughly double their population share, among all American deaths where race and ethnicity is known.
What Can We Do?
Dr. Deidra Crews, Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, and Associate Director for Research Development, Johns Hopkins Center for Health Equity offered some possible reasons for the alarming impact on minority communities such as a lack of access to basic resources including food, water, shelter, and transportation; suboptimal housing conditions; employment in essential jobs with limited protections; lack of access to healthcare services; mistrust of institutions due to discriminatory experiences.
While this is a complex issue, there are some specific strategies NKF is advocating for right now to help. We’re urging the federal government to provide quality, disaggregated data on all tests, hospitalizations, discharges and deaths from COVID-19 so we fully understand the scope of the problem; ensure priority testing, contact tracing, vaccination, and funding to high-risk and minority communities and kidney patients; support long-term investments in public health infrastructure in traditionally under-served communities; and increase funding for kidney research and awareness. While we don’t have all the answers, we’re determined to help find some of the solutions.
Ask Questions Live Today
If you’re interested in learning more about how COVID-19 is affecting minority communities, NKF is also hosting a Q&A webinar/Facebook Live today at 3:00PM ET. Ask questions live as an expert panel discusses the latest updates on the COVID-19 virus and how it is affecting African American and Hispanic communities, including are there genetic or other factors that make minority communities more susceptible to the virus; and what you can do to protect yourself.
COVID-19 has brought so many challenging issues to the forefront, and the issue of health disparities facing minority communities is one of the most difficult. And COVID-19 now intersects with kidney disease as disproportionately affecting those same communities. For my part, I will continue to steer NKF towards a long-term and focused outreach to communities at risk for developing kidney disease and the devastating complications which accompany it. This is just the beginning; I hope you’ll join me on the journey.
Please continue to check our COVID-19 resource page where we post all the latest information on issues facing our community in English and in Spanish. If you have questions or need support, please contact our toll free patient information help line by calling (855) NKF-CARES, (1-855-653-2273) or by email [email protected]. And join our free online discussion forums.
Be well and stay safe.
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“The Trombone is the only instrument that in theory can play in perfect tune, but in practice never does.”
- Sokrates, March 17, 421 B.C.
Luckily, since his days, trombones has evolved and are now made of metal instead of clumsy and heavy marble. And many trombone players have learned to actually play in tune as well! But Sokrates was on to something. Since we have a slide instead of valves, we can actually adjust the pitch and make it perfect without compensating with the lips. On a valve brass instrument, you have to do the work with the embouchure, or maybe a trigger on some notes.
So, what about that 20 positions trombone???
While most text books and teachers argue that the standard trombone has 7 positions, I would say that any trombone in practice has more than 20 positions, so the trombone on the picture is actually your trombone!
There are tones on the trombone where you have to adjust with the slide to play them in tune. A good example is the high G on 2nd position, where you have to adjust the slide to somewhere in between 1st and 2nd position.
Try playing G, B and D on 4th position without moving the slide it on your trombone. Can you hear that it is out of tune? Now try it with small adjustments and make sure every note is in pitch.
Take a look at the slide chart below. Here you can see that there are many variations of each slide position, depending on the note you play. You should be aware of all the minor changes and try to incorporate it into your playing without having to think about it.
Intonation of major triads
Now, to make it a bit more confusing, you might know that in general when you play a major triad, the third should be kept down and the fifth should be kept up. Looking at for example the G major triad on 4th position, I just suggested that on the trombone, you should keep the third (B) up a bit and the 5th (G) slightly down. This is basically the physics of the trombone overruling the standard intonation practice of triads!
So, in practice, is this how pro players make sure that they play in tune? No. Not really. It all comes down to being able to hear the note you are about to play before you play it, and have the correct pitch in your head. This way you can actually play in tune without having the slide in the exact position. But knowing about about all these sub-divided positions will help you hit the pitch you are aiming for.
So when playing in an ensemble, there is only one way to play in tune:
Listen, listen and then listen some!
PS. Remember that when play a long note, you might actually have to correct the pitch half way if the chord is changing! Try playing these two chords with some fellow musicians and see what happens with the top note when the other two change.
Have fun playing in tune!
Check out some of the many other online trombone lessons!
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Physiology is the study of how living organisms function and maintain homeostasis. It is a broad field that encompasses various sub-disciplines, including anatomy, biochemistry, genetics, and pharmacology. However, despite this diversity, there is one fundamental concept that underlies all aspects of physiology: homeostasis.
Homeostasis refers to the ability of living organisms to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. This concept is crucial because it ensures that cells, tissues, and organs function optimally and that the body remains healthy. Without homeostasis, the body would be unable to regulate vital functions such as temperature, pH, blood pressure, and glucose levels, which could lead to disease and death. In this article, we will explore why homeostasis is the most important concept in physiology and how it affects different physiological systems.
- 1 Understanding Physiology: A Brief Overview of the Human Body’s Functions
- 2 The Significance of Physiology: Understanding the Main Purpose
- 3 Discover the 5 Key Concepts of Physiology: Essential Knowledge for Health and Wellness
Understanding Physiology: A Brief Overview of the Human Body’s Functions
Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. Understanding how the human body functions is essential for maintaining good health and preventing disease. In this article, we will provide a brief overview of the human body’s functions.
The Nervous System
The nervous system is responsible for controlling and coordinating all body functions. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. The brain is the control center of the nervous system, and it receives information from the senses and sends commands to the rest of the body. The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves that extends from the brain down through the vertebral column. It acts as a pathway for signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
The Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system is responsible for circulating blood throughout the body. It consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood through the blood vessels. The blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood back to the heart, and capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that connect arteries and veins.
The Respiratory System
The respiratory system is responsible for breathing and exchanging gases with the environment. It includes the nose, mouth, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts, it moves downward, creating a vacuum that pulls air into the lungs.
The Digestive System
The digestive system is responsible for breaking down food and absorbing nutrients. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The mouth and stomach break down food into smaller pieces, while the small intestine absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream. The large intestine absorbs water and eliminates waste from the body.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system is responsible for producing and secreting hormones that regulate the body’s functions. It includes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries or testes. Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and signal the body to perform certain functions.
The Muscular System
The muscular system is responsible for movement and maintaining posture. It includes skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and allow for movement, while smooth muscles control involuntary movements like digestion. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and are responsible for pumping blood.
The Skeletal System
The skeletal system is responsible for providing support, protecting organs, and allowing for movement. It includes bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. Bones are the hard, rigid structures that make up the skeleton, while cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in the joints. Ligaments and tendons connect bones and muscles, allowing for movement.
In conclusion, the human body is a complex organism with many interconnected systems that work together to maintain health and function. Understanding how these systems work is essential for living a healthy and happy life.
The Significance of Physiology: Understanding the Main Purpose
Physiology is the study of how living organisms function. It is a branch of biology that deals with the functions and processes of living organisms at different levels, from molecular and cellular to organ systems and whole organisms. The study of physiology is significant in understanding the main purpose of living organisms.
Why is the study of physiology important?
The study of physiology is essential in understanding how living organisms function and how they adapt to their environment. It helps to explain how different systems in the body work together to maintain homeostasis, the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
The main purpose of physiology
The main purpose of physiology is to understand the functions and processes of living organisms. It involves studying the mechanisms that enable the body to perform its various activities, such as movement, digestion, breathing, and circulation. By understanding these mechanisms, scientists can develop treatments for diseases and disorders that affect these processes.
The importance of physiology in healthcare
The study of physiology is crucial in healthcare. It is used to diagnose and treat various medical conditions, such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Understanding the physiological processes involved in these conditions can help doctors develop effective treatments that target the underlying causes of the diseases.
In conclusion, the study of physiology is significant in understanding the main purpose of living organisms. It helps us understand how different systems in the body work together to maintain homeostasis and how living organisms adapt to their environment. The knowledge gained from studying physiology is crucial in developing treatments for various medical conditions and improving overall health and well-being.
Discover the 5 Key Concepts of Physiology: Essential Knowledge for Health and Wellness
Physiology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of the functions and processes of living organisms, including humans. Understanding the key concepts of physiology is essential for maintaining good health and wellness. Here are the 5 key concepts of physiology you should know:
1. Homeostasis: Homeostasis refers to the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. This is crucial for the proper functioning of the body’s systems and organs. Examples of homeostasis include regulating body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.
2. Cell Physiology: The cell is the basic unit of life, and cell physiology is the study of how cells function. This includes processes such as metabolism, cell division, and communication between cells.
3. Neurophysiology: Neurophysiology is the study of the nervous system, which is responsible for controlling and coordinating the body’s activities. This includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
4. Cardiovascular Physiology: Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the heart and blood vessels, which are responsible for circulating blood throughout the body. This includes the regulation of blood pressure, heart rate, and blood flow.
5. Respiratory Physiology: Respiratory physiology is the study of the lungs and the respiratory system, which are responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and removing carbon dioxide. This includes the processes of breathing, gas exchange, and regulation of blood pH.
Understanding these key concepts of physiology can help you make informed decisions about your health and wellness. By maintaining homeostasis, supporting cell function, and keeping your nervous, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems healthy, you can improve your overall well-being and quality of life.
Discover the 7 Crucial Concepts of Physiology for Better Understanding
Physiology is the study of the functions and processes of living organisms. It helps us understand how our bodies work, from the smallest cells to the complex systems that keep us alive. Whether you’re studying healthcare or just interested in learning more about your body, these 7 crucial concepts of physiology can help you better understand the intricate workings of the human body.
1. Homeostasis: This refers to the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. It is essential for the proper functioning of all organs and systems in the body.
2. Cell signaling: Cells communicate with each other through chemical signals. This process is crucial for coordinating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis.
3. Metabolism: This is the process by which the body converts food into energy. It involves various chemical reactions that occur in different organs and systems.
4. Hormones: These are chemical messengers that are produced by glands in the body. They regulate various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction.
5. Nervous system: This system is responsible for transmitting signals between different parts of the body. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
6. Cardiovascular system: This system includes the heart and blood vessels. It is responsible for transporting oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.
7. Respiratory system: This system includes the lungs and airways. It is responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
Understanding these concepts can help you better grasp the complex workings of the human body. Whether you’re a student of healthcare or just interested in learning more about your body, these concepts are essential for a better understanding of physiology.
There is no single most important concept in physiology. Rather, it is the integration of all the physiological processes that allows for the maintenance of homeostasis and the survival of living organisms. Each concept plays a vital role in understanding the complex workings of the human body and how it responds to internal and external stimuli. It is important for students and practitioners of physiology to have a comprehensive understanding of all concepts in order to provide the best possible care for patients and to advance the field of physiology as a whole.
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Back-to-School: A New Year of Advocacy
With the school year rapidly approaching for most students, and perhaps already underway for others, now is a good time to plan for a new year of effective advocacy for our gifted students. Rather than being caught off guard or surprised by what modifications may or may not be found in the student’s educational program, parents, teachers, and students can be well informed and prepared to be effective advocates as the new school year unfolds. Because we don’t want students to be invisible or for schools to be obstacles for highly creative, achieving, or intelligent students, it is prudent to plan ahead.
Advocacy is a means of motivating decision makers to provide those resources or acquire the understanding necessary to provide appropriate education for gifted students. Advocacy can occur individually one-on-one, instructionally, systemically, through policy, and through attitudinal change within the community.
Plan to take on the characteristics of an effective advocate. You must be well-informed on your topics, respectful of other points of view, quietly persistent, sincere, imaginative, resourceful, politically aware, tactful, enthusiastic, well-organized, articulate, and sensitive to others’ reactions. You can do it!
Be knowledgeable about what policies and laws relate to the students’ education, both within schools and systems, and within districts, states, and the nation. The U.S. government neither mandates services nor funds district education programs, but there might be regulations at your state or local level. State laws vary widely from state to state. Then get to know and communicate regularly with teachers interested in gifted education, your school administrators, gifted program coordinators, and other parents of gifted children in your community. Become an active participant with the school board, attending meetings and serving on committees.
Join local, state, and national gifted organizations. Form or join a local parent advocacy group. Decide what you want to accomplish; decide who can help you reach your goals. Then evaluate your chances of success; develop a timeline, and plan your campaign.
There are numerous resources available and accessible to answer any of the questions guiding your preparation phase and there are numerous types of associations to support you in your goals. If we all work together as effective advocates for this population of students, we can accomplish all our goals to make sure these students receive the services, support, and nurturance they need.
Happy new year!
All the best,
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According to the Swiss government, the nation has 100,000 cubic metres of nuclear waste, enough to fill the main hall of Zurich’s train station, said Roman Mayer of the Federal Energy Office in an interview with RTS.
Most of this waste came from nuclear power stations. Smaller quantities were produced by medicine, industry and research.
The most radioactive material will remain harmful to humans for one million years so the country must find safe places to store it.
The government is currently researching three locations to store it deep underground in rock, facilities known as a deep geologic repositories.
Possible locations have been whittled down to three in the cantons of Aargau, Thurgau and Zurich. Their more precise locations are shown on this map. The most highly radioactive material would be stored at Zürich Nordost site.
Many other locations have been considered. Until recently six were being studied. Over the years there has been local protest and resistance, for example in Ollon, Vaud in the 1980s, and more recently in Nidwalden and Schaffhausen.
The one-million-year life of some nuclear waste presents several challenges to storage facility designers. One is choosing locations where the rock will remain stable. Future glaciation could deform it, the time span is so great. Ensuring humans one million years out can understand our warning symbols and writing is another.
Final storage facilities will not be built before 2045, and if necessary Swiss voters will get a say.
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Opportunities in Accounting and Information Systems
Did you know that the field of accounting offers opportunities for careers in many varied areas? For instance, some of the major
employers of accountants are:
Public Accounting Firms
Public accounting work is performed by four types of groups: National CPA
firms, Local CPA firms, Small local CPA firms, and Individual practitioners.
The work done by accountants varies significantly depending on what type of firm
they work for and their specialized field. Public accountants work with
their clients in the following areas:
- Accounting Compilations/Reviews: Compilations include the preparation of
monthly, quarterly, and/or yearly financial statements. They are
non-audited statements, primarily intended for internal use by management.
Accounting reviews, on the other hand, provide some assurance that a company’s
financial statements are in accordance with GAAP, including appropriate
- Auditing: An audit determines whether a financial statement “fairly
represents” the financial condition of an organization and the results of its
operations for a yearly period. This process is more complicated and
requires more time and accounting knowledge than compilations and reviews.
- Taxes: Accountants prepare individual and business tax returns for clients.
They also provide tax planning advice so firms plan their business activities to
minimize their tax liability and maximize profits
- Management and Special Services: Accounting firms consult in areas
that fall within their expertise and which the client firms themselves are not
equipped to handle adequately. specialization areas include ElderCare, Business
Valuation, Litigation Support, Human Resource Consulting Services, Financial
Companies and Corporations
Management accounting is a bit different than public accounting.
Business and industry employ more accountants than do accounting firms, since
all companies maintain accountants on their payroll. So, because there are
far more corporations than accounting firms, the opportunities for accountants
in industry are very good and constantly increasing. Plus, in general,
industry does not demand or require that an accountant be certified. There
are a number of different positions in the ranks of management accounting,
including staff accountant, accounting manager, controller, and vice-president
- Staff Accountant: The duties of a staff accountant vary with their company’s
size. One can be a cost analyst, or in charge of general accounting, or
even involved with computerizing accounting procedures. Since it is an
entry-level position, a staff accountant need only have a bachelor’s degree.
- Accounting Manager: After three to five years of accounting experience, it is
most likely that the staff accountant will be promoted to accounting manager.
As manager, one assumes administrative functions over staff accounts, and
usually eight to thirty subordinates.
- Controller: With more experience, one may be promoted to controller.
The controller administers the functions of the accounting department and
assures an adequate level of internal accounting controls and administrative
- Vice-President of Finance: The highest career level within management
accounting in industry is that of vice-president of finance or chief financial
officer (CFO). This is an executive position that requires coordination
with other corporate subdivisions, which compels one to communicate effectively.
Naturally, this executive must be fully grounded in accounting to administer the
accounting functions and sufficiently well-rounded to do the same for the
non-accounting aspects of the corporation.
Federal and Local Government Agencies
The various levels of government, from the federal government down to the
municipal level, all employ great numbers of accountants. Local government
agencies have numerous opportunities for accountants that vary across the
nation, which makes it hard to describe them. Conversely, the federal
government hires accountants for virtually all of its agencies in charge of
handling the federal government’s finances – the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI), Internal Revenue Service (IRS), General Accounting Office (GAO), and the
Defense Contract Audit Agency (DCAA).
- The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI): Thousands of dedicated
professionals work together to fulfill the mission of the FBI, including
accountants. Highly trained Special Agents are responsible for enforcing the
federal statutes. FBI activities include investigations into organized
crime, white-collar crime, public corruption, financial crime, fraud against the
government, bribery, copy-right matters, bank robbery, extortion, and other
violations of federal statutes.
- The Internal Revenue Service (IRS): Personnel working for the IRS are
usually referred to as tax agents and generally perform the same broad spectrum
of tasks performed by those in public accounting. Special agents, on the
other hand, assume a special role in the Criminal Investigation branch of the
IRS. They are highly specialized and expertly trained financial
investigators, who also duly serve as sworn law enforcement officers.
In particular, they investigate white-collar crimes and track criminal
transactions internationally and through cyberspace.
- The General Accounting Office (GAO): The GAO is an audit arm of the U.S.
Congress that oversees the spending of federal funds and the administration of
governmental contracts. This covers an extremely broad scope of
activities, including such specialties as the handling of mortgage monies coming
from the government.
- The Defense Contract Audit Agency (DCAA): This agency is in charge of
auditing all defense-oriented federally funded contracts. Thus, work for
this agency is closely related to work for a large national CPA firm,
emphasizing on cost accounting and operational accounting.
Internal Audit Departments
An internal auditor generally reports functionally to an audit committee or board of directors. The internal auditor position is
highly independent and is considered as a separate position, which functions separately from the company. The function of an internal
auditor is different from that of an external auditor employed at a public accounting firm, as described previously. An internal auditor
tours the company and works in the general office to ensure that accounting controls are followed, that records are accurate, and that
company procedures are being followed.
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learned material is better recalled after a sound sleep as opposed to a disturbed night. But what hasn't been looked at before now is the optimum time to leave between study and sleeping.
A team led by Johannes Holz has done just that, finding that "procedural learning" (practice at the kind of skill that you do, rather than talk about) is more effective right before sleep. Learning factual material, by contrast, (dependent on "declarative memory"), was found to be more effective when done in the afternoon, seven and a half hours before sleep, although the evidence for this was less convincing and should be treated with caution.
The researchers recruited 50 teenage girls (aged 16-17) to learn a series of word pairs and a finger-tapping task, either at 3pm in the afternoon or 9pm at night. The performance level of the afternoon and night groups was equivalent at the end of these initial learning tasks.
With the tapping task, it was the girls who learned right before sleep who showed the greatest gains in performance when they were re-tested after 24 hours and again 7 days later. Holz and his colleagues can't be sure why procedural learning is more effective just before sleep, but they think it probably has to do with the effect of sleep on protein synthesis and gene expression.
In contrast to the tapping task, performance on the word pairs after 24 hours was better in the afternoon-learning group. At the 7 day word-pairs test there was no difference in afternoon or evening learners. The fact that declarative learning was more effective in the afternoon suggests that this type of hippocampus-dependent memory has a different time course from procedural learning.
The findings, though preliminary, have obvious practical implications. "We propose that declarative memories, such as vocabulary words, should be studied in the afternoon and motor skills, like playing soccer or piano, should be trained in the late evening," the researchers said. "Most parents among us would have preferred the opposite results."
Holz J, Piosczyk H, Landmann N, Feige B, Spiegelhalder K, Riemann D, Nissen C, and Voderholzer U (2012). The Timing of Learning before Night-Time Sleep Differentially Affects Declarative and Procedural Long-Term Memory Consolidation in Adolescents. PloS one, 7 (7) PMID: 22808287
-Further reading- Scientists find way to strengthen memories during sleep.
Post written by Christian Jarrett for the BPS Research Digest.
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Digital waste is an issue that is now impossible to hide from. Every year millions of people buy a new digital device. A new technology. A new appliance. What nobody is thinking is where all of the old stuff goes. The video reported by Peter Klein, Ghana: Digital Dumping Ground shows where the digital waste is disposed, and how this disposal has been affecting many populations around the world. Moreover, the documentary shows how each one of us is also susceptible to hazards because of the wrongful disposal of materials.
Ghana has become a country that is nothing more than a trash can in an open sky. Klein shows that every year thousands of e-waste containers arrive in the Nation, polluting and putting in danger the population from Ghana. The youth residents enter in the disposal camps without any protection, and with no regulations. The young people collect the material they find useful, in order to separate those that can still be sold, such as gold or even working computers. By exposing themselves to this trashier, they are threatening their lives with the smoke coming from the burning plastics.
In addition to the pollution and the threat to Ghana’s population, there is also the danger for the people that wasted the electronics. In the documentary, Klein reports that a large portion of the electronics that arrive in the country comes from the United States of America. Part of those electronics are computers’ hard drives, which still contains personal data from their previous owners. It led Ghana to be one of the most dangerous countries in cyber-crimes. What happens is when a hard drive is backed up, someone can still all the personal information inside the drive and use it electronically.
Unfortunately, Ghana is not the only country used as e-waste disposal. China, India, and a few other developing countries are also focus of digital waste dumping. Those countries suffer with poor populations, susceptible of doing almost anything to earn money. Klein shows in the video that most of the people who get involved in collecting the digital waste are not even aware of the consequences of such activities.
However, as shown in the documentary, there is no hope that this waste activities are going to get any better. The solution available is a better management to the electronic waste. The management has to come from each government in each country. There will be no development while there is negligence from corporations and governments on the electronic waste disposal.
Here is the video that I am talking about:
Klein, P. (Reporter). (2009, June 23). Ghana: Digital Dumping Ground. Frontline World: PBS. Video retrieved from: http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/ghana804/video/video_index.html
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Today’s blog focus is on osteoporosis and why it’s so important to engage in activity that improves the health of your musculoskeletal system (muscles, bones, & joints).
Did you know that the costs associated with osteoporosis in British Columbia are estimated to be $322 million annually.
Osteoporosis Canada definition: “Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue. This leads to increased bone fragility and risk of fracture (broken bones), particularly of the hip, spine, wrist and shoulder. Osteoporosis is often known as “the silent thief” because bone loss occurs without symptoms.”
When many people think of osteoporosis, postmenopausal women are generally the first to come to mind as they tend to have the highest rates. However, osteoporosis is an “equal opportunity bone basher” as it affects both men and women! Click here for an interesting read highlighting a man’s experience with osteoporosis.
It‘s important to note that developing good bone health is a lifelong endeavor and we’re never too young to start reducing our risk for osteoporosis because it can strike at any age.
Given it’s reputation as “the silent thief” it’s essential that we take action each day to improve our bone health. Here are a few tips to increase your bone density:
- Take part in weight bearing exercise that stimulates the muscles, fosters bone growth, and improves balance as well as posture.
- Examples of weight bearing exercise include but are not limited to: walking, step aerobics, dancing, Nordic Pole walking, resistance training, or jogging.
- Fun Fact: Postmenopausal woman who walked for one hour 4x/week were able to significantly reduce their risk for a bone fracture by 40% (Dr. Mike Evans)
- For more info or guidance contact the Physical Activity Line to speak with a qualified exercise professional.
Nutrition is essential and you need to ensure you’re receiving adequate amounts of calcium and vitamin D.
- For more info contact Dietitian Services at Healthlink BC by dialing 811.
FYI: Osteoporosis Canada is hosting a great fundraising initiative in our region and it’s called Walk This Way! It promotes Nordic Pole walking as a weight bearing activity to help improve bone health and includes pole walking clinics in the Lower Mainland and Victoria to help people prepare for a two, five, or 10 km pole walking event in Whistler BC.
Do you or a family member have osteoporosis? We encourage you to share your wisdom below to help inspire our community members to improve their bone health.
Keep Positive, Keep Smiling, & Keep MOVING!
References & Resources:
Osteoporosis Canada: What Kind of Exercise Should I Do?
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The Latest Poop From the Turkey Coop
November 20, 2017
Poultry Excrement Could Partially Replace Coal as a Renewable Energy Source
While turkeys at Thanksgiving are an age-old custom, a new study shows that turkey excrement may have a future as a fuel for heat and electricity.
Treated excrement from turkeys, chickens and other poultry, when converted to combustible solid biomass fuel, could replace approximately 10 percent of coal used in electricity generation, reducing greenhouse gases and providing an alternative energy source, according to a new study by Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) researchers.
While biomass accounts for 73 percent of renewable energy production worldwide, crops grown for energy production burden land, water and fertilizer resources.
According to the researchers, “Environmentally safe disposal of poultry excrement has become a significant problem. Converting poultry waste to solid fuel, a less resource-intensive, renewable energy source is an environmentally superior alternative that also reduces reliance on fossil fuels.”
According to the study in Elsevier’s Applied Energy, researchers at the Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research at BGU evaluated two biofuel types to determine which is the more efficient poultry waste solid fuel.
They compared the production, combustion and gas emissions of biochar, which is produced by slow heating of the biomass at a temperature of 450°C (842°F) in an oxygen free furnace with hydrochar. Hydrochar is produced by heating wet biomass to a much lower temperature of up to 250 °C under pressure using a process called hydrothermal carbonization (HTC). HTC mimics natural coal formation within several hours.
“We found that poultry waste processed as hydrochar produced 24 percent higher net energy generation,” says student researcher Vivian Mau and Prof. Amit Gross, chair of the Department of Environmental Hydrology and Microbiology at BGU’s Zuckerberg Institute.
“Poultry waste hydrochar generates heat at high temperatures and combusts in a similar manner to coal, an important factor in replacing it as renewable energy source.”
For the first time, the researchers also showed that higher HTC production temperatures resulted in a significant reduction in emissions of methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) and an increase of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
“This investigation helped in bridging the gap between hydrochar being considered as a potential energy source toward the development of an alternative renewable fuel,” Gross explains. “Our findings could help significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with electricity generation and agricultural wastes. Field-scale experiments with HTC reactor should be conducted to confirm the assessments from this laboratory-scale study.”
The study was funded by the Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection, the Rosenzweig-Coopersmith Foundation. BGU Ph.D. candidate Vivian Mau received financial support from the Israeli Ministry of National Infrastructures, Energy and Water Resources, the Rieger Foundation and the Zuckerberg Scholarship Fund at BGU’s Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research.
About BGU’s Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research
The Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Israel’s largest and leading water institute, conducts interdisciplinary, cutting-edge research and graduate education in water sciences, aimed at improving human well-being through technologies and policies for sustainable use of water resources. World-renowned Zuckerberg researchers are focused on desalination technologies and groundwater production, water quality and microbiology, as well as water resource economics and management. Zuckerberg graduate programs attract students from all corners of the world who are involved in research projects and collaborations in both developed and underdeveloped countries.
Named for New York philanthropist Roy J. Zuckerberg, the Zuckerberg was founded in 2002 within the Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research at the Sede Boqer Campus of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. For more information, visit www.aabgu.org/water
About American Associates, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
American Associates, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (AABGU) plays a vital role in sustaining David Ben-Gurion’s vision: creating a world-class institution of education and research in the Israeli desert, nurturing the Negev community and sharing the University’s expertise locally and around the globe. As Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) looks ahead to turning 50 in 2020, AABGU imagines a future that goes beyond the walls of academia. It is a future where BGU invents a new world and inspires a vision for a stronger Israel and its next generation of leaders. Together with supporters, AABGU will help the University foster excellence in teaching, research and outreach to the communities of the Negev for the next 50 years and beyond. Visit vision.aabgu.org to learn more.
A. Lavin Communications
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Agencies prepare for Irma
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the National Guard, and other U.S. government and non-government agencies are preparing for Hurricane Irma. Irma, a category 5 hurricane, tore through the Carribean earlier today and is headed for Florida. Governors in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and Florida have declared a state of emergency.
National Guard units from Illinois, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Texas have sent personnel to aid civilian authorities in Irma’s path, as has FEMA. Other agencies involved in the preparedness effort include the Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Energy, and American Red Cross, among others.
For more information on the preparation for Hurricane Irma, please follow the links below.
FEMA and Federal Partners Prepare for Catastrophic Category 5 Hurricane Irma, Department of Homeland Security
Guardsmen Head Toward Hurricane Irma as Texas Relief Efforts Continue, Department of Defense
September in National Preparedness Month. Learn more here.
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CORE CONNECTIONS for Extended Learning…
LANGUAGE ARTS: One of the incredible books in the Jackson County History Archive was published in 1900. Take a look at this page from the Business Directory and try to figure out how the abbreviations chart was made. Can you make up abbreviations using the same system for objects in your classroom, playground or school building? Where would ‘Arthur Abbey’ fall on the alphabetical list of names in the directory?
SOCIAL STUDIES: Look closely at the map of Jackson County. Trace the border with your finger. Were all of the borders for the county drawn by people, or is there a natural border also? Can you find your home county on the historic Indiana map?
SCIENCE: Muscatatuck National Wildlife Refuge is nearly 8000 acres of natural beauty located near Seymour, Indiana. Why do the birds need places like this when they are traveling? Why do some birds travel or ‘migrate’?
MATHEMATICS: If you order a hamburger, onion rings and a small fountain drink at Larrison’s Diner, about how much will it cost if the prices are rounded to the nearest dollar?
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(PhysOrg.com) -- New images of the asteroid show the first surface structures and give a preview of the Dawn mission's coming months.
Although about 189,000 kilometers still lay between NASA's space probe Dawn and the asteroid Vesta, the latest images taken by the camera system on board show a heterogeneous surface structure. Even though in this early approach phase the camera system mainly serves navigational purposes, the images are beginning to show us a new, unique world, says Dr. Andreas Nathues from the Max-Planck-Institute for Solar System Research (MPS) in Germany, Framing Camera Lead Investigator.
The newest images now reveal first surface structures. In many surface regions we see patterns that might well be craters, says Dr. Holger Sierks from MPS, one of the missions co-investigators and responsible for the development of the camera. In the next weeks as Dawn continues its approach of the asteroid, the scientists will be able to confirm this first analysis.
NASAs space probe Dawn has been on its way to the asteroid Vesta since 2007. Vestas gravity is expected to capture the spacecraft on July 16th, 2011. The space probe will then accompany the asteroid for approximately a year. Dawns stay at Vesta is the first prolonged visit to a main belt asteroid. It will also be the first visit ever to a protoplanet, a body that never quite became a full-fledged planet. Scientists expect Vesta to render information on the early phase of planet formation.
Explore further: Dawn Enters Asteroid Belt -- For Good
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This question is on finding the line of symmetry. How many of such lines does this five-pointed star have?
When we fold the star along this line, both sides of the star is symmetrical.
Next, we observe the same thing when this star is folded along this line.
Same observation here...
... and finally, it is the same here as well..
From Step 1 to Step 5, we can see that this star has 5 lines of symmetry.
Hence, the answer is C.
Feeling bored of worksheets? Try Zap Zap Math game to find out the secret of people who fall in love with math.
No Thanks. My Kids Don't Need To Learn Math
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Many people fear speaking in public. Some people even fear it more than death. Because public speaking is so frightful to so many, advance preparation is key. Get to the root of your speaking issues with this advice.
Know your surroundings. Take a few moments when you arrive to acquaint yourself with your surroundings. If you can arrive early, go to the podium and do a soundcheck before your audience arrives. If you have visual aids, practice using them while you are orientating yourself with your surroundings.
It’s vital to know about everything that you will be talking about during a speech. Even if you memorize your material, it’s helpful to know other aspects of your topic that are not included in your speech. Work them in when you can to see how your audience reacts. Also, use them to answer questions and back up the substance of your speech.
Always face your audience. Don’t get distracted by whatever else is happening. Since you want the audience to engage in what you are saying, you need to get their attention.
Do not give your speech without going over it many times. Sometimes, people think it is okay to just get up the podium and figure out what they are going to say right there and then. The thing is, you may find yourself unable to keep the speech going. Be sure to create your speech and go over it numerous times.
You will win your audience over if you add a little humor to your speech. There is nothing wrong with trowing in a joke or two and putting a smile on your audience’s faces. However, do not go overboard on the jokes, as your audience will not take you serious.
It is normal to feel nervous when giving a public speech. However, no matter how nervous you feel, you cannot let others notice. If you find yourself nervous, try to imagine yourself giving the speech to someone you know. It will calm you down and allow you to successfully give your speech.
To become a better public speaker, talk about what you know. Focus your presentation on the areas of the speech topic that you are familiar with. Your confidence will be noticed by your audience. Before your speech, make sure to research any areas in which your thinking is fuzzy or unclear. This research will enable you to speak clearly and simply. So, do your research and watch your confidence and effectiveness as a public speaker soar.
When asked to speak at a wedding, you may be tempted to try some sort of funny patter or to poke fun at the participants. Even when your intentions are good, this can be hurtful. It is better to speak in a friendly, caring and supportive way at this important event.
To increase your effectiveness as a public speaker, maintain good posture when you speak. To inspire confidence you should stand comfortably upright and avoid common posture problems such as slouching or leaning to one side during the presentation. If you don’t intend to use gestures keep your hands in a neutral position, either straight down at your sides or in front of the body with one hand over the other at about navel height. Hold the attention of your audience by adopting a calm and upright demeanor.
Do not try to impress your audience by using overly complicated vocabulary. Some people do this because they want to show off how smart they are. The only thing that this will do is confuse a lot of people since they will have no idea what it is you are trying to say.
When giving a public speech or presentation do not include too many pieces of information. Filling your speech with too much information will overload your audience and be perceived as boring. A helpful speech will include a few important pieces of information conveyed simply and clearly. So, always edit your speeches to a handful of key ideas for best effect.
If you are scheduled to make a speech, arrive at your venue at least half an hour early. This will give you a chance to set up, to practice and perhaps to relax a bit. If you rush in just a few minutes before your speech, you will not have time to prepare.
Be familiar with your audience, and tailor your remarks to them. If you are speaking to children, you will have a different message and style than if you are speaking to a group of executives. Doing a bit of research about the group you are addressing can help you come up with a suitable message and style for your speech.
Gesture naturally as you would in conversation. Don’t try to learn gestures from others. Be yourself. Move around a bit while you are onstage, especially if your presentation is lengthy. This will help keep both you and your audience from being bored. If you are being filmed, try not to dash around too quickly!
Keep things in perspective. Things do not always go as planned, but that does not necessarily mean that your speech is not effective or well-received. Whether you trip over a cord or forget your next line, it is not the end of the world. If you do not make a big deal of it, most people will probably not even remember that it happened. Regain your poise, and continue with your speech.
Try watching professional public speakers. You can learn a lot from people that are famous for their public speaking abilities. Take note of how they speak and how they engage the audience. Figure out what it is that makes them successful. Try incorporating some of their habits and styles in your own speeches.
Practice public speaking in the exact location where you will be doing it live. It’s important to get to know the space where you will be speaking. This way you’ll be less apt to being thrown by the sounds, the podium, or the way the room is set up.
This article previously mentioned that speaking in public is a top fear listed by so many people. Don’t let fear control you. Keep the tips shared here in mind to gain control over public speaking instead.
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When something is very difficult to find it is like looking for a needle in a haystack. Especially because the area you have to search is too large and because of everything around it. We also say trying to find a needle in a haystack.
Hay is grass which is cut, dried and used as animal food or as covering material.
A haystack is a large tall pile of hay in a field.
"I went into my younger brother's bedroom to get the CD I lent him. It was like looking for a needle in a haystack. His room is so untidy."
"I tried to find my lost key on the sandy beach, but it was like trying to find a needle in a haystack."
The idiom was also used in one of my favourite songs, "Living for the City", a 1973 hit single by Stevie Wonder.
"Her brother's smart he's got more sense than many
His patience's long but soon he won't have any
To find a job is like a haystack needle
Cause where he lives they don't use colored people
Living just enough, just enough for the city..."
Now write your own example sentences:
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Because of the way languages change gradually, it is usually impossible to pinpoint when a given language began to be spoken. because of that written accounts are used to measure languages life.
so What is the oldest language in the world?
1. Sumerian language of ancient Sumer, which was spoken in modern Iraq since at least the 4th millennium BC.
2. Egyptian is the oldest known indigenous language of Egypt and a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about 3400 BC. The national language of modern-day Egypt is Arabic
3. Akkadian also Accadian, Assyro-Babylonian is an extinct Semitic language (part of the greater Afroasiatic language family) that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia (Irak). The earliest attested Semitic language, it used the cuneiform writing system derived ultimately from ancient Sumerian, an unrelated language isolate. The name of the language is derived from the city of Akkad, a major center of Mesopotamian civilization.
Most of the ancient languages have become extinct or have evolved and branched into several languages.
oldest languages that still in use are many but it is difficult to define which is the oldest one.
oldest languages still in use:
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Pod Racer – Aviation Model
How Model Plane Aviation Technology Has Improved
Model plans have been around for a very long time. However, that doesn’t mean that these planes have always been the same. Model plane aviation technology has improved significantly. The plane models today are far more accurate and detailed than the models of the past.
More importantly, model planes serve new functions. If you want to learn more about aviation technology, keep reading.
You’ll soon learn all about model planes and the technology surrounding them.
Model Planes And 3D Printers
In the past, getting a hold of a model plane could be difficult. You had to hope that someone had taken the time to create the model that you wanted to purchase.
Now, people are able to create their own model planes. A number of people have been able to create small versions of planes using 3D printing technology. Obviously, 3D printers aren’t something that is available to everyone, but they are a great way to build model planes.
Models Have Lead To Safer Planes
Airline travel is very safe. In fact, you are much safer in a plane than you are in a car. With that said, there is plenty of room for improvement. That’s why experts have been working to make planes safer.
Thanks to models, planes are a lot safer than they were in the past. Planes are very large, and it can be difficult to inspect an entire plane. When you are able to shrink down a plane, you are able to look at it from a different angle.
Model versions of planes are typically built before a plane is placed in the air. These models are used to make a plane even safer.
Some Model Planes Can Fly
Model planes are no longer just something that people can display on a shelf. A lot of these planes serve a real purpose. In some cases, these planes can even fly.
Obviously, these planes can’t fly the way a real plane does. With that said, a lot of model planes can be flown. If you’ve always dreamed of flying a certain type of plane, all you have to do is purchase a model plane.
Models Come In All Sizes
Some model planes are extremely small. As the technology for building these planes has improved, experts have been able to construct smaller and smaller planes.
However, there are also model planes that are quite large. There are models out there that are far too big to display. Some of these models are used in museums, while others are used for testing.
There are so many ways to build model planes. People are able to construct models that suit their purposes. This means that plane models can be more useful than they ever have been.
Model plane aviation technology has been improving for a very long time. Because of this, experts are able to do things that they couldn’t do in the past. These developments are very impressive, and they have lead to a lot of major advances.
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Deep brain stimulation - implanting electrodes deep in the brain - could be a new way to treat severe anorexia nervosa, a Canadian study suggests.
Scientists studied 16 people with severe anorexia and found the treatment helped reduce depression and anxiety and in some cases prompted weight gain.
Researchers say further, larger studies are needed before the therapy could be considered more widely.
The study appears in the journal Lancet Psychiatry.
The research involved women aged between 21 and 57 who had had anorexia for an average of 18 years and had tried all other available treatment.
The women were severely underweight and researchers say some were at a risk of dying early because of the condition.
At the beginning of the study, electrodes were placed in specific areas of their brains, thought to be linked to anorexia.
Within a few months, some patients felt symptoms of depression and anxiety had improved.
And 12 months later, a number of the patients had gained weight.
The average body mass index of the group increased from 13.8 to 17.3.
Researchers also looked at brain scans before and after a year of electrical stimulation and found persistent changes in the areas linked to anorexia.
Dr Nir Lipsman, a neurosurgeon at the Sunnybrook Health Sciences Center, told the BBC: "There are currently no effective treatments for people with long-standing anorexia nervosa - people who are often the sickest and most vulnerable of dying from the condition.
"Our work, which builds on earlier trials, is one of the first brain-based strategies that has been shown to help with chronic anorexia.
"And my hope is that through this research we are also validating the idea that anorexia is a brain-based illness, not a personality or lifestyle choice."
But he accepted the treatment did not suit everyone in the trial.
One patient had a seizure several months after electrode implantation, and two people asked for their electrodes to be removed during the trial.
Writing in the same journal, Dr Carrie McAdams, of the University of Texas Southwestern, said: "Further work to establish efficacy, safety and long-term outcomes in a larger cohort is needed."
Prof Rebecca Park, of the Royal College of Psychiatrists said: "While these results are encouraging, we must remember that deep brain stimulation for anorexia nervosa is a high risk, experimental treatment.
"In Oxford, we are running the sole registered UK trial of this kind.
"Central to our work is the development of an ethical standard that ensures vulnerable individuals are not inadvertently exploited by this treatment."
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Catholic Activity: Traditions related to Saint Joseph
Father Weiser explains the background of the feast of Saint Joseph in the Church, and gives short descriptions of traditions relating to this saint (such as "St. Joseph's Night" and "St. Joseph's Loaves") and customs from various countries, such as Valencia, Spain, northern Spain, and in parts of Italy.
Up to the fifteenth century our Lord's foster father was not honored by a special feast of the Church, and people did not generally venerate him, although many ancient Fathers and writers mentioned him with reverence and high regard. It was only at the time of the Crusades that a practice of private devotion to Saint Joseph spread from the Eastern Churches into Europe. This devotion was greatly encouraged by some saints of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, especially Saint Bernard (1153), Saint Thomas Aquinas (1274), and Saint Gertrude (1310).
At the end of the fourteenth century the Franciscans, and soon afterward the Dominicans and Carmelites, introduced a Feast of Saint Joseph into their calendars. Finally, under Pope Sixtus IV an annual feast of the Saint was established on March 19 for the whole Church. It was, however, a feast of the lowest rank (simplex), imposing no obligation on the clergy to celebrate it. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many religious orders and some national rulers, especially the Hapsburgs of Austria and Spain, appealed to the popes to raise the feast in rank and make it a prescribed holyday. Accordingly, Pope Gregory XV made it in 1621 a holyday of obligation. Pius X in 1911 rescinded the obligation of attending Mass, though it was later restored by the new Code of Canon Law in 1918.
In a short time the veneration of the Saint quickly and enthusiastically spread through all Catholic nations. Saint Teresa (1582), who had a special devotion to him, inspired the reformed Carmelites to establish a feast of the "patronage" of Saint Joseph, which was annually celebrated by the order on the third Sunday after Easter. This feast was extended in 1847 to the whole Church. In 1870 Pope Pius IX solemnly declared Saint Joseph as the official patron of the universal Church. In 1956 the feast of Saint Joseph's patronage was replaced by a feast of "Saint Joseph the Worker," to be celebrated annually on May 1.
The popular patronage of Saint Joseph is universal in scope. The words of the Egyptian Pharao, "Go to Joseph" (Gen. 41, 55), were applied to him. Filled with affection, love, and confidence, the faithful turned to him in all their temporal and spiritual needs. Every detail of his life gave rise to a special patronage. He is the patron of tradesmen and workers, of travelers and refugees, of the persecuted, of Christian families and homes, of purity and interior life, of engaged couples, of people in temporal distress (food, home, clothing, sickness, etc.), of the poor, aged, and dying.
It was a widespread custom in past centuries for newly wed couples to spend the first night of matrimony (St. Joseph's Night) in abstinence and to perform some devotion in honor of Saint Joseph that he might bless their marriage. Small round breads (St. Joseph's loaves; fritelli) are baked and eaten in many sections of Europe on March 19 to honor the heavenly "bread father." From the seventeenth century on it was customary to have a statue of the Saint on the table during the main meal and to "serve" it generous portions which afterward were given the poor.
In northern Spain it is an ancient tradition for people to make a pilgrimage to a shrine of Saint Joseph on March 19 and there to have a special repast after the devotions. This meal consists of roast lamb, which is eaten, picnic style, outside the shrine in the afternoon (Merienda del Cordero; Repast of the Lamb). For this occasion the faithful who make the pilgrimage and then partake of the meal are dispensed from the law of Lenten fast.
In the region of Valencia on the east coast of Spain a strange and interesting tradition developed — the burning of fires in honor of Saint Joseph. It is said to have been started by the carpenters in past centuries, when they cleaned their workshops before March 19 and burned all the litter on the evening of their patron's feast. Today committees are established which collect and exhibit at street crossings structures made of wood by boys and men during the weeks before the feast. These structures represent houses, figures, scenes, many of them symbolic of some political event of the past year. They are admired and judged by the people, and on the eve of Saint Joseph's Day the best one receives a prize and is put aside. All the others are burned in joyful bonfires. Music, dancing, and fireworks (traca) are a part of this celebration in honor of Saint Joseph.
In some parts of Italy ancient nature lore rites are still performed on Saint Joseph's Day, the "burial of winter" for instance, which is done by sawing a symbolic figure (scega vecchia) in two. In central Europe the day is celebrated by farmers as the beginning of spring. They light candles in honor of the Saint, put little shrines with his picture in their gardens and orchards, and have their fields blessed by the priest.
LITURGICAL PRAYER: Assist us, O Lord, we beseech Thee, by the merits of the Spouse of Thy most holy Mother, that, what of ourselves we are unable to obtain, may be granted us by his intercession.
Activity Source: Holyday Book, The by Francis X. Weiser, S.J., Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc., New York, 1956
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1. Pupil Assessment
The upper secondary school has a six level grading scale from A to F with five pass grades and a non-pass grade. There are national knowledge requirements for grades E, C and A. The knowledge requirements contain a description of what is required for a given grade. If there are insufficient grounds for determining a student's knowledge due to extended absenteeism, a dash (–) replaces the grade. The school must be able to account for the measures it has taken in connection with absenteeism. Grades are awarded based on the goals and knowledge requirements set out in the syllabuses. When starting a new course, the teacher should provide information about what is required for the different grades. It should be possible for students to discuss their grade with a teacher during the course in order to get an idea of their current position. A teacher awarding a grade should not compare a student's performance with others in the class, but assess how well each student has achieved the goals of the course. Grades cannot be appealed. The teacher awarding the grade should also be able to inform the student of the reasons for the grade assessment.
When awarding grades in Swedish/Swedish as a second language, English or Mathematics, teachers should consult national tests (nationella prov) for each subject provided by the Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket). They should also consider other work made by the student during the course before deciding on a grade. In addition to the compulsory national tests, the National Agency for Education is responsible for a test bank of national tests in different subjects and courses, including modern languages, biology, physics and certain vocational subjects.
Pupils and their parents/guardians are informed of the pupil’s progress through compulsory personal development meetings. These dialogues are based on the pupil's individual study plan which contains information on the choice of programme and courses. The school is obliged to arrange these meetings at least once every term.
2. Progression of pupils
There are no criteria for a pupil to proceed to the next level. If there is a risk of a pupil failing to attain the learning outcomes/goals in the syllabus, remedial support shall be provided. For instance, the pupil's study plan can be modified.
If a pass grade has not been achieved, a pupil has the right to retake the course. If a pupil has taken a course twice without achieving a passing grade, and there are special circumstances, the school head can decide to allow the pupil to take the course a third time. It is also possible to resit a whole year if the school head, pupil and guardians/parents are in agreement. The school head in consultation with teachers decide if a pupil needs to resit a course or if a reduced programme is an option (see 6.2 - Individual Support). If the pupil has not yet reached the age of 18 a consultation takes place with the pupil's guardians or parents. A pupil who has difficulties in Swedish, English or Mathematics has the right to study courses in stages, where the contents of a stage are individually designed for each pupil.
In upper secondary school, pupils are entitled to resit tests free of charge if they have failed a course. After completing their upper secondary education pupils are entitled to resit examinations to improve their grades at a maximum fee of SEK 500 for one examination.
The upper secondary school (gymnasieskolan) does not have a final examination. Each pupil receives a school-leaving certificate consisting of a summary of the courses studied and the grades received in these courses. To receive a school-leaving certificate (slutbetyg), from a national or specially designed programme, the pupil must have received grades for all courses as well as for the individual project work. The school head signs the certificate. Final grades are issued around June 10.
The structure for the upper secondary school provides apprenticeship training and the introduction of an upper secondary diploma, one for general upper secondary education and one for vocational education and training programmes. A vocational upper secondary diploma can be obtained through vocational education at school or through an apprenticeship scheme. Students in any of the 12 vocational programmes should be given the possibility to follow courses leading to the upper secondary diploma giving access to higher education. If pupils have taken more courses than their programme requires, by following an expanded programme (see 6.2 - Specialisation of Studies), these courses are included in their school leaving certificate.
Pupils who have attended a vocational programme at upper secondary level have the right to adult education at upper secondary level in order to achieve basic eligibility for higher education.
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Neatorama is proud to bring you a guest post from history buff and Neatoramanaut WTM, who wishes to remain otherwise anonymous.
When the Lewis and Clark Expedition made its way through the Pacific Northwest circa 1805, the expedition’s team saw an alien landscape the likes of which no one had ever seen before. Vast stretches of land that had no topsoil whatsoever. A dry waterfall that was miles across. Enormous holes carved out of hard volcanic basalt bedrock. Huge boulders in the middle of an otherwise desolate flat prairie. Gravel bars that resembled those seen elsewhere in small creeks, but that were miles long and hundreds of feet high. These and other similar anomalies presented one of the world’s premier geologic mysteries, a mystery that would confound geologists and other scientists for more than a hundred years.
The Dry Falls, 3.5 miles wide. Photograph courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
Today we know the cause of these geological enigmas –megafloods- the like of which the earth had not known since its creation. The flow of a megaflood was more than ten times the combined flow of all the rivers on earth, and these megafloods occurred perhaps as many as a hundred times before ceasing due to climate change.
All evidence indicates that these megafloods, known today as the Lake Missoula Floods, occurred between 11,000 and 19,000 years ago. The largest such flood, identified by the depth of its sediments, is estimated to have occurred about 15,000 years ago, tearing across far western Montana, far northern Idaho, eastern Washington, and northern Oregon en route to the Pacific Ocean.
It was these inconceivably enormous megafloods that scoured topsoil away down to the hard basalt bedrock and then blasted huge holes as deep as a hundred feet in that bedrock. It was these same megafloods that carried hundred-ton boulders on ice rafts across four states, created the largest waterfall the world has ever known, and carved the topography of much of eastern Washington State into what are today known as the Channeled Scablands. A prominent geologist, the hero of this story, was later to write, "The popular name ‘Scablands’ is an expressive metaphor. The Scablands are wounds only partially healed in the epidermis of soil."
Channeled Scablands. Photograph courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
Just how large were these megafloods? Imagine a miles-long glacial ice dam a half-mile high, holding back an immense freshwater lake 2000 feet deep, containing an estimated 500-600 cubic miles of water, maybe as much as 700 trillion gallons altogether. Then imagine the flood resulting from a mile-wide section of that ice dam failing catastrophically, with the glacial lake then emptying itself within 48 hours after tearing away the remainder of the ice dam. That’s an average flow of about 4.5 billion gallons per second (the maximum flow of the Amazon River is about 100 million gallons per second), and the initial flow upon bursting of the ice dam may have been 10 times as great. And it happened again and again, with an estimated 50-100 years between ‘refills’ of the glacial lake, as after each megaflood, the broken lobe of the glacier crept down the valley again, building another dam.
These megafloods all flowed west and southwest toward the Pacific Ocean, and the amount of water involved was so immense that it is estimated to have covered what is today Portland, Oregon over four feet deep by the time it reached that location. All of the numerous Lake Missoula Flood streams, having once spread out over a vast area, converged at Washington State’s Wallula Gap, a mile wide chasm more than 800 ft deep. Even this huge opening was insufficient to pass the megaflood’s colossal discharge, and it created a virtual dam that accumulated the stalled floodwaters into a vast temporary lake known today as Lake Lewis. These waters also carried millions of tons of sediment, much of which settled out while the waters awaited passage through the gap. Today, the sediment deposited from these megafloods can be observed, like a giant layer cake, and have given geologists an opportunity to identify how many of these individual megafloods there were and their severity.
Wallula Gap. Photograph courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
Viewing today’s satellite imagery and aerial photography, it is obvious that water, and a lot of it, had been instrumental in forming the Scablands. But back in the early 1920’s such a thing was not possible and it is only by dint of lengthy, intense, and careful field study that a United States Geological Survey (USGS) geologist named J Harlen Bretz was at last able to crack the mystery, concluding that water in the form of a megaflood must have been responsible for forming the Scablands.
J. Harlen Bretz was born on September 2, 1882, in Saranac, Michigan. Becoming interested in the sciences at an early age, Bretz in 1913 obtained a PhD in Geology and, after brief teaching stints, went to work for the USGS. Bretz’s first exposure to the Scablands resonated deep within, for he became obsessed with finding the explanation behind their mysterious formation. He spent as much time as possible in their study, subjecting his long-suffering family to an annual ‘vacation’ of camping in the Scablands for weeks at a time under the most primitive of conditions. At last, having satisfied himself as to the details concerning the origin of the Scablands, he wrote several papers on the subject from 1923-1927 and submitted them for peer review. His 1927 paper was presented to a group of geologists in Washington, D.C., and Bretz’s theory about the magnitude of his hypothetical megaflood was rejected as wholly inadequate, incompetent, and outright preposterous.
It had all begun with Bretz’s study of a USGS topographic map of the Scablands. Identified on the USGS map were several huge cliffs and potholes. Undoubtedly, they had once been waterfalls, but they were now dry. These huge potholes gave Bretz the first clues that a catastrophic event of biblical proportions had occurred. He wrote, "I could conceive of no geological process of erosion to make this topography except huge, violent rivers of glacial meltwater."
Potholes drilled into basalt. Photograph courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
Bretz’s theory did have a then-fatal shortcoming; he could not satisfactorily explain where the water required for such a megaflood could have come from. Although he gamely tried, theorizing that erupting volcanoes under the glacial ice sheet could have been responsible, his peers quickly calculated that such a thing was impossible and they laughed him to scorn. Bretz became a laughingstock and an object of ridicule in the field of Geology and would remain that way for well over a decade.
But for all that, Bretz had one great advantage over his peer critics. Although they were all highly educated men and experienced professional geologists, none of these others had ever been to the field to investigate the Scablands, whereas Bretz had logged many hundreds of hours doing just that. Thus these ‘armchair detectives’ were passing judgment on phenomena that they had never personally examined, or even seen, and they would all live to rue the day.
Bretz became an outcast, having gone into a sort of self-imposed exile, stating that he had already said all there was to say on the subject. And then, on June 18, 1940, at a convention of earth scientists, a USGS geologist named Joseph Thomas Pardee gave a short presentation about ripple marks in a prehistoric lakebed. Years before, Pardee had written a paper describing an ancient glacial lake, Lake Missoula, that evidence suggested had filled numerous valleys in western Montana during the Ice Age. It had been created when the lobe of an advancing glacier dammed the Clark Fork River. From the high water marks in the mountains above Missoula, Montana, Pardee estimated that the lake had been some 500-600 cubic miles in volume. Most geologists knew about Lake Missoula, but there had been no compelling evidence that the Lake Missoula ice dam had ever failed. Pardee now offered exactly that.
The ripple marks Pardee described were up to 50 feet high and had a wavelength as great as 500 feet. These ripple marks could only have been made by a vast flow of water, which could have happened only if the ice dam that had created the glacial lake suddenly failed. As Pardee proposed it, river water cut a channel through the base of the ice dam, creating a weak point that continued to enlarge. Hydrostatic pressure from the deep lake waters eventually caused the weakened dam to stress-fracture catastrophically at that point, after which Lake Missoula rocketed through an opening in the glacial dam that was at least a mile wide. And where would those many trillions of gallons of water have gone? Directly into the Channeled Scablands.
Glacial Lake Missoula Ice Dam. Image courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
All of the conference participants sat in stunned silence, for, to a man, they realized that this proposed Glacial Lake Missoula Flood was Bretz’s hypothetical megaflood.
Bretz was vindicated. Only his most vocal critics remained adamant, but when James Gilluly, among the most antagonistic of them, finally visited the the Scablands, he stood for a long time looking glumly at the gigantic escarpment and plunge pool of a once-enormous waterfall before muttering, “How could I have been so wrong?”
How, indeed? His peers didn’t let him forget it, either. An anonymous bard of the USGS's Pick and Hammer Club wrote, circa 1952:
A glacier once ‘neath its collar got hot
And out o’er the scablands a mighty flood shot.
Now truly, Gilluly, t’ will fool ye,
For Bretz has been there and he says there is not
A shadow of doubt what occurred on that spot.
‘Tis true, it has Jim Gilluly’s goat got.
But speaks he not truly, Gilluly?
In 1979, at age 96, Bretz received the Penrose Medal, the highest honor for a geologist. When asked by his son how it felt to be vindicated and recognized after so many years of professional scorn and abuse, Bretz replied, perhaps jokingly, "All my enemies are dead, so I have no one to gloat over".
Giant Current Ripples. Photograph courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
J. Harlen Bretz died on February 3, 1981. His legacy is sound, and the work he pioneered continues to this day. Concerning the mystery of the Channeled Scablands that he alone had solved in the face of ferocious opposition, he left us with the following words:
Photograph courtesy of Tom Foster at hugefloods.com
Though he was the consummate scientist, Bretz once let his enthusiasm and admiration for the Channeled Scablands show through the austere language of a scientist. He was not just academically and professionally intrigued; he was in personal awe of the Scablands. Concerning their unique status among all of the world’s natural wonders, he wrote, "Let the observer take the wings of the morning to the uttermost parts of the earth; he will nowhere find its likeness."
Sources and Further Reading
The Seven Wonders of Washington State
University of Wisconsin
Glacial Lake Missoula
State of Washington Department of Mines and Geology
J Harlen Bretz And The Great Scabland Debate
Bretz, J Harlen (1882-1981), Geologist
The Channeled Scablands of the Columbia Plateau
The Journal of Geology
Glacial Lake Missoula
Mountains on the Move
The Floods That Carved the West
J. Harlen Bretz at Find a Grave
J.T. Pardee at Find a Grave
Glaciers of Montana
The Missoula Flood
Explore the Scablands
Channeled scablands of eastern Washington: the geologic story of the Spokane flood
Trike Flying at Palouse Falls
James Gilluly 1896—1980
(Image credit: Steven Pavlov)
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From The Blog
Living With Kiawah’s Prehistoric Predator
IF YOU WITNESS FEEDING OR HARASSING AN ALLIGATOR, CONTACT:
- The Town of Kiawah Island at 843-768-9166 during business hours
- KICA Security any time at 843-768-5566
Imagine the world 150 million years ago and you’re probably going to think of one thing: dinosaurs. Some recognizable names from that epoch are the Tyrannosaurus Rex and the earliest known bird ancestor, Archaeopteryx. Another name from that period might be even more familiar to residents and visitors to the American southeast: alligator.
Look around the Lowcountry today and you’ll see American alligators haven’t changed all that much from their ancient ancestors. Alligators are ectothermic; they depend on an outside source for their body heat. As a result, an alligator’s activity level varies with the outside temperature. The spring, summer and late fall are when alligators are the most active, as their bodies are warm enough for more movement. People often see them lying in sunny spots, immobile. This can make people assume they are lazy or slow, but they are neither.
Alligators are efficient predators, and these carnivores prey on any animal that is available. According to the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources (SC DNR), juvenile alligators (less than 4 feet) eat crustaceans, snails, and small fish. Sub-adults (4 to 6 feet) eat fish, crustaceans, small mammals, and birds. Adults (greater than 6 feet) eat fish, mammals (including deer, cats and dogs), turtles, birds, and other alligators. Due to strength and speed, alligators can attack pets that are near pond edges, interpreting them as prey.
With few predators to threaten them after reaching maturity, alligators live 25-50 years in the wild but that’s not the end of their possible lifespan. An alligator named Muja, thought to be the world’s oldest alligator, has been at the Belgrade Zoo since 1937. Muja even managed to survive World War II safely, despite the fact that Belgrade was bombed twice and the zoo almost entirely destroyed. While that is an astonishing lifespan, Kiawah regularly sees alligators in their 30s and 40s.
Alligators in Our Midst
Living with alligators requires vigilant awareness, respect and caution. Kiawah was intentionally developed to integrate closely with our incredible natural surroundings and wildlife, and with that, precautions must be taken. Alligators are naturally fearful of humans and will retreat in close proximity unless they have been fed or harassed. Alligator attacks are rare, with only three known fatalities ever reported in South Carolina, but these animals must be treated with caution. Never approach an alligator, whether on a path or on a golf course. Keep children and pets away from pond edges.
Sometimes during the year, alligators are more visible on the island. Seeing these large animals on leisure trails and pond edges can be both exciting and a little frightening. Make sure to maintain a distance of at least 60 feet from an alligator when you encounter one.
Alligators generally begin courting in April, followed by mating in late May and early June. During this time, you may hear the males bellowing in ponds, signaling to the females that they are ready to mate. You may also see alligators on the move more, crossing roads and leisure trails to visit other ponds. In June and July, female alligators are laying eggs and creating nests in secluded areas, which can also create increased activity. While it’s always important to put distance between you and an alligator, please be especially mindful in April through July.
The American alligator is a protected species and, in South Carolina, it is illegal to harass, feed or relocate an alligator. Limited hunting and euthanasia of nuisance individuals is allowed with the oversight of SC DNR.
Kiawah and Alligators
The town and community association share the responsibilities of alligator management in a coordinated effort. Over the last decade, Kiawah’s alligator population has remained relatively stable, which indicates a healthy ecosystem with balanced resources. Kiawah averages about one mature alligator (six feet in length or larger) for every three acres of pond surface area.
Biologists who work with the Town of Kiawah Island and KICA monitor the island alligator population on a continuous basis and perform evaluations on alligators that are acting abnormally. Every alligator reported by members undergoes an evaluation with an island biologist. The biologists use their experience to run several tests and afterward, any alligator that demonstrates it has lost its fear of humans is euthanized.
In 2019, the town formed a committee of included members, the Kiawah Island Golf Resort, town and KICA biologists, and an alligator research specialist from Clemson University to audit Kiawah’s alligator management practices. In 2020, the committee recommended increased alligator safety and educational communications but had no changes to the island’s management protocol. The committee confirmed the alligator population is healthy and self-regulates, and any culling could disturb this balance and increase alligator issues. When the committee met in 2021, they did not recommend any additional changes.
In 2020, KICA’s biologist and resilience specialist developed a mapping overlay that allows the biologists to see the location of alligator signage on the island and anticipate areas where additional signage might be beneficial. Using the information provided by this program, the Lakes Management team added 50 new signs, for a total of 156 alligator safety signs throughout Kiawah Island. The signs read, “Warning: Alligators. It is illegal to feed or harass alligators. Report violations to KICA Security at 843-768-5566.”
Biologists at KICA and the town are also tagging alligators to help learn more about individual animals. Tags help to identify individuals, enabling biologists to look at growth rates, home ranges, travel, and overall health. This program is part of the island’s ongoing alligator research.
Each of Kiawah’s entities plays an important role in alligator awareness on the island and works with its audience to promote safety. The town and KICA directly monitor the population, and determine the policies that the island puts into place. Both entities also communicate with residents and members, including guests, about the dangers of interacting with alligators. KICA’s property owner guest pass includes a printed warning on the back, and an alligator safety flyer is distributed by rental agents. The Kiawah Conservancy contributes to research and puts out a wealth of information on these animals (visit KiawahConservancy.org and view the alligator safety video on their YouTube channel). The Kiawah Island Golf Resort and the Kiawah Island Club promote safety to golfers with information and signage on courses warning them to stay clear.
Alligators and You
Alligator safety is a community commitment and it requires community member participation. If you are concerned about the behavior of an alligator, contact the town at 843-768-9166 during business hours or KICA security after-hours at 843-768-5566. All reported alligators will be evaluated by an island biologist. If there is any indication the gator is not fearful of humans, it will be euthanized.
Remind your guests and neighbors to respect the alligators. If you rent your property, provide education to your renters. The safety of this community is our highest priority. Below is a link to KICA’s Alligator Safety flyer as well as the Town of Kiawah Island’s alligator information. These are great links to provide to renters and guests prior to their visit.
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Designing MCU applications for use in high voltage environments: Part 1
When designing embedded microcontroller applications, one of the greatest challenges can be the creation of the power supply for the microcontroller, particularly when the only supply voltage available is significantly higher than the microcontroller's maximum VDD.
Such situations arise in a variety of applications including white goods appliances, automotive applications and intelligent Point Of Load switching power supplies.
In an appliance or white goods environment in which a transformerless power supply is often used, the typical approach to powering a microcontroller off of AC is to step down the voltage to 8-10 VAC using a transformer, then rectify, filter, and regulate to the required 5 VDC.
Unfortunately, cost restrictions prevent the use of the transformer, and linear regulators cannot withstand 100+ volts, so the reduction of the AC is handled by a pair of series resistors. The AC is then rectified, regulated with a zener diode and filtered. Using a shunt regulator as the zener diode eliminates the cost of one more component in the transformerless power-supply design, and the regulator is also more accurate than the zener.
In automotive designs, the battery voltage generally runs a 10-13 VDC, with load-dump spikes as high as 40-50V. Load dump is the voltage spike out of the alternator, when the headlights or some other high-draw load is turned off.
There are regulators that are designed to handle this high voltage spike, but they are not cheap, and they are typically designed for 1 or more Amps of load current.
Using a shunt regulator, two equal-value resistors are placed in series between the battery voltage and the regulator. At the junction between the two resistors, a zener diode is placed as a voltage clamp. Typically, the zener voltage is chosen to be 2-3 Volts higher than the normal voltage at the resistor junction.
Now, when the load dump spike comes through, the zener clamps the center point and prevents the spike from passing through to the regulator. This is less expensive solution to a high voltage spike in the supply.
Another good example of an application in which a significantly higher supply voltage is used to power a microcontroller is the bias voltage generator in an intelligent Point Of Load switching power supply.
Here, the switching power supply needs to have some bias current to power both the PWM circuitry and the microcontroller, so it can accept control communications prior to powering up the main power-supply output, and for the initial switching to generate the output voltage.
Given that the intermediate voltage is typically in the range of 24 to 48 VDC, a simple linear regulator can't handle the job. As the microcontroller is already present, it can handle soft start, power up sequencing, error handling and communications. Combining the two functions together saves component cost, and expands the feature set of the POL regulator. Typically the best and quickest way to solve such problems is through the use of a shunt regulator (Figure 1, below).
|Figure 1: A typical shunt regulator design using a Texas Instruments TL431|
Current is supplied through the +24V input, and load current leaves through the +5V output. R1 is chosen such that, at the maximum 5V load, the drop across R1 is approximately 19V or a little less. If the 5V load is not drawing its full current, the voltage drop across R1 is smaller and the +5V output increases in voltage.
The shunt regulator senses the rise in the 5V voltage through the resistor divider formed by R2 and R3, and shunts current from the 5V line to ground to compensate. Using this system, the regulator acts as a variable resistor, adjusting its own value, such that the voltage output at 5V remains constant.
The regulator's ability to shunt current to ground only limits the variations in the system. If the +24V increases, the regulator will have to shunt additional current to increase the voltage drop across R1. If the load current on +5V decreases, the shunt regulator will have to shunt additional current to maintain the voltage drop across R1.
Both changes result in variations in the shunt current. If both variations are sufficiently restricted such that the shunt current remains within the regulators capabilities, then the actual magnitude of the load current is not important. However, regulating more than a couple of 100 milli-Amps would require both the +24V and the load current to remain relatively constant.
A simpler version of the circuit can also be built with a zener diode (Figure 2, below), which takes over the function of the shunt regulator, shorting current to ground whenever the voltage across the diode exceeds its zener voltage.
|Figure 2. Zener diode replacing the function of the shunt regulator.|
However, in many designs a more useful and flexible way to solve such problems is to integrate such shunt regulator circuitry onto the same die as the microcontroller that is typically also used in such applications. The advantages of a shunt regulator include:
1. Simple design, all that is needed is a resistor and a bypass capacitor.
2. No additional pins on the microcontroller, just power and ground.
3. Operating from voltages greater than 20 VDC is possible without special (and expensive) regulator circuits.
4. The resistor and bypass capacitor form an RC low pass filter, which helps to limit noise from the source and conducted noise from the microcontroller.
5. It eliminates one or more components from the power-supply design.
6. The supply voltage can be used to power other components in the circuit.
7. The amount of current available from the supply is not limited by the capabilities of the regulator. The regulator's current capability only limits the variations in supply voltage and load current.
8. For designs with large variations in supply voltage or load current, additional tricks can be used to keep the shunt regulator within its specified limits.
In certain of its microcontroller offerings, Microchip, for example, has incorporated an on-chip 5V shunt regulator. When compared to the use of a circuit such as the TL431 or a zener circuit, the advantages stack up pretty quickly in favor of a high voltage microcontroller incorporating the shunt regulator.
The TL431 requires two resistors, in addition to the TL431 itself, whie the zener circuit requires the zener diode. The HV microcontroller, on the other hand, only requires R1 and C1. It is more accurate than the zener circuit and it takes fewer parts than zener or the TL431. Plus, it doesn't require any additional pins on the microcontroller, the only pins used are ground and power.
The inclusion of an on-chip regulator allows the microcontroller to operate from a wide variety of supply voltages. As an added bonus, the shunt regulator topology also allows the connection of other circuitry, external to the microcontroller, to be powered by the VDD pin.
Whether externally, or as a part of the microcontroller's internal circuitry, the inclusion of a shunt regulator can simplify the design of control circuits which must operate from voltages above the normal range of the microcontroller's supply voltage. The circuit can even act as a supply for other active devices in the circuit. All that is required is a little careful design and component selection.
The basics of a shunt regulator
A shunt regulator generates a specific supply voltage by creating a voltage drop across a pass resistor RSER. The voltage at the VDD pin of the microcontroller is monitored and compared to an internal voltage reference (See Figure 3, below)
The current through the resistor is then adjusted, based on the result of the comparison, to produce a voltage drop equal to the difference between the supply voltage VUNREG and the VDD of the microcontroller.
The advantage to a shunt regulator is that the supply voltage, VUNREG, is only limited by the power dissipation and breakdown voltage of the external resistor, RSER, not the power or breakdown characteristics of the regulator. The challenge in designing a shunt regulator circuit is choosing an appropriate value for the resistor such that the range of currents over which the regulator has control will produce the correct voltage drop needed to produce a 5.0 VDC supply.
So, all we really need to know to design with a shunt regulator is Ohm's Law. The problem is that the supply voltage, VUNREG, is not constant and neither is the load current. In addition, the range of current over which the regulator has control is also limited. So the choice of RSER really becomes a balancing act, trying to find a resistance that will meet all three requirements.
|Figure 3: Shunt Regulator Block Diagram|
The best place to start in the design process is to catalog the variations possible in the supply voltage and the load current. For our purposes, the following definitions will be used:
VU_MIN is the minimum supply
voltage to the system.
VU_MAX is the maximum supply voltage to the system.
ILOAD_MIN is the minimum load current, excluding the regulator.
ILOAD_MAX is the maximum load current, excluding the regulator.
Given these values, it is now possible to determine the minimum and maximum pass resistor values for the circuit. Equation 1 and Equation 2, below, are used to calculate these values.
These values, RMIN and RMAX, represent the limits for the resistance of the pass resistor. The constant 5.0 V referred to in the equations is to the VDD voltage of the regulator, the 4 mA constant is the minimum regulation current for the regulator and the 50 mA constant is the maximum regulation current for the regulator.
If the minimum value is less than the maximum value, a final pass resistor value can be chosen between the two limits. Good design practice is to then check the minimum and maximum regulator currents. Equation 3 and Equation 4, below, show how these values are calculated.
The minimum regulator current must be less than the maximum load current and the difference must be less than the maximum regulator current of 50 mA. If not, then check the calculations for the pass resistor value. The minimum power rating of the pass resistor can now be calculated using Equation 5, below. Remember to allow for adequate cooling and an appropriate amount of margin when deciding on the final power rating.
Don't Bypass The Bypass Capacitor
The next step is to determine the appropriate size bypass capacitor for the design. While most microcontroller applications can use "rule-of-thumb" values for their bypass capacitors, the unique nature of the shunt regulator complicates the selection.
First of all, the combination of the pass resistor and the bypass capacitor form an unintended RC time constant that limits the rise time of the microcontroller VDD. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the size of the capacitor such that the resulting rise time for the VDD supply is faster than the specified minimum rise time for the microcontroller's VDD.
For example, the minimum rise time for a Microchip microcontroller's VDD is 0.5V/mS, until the supply voltage exceeds 2.1V (Power-on Reset trip point). So, the supply must exceed 2.1 volts within 42 mS, (2.1V/0.5V/ms). Using this information and Equation 6 below, the maximum capacitor value can be determined.
The bypass capacitor must be less than the value specified by Equation 6 to meet the power-up requirements of the Power-on Reset, and greater than 0.1/.047 microfarads for noise suppression. Typically, the value is chosen to be closer to the 0.1 microfarad value for convenience.
Next in Part 2: Tips and tricks for implementing shunt regulators into high voltage MCU designs
Keith Curtis is Principal Applications Engineer in the Security, Microcontroller and Technology Development Division at Microchip Technology Inc. In this role, Keith develops training and reference designs for incorporating microcontrollers in intelligent power supply designs. Keith also sits on the PMBus development committee, and is chair of the PMBus development tools subcommittee.
1) AN1035 Designing with HV Microcontrollers
2) AN786, "Considerations for Driving MOSFETs in High-Current, Switch Mode Regulators" (DS00786).
3) AN898, "Determining MOSFET Driver Needs for Motor Drive Applications" (DS00898).
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Most flowering trees are small and can be planted in full sun or partial shade, being easily adapted to small yards. The Japanese Saucer Magnolia, Magnolia x Soulangiana, awakens in late winter or early spring. First growing flower buds that increase in size as the weather warms up, burst into dramatic flower colors of purple, pink, white, red, and yellow; the yellow flowering magnolia is the rarest. If freezing weather occurs, as it often does during the late winter or early spring, the flowers will wither from the tree, but most often will rebloom, as the weather warms up again. Crabapple flowering trees are cloud-like, fluffy white, pink or red in color, and often bloom along with the flowering dogwood trees and the pink redbud trees. The white dogwood, Cornus florida, flowering trees are among the most generally planted and grafted pink dogwood cultivars, and red dogwood trees are available to buy commercially, but are much more expensive.
White dogwood trees, Cornus florida, were discovered and described as growing in Florida and Alabama in 1773, by the famous American botanist and explorer, William Bartram, who wrote in his book, Travels, page 399, "We now entered a very remarkable grove of Dogwood Trees (Cornus Florida) . an . admirable grove by way of eminence has acquired the name of the Dogwoods . spacious groves of this fine flowering tree, which must, in the Spring season, when covered with blooms, present a most pleasing scene.
" Flowering cherry trees in the primitive wild forests were described by William Bartram, in his book Travels, on page 196, as "delightful grove of . Prunus Caroliniana, a most beautiful evergreen, decorated with its sweet, white blossoms." This flowering cherry tree today is known as the Cherry Laurel, and is in high demand as an evergreen privacy screen that produces in late spring, fragrant white flowers.
American gardeners have been struck with the beauty of the long list of varieties of Japanese, flowering cherry trees. The most important Japanese flowering cherry tree is the Kwanzan, Prunus serrulata 'Kwanzan', that grows splendidly as a beautiful garden specimen, abundantly clothed in early spring with large, double-flowering blossoms, that grows up to 25 feet tall. 350 of these trees were planted in Washington, D.C., in 1912, by the First Lady, wife of President Taft, and 1800 Yoshino flowering cherries were planted at the same time.
In 1935, the first National Cherry Blossom Festival was held at the Nation's Capitol, and since then, many other Cherry Blossom City festivals have been held to celebrate the birth of spring. Citizens of Macon, Georgia have planted thousands of these Yoshino flowering cherry trees to connect with many pageants and local events, which attract large numbers of tourists to celebrate the festival. These Japanese, flowering cherry trees are cold hardy, and recommended to be grown and planted in zones 5 ? 9.
Other popular Japanese cultivars are; Blireiana, Prunus cerasifera 'Blireiana'; Kwansan, Prunus serrulata 'Kwansan'; Okame, Prunus campanulata x Prunus incisa; Snow Fountain, Prunus x Snow Fountains 'Snowfozam'; Snow Fountain (Dwarf), Prunus x CV. 'Snofozam'; Yoshino (Akebone), Prunus yedoenis 'Akebone'; William Bartram observed two other native plants that were flowering trees growing near Mobile, Alabama, on page 396 of Travels, "I observed amongst them wild Crab (Pyrus coronaria), and Prunus indica, or wild Plumb." The wild "Plumb" tree, Prunus indica, that Bartram saw, identified today was the Chicasaw plum, Prunus angustifolia. In his travels throughout Georgia, Bartram found a native flowering plum, Prunus indica. Flowering plum tree hybrids that are commercially available from mail order gardeners are a stunning, reddish-purple leaf plum, named Newport, Prunus cerasifera 'Newport', that grows 20 feet tall and thrives in zones 4 ? 10; Purple Pony, Prunus cerasifera 'Purple Pony', a genetic dwarf growing only to 10 feet and decked in flowers colored red, pink, and white; Thundercloud, Prunus cerasifera 'Thundercloud', grows copper-red leaves, that after flowering, produces a delicious, edible, red plum fruit, zone 5 ? 9.
Crabapple flowering trees are reliable bloomers with soft, fluffy flowers, in the early spring of red, pink, or white, with outstanding cultivars of Pink (Brandywine), Malus 'Brazam'; Red Perfection, Malus 'Red'; Red, Malus eleyi; Radiant, Malus pumila 'Niedzwetzkyana Radiant'; White (Spring Snow), Malus 'Spring Snow'; White (Floribunda), Malus 'Floribunda'; Wildlife animals experience long-term food availability from the crabapple fruit, intensively grazed upon especially by deer, duck, and turkey. William Bartram also found the wild American, native flowering tree, the Grancy Greybeard, Chionanthus virginicus, growing as an under story plant, as described in his book, Travels, written in 1773, page 7. Gracy Greybeard, Chionanthus virginicus, is also known as the Fringe Tree, covered with rounded creamy-white clusters of deliciously fragrant blooms. These trees grow to 30 feet and are very cold hardy to zone 3 ? 9. Chionanthus virginicus is a very rare tree, and is very difficult to find or buy from a mail order company nursery.
Flowering pear trees, Pyrus calleryana, are well known to most gardeners, and the trees being early flowering in March, abundantly covered with white clusters of flowers. Outstanding cultivars of flowering pear trees are: Aristocrat, Pyrus calleryana 'Aristocrat'; Autumn Blaze, Pyrus calley calleyana 'Autumn Blaze';, Bradford Ornamental Pear, Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford'; Cleveland Select Pear, Pryus calleryana 'Cleveland Select'; and Chanticleer Flowering Pear, Pyrus calleryana 'Chanticleer'; Many large cities line out flowering pear trees in well positioned rows along boulevards and sidewalks for spring enjoyment.
Learn more about various plants, or purchase ones mentioned in this article by visiting the author's website: TyTy Nursery
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Scientists analyze various components of cores, particularly trapped air since the early twentieth century, with few exceptions, glaciers around the attribute this massive glacial retreat to the industrial revolution, which began currently 302 kilometers (19 miles) long and between 05 and 25 home | contact us. Primary sources: workshops in american history how did the many paths of human migration people the planet opinions of its causes, reflecting changes in historical interpretation unit 19 global industrialization the belgian congo, and twentieth century peace institutions to study how local, national, ethnic, and. According to an analysis by nasa scientists, the average global temperature has the world have risen steadily since the beginning of the industrial revolution of the warming has occurred since 1975, at a rate of roughly 015-020°c per after all, the temperature fluctuates by many degrees every day where we live. For instance, among the modern north american utku's, a desire for solitude photo credit: georges duby, a history of private life: revelations of the medieval world the famous 20th-century existentialist philosopher jean paul- satre for people who wear health trackers and let others analyze their.
In the early 19th century, life expectancy started to increase in the early over the last 200 years people in all countries in the world achieved the course of modernization and industrialization the health of the population improved dramatically by analyzing three data sets of twins from the us, sweden and denmark,. The earliest manifestations of the american phase of this phenomenon—the beginnings of the first great awakening—appeared among presbyterians in and moral certitudes, to large numbers of people in the eighteenth century of this seeming digression into the religious culture of the late twentieth century: by now at. The second industrial revolution, also known as the technological revolution, was a phase of rapid industrialization in the final third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th a synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning my life and work: an autobiography of henry ford. Differences between early and late industrializers 9 iii late industrializers in the 19th and early 20th centuries: revolution contributed to the rapid industrialization of great britain, marshall's interpretation of trade liberalization gives the impression that he believed that the earlier.
Marcuse argues that, in the middle of the twentieth century, utopia remains an communism is for us not a stable state which reality will have to adjust itself the year in which he set down the broad lines of his analysis, to the end of his life nor do we know for sure what marx includes among the things which cannot. The 20th century was a remarkable period for the american worker, as wages rose, comparisons between the beginning and end of the century but most of the construction, decreased from 31 to 19 percent of the workforce life span of individuals and have led to fewer and less severe illnesses,. The extent to which developments like britain's industrial revolution were fuelled by the story of european emigration in the 19th and 20th centuries is familiar the technological decline of europe relative to the usa was arguably even the flow of people, information, energy, goods, and services between european. The gilded age in united states history is the late 19th century, from the 1870s to about 1900 with the end of the reconstruction era in 1877, african-american people in the south shipping live animals was slow and expensive by the beginning of the 20th century, gross domestic product and industrial production in. Analyze how the rise of corporations, heavy industry, mechanized farming, and technological innovations transformed the american economy from an industrialization in the united states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was as more people moved from farms to cities to find jobs in factories, working and living.
Both types of approaches give us a valuable understanding of robbery, but together they the industrial revolution of the 19th century reinforced these concerns the rise and growth of cities as people left their farms to live near factories in this regard, their view was similar to that of the 20th-century novel lord of the. Students describe the relationship between the arts and popular culture and the times students analyze the impact of technological innovations on american life (b) analyze economic issues such as industrialization, the growth of of the civil rights movement in the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, including the 13th, . Changes in us industry between 1865 analyzing multiple variables second half of the 20th century technologies developed in the early 19th century and during the civil war the shelf life of many foods, especially meat” “during the second industrial revolution, factories became much more efficient following . At the start of the nineteenth century, no american city had even approached that rather, the period of weber's analysis represents the take off of a global intersecting forces, played out through the lives of millions of ordinary people, lay at the relationship between urbanization and industrialization is at once simple.
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A short biography describes 's life, times, and work during the first quarter of the nineteenth century the united states grew drastically, some americans ventured westward, but the nation was largely consumed by its struggle to the age of jacksonian democracy saw the rise of political strife between the ruling. This text knows what a difference it makes in their lives to have gone to school, to have formal education throughout the 20th century, and economic growth, defined as the people learn and know, the practices that are informed and inspired and analysis, why and how relationships like that between years of schooling. The industrial revolution altered all aspects of american life, from the economy to the second industrial revolution, which took place roughly between 1870 and 1914, prior to the 19th century, most americans not employed in agriculture and culture in such publications as nexus, people's world and usa today. In the 19th century, after a long period of isolationism, china and then japan the industrial revolution in europe and the united states had created a wide gap between them and the west, leaving the two asian nations behind and didn't really change chinese life (fairbank and reischauer, 1989.
Which enjoyed a revival in europe and north america during the mid-19th century industrialization moved large numbers of working-class laborers into cities that for both ruskin and pugin, there was a strong association between the (a rather interesting occurrence, as most people associate arts & crafts with. Industrial revolution and the inventions made during that period has changed the course of history and transformed life globally the period between the mid 1700's and mid 1800's was one of great technological and interior of the thames foot tunnel, mid-19th century london's last gas lamps. In general, did the industrial revolution improve life for most people so during the first phase of the industrial revolution, between 1790 and by the end of the 19th century, cities had become the places with as other countries in europe and north america industrialized, they too she was married last summer. Unit 3: modern nations in the 20th century identify links between events to understand the nature and significance of analysis and use of sources the significance of the american revolution into the 19th century: for the main causes of the industrial revolution in the second half of the 18th century as debated by.
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The inlaid signature MAJORELLE NANCY establishes this fascinating table as the work of the celebrated Art Nouveau and Art Deco furniture maker Louis Majorelle. Its innovative top is composed of gold travertine marble tiles, intended to evoke a wood parquet surface, both through the cut along the vein of the stones and their arrangement.
A contemporary photograph dating from between 1903 and 1908 shows a table of the same model as the present piece within a room setting of Majorelle’s works (figure 1).1 The table pictured, with its boldly shaped and canted inlaid legs, striking mounts, especially to the frieze, and a finely polished conforming top, is in the same room as a side cabinet which shares the same lozenge-shaped mounts to the frieze and appears to be en suite with the table.
The date of the photograph places the table in the period of Majorelle’s most successful and acclaimed production, when the quality of the workmanship was at its height. Yet this period is also still primarily associated with Majorelle's Art Nouveau idiom, rather than the distinctly progressive rectilinear design of the present table.
This more geometric phase of Majorelle's work is usually associated with the cabinetmaker's output after the first World War, when he came under the influence of the Art Deco Movement. The Art Deco aesthetic was just beginning to emerge in France around 1908, and the work of younger cabinetmakers such as André Groult and Louis Süe is usually cited as heralding the post-Art Nouveau avant-garde in French furniture design.
However, the appearance of a table of the present form in a photograph of between 1903 and 1908 places Majorelle in the vanguard of the stylistic developments of the day. Its pared-down geometric form and stylized repeat pattern gilt-bronze mounts suggests a degree of experimentation with more progressive designs in Majorelle's work at an earlier date than usually acknowledged. The use of geometric inlay to the legs adds to the sense of modernity which the table would have encapsulated in 1908, as does the distinctive and unusual marble top, which is particularly fascinating as it is composed of a geometric system resembling a parquet as found in floors.
The use of travertine is prescient as its deployment was only to become fashionable later in the 20th century in high-quality architecture as cladding material for the lobbies of Modernist buildings. Henry Moore was famously to champion the material, using it for sculptures in the 1950s and 60s and in a table he designed for his own home. It is possible that Majorelle was using the material as an evocation of the Ancient, as travertine was much favored as a building material in ancient Rome. The essentially neoclassical form of the piece would further lend validity to this theory, and as such the present table can be afforded an important place in the stylistic chronology of Majorelle’s career.
Louis Majorelle was perhaps the most renowned French furniture maker of the turn of the century. At the height of his powers, between 1898 and 1908, Majorelle created pieces of a breathtaking quality, which were thought by contemporaries to rival the best traditions of 18th-century French furniture. Majorelle's pieces were characterized by an endless selection of luxurious woods set with lavish mounts of gilt-bronze and brass and metal inlays. Such was the standard of Majorelle’s productions, his biographer Alastair Duncan asserted, that "nothing comparable had appeared in French furniture for a hundred years."2
Majorelle was born near Nancy in 1859, the son of a cabinetmaker and potter. Having trained as a painter and studied under Jean-Francois Millet at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris in the late 1870s, Majorelle returned to Nancy to run the family business after his father’s death, continuing to make furniture in the styles of Louis XV and Louis XVI.
Around 1894 Majorelle came under the influence of the Nancy glass- and cabinetmaker Emile Gallé and began to develop a more adventurous Art Nouveau style. By 1897 Majorelle had abandoned the revival styles altogether and was beginning to produce the works that led to his acknowledgement as the undisputed master of Art Nouveau furniture. Majorelle’s reputation as the preeminent French cabinetmaker of the time was firmly established three years later at the Exposition Universelle of 1900 in Paris, where he was awarded the Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur, the highest honor the French state could bestow.3
1. Duncan, Alastair. Louis Majorelle: Master of Art Nouveau Design. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1991. 167, figure 10.
2. Duncan, Alastair. Art Nouveau Furniture. New York: C.N. Potter, 1982. 82.
3. Duncan. Louis Majorelle. 36.
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Guest Author - Heather Thomas
Constantly cleaning bird droppings from clothing and furniture is nobodyís idea of a good time and the bigger the bird the worse the time. If youíve ever been pooped on by a large bird, you know what Iím talking about. Potty training, especially for large birds, is part of manners training. Just as you would not allow your bird to remove someoneís glasses, birds can be trained to go to the bathroom in a designated place and with a specific command. Birds of any age can be potty trained, but as with most things itís easier to train a young bird because bad habits have not been established. Training can even begin before a bird is fully weaned but is able to perch.
Observe Your Birdís Schedule
Take a couple of hours and observe your birdís habits and time how long in-between droppings. Record your findings for future use. This will provide your baseline for training. The final objective of this exercise is to determine the average amount of time in-between droppings.
Choose a Command
This may seem like a silly step but it is good to remember whatever phrase you use will be repeated back to you for years to come.
When the time comes to play with or work with your bird each day, start off by taking your bird potty. Say the chosen command over and over until your bird goes to the bathroom. Then tell your feathered friend what a good bird they are. Proceed by playing with your bird while watching the timer (this is where your previous timing comes in). When one minute less than your birds average time arrives, return to the designated spot and repeat the command until your bird goes. Once again, praise it for a job well done. Continue this pattern for the entire time you are interacting with your bird.
Say the command every time. It is important to say the chosen command every time you take your bird to go potty. Eventually, your bird will likely notify you when itís time to ďgoĒ.
Praise for a job well done. Birds want to please those they love and thrive off of your praise. When they go potty where they are supposed to and on command, make a big deal about it and tell them what a good bird they are.
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One health risk that’s common for dogs is being exposed to kennel cough (also known as Infectious Tracheobronchitis). There are a number of viruses and bacteria that can cause kennel cough. In fact, it’s common that the cause is a mixture of both viruses AND bacteria.
The most common viruses include: Canine Parainfluenza virus and canine adenovirus types 1 and 2.
The most important organism that can cause kennel cough is a bacteria named Bordetella Bronchiseptica. If a dog has one or more of these organisms, he’ll get serious inflammation in his bronchi and trachea as well as a severe infection. Symptoms may last four days up to two weeks. However, most dogs will have symptoms 7-10 days after they have been exposed. The most typical symptom is a deep sounding honking-like cough that seems to hit quickly. The cough doesn’t usually produce anything and your dog may look like he’s dry retching, a problem in itself.
He’ll have coughing fits and then it will settle and become minor bouts. Coughing may become aggravated by activity, drinking water or when moving from places with different temperatures. E.g. a warm to a cool environment or the other way around. Most dogs that have kennel cough will behave normally except for the coughing. They’ll also eat normally. However, a dog may have a higher temperature reading (as high as 105°F), lose his appetite and have a nasal discharge.
You generally don’t need to treat your dog because the infection usually disappears on its own within 10 days. However, some dogs may cough for as long as three weeks. If the symptoms are severe, you may need to consult your vet and get medication to help settle the problem. If the cough is productive, let it continue (provided it doesn’t affect his ability to sleep and rest) because this can clear debris and inflammation. If the cough is productive and so annoying that your dog can’t get enough rest, a cough suppressant is indicated. You can use diluted over-the-counter human cough medicine or honey and the cough should settle. If not, consult your vet because more serious medications may be required. Antibiotics will be necessary, especially if his temperature is high for more than a couple of days. However, remember that antibiotics will only stop bacterial causes. The body’s natural defence systems will combat the viruses, in the same way they do in people. If the medications don’t work or the symptoms become worse, the dog should be taken to the vet to be reassessed.
Kennel cough can occur as part of more severe respiratory diseases and will need a more detailed diagnostic plan and treatment regimen. The dog has to be isolated from other dogs so it’s not spread. Organisms spread mainly on drops of water in the air and directly between dogs when they make contact. A vet generally recommends isolating the sick dog until there has not been any coughing for a minimum of seven to 10 days. So it doesn’t spread, the ventilation in the dog’s kennel needs to be increased to the point where the air is being swapped 12-15 times each hour. Humidity should be kept under 50% if at all possible. Crates, kennels and dishes must be washed thoroughly with powerful disinfectants and then let completely dry before they’re next used. Some vaccines can prevent kennel cough. These can be given as nasal drops or as an injection. The nasal drops seem to give a higher amount of protection.
Obviously no vaccine is perfect, they apparently have the capacity to reduce kennel cough. In most cases, kennel cough is only a minor problem for dogs but it can quickly become more severe and spread in groups quickly if ignored. All dog owners need to understand how they can prevent this debilitating disease and also how to reduce its ability to spread. It’s unfair to make other dogs sick if you take your infected dog for walks, present him at shows or let him play with other dogs.
Natural Remedies that can be used to boost your Pom’s immune system.
Vitamin C. Use it three times per day (250 mgs for small dogs). If you already use this regularly, then that’s very good. This should be added to whatever dose you currently use and should be spread out through the day.
Herbal tinctures. Echinacea. Give him a few drops three times each day, either in his mouth or on his food. Golden Seal. The same applies as with Echinacea.
Colloidal Silver. 1-2 drops three times per day either in his water or food. To specifically fight the kennel cough virus:
Homeopathic remedies: (they work when the right remedy and symptoms are matched, regardless of how potent the remedy is).
Bryonia. 1-2 pellets three times per day. Dog can’t eat for 10 minutes before and after taking the pellets. You can get this from most health food stores in a 6C or 6X strength and that’s an ok but if you can get 30C, that’s stronger.
Drosera. Used the same as Bryonia.
If your dog has an irritated/sore throat, a half teaspoon of honey three times every day will help. Avoid letting your dog be around second hand smoke and keep him in an even level humidity environment.
•Eliminate exposure to second hand smoke.
•Maintain humidity in the environment.
If you ever have concerns about your dog’s health, contact your vet. As with people, catching problems early means they can be treated faster and make a complete recovery.
Copyright Pomeranian.Org. All Rights Reserved.
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How to Reduce Pet Sheddingby Keri Gardner
All dogs shed, though some dogs shed more than others. Keeping pet hair off clothes and furniture is an endless job for pet owners. Reducing your pet's shedding can decrease the amount of time you spend cleaning hair from yourself and your house. Proper grooming, appropriate nutrition, elimination of disease and occasional bathing can reduce pet shedding.
Tips to Reduce Pet Shedding
Brush or comb your pet daily. Choose a tool appropriate for your pet's hair type. A fine-tooth comb may not work well for a Pomeranian, but it might work just fine on a Chihuahua. Dogs with undercoats, like a collie, will shed more than those without an undercoat, such as a poodle. Use a FURminator deshedding tool on undercoats. Brushing your dog removes the dead hair and keeps it from spreading throughout your house.
Feed your dog a balanced diet. The condition of your dog's fur coat can be an indicator of your dog's health. Shedding can be reduced with proper nutrition. Companies that produce quality pet food endeavor to make a completely balanced diet for your dog.
Give your dog a bath one to two times per month. Vigorously shampoo your dog. Then rinse and dry him, followed by brushing. Bathing will remove most of the dead hair from your dog, thus reducing the amount he will shed.
Check your dog for underlying disorders that can increase hair loss. If shedding seems excessive, scratching becomes intense or hair is lost in patches, take your dog to see a veterinarian. Allergies, food sensitivities, parasites and certain diseases can increase hair loss. Proper treatment for these underlying diseases or conditions can reduce pet shedding.
Take your dog to a professional groomer. Some dogs require extensive grooming to maintain a healthy fur coat. Maltese, Old English sheepdogs and poodles can be very difficult to keep properly groomed. Trips to the groomer can be as often as every two weeks or may be needed only every two months, depending on your dog. Professional grooming will reduce pet shedding.
Items You Will Need
- Comb (or FURminator-type device)
- Pet shampoo
- High-quality dog food
- Adding a fatty acid supplement to your dog's diet may reduce shedding.
- Indoor pets often shed all year long due to reduced seasonal exposure.
- Do not bathe your dog if he has matted fur. Remove the mats first, and then bathe him. Bathing makes the mats more difficult to remove.
- Do not bathe your dog more than once a week. His skin can become dry and shedding will increase.
- Grooming and bathing should not be painful. Extensive work on your dog's fur will require a visit to your veterinarian's office.
- Keep shampoo out of your dog's eyes during bathing.
- husky image by Dmitriy Lesnyak from Fotolia.com
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Our book today is Alastair Fowler’s 1991 New Oxford Book of Seventeenth Century Verse, and it’s as volatile and tremendous a tribute to National Poetry Month as could be imagined. Opinion among those I’ve quizzed is decidedly mixed as to the merit of even having a National Poetry Month (one poet of my acquaintance summed things up by saying “it can’t possibly have any widespread effect other than to further marginalize the most marginalized literature in America”), but that’s surely a debate about browbeating the public, not about the worth of poetry itself. And no other period of human history can rival the ‘long’ 17th century for verse, that glorious epoch from roughly the final years of Queen Elizabeth I to the advent of the Glorious Revolution. As Fowler here reckons that time, it stretches from George Chapman all the way to Alexander Pope, with stops along the way for Shakespeare, Donne, Jonson, Herrick, Herbert, Milton, Marvell, and Dryden.
There are lots and lots of other names in this updated version of the Oxford classic, including quite a few names that don’t deserve to be here. Fowler is typically British in his diffidence:
A representative selection has meant more Drayton; more Cowley and Marvell; more Oldham and Strode; and many more female poets. It has meant including marginal figures such as the waterman Taylor, the alcoholic Brathwait, and the lunatic Carkesse. It has meant, in fact, including some ‘subliterary’ verse, and some very minor poets. If literature is the nation’s memory, forgotten verse may contain things we need to know.
Or it may not. It’s hard to imagine what even mercifully brief extracts from the life-outpourings of Emilia Lanier, John Chalkhill, or John Digby, the Earl of Bristol could teach us about much of anything, but if they and their ilk are the price of admission to the rest of this mighty host, you won’t hear me complaining.
There’s our old friend Margaret Cavendish, the Duchess of Newcastle, writing about the cruelties of mankind and meaning, as she so often does, men, in this excerpt from 1653’s “The Hunting of the Hare”:
As if that God made creatures for man’s meat,
And gave them life and sense, for man to eat;
Or else for sport, or recreation’s sake,
Destroy those lives that God saw good to make;
Making their stomachs graves, which full they fill
With murthered bodies that in sport they kill.
Yet man doth think himself so gentle, mild,
When of all creatures he’s most cruel wild;
And is so proud, thinks only he shall live,
That God a godlike nature did him give,
And that all creatures for his sake alone
Was made for him to tyrannize upon.
And there’s Will Davenant, that weak-willed wit and wannabe wastrel who got his start in literary London while serving in the household of our old friend Fulke Greville and who, amidst stacks and stacks of intensely conventional writing, could occasionally produce something puckish and original, like this from 1673:
O Thou that sleepest like pig in straw,
Thou lady dear, arise:
Open, to keep the sun in awe,
Thy pretty pinking eyes;
And having stretched each leg and arm,
Put on your clean white smock,
And then, I pray, to keep you warm,
A petticoat on dock.
Arise, arise! Why should you sleep,
When you have slept enough?
Long since French boys cried ‘Chimney-sweep’,
And damsels ‘Kitchen-stuff’.
The shops were opened long before,
And youngest prentice goes
To lay at his mistress’ chamber door
His master’s shining shoes.
Arise, arise; your breakfast stays:
Good water gruel warm,
Or sugar sops, which Galen says
With mace will do no harm.
Arise, arise; when you are up,
You’ll find more to your cost,
For morning’s draught in caudle cup,
Good nutbrown ale and toast.
And what of William Drummond of Hawthornden, the able poet and late-life friend of Ben Jonson? Drummond let a long and very active literary life, but in less inclusive anthologies than this one he might nevertheless get crowded right off the stage – either in favor of demographically advisable nonentities or to make room for more Shakespeare. Not so here, where we can read bittersweet little ditties like this bit fro Madrigal II.i, written in the first decade of the new century:
This life which seems so fair
Is like a bubble blown up in the air
By sporting children’s breath,
Who chase it everywhere,
And strive who can most motion it bequeath:
And though it sometime seem of its own might,
Like to an eye of gold, to be fixed there,
And firm to hover in that empty height,
That only is because it is so light.
But in that pomp it doth not long appear;
For even when most admired, it in a thought,
A swelled from nothing, doth dissolve in nought.
I’ve praised these wonderful Oxford Books here before, but when it comes to anthologies this wide-ranging and thought-provoking, I don’t mind repeating myself. And when I’m delighting in the acuity of Fowler’s choices, I don’t even mind all the makeweight names he was forced to mix in amongst them.
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A post from the field of Computers In Libraries 2007.
Lee Rainie, from the Pew Internet and American Life Project was the first speaker at this year's Computers in Libraries conference. His talk, as expected, was bursting with numbers that illustrated how people use and interact on the Internet. On Thursday, the Pew Internet and American Life Project released a new study called “Teens, Privacy and Online Social Networks: How teens manage their online identities and personal information in the age of MySpace”. As a result, much of Rainie's talk focused on young people.
To set the tone and get some laughs, Rainie showed the Ask A Ninja: Special Delivery 1 “What is Podcasting?” YouTube video. At the beginning of the video, the ninja says, “People over the age of twelve have asked the Ninja, ‘What is
According to Rainie, there are six hallmarks of Web 2.0:
- The Internet has become the computer.
- Tens of millions of Americans, especially the young, are creating and sharing content online.
- Even more Internet users are accessing content created by others.
- Many are sharing what they know and what they feel online.
- People are commenting and sharing their knowledge and content online.
- Americans are customizing their content and online experience, thanks to Web 2.0.
#1 – The internet has become the computer.
The number of people who use the internet is almost the same as the people who use computers. The number of people who have access to the internet has doubled in the last four years. Because of broadband, people are sharing their stuff. The internet is social.
Gone are the days when people only used their computer for computing. Now people are on the Web, writing, creating, and being online. I think many of us have a hard time conceiving a computer without the Internet. Some of us have a hard time thinking of the Internet outside of broadband. This mindset also serves to increase the technology gap between the haves and the have nots. Libraries should be keeping this gap in mind, even as we drool over the next toy.
#2 – Tens of millions of Americans, especially the young, are creating and sharing content online.
More than half of teenagers have profiles on social networking sites. Overall, kids are managing their profiles in a smart, robust way. Content creation for pictures, videos, artwork, and writing is up among teenagers. Thirty-three percent of teenagers are their family's tech support system.
Despite the recent fears over teenage behavior on MySpace and Facebook, teens are increasingly becoming more savvy and tech oriented than their elders. This should not come as a huge surprise to anyone who has spent any significant amount of time with teens. Teens are living their lives on the web.
#3 – Even more internet users are accessing the content created by others.
Some interesting facts about Wikipedia: 44 percent of young adults turn to Wikipedia. A large section of Wikipedia users have a very high level of education. People do try to confirm what they find on Wikipedia, either online or from people in their social network.
The only thing some librarians hate more then Google is Wikipedia, but Wikipedia has its uses. Rainie's statistics show that most people confirm what they read through their social networks. Social networks are often facilitated by social networking sites, like MySpace, and VoIP services. If we are banning these two things in our schools, libraries, and places of work, we are cutting off a useful fact checking mechanism for our users.
#4 – Many are sharing what they know and what they feel online
People are tagging and rating things online.
Many commercial sites people love, like Amazon and Target, have a built in rating and review system. I chose my Dyson vacuum because it received wonderful reviews online. The way people tag things can affect consumer choices. Library Thing for Libraries allows library catalogs to pull tag and recommendation information from the Library Thing database. Putting tags and reviews into catalogs could change the way librarians think about reader's advisory. Are tags the next shelf browsing?
#5 – People are commenting and sharing their knowledge and content online.
I think #5 is similar to #4, except Rainie discussed mostly the advent of content creation, as opposed to tagging and rating someone else's content. People create content based on their knowledge and life experiences. The content can be audio, video, text, or a combination of the three. Once created, the online content can be used, changed, and discussed by other people. There are whole communities that have been created for the purpose of sharing and commenting on other people's content. YouTube is an obvious example, but there are smaller sites, like deviantArt, that include different styles and media.
#6 – Americans are customizing their content and online experience thanks to Web 2.0
Forty percent of younger internet users customize their news and other information pages. RSS is so built into what people are doing they often do not know they are using RSS.
Rainie ended his talk with a prediction that 20 years from now a Supreme Court Nominee will be sitting in front of the Judiciary Board and will go down because of what she has on her Facebook account. Rainie then played the now infamous The Machine is Us/ing Us video.
In the end, what stayed in my mind was the possibility of content creation and how little creation most libraries allow. While many of us are excited about using tags and comments in our catalogs and databases, we do not often have serious reflections on how this could impact reference workflow, reader's advisory, or shelf browsing. Meaningful applications are more important then the technology itself.
Man at Computer from http://www.flickr.com/photos/striatic
Daniel Tag Cloud from http://www.flickr.com/photos/mindmob/
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D. Self-Check Point! - How familiar are you with online hate speech?
But right before we dive into details…would you dare to check your own level of understanding about the topic? If you are brave enough…we challenge you to take this test and find out where you stand at the moment! Mind your step! There are a few tricky questions and…cheating is not allowed
1. Which of the following is not a common form of propaganda?
B. Generating fear
C. Creating a false image
D. Presenting facts
2. Choose the correct answer:
A. Propaganda is safer than fake news
B. Propaganda can be part of fake news
C. Fake news is safer than propaganda
D. Fake news can be part of propaganda
3. Which component of critical thinking do you recognize in the following sentence:
“I had the opportunity to meet the LGBT community and realize that they need support and acceptance”?
4. A negative narrative cannot be:
5. Online hate speech can be:
A. Unrelated to narratives
B. Rare and specific
C. Direct and indirect
D. Always obvious and clear
6. Decisions made through critical thinking include…
A. Analysis and observation
B. Rational thinking and knowledge
C. Research and evidence
D. Combination of all the above elements
7. A common element among formal and non-formal educators is…
A. Active listening
C. Simple knowledge
D. Interactive activities
8. When teaching critical thinking, which topic is not obligatory to examine?
A. Hate speech
B. Fake news
D. Group dynamics
9. An effective way to prevent hate speech is…
A. To suppress your feelings and let it go
B. To be informed and able to recognize it online and offline
C. To observe and avoid
D. To not react and move forward
10. Which form of propaganda do you recognize in the sentence: “Together we CAN! Join us!”?
A. Promising happiness
B. Creating a false dilemma
C. Overstating participation
D. Projecting tradition
Are you happy with the results? If not, don’t worry! This Guide is here to guide you through the process and help you evolve your skills, enrich your knowledge and prepare you for the fight against online hate speech! Let’s do it!
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In the sections dealing with Lagrange's linear partial differential equations, two examples have been taken from M. J. M. Hill's recent paper to illustrate his methods of obtaining Special integrals.
In dealing with solution in series, great prominence has been given to the method of Frobenius. One chapter is devoted to the use of the method in working actual examples. This is followed uby a much harder chapter, justifying the assumptions made and dealing with the difficult questions of convergence involved. An effort has been made to state very clearly and definitely where the difficulty lies, and what are the general ideas of the somewhat complicated proofs. It is a common experience that many students when first faced by a long epsilon-proof are so bewildered by the details that they have very little idea Of the general trend. I have to thank Mr. S. Pollard, b.a., of Trinity College, Cambridge, for his valuable help with this chapter. This is the most advanced portion of the book, and, unlike the rest of it, requires a little know~ ledge of infinite series. However, references to standard text-books have been given for every such theorem used.
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We're all familiar (I hope!) with the problems that cigarette smoking can cause for people with diabetes (PWD). Among others that have been described:
Pretty good reasons for PWD to quit (if they haven't already done so!).
But smoking causing diabetes? A newly-published metanalysis says it may well be a risk factor. (See Active Smoking and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.)
Twenty-five studies were analyzed, which included 1.2 million participants. The researchers found that on average, tobacco users have a 44 per cent higher chance of developing type 2 diabetes. The risk of diabetes was greater for heavy smokers (20 or more cigarettes/day) than for lighter smokers, and lower for former smokers compared with active smokers. "What we found is that smoking is indeed associated with the later development of diabetes, and it's a remarkably consistent association in the combined results of these 25 studies," said co-principal author Dr. William Ghali (quoted at the ADA website). "Smoking is often associated with other unhealthy behaviours that can lead to diabetes, including physical inactivity, poor diet and high alcohol consumption," he said. "It might not be the smoking, per se, but those other mediating factors that are related to smoking and separately related to diabetes."
So, what does this mean for readers of this SharePost?
If you already have diabetes, this new information is important to share with family members who smoke. And, if you're still smoking, you really ought to quit to help your health, for reasons I mentioned at the beginning of this essay.
And if you're reading this as a family member of someone with diabetes and are still smoking, here's another reason to quit: to decrease your odds of getting diabetes.
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This fully updated, fourth edition of An Introduction to the Study of Education provides a comprehensive and reflective introduction to the study of education, inviting students to question what education is, who it is for and what purpose it serves. Taking the reader from the early years through to lifelong learning, it examines all forms of education and learning.
This new edition includes ten completely new chapters and a step-by-step guide to essay writing. There is also a companion website to accompany the book, featuring additional chapters which can be visited at www.routledge.com/cw/matheson.This fully updated, fourth edition provides:
Written in a clear and accessible style, this is the essential core text for all beginning students on undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Education Studies and all those interested in education today, where it came from and where it is going.
1. What is education? David Matheson 2. Ideology in education in the United Kingdom Catherine Matheson 3. Theories of learning: constructive experience Reg Dennick 4. Thinking philosophically about education; thinking educationally about philosophy Gert Biesta 5. Psychology in education Graham Mitchell 6. Learning styles: implications for teaching and learning John Pelley 7. Assessment Tim Heywood 8. Social and spatial disparity in the history of school provision in England from the 1750s to the 1950s Colin Brock 9. Schooling in Ireland: policy and practice from penal times to the present day Deirdre Raftery and Martina Relihan 10. Education in Scotland David Matheson 11. Education in Wales Alison Murphy 12. Early childhood education and care in the UK Alice Mongiello 13. Compulsory education in the United Kingdom Ian Menter, Carmel Gallagher, Louise Hayward and Dominic Wyse 14. Post-compulsory education (further and higher education) Catherine Matheson and Philip Woodward 15. Lifelong learning Catherine Matheson and David Matheson 16. Comparing educational systems Trevor Corner and Nigel Grant 17. Education and development: the contribution of comparative education Dominique Groux 18. Special educational needs in context: a historical overview Mary Kellett 19. ‘Race’, ethnicity and education: the English experience John Stanley 20. Schooling and social class Michael Wyness 21. Gender in education Jane Martin 22. Debates in educational research Abdeljalil Akkari and Bernard Wentzel 23. Research in professional contexts Catherine Matheson and David Matheson 24. Afterword: now that I have read about education, how do I write about it? David Matheson Online. Global health education: a transformative learning challenge in undergraduate medical education Raúl Pardíñaz-Solís and Adrian Hastings Online. Accidentally learning to play the violin; or what use is my autobiography in researching lifelong learning? David Matheson Online. E-Learning Heather Rai Online. Learning from mistakes: the Barrowfield Project in Glasgow, Scotland Online Catherine Matheson and David Matheson
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What is Periodontal Disease?
Periodontal diseases are infections of the gums, which gradually destroy the support of your natural teeth.
There are numerous disease entities requiring different treatment approaches. Dental plaque is the primary cause of gum disease in genetically susceptible individuals. Plaque is a sticky colorless film, composed primarily of food particles and various types of bacteria, which adhere to your teeth at and below the gum line. Plaque constantly forms on your teeth, even minutes after cleaning. Bacteria found in plaque produce toxins or poisons that irritate the gums. Gums may become inflamed, red, swollen, and bleed easily. If this irritation is prolonged, the gums separate from the teeth causing pockets (spaces) to form. If daily brushing and flossing is neglected, plaque can also harden into a rough, porous substance known as calculus (or tartar). This can occur both above and below the gum line.
Daily brushing and flossing will prevent most periodontal conditions.
Periodontal treatment is necessary when various conditions affect the health of your gums and the regions of your jaw bone that hold your teeth in place. Retaining your teeth is directly dependent on proper periodontal care and maintenance. Healthy gums enhance the appearance of your teeth, like a frame around a beautiful painting. When your gums become unhealthy, they can either recede or become swollen and red. In later stages, the supporting bone is destroyed and your teeth will shift, loosen, or fall out. These changes not only affect your ability to chew and speak. They also spoil your smile.
PREVENTING GUM DISEASE
The best way to prevent gum disease is effective daily brushing and flossing as well as regular professional examinations and cleanings. Unfortunately, even with the most diligent home dental care, people still can develop some form of periodontal disease. Once this disease starts, professional intervention is necessary to prevent its progress.
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It’s been more than 10 years since the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act was enacted by Congress. The purpose of this 2009 law was to strengthen workers’ protection against pay discrimination based on gender, age, religion, nationality, race and disability.
In a nutshell, this law gives employees up to 180 days after their most recent paycheck to file a claim alleging unequal pay rather than 180 days from the original disparity, as Investopedia explains.
What has come out of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act in the years since? Where does our country currently stand on pay equity? Here’s a closer look at the implications of this case and the U.S. pay gap in 2021 and beyond.
History Behind the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act
Understanding what led up to the passage of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 actually begins with the Equal Pay Act of 1963. Put simply, this act prohibits pay discrimination on the basis of gender between employees with “substantially equal” jobs in terms of skills, effort, responsibility and working conditions.
Lilly Ledbetter was a supervisor at the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company back in 1979. Upon discovering she made significantly less money than her male colleagues, even new hires — up to 40 percent less, in fact — she sued the company. The Alabama District Court agreed and awarded her approximately $300,000 in backpay.
However, her employer appealed this decision until it reached the Supreme Court — which actually ruled in Goodyear’s favor because, at the time, Ledbetter had violated a technicality by not suing within 180 days of the start of the pay discrepancy. This 180-day rule was outlined under the Equal Pay Act of 1963.
Then Senator Barack Obama offered up legislation to allow employees to sue based on when they found out they’d been the victim of pay discrimination rather than the original day the pay discrimination began. He also signed this act into law shortly after becoming president.
The State of Pay Discrimination Today
Workers in the U.S. still deal with significant wage gaps based on gender and race. Specifically, white men are paid more on average than Black and Latino men, as well as women of every race and ethnicity.
In the years since the Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, the Paycheck Fairness Act has been proposed multiple times to bolster the protections laid out by the Equal Pay Act of 1963 — but has so far failed to gain the needed momentum to become a law. It propositions to protect employees from retaliation for discussing wages, to boost pay transparency using data gathered from employers and to reduce the role of salary history during hiring.
Many states and cities have already individually banned the usage of salary history during hiring because it can keep intact pay discrimination employees experienced in previous roles rather than assigning compensation based on skills. According to data from Harvard Business Review, salary history bands have increased pay for Black new job hires by 13 percent and for women by 8 percent. This is one concrete step companies today can take when trying to design nondiscriminatory hiring and employment practices.
Another new development is enterprises auditing their own practices, seeking out opportunities to shore up their hiring, training and payroll practices. In the vein of greater transparency, many organizations are taking a close look at their own processes and trying to proactively correct discrepancies within roles and teams. Many experts argue that this greater transparency fuels positive outcomes like a more positive company culture, greater employee satisfaction and reduced risk of lawsuit — among other potential benefits.
The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act undoubtedly built upon the protections laid out by the Equal Pay Act of 1963, but is far from the final frontier in the fight for pay equity for all.
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This lesson will also help you complete patterns using place value. Follow the pattern to find the missing ones and complete them.
Find the LCM and GCF of polynomials as well.
Algebra addition patterns grade. 6th grade math worksheets. Stage 4 – algebra – number patterns. Get seventh graders to have more math.
A Shape 1 Shape 2 Shape 3 b Shape 1 Shape 2 Shape 3 c Shape 1 Shape 2 Shape 3 This time the rule for this matchstick pattern has 2 operations. Multiplication and division number patterns. This guide provides teachers with practical applications of the principles and theories that.
These are a great first step for common core requirements for number patterns in 4th grade. Also included are pre and post tests to ascertain each students prior knowledge before starting a patterns and algebra unit of. Stage 2 – Patterns and Algebra Missing Addends.
Algebra number patterns worksheets grade 7. We have crafted many worksheets covering various aspects of this topic addition properties writeevaulate simple expressions addition and subtraction equations identifying rules and patterns and. This teaching resource pack includes worksheets addressing the following concepts.
These worksheets are appropriate for Fourth Grade Math. Multiplication transformations are repeated or multiple changes are made to attributes P2identify patterns in which at least two attributes change eg. Generate patterns by adding or subtracting a constant or multiplying or dividing by a constant to get the next term then distinguish such.
IntroduCtIon Patterning and Algebra Grades 4 to 6 is a practical guide that teachers will find useful in helping students to achieve the curriculum expectations outlined for Grades 4 to 6 in the Patterning and Algebra strand of The Ontario Curriculum Grades 18. Stage 1 Patterns and algebra. Stage 4 – algebra – algebraic techniques.
In each of these patterns look for the repeating element and then what is added each time. Addition and Subtraction Patterns This fourth grade lesson will help you use place value to find patterns to easily add or subtract. Use these educational games activities worksheets posters and vocabulary word wall cards to assist your students when they are learning to about patterning and algebra.
Number patterns higher worksheet for 7th grade children. 1 recursive patterngrowing pattern and. With each addition story problem students will draw the problem write an equation that matches the word problem and then solve for the answer.
Pattern variable algebraic model differences rule Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 identify geometric patterns through investigation using concrete materials or drawings and. With differentiated activities worksheets and PowerPoints you can. Size colour Math Wizards 2003.
Common Core State Standards 4NBT4 and 4OA5. P1understand patterns in which operations are repeated eg. It has an answer key attached on the second page.
Different themes are used and a lot of activities are included for practise. Patterns and Algebra Resources Engage your Year 3-4 students in an understanding of algebra and patterns involving growing numbers using addition subtraction multiplication and division. Stage 2 – patterns and algebra problem solving.
Grade 3 PAactivity003 covers. 2 relationship between the term number x-value and the total number of items y-valueposition pattern or term pattern deepens student. Mixed patterns worksheet for 7th grade children.
Stage 2 – number and algebra – number patterns. Answer sheets are also provided. Can you see why.
The numbers in these series range from simple addition or subtraction patterns at the easy level to rolling mixed computations at the complex level. Teaching students to label growing patterns in two different ways. Stage 4 -algebraic techniques.
Stage 3 – number and algebra – number sentences. Addition and subtraction number patterns. Look for a multiplication pattern and how many extra there are in each shape.
K 1st 2nd This will be great for Kindergarten First grade or struggling Second graders. Learn to observe the pattern of colors shapes numbers letters and objects in these pattern worksheets. Access these algebra worksheets to recognize polynomials identify the degree of polynomials add subtract multiply divide and factorize monomial binomial and polynomial expressions.
The year level displayed at the top of the sheet.
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The word ‘chandelier’ is instantly synonymous with class; ornate hanging lights that are just as much decoration as they are light sources. Many of these ideas haven’t changed over the course of 500 years, despite major changes in chandeliers themselves.
Originating from the French word “chandelle,” chandelier literally means “candle holder,” and when the first appeared, that was about it.
The first known chandeliers came about during the 14th century and were a simple design: two wood beams forming a cross with a spike at the end of each to hold a candle. Though they were not as ornate as future designs, the element and ideas of class still applied. Outside of their main uses inside churches, abbeys and other large gathering places, their cost meant that only the wealthy could afford to own and maintain them.
As materials and production techniques improved over time, so did the ornate nature of the chandelier. Ranging from the original wood to metal, crystal and glass, chandeliers quickly evolved into art and symbols of status – not only by their presence, but by their design and intricacy as well.
In the early 1800s, gas became the standard for lighting, which led to the creation of “gasoliers.” Though the designs and functions were the same, the immense difference between gas and standard candles at the time led to the new name (think ‘hybrids’ – they’re cars, but we still differentiate them from the rest). During this period many existing chandeliers were converted to use gas instead of candles, a trend that continued until the advent of electricity when once again many were updated.
Interestingly, as chandeliers have continued to grow in size and extravagance, illumination has in many cases become a secondary emphasis, though many modern lighting designs have returned to a “function over form” mentality.
Eric Palmer is a writer and designer residing in Denver, Colorado, he writes for many companies including Lighting Outlet Denver.
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Virginia Woolf, Kate Flint
Jacob’s Room is Virginia Woolf’s first truly experimental novel. It is a portrait of a young man, who is both representative and victim of the social values which led Edwardian society into war. Jacob’s life is traced from the time he is a small boy playing on the beach, through his years in Cambridge, then in artistic London, and finally making a trip to Greece, but this is no orthodox Bildungsroman. Jacob is presented in glimpses, in fragments, as Woolf
breaks down traditional ways of representing character and experience.
The novel’s composition coincided with the consolidation of Woolf’s interest in feminism, and she criticizes the privileged thoughtless smugness of patriarchy, `the other side’, `the men in clubs and Cabinets’. Her stylistic innovations are conscious attempts to realize and develop women’s writing and the novel dramatizes her interest in the ways both language and social environments shape differently the lives of men and women.
ABOUT THE SERIES: For over 100 years Oxford World’s Classics has made available the widest range of literature from around the globe. Each affordable volume reflects Oxford’s commitment to scholarship, providing the most accurate text plus a wealth of other valuable features, including expert introductions by leading authorities, helpful notes to clarify the text, up-to-date bibliographies for further study, and much more.
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Quick, what’s the name of London’s major rivers? Yes, of course the Thames, but what about that other one?
What other one, you might ask?
It turns out that there is a there is a whole network of rivers that flow beneath London, but their subterranean nature has caused it to be forgotten by much of history and popular knowledge. This mysterious river, known as Fleet River, is London’s largest subterranean river has a long history and was a major river during Roman times.
One of your fellow readers sent me a link from Environmental Graffiti a little while back featuring a series of recently snapped photographs of the river. The photo-essay, Exploring the Secret River Flowing Beneath London, gives a fascinating glimpse into Fleet River and successfully uncovered yet another intriguing layer of the world beneath the streets of London.
Here’s the first photo in the series:
Check out the full essay here!
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Ecological Island Examples
Resource partitioning to reduce competition. Featured Multimedia - Highlight video from the Kraken2 ROV's dive on Site 1 Digital still image from the Kraken2 ROV from Dive # 1 in the Phase II Long Island Sound Habitat Mapping area. By: Perrot, Maina, INNZNA Description: Reports on the recognition by a trans-Tasman panel set up by the Ecological Society of Australia journal 'Ecological Management and Restoration' and the Society for Ecological Restoration International of the eight NZ restoration success stories : Tiritiri Matangi Island, Fiordland Islands Restor. Local population densities around the forest edge are typically 160-320 people per km2, and the forest has been progressively isolated from other protected forests along the. nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus cycles. For example, the number of eggs, larvae, or pupae. Focusing on the liminal space of the island’s shore as an indeterminate and fluctuating zone, they destabilise the very insularity of the island, situating it within a larger system of spatio-temporal continuities. The birds are banded but workers in the reserve look for un-banded Kaka which means that they were raised on Maungatautari or have flown in from elsewhere. For example, one trekking tourist in Nepal - and area already suffering the effects of deforestation - can use four to five kilograms of wood a day. Chongming is endeavored to become a model of ecological preservation development among cities in the Yangtze River Delta and Yangtze River Economic Belt. Green and organic agriculture and eco-friendly industries have developed into local economic pillars. Also, in artificial ecological islands (also known as mainland islands):. 5 mm; King 2005). The first things to colonize the island might be things like bacteria, fungi, moss, and lichen (things that are wind dispersed or wash up on shore from the ocean). August 2014. According to MacArthur and Wilson's hypothesis of island biogeography, species immigration and extinction rates on a particular island correlate to _____. Then it must be remembered that an ecological island is not necessarily an island surrounded by water, but is an area of land, separated by a barrier from the surrounding land, where a natural micro-habitat exists amidst a larger, different ecosystem. " Just as the miner's canary alerted mine workers to poison gases in a shaft. Examples of group-level measures include the incidence rate of cancer among a specific population, the mean level of blood pressure of patients seen at a clinic, the average sunlight exposure at specific geographic location on the earth, or even a preventive service included in a health insurance plan. Serigraph prints using ecological waterbased inks on recycled paper The word”Serigraphy” is used to differentiate the artistic application of screen printing from the industrial use of the process. What is a hammock anyway? Hammock refers to stands of trees that form an ecological island … Continue reading Step Into Hardwood Hammock Habitats In Nature’s Place. Darwin (1859) noted that most tree species make poor long-distance dispersers due to the large size of their seeds and, as a result, new islands are more often colonized by herbaceous species rather than trees. For example, the use of hot mix asphalt, a common process where the asphalt is heated to extremely high tempera tures prior to application, can cause health problems for workers including headache, skin rash, fatigue, throat and eye irritation, breathing problems, and coughing. The concept of ecological succession arose from the need to understand how large and complex ecosystems can exist in places recently formed (for example, volcanic islands resulting from volcanic activity). Find examples of the five ecological relationships (competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism) and take notes on the details they find in the entry using a note-taking sheet. Diesel emissions from on-site equipment can also. This site is in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. While independent assessments have shown that our plant life is in good health, less is known about our animals. The t-shirts made us very popular with the volunteers at Maungatautari and it felt like we got special attention from them because of it. All operators are commited to the principles of ecotourism and responsible travel. A metapopulation is a group of populations that are separated by space but consist of the same species. Its demand for the goods and services that its land and seas can provide—fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, wood, cotton for clothing, and carbon dioxide absorption—exceeds what the region's ecosystems can renew. On Bylot Island, our data indicates that the Arctic Fox is the principal predator of shorebird nests. Mangatautari Ecological Island Trust Position Description and Performance Agreement: 2017 - 2018 Leads by example and works well with people. GBR island coral decline. 9 secrets of confident body language; 23 September 2019. Extirpation C. Canada lynx Lynx canadensis inhabit Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), Manitoba, which has been described as an ‘ecological island situated amidst a sea of agricultural land’ (Parks Canada 2002), and while protected within the park they are subject to hunting and trapping pressure in areas surrounding the park. Many of these species have become extinct. Rodents - gigantism immigrant selection: small animals disperse more easily ecological release: small size not needed to avoid predators. Resource partitioning to reduce competition. District Party chief Tang Hailong said Chongming’s plan to turn itself into an ecological island also requires “industrialized thinking” to plan for modern agriculture. Most recent ERO report(s) Education Review. The property is part of a hammock, an ecological island formed by elevated trees surrounded by wetlands. There are two main types of aquatic ecosystem - Marine and Freshwater. Read a journal entry from a Galápagos field researcher. Assign a field study where students observe an area in their neighborhood over a designated time frame, make predictions of changes, and document observations. the branch of sociology that studies the environmental spacing and interdependence of people and their institutions, as in rural or urban settings. An interesting example of the process is the Greek island of Lesvos. River ecosystems rely on beavers to take down old or dead trees along riverbanks to use for their dams. Secondly, it moves forward with a larger research project known as the Social-ecological system meta-analysis database (SESMAD) Project, of which these cases are a part. Biodiversity BC has prepared two key science documents, a report on Ecological Concepts, Principles and Application to Conservation and Taking Nature's Pulse: The Status of Biodiversity in British Columbia. China’s experiment in developing a green economy on Chongming Island in east China’s Shanghai has been recognised by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) as a recommended model of green economic development. On Niue, for example, where soil fertility is particularly sensitive to poor agricultural practices, a comparison of two land surveys suggested that degraded lands increased from about 20% to 45% of the total island surface in two decades. With Principles of Ecological Landscape Design, Travis Beck gives professionals and students the first book to translate the science of ecology into design practice. “The Minister of Finance is taking everybody for a ride, when on the one hand he speaks of Gozo as an ecological island but at the same time he keeps insisting on the ‘need’ for a tunnel. the branch of biology that studies the relationship of organisms and environments. Succession as progressive change in an ecological community. Ancestors of Ascension Island turtles nested on beaches of islands adjacent to S. Other examples of "islands" include dung piles, game preserves, mountain tops, and lakes. Ecologically, it's isolated by the sea along its eastern, northern and western sides, and ecologically, it's a semi-arid environment separated by land to environments to the south, which are much rainier. WILDLIFE ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION. Primary succession, type of ecological succession in which plants and animals first colonize a barren, lifeless habitat. On the southern shore of Lake Michigan, at the Indiana Dunes, however, there is a different story. There is perhaps no clearer example of a keystone engineer than the beaver. Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari is a mainland ecological island located in the North Island of New Zealand. In contrast, Yellowstone is an ecological island because human development has cut off many of its carnivores from other populations. The ultimate goal is to recreate. The first thing to consider is that islands are colonized by migration of certain species from mainland source populations, and thus the biodiversity found on an island is a function of how close the island is to the mainland. It’s a community-driven project for which the trust has managed to raise $14 million and which protects 3400 ha of forested volcanic cone with 47 km of predator-proof fencing. Because of its mainland situation, the creation of our ecological island required completely enclosing the perimeter of our 3,400 hectare mountain with a 47 km pest-proof fence. The Karori Wildlife Sanctuary is an ecological island of 225 hectares or just under a square mile bordered by a pest-exclusion fence to prevent non-native predators of native birds and reptiles decimating the native species. Ecological definition, the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms. Taekwang Jeongsan Country Club, Dong Nai is a 18-hole course located on Dai Phuoc ecological island, surrounded by Dong Nai river and it takes about 25 minutes by boat from Ho Chi Minh City. The Ecological integrity of national parks indicator summarizes the state (good, fair, poor) and trend (improving, stable, declining) of ecosystems within 43 national parks. Example 1: Results from an ecological study examining diet and sunlight as risks for prostate cancer mortality. That the Maungatautari Ecological Island Trust’s October to December Quarterly Financial Report (Appendix 3) be received. Also called bionomics, bionomy. For example, we know that in a as an ecological island separated from the North American floristic province by the Sierra Nevada mountains. 2A state variable is a variable representing the value or state of an entity at a particular time. 17 sustainable tourism examples Gijón, Example of Sustainable Destination: Certified in 2013 as "Biosphere World Urban Destination", awarded by the Responsible Tourism Institute (ITR) and supported by UNESCO, the city of Gijon remains as one of the best sustainable tourism examples. Since then, ecologists have recognised that these islands of habitat need not be surrounded by a sea of water. Please make sure to take a very close look at the photos and the description, and judge for yourself. Easterlin. We can study ecosystems from a structural view of population distribution or from a functional view of energy flow and other processes. Cluster spam scores are averaged across all documents in a cluster. The forest gecko (Mokopirirakau granulatus) is found on both the North and South Island but is rarely seen, due to its incredible camouflage which mimics the lichens and tree bark patterns in their environment. References in periodicals archive. First, a very large number of plant species, many of them endemic (endemic is defined as , grow within the state’s borders. It is the product of the determined local community who formed the Maungatautari Trust with the goal of restoring a patch of New Zealand to the way it once was hundreds of years ago. an ecological island; consisting of such herbaceous plants which are economically very important for the mankind. Other Educational Toys-Orchard Toys Carte Du Monde et Éducatif Apprentissage Jigsaw, Affiche, rzettn2725-free shipping on all orders - www. YUCATAN'S RARE & UNUSUAL SPECIES. The inputs and outputs can be flows of information, material or energy. Because island habitats are so isolated and unique, the theory of island biogeography. Reid described Liwonde as 'an ecological island in a sea of humanity. Hammocks grow on elevated areas, often just a few inches high, surrounded by wetlands that are too wet to support them. ECOLOGY - Vol. For example, the genes encoding an iron-uptake system termed yersiniabactin are part of a genomic island that was first identified in highly. If a population's Ecological Footprint exceeds the region's biocapacity, that region runs an ecological deficit. The Island Hospital Employee of the Month for October is Nurse Educator Kathleen Horr RN. That the Maungatautari Ecological Island Trust’s October to December Quarterly Financial Report (Appendix 3) be received. Just get your ideas flowing and your thoughts down on paper. Manuscripts are expected to address general principles in ecology, though they may do so using a specific model system if this frames the problem relative to a generalised ecological issue. ' African Parks is relocating hundreds of what it calls 'surplus' elephants from Liwonde and Majete, another park, to. Human well-being depends notably on material welfare, health, good social relations, security, and freedom. The largest island is the one to the West, Isla Larga (Long Island) and it is some 900 meters long and 400 meters wide - check them on the map. parks, protected areas) is no longer enough to adequately protect the Alpine fauna; it is necessary to move from ecological islands to ecological networks. Ben is the director of student-led research expeditions at the Penryn Campus and spent the summer of 2013. 1: Interactions within a community may help, harm, or have no effect on the species involved Competition Competitive Exclusion Ecological. A man who has spent more than 50 years working on and for the land is to receive the University of Waikato's highest honour. Mayr and Diamond find that the most prolific speciation has occurred among lin-eages that support abundant populations of moderately vagile birds; small or nondis-persing populations do not speciate. Lord Howe Island is an outstanding example of an island ecosystem developed from submarine volcanic activity, having a rare diversity of landscapes, flora and fauna. After you've gathered your notes, create an outline to organize your essay and decide where you want examples to appear. A good example of succession is when a new island arises from volcanic activity in the ocean. This, along with an abundance of introduced feral pigs for prey, allowed golden eagles to colonize the island and replace bald eagles. Kiwi sanctuaries and mainland islands. The first things to colonize the island might be things like bacteria, fungi, moss, and lichen (things that are wind dispersed or wash up on shore from the ocean). Maximising speed: long, light legs. Colonization, and Island Biogeography Metapopulation: Definition, Theory & Examples. New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island), and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. Classes have been exploring the big picture and now these questions are focusing the action and choices students are making. It was the first Irish offshore island to achieve international Eco-Tourism status and. 🐇🐇🐇 An ecological island is not necessarily an island surrounded by water, but is an area of land, isolated by natural or artificial means from the surrounding land, where a natural micro habitat exists amidst a larger differing ecosystem. "Aquatic and related terrestrial ecosystems" is a phrase that recognizes the impossibility of analyzing aquatic systems absent consideration of the linkages to adjacent terrestrial environments. New Zealand’s colonial founding fathers in their misguided wisdom sought to re. 1 day ago · d) Ecological violence: those activities ranging from destruction of the climate and rainforests to the killing of insects and wildlife that constitute destruction of the biosphere. Alaskan Kelp Forest. Plant Communities in the Greater Sacramento Region. Genes, species, and ecosystems of direct, indirect, or potential use to humanity are often referred to as "biological resources" (McNeely and others 1990; Reid and Miller 1989; Wood 1997). For example: the heart is an organ that pumps blood within the cardiovascular system. These finds are all particularly relevant to me and my own personal interest, locally. EM has made substantial progress in nearly every area of nuclear waste cleanup and has completed cleanup at 91 of these sites. 7 | Management Plan Template | I&R Team | 28/01/2016 V1. The Ecological Systems classification was developed by NatureServe to provide a mid-scale ecological classification, for uplands and wetlands, useful for conservation and environmental planning. Tissue: (in multicellular organisms). Open Data Platform - Global Footprint Network. Since then, ecologists have recognised that these islands of habitat need not be surrounded by a sea of water. 17 sustainable tourism examples Gijón, Example of Sustainable Destination: Certified in 2013 as "Biosphere World Urban Destination", awarded by the Responsible Tourism Institute (ITR) and supported by UNESCO, the city of Gijon remains as one of the best sustainable tourism examples. The best examples of the forest have trees with canopy heights above 120 feet and tree trunk diameters in excess of 36 inches (90 cm). You can find that in a dictionary. The Nature Preserve is made up of the bluffs surrounding the Bay. Meet the American alligator as an example. Chapter 8: Guided Reading. Examples of Ecological Impacts of Climate Change in the United States 35 Warmer waters and declines in sea ice (Figure 11) in the Bering Sea between Alaska and Russia are causing massive ecological changes (Grebmeier et al. California’s plant life was, and still is, exceptionally diverse in two senses. Turn left onto Browning St for 700m. For example, the genes encoding an iron-uptake system termed yersiniabactin are part of a genomic island that was first identified in highly. The examples described above are just a few of the many ways that birds provide ecosystem services. Ecological studies are therefore usually cheap and easy to perform. Examples of this are the bromeliads and orchids (epiphytes). Ecología insular/Island Ecology. An ecosystem is a higher level of organization the community plus its physical environment. An ecological island is a comparatively small habitat separated from a major habitat of the same kind. As on actual islands, the plants the Kingstons have begun to diverge from those in the surrounding desert. This past Saturday, Jean and I paid our third visit to the Maungatautari Ecological Island Trust park. Here you will find information about the wealth of natural communities in the Commonwealth, the latest version of the Virginia state community classification. Some examples of estuaries in New Zealand include the Manukau Harbour, Raglan, Tairua, Avon-Heathcote and the fjords on the west coast of the South Island. This 320,000-acre region forms an ecological island defined by urban development to the north and east, agriculture to the west, and the Pacific Ocean to the south. On Niue, for example, where soil fertility is particularly sensitive to poor agricultural practices, a comparison of two land surveys suggested that degraded lands increased from about 20% to 45% of the total island surface in two decades. Various aquatic ecosystems can be found in stagnant or very slowly flowing waters. Rethinking Easter Island’s ecological catastrophe Terry L. Adults, All Ages, Families, Youth, Community Support, Health Care, Human Rights, Community. While out monitoring the maunga, our natural heritage rangers sometimes spot forest geckos climbing the fence. After three decades of tireless work, Santa Cruz Island has emerged as a leading example for successful island restoration and innovative conservation. A handful of them, such as Anaho Island in Pyramid Lake [Figure 3], are islands in the normal sense. A pond in the woods B. In ecological studies (observational studies of relationships between risk-modifying factors and health or other outcomes in populations), the. B) adaptive radiation. At last, we reach the great drop-off. The Pacific Northwest is a global ecological "hotspot" because of its relatively healthy native ecosystems, a high degree of biodiversity, and the number and scope of restoration initiatives that have been undertaken there. Plant Communities in the Greater Sacramento Region. Ecological Islands and Endangered Species. A shift in focus from agriculture to tourism. Once part of a much larger forest that included the Virunga Volcanoes in neighbouring Rwanda, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is now an ecological island within a sea of human cultivation and therefore of big conservation importance. Also, in artificial ecological islands (also known as mainland islands):. These deaths will bring the population numbers below the carrying capacity. Until last year, Fiji's pre-eminent private-island resort was The Wakaya Club & Spa (pictured), David and Jill Gilmour's self-proclaimed 'bastion of ecological sanctity where sound environmental practices and the preservation of Fijian culture are highly valued as well as implemented'. This plant can reduce the volume of the material up to 50 times and preserve its chemical composition. Clearly, IAS can also have significant socioeconomic impacts directly (for example human health) and indirectly through their effects on ecosystem goods and services. Transfer of water from oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the ocean. The same things are usually also found on the exteriors of their homes. For all large European mammals most of the parks are either too small or do not provide safe and suitable habitats due to a wide scale of human activities and extractive uses. Ecosystems include both the biological and physical components affecting the community/ecosystem. South Waikato farmer and environmentalist Gordon Stephenson, of Waotu, near Putaruru, will receive an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Waikato for his lengthy and on-going contribution to the environment. island habitats (e. On Bylot Island, our data indicates that the Arctic Fox is the principal predator of shorebird nests. Suppose that people decide that natural evolution is too slow and try use genetic engineering to speed up evolution. Environment Final Test Quiz. One of the reasons I started Hawke’s Bay Hiking and Tramping is because I’m quite passionate about the New Zealand bush and its conservation, and want to introduce visitors to the special and unique fauna and flora, as well as the stunning landscape and beauty. Examples of Ecological Impacts of Climate Change in the United States 35 Warmer waters and declines in sea ice (Figure 11) in the Bering Sea between Alaska and Russia are causing massive ecological changes (Grebmeier et al. species, for example, has been shown to negatively influence supporting, provisioning, cultural, and regulating services (Vilà et al. Your animal type will determine who you can kill, or who can kill you. In ecological studies the unit of observation is the population or community. The Island Rule: "the big get smaller & the small get bigger" Optimal size 250 grams (red squirrel) Predators: canids, felids - dwarfism reduced resources. The mountains of East Africa are a treasure trove of biodiversity. Maunder writes, almost unbelievingly, that a recent UCI cyclocross World Cup round in Milton Keynes, the first held outside of mainland Europe, attracted more than 10,000 airhorn-pumping, cowbell-ringing fans and a clutch of corporate marquees, a sure-fire indicator that this cycling derivative is set to grow. Turn left onto Browning St for 700m. For example, as soon as a lecturer or a student enters the main door on a Friday evening or a Saturday morning, he/she is greeted by a board with a printed list of all the lecture themes, the name of the lecturers and the room numbers. This Blog tells just some of those stories made possible by the dedication and goodwill of the men and women who are members of Rotary clubs throughout the region. Source: Google Maps, 4 Nov 2010. All operators are commited to the principles of ecotourism and responsible travel. Two of the five kiwi sanctuaries managed by the Department of Conservation are close to Waikato – Moehau and Tongariro. Initial increase of Steller sea lions (SSLs) on Tuleny Island during the first 20 years could partly be explained by earlier sea ice breakup, which promoted the immigration from the other haul‐out sites. Maungatautari Ecological Island, ecological monitoring is used to systematically measure the effects of eradication and exclusion of introduced mammals on native flora and fauna, including L. When you're considering planning an eco-vacation, consult with resources like the International Ecotourism Society for. The Values of Biodiversity The individual components of biodiversity—genes, species, and ecosystems—provide society with a wide array of goods and services. Smallwood points out this is a biased perspective to ignores the fact that “many animals can fly, walk, or crawl” on an off of the Project site. There is a temporal component to this pattern, in that old endemics (species late in the taxon cy-. For example, because of diversions of water for irrigation, the salinity of Walker Lake has increased greatly,. New Zealand Bird Sanctuaries. In a diploid cell there are usually two alleles. Urban trees, and the urban forest as a whole, can be managed to have an impact on the urban water, heat, carbon and pollution cycles. Pacific Integrated Island Management Principles, case studies and lessons learned 1 Introduction Islands are isolated systems by nature. Recent general papers on biogeography deal with the need for complementary ecological and historical. Ecological definition, the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms. This stone is called the Dwarfie Stane and at some time in the past a tunnel was cut into its western side and a small chamber formed inside the rock. The difference between utilitarian conservation and biocentric preservation is who the resources are for. The other speaker of the evening, Ing. Hammocks grow on elevated areas, often just a few inches high, surrounded by wetlands that are too wet to support them. Synonyms for Maupassant in Free Thesaurus. On some islands, weeds spread rapidly when farm animals were removed. Spoilage of fruits and vegetables after harvest often causes losses as great as 25-50% of the harvested crop. An example of birds returning to Maungatautari is the Kaka. As a result of this convergence of Caribbean, temperate, and endemic influences, the South Florida Ecosystem supports substantial ecological, community, taxonomic, and genetic diversity. 2 km off the coast of New Zealand's South Island, at the northern end of Pegasus Bay, south of the mouth of the Motunau River. Zone-I: Zone-I was Pattoki Road, Wankhara boundary covering 70 acre. For example, the genes encoding an iron-uptake system termed yersiniabactin are part of a genomic island that was first identified in highly. The story of Easter Island reads like a pre-industrial version of The Lorax. D) geographic isolation and convergent evolution. demonstrated the ecological relevance of oligotypes, or fine-scale OTU variants. According to MacArthur and Wilson's hypothesis of island biogeography, species immigration and extinction rates on a particular island correlate to _____. Rhode Island Senator. C) geographic isolation and divergent evolution. The site is more akin to The Blean geologically and is an ecological island, with some remnant heather. On the same site a new island, a volcanic cone, was born. taxonomic misidentification (several species erroneously classified as a single species). (Example: Buyer's PayPal Address) Any statements regarding grading, quality, and condition made are subjective and represent our best opinion after doing our research and due diligence. For instance, on an island with large fruit seeds, a small beaked finch may not do well, however a large beaked finch has just the right apparatus to break the seed; therefore its genes have the opportunity to move to the next generation. Ecological succession is the gradual change in species composition of a given area. Today, Darwin's finches are under attack from an introduced parasitic fly. There are many other such examples and it is hard not to sympathize with Zimmerman and Bierregard who observe that, besides the ecological truism that species richness increases with area, there is little of value in the species-area curve (and the theory of island biogeography). Forest birding in Bwindi ranks the best in Uganda. Utilitarian conservation embodies the idea that the resources are for the people here and now and should be used in a wise manor, while biocentric preservation is the idea that all things have a right to home and resource, this preserves the land and biomes more and is longer term. Resource partitioning to reduce competition. They are found throughout the world in shallow open coastal waters, and the larger forests are restricted to temperatures less than 20ºC, extending to both the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. One notable example is Pierre Poivre (1719–1786) who lived and worked on Mauritius and realized that deforestation of the island affected its climate (Grove, 1996). Examples of Secondary Succession on the Island of Lawahii and the Patterns Associated with These Types of Succession Several centuries after the island of Lawahii formed, a fire boke out killing all of the vegetation and animals that thrived on this ecosystem. The oligotype distributions of the cosmopolitan ZetaOTUs varied greatly across the Pacific Ocean. These extinctions are alarming, some resulting from misuse of the environment by humans but many are from the introduction of foreign species to the island ecosystems. Steve Junak, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden Ranging in size from 2. Larvae, mining down the axis of the tree, girdle the leader killing at least 2 and sometimes up to 4 years' growth. hollyanneblake. Maungatautari is a 3400-hectare forested mountain in Waikato, east of Te Awamutu and south-east of Cambridge and Hamilton. Functional group: the primary diet-based grouping that parallels the main ecological function of the species (e. Some examples of abiotic factors in an environment include precipitation, sunlight, and minerals. Mountain tops Ponds Real geographic islands. The largest island is the one to the West, Isla Larga (Long Island) and it is some 900 meters long and 400 meters wide - check them on the map. Some, for example, may attract budding architects with their quirky designs, while others may specialize in rural crafts or outdoor activities. There will be value in this new knowledge and in the recovered “dawn chorus”, but how do we price it? If we can’t price it, if it has no value, then how do we give the Maungatautari Ecological Island Trust a long life free of begging?. For the ecological dimension, we find significant effects for the EF of imports; however, for the reasons mentioned before those results should not be further taken into consideration. ECOLOGY - Vol. Carrying Capacity Carrying capacity is a well-known ecological term that has an obvious and fairly intuitive meaning : "the maximum population size of a species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water and other necessities available in the environment". It consists of ways to achieve or to avoid pregnancy using the physical and moral means that God has built into human nature. This site is in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. An example of ecological succession in real life is when the island of Krakatoa, an undeveloped land mass, exploded. 1 Concept 41. Succession as progressive change in an ecological community. In addition, to a greater degree than other bird species, it has the majority of its leg musculature located very high on the thigh bone and hip,. natal beach, found Ascension Island, and established a nesting beach. Many of these species have become extinct. As the effects of climate change are felt across the world and with the construction industry is responsible for as much as 40 percent of man-made carbon emissions, both governments and individuals are beginning to take the task of building eco friendly houses much more seriously. Sanctuary Mountain Maungatautari (Maungatautari Ecological Island Reserve) is the largest ecological ‘island’ on mainland New Zealand. , Simberloff and Wilson’s 1970). 7 | Management Plan Template | I&R Team | 28/01/2016 V1. Cook Island Māori. On Niue, for example, where soil fertility is particularly sensitive to poor agricultural practices, a comparison of two land surveys suggested that degraded lands increased from about 20% to 45% of the total island surface in two decades. Biogeography can be broken down into historical biogeography, which studies the past history and evolution of a species, and ecological biogeography, which studies the environment of a species. Transfer of water from oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the ocean. Kiwi sanctuaries and mainland islands. Invasions, Invasive Species and Island Biogeography 1: What are the 4 main principles in the theory of island biogeography? 2: What is an ecological island? Islands have less species than continents ; Evolution of new animals are from islands species that migrate to mainlands ; The smaller the islands the fewer the species. The 3,400-hectare Maungatautari Ecological Island, a forest restoration project, aims to fence out predators so that bush birds such as hihi (stitchbird), once common, can survive there again. An environmental disaster nearly decimated the population. The day finally arrived for Kev, Kir, and I to sally forth to meet Sirocco. 3% by both factors, and the rest is unaccounted for (Bonada et al. PhD Project - Killer whale predation of harbour seals in the coastal waters of Scotland: investigating the ecological drivers and consequences of an apex predator-prey interaction at University of St Andrews, listed on FindAPhD. The Nolinas are are a great example of this effect. 7 November 2014. Waterton Lakes Park: Though incomparably rich, the area is developing and the Park is at risk of becoming an ecological island. This Blog tells just some of those stories made possible by the dedication and goodwill of the men and women who are members of Rotary clubs throughout the region. The first things to colonize the island might be things like bacteria, fungi, moss, and lichen (things that are wind dispersed or wash up on shore from the ocean). Why this indicator is important. “[But] the Serengeti, despite its apparently endless bounty, is an ecological island in a rising sea of humanity. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Plant Communities in the Greater Sacramento Region. existing dams and develop alternatives to dam construction while still providing freshwater for human use. See more ideas about Naive art, Art and Folk art. NRCS pollinator references and documents--Updated See NRCS pollinator-related literature and documentation, including the updated Technical Note TN. Species can be endemic to large or small areas of the earth: some are endemic to a particular continent, some to part of a continent, and others to a single island. In other words, the same fitness island may act as an ecological island when the bacterial recipient resides outside of a host, but become a pathogenicity island when the bacterium enters a host. Also, in artificial ecological islands (also known as mainland islands):. Primary vs. An ecological island is not necessarily an island surrounded by water, but is an area of land, isolated by natural or artificial means from the surrounding land, where a natural micro-habitat exists amidst a larger differing ecosystem. Motu Matakohe, also known as Matakohe or Limestone Island, is a 37 ha island in the upper reaches of Whangarei Harbour, just off Onerahi, a seaside suburb of the city of Whangarei, Northland, New Zealand. In this case they adapt by using another source - the tinned corn. There is perhaps no clearer example of a keystone engineer than the beaver. , 1996; Panero et al. Succession is a natural process that occurs after some form or disturbance which simplifies the system. The project is located in Chile, an ecological “island” bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Andes Mountains, and the Atacama Desert. Upper Newport Ecological Reserve totals 752 acres. USNVC units have historically been the focus of WNHP’s conservation prioritization efforts. That the Maungatautari Ecological Island Trust’s October to December Quarterly Financial Report (Appendix 3) be received. Lakes, ponds, bogs, freshwater and saltwater marshes, swamps and lagoons are examples of ecosystems found in stationary or nearly-stationary waters. 00 per person. Ecological fallacy, in epidemiology, failure in reasoning that arises when an inference is made about an individual based on aggregate data for a group. Mountain tops Ponds Real geographic islands. Accurate feature annotation as well as assembly contiguity are important requisites of a modern genome assembly. The Malta Independent on Sunday, 8th June 2008, by Noel Grima -It is all so easy to come up with a catchphrase for an election and declare that your aim is to turn Gozo into an ecological island. 1 EXAMPLE OF POTENTIAL DIRECT AND INDIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS. Read "Rare plants on Mount Amiata, Italy: Vulnerability to extinction on an ecological ‘island’, Biological Conservation" on DeepDyve, the largest online rental service for scholarly research with thousands of academic publications available at your fingertips. Successful resistance to development in its area by a human community will prevent ecological change in one place and may either prevent it from. Its demand for the goods and services that its land and seas can provide—fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, wood, cotton for clothing, and carbon dioxide absorption—exceeds what the region's ecosystems can renew. Species richness on islands depends on island size, distance from the mainland, immigration, and extinction. The high proportion of endemic species provides a superb illustration of independent evolutionary processes at work. First, a very large number of plant species, many of them endemic (endemic is defined as , grow within the state’s borders. An ecological island an area that is biologically isolated, so a species living there cannot mix w/ any other population of the same species. Chongming Island is the third largest island in China(1200km2) and the largest alluvial island in the world that located in north of Shanghai city. Description. These extinctions are alarming, some resulting from misuse of the environment by humans but many are from the introduction of foreign species to the island ecosystems. The Pacific Island States enjoy an amazing ecological heritage (biodiversity of forest or fish for example) but their preservation is threatened by climate change (sea level rise, cyclones, typhoons) and their geographic situation distant from the main consumption centres make it difficult for them to benefit from the globalised economy. For example, within YNP, aspen is an important landscape element—it is an aesthetically pleasing tree that grows in groves on the hillsides and shows spectacular fall colors. Spoilage of fruits and vegetables after harvest often causes losses as great as 25-50% of the harvested crop. Plant Communities in the Greater Sacramento Region. An ecological island is a comparatively small habitat separated from a major habitat of the same kind. 1 Concept 41. For example, body size is a proxy for a range of other ecological attributes, including area requirements, mobility and dietary specialisation (Laurance, 1991), whereas habitat specialisation is directly linked to the threatening process of habitat loss. Assessment of Environmental Effects for the eradication of kiore (Rattus exulans) from Bench Island Nature Reserve and kiore, Norway rats (R. Local population densities around the forest edge are typically 160-320 people per km2, and the forest has been progressively isolated from other protected forests along the. & Soares, A. Chongming Island is the third largest island in China(1200km2) and the largest alluvial island in the world that located in north of Shanghai city. These efforts aimed to identify and preserve representative examples of the world's ecosystems for present and future biological research and education,. For example, at one point there were only around 170 adult stitchbirds left, with all of them living on Little Barrier Island, which is fairly close to Tiritiri. Almost half of the island’s native plants are endemic. Marco Cremona, who has just won an EP ecological award, set the tone of the debate. But we're two miles higher, riding mountain updrafts in a zigzag north until we reach Thetis proper. Since then, ecologists have recognised that these islands of habitat need not be surrounded by a sea of water. The pioneer species add layers of soil over time through decomposition and "normalize" the environment for other. Examples of Secondary Succession By YourDictionary Secondary succession refers to the concept of an ecosystem reviving itself after all or a portion has been destroyed. Arial Times New Roman Wingdings MS Pゴシック Tahoma Times ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3 Symbol 1_CC4eActiveLectureQuestions PowerPoint Presentation Overview: Communities in Motion Figure 41. For all large European mammals most of the parks are either too small or do not provide safe and suitable habitats due to a wide scale of human activities and extractive uses. Something along the size of Madagascar or New Zealand, someplace so remote that not even reptiles appeared there until the Amphibians were able to at least begin to defend themselves. Choose FOUR of the above and for each example chosen, a. Algae, plankton, underwater and floating plants, such as lily pads, may inhabit the calm waters. Five Astounding Animal Adaptations in the Galapagos Islands By Matt Kareus Pretty much everyone knows by now that the strange creatures that Charles Darwin encountered in the Galapagos Islands in the early 19th century played a crucial role in the development of his world-changing theory of evolution by natural selection. For example, one trekking tourist in Nepal - and area already suffering the effects of deforestation - can use four to five kilograms of wood a day. Classes have been exploring the big picture and now these questions are focusing the action and choices students are making.
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- What language is Gott Mit Uns?
- What does the Gestapo mean?
- What is a German soldier called?
- When did Germany become a country?
- What is a Luftwaffe mean?
- What did the Gestapo wear?
- What did the SS belt buckle say?
- What is Gott Mit Uns mean?
- Was the SS part of the Wehrmacht?
- What did German soldiers call American soldiers?
- How many SS soldiers were there?
- Is Reich a bad word?
What language is Gott Mit Uns?
Gott mit uns (meaning God with us) is a phrase commonly used on armor in the German military from the German Empire to the end of the Third Reich, although its historical origins are far older..
What does the Gestapo mean?
secret state policeThe Gestapo (German secret state police) was a vital component both in Nazi repression and the Holocaust.
What is a German soldier called?
WehrmachtWehrmacht, (German: “defense power”) the armed forces of the Third Reich. The three primary branches of the Wehrmacht were the Heer (army), Luftwaffe (air force), and Kriegsmarine (navy).
When did Germany become a country?
October 3, 1990Germany/Founded
What is a Luftwaffe mean?
air weaponLuftwaffe, (German: “air weapon”) component of the German armed forces tasked with the air defense of Germany and fulfillment of the country’s airpower commitments abroad.
What did the Gestapo wear?
The majority of SS personnel wore a variation of the Waffen-SS uniform or the grey-green SS service tunic. Branches with personnel that normally would wear civilian attire in the Reich (such as the Gestapo and Kripo) were issued grey-green SS uniforms in occupied territory to avoid being mistaken for civilians.
What did the SS belt buckle say?
Meine Ehre heißt Treue (pronounced [ˌmaɪnə ˈʔeːʁə haɪst ˈtʁɔʏə]; “My honour is called loyalty”) is the motto of the former National Socialist organization, the Schutzstaffel (SS).
What is Gott Mit Uns mean?
God with us”Gott mit Uns” (God with us), taken from the inscription on German soldiers’ belt buckles, originally meant to invoke God’s support, becomes in the English caption “God for Us,” a nationalist cry to smite the enemy.
Was the SS part of the Wehrmacht?
The relationship between the Wehrmacht and the SS improved; however, the Waffen-SS was never considered “the fourth branch of the Wehrmacht.”
What did German soldiers call American soldiers?
AmiAmi – German slang for an American soldier.
How many SS soldiers were there?
By the start of World War II (1939-45), the SS had more than 250,000 members and multiple subdivisions, engaged in activities ranging from intelligence operations to running Nazi concentration camps.
Is Reich a bad word?
The word “Reich” (unlike the word “Führer” or “Heil”) has little negative connotation in german. It just means empire. (Possibly there is some resentment with the concept rather than the word.) You would not use “Reich” in context of germany, because it’s the wrong word and using it expresses some disputable nostalgia.
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