Split (1)

train · 12.8M rows

page_id int64 12 2.54M	title stringlengths 1 261	cleaned_text stringlengths 0 753k	linked_titles listlengths 0 29.9k
3,999	Benoit Mandelbrot	Benoit B. Mandelbrot (20 November 1924 – 14 October 2010) was a Polish-born French-American mathematician and polymath with broad interests in the practical sciences, especially regarding what he labeled as "the art of roughness" of physical phenomena and "the uncontrolled element in life". He referred to himself as a "fractalist" In 1936, at the age of 11, Mandelbrot and his family emigrated from Warsaw, Poland, to France. After World War II ended, Mandelbrot studied mathematics, graduating from universities in Paris and in the United States and receiving a master's degree in aeronautics from the California Institute of Technology. He spent most of his career in both the United States and France, having dual French and American citizenship. In 1958, he began a 35-year career at IBM, where he became an IBM Fellow, and periodically took leaves of absence to teach at Harvard University. At Harvard, following the publication of his study of U.S. commodity markets in relation to cotton futures, he taught economics and applied sciences. Because of his access to IBM's computers, Mandelbrot was one of the first to use computer graphics to create and display fractal geometric images, leading to his discovery of the Mandelbrot set in 1980. He showed how visual complexity can be created from simple rules. He said that things typically considered to be "rough", a "mess", or "chaotic", such as clouds or shorelines, actually had a "degree of order". Toward the end of his career, he was Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences at Yale University, where he was the oldest professor in Yale's history to receive tenure. Mandelbrot also held positions at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Université Lille Nord de France, Institute for Advanced Study and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. During his career, he received over 15 honorary doctorates and served on many science journals, along with winning numerous awards. His autobiography, The Fractalist: Memoir of a Scientific Maverick, was published posthumously in 2012. == Early years == Benedykt Mandelbrot was born in a Lithuanian Jewish family, in Warsaw during the Second Polish Republic. His father made his living trading clothing; his mother was a dental surgeon. During his first two school years, he was tutored privately by an uncle who despised rote learning: "Most of my time was spent playing chess, reading maps and learning how to open my eyes to everything around me." In 1936, when he was 11, the family emigrated from Poland to France. The move, World War II, and the influence of his father's brother, the mathematician Szolem Mandelbrojt (who had moved to Paris around 1920), further prevented a standard education. "The fact that my parents, as economic and political refugees, joined Szolem in France saved our lives," he writes. Mandelbrot attended the Lycée Rollin (now the Collège-lycée Jacques-Decour) in Paris until the start of World War II, when his family moved to Tulle, France. He was helped by Rabbi David Feuerwerker, the Rabbi of Brive-la-Gaillarde, to continue his studies. Much of France was occupied by the Nazis at the time, and Mandelbrot recalls this period: {{blockquote\|Our constant fear was that a sufficiently determined foe might report us to an authority and we would be sent to our deaths. This happened to a close friend from Paris, Zina Morhange, a physician in a nearby county seat. Simply to eliminate the competition, another physician denounced her ... We escaped this fate. Who knows why? In 1958 the couple moved to the United States where Mandelbrot joined the research staff at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York. In his early work, he found that the price changes in financial markets did not follow a Gaussian distribution, but rather Lévy stable distributions having infinite variance. He found, for example, that cotton prices followed a Lévy stable distribution with parameter α equal to 1.7 rather than 2 as in a Gaussian distribution. "Stable" distributions have the property that the sum of many instances of a random variable follows the same distribution but with a larger scale parameter. The latter work from the early 60s was done with daily data of cotton prices from 1900, long before he introduced the word 'fractal'. In later years, after the concept of fractals had matured, the study of financial markets in the context of fractals became possible only after the availability of high frequency data in finance. In the late 1980s, Mandelbrot used intra-daily tick data supplied by Olsen & Associates in Zurich to apply fractal theory to market microstructure. This cooperation led to the publication of the first comprehensive papers on scaling law in finance. This law shows similar properties at different time scales, confirming Mandelbrot's insight of the fractal nature of market microstructure. Mandelbrot's own research in this area is presented in his books Fractals and Scaling in Finance and The (Mis)behavior of Markets. ===Developing "fractal geometry" and the Mandelbrot set=== As a visiting professor at Harvard University, Mandelbrot began to study mathematical objects called Julia sets that were invariant under certain transformations of the complex plane. Building on previous work by Gaston Julia and Pierre Fatou, Mandelbrot used a computer to plot images of the Julia sets. While investigating the topology of these Julia sets, he studied the Mandelbrot set which was introduced by him in 1979. In 1975, Mandelbrot coined the term fractal to describe these structures and first published his ideas in the French book Les Objets Fractals: Forme, Hasard et Dimension, later translated in 1977 as Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension. According to computer scientist and physicist Stephen Wolfram, the book was a "breakthrough" for Mandelbrot, who until then would typically "apply fairly straightforward mathematics ... to areas that had barely seen the light of serious mathematics before". Wolfram adds that as a result of this new research, he was no longer a "wandering scientist", and later called him "the father of fractals": In his paper "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension", published in Science in 1967, Mandelbrot discusses self-similar curves that have Hausdorff dimension that are examples of fractals, although Mandelbrot does not use this term in the paper, as he did not coin it until 1975. The paper is one of Mandelbrot's first publications on the topic of fractals. Mandelbrot emphasized the use of fractals as realistic and useful models for describing many "rough" phenomena in the real world. He concluded that "real roughness is often fractal and can be measured." and a maverick. His informal and passionate style of writing and his emphasis on visual and geometric intuition (supported by the inclusion of numerous illustrations) made The Fractal Geometry of Nature accessible to non-specialists. The book sparked widespread popular interest in fractals and contributed to chaos theory and other fields of science and mathematics. Mandelbrot also put his ideas to work in cosmology. He offered in 1974 a new explanation of Olbers' paradox (the "dark night sky" riddle), demonstrating the consequences of fractal theory as a sufficient, but not necessary, resolution of the paradox. He postulated that if the stars in the universe were fractally distributed (for example, like Cantor dust), it would not be necessary to rely on the Big Bang theory to explain the paradox. His model would not rule out a Big Bang, but would allow for a dark sky even if the Big Bang had not occurred. ==Awards and honors== Mandelbrot's awards include the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1993, the Lewis Fry Richardson Prize of the European Geophysical Society in 2000, the Japan Prize in 2003, and the Einstein Lectureship of the American Mathematical Society in 2006. The small asteroid 27500 Mandelbrot was named in his honor. In November 1990, he was made a Chevalier in France's Legion of Honour. In December 2005, Mandelbrot was appointed to the position of Battelle Fellow at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Mandelbrot was promoted to an Officer of the Legion of Honour in January 2006. An honorary degree from Johns Hopkins University was bestowed on Mandelbrot in the May 2010 commencement exercises. A partial list of awards received by Mandelbrot: 2004 Best Business Book of the Year Award AMS Einstein Lectureship Barnard Medal Caltech Service Casimir Funk Natural Sciences Award Charles Proteus Steinmetz Medal High School Spelling Bee (1940) Fellow, American Geophysical Union Fellow of the American Statistical Association Fellow of the American Physical Society (1987) Franklin Medal Harvey Prize (1989) Honda Prize Humboldtpreis IBM Fellowship Japan Prize (2003) John Scott Award Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour) Lewis Fry Richardson Medal Medaglia della Presidenza della Repubblica Italiana Médaille de Vermeil de la Ville de Paris Nevada Prize Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Member of the American Philosophical Society (2004) Science for Art Sven Berggren-Priset Wacław Sierpiński medal of the Polish Mathematical Society (2005) Władysław Orlicz Prize Wolf Prize in Physics (1993) == Death and legacy == Mandelbrot died from pancreatic cancer at the age of 85 in a hospice in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 14 October 2010. Reacting to news of his death, mathematician Heinz-Otto Peitgen said: "[I]f we talk about impact inside mathematics, and applications in the sciences, he is one of the most important figures of the last fifty years." Nicolas Sarkozy, President of France at the time of Mandelbrot's death, said Mandelbrot had "a powerful, original mind that never shied away from innovating and shattering preconceived notions [... h]is work, developed entirely outside mainstream research, led to modern information theory." Mandelbrot's obituary in The Economist points out his fame as "celebrity beyond the academy" and lauds him as the "father of fractal geometry". Best-selling essayist-author Nassim Nicholas Taleb has remarked that Mandelbrot's book The (Mis)Behavior of Markets is in his opinion "The deepest and most realistic finance book ever published".	[ "Ken Musgrave", "Thomas J. Watson Research Center", "Legion of Honour", "Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science", "Nassim Nicholas Taleb", "Romanesco broccoli", "Pacific Northwest National Laboratory", "Julia set", "American Mathematical Society", "Benoît", "27500 Mandelbrot", "American Philosophical Society", "Heinz-Otto Peitgen", "United States nationality law", "galaxy", "Murad Taqqu", "Chaos theory", "Hausdorff dimension", "Le Figaro", "IBM", "geology", "Princeton, New Jersey", "Warsaw", "fluid dynamics", "Gaston Julia", "pancreatic cancer", "University of Paris", "taxonomy (biology)", "Fellow of the American Physical Society", "Necessity and sufficiency", "The Fractal Geometry of Nature", "Cantor dust", "Aerodynamics", "Nicolas Sarkozy", "Yorktown Heights, New York", "meteorology", "The Jewish Daily Forward", "polymath", "Stephen Wolfram", "information theory", "Université Lille Nord de France", "rote learning", "star", "Scientific American", "BBC Online", "neurology", "Lithuanian Jews", "Rabbi", "David Feuerwerker", "IBM Fellow", "Institute for Advanced Study", "Fern", "psychedelic art", "Multiple citizenship", "econophysics", "Olbers' paradox", "Wolf Prize", "Cornell University Library", "fractal geometry", "Euclidean geometry", "Harvard University", "anatomy", "chaos theory", "self-similarity", "Eugene Dynkin", "metallurgy", "Jean Piaget", "Lyon", "complex plane", "engineering", "Légion d'honneur", "river basin", "Emeritus", "mandala", "Lycée du Parc", "statistical physics", "Sterling Professor", "financial market", "John Scott Award", "Lewis Fry Richardson", "Eugene Fama", "Japan Prize", "Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique", "Mathematics", "Fractal", "Nova (American TV series)", "physical cosmology", "Wolf Prize in Physics", "Johns Hopkins University", "Hartmut Jürgens", "Mandelbrot set", "stable distributions", "blood vessel", "lung", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "Paul Lévy (mathematician)", "mathematician", "Szolem Mandelbrojt", "Big Bang", "geomorphology", "Invariant (mathematics)", "Zina Morhange", "The Wall Street Journal", "Doctor of Philosophy", "Daniel Zajdenweber", "Second Polish Republic", "medicine", "TED (conference)", "The Guardian", "Artifact (observational)", "Gaussian distribution", "circumflex", "linguistics", "Tulle", "Physics Today", "World War II", "Franklin Medal", "The Gazette (Montreal)", "Geneva, Switzerland", "hydrology", "Brive-la-Gaillarde", "computer graphics", "Science (journal)", "tenure", "social science", "information technology", "Chris Anderson (entrepreneur)", "The Franklin Institute Awards", "Yale", "Yale University", "Pierre Fatou", "middle initial", "President of France", "Harvey Prize", "Collège-lycée Jacques-Decour", "Casimir Funk", "Fellow of the American Statistical Association", "Johannes Kepler", "hospice", "Humboldt Prize", "California Institute of Technology", "Laurent-Emmanuel Calvet", "geometry", "Web of Stories", "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension", "variance", "John von Neumann", "economics", "coastline", "aeronautics", "European Geophysical Society", "Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters", "Financial Times", "scale parameter", "fractal", "French nationality law", "École Polytechnique", "Charles Proteus Steinmetz", "The Atlantic", "Zipf–Mandelbrot law", "Dietmar Saupe", "List of Poles" ]
4,001	Benedict of Nursia	Benedict of Nursia (; ; 2 March 480 – 21 March 547), often known as Saint Benedict, was a Christian monk. He is famed in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Churches, the Anglican Communion, and Old Catholic Churches. In 1964, Pope Paul VI declared Benedict a patron saint of Europe. Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at Subiaco in present-day Lazio, Italy (about to the east of Rome), before moving southeast to Monte Cassino in the mountains of central Italy. The present-day Order of Saint Benedict emerged later and, moreover, is not an "order" as the term is commonly understood, but a confederation of autonomous congregations. Benedict's main achievement, his Rule of Saint Benedict, contains a set of rules for his monks to follow. Heavily influenced by the writings of John Cassian ( – ), it shows strong affinity with the earlier Rule of the Master, but it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness (, epieíkeia), which persuaded most Christian religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, Benedict's Rule became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason, Giuseppe Carletti regarded Benedict as the founder of Western Christian monasticism. ==Biography== Apart from a short poem attributed to Mark of Monte Cassino, the only ancient account of Benedict is found in the second volume of Pope Gregory I's four-book Dialogues, thought to have been written in 593, Gregory's account of Benedict's life, however, is not a biography in the modern sense of the word. It provides instead a spiritual portrait of the gentle, disciplined abbot. In a letter to Bishop Maximilian of Syracuse, Gregory states his intention for his Dialogues, saying they are a kind of floretum (an anthology, literally, 'flower garden') of the most striking miracles of Italian holy men. Gregory did not set out to write a chronological, historically anchored story of Benedict, but he did base his anecdotes on direct testimony. To establish his authority, Gregory explains that his information came from what he considered the best sources: a handful of Benedict's disciples who lived with him and witnessed his various miracles. These followers, he says, are Constantinus, who succeeded Benedict as Abbot of Monte Cassino, Honoratus, who was abbot of Subiaco when St. Gregory wrote his Dialogues, Valentinianus, and Simplicius. In Gregory's day, history was not recognised as an independent field of study; it was a branch of grammar or rhetoric, and historia was an account that summed up the findings of the learned when they wrote what was, at that time, considered history. Gregory's Dialogues, Book Two, then, an authentic medieval hagiography cast as a conversation between the Pope and his deacon Peter, is designed to teach spiritual lessons. the modern Norcia, in Umbria. According to Gregory's narrative, Benedict was born around 480, and the year in which he abandoned his studies and left home "was probably a few years before 500." Benedict was sent to Rome to study, but was disappointed by the academic studies he encountered there. Seeking to flee the great city, he left with his nurse and settled in Enfide. Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern Affile, is in the Simbruini mountains, about forty miles from Rome He founded 12 monasteries in the vicinity of Subiaco, and, eventually, in 530 he founded the great Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, which lies on a hilltop between Rome and Naples. ==Veneration== Benedict died of a fever at Monte Cassino not long after his sister, Scholastica, and was buried in the same tomb. According to tradition, this occurred on 21 March 547. He was named patron protector of Europe by Pope Paul VI in 1964. In 1980, Pope John Paul II declared him co-patron of Europe, together with Cyril and Methodius. Furthermore, he is the patron saint of speleologists. On the island of Tenerife (Spain) he is the patron saint of fields and farmers. An important romeria (Romería Regional de San Benito Abad) is held on this island in his honor, one of the most important in the country. In the pre-1970 General Roman Calendar, his feast is kept on 21 March, the day of his death according to some manuscripts of the Martyrologium Hieronymianum and that of Bede. Because on that date his liturgical memorial would always be impeded by the observance of Lent, the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar moved his memorial to 11 July, the date that appears in some Gallic liturgical books of the end of the 8th century as the feast commemorating his birth (Natalis S. Benedicti). There is some uncertainty about the origin of this feast. Accordingly, on 21 March the Roman Martyrology mentions in a line and a half that it is Benedict's day of death and that his memorial is celebrated on 11 July, while on 11 July it devotes seven lines to speaking of him, and mentions the tradition that he died on 21 March. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Benedict on 14 March. The Lutheran Churches celebrate the Feast of Saint Benedict on July 11. ==Rule of Saint Benedict== Benedict wrote the Rule for monks living communally under the authority of an abbot. The Rule comprises seventy-three short chapters. Its wisdom is twofold: spiritual (how to live a Christocentric life on earth) and administrative (how to run a monastery efficiently). ==Saint Benedict Medal== This devotional medal originally came from a cross in honor of Saint Benedict. On one side, the medal has an image of Saint Benedict, holding the Holy Rule in his left hand and a cross in his right. There is a raven on one side of him, with a cup on the other side of him. Around the medal's outer margin are the words "Eius in obitu nostro praesentia muniamur" ("May we be strengthened by his presence in the hour of our death"). The other side of the medal has a cross with the initials CSSML on the vertical bar which signify "Crux Sacra Sit Mihi Lux" ("May the Holy Cross be my light") and on the horizontal bar are the initials NDSMD which stand for "Non-Draco Sit Mihi Dux" ("Let not the dragon be my guide"). The initials CSPB stand for "Crux Sancti Patris Benedicti" ("The Cross of the Holy Father Benedict") and are located on the interior angles of the cross. Either the inscription "PAX" (Peace) or the Christogram "IHS" may be found at the top of the cross in most cases. Around the medal's margin on this side are the Vade Retro Satana initials VRSNSMV which stand for "Vade Retro Satana, Nonquam Suade Mihi Vana" ("Begone Satan, do not suggest to me thy vanities") then a space followed by the initials SMQLIVB which signify "Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas" ("Evil are the things thou profferest, drink thou thine own poison"). This medal was first struck in 1880 to commemorate the fourteenth centenary of Benedict's birth and is also called the Jubilee Medal; its exact origin, however, is unknown. In 1647, during a witchcraft trial at Natternberg near Metten Abbey in Bavaria, the accused women testified they had no power over Metten, which was under the protection of the cross. An investigation found a number of painted crosses on the walls of the abbey with the letters now found on St Benedict medals, but their meaning had been forgotten. A manuscript written in 1415 was eventually found that had a picture of Benedict holding a scroll in one hand and a staff which ended in a cross in the other. On the scroll and staff were written the full words of the initials contained on the crosses. Medals then began to be struck in Germany, which then spread throughout Europe. This medal was first approved by Pope Benedict XIV in his briefs of 23 December 1741 and 12 March 1742. ==Influence== The early Middle Ages have been called "the Benedictine centuries". In April 2008, Pope Benedict XVI discussed the influence St Benedict had on Western Europe. The pope said that "with his life and work St Benedict exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture" and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the Roman Empire. Benedict contributed more than anyone else to the rise of monasticism in the West. His Rule was the foundational document for thousands of religious communities in the Middle Ages. To this day, The Rule of St. Benedict is the most common and influential Rule used by monasteries and monks, more than 1,400 years after its writing. A basilica was built upon the birthplace of Benedict and Scholastica in the 1400s. Ruins of their familial home were excavated from beneath the church and preserved. The earthquake of 30 October 2016 completely devastated the structure of the basilica, leaving only the front facade and altar standing. ==Gallery== See also :Category:Paintings of Benedict of Nursia. Melk16.jpg\|Saint Benedict and the cup of poison (Melk Abbey, Austria) Gold-colored_small_Saint_Benedict_crucifix.jpg\|Small gold-coloured Saint Benedict crucifix Saint Benedict Medal.jpg\|Both sides of a Saint Benedict Medal Heiligenkreuz.St. Benedict.jpg\|Portrait (1926) by Herman Nieg (1849–1928); Heiligenkreuz Abbey, Austria BenedictEpisodeCure.jpg\|St. Benedict at the Death of St. Scholastica (–60), Musée National de l'Age Médiévale, Paris, orig. at the Abbatiale of St. Denis Einsiedeln - St. Benedikt 2013-01-26 13-50-02 (P7700).JPG\|Statue in Einsiedeln, Switzerland WiKi_SaintBenedictStatueWarsaw20110712.jpg\|Statue in the Old Town district of Warsaw, Poland Saint Andrew and Saint Benedict with the Archangel Gabriel (left panel) B35301.jpg\|Benedict holding a bound bundle of sticks representing the strength of monks who live in community	[ "Catholic Church", "Erysipelas", "romeria", "Eastern Roman Empire", "Rule of the Master", "Pope John Paul II", "Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster", "Great Church", "Christogram", "Byzantine Catholic Church", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Vicovaro", "Greenwood Publishing Group", "Papal States", "Benedetto Portinari Triptych", "San Beda University", "Subiaco, Lazio", "Pope Honorius III", "Roman Martyrology", "Hermit", "General Roman Calendar", "Europe", "Heiligenkreuz Abbey", "Mysterii Paschalis", "Anthony the Great", "Congregation (group of houses)", "Benedict XVI", "Old Catholic Church", "Libreria Editrice Vaticana", "Natternberg", "TAN Books", "Hagiography", "veneration of saints", "Affile", "Calendar of saints (Church of England)", "monastic rule", "Cyril and Methodius", "Melk Abbey", "Benedict of Aniane", "Heerdt", "Spain", "Fra Filippo Lippi", "Decree (canon law)", "John Cassian", "Paul VI", "Tenerife", "Ecclesiastical letter", "Nursia", "Monte Cassino", "Rockford, IL", "Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire", "Orléans", "Kingdom of Italy (476–493)", "Roman Empire", "Bede", "Abbot", "Anglican Communion", "Camaldolese", "Benedictine Order", "Christendom", "Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest", "Saint", "Matthew Bunson", "October 2016 Central Italy earthquakes", "Scholastica", "San Beneto", "Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)", "Hans Memling", "Enfide", "Rule of Saint Benedict", "Saint Placidus", "Pope Simplicius", "Romanus of Subiaco", "Saint Benedict Medal", "devotional medal", "Metten Abbey", "Lutheran Church", "Pope Benedict XIV", "Valentinian III", "Christian denomination", "Lesser Festival", "Einsiedeln Abbey", "Freeport, NY", "memorial (liturgy)", "Officers of arms", "Verlag Herder", "Patron saints of Europe", "Christian monasticism", "Bertram Colgrave", "Simbruini", "Category:Paintings of Benedict of Nursia", "bundle of sticks", "NBC News", "Coppersmith", "List of Anglican Church calendars", "religious order", "Lent", "Heraldry", "Pope Paul VI", "Spinello Aretino", "Pope Gregory I", "central Italy", "Order of Saint Benedict", "Our Sunday Visitor", "Huntington, Indiana", "patron saint", "Romería Regional de San Benito Abad", "St. Peter's Square", "Norcia", "Martyrologium Hieronymianum", "Ora et labora", "Vade retro satana", "Honoratus", "Norwich", "speleologists", "Catholic liturgy", "Umbria", "Vade Retro Satana", "Rome", "Church of England", "Middle Ages" ]
4,005	Battle of Pharsalus	The Battle of Pharsalus was the decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War fought on 9 August 48 BC near Pharsalus in Central Greece. Julius Caesar and his allies formed up opposite the army of the Roman Republic under the command of Pompey. Pompey had the backing of a majority of Roman senators and his army significantly outnumbered the veteran Caesarian legions. Pressured by his officers, Pompey reluctantly engaged in battle and suffered an overwhelming defeat, ultimately fleeing the camp and his men, disguised as an ordinary citizen. Eventually making his way to Egypt, he was assassinated upon his arrival at the order of Ptolemy XIII. ==Prelude== Following the start of the Civil War, Caesar had captured Rome, forced Pompey and his allies to withdraw from Italy, and defeated Pompey's legates in Spain. In the campaign season for 48 BC, Caesar crossed the Adriatic and advanced on Dyrrachium. There, he besieged it, but was defeated. Caesar then withdrew east into Thessaly, partly to relieve one of his legates from attack by Metellus Scipio's forces arriving from Syria. He besieged Gomphi after it resisted him. Pompey pursued, seeking to spare Italy from invasion by concluding the war on Greek soil, to prevent Caesar from defeating Metellus Scipio's forces arriving from Syria, and under pressure from his overconfident allies who accused him of prolonging the war to extend his command. ==Date== The decisive battle took place on 9 August 48 BC according to the Republican calendar. ==Location== The location of the battlefield was for a long time the subject of controversy among scholars. Caesar himself, in his Commentarii de Bello Civili, mentions few place-names; and although the battle is called after Pharsalos by modern authors, four ancient writers – the author of the Bellum Alexandrinum (48.1), Frontinus (Strategemata 2.3.22), Eutropius (20), and Orosius (6.15.27) – place it specifically at Palaepharsalus ("Old" Pharsalus). Strabo in his Geographica (Γεωγραφικά) mentions both old and new Pharsaloi, and notes that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Scotoussa, was near both. In 198 BC, in the Second Macedonian War, Philip V of Macedon sacked Palaepharsalos (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 32.13.9), but left new Pharsalos untouched. These two details perhaps imply that the two cities were not close neighbours. Many scholars, therefore, unsure of the site of Palaepharsalos, followed Appian (2.75) and located the battle of 48 BC south of the Enipeus or close to Pharsalos (today's Pharsala). Among the scholars arguing for the south side are Béquignon (1928), Bruère (1951), and Gwatkin (1957). An increasing number of scholars, however, have argued for a location on the north side of the river. These include Perrin (1885), Holmes (1908), Lucas (1921), Rambaud (1955), Pelling (1973), Morgan (1983), and Sheppard (2006). John D. Morgan in his definitive "Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town", shows that Palaepharsalus cannot have been at Palaiokastro, as Béquignon thought (a site abandoned c. 500 BC), nor the hill of Fatih-Dzami within the walls of Pharsalus itself, as Kromayer (1903, 1931) and Gwatkin thought; and Morgan argues that it is probably also not the hill of Khtouri (Koutouri), some 7 miles north-west of Pharsalus on the south bank of the Enipeus, as Lucas and Holmes thought, although that remains a possibility. However, Morgan believes it is most likely to have been the hill just east of the village of (Krini Larisas, formerly Driskoli) very close to the ancient highway from Larisa to Pharsalus. This site is some north of Pharsalus, and three miles north of the river Enipeus, and not only has remains dating back to Neolithic times but also signs of habitation in the 1st century BC and later. The identification seems to be confirmed by the location of a place misspelled "Palfari" or "Falaphari" shown on a medieval route map of the road just north of Pharsalus. Morgan places Pompey's camp a mile to the west of Krini, just north of the village of Avra (formerly Sarikayia), and Caesar's camp some four miles to the east-south-east of Pompey's. According to this reconstruction, therefore, the battle took place not between Pharsalus and the river, as Appian wrote, but between Old Pharsalus and the river. An interesting side-note on Palaepharsalus is that it was sometimes identified in ancient sources with Phthia, the home of Achilles. Near Old and New Pharsalus was a "Thetideion", or temple dedicated to Thetis, the mother of Achilles. However, Phthia, the kingdom of Achilles and his father Peleus, is more usually identified with the lower valley of the Spercheios river, much further south. ==Name of the battle== Although it is often called the Battle of Pharsalus by modern historians, this name was rarely used in the ancient sources. Caesar merely calls it the proelium in Thessaliā ("battle in Thessalia"); Marcus Tullius Cicero and Hirtius call it the Pharsālicum proelium ("Pharsalic battle") or pugna Pharsālia ("Pharsalian battle"), and similar expressions are also used in other authors. But Hirtius (if he is the author of the de Bello Alexandrino) also refers to the battle as having taken place at Palaepharsalus, and this name also occurs in Strabo, Frontinus, Eutropius, and Orosius. Lucan in his poem about the Civil War regularly uses the name Pharsālia, and this term is also used by the epitomiser of Livy and by Tacitus. The only ancient sources to refer to the battle as being at Pharsalus are a certain calendar known as the Fasti Amiternini and the Greek authors Plutarch, Appian, and Polyaenus. ==Opposing armies== The total number of soldiers on each side is unknown because ancient accounts of the battle focused primarily on giving the numbers of Italian legionaries only, regarding allied non-citizen contingents as inferior and inconsequential. According to Caesar, his own army included 22,000 Roman legionaries distributed throughout 80 cohorts (8 legions), alongside 1,000 Gallic and Germanic cavalry. All of Caesar's legions were understrength; some only had about a thousand men at the time of Pharsalus, due partly to losses at Dyrrhachium and partly to Caesar's wish to rapidly advance with a picked body as opposed to a ponderous movement with a large army. Another source adds that he had recruited Greek light infantry from Dolopia, Acarnania and Aetolia; these numbered no more than a few thousand. Caesar, Appian and Plutarch give Pompey an army of 45,000 Roman infantry. Osorius describes Pompey as having 88 cohorts of Roman infantry, which at full strength would come to 44,000 men, while Brunt and Wylie estimated Pompey's Roman infantry as being as 38,000 men, and Greenhalgh said they contained a maximum of 36,000. It was in his auxiliary troops and in particular his cavalry, all of which vastly outnumbered Caesar's own, that Pompey had his greatest advantage. He seems to have had at his disposal anywhere between 5,000 and 7,000 cavalry, and thousands of archers, slingers and light infantrymen in general. These all formed a remarkably diverse group, including Gallic and Germanic horsemen alongside all polyglot peoples of the east – namely Greeks, Thracians, and Anatolians from the Balkans and Syrians, Phoenicians and Jews from the Levant. To this heterogeneous force Pompey added horsemen conscripted from his own slaves. Many of the foreigners were serving under their own rulers, for more than a dozen despots and petty kings under Roman influence in the east were Pompey's personal clients and some elected to attend in person, or send proxies. ===Caesarian legions=== Caesar had the following legions with him: the VI legion (later called Ferrata) veterans of his Gallic Wars the VII legion (later called Claudia Pia Fidelis) veterans of his Gallic Wars the VIII legion (later called Augusta) veterans of his Gallic Wars the IX legion (later called Hispania) veterans of his Gallic Wars the X legion (Equestris, later called Gemina) veterans of his Gallic Wars the XI legion (later called Paterna and Claudia Pia Fidelis, the same title as the seventh) veterans of his Gallic Wars the XII legion (later called Fulminata) veterans of his Gallic Wars the XIII legion (later also called Gemina, the 'twin' to the tenth) veterans of his Gallic Wars The bulk of Caesar's army at Pharsalus was made up of his veterans from the Gallic Wars; very experienced, battle-hardened troops who were absolutely devoted to their commander. ==Deployment== The two generals deployed their legions in the traditional three lines (triplex acies), with Pompey's right and Caesar's left flanks resting on river Enipeus. As the stream provided enough protection to that side, Pompey moved almost all of his cavalry, archers, and slingers to the left, to make the most of their numerical strength. Only a small force of 500–600 Pontic cavalry and some Cappadocian light infantry was placed on his right flank. Pompey stationed his strongest legions in the center and wings of his infantry line, and dispersed some 2,000 re-enlisted veterans throughout the entire line in order to inspire the less experienced. The Pompeian cohorts were arrayed in an unusually thick formation, 10 men deep: their task was just to tie down the enemy foot while Pompey's cavalry, his key to victory, swept through Caesar's flank and rear. The column of legions was divided under command of three subordinates, with Lentulus in charge of the left, Scipio of the center and Ahenobarbus the right. Labienus was entrusted with command of the cavalry charge, while Pompey himself took up a position behind the left wing in order to oversee the course of the battle. Caesar also deployed his men in three lines, but, being outnumbered, had to thin his ranks to a depth of only six men, in order to match the frontage presented by Pompey. His left flank, resting on the Enipeus River, consisted of his battle-worn IX legion supplemented by the VIII legion, these were commanded by Mark Antony. The VI, XII, XI and XIII formed the centre and were commanded by Domitius, then came the VII and upon his right he placed his favored X legion, giving Sulla command of this flank – Caesar himself took his stand on the right, across from Pompey. Upon seeing the disposition of Pompey's army Caesar grew discomforted, and further thinned his third line in order to form a fourth line on his right: this to counter the onslaught of the enemy cavalry, which he knew his numerically inferior cavalry could not withstand. He gave this new line detailed instructions for the role they would play, hinting that upon them would rest the fortunes of the day, and gave strict orders to his third line not to charge until specifically ordered. ==Battle== There was significant distance between the two armies, according to Caesar. Pompey ordered his men not to charge, but to wait until Caesar's legions came into close quarters; Pompey's adviser Gaius Triarius believed that Caesar's infantry would be fatigued and fall into disorder if they were forced to cover twice the expected distance of a battle march. Also, stationary troops were expected to be able to defend better against pila throws. Seeing that Pompey's army was not advancing, Caesar's infantry under Mark Antony and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus started the advance. As Caesar's men neared throwing distance, without orders, they stopped to rest and regroup before continuing the charge; Pompey's right and centre line held as the two armies collided. As Pompey's infantry fought, Labienus ordered the Pompeian cavalry on his left flank to attack Caesar's cavalry; as expected they successfully pushed back Caesar's cavalry. Caesar then revealed his hidden fourth line of infantry and surprised Pompey's cavalry charge; Caesar's men were ordered to leap up and use their pila to thrust at Pompey's cavalry instead of throwing them. Pompey's cavalry panicked and suffered hundreds of casualties, as Caesar's cavalry came about and charged after them. After failing to reform, the rest of Pompey's cavalry retreated to the hills, leaving the left wing of his legions exposed to the hidden troops as Caesar's cavalry wheeled around their flank. Caesar then ordered in his third line, containing his most battle-hardened veterans, to attack. This broke Pompey's left wing troops, who fled the battlefield. After routing Pompey's cavalry, Caesar threw in his last line of reservesa move which at this point meant that the battle was more or less decided. Pompey lost the will to fight as he watched both cavalry and legions under his command break formation and flee from battle, and he retreated to his camp, leaving the rest of his troops at the centre and right flank to their own devices. He ordered the garrisoned auxiliaries to defend the camp as he gathered his family, loaded up gold, and threw off his general's cloak to make a quick escape. As the rest of Pompey's army were left confused, Caesar urged his men to end the day by routing the rest of Pompey's troops and capturing the Pompeian camp. They complied with his wishes; after finishing off the remains of Pompey's men, they furiously attacked the camp walls. The Thracians and the other auxiliaries who were left in the Pompeian camp, in total seven cohorts, defended bravely, but were not able to fend off the assault. These numbers seem suspiciously exaggerated with Appian suggesting the Caesarean losses to be as many as 1,200 men and the Pompeian losses to be 6,000. In his history of the war, Caesar would praise his own men's discipline and experience, and remembered each of his centurions by name. He also questioned Pompey's decision not to charge. ==Aftermath== Pompey, despairing of the defeat, fled with his advisors overseas to Mytilene and thence to Cilicia where he held a council of war; at the same time, Cato and supporters at Dyrrachium attempted first to hand over command to Marcus Tullius Cicero, who refused, deciding instead to return to Italy. They then regrouped at Corcyra and went thence to Libya. Others, including Marcus Junius Brutus sought Caesar's pardon, travelling over marshlands to Larissa where he was then welcomed graciously by Caesar in his camp. Pompey's council of war decided to flee to Egypt, which had in the previous year supplied him with military aid. In the aftermath of the battle, Caesar captured Pompey's camp and burned Pompey's correspondence. He then announced that he would forgive all who asked for mercy. Pompeian naval forces in the Adriatic and Italy mostly withdrew or surrendered. Hearing of Pompey's flight to Egypt, Caesar remained in hot pursuit, first landing in Asia and reaching Alexandria on 2 October 48 BC, where he learnt of Pompey's murder and then was embroiled in a dynastic dispute between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra. ==Importance== Paul K. Davis wrote that "Caesar's victory took him to the pinnacle of power, effectively ending the Republic." The battle itself did not end the civil war but it was decisive and gave Caesar a much needed boost in legitimacy. Until then much of the Roman world outside Italy supported Pompey and his allies due to the extensive list of clients he held in all corners of the Republic. After Pompey's defeat former allies began to align themselves with Caesar as some came to believe the gods favored him, while for others it was simple self-preservation. The ancients took great stock in success as a sign of favoritism by the gods. This is especially true of success in the face of almost certain defeat – as Caesar experienced at Pharsalus. This allowed Caesar to parlay this single victory into a huge network of willing clients to better secure his hold over power and force the Optimates into near exile in search for allies to continue the fight against Caesar. == In popular culture == The battle gives its name to the following artistic, geographical, and business concerns: Pharsalia, a poem by Lucan Pharsalia, New York, U.S. Pharsalia Technologies, Inc. In Alexandre Dumas' The Three Musketeers, the author makes reference to Caesar's purported order that his men try to cut the faces of their opponents – their vanity supposedly being of more value to them than their lives. In Mankiewicz's 1963 film Cleopatra, the immediate aftermath of Pharsalus is used as an opening scene to set the action in motion.	[ "Legionary", "Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)", "Society for Classical Studies", "Metellus Scipio", "Evocatus", "centurion", "Achilles", "Marcus Annaeus Lucanus", "Acarnania", "triplex acies", "Spercheios", "Alexandre Dumas", "Legio X Equestris", "Roman calendar", "F. L. Lucas", "Legio XII Fulminata", "Second Macedonian War", "Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus", "Appian", "Legio VI Ferrata", "Sling (weapon)", "Gauls", "The Three Musketeers", "Cappadocia", "Strabo", "Mark Antony", "Niccolò da Bologna", "Dolopia", "Cleopatra", "Paul K. Davis (historian)", "Publius Cornelius Sulla", "Roman Senate", "Palaepharsalus", "Pharsalia Technologies", "Pompey", "Oxford University Press", "Thracians", "Cohort (Roman)", "Marcus Junius Brutus", "Phoenicians", "Central Greece (geographic region)", "cohort (Roman)", "Enipeas (Thessaly)", "Orosius", "Roman Republic", "Thetis", "Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)", "Pontus (region)", "Jews", "Despotism", "Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)", "Peleus", "Pharsala", "Legio XIII Gemina", "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum", "Alexandria", "Phthia", "Ptolemy XIII", "American Journal of Archaeology", "Aulus Hirtius", "Livy", "Syrians", "List of ancient Roman fasti", "de Bello Alexandrino", "Anatolians", "Polyaenus", "Caesar's Civil War", "Pharsalia, New York", "Thetidium", "Eutropius (historian)", "iarchive:bub gb o83oScszzJsC/page/5/mode/1up", "Plutarch", "Philip V of Macedon", "Ptolemaic Egypt", "Fasti Antiates", "Legio IX Hispana", "Cleopatra (1963 film)", "Titus Labienus", "Neolithic", "Pilum", "Gaius Triarius", "Siege of Gomphi", "Commentarii de Bello Civili", "Caesar's invasion of Macedonia", "Cicero", "Pharsalia", "Marcus Tullius Cicero", "Julius Caesar", "Greeks", "Legio VII Claudia", "Legio XI Claudia", "Farsala", "Legio VIII Augusta", "Lucan", "Little Iliad", "Frontinus", "Aetolia", "Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus", "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio" ]
4,009	Bigfoot	Bigfoot (), also commonly referred to as Sasquatch (), is a large, hairy mythical creature said to inhabit forests in North America, particularly in the Pacific Northwest. Bigfoot is featured in both American and Canadian folklore, and since the mid-20th century has grown into a cultural icon, permeating popular culture and becoming the subject of its own distinct subculture. Enthusiasts of Bigfoot, such as those within the pseudoscience of cryptozoology, have offered various forms of dubious evidence to prove Bigfoot's existence, including anecdotal claims of sightings as well as alleged photographs, video and audio recordings, hair samples, and casts of large footprints. However, the scientific consensus is that Bigfoot, and alleged evidence, is a combination of folklore, misidentification, and hoax rather than a living animal. Folklorists trace the phenomenon of Bigfoot to a combination of factors and sources, including the European wild man figure, folk tales, and indigenous cultures. Examples of similar folk tales of wild, hair-covered humanoids exist throughout the world, such as the Skunk ape of the southeastern United States, the Almas, Yeren, and Yeti in Asia, the Australian Yowie, and creatures in the mythologies of indigenous people. Wishful thinking, a cultural increase in environmental concerns, and overall societal awareness of the subject have been cited as additional factors. ==Description== Bigfoot is often described as a large, muscular, and bipedal human or ape-like creature covered in black, dark brown, or dark reddish hair. Anecdotal descriptions estimate a height of roughly , with some descriptions having the creatures standing as tall as . Some alleged observations describe Bigfoot as more human than ape, particularly in regard to the face. In 1971, multiple people in The Dalles, Oregon, filed a police report describing an "overgrown ape", and one of the men claimed to have sighted the creature in the scope of his rifle but could not bring himself to shoot it because "it looked more human than animal". Common descriptions include broad shoulders, no visible neck, and long arms, which many skeptics attribute to misidentification of a bear standing upright. Some alleged nighttime sightings have stated the creature's eyes "glowed" yellow or red. However, eyeshine is not present in humans or any other known great apes, and so proposed explanations for observable eyeshine off of the ground in the forest include owls, raccoons, or opossums perched in foliage. Michael Rugg, the owner of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum, claims to have smelled Bigfoot, stating, "Imagine a skunk that had rolled around in dead animals and had hung around the garbage pits." The enormous footprints for which the creature is named are claimed to be as large as long and wide. ==History== ===Folklore and early records === Ecologist Robert Pyle argues that most cultures have accounts of human-like giants in their folk history, expressing a need for "some larger-than-life creature". Each language had its name for the creature featured in the local version of such legends. Many names mean something like "wild man" or "hairy man", although other names described common actions that it was said to perform, such as eating clams or shaking trees. European folklore traditionally had many instances of the "wild man of the woods," or "wild people," often described as "a naked creature covered in hair, with only the face, feet and hands (and in some cases the knees, elbows, or breasts) remaining bare" These European wild people ranged from human hermits, to human-like monsters. and according to anthropologist David Daegling, these legends existed long before contemporary reports of the creature described as Bigfoot. These stories differed in their details regionally and between families in the same community and are particularly prevalent in the Pacific Northwest. Chief Mischelle of the Nlaka'pamux at Lytton, British Columbia, told such a story to Charles Hill-Tout in 1898. On the Tule River Indian Reservation, petroglyphs created by a tribe of Yokuts at a site called Painted Rock are alleged by Kathy Moskowitz Strain, author of the 2008 book Giants, Cannibals, Monsters: Bigfoot in Native Culture, to depict a group of Bigfoots called "the Family". The largest glyph is called "Hairy Man", and they are estimated to be 1,000 years old. According to the Tulare County Board of Education in 1975, "Big Foot, the Hairy Man, was a creature that was like a great big giant with long, shaggy hair. His long shaggy hair made him look like a big animal. He was good in a way, because he ate the animals that might harm people", and Yokuts parents warned their children not to venture near the river at night or they may encounter the creature. 16th-century Spanish explorers and Mexican settlers told tales of the los Vigilantes Oscuros, or "Dark Watchers", large creatures alleged to stalk their camps at night. In the region that is now Mississippi, a Jesuit priest was living with the Natchez in 1721 and reported stories of hairy creatures in the forest known to scream loudly and steal livestock. In 1929, Indian agent and teacher J.W. Burns, who lived and worked with the Sts'ailes Nation (then called the Chehalis First Nation), published a collection of stories titled, Introducing B.C.'s Hairy Giants: A collection of strange tales about British Columbia's wild men as told by those who say they have seen them, in Maclean's magazine. The stories offered various anecdotal reports of wild people; including an encounter a tribal member had with a hairy wild woman who could speak the language of the Douglas First Nation. Burns coined the term "Sasquatch", believed to be the anglicized version of sasq'ets (sas-kets), roughly translating to "hairy man" in the Halq'emeylem language. Burns describes the Sasquatch as, "a tribe of hairy people whom they claim have always lived in the mountains – in tunnels and caves". The folklore of the Cherokee includes tales of the Tsul 'Kalu, who were described as "slant-eyed giants" that resided in the Appalachian Mountains, and is sometimes associated with Bigfoot. Members of the Lummi tell tales about creatures known as Ts'emekwes. The stories are similar to each other in the general descriptions of Ts'emekwes, but details differed among various family accounts concerning the creature's diet and activities. Some regional versions tell of more threatening creatures: the stiyaha or kwi-kwiyai were a nocturnal race, and children were warned against saying the names so that the "monsters" would not come and carry them off to be killed. The Iroquois tell of an aggressive, hair covered giant with rock-hard skin known as the Ot ne yar heh or "Stone Giant", more commonly referred to as the Genoskwa. In 1847, Paul Kane reported stories by the natives about skoocooms, a race of cannibalistic wild men living on the peak of Mount St. Helens. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, in his 1893 book, The Wilderness Hunter, writes of a story he was told by an elderly mountain man named Bauman in which a foul-smelling, bipedal creature ransacked his beaver trapping camp, stalked him, and later became hostile when it fatally broke his companion's neck. Roosevelt notes that Bauman appeared fearful while telling the story but attributed the trapper's German ancestry to have potentially influenced him. The Alutiiq of the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska tell of the Nantinaq, a Bigfoot-like creature. This folklore was featured in the Discovery+ television series, Alaskan Killer Bigfoot, which claims the Nantinaq was responsible for the population decrease of Portlock in the 1940s. Less menacing versions have been recorded, such as one by Reverend Elkanah Walker in 1840. Walker was a Protestant missionary who recorded stories of giants among the natives living near Spokane, Washington. These giants were said to live on and around the peaks of the nearby mountains, stealing salmon from the fishermen's nets. ==== Ape Canyon incident ==== On July 16, 1924, an article in The Oregonian made national news when a story was published describing a conflict between a group of gold prospectors and a group of "ape-men" in a gorge near Mount St. Helens. The prospectors reported encountering "gorilla men" near their remote cabin. One of the men, Fred Beck, indicated that he shot one of the creatures with a rifle. That night, they reported coming under attack by the creatures, who were said to have thrown large rocks at the cabin, damaging the roof and knocking Beck unconscious. The men fled the area the following morning. The U.S. Forest Service investigated the site of the alleged incident. The investigators found no compelling evidence of the event and concluded it was likely a fabrication. Stories of large, hair covered bipedal ape-men or "mountain devils" had been a persistent piece of folklore in the area for centuries prior to the alleged incident. Today, the area is known as Ape Canyon and is cemented within Bigfoot-related folklore. ===Origin of the "Bigfoot" name=== ====Jerry Crew and Andrew Genzoli==== In 1958, Jerry Crew, bulldozer operator for a logging company in Humboldt County, California, discovered a set of large, human-like footprints sunk deep within the mud in the Six Rivers National Forest. Upon informing his coworkers, many claimed to have seen similar tracks on previous job sites as well as telling of odd incidents such as an oil drum weighing having been moved without explanation. The logging company men soon began using the word "Bigfoot" to describe the apparent culprit. Crew and others initially believed someone was playing a prank on them. After observing more of these massive footprints, he contacted reporter Andrew Genzoli of the Humboldt Times newspaper. Genzoli interviewed lumber workers and wrote articles about the mysterious footprints, introducing the name "Bigfoot" in relation to the tracks and the local tales of large, hairy wild men. A plaster cast was made of the footprints and Crew appeared, holding one of the casts, on the front page of the newspaper on October 6, 1958. The story spread rapidly as Genzoli began to receive correspondence from major media outlets including the New York Times and Los Angeles Times. As a result, the term Bigfoot became widespread as a reference to an apparently large, unknown creature leaving massive footprints in Northern California. ====Ray Wallace and Rant Mullens==== In 2002, the family of Jerry Crew's deceased coworker Ray Wallace revealed a collection of large, carved wooden feet stored in his basement. They stated that Wallace had been secretly making the footprints and was responsible for the tracks discovered by Crew. Wallace was inspired by another hoaxer, Rant Mullens, who revealed information about his hoaxes in 1982. In the 1930s in Toledo, Washington, Mullens and a group of other foresters carved pairs of large feet made of wood and used them to create footprints in the mud to scare huckleberry pickers in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest. The group would also claim to be responsible for hoaxing the alleged Ape Canyon incident in 1924. Mullens and the group of foresters began referring to themselves as the St. Helens Apes, and would later have a cave dedicated to them. Wallace, also from Toledo, knew Mullens and stated he collaborated with him to obtain a pair of the large wooden feet and subsequently used them to create footprints on the 1958 construction site as a means to scare away potential thieves. ===Other historical uses of "Bigfoot"=== In the 1830s, a Wyandot chief was nicknamed "Big Foot" due to his significant size, strength and large feet. Potawatomi Chief Maumksuck, known as Chief "Big Foot", is today synonymous with the area of Walworth County, Wisconsin, and has a state park and school named for him. William A. A. Wallace, a famous 19th century Texas Ranger, was nicknamed "Bigfoot" due to his large feet and today has a town named for him: Bigfoot, Texas. Lakota leader Spotted Elk was also called "Chief Big Foot". In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, at least two enormous marauding grizzly bears were widely noted in the press and each nicknamed "Bigfoot." The first grizzly bear called "Bigfoot" was reportedly killed near Fresno, California, in 1895 after killing sheep for 15 years; his weight was estimated at 2,000 pounds (900 kg). The second one was active in Idaho in the 1890s and 1900s between the Snake and Salmon rivers, and supernatural powers were attributed to it. ====Regional and other names==== Many regions throughout North America have differentiating names for Bigfoot. In Canada, the name Sasquatch is widely used in addition to Bigfoot. The United States uses both of these names but also has numerous names and descriptions of the creatures depending on the region and area in which they are allegedly sighted. These include the Skunk ape in Florida and other southern states, the Ohio Grassman in Ohio, Fouke Monster in Arkansas, Wood Booger in Virginia, the Monster of Whitehall in Whitehall, New York, Momo in Missouri, Honey Island Swamp Monster in Louisiana, Dewey Lake Monster in Michigan, Mogollon Monster in Arizona, the Big Muddy Monster in southern Illinois, and The Old Men of the Mountain in West Virginia. The term Wood Ape is also used by some as a means to deviate from the perceived mythical connotation surrounding the name "Bigfoot". Other names include Bushman, Treeman, and Wildman. ===Patterson-Gimlin film=== On October 20, 1967, Bigfoot enthusiast Roger Patterson and his partner Robert "Bob" Gimlin were filming a Bigfoot docudrama in an area called Bluff Creek in Northern California. The pair claimed they came upon a Bigfoot and filmed the encounter. The 59.5-second-long video, dubbed the Patterson-Gimlin film (PGF), has become iconic in popular culture and Bigfoot-related history and lore. The PGF continues to be a highly scrutinized, analyzed, and debated subject. Academic experts from related fields have typically judged the film as providing no supportive data of any scientific value, with perhaps the most common proposed explanation being that it was a hoax. ==Proposed explanations== Various explanations have been suggested for sightings and to offer conjecture on what existing animal has been misidentified in supposed sightings of Bigfoot. Scientists typically attribute sightings to hoaxes or misidentifications of known animals and their tracks, particularly black bears. ===Misidentification=== ====Bears==== Scientists theorize that mistaken identification of American black bears as Bigfoot are a likely explanation for most reported sightings, particularly when observers view a subject from afar, are in dense foliage, or there are poor lighting conditions. Additionally, black bears have been observed and recorded walking upright, often as the result of an injury. While upright, adult black bears stand roughly , and grizzly bears roughly . According to data scientist Floe Foxon, more people report seeing Bigfoot in areas with documented black bear populations. Foxon concludes, "If bigfoot is there, it may be many bears". Foxon acknowledges that alleged Bigfoot sightings have been reported in areas with minimal or no known black bear populations. She states, "Although this may be interpreted as evidence for the existence of an unknown hominid in North America, it is also explained by misidentification of other animals (including humans), among other possibilities". ====Escaped apes==== Some have proposed that sightings of Bigfoot may simply be people observing and misidentifying known great apes such as chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans that have escaped from captivity such as zoos, circuses, and exotic pets belonging to private owners. This explanation is often proposed in relation to the Skunk ape, as some scientists argue the humid subtropical climate of the southeastern United States could potentially support a population of escaped apes. ====Humans==== Humans have been mistaken for Bigfoot, with some incidents leading to injuries. In 2013, a 21-year-old man in Oklahoma was arrested after he told law enforcement he accidentally shot his friend in the back while their group was allegedly hunting for Bigfoot. In 2017, a shamanist wearing clothing made of animal furs was vacationing in a North Carolina forest when local reports of alleged Bigfoot sightings flooded in. The Greenville Police Department issued a public notice not to shoot Bigfoot for fear of mistakenly injuring or killing someone in a fur suit. In 2018, a person was shot multiple times by a hunter near Helena, Montana, who claimed he mistook him for a Bigfoot. Additionally, some have attributed feral humans or hermits living in the wilderness as being another explanation for alleged Bigfoot sightings. One story, the Wild Man of the Navidad, tells of a wild ape-man who roamed the wilderness of eastern Texas in the mid-19th century, stealing food and goods from residents. A search party allegedly captured an escaped African slave attributed to the story. During the 1980s, several psychologically damaged American Vietnam veterans were stated by the state of Washington's veterans' affairs director, Randy Fisher, to have been living in remote wooded areas of the state. ====Pareidolia==== Some have proposed that pareidolia may explain Bigfoot sightings, specifically the tendency to observe human-like faces and figures within the natural environment. Photos and videos of poor quality alleged to depict Bigfoots are often attributed to this phenomenon and commonly referred to as "Blobsquatch". ====Misidentified vocalizations==== The majority of mainstream scientists maintain that the source of the sounds often attributed to Bigfoot are either hoaxes, anthropomorphization, or likely misidentified and produced by known animals such as owl, wolf, coyote, and fox. ===Hoaxes=== Both Bigfoot believers and non-believers agree that many reported sightings are hoaxes. ===Gigantopithecus=== Bigfoot proponents Grover Krantz and Geoffrey H. Bourne both believed that Bigfoot could be a relict population of the extinct southeast Asian ape species Gigantopithecus blacki. According to Bourne, G. blacki may have followed the many other species of animals that migrated across the Bering land bridge to the Americas. To date, no Gigantopithecus fossils have been found in the Americas. In Asia, the only recovered fossils have been of mandibles and teeth, leaving uncertainty about G. blackis locomotion. Krantz has argued that G. blacki could have been bipedal, based on his extrapolation from the shape of its mandible. However, the relevant part of the mandible is not present in any fossils. The consensus view is that G. blacki was quadrupedal, as its enormous mass would have made it difficult for it to adopt a bipedal gait. Anthropologist Matt Cartmill criticizes the G. blacki hypothesis: The trouble with this account is that Gigantopithecus was not a hominin and maybe not even a crown group hominoid; yet the physical evidence implies that Bigfoot is an upright biped with buttocks and a long, stout, permanently adducted hallux. These are hominin autapomorphies, not found in other mammals or other bipeds. It seems unlikely that Gigantopithecus would have evolved these uniquely hominin traits in parallel. Paleoanthropologist Bernard G. Campbell writes: "That Gigantopithecus is in fact extinct has been questioned by those who believe it survives as the Yeti of the Himalayas and the Sasquatch of the north-west American coast. But the evidence for these creatures is not convincing." ===Extinct hominidae=== Primatologist John R. Napier and anthropologist Gordon Strasenburg have suggested a species of Paranthropus as a possible candidate for Bigfoot's identity, such as Paranthropus robustus, with its gorilla-like crested skull and bipedal gait —despite the fact that fossils of Paranthropus are found only in Africa. Michael Rugg of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum presented a comparison between human, Gigantopithecus, and Meganthropus skulls (reconstructions made by Grover Krantz) in episodes 131 and 132 of the Bigfoot Discovery Museum Show. Bigfoot enthusiasts that think Bigfoot may be the "missing link" between apes and humans have promoted the idea that Bigfoot is a descendant of Gigantopithecus blacki, but that ape diverged from orangutans around 12 million years ago and is not related to humans. Some suggest Neanderthal, Homo erectus, or Homo heidelbergensis to be the creature, but, like all other great apes, no remains of any of those species have been found in the Americas. ==Scientific view== Expert consensus is that allegations of the existence of Bigfoot are not credible. Belief in the existence of such a large, ape-like creature is more often attributed to hoaxes, confusion, or delusion rather than to sightings of a genuine creature. Bigfoot is alleged to live in regions unusual for a large, nonhuman primate, i.e., temperate latitudes in the northern hemisphere; all recognized nonhuman apes are found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. Great apes have not been found in the fossil record in the Americas, and no Bigfoot remains are known to have been found. Phillips Stevens, a cultural anthropologist at the University at Buffalo, summarized the scientific consensus as follows: In the 1970s, when Bigfoot "experts" were frequently given high-profile media coverage, McLeod writes that the scientific community generally avoided lending credence to such fringe theories by refusing even to debate them. She later added, "Well, I'm a romantic, so I always wanted them to exist," and "Of course, the big, the big criticism of all this is, "Where is the body?" You know, why isn't there a body? I can't answer that, and maybe they don't exist, but I want them to." Paleontologist and author Darren Naish states in a 2016 article for Scientific American that if "Bigfoot" existed, an abundance of evidence would also exist that cannot be found anywhere today, making the existence of such a creature exceedingly unlikely. ===Researchers=== Ivan T. Sanderson and Bernard Heuvelmans, founders of the study of cryptozoology, spent parts of their career searching for Bigfoot. Later scientists who researched the topic included Jason Jarvis, Carleton S. Coon, George Allen Agogino and William Charles Osman Hill, though they later stopped their research due to lack of evidence for the alleged creature. John Napier asserts that the scientific community's attitude towards Bigfoot stems primarily from insufficient evidence. Other scientists who have shown varying degrees of interest in the creature are Grover Krantz, Jeffrey Meldrum, John Bindernagel, David J. Daegling, George Schaller, Russell Mittermeier, Daris Swindler, Esteban Sarmiento, and Mireya Mayor. ===Formal studies=== One study was conducted by John Napier and published in his book Bigfoot: The Yeti and Sasquatch in Myth and Reality in 1973. Napier wrote that if a conclusion is to be reached based on scant extant "'hard' evidence," science must declare "Bigfoot does not exist." However, he found it difficult to entirely reject thousands of alleged tracks, "scattered over 125,000 square miles" (325,000 km2) or to dismiss all "the many hundreds" of eyewitness accounts. Napier concluded, "I am convinced that Sasquatch exists, but whether it is all it is cracked up to be is another matter altogether. There must be something in north-west America that needs explaining, and that something leaves man-like footprints." In 1974, the National Wildlife Federation funded a field study seeking Bigfoot evidence. No formal federation members were involved and the study made no notable discoveries. Also in 1974, the now defunct North American Wildlife Research Team constructed a "Bigfoot trap" in the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest. It was baited with animal carcasses and captured multiple bears, but no Bigfoot. Upkeep of the trap ended in the early 1980s, but in 2006 the United States Forest Service repaired the trap, which today is a tourist destination along the Collings Mountain hiking trail. Beginning in the late 1970s, physical anthropologist Grover Krantz published several articles and four book-length treatments of Bigfoot. However, his work was found to contain multiple scientific failings including falling for hoaxes. A study published in the Journal of Biogeography in 2009 by J.D. Lozier et al. used ecological niche modeling on reported sightings of Bigfoot, using their locations to infer preferred ecological parameters. They found a very close match with the ecological parameters of the American black bear. They also note that an upright bear looks much like a Bigfoot's purported appearance and consider it highly improbable that two species should have very similar ecological preferences, concluding that Bigfoot sightings are likely misidentified sightings of black bears. In the first systematic genetic analysis of 30 hair samples that were suspected to be from Bigfoot-like creatures, only one was found to be primate in origin, and that was identified as human. A joint study by the University of Oxford and Lausanne's Cantonal Museum of Zoology and published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B in 2014, the team used a previously published cleaning method to remove all surface contamination and the ribosomal mitochondrial DNA 12S fragment of the sample. The sample was sequenced and then compared to GenBank to identify the species origin. The samples submitted were from different parts of the world, including the United States, Russia, the Himalayas, and Sumatra. Other than one sample of human origin, all but two are from common animals. Black and brown bears accounted for most of the samples, other animals include cow, horse, dog/wolf/coyote, sheep, goat, deer, raccoon, porcupine, and tapir. The last two samples were thought to match a fossilized genetic sample of a 40,000 year old polar bear of the Pleistocene epoch; a second test identified these hairs as being from a rare type of brown bear. In 2019, the FBI declassified an analysis it conducted on alleged Bigfoot hairs in 1976. Bigfoot researcher Peter Byrne sent the FBI 15 hairs attached to a small skin fragment and asked if the bureau could assist him in identifying it. Jay Cochran Jr., assistant director of the FBI's Scientific and Technical Services division responded in 1977 that the hairs were of deer family origin. ==Claims== Claims about the origins and characteristics of Bigfoot vary. Thomas Sewid, a Bigfoot researcher and member of the Kwakwakaʼwakw tribe claims, "They're just the other tribe. They're just big, hairy humans with nocturnal vision that choose not to have weapons or fire or permanent shelters". The subject of Bigfoot has also crossed over with other paranormal claims, including that Bigfoot, extraterrestrials, and UFOs are related or that Bigfoot are psychic, can shapeshift, are able to cross into different dimensions, or are completely supernatural in origin. Additionally, claims regarding Bigfoot have been associated with conspiracy theories including a government cover-up. There have also been claims that Bigfoot is responsible for the disappearances of people in the wilderness, such as the 1969 disappearance of Dennis Martin in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Additionally, there have been claims that Bigfoot has been responsible for vehicle accidents, vandalizing property, delaying construction, and killing people. In 2022, a man from Oklahoma claimed he killed his friend because he believed he had summoned Bigfoot and was going to be sacrificed to the creature. ===Sightings=== According to Live Science, there have been over 10,000 reported Bigfoot sightings in the continental United States. About one-third of all claims of Bigfoot sightings are located in the Pacific Northwest, with the remaining reports spread throughout the rest of North America. Most reports are considered mistakes or hoaxes, even by those researchers who claim Bigfoot exists. Sightings predominantly occur in the northwestern region of Washington state, Oregon, Northern California, and British Columbia. According to data collected from the Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization's (BFRO) Bigfoot sightings database in 2019, Washington has over 2,000 reported sightings, California over 1,600, Pennsylvania over 1,300, New York and Oregon over 1,000, and Texas has just over 800. The debate over the legitimacy of Bigfoot sightings reached a peak in the 1970s, and Bigfoot has been regarded as the first widely popularized example of pseudoscience in American culture. Reports of alleged Bigfoot sightings are often featured in news stories throughout the United States. ====Alleged behavior==== Some Bigfoot researchers allege that Bigfoot throws rocks as territorial displays and for communication. Other alleged behaviors include audible blows struck against trees or "wood knocking", further alleged to be communicative. Skeptics argue that these behaviors are easily hoaxed. Additionally, structures of broken and twisted foliage seemingly placed in specific areas have been attributed by some to Bigfoot behavior. In some reports, lodgepole pine and other small trees have been observed bent, uprooted, or stacked in patterns such as weaved and crisscrossed, leading some to theorize that they are potential territorial markings. Some instances have also included entire deer skeletons being suspended high in trees. Some researchers and enthusiasts believe Bigfoot construct teepee-like structures out of dead trees and foliage. In Washington state, a team of amateur Bigfoot researchers called the Olympic Project claimed to have discovered a collection of nests. The group brought in primatologists to study them, with the conclusion being that they appear to have been created by a primate. Jeremiah Byron, host of the Bigfoot Society Podcast, believes Bigfoot are omnivores, stating, "They eat both plants and meat. I've seen accounts that they eat everything from berries, leaves, nuts, and fruit to salmon, rabbit, elk, and bear. Ronny Le Blanc, host of Expedition Bigfoot on the Travel Channel indicated he has heard anecdotal reports of Bigfoot allegedly hunting and consuming deer. In the 2001 nature documentary Great North, a dark bipedal figure was captured on film while the filmmakers were recording a herd of caribou. The footage has sparked debate, as some Bigfoot researchers claim the figure is a Bigfoot stalking the caribou. In 2016, Bigfoot researcher ThinkerThunker released a YouTube video in which he interviewed one of the Great North directors, William Reeve, who claims it could not have been a human but was possibly a bear, although he and his crew denied seeing any bears while filming. Some Bigfoot researchers have reported the creatures moving or taking possession of intentional "gifts" left by humans such as food and jewelry, and leaving items in their places such as rocks and twigs. Many alleged sightings are reported to occur at night leading some cryptozoologists to hypothesize that Bigfoot may possess nocturnal tendencies. However, experts find such behavior untenable in a supposed ape- or human-like creature, as all known apes, including humans, are diurnal, with only lesser primates exhibiting nocturnality. Most anecdotal sightings of Bigfoot describe the creatures allegedly observed as solitary, although some reports have described groups being allegedly observed together. ====Alleged vocalizations==== Alleged vocalizations such as howls, screams, moans, grunts, whistles, and even a form of supposed language have been reported and allegedly recorded. Some of these alleged vocalization recordings have been analyzed by individuals such as retired U.S. Navy cryptologic linguist Scott Nelson. He analyzed audio recordings from the early 1970s said to be recorded in the Sierra Nevada mountains dubbed the "Sierra Sounds" and stated, "It is definitely a language, it is definitely not human in origin, and it could not have been faked". Les Stroud has spoken of a strange vocalization he heard in the wilderness while filming Survivorman that he stated sounded primate in origin. A number of anecdotal reports of Bigfoot encounters have resulted in witnesses claiming to be disoriented, dizzy and anxious. Some Bigfoot researchers, such as paranormal author Nick Redfern, have proposed that Bigfoot may produce infrasound, which could explain reports of this nature. ====Alleged encounters==== In Fouke, Arkansas, in 1971, a family reported that a large, hair-covered creature startled a woman after reaching through a window. This alleged incident caused hysteria in the Fouke area and inspired the horror movie, The Legend of Boggy Creek (1972). The report was later deemed a hoax. In 1974, the New York Times presented the dubious tale of Albert Ostman, a Canadian prospector, who stated that he was kidnapped and held captive by a family of Bigfoot for six days in 1924. In 1994, former U.S. Forest Service ranger Paul Freeman, a Bigfoot researcher, videotaped an alleged Bigfoot he reportedly encountered in the Blue Mountains in Oregon. The tape, often referred to as the Freeman footage, continues to be scrutinized and its authenticity debated. Freeman had previously gained media recognition in the 1980s for documenting alleged Bigfoot tracks, claiming they possessed dermal ridges. On May 26, 1996, Lori Pate, who was on a camping trip near the Washington state-Canada border, videotaped a dark subject she reported encountering running across a field and claimed it was Bigfoot. The film, dubbed the Memorial Day Bigfoot footage, is often depicted in Bigfoot-related media, most notably in the 2003 documentary, Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science. In his research, Daniel Perez of the Skeptical Inquirer concluded that the footage was likely a hoax perpetuated by a human in a gorilla costume. In 2018, Bigfoot researcher Claudia Ackley garnered international attention after filing a lawsuit with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) for failing to acknowledge the existence of Bigfoot. Ackley claimed to have encountered and filmed a Bigfoot in the San Bernardino Mountains in 2017, describing what she saw as a "Neanderthal man with a lot of hair". Ackley contacted emergency services as well as the CDFW; a state investigator concluded that she encountered a bear. Until her death in 2023, Ackley also ran an online support group for individuals claiming to experience psychological trauma as a result of alleged Bigfoot encounters. In October 2023, a woman named Shannon Parker uploaded a video of an alleged Bigfoot to Facebook. The footage went viral on social media and was shared via various news publications. Shannon Parker reported she and others observed the subject while riding a train on the Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad in the San Juan Mountains in Colorado. The authenticity of the video was debated across social media. Skeptics on Reddit speculated it was a publicity hoax perpetrated by an RV company located the area, Sasquatch Expedition Campers. The company denied the allegations. In the early 1990s, 9-1-1 audio recordings were made public in which a homeowner in Kitsap County, Washington, called law enforcement for assistance with a large subject, described by him as being "all in black", having entered his backyard. He previously reported to law enforcement that his dog was killed recently when it was thrown over his fence. Anthropologist Jeffrey Meldrum notes that any large predatory animal is potentially dangerous, specifically if provoked, but indicates that most anecdotal accounts of Bigfoot encounter result in the creatures hiding or fleeing from people. The 2021 Hulu documentary series, Sasquatch, describes marijuana farmers telling stories of Bigfoots harassing and killing people within the Emerald Triangle region in the 1970s through the 1990s; and specifically the alleged murder of three migrant workers in 1993. Investigative journalist David Holthouse attributes the stories to illegal drug operations using the local Bigfoot lore to scare away the competition, specifically superstitious immigrants, and that the high rate of murder and missing persons in the area is attributed to human actions. Skeptics argue that many of these alleged encounters are easily hoaxed, the result of misidentification, or are outright fabrications. ===Evidence claims=== A body print taken in the year 2000 from the Gifford Pinchot National Forest in Washington state dubbed the Skookum cast is also believed by some to have been made by a Bigfoot that sat down in the mud to eat fruit left out by researchers during the filming of an episode of the Animal X television show. Skeptics believe the cast to have been made by a known animal such as an elk. Alleged Bigfoot footprints are often suggested by Bigfoot enthusiasts as evidence for the creature's existence. Anthropologist Jeffrey Meldrum, who specializes in the study of primate bipedalism, possesses over 300 footprint casts that he maintains could not be made by wood carvings or human feet based on their anatomy, but instead are evidence of a large, non-human primate present today in North America. In 2005, Matt Crowley obtained a copy of an alleged Bigfoot footprint cast, called the "Onion Mountain Cast", and was able to painstakingly recreate the dermal ridges. Michael Dennett of the Skeptical Inquirer spoke to police investigator and primate fingerprint expert Jimmy Chilcutt in 2006 for comment on the replica and he stated, "Matt has shown artifacts can be created, at least under laboratory conditions, and field researchers need to take precautions". Chilcutt had previously stated that some of the alleged Bigfoot footprint plaster casts he examined were genuine due to the presence of "unique dermal ridges". Dennett states that Chilcutt published nothing to substantiate his claims, nor had anyone else published anything on that topic, with Chilcutt making his statements solely through a posting on the Internet. The Pennsylvania Game Commission unsuccessfully attempted to locate the suspected mangey bear. Scientist Vanessa Woods, after estimating that the subject in the photo had approximately long arms and a torso, concluded it was more comparable to a chimpanzee. In 2015, Centralia College professor Michael Townsend claimed to have discovered prey bones with "human-like" bite impressions on the southside of Mount St. Helens. Townsend claimed the bites were over two times wider than a human bite, and that he and two of his students also found 16-inch footprints in the area. ====Melba Ketchum press release==== After what The Huffington Post described as "a five-year study of purported Bigfoot (also known as Sasquatch) DNA samples", but prior to peer review of the work, DNA Diagnostics, a veterinary laboratory headed by veterinarian Melba Ketchum issued a press release on November 24, 2012, claiming that they had found proof that the Sasquatch "is a human relative that arose approximately 15,000 years ago as a hybrid cross of modern Homo sapiens with an unknown primate species." Ketchum called for this to be recognized officially, saying that "Government at all levels must recognize them as an indigenous people and immediately protect their human and Constitutional rights against those who would see in their physical and cultural differences a 'license' to hunt, trap, or kill them." Failing to find a scientific journal that would publish their results, Ketchum announced on February 13, 2013, that their research had been published in the DeNovo Journal of Science. The title "DeNovo: Journal of Science" in which the paper was published was found to be a Web site—registered anonymously only nine days before the paper was announced—whose first and only "journal" issue contained nothing but the "Sasquatch" article. The Scientist magazine also analyzed the paper, reporting that: ===Documented hoaxes=== In 1968, the frozen corpse of a supposed hair-covered hominid measuring was paraded around the United States as part of a traveling exhibition. Many stories surfaced as to its origin, such as its having been killed by hunters in Minnesota or American soldiers near Da Nang during the Vietnam War. It was attributed by some to be proof of Bigfoot-like creatures. Primatologist John R. Napier studied the subject and concluded it was a hoax made of latex. Others disputed this, claiming Napier did not study the original subject. the subject, dubbed the Minnesota Iceman, was on display at the "Museum of the Weird" in Austin, Texas. Tom Biscardi, long-time Bigfoot enthusiast and CEO of "Searching for Bigfoot, Inc.", appeared on the Coast to Coast AM paranormal radio show on July 14, 2005, and said that he was "98% sure that his group will be able to capture a Bigfoot which they had been tracking in the Happy Camp, California, area." A month later, he announced on the same radio show that he had access to a captured Bigfoot and was arranging a pay-per-view event for people to see it. He appeared on Coast to Coast AM again a few days later to announce that there was no captive Bigfoot. He blamed an unnamed woman for misleading him, and said that the show's audience was gullible. Tom Biscardi was contacted to investigate. Dyer and Whitton received $50,000 from "Searching for Bigfoot, Inc." The story was covered by many major news networks, including BBC, CNN, ABC News, and Fox News. Soon after a press conference, the alleged Bigfoot body was delivered in a block of ice in a freezer with the Searching for Bigfoot team. When the contents were thawed, observers found that the hair was not real, the head was hollow, and the feet were rubber. Dyer and Whitton admitted that it was a hoax after being confronted by Steve Kulls, executive director of SquatchDetective.com. In August 2012, a man in Montana was killed by a car while perpetrating a Bigfoot hoax using a ghillie suit. In January 2014, Rick Dyer, perpetrator of a previous Bigfoot hoax, said that he had killed a Bigfoot in September 2012 outside San Antonio, Texas. He claimed to have had scientific tests conducted on the body, "from DNA tests to 3D optical scans to body scans. It is the real deal. It's Bigfoot, and Bigfoot's here, and I shot it, and now I'm proving it to the world." He said that he had kept the body in a hidden location, and he intended to take it on tour across North America in 2014. He released photos of the body and a video showing a few individuals' reactions to seeing it, but never released any of the tests or scans. He refused to disclose the test results or to provide biological samples. He said that the DNA results were done by an undisclosed lab and could not be matched to identify any known animal. Dyer said that he would reveal the body and tests on February 9, 2014, at a news conference at Washington University, but he never made the test results available. After the tour, the Bigfoot body was taken to Houston, Texas. On March 28, 2014, Dyer admitted on his Facebook page that his "Bigfoot corpse" was another hoax. He had paid Chris Russel of "Twisted Toybox" to manufacture the prop from latex, foam, and camel hair, which he nicknamed "Hank". Dyer earned approximately US$60,000 from the tour of this second fake Bigfoot corpse. He stated that he did kill a Bigfoot, but did not take the real body on tour for fear that it would be stolen. In April 2022, a man in Mobile, Alabama posted photos he claimed were of a Bigfoot to his Facebook page, indicating the Mobile County Sheriff's Office validated their authenticity and the team from Finding Bigfoot was being dispatched. The photos circulated on social media, attracting the attention of NBC 15. The man admitted the photos were an April Fools' Day hoax. On July 7, 2022, wildlife educator and media personality Coyote Peterson released a Facebook post in which he claimed to have excavated a large primate skull in British Columbia and smuggled it into the United States, further claiming to have initially hidden the discovery due to concerns of government intervention. The post went viral, garnering the attention of multiple scientists who dismissed the finding as a likely replica gorilla skull. Darren Naish, a vertebrate paleontologist, stated, "I'm told that Coyote Peterson does this sort of thing fairly often as clickbait, and that this is a stunt done to promote an upcoming video. Maybe this is meant to be taken as harmless fun. But in an age where anti-scientific feelings and conspiracy culture are a serious problem it—again—really isn't a good look. I think this stunt has backfired". In a follow-up video, Peterson claimed the situation was staged as a hypothetical example of what not to do in response to such a discovery. ==In popular culture== Bigfoot has a demonstrable impact in popular culture, and has been compared to Michael Jordan as a cultural icon. In 2018, Smithsonian magazine declared, "Interest in the existence of the creature is at an all-time high". A poll in 2020 suggested that about 1 in 10 American adults believe Bigfoot to be "a real, living creature". According to a May 2023 data study, the terms "Bigfoot" and "Sasquatch" are inputted via internet search engines over 200,000 times annually in the United States, and over 660,000 times worldwide. The creature has inspired the naming of a medical company, music festival, amusement park ride, monster truck, and a Marvel Comics superhero. Some commentators have been critical of Bigfoot's rise to fame, arguing that the appearance of the creatures in cartoons, reality shows, and advertisements trivialize the potential validity of serious scientific research into their supposed existence. Others propose that society's fascination with the concept of Bigfoot stems from human interest in mystery, the paranormal, and loneliness. In a 2022 article discussing recent Bigfoot sightings, journalist John Keilman of the Chicago Tribune states, "As UFOs have gained newfound respect, becoming the subject of a Pentagon investigative panel, the alleged Bigfoot sighting is a reminder that other paranormal phenomena are still out there, entrancing true believers and amusing skeptics". ===In the Pacific Northwest=== Bigfoot and its likeness is symbolic with the Pacific Northwest and its culture, including the Cascadia movement. Two National Basketball Association teams located in the Pacific Northwest have used Bigfoot as a mascot; Squatch of the now-defunct Seattle SuperSonics from 1993 until 2008, and Douglas Fur of the Portland Trail Blazers. Legend the Bigfoot was selected as the official mascot for the 2022 World Athletics Championships held in Eugene, Oregon. In 2024, the United Soccer League (USL) announced the Bigfoot Football Club based in Maple Valley, Washington will begin competing in 2025. There are laws and ordinances regarding harming or killing Bigfoot in the state of Washington. In 1969, a law was passed that criminalized killing a Bigfoot, making the act a felony, that upon conviction was punishable by a fine of up to $10,000 or by five years imprisonment. In 1984, the law was amended to make the crime a misdemeanor and the entire county was declared a "Sasquatch refuge". Whatcom County followed suit in 1991, declaring the county a "Sasquatch Protection and Refuge Area". In 2022, Grays Harbor County, Washington, passed a similar resolution after a local elementary school in Hoquiam submitted a classroom project asking for a "Sasquatch Protection and Refuge Area" to be granted. ===In media=== Bigfoot is featured in various films. It is often depicted as the antagonist in low budget monster movies, but has also been depicted as intelligent and friendly, with a notable example being Harry and the Hendersons (1987). Sasquatch Sunset (2024) depicts a family of Bigfoot engaging in alleged behaviors reported by Bigfoot enthusiasts and researchers. Bigfoot is also featured in television, notably as a subject of reality and paranormal television series, with notable examples being Finding Bigfoot (2011), Mountain Monsters (2013), 10 Million Dollar Bigfoot Bounty (2014), Expedition Bigfoot (2019), and Alaskan Killer Bigfoot (2021). ===In advocacy=== Bigfoot has been used for environmental protection and nature conservation campaigns and advocacy. Bigfoot was used in an environmental protection campaign, albeit comedically, by the U.S. Forest Service in 2015. Bigfoot is a mascot for the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service's "Leave No Trace Principles", a national educational program to inform the public about reducing the damage caused by outdoor activities. The 360 mile "Bigfoot Trail" in Oregon, is named for the creature. Environmental organization Oregon Wild also uses Bigfoot to promote its nature advocacy, stating, "If there really is a Sasquatch out there, there is definitely more than one, and in order to maintain a healthy breeding population a species of hominid (as Sasquatch is assumed to be) would need extremely vast expanses of uninterrupted forest. Remote Wilderness areas would be prime habitat for Sasquatch, so if there are any out there to protect, making sure Oregon's forests get the protections they need to stay untrammeled is of the utmost importance". In 2024, Bigfoot was used as a mascot for a government recycling campaign in Whitfield County, Georgia. In the 2018 podcast Wild Thing, creator and journalist Laura Krantz argues that the concept of Bigfoot can be an important part of environmental interest and protection, stating, "If you look at it from the angle that Bigfoot is a creature that has eluded capture or hasn't left any concrete evidence behind, then you just have a group of people who are curious about the environment and want to know more about it, which isn't that far off from what naturalists have done for centuries". During the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Bigfoot became a part of many North American social distancing advocacy campaigns, with the creature being referred to as the "Social Distancing Champion" and as the subject of various internet memes related to the pandemic. ===Bigfoot subculture=== There is an entire subculture surrounding Bigfoot. The act of searching for the creatures is often referred to as "Squatching", "Squatchin'" or "Squatch'n", popularized by the Animal Planet series, Finding Bigfoot. Bigfoot researchers and believers are often called "Bigfooters" or "Squatchers". 20th century Bigfooters Peter C. Byrne, René Dahinden, John Green and Grover Krantz have been dubbed by cryptozoologist and author Loren Coleman as the "Four Horsemen of Sasquatchery". The 2024 book The Secret History of Bigfoot by journalist John O'Connor explores this subculture of Bigfooters, particularly the wide assortment of beliefs enthusiasts of the subject hold. In 2004, David Fahrenthold of The Washington Post published an article describing a feud between Bigfoot researchers in the eastern and western United States. Fahrenthold writes, "On the one hand, East Coast Bigfooters say they have to fight discrimination from Western counterparts who think the creature does not live east of the Rocky Mountains. On the other, they have to deal with reports from a more urban population, which includes some who are unfamiliar with wildlife and apt to mistake a black bear for the missing link". People have been injured or killed while searching for Bigfoot in the wilderness. On December 28, 2024, two men were found deceased in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest in Washington state after setting off on Christmas to search for Bigfoot. Their disappearance prompted a large scale search and rescue effort, with the Skamania County Sheriff's Office concluding they were likely not prepared for the inclement weather. October 20, the anniversary of the Patterson-Gimlin film recording, is considered by some enthusiasts as "National Sasquatch Awareness Day". In 2015, World Champion taxidermist Ken Walker completed what he believes to be a lifelike Bigfoot model based on the subject in the Patterson–Gimlin film. He entered it into the 2015 World Taxidermy & Fish Carving Championships in Missouri and was the subject of Dan Wayne's 2019 documentary Big Fur. ===Tourism and events=== Bigfoot and related folklore has an impact on tourism. Willow Creek, California, considers itself the "Bigfoot Capital of the World". The Willow Creek Chamber of Commerce has hosted the "Bigfoot Daze" festival annually since the 1960s, drawing on the popularity of the local folklore, notably that of the Patterson-Gimlin film. Jefferson, Texas proclaimed itself the "Bigfoot Capital of Texas" in 2018. The city has hosted the Texas Bigfoot Conference since 2000. In 2021, U.S. Representative Justin Humphrey, in an effort to bolster tourism, proposed an official Bigfoot hunting season in Oklahoma, indicating that the Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation would regulate permits and the state would offer a $3 million bounty if such a creature was captured alive and unharmed. In 2024, mayor Grant Nicely of Derry, Pennsylvania declared Bigfoot the "official cryptid" of the borough and stated, "Willful harm or capture of the species will be punishable by law." Council Vice-president Nathan Bundy stated, "By proclaiming Bigfoot as our official cryptid and establishing Derry as a sanctuary, we are embracing our local folklore and the rich history that makes our community unique". Events such as conferences and festivals dedicated to Bigfoot draw thousands of attendees and contribute to the economies of areas in which they are held. These events commonly include guest speakers, research and lore presentations, and sometimes live music, vendors, food trucks, and other activities such as costume contests and "Bigfoot howl" competitions. Some receive collaboration between local government and corporations, such as the Smoky Mountain Bigfoot Festival in Townsend, Tennessee, which is sponsored by Monster Energy. The 2023 Bigfoot Festival in Marion, North Carolina, saw approximately 40,000 people in attendance, resulting in a large economic boost for the small town of less than 8,000 residents. In February 2016, the University of New Mexico at Gallup held a two-day Bigfoot conference at a cost of $7,000 in university funds. Bigfoot is also featured in events alongside other famous cryptids such as the Loch Ness Monster, Mothman, and Chupacabra. There are museums dedicated to Bigfoot. In 2019, Bigfoot researcher Cliff Barackman, notable for his role on Finding Bigfoot, opened the North American Bigfoot Center in Boring, Oregon. In 2022, The Bigfoot Crossroads of America Museum and Research Center in Hastings, Nebraska, was selected for addition into the archives of the U.S. Library of Congress. The High Desert Museum in Bend, Oregon features an exhibit called Sensing Sasquatch, which presents the subject from an Indigenous point-of-view. According to Executive Director Dana Whitelaw, "Rather than the popular, mainstream view of Sasquatch, this exhibition shows Sasquatch as a protective entity for many Indigenous peoples of the High Desert. The exhibit reflects the reverence that Native peoples have for Sasquatch and will be centered on Indigenous art, voices and storytelling". ===Organizations=== There are several organizations dedicated to Bigfoot. The oldest and largest is the Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization (BFRO). The BFRO also provides a free database to individuals and other organizations. Their website includes reports from across North America that have been investigated by BFRO researchers. Other similar organizations exist throughout many U.S. states and their members come from a variety of backgrounds. The North American Wood Ape Conservancy (NAWAC), a nonprofit organization, states its mission is to "ultimately have the wood ape species documented, protected, and the land they inhabit protected. Author Mike Mays of NAWAC states, "If just anyone hauled in a Bigfoot carcass the blowback from animal rights groups and beyond would be ruinous".	[ "Gigantopithecus blacki", "Bukit Timah Monkey Man", "The Oregonian", "Willow Creek, California", "American Museum of Natural History", "Missing link (human evolution)", "Hulu", "gorge", "outdoor activities", "Wyandot people", "United States Navy", "West Virginia", "Quadrupedalism", "Happy Camp, California", "Sourcebooks (publisher)", "Natchez people", "cryptid", "Jeffrey Meldrum", "ABC News (United States)", "felony", "nature documentary", "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette", "Sharon A. Hill", "Disappearance of Dennis Martin", "High Desert Museum", "support group", "Portlock, Alaska", "Douglas First Nation", "WRKR", "Grays Harbor County", "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution", "Coyote Peterson", "Deadline Hollywood", "Tsul 'Kalu", "Marion, North Carolina", "Reddit", "Potawatomi", "relict (biology)", "Wild Thing (podcast)", "Den of Geek", "Allegheny National Forest", "10 Million Dollar Bigfoot Bounty", "Canada", "501(c) organization", "Oregon Public Broadcasting", "Territory (animal)", "Peninsula Clarion", "WUSA (TV)", "San Juan Mountains", "International Business Times", "symbol", "Minnesota Iceman", "Iroquois", "infrasound", "WRHI", "Homo erectus", "Coast to Coast AM", "Virginia", "porcupine", "Sasquatch (TV series)", "U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service", "Cascadia movement", "Gold prospecting", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "MeatEater", "Meganthropus", "U.S. Representative", "Utah State University", "Pinus contorta", "Sisimito", "Gregory Forth", "David Fahrenthold", "Neanderthal", "mountain man", "Dallas Observer", "Wishful thinking", "The McDowell News", "dimension", "American folklore", "American Broadcasting Company", "Alaskan Killer Bigfoot", "reality television", "United Soccer League", "Porterville Recorder", "paranormal", "Indian agent", "Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation", "Yahoo!", "grizzly bear", "Almas (folklore)", "German folklore", "A&E Networks", "southern Illinois", "Michael Jordan", "Loch Ness Monster", "Mothman", "Human cannibalism", "tapir", "petroglyph", "Tapetum lucidum", "KING-TV", "Fearsome critters", "Sasquatch (ride)", "great apes", "Skookum cast", "Bernard Heuvelmans", "Bigfoot and Wildboy", "Portland Trail Blazers", "Linguistics", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Heavy (website)", "Lytton, British Columbia", "environmental protection", "misdemeanor", "Discover (magazine)", "Alutiiq", "The Daily Beast", "Human", "social distancing", "KSAT-TV", "Associated Press", "The Daily Citizen (Dalton, Georgia)", "Paleontologist", "Orang Pendek", "United States Forest Service", "Fox News", "Kitsap County, Washington", "BlackBook", "psychological trauma", "Spanish colonization of the Americas", "language", "9-1-1", "Dewey Lake Monster", "NITV", "KIRO-TV", "Cover-up", "The Washington Post", "Hastings, Nebraska", "John Bindernagel", "United States Constitution", "Fremont Solstice Parade", "The Forecaster", "NPR", "Live Science", "Grover Krantz", "Hoquiam", "subculture", "BYU-Idaho Radio", "Lakota people", "Justin Humphrey", "California Sun", "The New York Times", "Skeptical Inquirer", "Viral phenomenon", "West Virginia Public Broadcasting", "pay-per-view", "ape", "The Southern Illinoisan", "The Mercury News", "Skunk ape", "George Schaller", "Honey Island Swamp monster", "dermal ridges", "mandible", "Times-Standard", "WDKY-TV", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Hibagon", "CBS News", "Seattle, Washington", "Princeton University", "Mansfield News Journal", "Jefferson, Texas", "Seattle SuperSonics", "Chicago Tribune", "scientific journal", "Ivan T. Sanderson", "The Dalles, Oregon", "Los Angeles Times", "Whitfield County, Georgia", "mange", "Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal", "Skookum", "Journal of Biogeography", "Halq'emeylem", "Fresno, California", "WROK (AM)", "Ape Canyon", "Extraterrestrial life", "peer review", "Fox News Channel", "The Sacramento Bee", "Shawnee National Forest", "hominini", "U.S. Department of Agriculture", "Gifford Pinchot National Forest", "Big Foot Beach State Park", "Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science", "Squatch", "CNN", "Mande Barung", "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", "Jane Goodall", "Six Rivers National Forest", "Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation", "Sierra Nevada", "Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas", "California Department of Fish and Wildlife", "recycling", "The Seattle Times", "camera trap", "WWMT", "Albert Ostman", "Ohio", "Kwakwakaʼwakw", "Valdosta Daily Times", "Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad", "Greenville, North Carolina", "Russell Mittermeier", "Amomongo", "The Herald Journal", "Loren Coleman", "Oregon Wild", "news", "René Dahinden", "Science Friday", "YouTube", "Daily News (New York)", "Boring, Oregon", "Yokuts", "Canadian folklore", "Esteban Sarmiento", "Pikes Peak Highway", "Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument", "Nittaewo", "Yeren", "Slavery in the United States", "Yeti", "Garden of the Gods Wilderness", "Mount St. Helens", "psychic", "San Bernardino Mountains", "Facebook", "Fouke Monster", "search and rescue", "Finding Bigfoot", "Nick Redfern", "Dermatoglyphics", "The Daily Iowan", "Walworth County, Wisconsin", "Da Nang", "Beringia", "Pennsylvania Game Commission", "Rick Dyer (hoaxer)", "Robert Michael Pyle", "Category:Pseudoscience", "teepee", "Mexican Cession", "North America", "KATU", "Mireya Mayor", "Newsweek", "National Basketball Association", "Survivorman", "The Secret History of Bigfoot", "Vietnam War", "Orang Mawas", "John R. Napier", "mitochondrial DNA", "environmentalism", "Folkloristics", "The Patriot-News", "Daris Swindler", "Paranthropus", "Bigfoot, Texas", "University of Chicago Press", "Vietnam veteran", "Paul Freeman (cryptozoologist)", "Taxidermy", "Anecdotal evidence", "Grand Canyon News", "Superstition", "Bipedalism", "The Scientist (magazine)", "plaster cast", "Momo the Monster", "KDKA-TV", "Marvel Comics", "Springfield News-Leader", "WION", "Derry, Pennsylvania", "Theodore Roosevelt", "WTIU", "Idaho State Journal", "University of California Press", "BBC", "Proceedings of the Royal Society", "nature conservation", "Kenai Peninsula", "sports mascot", "Chamber of commerce", "Great Smoky Mountains National Park", "WATE-TV", "Nest-building in primates", "Committee for Skeptical Inquiry", "monster movie", "geneticist", "United States", "KGTV", "Seeker (media company)", "Merriam-Webster", "Vice (magazine)", "veterinarian", "Harry and the Hendersons", "Toledo, Washington", "William Charles Osman Hill", "Patterson–Gimlin film", "CTV News", "Animal Planet", "Drum (container)", "Center for Inquiry", "Am Fear Liath Mòr", "WPVI-TV", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", "huckleberry", "Townsend, Tennessee", "Bigfoot: The Life and Times of a Legend", "The Week", "Spotted Elk", "Maclean's", "fur trapping", "WJTV", "Paul Kane", "Laura Krantz", "Borough (Pennsylvania)", "GenBank", "Smithsonian (magazine)", "Arkansas Democrat-Gazette", "American black bear", "museum", "hermit", "Pleistocene", "Protestant", "Cascadia Daily News", "KVAL-TV", "Calgary Herald", "cultural icon", "Big Foot High School", "wild man", "2022 World Athletics Championships", "Texas Monthly", "Esquire (magazine)", "Screen Rant", "Missoulian", "Les Stroud", "Global News", "William A. A. Wallace", "History (American TV network)", "Cryptography", "April Fools' Day", "Blue Mountains (Pacific Northwest)", "Lummi Nation", "antagonist", "Wild Man of the Navidad", "Cracked.com", "Paranthropus robustus", "omnivores", "Cantonal Museum of Zoology", "WFMY-TV", "paranormal television", "Sts'ailes Nation", "Young Hollywood", "WTVD", "Bigfoot Biomedical", "Bigfoot (truck)", "humid subtropical climate", "Maple Valley, Washington", "Jesuit", "National Geographic", "USA Today", "Unidentified flying object", "footprint", "Appalachian Mountains", "Humboldt County, California", "Bigfoot in popular culture", "Sasquatch (comics)", "Yowie", "ghillie suit", "Pacific Northwest", "John Willison Green", "Tom Biscardi", "Whatcom County", "Nocturnality", "Elkanah Walker", "Matt Cartmill", "University at Buffalo", "replica", "Discovery Channel", "humanoid", "Mogollon Monster", "Species distribution modelling", "Yakima Herald", "Peter C. Byrne", "Primatology", "American Indian Quarterly", "BBC News", "KSNF", "Cannabis (drug)", "Post-traumatic stress disorder", "Houston Chronicle", "internet meme", "Cherokee", "Mythic humanoids", "WSAZ-TV", "Mountain Monsters", "pareidolia", "Homo heidelbergensis", "internet search engines", "Travel Channel", "Painted Rock (Tulare County, California)", "KABC-TV", "shamanism", "Spokane, Washington", "Richmond Times", "The Daily World (Aberdeen)", "New York Times", "WLOS", "exotic pet", "Arizona State Museum", "supernatural", "University of Colorado Boulder", "New Hampshire Union Leader", "Pittsburgh City Paper", "Courier Times", "A&E Television Networks", "KXTV", "The Denver Post", "Charles Hill-Tout", "crown group", "Cultural anthropology", "Emerald Triangle", "Collings Mountain", "forester", "Gallup, New Mexico", "KOCO-TV", "telescopic sight", "Monster Energy", "University of New Mexico", "Discovery+", "Raymond L. Wallace", "anglicized", "Feral child", "UC Berkeley", "conspiracy theory", "The Huffington Post", "Barmanou", "University of Oxford", "WPMI-TV", "KNBC", "Helena, Montana", "Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest", "Bigfoot trap", "Chupacabra", "HuffPost", "docudrama", "Vanessa Woods", "Sasquatch! Music Festival", "The News-Review", "U.S. Library of Congress", "National Park Service", "Rocky Mountains", "Texas Ranger Division", "The Australian", "Sasquatch Sunset", "Diurnality", "U.S. Forest Service", "Anthropomorphism", "Carleton S. Coon", "United States dollar", "Ebu gogo", "Fouke, Arkansas", "Toe", "The Legend of Boggy Creek", "cryptozoology", "pseudoscience", "caribou", "Guernsey County", "National Wildlife Federation", "Nebraska Public Media", "tourism", "Whitehall, New York", "Geoffrey H. Bourne", "Nlaka'pamux", "Centralia College" ]
4,010	Bing Crosby	Harry Lillis "Bing" Crosby Jr. (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American singer and actor. The first multimedia star, he was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century worldwide. Crosby was a leader in record sales, network radio ratings, and motion picture grosses from 1926 to 1977. He was one of the first global cultural icons. Crosby made over 70 feature films and recorded more than 1,600 songs. Crosby's early career coincided with recording innovations that allowed him to develop an intimate singing style that influenced many male singers who followed, such as Frank Sinatra, Perry Como, Dean Martin, Dick Haymes, Elvis Presley, and John Lennon. Yank magazine said that Crosby was "the person who had done the most for the morale of overseas servicemen" during World War II. In 1948, American polls declared him the "most admired man alive", ahead of Jackie Robinson and Pope Pius XII. In 1948, Music Digest estimated that Crosby's recordings filled more than half of the 80,000 weekly hours allocated to recorded radio music in America. At his screen apex in 1946, Crosby starred in three of the year's five highest-grossing films: The Bells of St. Mary's, Blue Skies, and Road to Utopia. Crosby is one of 33 people to have three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, in the categories of motion pictures, radio, and audio recording. He was also known for his collaborations with his friend Bob Hope, starring in the Road to ... films from 1940 to 1962. Crosby influenced the development of the post–World War II recording industry. After seeing a demonstration of a German broadcast quality reel-to-reel tape recorder brought to the United States by John T. Mullin, Crosby invested $50,000 in the California electronics company Ampex to build copies. He then persuaded ABC to allow him to tape his shows and became the first performer to prerecord his radio shows and master his commercial recordings onto magnetic tape. Crosby has been associated with the Christmas season since he starred in Irving Berlin's musical film Holiday Inn and also sang "White Christmas" in the film of the same name. Through audio recordings, Crosby produced his radio programs with the same directorial tools and craftsmanship (editing, retaking, rehearsal, time shifting) used in motion picture production, a practice that became the industry standard. In addition to his work with early audio tape recording, Crosby helped finance the development of videotape, bought television stations, bred racehorses, and co-owned the Pittsburgh Pirates baseball team, during which time the team won two World Series (1960 and 1971). ==Early life== Crosby was born on May 3, 1903, in Tacoma, Washington, in a house his father built at 1112 North J Street. Three years later, his family moved to Spokane in eastern Washington state, where Crosby was raised. In 1913, his father built a house at 508 E. Sharp Avenue. The house stands on the campus of Crosby's alma mater, Gonzaga University, as a museum housing over 200 artifacts from his life and career, including his Oscar. Crosby was the fourth of seven children: brothers Laurence Earl "Larry" (1895–1975), Everett Nathaniel (1896–1966), Edward John "Ted" (1900–1973), and George Robert "Bob" (1913–1993); and two sisters, Catherine Cordelia (1904–1974) and Mary Rose (1906–1990). His parents were Harry Lillis Crosby (1870–1950), a bookkeeper, and Catherine Helen "Kate" (née Harrigan; 1873–1964). His mother was a second-generation Irish-American. Through another line, also on his father's side, Crosby is descended from Mayflower passenger William Brewster ( 1567 – 1644). In 1917, Crosby took a summer job as property boy at Spokane's Auditorium, where he witnessed some of the acts of the day, including Al Jolson, who held Crosby spellbound with ad-libbing and parodies of Hawaiian songs. Crosby later described Jolson's delivery as "electric". Crosby graduated from Gonzaga High School in 1920 and enrolled at Gonzaga University. He attended Gonzaga for three years but did not earn a degree. As a freshman, Crosby played on the university's baseball team. The university granted him an honorary doctorate in 1937. Gonzaga University houses a large collection of photographs, correspondence, and other material related to Crosby. On November 8, 1937, after Lux Radio Theatre's adaptation of She Loves Me Not, Joan Blondell asked Crosby how he got his nickname: As it happens, that story was pure whimsy for dramatic effect; the Associated Press had reported as early as February 1932—as would later be confirmed by both Bing himself and his biographer Charles Thompson—that it was in fact a neighbor—Valentine Hobart, circa 1910—who had named him "Bingo from Bingville" after a comic feature in the local paper called The Bingville Bugle which the young Harry liked. In time, Bingo got shortened to Bing. ==Career== ===Early years=== In 1923, Crosby was invited to join a new band composed of high-school students a few years younger than himself. Al and Miles Rinker (brothers of singer Mildred Bailey), James Heaton, Claire Pritchard and Robert Pritchard, along with drummer Crosby, formed the Musicaladers, Crosby and Al Rinker obtained work at the Clemmer Theatre in Spokane (now known as the Bing Crosby Theater). On August 14, 1925, Bing appeared at the Clemmer Theater as part of The Clemmer Trio (Frank McBride, Lloyd Grinnell and Harry Crosby) and they were shown as being presented with special stage effects.Rinker played piano in the pit. They continued at the theater alongside the film of the week for a very successful 12 weeks. They were initially billed as The Clemmer Trio and later as The Clemmer Entertainers depending who performed. In October 1925, Crosby and Rinker decided to seek fame in California. They traveled to Los Angeles, where Bailey introduced them to her show business contacts. The Fanchon and Marco Time Agency hired them for 13 weeks for the revue The Syncopation Idea starting at the Boulevard Theater in Los Angeles and then on the Loew's circuit. They each earned $75 a week. As minor parts of The Syncopation Idea, Crosby and Rinker started to develop as entertainers. They had a lively style that was popular with college students. After The Syncopation Idea closed, they worked in the Will Morrissey Music Hall Revue. They honed their skills with Morrissey, and when they got a chance to present an independent act, they were spotted by a member of the Paul Whiteman organization. Whiteman needed something different to break up his musical selections, and Crosby and Rinker filled this requirement. After less than a year in show business, they were attached to one of the biggest names. ===The Rhythm Boys=== Success with Whiteman was followed by disaster when they reached New York. Whiteman considered letting them go. However, the addition of pianist and aspiring songwriter Harry Barris made the difference, and The Rhythm Boys were born. The additional voice meant they could be heard more easily in large New York theaters. Crosby gained valuable experience on tour for a year with Whiteman and performing and recording with Bix Beiderbecke, Jack Teagarden, Tommy Dorsey, Jimmy Dorsey, Eddie Lang, and Hoagy Carmichael. Crosby matured as a performer and was in demand as a solo singer. Crosby became the star attraction of the Rhythm Boys. In 1928, he had his first number one hit, a jazz-influenced rendition of "Ol' Man River". In 1929, the Rhythm Boys appeared in the film King of Jazz with Whiteman, but Crosby's growing dissatisfaction with Whiteman led to the Rhythm Boys leaving his organization. They joined the Gus Arnheim Orchestra, performing nightly in the Coconut Grove of the Ambassador Hotel. Singing with the Arnheim Orchestra, Crosby's solos began to steal the show while the Rhythm Boys' act gradually became redundant. Harry Barris wrote several of Crosby's hits, including "At Your Command", "I Surrender Dear", and "Wrap Your Troubles in Dreams". When Mack Sennett signed Crosby to a solo film contract in 1931, a break with the Rhythm Boys became almost inevitable. Crosby married Dixie Lee in September 1930. After a threat of divorce in March 1931, he applied himself to his career. ===Success as a solo singer=== On September 2, 1931, 15 Minutes with Bing Crosby, his nationwide solo radio debut, began broadcasting. The weekly broadcast made Crosby a hit. Before the end of the year, he with both Brunswick Records and CBS Radio. "Out of Nowhere", "Just One More Chance", "At Your Command", and "I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)" were among the best-selling songs of 1931. His first son Gary was born in 1933 with twin boys following in 1934. By 1936, Crosby replaced his former boss, Paul Whiteman, as host of the weekly NBC radio program Kraft Music Hall, where he remained for the next decade. "Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)", with his trademark whistling, became his theme song and signature tune. Crosby's vocal style helped take popular singing beyond the "belting" associated with Al Jolson and Billy Murray, who had been obligated to reach the back seats in New York theaters without the aid of a microphone. As music critic Henry Pleasants noted in The Great American Popular Singers, something new had entered American music, a style that might be called "singing in American" with conversational ease. This new sound led to the popular epithet crooner. Crosby admired Louis Armstrong for his musical ability, and the trumpet maestro was a formative influence on Crosby's singing style. When the two met, they became friends. In 1936, Crosby exercised an option in his Paramount contract to regularly star in an out-of-house film. Signing an agreement with Columbia for a single motion picture, Crosby wanted Armstrong to appear in a screen adaptation of The Peacock Feather that eventually became Pennies from Heaven. Crosby asked Harry Cohn, but Cohn had no desire to pay for the flight or to meet Armstrong's "crude, mob-linked but devoted manager, Joe Glaser". Crosby threatened to leave the film and refused to discuss the matter. Cohn gave in; Armstrong's musical scenes and comic dialogue extended his influence to the silver screen, creating more opportunities for him and other African Americans to appear in future films. Crosby also ensured behind the scenes that Armstrong received equal billing with his white co-stars. Armstrong appreciated Crosby's progressive attitudes on race, and often expressed gratitude for the role in later years. During World War II, Crosby made live appearances before American troops who had been fighting in the European Theater. He learned how to pronounce German from written scripts and read propaganda broadcasts intended for German forces. The nickname "Der Bingle" was common among Crosby's German listeners and came to be used by his English-speaking fans. In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of World War II, Crosby topped the list as the person who had done the most for G.I. morale, ahead of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, General Dwight Eisenhower, and Bob Hope. The June 18, 1945, issue of Life magazine stated, "America's number one star, Bing Crosby, has won more fans, made more money than any entertainer in history. Today he is a kind of national institution." "In all, 60,000,000 Crosby discs have been marketed since he made his first record in 1931. His biggest best seller is "White Christmas" 2,000,000 impressions of which have been sold in the U.S. and 250,000 in Great Britain." ====White Christmas==== The biggest hit song of Crosby's career was his recording of Irving Berlin's "White Christmas", which Crosby introduced on a Christmas Day radio broadcast in 1941. A copy of the recording from the radio program is owned by the estate of Bing Crosby and was loaned to CBS Sunday Morning for their December 25, 2011, program. The song appeared in his films Holiday Inn (1942), and—a decade later—in White Christmas (1954). Crosby's record hit the charts on October 3, 1942, and rose to number 1 on October 31, where it stayed for 11 weeks. A holiday perennial, the song was repeatedly re-released by Decca, charting another 16 times. It topped the charts again in 1945 and a third time in January 1947. The song remains the bestselling single of all time. Crosby was dismissive of his role in the song's success, saying "a jackdaw with a cleft palate could have sung it successfully". ===Motion pictures=== In the wake of a solid decade of headlining mainly smash hit musical comedy films in the 1930s, Crosby starred with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour in six of the seven Road to musical comedies between 1940 and 1962 (Lamour was replaced with Joan Collins in The Road to Hong Kong and limited to a lengthy cameo), cementing Crosby and Hope as an on-and-off duo, despite never declaring themselves a "team" in the sense that Laurel and Hardy or Martin and Lewis (Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis) were teams. The series consists of Road to Singapore (1940), Road to Zanzibar (1941), Road to Morocco (1942), Road to Utopia (1946), Road to Rio (1947), Road to Bali (1952), and The Road to Hong Kong (1962). When they appeared solo, Crosby and Hope frequently made note of the other in a comically insulting fashion. They performed together countless times on stage, radio, film, and television, and made numerous brief and not so brief appearances together in movies aside from the "Road" pictures, Variety Girl (1947) being an example of lengthy scenes and songs together along with billing. In the 1949 Disney animated film The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, Crosby provided the narration and song vocals for The Legend of Sleepy Hollow segment. In 1960, he starred in High Time, a collegiate comedy with Fabian Forte and Tuesday Weld that predicted the emerging gap between Crosby and the new younger generation of musicians and actors who had begun their careers after World War II. The following year, Crosby and Hope reunited for one more Road movie, The Road to Hong Kong, which teamed them up with the much younger Joan Collins and Peter Sellers. Collins was used in place of their longtime partner Dorothy Lamour, whom Crosby felt was getting too old for the role, though Hope refused to do the film without her, and she instead made a lengthy and elaborate cameo appearance. ===Television=== The Fireside Theater (1950) was his first television production. The series of 26-minute shows was filmed at Hal Roach Studios rather than performed live on the air. The "telefilms" were syndicated to individual television stations. Crosby was a frequent guest on the musical variety shows of the 1950s and 1960s, appearing on various variety shows as well as numerous late-night talk shows and his own highly rated specials. Bob Hope memorably devoted one of his monthly NBC specials to his long intermittent partnership with Crosby titled "On the Road With Bing". Crosby was associated with ABC's The Hollywood Palace as the show's first and most frequent guest host and appeared annually on its Christmas edition with his wife Kathryn and his younger children, and continued after The Hollywood Palace was eventually canceled. In the early 1970s, Crosby made two late appearances on the Flip Wilson Show, singing duets with the comedian. His last TV appearance was a Christmas special, Merrie Olde Christmas, taped in London in September 1977 and aired weeks after his death. It was on this special that Crosby recorded a duet of "The Little Drummer Boy" and "Peace on Earth" with rock musician David Bowie. Their duet was released in 1982 as a single 45 rpm record and reached No. 3 in the UK singles charts. Crosby was, by his own definition, a "phraser", a singer who placed equal emphasis on both the lyrics and the music. Paul Whiteman's hiring of Crosby, with phrasing that echoed jazz, particularly his bandmate Bix Beiderbecke's trumpet, helped bring the genre to a wider audience. He had already been introduced to Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith before his first appearance on record. Crosby and Armstrong remained warm acquaintances for decades, occasionally singing together in later years, e.g. "Now You Has Jazz" in the film High Society (1956). In Crosby's performances, the presence of jazz phrasing, jazz rhythm and jazz improvisation varied depending on the piece of music, but those were elements that Crosby frequently used. This can be observed particularly in his straight jazz work during the late 1920s/early 1930s, Crosby's recordings with Buddy Cole and His Trio from the mid-1950s, as well as in his numerous collaborations with such jazz musicians as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, Joe Venuti, or Eddie Lang. However, while Crosby can be called a jazz singer, he was not strictly only a jazz singer as he modeled the style and techniques to a broad scope of music that he performed, ranging from Jazz to Country to even such material as operetta arias. During the early portion of his solo career (about 1931–1934), Crosby's emotional, often pleading style of crooning was popular. But Jack Kapp, manager of Brunswick and later Decca, talked Crosby into dropping many of his jazzier mannerisms in favor of a clear vocal style. Crosby credited Kapp for choosing hit songs, working with many other musicians, and most important, diversifying his repertoire into several styles and genres. Kapp helped Crosby have number one hits in Christmas music, Hawaiian music, and country music, and top-30 hits in Irish music, French music, rhythm and blues, and ballads. Crosby elaborated on an idea of Al Jolson's: phrasing, or the art of making a song's lyric ring true. "I used to tell Sinatra over and over," said Tommy Dorsey, "there's only one singer you ought to listen to and his name is Crosby. All that matters to him is the words, and that's the only thing that ought to for you, too." Critic Henry Pleasants wrote in 1985: [While] the octave B flat to B flat in Bing's voice at that time [1930s] is, to my ears, one of the loveliest I have heard in forty-five years of listening to baritones, both classical and popular, it dropped conspicuously in later years. From the mid-1950s, Bing was more comfortable in a bass range while maintaining a baritone quality, with the best octave being G to G, or even F to F. In a recording he made of 'Dardanella' with Louis Armstrong in 1960, he attacks lightly and easily on a low E flat. This is lower than most opera basses care to venture, and they tend to sound as if they were in the cellar when they get there. ==Career achievements== Crosby's was among the most popular and successful musical acts of the 20th century. Billboard magazine used different methodologies during his career, but his chart success remains impressive: 396 chart singles, including roughly 41 number 1 hits. Crosby had separate charting singles every year between 1931 and 1954; the annual re-release of "White Christmas" extended that streak to 1957. He had 24 separate popular singles in 1939 alone. Statistician Joel Whitburn at Billboard determined that Crosby was America's most successful recording act of the 1930s and again in the 1940s. The number of Bing Crosby record sales varies. Organizations that audit record sales do not have an official tally, but some claim sales are notable, namely: In 1960, Crosby was honored as "First Citizen of Record Industry" based on having sold 200 million discs. The Guinness Book reported some of the singer's worldwide sales on a few occasions: In 1973, Crosby had sold more than 400 million records worldwide, and by 1977 he had sold 500 million discs, being ranked as the most successful and best-selling musical artist in 1978. Some sources contradict these alleged sales to the Guinness Book, as it is not an organization that counts or audits artists' sales in the United States or worldwide. According to different sources, Bing Crosby's sales number varies between: 300 million, 500 million, or even 1 billion, making him one of the best-selling singers in history. The single "White Christmas" sold over 50 million copies according to Guinness World Records. The International Motion Picture Almanac lists Crosby in a tie for second-most years at number one on the All Time Number One Stars List with Clint Eastwood, Tom Hanks, and Burt Reynolds. His most popular film, White Christmas, grossed $30 million in 1954 ($ million in current value). Crosby received 23 gold and platinum records, according to the book Million Selling Records. The Recording Industry Association of America did not institute its gold record certification program until 1958 when Crosby's record sales were low. Before 1958, gold records were awarded by record companies. Crosby charted 23 Billboard hits from 47 recorded songs with the Andrews Sisters, whose Decca record sales were second only to Crosby's throughout the 1940s. They were his most frequent collaborators on disc from 1939 to 1952, a partnership that produced four million-selling singles: "Pistol Packin' Mama", "Jingle Bells", "Don't Fence Me In", and "South America, Take It Away". They made one film appearance together in Road to Rio singing "You Don't Have to Know the Language", and sang together on radio airwaves throughout the 1940s and 1950s. They appeared as guests on each other's shows and on Armed Forces Radio Service programming during and after World War II. The quartet's additional Top-10 Billboard hits from 1943 to 1945 include "The Vict'ry Polka", "There'll Be a Hot Time in the Town of Berlin (When the Yanks Go Marching In)", and "Is You Is or Is You Ain't (Ma' Baby?)" which helped the morale of the American public. In 1962, Crosby was given the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. He has been inducted into the halls of fame for both radio and popular music. In 2007, Crosby was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame and in 2008 the Western Music Hall of Fame. ==Global impact== Crosby's popularity around the world was such that Dorothy Masuka, the best-selling African recording artist, stated that, "Only Bing Crosby the famous American crooner sold more records than me in Africa." His great popularity throughout the continent led other African singers to emulate him, including Masuka, Dolly Rathebe, and Míriam Makeba, known locally as "The Bing Crosby of Africa". Presenter Mike Douglas commented in a 1975 interview, "During my days in the Navy in World War II, I remember walking the streets of Calcutta, India, on the coast; it was a lonely night, so far from my home and from my new wife, Gen. I needed something to lift my spirits. As I passed a Hindu sitting on the corner of a street, I heard something surprisingly familiar. I came back to see the man playing one of those old Vitrolas, like those of RCA with the horn speaker. The man was listening to Bing Crosby sing, "Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate The Positive". I stopped and smiled in grateful acknowledgment. The Hindu nodded and smiled back. The whole world knew and loved Bing Crosby." His popularity in India led many Hindu singers to imitate and emulate him, notably Kishore Kumar, considered the "Bing Crosby of India". Throughout Europe and Russia, Crosby was also known as "Der Bingle", a pseudonym coined in 1944 by Bob Musel, an American journalist based in London, after Crosby had recorded three 15-minute programs with Jack Russin for broadcast to Germany from ABSIE. ==Entrepreneurship== According to Shoshana Klebanoff, Crosby became one of the richest men in the history of show business. He had investments in real estate, mines, oil wells, cattle ranches, race horses, music publishing, baseball teams, and television. Crosby made a fortune from the Minute Maid Orange Juice Corporation, in which he was a principal stockholder. ===Role in early tape recording=== During the Golden Age of Radio, performers had to create their shows live, sometimes even redoing the program a second time for the West Coast time zone. Crosby had to do two live radio shows on the same day, three hours apart, for the East and West Coasts. Crosby's radio career took a significant turn in 1945, when he clashed with NBC over his insistence that he be allowed to pre-record his radio shows. The live production of radio shows was reinforced by the musicians' union and ASCAP, which wanted to ensure continued work for their members. In On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, John Dunning wrote about German engineers having developed a tape recorder with a near-professional broadcast quality standard: Crosby's insistence eventually factored into the further development of magnetic tape sound recording and the radio industry's widespread adoption of it. He used his clout, both professionally and financially, for innovations in audio. But NBC and CBS refused to broadcast prerecorded radio programs. Crosby left the network and remained off the air for seven months, creating a legal battle with his sponsor Kraft that was settled out of court. Crosby returned to broadcasting for the last 13 weeks of the 1945–1946 season. The Mutual Network, on the other hand, pre-recorded some of its programs as early as 1938 for The Shadow with Orson Welles. ABC was formed from the sale of the NBC Blue Network in 1943 after a federal antitrust suit and was willing to join Mutual in breaking the tradition. ABC offered Crosby $30,000 per week to produce a recorded show every Wednesday that would be sponsored by Philco. He would get an additional $40,000 from 400 independent stations for the rights to broadcast the 30-minute show, which was sent to them every Monday on three lacquer discs that played ten minutes per side at rpm. Murdo MacKenzie of Bing Crosby Enterprises had seen a demonstration of the German Magnetophon in June 1947—the same device that Jack Mullin had brought back from Radio Frankfurt with 50 reels of tape, at the end of the war. It was one of the magnetic tape recorders that BASF and AEG had built in Germany starting in 1935. The 6.5 mm ferric-oxide-coated tape could record 20 minutes per reel of high-quality sound. Alexander M. Poniatoff ordered Ampex, which he founded in 1944, to manufacture an improved version of the Magnetophone. Crosby hired Mullin to start recording his Philco Radio Time show on his German-made machine in August 1947 using the same 50 reels of I.G. Farben magnetic tape that Mullin had found at a radio station at Bad Nauheim near Frankfurt while working for the U.S. Army Signal Corps. The advantage was editing. As Crosby wrote in his autobiography: Mullin's 1976 memoir of these early days of experimental recording agrees with Crosby's account: Crosby invested $50,000 in Ampex with the intent to produce more machines. With Frank Sinatra, Crosby was one of the principal backers for the United Western Recorders studio complex in Los Angeles. ===Videotape development=== Mullin continued to work for Crosby to develop a videotape recorder (VTR). Television production was mostly live television in its early years, but Crosby wanted the same ability to record that he had achieved in radio. The Fireside Theater (1950) sponsored by Procter & Gamble, was his first television production. Mullin had not yet succeeded with videotape, so Crosby filmed the series of 26-minute shows at the Hal Roach Studios, and the "telefilms" were syndicated to individual television stations. Crosby continued to finance the development of videotape. Bing Crosby Enterprises gave the world's first demonstration of videotape recording in Los Angeles on November 11, 1951. Developed by John T. Mullin and Wayne R. Johnson since 1950, the device aired what were described as "blurred and indistinct" images, using a modified Ampex 200 tape recorder and standard quarter-inch (6.3 mm) audio tape moving at per second. ===Television station ownership=== A Crosby-led group purchased station KCOP-TV, in Los Angeles, California, in 1954. NAFI Corporation and Crosby purchased television station KPTV in Portland, Oregon, for $4 million on September 1, 1959. In 1960, NAFI purchased KCOP from Crosby's group. Operating from the Del Mar Racetrack in Del Mar, California, the group included millionaire businessman Charles S. Howard, who owned a successful racing stable that included Seabiscuit. The Bing Crosby Breeders' Cup Handicap at Del Mar Racetrack is named in his honor. ==Sports== Crosby had a keen interest in sports. In the 1930s, his friend and former college classmate, Gonzaga head coach Mike Pecarovich, appointed Crosby as an assistant football coach. From 1946 until his death, Crosby owned a 25% share of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Although he was passionate about the team, Crosby was too nervous to watch the deciding Game 7 of the 1960 World Series, choosing to go to Paris with Kathryn and listen to its radio broadcast. Crosby had arranged for Ampex, another of his financial investments, to record the NBC telecast on kinescope. The game was one of the most famous in baseball history, capped off by Bill Mazeroski's walk-off home run that won the game for Pittsburgh. Crosby apparently viewed the complete film just once, and then stored it in his wine cellar, where it remained undisturbed until it was discovered in December 2009. The restored broadcast was shown on MLB Network in December 2010. Crosby was also an early investor in Bob Cobb's Billings Mustangs baseball club in 1948, joining other Hollywood stars Cecil B. DeMille, Robert Taylor, and Barbara Stanwyck who were also shareholders in the club. Crosby was also the honorary chairman of the club's board of directors. Crosby was also an avid golfer. He first took up golf at age 12 as a caddy. Crosby was already spending much time on the golf course while touring the country in a vaudeville act or with Paul Whiteman's orchestra in the mid to late 1920s. Eventually, Crosby became accomplished at the sport, at his best reaching a two handicap. Crosby competed in both the British and U.S. Amateur championships, was a five-time club champion at Lakeside Golf Club in Hollywood, and once made a hole-in-one on the 16th hole at Cypress Point. In 1937, Crosby hosted the first 'Crosby Clambake', a pro-am tournament at Rancho Santa Fe Golf Club in Rancho Santa Fe, California, the event's location prior to World War II. After the war, the event resumed play in 1947 on golf courses in Pebble Beach, where it has been played ever since. Now the AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am, the tournament is a staple of the PGA Tour, having featured Hollywood stars and other celebrities. In 1950, Crosby became the third person to win the William D. Richardson award, which is given to a non-professional golfer "who has consistently made an outstanding contribution to golf". In 1978, he and Bob Hope were voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship. Crosby is a member of the World Golf Hall of Fame, having been inducted in 1978. Crosby also was a keen fisherman. In the summer of 1966, he spent a week as the guest of Lord Egremont, staying in Cockermouth and fishing on the River Derwent. Crosby's trip was filmed for The American Sportsman on ABC, although all did not go well at first as the salmon were not running. He did make up for it at the end of the week by catching a number of sea trout. In Front Royal, Virginia, a baseball stadium was named in Crosby's honor. The Front Royal Cardinals of the Valley Baseball League play their home games here. The Bing is also home to both of the county's high schools' baseball teams. ==Personal life== Crosby reportedly had a problem with alcohol abuse between the late 1920s and early 1930s, spending 60 days in jail for drinking and crashing his car during prohibition. He got his drinking under control in 1931. In 1977, Crosby told Barbara Walters in a televised interview that he thought marijuana should be legalized, because he believed it would make it much easier for the authorities to exert proper legal control over the market. In December 1999, the New York Post published an article by Bill Hoffmann and Murray Weiss called Bing Crosby's Single Life which claimed that "recently published" FBI files revealed connections with figures in the Mafia "since his youth". The comments made by FBI investigators in the memos discredited the claims made in the letters. In the FBI files, there is only one reference to a person associated with the Mafia. In a memorandum dated January 16, 1959, it is said: "The Salt Lake City Office has developed information indicating that Moe Dalitz received an invitation to join a deer hunting party at Bing Crosby's Elko, Nevada, ranch, together with the crooner, his Las Vegas dentist and several business associates." However, Crosby had already sold his Elko ranch a year earlier, in 1958, and it is doubtful how much he was really involved in that meeting. ===Romantic relationships=== Crosby was married twice. His first wife was actress and nightclub singer Dixie Lee, to whom he was married from 1930 until she died of ovarian cancer in 1952. They had four sons: Gary, twins Dennis and Phillip, and Lindsay. Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman (1947) was rumored to be based on Lee's life. The Crosby family lived at 10500 Camarillo Street in North Hollywood for more than five years. After his wife died, Crosby had relationships with model Pat Sheehan, who married his son Dennis in 1958, and actresses Inger Stevens and Grace Kelly. Crosby married actress Kathryn Grant, who converted to Catholicism, in 1957. They had three children: Harry Lillis III, who played Bill in Friday the 13th, Mary Frances, best known for portraying Kristin Shepard on TV's Dallas, and Nathaniel, the 1981 U.S. Amateur champion in golf. Particularly during the late 1930s and the 1940s, Crosby's domestic life was dominated by his wife's excessive drinking. His efforts to cure her with the help of specialists failed. Tired of Dixie's drinking, Crosby even asked her for a divorce in January 1941. During the 1940s, he consistently had difficulties trying to stay away from home, while also trying to be there as much as possible for his children. Crosby had one confirmed extramarital affair between 1945 and the late 1940s, while married to his first wife Dixie. Actress Patricia Neal, who herself at the time was having an affair with the married Gary Cooper, wrote in her 1988 autobiography As I Am about a cruise to England with actress Joan Caulfield in 1948: In the 2018 Crosby biography Bing Crosby: Swinging on a Star; the War Years, 1940–1946, there are excerpts from an original diary of two sisters, Violet and Mary Barsa, who, as young women, used to stalk Crosby in New York City in December 1945 and January 1946, and who detailed their observations in the diary. The document reveals that, during that time, Crosby was taking Caulfield out to dinner, visited theaters and opera houses with her, and Caulfield and a person in her company entered the Waldorf Hotel where Crosby was staying. The document also clearly indicates that at their meetings a third person, in most instances, Caulfield's mother, was present. In 1954, Caulfield admitted to a relationship with a "top film star" who was a married man with children, who, in the end, chose his wife and children over her. Attorney Ira Shadwell declined to disclose the purchase price. In October 1978, actor Clint Eastwood purchased the ranch under the name of his business manager, Roy Kaufman, for $1.5 million. Crosby and his family lived in the San Francisco area for many years. In 1963, he and his wife Kathryn moved with their three young children from Los Angeles to a $175,000 ten-bedroom Tudor estate in Hillsborough, formerly owned by fellow horseman Lindsay C. Howard, one of Crosby's closest friends, because they did not want to raise their children in Hollywood, according to son Nathaniel. This house went up for sale by its current owners in 2021 for $13.75 million. In 1965, the Crosbys moved to a larger, 40-room French chateau-style house on nearby Jackling Drive, where Kathryn Crosby continued to reside after Bing's death. This house served as a setting for some of the family's Minute Maid orange juice television commercials. While acknowledging that corporal punishments took place, there were reports of all of Gary's immediate siblings distancing themselves from the abuse claims, either in public or in private. Nevertheless, Phillip did not deny that Crosby believed in corporal punishment. However, after the book was published, Lindsay addressed the abuse claims and what the media had made out of them: Dennis Crosby reportedly "said his older brother (Gary) was the most severely treated of the four boys. 'He got the first licking, and we got the second.'" Gary's first wife of 19 years, Barbara Cosentino, of whom Gary wrote in his book, "I could confide in her about Mom and Dad and my childhood", and with whom Gary stayed friendly after the divorce, stated: Bing's younger brother, singer and jazz bandleader Bob Crosby, recalled at the time of Gary's revelations that Bing was a "disciplinarian", as their mother and father had been. He added, "We were brought up that way." Crosby's will established a blind trust in which none of the sons received an inheritance until they reached the age of 65, intended by Crosby to keep them out of trouble. They instead received several thousand dollars per month from a trust left in 1952 by their mother, Dixie Lee. The trust, tied to high-performing oil stocks, folded in December 1989 following the 1980s oil glut. Lindsay Crosby died in 1989 at age 51, and Dennis Crosby died in 1991 at age 56, both by suicide from self-inflicted gunshot wounds. Gary Crosby died of lung cancer in 1995 at age 62. Phillip Crosby died of a heart attack in 2004 at age 69. Nathaniel Crosby, Crosby's younger son from his second marriage, is a former high-level golfer who won the U.S. Amateur in 1981 at age 19, becoming the youngest winner in the history of that event at the time. Harry Crosby is an investment banker who occasionally makes singing appearances. Denise Crosby, Dennis Crosby's daughter, is an actress and is known for her role as Tasha Yar on Star Trek: The Next Generation. She appeared in the 1989 film adaptation of Stephen King's novel Pet Sematary. In 2006, Crosby's niece through his sister Mary Rose, Carolyn Schneider, published the laudatory book Me and Uncle Bing. Disputes between Crosby's two families began in the late 1990s. When Dixie died in 1952, her will provided that her share of the community property be distributed in trust to her sons. After Crosby's death in 1977, he left the residue of his estate to a marital trust for the benefit of his widow, Kathryn, and HLC Properties, Ltd., was formed for the purpose of managing his interests, including his right of publicity. In 1996, Dixie's trust sued HLC and Kathryn for declaratory relief as to the trust's entitlement to interest, dividends, royalties, and other income derived from the community property of Crosby and Dixie. In 1999, the parties settled for approximately $1.5 million. Relying on a retroactive amendment to the California Civil Code, Dixie's trust brought suit again, in 2010, alleging that Crosby's right of publicity was community property, and that Dixie's trust was entitled to a share of the revenue it produced. The trial court granted Dixie's trust's claim. The California Court of Appeals reversed it, holding that the 1999 settlement barred the claim. In light of the court's ruling, it was unnecessary for the court to decide whether a right of publicity can be characterized as community property under California law. ==Health and death== Following his recovery from a life-threatening fungal infection in his right lung in January 1974, Crosby emerged from semi-retirement to start a new spate of albums and concerts. On March 20, 1977, after videotaping a CBS concert special, "Bing – 50th Anniversary Gala", at the Ambassador Auditorium with Bob Hope looking on, Crosby fell off the stage into an orchestra pit, rupturing a disc in his back requiring a month-long stay in the hospital. Crosby's first performance after the accident was his last American concert, on August 16, 1977, the day Elvis Presley died, at the Concord Pavilion in Concord, California. When the electric power failed during his performance, Crosby continued singing without amplification. On August 27, Crosby gave a televised concert in Norway. In September, Crosby, his family and singer Rosemary Clooney began a concert tour of Britain that included two weeks at the London Palladium. While in the UK, Crosby recorded his final album, Seasons, and his final TV Christmas special with guest David Bowie on September 11, which aired a little over a month after Crosby's death. Crosby's last concert was in the Brighton Centre on October 10, four days before his death, with British entertainer Gracie Fields in attendance. The following day, Crosby made his final appearance in a recording studio and sang eight songs at the BBC's Maida Vale Studios for a radio program, which included an interview with Alan Dell. Accompanied by the Gordon Rose Orchestra, Crosby's last recorded performance was of the song "Once in a While". Later that afternoon, he met with Chris Harding to take photographs for the Seasons album jacket. The next day, Crosby played 18 holes of golf at the La Moraleja Golf Course near Madrid. His partner was World Cup champion Manuel Piñero. Their opponents were club president César de Zulueta and Valentín Barrios. At the ninth hole, construction workers building a house nearby recognized Crosby, and when asked for a song, Crosby sang "Strangers in the Night". At the clubhouse and later in the ambulance, house physician Dr. Laiseca tried to revive him, but was unsuccessful. At Reina Victoria Hospital, Crosby was administered the last rites of the Catholic Church and was pronounced dead at the age of 74. Crosby was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. ==Legacy== Crosby is a member of the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame in the radio division. The family created an official website on October 14, 2007, the 30th anniversary of Crosby's death. In his autobiography Don't Shoot, It's Only Me! (1990), Bob Hope wrote, "Dear old Bing, as we called him, the Economy-sized Sinatra. And what a voice. God I miss that voice. I can't even turn on the radio around Christmas time without crying anymore." Calypso musician Roaring Lion wrote a tribute song in 1939 titled "Bing Crosby", in which he wrote: "Bing has a way of singing with his very heart and soul / Which captivates the world / His millions of listeners never fail to rejoice / At his golden voice...." In 2006, the former Metropolitan Theater of Performing Arts ('The Met') in Spokane, Washington, was renamed to The Bing Crosby Theater. Crosby has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. One each for radio, recording, and motion pictures. ==Compositions== Crosby wrote or co-wrote lyrics to 22 songs. His composition "At Your Command" was number 1 for three weeks on the U.S. pop singles chart beginning on August 8, 1931. "I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance With You" was his most successful composition, recorded by Duke Ellington, Frank Sinatra, Thelonious Monk, Billie Holiday, and Mildred Bailey, among others. Songs co-written by Crosby include: "That's Grandma" (1927), with Harry Barris and James Cavanaugh "From Monday On" (1928), with Harry Barris and recorded with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra featuring Bix Beiderbecke on cornet, number 14 on US pop singles charts "What Price Lyrics?" (1928), with Harry Barris and Matty Malneck "Ev'rything's Agreed Upon" (1930), with Harry Barris "At Your Command" (1931), with Harry Barris and Harry Tobias, US, number 1 (3 weeks) "Believe Me" (1931), with James Cavanaugh and Frank Weldon (1932), written by Bing Crosby, Irving Bibo, and Paul McVey, featured in the 1932 Universal film The Cohens and Kellys in Hollywood "I Would If I Could But I Can't" (1933), with Mitchell Parish and Alan Grey "Where the Turf Meets the Surf" (1941) with Johnny Burke and James V. Monaco. "Tenderfoot" (1953) with Bob Bowen and Perry Botkin, originally issued using the pseudonym of "Bill Brill" for Bing Crosby. "Domenica" (1961) with Pietro Garinei / Gorni Kramer / Sandro Giovannini "That's What Life is All About" (1975), with Ken Barnes, Peter Dacre, and Les Reed, US, AC chart, no. 35; UK, no. 41 "Sail Away from Norway" (1977) – Crosby wrote lyrics to go with a traditional song. ==Grammy Hall of Fame== Four performances by Bing Crosby have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance". ==Discography== ==Filmography== ==Television appearances== ==Radio== 15 Minutes with Bing Crosby (1931, CBS), Unsponsored. 6 nights a week, 15 minutes. The Cremo Singer (1931–1932, CBS), 6 nights a week, 15 minutes. 15 Minutes with Bing Crosby (1932, CBS), initially 3 nights a week, then twice a week, 15 minutes. Chesterfield Cigarettes Presents Music that Satisfies (1933, CBS), broadcast two nights a week, 15 minutes. Bing Crosby Entertains (1933–1935, CBS), weekly, 30 minutes. Kraft Music Hall (1935–1946, NBC), Thursday nights, 60 minutes until January 1943, then 30 minutes. Bing Crosby on Armed Forces Radio in World War II (1941–1945; World War II). Philco Radio Time (1946–1949, ABC), 30 minutes weekly. This Is Bing Crosby (The Minute Maid Show) (1948–1950, CBS), 15 minutes each weekday morning; Bing as disc jockey. The Bing Crosby – Chesterfield Show (1949–1952, CBS), 30 minutes weekly. The Bing Crosby Show for General Electric (1952–1954, CBS), 30 minutes weekly. The Bing Crosby Show (1954–1956) (CBS), 15 minutes, 5 nights a week. A Christmas Sing with Bing (1955–1962), (CBS, VOA and AFRS), 1 hour each year, sponsored by the Insurance Company of North America. The Ford Road Show Featuring Bing Crosby (1957–1958, CBS), 5 minutes, 5 days a week. The Bing Crosby – Rosemary Clooney Show (1960–1962, CBS), 20 minutes, 5 mornings a week, with Rosemary Clooney. ==RIAA certification== ==Awards and nominations== <!-- commenting this out until/unless this template becomes active again	[ "Road to", "American Music Awards of 1974", "requiem", "record sales", "Christmas music", "Bob Crosby", "Tasha Yar", "Frank Weldon", "Palermo, Buenos Aires", "the Rhythm Boys", "Strangers in the Night", "last rites", "Once in a While (1937 song)", "Bing Crosby Theater", "Kristin Shepard", "The Big Broadcast", "Gary Cooper", "Magnetophon", "sea trout", "I Surrender Dear (1931 film)", "Guinness World Records", "Mack Sennett", "Billboard (magazine)", "World Cup (men's golf)", "antitrust", "magnetic tape", "blind trust", "Road to Utopia", "Ol' Man River", "Pistol Packin' Mama", "Al Rinker", "RCA Victor", "Joan Blondell", "Belmont Park", "Coca-Cola", "ASCAP", "The Hollywood Palace", "salmon", "King of Jazz", "Eddie Lang", "Where the Blue of the Night (Meets the Gold of the Day)", "Bob Hope", "London Palladium", "Harry Cohn", "Desilu Studios", "Joan Collins", "American Broadcasting Company", "World Series", "Marquita Rivera", "3M", "Scottish people", "Dick Haymes", "multitrack recording", "RIAA", "Golf La Moraleja", "Gonzaga University", "That's What Life is All About", "Alcobendas", "KPTV", "Merry Christmas (Bing Crosby album)", "Brunswick Records", "Barbara Stanwyck", "Academy Awards", "Armed Forces Radio Service", "The Rhythm Boys", "Moorpark, California", "Road to Bali", "Harry Crosby (businessman)", "Chris Crosby (singer)", "Suburban Handicap", "Westwood, Los Angeles", "Dorothy Lamour", "Gorni Kramer", "David Bowie", "Dorothy Masuka", "Waltzing in a Dream", "Insurance Company of North America", "Associated Press", "I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance With You", "St. Paul the Apostle Church and School", "Dardanella", "Mary Crosby", "Eastern Washington", "crooning", "George Hamilton (musician)", "Hawaiian music", "Bing Crosby Breeders' Cup Handicap", "laugh track", "KXLY (AM)", "Pat Sheehan (model)", "Martin and Lewis", "Golden Globe Awards", "Arthur Godfrey", "Andrews Sisters", "Lindsay C. Howard", "magnetic tape sound recording", "English people", "Road to Rio", "Fred Ahlert", "The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad", "Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)", "Tuesday Weld", "Larry Crosby", "The New York Times", "The Road to Hong Kong", "Mayflower", "Cypress Point Club", "A Christmas Sing with Bing (1955–1962)", "The Bing Crosby – Chesterfield Show", "Hoagy Carmichael", "White Christmas (song)", "country music", "Jimmy Dorsey", "Minute Maid", "Jack Mullin", "Joe Glaser", "European Theater of Operations", "Ned Washington", "Ken Barnes (writer)", "ballad", "Concord, California", "Dixie Lee", "Road to ...", "The Davenport Hotel (Spokane, Washington)", "People (magazine)", "Binglin Stable", "CBS Radio", "Del Mar, California", "Gonzaga Bulldogs football", "Harry Barris", "Los Angeles Times", "suicide", "Mike Douglas", "broadcast syndication", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Jack Teagarden", "Tommy Dorsey", "rhythm and blues", "Procter & Gamble", "Golden Age of Radio", "Manuel Piñero", "Leigh Harline", "Variety Girl", "Clark Gable", "Friday the 13th (1980 film)", "Steve Hoffman (audio engineer)", "The Shadow", "Waldorf Astoria New York", "At Your Command", "Peter Sellers", "MLB Network", "Concord Pavilion", "American Music Award of Merit", "1960 World Series", "videotape recorder", "The American Sportsman", "NAFI Corporation", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Dean Martin", "Life (magazine)", "The Cohens and Kellys in Hollywood", "Russ Columbo", "Tom Hanks", "This Is Bing Crosby", "Billie Holiday", "Elvis Presley", "Grace Kelly", "Grosset & Dunlap", "List of Lux Radio Theatre episodes", "YouTube", "Mitchell Parish", "Reprise Records", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award", "Alan Dell", "Grammy Award", "Columbia Pictures", "Beverly Garland", "High Time (film)", "Kathryn Crosby", "National Board of Review", "Denise Crosby", "Newton Newkirk", "Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams (song)", "Maida Vale Studios", "marijuana", "World Golf Hall of Fame", "Road to Morocco", "Pet Sematary (1989 film)", "Irving Bibo", "Gonzaga Preparatory School", "California Courts of Appeal", "1971 World Series", "Billings Mustangs", "Gracie Fields", "Henry Pleasants (music critic)", "Mike Pecarovich", "15 Minutes with Bing Crosby", "Bessie Smith", "Road to Zanzibar", "live television", "Lindsay Crosby", "time shifting", "California Civil Code", "Slattery's People", "Pet Sematary", "Irving Berlin", "French popular music", "Roy Turk", "I Surrender Dear", "reel-to-reel tape recorder", "Dolly Rathebe", "Robert Taylor (American actor)", "NBC", "CBS Sunday Morning", "Front Royal, Virginia", "The Bing Crosby Show (1954–1956)", "Brighton Centre", "Stephen King", "I Found a Million Dollar Baby (in a Five and Ten Cent Store)", "Fanchon and Marco", "Verve Records", "Capitol Records", "Pope Pius XII", "Pietro Garinei", "Mr. Music", "Johnny Burke (lyricist)", "Ben Casey", "The Bing Crosby – Rosemary Clooney Show", "Gary Crosby (actor)", "Peter Dacre", "Burt Reynolds", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Orson Welles", "Decca Records", "Nathaniel Crosby", "The Bing Crosby Show for General Electric", "Bill Mazeroski", "Jerry Lewis", "John Wayne", "Louis Armstrong", "Hillsborough, California", "KCOP-TV", "James Cavanaugh (songwriter)", "Ingrid Bergman", "Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City", "Inger Stevens", "Mafia", "Bing Crosby's Merrie Olde Christmas", "Duke Ellington", "Voice of America", "Cassel, California", "Roaring Lion", "Bix Beiderbecke", "Sinatra", "belt (music)", "ovarian cancer", "Out of Nowhere (Johnny Green song)", "Christmas season", "Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award", "High Society (1956 film)", "cultural icon", "Fabian Forte", "Going My Way", "kinescope", "Bob Jones Award", "Lux Radio Theatre", "Thelonious Monk", "prohibition", "Tivoli Theatre (Chicago)", "Bing Crosby filmography", "Don't Fence Me In (song)", "NBC Radio", "Grammy Hall of Fame", "Yank, the Army Weekly", "thoroughbred racing", "Del Mar Racetrack", "Joan Caulfield", "1980s oil glut", "handicap (golf)", "lacquer disc", "CBS Television Studios", "The Bing Crosby Show (1964 TV series)", "Academy Award for Best Actor", "ad-lib", "White Christmas (film)", "List of Bing Crosby TV appearances", "easy listening", "River Derwent, Cumbria", "last words", "Breaking Point (1963 TV series)", "Victor Young", "American Music Awards", "community property", "Alexander M. Poniatoff", "Frank Sinatra", "Seasons (Bing Crosby album)", "Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman", "Joel Whitburn", "match race", "Bing Crosby Entertains", "New England", "Chummy MacGregor", "Pittsburgh Pirates", "United States Golf Association", "orchestra pit", "walk-off home run", "Columbia Records", "Moe Dalitz", "Swinging on a Star", "Armed Forces Network", "Jingle Bells", "Ed Craney", "Perry Botkin Sr.", "jazz", "Bad Nauheim", "Blue Skies (1946 film)", "Irish-American", "Culver City, California", "Kingdom of England", "Hogan's Heroes", "Bing Crosby discography", "Philco", "vaudeville", "Spokane, Washington", "Phillip Crosby", "AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am", "Cecil B. DeMille", "John T. Mullin", "Jack Kapp", "Spokane Daily Chronicle", "Mildred Bailey", "tag (game)", "Pennies from Heaven (song)", "Laurel Awards", "Ampex", "Laurel and Hardy", "Terry Teachout", "Gus Arnheim", "William Brewster (pilgrim)", "Rancho Santa Fe, California", "Holiday Inn (film)", "United States Amateur Championship (golf)", "Les Paul", "Charles S. Howard", "Cockermouth", "Patricia Neal", "United Artists", "Harry Tobias", "Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy", "Frank McHugh", "Jackie Robinson", "Barbara Walters", "recording industry", "National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame", "Flip Wilson Show", "Dwight Eisenhower", "The Country Girl (1954 film)", "Star Trek: The Next Generation", "Pennies from Heaven (1936 film)", "Dallas (TV series)", "Traditional pop", "John Wyndham, 1st Baron Egremont", "Rosemary Clooney", "Dennis Crosby", "Gary Giddins", "Variety (magazine)", "Clint Eastwood", "Paul Whiteman", "Kraft Foods", "Road to Singapore", "Valentín Barrios", "Les Reed (songwriter)", "Irish music", "The Amateur Championship", "Kraft Music Hall", "World War II", "Hal Roach", "The Little Drummer Boy", "Bristol Herald Courier", "Loews Theatres", "crooner", "Seabiscuit", "Al Jolson", "John Lennon", "NBC Blue Network", "The Bells of St. Mary's", "James V. Monaco", "Bing Crosby on Armed Forces Radio in World War II", "United Western Recorders", "Philco Radio Time", "Tacoma, Washington", "PGA Tour", "She Loves Me Not (1934 film)", "The Ford Road Show Featuring Bing Crosby", "Matty Malneck", "Perry Como", "International Club Crosby", "Puritan migration to New England (1620–40)", "Billy Murray (singer)", "Citadel Media", "Rising River Ranch", "I Don't Stand a Ghost of a Chance with You" ]
4,011	Base	Base or BASE may refer to: ==Brands and enterprises== BASE (mobile operator), a Belgian mobile telecommunications operator Base CRM, an enterprise software company founded in 2009 with offices in Mountain View and Kraków, Poland Base Design, an international design, communications, audiovisual, copywriting and publishing firm Base FX, a visual effects and animation company founded in 2006 with studios in Beijing, Wuxi and Xiamen, China Budapest Aircraft Services, callsign BASE ==Computing== BASE (search engine), Bielefeld Academic Search Engine , an HTML element Basically Available, Soft state, Eventual consistency (BASE), a consistency model Google Base, an online database provided by Google LibreOffice Base, LibreOffice's database module OpenOffice.org Base, OpenOffice.org's database module, also known as ooBase ==Mathematics== Base of computation, commonly called radix, the number of distinct digits in a positional numeral system Base of a logarithm, the number whose logarithm is Base (exponentiation), the number in an expression of the form Base (geometry), a side of a plane figure (for example a triangle) or face of a solid Base (group theory), a sequence of elements not jointly stabilized by any nontrivial group element. Base (topology), a type of generating set for a topological space ==Organizations== Backward Society Education, a Nepali non-governmental organization BASE (social centre), a self-managed social centre in Bristol, UK Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management, a German federal environmental authority Beaverton Academy of Science and Engineering, in Hillsboro, Oregon, US Bible Archaeology Search and Exploration Institute British Association for Screen Entertainment Brooklyn Academy of Science and the Environment, a high school in New York, US ==Science and technology== Base (chemistry), a substance that can accept hydrogen ions (protons) Base, an attribute to medication in pure form, for example erythromycin base Base, one of the three terminals of a Bipolar junction transistor BASE experiment, an antiproton experiment at CERN Base pair, a pair of connected nucleotides on complementary DNA and RNA strands Beta-alumina solid electrolyte, a fast ion conductor material Nucleobase, in genetics, the parts of DNA and RNA involved in forming base pairs Base (blockchain), an Ethereum layer 2 blockchain ==Social science== Base (politics), a group of voters who almost always support a single party's candidates Base (social class), a lower social class Base and superstructure (Marxism), parts of society in Marxist theory ==Sports== Base (baseball), a station that must be touched by a runner Base, a position in some cheerleading stunts BASE jumping, parachuting or wingsuit flying from a fixed structure or cliff Base, a variant name for the children's game darebase ==Other uses== Base (character), character in Marvel Comics Base (EP), an album by South Korean singer Kim Jonghyun Base, Maharashtra, a village in India Rob Base, American rapper Base, or binder (material), a material that holds paint or other materials together Base, or foundation (architecture), the lowest and supporting layer of a structure Base, or foundation (cosmetics), a cosmetic applied to the face Base (heraldry), the lower part of the shield in heraldry Base, or pedestal, a supporting feature of a statue or other item Cooking base, a concentrated flavouring compound Military base, or non-military base camp, a bivouac which provides shelter, military equipment and personnel	[ "binder (material)", "BASE (search engine)", "HTML element", "Military base", "Base (social class)", "Base (EP)", "Base (politics)", "Budapest Aircraft Services", "Base camp (disambiguation)", "BASE (social centre)", "Base (topology)", "Base of a logarithm", "Base (geometry)", "Base (character)", "Bipolar junction transistor", "Cooking base", "Basis (disambiguation)", "Base FX", "Base and superstructure (Marxism)", "foundation (cosmetics)", "Bottom (disambiguation)", "Base (group theory)", "BASE jumping", "Base (baseball)", "Bass (disambiguation)", "Federal Office for the Safety of Nuclear Waste Management", "Base (exponentiation)", "erythromycin base", "Brooklyn Academy of Science and the Environment", "foundation (architecture)", "BASE (mobile operator)", "Google Base", "cheerleading", "Base (chemistry)", "The Base (disambiguation)", "darebase", "Base pair", "Base (heraldry)", "Beta-alumina solid electrolyte", "pedestal", "Bases (disambiguation)", "LibreOffice Base", "Backward Society Education", "Eventual consistency", "Base, Maharashtra", "Nucleobase", "Base (blockchain)", "Bible Archaeology Search and Exploration Institute", "Radix (disambiguation)", "OpenOffice.org Base", "Base of computation", "Beaverton Academy of Science and Engineering", "BASE experiment", "British Association for Screen Entertainment", "Base CRM", "Base Design", "Rob Base" ]
4,012	Basel Convention	{{Infobox Treaty \| name = Basel Convention \| long_name = Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal \| image = Basel Convention Logo.svg \| image_width = 150px \| caption = The logo of the Basel Convention Secretariat \| type = United Nations treaty \| date_drafted = \| date_signed = It does not address the movement of radioactive waste, controlled by the International Atomic Energy Agency. The Basel Convention is also intended to minimize the rate and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist developing countries in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate. The convention was opened for signature on 21 March 1989, and entered into force on 5 May 1992. As of June 2024, there are 191 parties to the convention. In addition, Haiti and the United States have signed the convention but did not ratify it. Following a petition urging action on the issue signed by more than a million people around the world, most of the world's countries, but not the United States, agreed in May 2019 to an amendment of the Basel Convention to include plastic waste as regulated material. Although the United States is not a party to the treaty, export shipments of plastic waste from the United States are now "criminal traffic as soon as the ships get on the high seas," according to the Basel Action Network (BAN), and carriers of such shipments may face liability, because the transportation of plastic waste is prohibited in just about every other country. ==History== With the tightening of environmental laws (for example, RCRA) in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically. At the same time, the globalization of shipping made cross-border movement of waste easier, and many less developed countries were desperate for foreign currency. Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to poorer countries, grew rapidly. In 1990, OECD countries exported around 1.8 million tons of hazardous waste. Although most of this waste was shipped to other developed countries, a number of high-profile incidents of hazardous waste-dumping led to calls for regulation. One of the incidents which led to the creation of the Basel Convention was the Khian Sea waste disposal incident, in which a ship carrying incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in the United States dumped half of its load on a beach in Haiti before being forced away. It sailed for many months, changing its name several times. Unable to unload the cargo in any port, the crew was believed to have dumped much of it at sea. Another incident was a 1988 case in which five ships transported 8,000 barrels of hazardous waste from Italy to the small Nigerian town of Koko in exchange for $100 monthly rent which was paid to a Nigerian for the use of his farmland. At its meeting that took place from 27 November to 1 December 2006, the parties of the Basel Agreement focused on issues of electronic waste and the dismantling of ships. Increased trade in recyclable materials has led to an increase in a market for used products such as computers. This market is valued in billions of dollars. At issue is the distinction when used computers stop being a "commodity" and become a "waste". As of June 2023, there are 191 parties to the treaty, which includes 188 UN member states, the Cook Islands, the European Union, and the State of Palestine. The five UN member states that are not party to the treaty are East Timor, Fiji, Haiti, South Sudan, and United States. In other words, it must both be listed and possess a characteristic such as being explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive. The other way that a waste may fall under the scope of the convention is if it is defined as or considered to be a hazardous waste under the laws of either the exporting country, the importing country, or any of the countries of transit. The definition of the term disposal is made in Article 2 al 4 and just refers to annex IV, which gives a list of operations which are understood as disposal or recovery. Examples of disposal are broad, including recovery and recycling. Alternatively, to fall under the scope of the convention, it is sufficient for waste to be included in Annex II, which lists other wastes, such as household wastes and residue that comes from incinerating household waste. Radioactive waste that is covered under other international control systems and wastes from the normal operation of ships are not covered. Annex IX attempts to define wastes which are not considered hazardous wastes and which would be excluded from the scope of the Basel Convention. If these wastes however are contaminated with hazardous materials to an extent causing them to exhibit an Annex III characteristic, they are not excluded. ==Obligations== In addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries. The convention places a general prohibition on the exportation or importation of wastes between parties and non-parties. The exception to this rule is where the waste is subject to another treaty that does not take away from the Basel Convention. The United States is a notable non-party to the convention and has a number of such agreements for allowing the shipping of hazardous wastes to Basel Party countries. The OECD Council also has its own control system that governs the transboundary movement of hazardous materials between OECD member countries. This allows, among other things, the OECD countries to continue trading in wastes with countries like the United States that have not ratified the Basel Convention. Parties to the convention must honor import bans of other parties. Article 4 of the Basel Convention calls for an overall reduction of waste generation. By encouraging countries to keep wastes within their boundaries and as close as possible to its source of generation, the internal pressures should provide incentives for waste reduction and pollution prevention. Parties are generally prohibited from exporting covered wastes to, or importing covered waste from, non-parties to the convention. The convention states that illegal hazardous waste traffic is criminal but contains no enforcement provisions. According to Article 12, parties are directed to adopt a protocol that establishes liability rules and procedures that are appropriate for damage that comes from the movement of hazardous waste across borders. The current consensus is that as space is not classed as a "country" under the specific definition, export of e-waste to non-terrestrial locations would not be covered. ==Basel Ban Amendment== After the initial adoption of the convention, some least developed countries and environmental organizations argued that it did not go far enough. Many nations and NGOs argued for a total ban on shipment of all hazardous waste to developing countries. In particular, the original convention did not prohibit waste exports to any location except Antarctica but merely required a notification and consent system known as "prior informed consent" or PIC. Further, many waste traders sought to exploit the good name of recycling and begin to justify all exports as moving to recycling destinations. Many believed a full ban was needed including exports for recycling. These concerns led to several regional waste trade bans, including the Bamako Convention. Lobbying at 1995 Basel conference by developing countries, Greenpeace and several European countries such as Denmark, led to the adoption of an amendment to the convention in 1995 termed the Basel Ban Amendment to the Basel Convention. The amendment has been accepted by 86 countries and the European Union, but has not entered into force (as that requires ratification by three-fourths of the member states to the convention). On 6 September 2019, Croatia became the 97th country to ratify the amendment which will enter into force after 90 days on 5 December 2019. The amendment prohibits the export of hazardous waste from a list of developed (mostly OECD) countries to developing countries. The Basel Ban applies to export for any reason, including recycling. An area of special concern for advocates of the amendment was the sale of ships for salvage, shipbreaking. The Ban Amendment was strenuously opposed by a number of industry groups as well as nations including Australia and Canada. The number of ratification for the entry-into force of the Ban Amendment is under debate: Amendments to the convention enter into force after ratification of "three-fourths of the Parties who accepted them" [Art. 17.5]; so far, the parties of the Basel Convention could not yet agree whether this would be three-fourths of the parties that were party to the Basel Convention when the ban was adopted, or three-fourths of the current parties of the convention [see Report of COP 9 of the Basel Convention]. The status of the amendment ratifications can be found on the Basel Secretariat's web page. The European Union fully implemented the Basel Ban in its Waste Shipment Regulation (EWSR), making it legally binding in all EU member states. Norway and Switzerland have similarly fully implemented the Basel Ban in their legislation. In the light of the blockage concerning the entry into force of the Ban Amendment, Switzerland and Indonesia have launched a "Country-led Initiative" (CLI) to discuss in an informal manner a way forward to ensure that the trans boundary movements of hazardous wastes, especially to developing countries and countries with economies in the transition, do not lead to an unsound management of hazardous wastes. This discussion aims at identifying and finding solutions to the reasons why hazardous wastes are still brought to countries that are not able to treat them in a safe manner. It is hoped that the CLI will contribute to the realization of the objectives of the Ban Amendment. The Basel Convention's website informs about the progress of this initiative. ==Regulation of plastic waste== In the wake of popular outcry, in May 2019 most of the world's countries, but not the United States, agreed to amend the Basel Convention to include plastic waste as a regulated material. opposed the amendment, but since it is not a party to the treaty it did not have an opportunity to vote on it to try to block it. Information about, and visual images of, wildlife, such as seabirds, ingesting plastic, and scientific findings that nanoparticles do penetrate through the blood–brain barrier were reported to have fueled public sentiment for coordinated international legally binding action. Over a million people worldwide signed a petition demanding official action. ==Basel watchdog== The Basel Action Network (BAN) is a charitable civil society non-governmental organization that works as a consumer watchdog for implementation of the Basel Convention. BAN's principal aims is fighting exportation of toxic waste, including plastic waste, from industrialized societies to developing countries. BAN is based in Seattle, Washington, United States, with a partner office in the Philippines. BAN works to curb trans-border trade in hazardous electronic waste, land dumping, incineration, and the use of prison labor.	[ "Environmental dumping", "State of Palestine", "Koko, Delta", "civil society", "Ship breaking", "toxicity", "Bamako Convention", "plastic waste", "East Timor", "Consumer organization", "Waste Shipment Regulation", "developing countries", "incineration", "Haiti", "Secretary-General of the United Nations", "Greenpeace", "EWSR", "UN member states", "Less Developed Countries", "non-governmental organization", "metric tons", "treaty", "Basel Ban Amendment", "Philippines", "environmental law", "nanoparticles", "prison labor", "OECD", "Basel", "electronic waste", "Radioactive waste", "shipbreaking", "Antarctica", "Stockholm Convention", "Fiji", "ratification", "International Atomic Energy Agency", "European Union", "Khian Sea waste disposal incident", "Electronic waste by country", "Cook Islands", "hazardous waste", "Nigeria", "waste trade", "Rotterdam Convention", "incinerator bottom ash", "developed countries", "Resource Conservation and Recovery Act", "Switzerland", "toxic waste", "Developed country", "blood–brain barrier", "Asbestos and the law", "seabird", "Seattle", "recycling", "radioactive waste", "South Sudan", "Basel Action Network" ]
4,013	Bar Kokhba (album)	Bar Kokhba is a double album by John Zorn, recorded between 1994 and 1996. It features music from Zorn's Masada project, rearranged for small ensembles. It also features the original soundtrack from The Art of Remembrance – Simon Wiesenthal, a film by Hannah Heer and Werner Schmiedel (1994–95). == Reception == The AllMusic review by Marc Gilman noted: "While some compositions retain their original structure and sound, some are expanded and probed by Zorn's arrangements, and resemble avant-garde classical music more than jazz. But this is the beauty of the album; the ensembles provide a forum for Zorn to expand his compositions. The album consistently impresses." == Track listing == All compositions by John Zorn Disc One "Gevurah" – 6:55 "Nezikin" – 1:51 "Mahshav" – 4:33 "Rokhev" – 3:10 "Abidan" – 5:19 "Sheloshim" – 5:03 "Hath-Arob" – 2:25 "Paran" – 4:48 "Mahlah" – 7:48 "Socoh" – 4:07 "Yechida" – 8:24 "Bikkurim" – 3:25 "Idalah-Abal" – 5:04 Disc Two "Tannaim" – 4:38 "Nefesh" – 3:33 "Abidan" – 3:13 "Mo'ed" – 4:59 "Maskil" – 4:41 "Mishpatim" – 6:46 "Sansanah" – 6:56 "Shear-Jashub" – 2:06 "Mahshav" – 4:50 "Sheloshim" – 6:45 "Mochin" – 13:11 "Karaim" – 3:39 == Personnel == John Zorn – Producer Mark Feldman (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,20,21,25) – violin Erik Friedlander (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,21,25) – cello Greg Cohen (2,4,6,9,10,12,14,16,18,21,25) – bass Marc Ribot (9,18,24) – guitar Anthony Coleman (1,3,11,17,19) – piano David Krakauer (3,8) – clarinets John Medeski (5,7,8,13,15,17,20,22,23) – organ, piano Mark Dresser (1,15,19) – bass Kenny Wollesen (1,2,15,19,23) – drums Chris Speed (5,13,20,23) – clarinet Dave Douglas (23) – trumpet	[ "John Zorn", "clarinet", "Greg Cohen", "Marc Ribot", "Avant-garde jazz", "klezmer", "John Medeski", "Filmworks III: 1990–1995", "Chris Speed", "Masada (band)", "David Krakauer (musician)", "double album", "AllMusic", "In Memory of Nikki Arane", "The Penguin Guide to Jazz Recordings", "Anthony Coleman", "The Penguin Guide to Jazz", "Kenny Wollesen", "Mark Feldman", "Double bass", "Tzadik Records", "chamber jazz", "Mark Dresser", "Dave Douglas (trumpeter)", "Penguin Books", "Erik Friedlander" ]
4,015	BASIC	BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages designed for ease of use. The original version was created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College in 1963. They wanted to enable students in non-scientific fields to use computers. At the time, nearly all computers required writing custom software, which only scientists and mathematicians tended to learn. In addition to the programming language, Kemeny and Kurtz developed the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System (DTSS), which allowed multiple users to edit and run BASIC programs simultaneously on remote terminals. This general model became popular on minicomputer systems like the PDP-11 and Data General Nova in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Hewlett-Packard produced an entire computer line for this method of operation, introducing the HP2000 series in the late 1960s and continuing sales into the 1980s. Many early video games trace their history to one of these versions of BASIC. The emergence of microcomputers in the mid-1970s led to the development of multiple BASIC dialects, including Microsoft BASIC in 1975. Due to the tiny main memory available on these machines, often 4 KB, a variety of Tiny BASIC dialects were also created. BASIC was available for almost any system of the era and became the de facto programming language for home computer systems that emerged in the late 1970s. These PCs almost always had a BASIC interpreter installed by default, often in the machine's firmware or sometimes on a ROM cartridge. BASIC declined in popularity in the 1990s, as more powerful microcomputers came to market and programming languages with advanced features (such as Pascal and C) became tenable on such computers. By then, most nontechnical personal computer users relied on pre-written applications rather than writing their own programs. In 1991, Microsoft released Visual Basic, combining an updated version of BASIC with a visual forms builder. This reignited use of the language and "VB" remains a major programming language in the form of VB.NET, while a hobbyist scene for BASIC more broadly continues to exist. == Origin == John G. Kemeny was the chairman of the Dartmouth College Mathematics Department. Based largely on his reputation as an innovator in math teaching, in 1959 the college won an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation award for $500,000 to build a new department building. Thomas E. Kurtz had joined the department in 1956, and from the 1960s Kemeny and Kurtz agreed on the need for programming literacy among students outside the traditional STEM fields. Kemeny later noted that "Our vision was that every student on campus should have access to a computer, and any faculty member should be able to use a computer in the classroom whenever appropriate. It was as simple as that." Kemeny and Kurtz had made two previous experiments with simplified languages, DARSIMCO (Dartmouth Simplified Code) and DOPE (Dartmouth Oversimplified Programming Experiment). These did not progress past a single freshman class. New experiments using Fortran and ALGOL followed, but Kurtz concluded these languages were too tricky for what they desired. As Kurtz noted, Fortran had numerous oddly formed commands, notably an "almost impossible-to-memorize convention for specifying a loop: . Is it '1, 10, 2' or '1, 2, 10', and is the comma after the line number required or not?" Moreover, the lack of any sort of immediate feedback was a key problem; the machines of the era used batch processing and took a long time to complete a run of a program. While Kurtz was visiting MIT, John McCarthy suggested that time-sharing offered a solution; a single machine could divide up its processing time among many users, giving them the illusion of having a (slow) computer to themselves. Small programs would return results in a few seconds. This led to increasing interest in a system using time-sharing and a new language specifically for use by non-STEM students. Kemeny wrote the first version of BASIC. The acronym BASIC comes from the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz. The new language was heavily patterned on FORTRAN II; statements were one-to-a-line, numbers were used to indicate the target of loops and branches, and many of the commands were similar or identical to Fortran. However, the syntax was changed wherever it could be improved. For instance, the difficult to remember DO loop was replaced by the much easier to remember , and the line number used in the DO was instead indicated by the NEXT I. Likewise, the cryptic IF statement of Fortran, whose syntax matched a particular instruction of the machine on which it was originally written, became the simpler . These changes made the language much less idiosyncratic while still having an overall structure and feel similar to the original FORTRAN. The project received a $300,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, which was used to purchase a GE-225 computer for processing, and a Datanet-30 realtime processor to handle the Teletype Model 33 teleprinters used for input and output. A team of a dozen undergraduates worked on the project for about a year, writing both the DTSS system and the BASIC compiler. The first version BASIC language was released on 1 May 1964. Initially, BASIC concentrated on supporting straightforward mathematical work, with matrix arithmetic support from its initial implementation as a batch language, and character string functionality being added by 1965. Usage in the university rapidly expanded, requiring the main CPU to be replaced by a GE-235, and still later by a GE-635. By the early 1970s there were hundreds of terminals connected to the machines at Dartmouth, some of them remotely. Wanting use of the language to become widespread, its designers made the compiler available free of charge. In the 1960s, software became a chargeable commodity; until then, it was provided without charge as a service with expensive computers, usually available only to lease. They also made it available to high schools in the Hanover, New Hampshire, area and regionally throughout New England on Teletype Model 33 and Model 35 teleprinter terminals connected to Dartmouth via dial-up phone lines, and they put considerable effort into promoting the language. In the following years, as other dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny and Kurtz's original BASIC dialect became known as Dartmouth BASIC. New Hampshire recognized the accomplishment in 2019 when it erected a highway historical marker in Hanover describing the creation of "the first user-friendly programming language". == Spread on time-sharing services == The emergence of BASIC took place as part of a wider movement toward time-sharing systems. First conceptualized during the late 1950s, the idea became so dominant in the computer industry by the early 1960s that its proponents were speaking of a future in which users would "buy time on the computer much the same way that the average household buys power and water from utility companies". General Electric, having worked on the Dartmouth project, wrote their own underlying operating system and launched an online time-sharing system known as Mark I. It featured BASIC as one of its primary selling points. Other companies in the emerging field quickly followed suit; Tymshare introduced SUPER BASIC in 1968, CompuServe had a version on the DEC-10 at their launch in 1969, and by the early 1970s BASIC was largely universal on general-purpose mainframe computers. Even IBM eventually joined the club with the introduction of VS-BASIC in 1973. Although time-sharing services with BASIC were successful for a time, the widespread success predicted earlier was not to be. The emergence of minicomputers during the same period, and especially low-cost microcomputers in the mid-1970s, allowed anyone to purchase and run their own systems rather than buy online time which was typically billed at dollars per minute. == Spread on minicomputers == BASIC, by its very nature of being small, was naturally suited to porting to the minicomputer market, which was emerging at the same time as the time-sharing services. These machines had small main memory, perhaps as little as 4 KB in modern terminology, and lacked high-performance storage like hard drives that make compilers practical. On these systems, BASIC was normally implemented as an interpreter rather than a compiler due to its lower requirement for working memory. A particularly important example was HP Time-Shared BASIC, which, like the original Dartmouth system, used two computers working together to implement a time-sharing system. The first, a low-end machine in the HP 2100 series, was used to control user input and save and load their programs to tape or disk. The other, a high-end version of the same underlying machine, ran the programs and generated output. For a cost of about $100,000, one could own a machine capable of running between 16 and 32 users at the same time. The system, bundled as the HP 2000, was the first mini platform to offer time-sharing and was an immediate runaway success, catapulting HP to become the third-largest vendor in the minicomputer space, behind DEC and Data General (DG). DEC, the leader in the minicomputer space since the mid-1960s, had initially ignored BASIC. This was due to their work with RAND Corporation, who had purchased a PDP-6 to run their JOSS language, which was conceptually very similar to BASIC. This led DEC to introduce a smaller, cleaned up version of JOSS known as FOCAL, which they heavily promoted in the late 1960s. However, with timesharing systems widely offering BASIC, and all of their competition in the minicomputer space doing the same, DEC's customers were clamoring for BASIC. After management repeatedly ignored their pleas, David H. Ahl took it upon himself to buy a BASIC for the PDP-8, which was a major success in the education market. By the early 1970s, FOCAL and JOSS had been forgotten and BASIC had become almost universal in the minicomputer market. DEC would go on to introduce their updated version, BASIC-PLUS, for use on the RSTS/E time-sharing operating system. During this period a number of simple text-based games were written in BASIC, most notably Mike Mayfield's Star Trek. David Ahl collected these, some ported from FOCAL, and published them in an educational newsletter he compiled. He later collected a number of these into book form, 101 BASIC Computer Games, published in 1973. During the same period, Ahl was involved in the creation of a small computer for education use, an early personal computer. When management refused to support the concept, Ahl left DEC in 1974 to found the seminal computer magazine, Creative Computing. The book remained popular, and was re-published on several occasions. == Explosive growth: the home computer era == The introduction of the first microcomputers in the mid-1970s was the start of explosive growth for BASIC. It had the advantage that it was fairly well known to the young designers and computer hobbyists who took an interest in microcomputers, many of whom had seen BASIC on minis or mainframes. Despite Dijkstra's famous judgment in 1975, "It is practically impossible to teach good programming to students that have had a prior exposure to BASIC: as potential programmers they are mentally mutilated beyond hope of regeneration", BASIC was one of the few languages that was both high-level enough to be usable by those without training and small enough to fit into the microcomputers of the day, making it the de facto standard programming language on early microcomputers. The first microcomputer version of BASIC was co-written by Bill Gates, Paul Allen and Monte Davidoff for their newly formed company, Micro-Soft. This was released by MITS in punch tape format for the Altair 8800 shortly after the machine itself, immediately cementing BASIC as the primary language of early microcomputers. Members of the Homebrew Computer Club began circulating copies of the program, causing Gates to write his Open Letter to Hobbyists, complaining about this early example of software piracy. Partially in response to Gates's letter, and partially to make an even smaller BASIC that would run usefully on 4 KB machines, Bob Albrecht urged Dennis Allison to write their own variation of the language. How to design and implement a stripped-down version of an interpreter for the BASIC language was covered in articles by Allison in the first three quarterly issues of the People's Computer Company newsletter published in 1975 and implementations with source code published in Dr. Dobb's Journal of Tiny BASIC Calisthenics & Orthodontia: Running Light Without Overbyte. This led to a wide variety of Tiny BASICs with added features or other improvements, with versions from Tom Pittman and Li-Chen Wang becoming particularly well known. Micro-Soft, by this time Microsoft, ported their interpreter for the MOS 6502, which quickly become one of the most popular microprocessors of the 8-bit era. When new microcomputers began to appear, notably the "1977 trinity" of the TRS-80, Commodore PET and Apple II, they either included a version of the MS code, or quickly introduced new models with it. Ohio Scientific's personal computers also joined this trend at that time. By 1978, MS BASIC was a de facto standard and practically every home computer of the 1980s included it in ROM. Upon boot, a BASIC interpreter in direct mode was presented. Commodore Business Machines includes Commodore BASIC, based on Microsoft BASIC. The Apple II and TRS-80 each have two versions of BASIC: a smaller introductory version with the initial releases of the machines and a Microsoft-based version introduced as interest in the platforms increased. As new companies entered the field, additional versions were added that subtly changed the BASIC family. The Atari 8-bit computers use the 8 KB Atari BASIC which is not derived from Microsoft BASIC. Sinclair BASIC was introduced in 1980 with the Sinclair ZX80, and was later extended for the Sinclair ZX81 and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. The BBC published BBC BASIC, developed by Acorn Computers, incorporates extra structured programming keywords and floating-point features. As the popularity of BASIC grew in this period, computer magazines published complete source code in BASIC for video games, utilities, and other programs. Given BASIC's straightforward nature, it was a simple matter to type in the code from the magazine and execute the program. Different magazines were published featuring programs for specific computers, though some BASIC programs were considered universal and could be used in machines running any variant of BASIC (sometimes with minor adaptations). Many books of type-in programs were also available, and in particular, Ahl published versions of the original 101 BASIC games converted into the Microsoft dialect and published it from Creative Computing as BASIC Computer Games. This book, and its sequels, provided hundreds of ready-to-go programs that could be easily converted to practically any BASIC-running platform. The book reached the stores in 1978, just as the home computer market was starting off, and it became the first million-selling computer book. Later packages, such as Learn to Program BASIC would also have gaming as an introductory focus. On the business-focused CP/M computers which soon became widespread in small business environments, Microsoft BASIC (MBASIC) was one of the leading applications. In 1978, David Lien published the first edition of The BASIC Handbook: An Encyclopedia of the BASIC Computer Language, documenting keywords across over 78 different computers. By 1981, the second edition documented keywords from over 250 different computers, showcasing the explosive growth of the microcomputer era. == IBM PC and compatibles == When IBM was designing the IBM PC, they followed the paradigm of existing home computers in having a built-in BASIC interpreter. They sourced this from Microsoft – IBM Cassette BASIC – but Microsoft also produced several other versions of BASIC for MS-DOS/PC DOS including IBM Disk BASIC (BASIC D), IBM BASICA (BASIC A), GW-BASIC (a BASICA-compatible version that did not need IBM's ROM) and QBasic, all typically bundled with the machine. In addition they produced the Microsoft QuickBASIC Compiler (1985) for power users and hobbyists, and the Microsoft BASIC Professional Development System (PDS) for professional programmers. Turbo Pascal-publisher Borland published Turbo Basic 1.0 in 1985 (successor versions were marketed under the name PowerBASIC). On Unix-like systems, specialized implementations were created such as XBasic and X11-Basic. XBasic was ported to Microsoft Windows as XBLite, and cross-platform variants such as SmallBasic, yabasic, Bywater BASIC, nuBasic, MyBasic, Logic Basic, Liberty BASIC, and wxBasic emerged. FutureBASIC and Chipmunk Basic meanwhile targeted the Apple Macintosh, while yab is a version of yaBasic optimized for BeOS, ZETA and Haiku. These later variations introduced many extensions, such as improved string manipulation and graphics support, access to the file system and additional data types. More important were the facilities for structured programming, including additional control structures and proper subroutines supporting local variables. By the late 1980s, many users were using pre-made applications written by others rather than learning programming themselves, and professional developers had a wide range of advanced languages available on small computers. C and later C++ became the languages of choice for professional "shrink wrap" application development. A niche that BASIC continued to fill was for hobbyist video game development, as game creation systems and readily available game engines were still in their infancy. The Atari ST had STOS BASIC while the Amiga had AMOS BASIC for this purpose. Microsoft first exhibited BASIC for game development with DONKEY.BAS for GW-BASIC, and later GORILLA.BAS and NIBBLES.BAS for QuickBASIC. QBasic maintained an active game development community, which helped later spawn the QB64 and FreeBASIC implementations. An early example of this market is the QBasic software package Microsoft Game Shop (1990), a hobbyist-inspired release that included six "arcade-style" games that were easily customizable in QBasic. In 2013, a game written in QBasic and compiled with QB64 for modern computers entitled Black Annex was released on Steam. Blitz Basic, Dark Basic, SdlBasic, Super Game System Basic, PlayBASIC, CoolBasic, AllegroBASIC, ethosBASIC, GLBasic and Basic4GL further filled this demand, right up to the modern RCBasic, NaaLaa, AppGameKit, Monkey 2, and Cerberus-X. == Visual Basic == In 1991, Microsoft introduced Visual Basic, an evolutionary development of QuickBASIC. It included constructs from that language such as block-structured control statements, parameterized subroutines and optional static typing as well as object-oriented constructs from other languages such as "With" and "For Each". The language retained some compatibility with its predecessors, such as the Dim keyword for declarations, "Gosub"/Return statements and optional line numbers which could be used to locate errors. An important driver for the development of Visual Basic was as the new macro language for Microsoft Excel, a spreadsheet program. To the surprise of many at Microsoft who still initially marketed it as a language for hobbyists, the language came into widespread use for small custom business applications shortly after the release of VB version 3.0, which is widely considered the first relatively stable version. Microsoft also spun it off as Visual Basic for Applications and Embedded Visual Basic. While many advanced programmers still scoffed at its use, VB met the needs of small businesses efficiently as by that time, computers running Windows 3.1 had become fast enough that many business-related processes could be completed "in the blink of an eye" even using a "slow" language, as long as large amounts of data were not involved. Many small business owners found they could create their own small, yet useful applications in a few evenings to meet their own specialized needs. Eventually, during the lengthy lifetime of VB3, knowledge of Visual Basic had become a marketable job skill. Microsoft also produced VBScript in 1996 and Visual Basic .NET in 2001. The latter has essentially the same power as C# and Java but with syntax that reflects the original Basic language, and also features some cross-platform capability through implementations such as Mono-Basic. The IDE, with its event-driven GUI builder, was also influential on other rapid application development tools, most notably Borland Software's Delphi for Object Pascal and its own descendants such as Lazarus. Mainstream support for the final version 6.0 of the original Visual Basic ended on March 31, 2005, followed by extended support in March 2008. Owing to its persistent remaining popularity, third-party attempts to further support it exist. On February 2, 2017, Microsoft announced that development on VB.NET would no longer be in parallel with that of C#, and on March 11, 2020, it was announced that evolution of the VB.NET language had also concluded. Even so, the language was still supported. == Post-1990 versions and dialects == Many other BASIC dialects have also sprung up since 1990, including the open source QB64 and FreeBASIC, inspired by QBasic, and the Visual Basic-styled RapidQ, HBasic, Basic For Qt and Gambas. A number of compilers also exist that convert BASIC into JavaScript. such as NS Basic.Building from earlier efforts such as Mobile Basic, many dialects are now available for smartphones and tablets. On game consoles, an application for the Nintendo 3DS and Nintendo DSi called Petit Computer allows for programming in a slightly modified version of BASIC with DS button support. A version has also been released for Nintendo Switch, which has also been supplied a version of the Fuze Code System, a BASIC variant first implemented as a custom Raspberry Pi machine. Previously BASIC was made available on consoles as Family BASIC (for the Nintendo Famicom) and PSX Chipmunk Basic (for the original PlayStation), while yabasic was ported to the PlayStation 2 and FreeBASIC to the original Xbox. == Calculators == Variants of BASIC are available on graphing and otherwise programmable calculators made by Texas Instruments (TI-BASIC), HP (HP BASIC), Casio (Casio BASIC), and others. == Windows command-line == QBasic, a version of Microsoft QuickBASIC without the linker to make EXE files, is present in the Windows NT and DOS-Windows 95 streams of operating systems and can be obtained for more recent releases like Windows 7 which do not have them. Prior to DOS 5, the Basic interpreter was GW-Basic. QuickBasic is part of a series of three languages issued by Microsoft for the home and office power user and small-scale professional development; QuickC and QuickPascal are the other two. For Windows 95 and 98, which do not have QBasic installed by default, they can be copied from the installation disc, which will have a set of directories for old and optional software; other missing commands like Exe2Bin and others are in these same directories. == Other == The various Microsoft, Lotus, and Corel office suites and related products are programmable with Visual Basic in one form or another, including LotusScript, which is very similar to VBA 6. The Host Explorer terminal emulator uses WWB as a macro language; or more recently the programme and the suite in which it is contained is programmable in an in-house Basic variant known as Hummingbird Basic. The VBScript variant is used for programming web content, Outlook 97, Internet Explorer, and the Windows Script Host. WSH also has a Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) engine installed as the third of the default engines along with VBScript, JScript, and the numerous proprietary or open source engines which can be installed like PerlScript, a couple of Rexx-based engines, Python, Ruby, Tcl, Delphi, XLNT, PHP, and others; meaning that the two versions of Basic can be used along with the other mentioned languages, as well as LotusScript, in a WSF file, through the component object model, and other WSH and VBA constructions. VBScript is one of the languages that can be accessed by the 4Dos, 4NT, and Take Command enhanced shells. SaxBasic and WWB are also very similar to the Visual Basic line of Basic implementations. The pre-Office 97 macro language for Microsoft Word is known as WordBASIC. Excel 4 and 5 use Visual Basic itself as a macro language. Chipmunk Basic, an old-school interpreter similar to BASICs of the 1970s, is available for Linux, Microsoft Windows and macOS. == Legacy == The ubiquity of BASIC interpreters on personal computers was such that textbooks once included simple "Try It In BASIC" exercises that encouraged students to experiment with mathematical and computational concepts on classroom or home computers. Popular computer magazines of the day typically included type-in programs. Futurist and sci-fi writer David Brin mourned the loss of ubiquitous BASIC in a 2006 Salon article as have others who first used computers during this era. In turn, the article prompted Microsoft to develop and release Small Basic; it also inspired similar projects like Basic-256 and the web based Quite Basic. Dartmouth held a 50th anniversary celebration for BASIC on 1 May 2014. The pedagogical use of BASIC has been followed by other languages, such as Pascal, Java and particularly Python. Dartmouth College celebrated the 50th anniversary of the BASIC language with a day of events on April 30, 2014. A short documentary film was produced for the event. == Syntax == === Typical BASIC keywords === ==== Data manipulation ==== LET : assigns a value (which may be the result of an expression) to a variable. In most dialects of BASIC, LET is optional, and a line with no other identifiable keyword will assume the keyword to be LET. DATA : holds a list of values which are assigned sequentially using the READ command. READ : reads a value from a DATA statement and assigns it to a variable. An internal pointer keeps track of the last DATA element that was read and moves it one position forward with each READ. Most dialects allow multiple variables as parameters, reading several values in a single operation. RESTORE : resets the internal pointer to the first DATA statement, allowing the program to begin READing from the first value. Many dialects allow an optional line number or ordinal value to allow the pointer to be reset to a selected location. DIM : Sets up an array. ==== Program flow control ==== IF ... THEN ... {ELSE} : used to perform comparisons or make decisions. Early dialects only allowed a line number after the THEN, but later versions allowed any valid statement to follow. ELSE was not widely supported, especially in earlier versions. FOR ... TO ... {STEP} ... NEXT : repeat a section of code a given number of times. A variable that acts as a counter, the "index", is available within the loop. WHILE ... WEND and REPEAT ... UNTIL : repeat a section of code while the specified condition is true. The condition may be evaluated before each iteration of the loop, or after. Both of these commands are found mostly in later dialects. DO ... LOOP {WHILE} or {UNTIL} : repeat a section of code indefinitely or while/until the specified condition is true. The condition may be evaluated before each iteration of the loop, or after. Similar to WHILE, these keywords are mostly found in later dialects. GOTO : jumps to a numbered or labelled line in the program. Most dialects also allowed the form . GOSUB ... RETURN : jumps to a numbered or labelled line, executes the code it finds there until it reaches a RETURN command, on which it jumps back to the statement following the GOSUB, either after a colon, or on the next line. This is used to implement subroutines. ON ... GOTO/GOSUB : chooses where to jump based on the specified conditions. See Switch statement for other forms. DEF FN : a pair of keywords introduced in the early 1960s to define functions. The original BASIC functions were modelled on FORTRAN single-line functions. BASIC functions were one expression with variable arguments, rather than subroutines, with a syntax on the model of DEF FND(x) = xx at the beginning of a program. Function names were originally restricted to FN, plus one letter, i.e., FNA, FNB ... ==== Input and output ==== LIST : displays the full source code of the current program. PRINT : displays a message on the screen or other output device. INPUT : asks the user to enter the value of a variable. The statement may include a prompt message. TAB : used with PRINT to set the position where the next character will be shown on the screen or printed on paper. AT is an alternative form. SPC : prints out a number of space characters. Similar in concept to TAB but moves by a number of additional spaces from the current column rather than moving to a specified column. ==== Mathematical functions ==== ABS : Absolute value ATN : Arctangent (result in radians) COS : Cosine (argument in radians) EXP : Exponential function INT : Integer part (typically floor function) LOG : Natural logarithm RND : Random number generation SIN : Sine (argument in radians) SQR : Square root TAN : Tangent (argument in radians) ==== Miscellaneous ==== REM : holds a programmer's comment or REMark; often used to give a title to the program and to help identify the purpose of a given section of code. USR ("User Serviceable Routine"): transfers program control to a machine language subroutine, usually entered as an alphanumeric string or in a list of DATA statements. CALL : alternative form of USR found in some dialects. Does not require an artificial parameter to complete the function-like syntax of USR, and has a clearly defined method of calling different routines in memory. TRON / TROFF: turns on display of each line number as it is run ("TRace ON"). This was useful for debugging or correcting of problems in a program. TROFF turns it back off again. ASM : some compilers such as Freebasic, Purebasic, and Powerbasic also support inline assembly language, allowing the programmer to intermix high-level and low-level code, typically prefixed with "ASM" or "!" statements. === Data types and variables === Minimal versions of BASIC had only integer variables and one- or two-letter variable names, which minimized requirements of limited and expensive memory (RAM). More powerful versions had floating-point arithmetic, and variables could be labelled with names six or more characters long. There were some problems and restrictions in early implementations; for example, Applesoft BASIC allowed variable names to be several characters long, but only the first two were significant, thus it was possible to inadvertently write a program with variables "LOSS" and "LOAN", which would be treated as being the same; assigning a value to "LOAN" would silently overwrite the value intended as "LOSS". Keywords could not be used in variables in many early BASICs; "SCORE" would be interpreted as "SC" OR "E", where OR was a keyword. String variables are usually distinguished in many microcomputer dialects by having $ suffixed to their name as a sigil, and values are often identified as strings by being delimited by "double quotation marks". Arrays in BASIC could contain integers, floating point or string variables. Some dialects of BASIC supported matrices and matrix operations, which can be used to solve sets of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. These dialects would directly support matrix operations such as assignment, addition, multiplication (of compatible matrix types), and evaluation of a determinant. Many microcomputer BASICs did not support this data type; matrix operations were still possible, but had to be programmed explicitly on array elements. === Examples === ==== Unstructured BASIC ==== New BASIC programmers on a home computer might start with a simple program, perhaps using the language's PRINT statement to display a message on the screen; a well-known and often-replicated example is Kernighan and Ritchie's "Hello, World!" program: 10 PRINT "Hello, World!" 20 END An infinite loop could be used to fill the display with the message: 10 PRINT "Hello, World!" 20 GOTO 10 Note that the END statement is optional and has no action in most dialects of BASIC. It was not always included, as is the case in this example. This same program can be modified to print a fixed number of messages using the common FOR...NEXT statement: 10 LET N=10 20 FOR I=1 TO N 30 PRINT "Hello, World!" 40 NEXT I Most home computers BASIC versions, such as MSX BASIC and GW-BASIC, supported simple data types, loop cycles, and arrays. The following example is written for GW-BASIC, but will work in most versions of BASIC with minimal changes: 10 INPUT "What is your name: "; U$ 20 PRINT "Hello "; U$ 30 INPUT "How many stars do you want: "; N 40 S$ = "" 50 FOR I = 1 TO N 60 S$ = S$ + "" 70 NEXT I 80 PRINT S$ 90 INPUT "Do you want more stars? "; A$ 100 IF LEN(A$) = 0 THEN GOTO 90 110 A$ = LEFT$(A$, 1) 120 IF A$ = "Y" OR A$ = "y" THEN GOTO 30 130 PRINT "Goodbye "; U$ 140 END The resulting dialog might resemble: What is your name: Mike Hello Mike How many stars do you want: 7 Do you want more stars? yes How many stars do you want: 3 Do you want more stars? no Goodbye Mike The original Dartmouth Basic was unusual in having a matrix keyword, MAT. Although not implemented by most later microprocessor derivatives, it is used in this example from the 1968 manual which averages the numbers that are input: 5 LET S = 0 10 MAT INPUT V 20 LET N = NUM 30 IF N = 0 THEN 99 40 FOR I = 1 TO N 45 LET S = S + V(I) 50 NEXT I 60 PRINT S/N 70 GO TO 5 99 END ==== Structured BASIC ==== Second-generation BASICs (for example, VAX Basic, SuperBASIC, True BASIC, QuickBASIC, BBC BASIC, Pick BASIC, PowerBASIC, Liberty BASIC, QB64 and (arguably) COMAL) introduced a number of features into the language, primarily related to structured and procedure-oriented programming. Usually, line numbering is omitted from the language and replaced with labels (for GOTO) and procedures to encourage easier and more flexible design. In addition keywords and structures to support repetition, selection and procedures with local variables were introduced. The following example is in Microsoft QuickBASIC: REM QuickBASIC example REM Forward declaration - allows the main code to call a REM subroutine that is defined later in the source code DECLARE SUB PrintSomeStars (StarCount!) REM Main program follows INPUT "What is your name: ", UserName$ PRINT "Hello "; UserName$ DO INPUT "How many stars do you want: ", NumStars CALL PrintSomeStars(NumStars) DO INPUT "Do you want more stars? ", Answer$ LOOP UNTIL Answer$ "" Answer$ = LEFT$(Answer$, 1) LOOP WHILE UCASE$(Answer$) = "Y" PRINT "Goodbye "; UserName$ END REM subroutine definition SUB PrintSomeStars (StarCount) REM This procedure uses a local variable called Stars$ Stars$ = STRING$(StarCount, "") PRINT Stars$ END SUB ==== Object-oriented BASIC ==== Third-generation BASIC dialects such as Visual Basic, Xojo, Gambas, StarOffice Basic, BlitzMax and PureBasic introduced features to support object-oriented and event-driven programming paradigm. Most built-in procedures and functions are now represented as methods of standard objects rather than operators. Also, the operating system became increasingly accessible to the BASIC language. The following example is in Visual Basic .NET: Public Module StarsProgram Private Function Ask(prompt As String) As String Console.Write(prompt) Return Console.ReadLine() End Function Public Sub Main() Dim userName = Ask("What is your name: ") Console.WriteLine("Hello {0}", userName) Dim answer As String Do Dim numStars = CInt(Ask("How many stars do you want: ")) Dim stars As New String(""c, numStars) Console.WriteLine(stars) Do answer = Ask("Do you want more stars? ") Loop Until answer "" Loop While answer.StartsWith("Y", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) Console.WriteLine("Goodbye {0}", userName) End Sub End Module == Standards == ANSI/ISO/IEC/ECMA Standard for Minimal BASIC: ANSI X3.60-1978 "For minimal BASIC" ISO/IEC 6373:1984 "Data Processing—Programming Languages—Minimal BASIC" ECMA-55 Minimal BASIC (withdrawn, similar to ANSI X3.60-1978) ANSI/ISO/IEC/ECMA Standard for Full BASIC: ANSI X3.113-1987 "Programming Languages Full BASIC" INCITS/ISO/IEC 10279-1991 (R2005) "Information Technology – Programming Languages – Full BASIC" ECMA-116 BASIC (withdrawn, similar to ANSI X3.113-1987) ANSI/ISO/IEC Addendum Defining Modules: ANSI X3.113 Interpretations-1992 "BASIC Technical Information Bulletin # 1 Interpretations of ANSI 03.113-1987" ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 "Modules and Single Character Input Enhancement" == Compilers and interpreters ==	[ "Procedural programming", "Nintendo Switch", "Star Trek (text game)", "Kotaku", "acronym", "text-based game", "Dartmouth BASIC", "PDP-8", "Google", "IndieDB", "Unix-like", "Hackaday", "ZX80", "Texas Instruments", "Dennis Allison", "Microsoft Developer Network", "game engine", "Windows 95", "Sinclair BASIC", "Family BASIC", "Java (programming language)", "PureBasic", "IBM", "Linux", "ModDB", "IBM PC", "InfoWorld", "event-driven programming", "video game development", "Basic For Qt", "Altair BASIC", "macOS", "Fortran", "Commodore BASIC", "Goto", "Li-Chen Wang", "Altair 8800", "Apple Macintosh", "Gambas", "hard drive", "Edsger W. Dijkstra", "Turbo Pascal", "SUPER BASIC", "software piracy", "Atari BASIC", "Blitz Research", "String (computer science)", "subroutine", "Microsoft Windows", "VSI BASIC for OpenVMS", "RSTS/E", "David H. Ahl", "Teletype Model 33", "MOS 6502", "GORILLA.BAS", "Dark Basic", "Random number generation", "The Verge", "mainframe computers", "Applesoft BASIC", "FutureBASIC", "C++", "Apple II", "Hewlett-Packard", "Personal Computer", "John G. Kemeny", "Hanover, New Hampshire", "Event-driven programming", "BASIC Computer Games", "Tiny BASIC", "National Science Foundation", "debugging", "ZX81", "MIT", "batch processing", "SmallBasic", "SuperBASIC", "Delphi (software)", "structured programming", "FOCAL (programming language)", "Microsoft Small Basic", "JOSS", "Bywater BASIC", "local variable", "C Sharp (programming language)", "radian", "home computer", "BBC", "HP Time-Shared BASIC", "Softpedia", "line number", "DONKEY.BAS", "Visual Basic (.NET)", "New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science", "main memory", "Acorn Computers", "Borland Software", "PC DOS", "Chipmunk Basic", "Mono (software)", "Jargon File", "IBM Disk BASIC", "David Brin", "PCLinuxOS", "floor function", "Wired (magazine)", "NIBBLES.BAS", "scientist", "Mobile Basic", "cross-platform", "expression (programming)", "ZX Spectrum", "BlitzMax", "New Hampshire Union Leader", "Learn BASIC Now", "Microsoft Excel", "Shrink wrap contract", "PC World", "PDP-6", "XBasic", "integrated development environment", "List of BASIC dialects by platform", "True BASIC", "programmable calculator", "Basic-256", "Visual Basic .NET", "punch tape", "GUI builder", "General-purpose programming language", "Syntax (programming languages)", "Type-in program", "type-in program", "List of BASIC dialects", "BASIC interpreter", "Microsoft", "The C Programming Language", "Casio BASIC", "DOPE (Dartmouth Oversimplified Programming Experiment)", "Commodore Business Machines", "OpenOffice.org Basic", "JavaScript", "Visual Basic (classic)", "Petit Computer", "Atari 8-bit computers", "Inline assembler", "Xbox (console)", "DARSIMCO", "Ohio Scientific", "People's Computer Company", "Control flow", "HBasic", "Association for Computing Machinery", "HP2000", "Ecma International", "Dartmouth College", "minicomputer", "HP 2100", "GW-BASIC", "yaBasic", "Machine code", "Commodore 64", "Lazarus (IDE)", "CompuServe", "VBScript", "Michael Halvorson", "character string", "BASIC (HP calculators)", "Springer-Verlag", "WordBASIC", "PDP-11", "ALGOL", "Windows NT", "CP/M", "Nintendo Famicom", "XBLite", "Xojo", "Computerworld", "PowerBASIC", "Homebrew Computer Club", "C (programming language)", "TI-BASIC", "teleprinter", "GE-225", "macro language", "Atari ST", "Windows 7", "mathematician", "MS-DOS", "The Register", "BBC BASIC", "AMOS BASIC", "Thomas E. Kurtz", "Opensource.com", "Open-source software", "Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics", "read-only memory", "Python (programming language)", "Dr. Dobb's Journal of Tiny BASIC Calisthenics & Orthodontia: Running Light Without Overbyte", "Graphical user interface builder", "PlayStation 2", "Raspberry Pi", "MBASIC", "Monte Davidoff", "John McCarthy (computer scientist)", "Alfred P. Sloan Foundation", "BASIC-PLUS", "Borland", "BeOS", "RapidQ", "GOTO", "IBM Cassette BASIC", "IBM-PC compatible", "MSX BASIC", "StarOffice Basic", "Steam (software)", "Non-structured programming", "Pick operating system", "LinuxFocus (magazine)", "Haiku (operating system)", "Object Pascal", "Commodore PET", "wxBasic", "Yabasic", "Type system", "Dartmouth Time-Sharing System", "yabasic", "Blitz Basic", "RAND Corporation", "QBasic", "Code Project", "high-level programming language", "firmware", "FreeBASIC", "Digital Equipment Corporation", "Paul Allen", "string manipulation", "control structures", "Visual Basic for Applications", "small business", "Nintendo 3DS", "QuickBASIC", "QB64", "time-sharing", "Amiga", "object oriented language", "Microsoft Press", "Liberty BASIC", "Concord Monitor", "Integrated development environment", "PlayStation (console)", "DEC-10", "direct mode", "Data General", "itch.io", "spreadsheet", "COMAL", "Data General Nova", "computer", "Tymshare", "rapid application development", "TRS-80", "Basic4GL", "Turbo Basic", "game creation system", "Sigil (computer programming)", "GLBasic", "ALGOL 60", "microcomputer", "Allegro (software library)", "infinite loop", "operating system", "IBM BASICA", "label (computer science)", "ZETA (operating system)", "SdlBasic", "interpreter (computing)", "matrix (mathematics)", "GRASS (programming language)", "Creative Computing (magazine)", "AppGameKit", "data type", "Embedded Visual Basic", "file system", "PerlScript", "Nintendo DSi", "Bob Albrecht", "Pascal (programming language)", "STOS BASIC", "Switch statement", "NS Basic", "\"Hello, World!\" program", "Open Letter to Hobbyists", "Object-oriented programming", "Salon (website)", "LotusScript", "smartphone", "Microsoft BASIC", "Bill Gates", "personal computer" ]
4,016	List of Byzantine emperors	The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised sovereign authority are included, to the exclusion of junior co-emperors who never attained the status of sole or senior ruler, as well as of the various usurpers or rebels who claimed the imperial title. The following list starts with Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, who rebuilt the city of Byzantium as an imperial capital, Constantinople, and who was regarded by the later emperors as the model ruler. Modern historians distinguish this later phase of the Roman Empire as Byzantine due to the imperial seat moving from Rome to Byzantium, the Empire's integration of Christianity, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin. The Byzantine Empire was the direct legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire following the division of the Roman Empire in 395. Emperors listed below up to Theodosius I in 395 were sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire continued until 476. Byzantine emperors considered themselves to be Roman emperors in direct succession from Augustus; the term "Byzantine" became convention in Western historiography in the 19th century. The use of the title "Roman Emperor" by those ruling from Constantinople was not contested until after the papal coronation of the Frankish Charlemagne as Holy Roman emperor (25 December 800). The title of all Emperors preceding Heraclius was officially "Augustus", although other titles such as Dominus were also used. Their names were preceded by Imperator Caesar and followed by Augustus. Following Heraclius, the title commonly became the Greek Basileus (Gr. Βασιλεύς), which had formerly meant sovereign, though Augustus continued to be used in a reduced capacity. Following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, the title "Autokrator" (Gr. Αὐτοκράτωρ) was increasingly used. In later centuries, the Emperor could be referred to by Western Christians as the "Emperor of the Greeks". Towards the end of the Empire, the standard imperial formula of the Byzantine ruler was "[Emperor's name] in Christ, Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans" (cf. Ῥωμαῖοι and Rûm). Dynasties were a common tradition and structure for rulers and government systems in the Medieval period. The principle or formal requirement for hereditary succession was not a part of the Empire's governance; hereditary succession was a custom and tradition, carried on as habit and benefited from some sense of legitimacy, but not as a "rule" or inviolable requirement for office at the time. == Constantinian dynasty (306–363) == == Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) == == Theodosian dynasty (379–457) == == Leonid dynasty (457–518) == == Justinian dynasty (518–602) == == Heraclian dynasty (610–695) == == Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717) == == Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty (717–802) == == Nikephorian dynasty (802–813) == == Amorian dynasty (820–867) == == Macedonian dynasty (867–1056) == == Doukas dynasty (1059–1078) == == Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185) == == Angelos dynasty (1185–1204) == == Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261) == == Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453) ==	[ "Opsician", "Leo II (emperor)", "Tauresium", "magister militum", "Constans II", "surnames", "Andronikos II Palaiologos", "Pope", "John VII Palaiologos", "Ottoman Empire", "Tarasicodissa", "Monothelitism", "Family tree of Byzantine emperors", "Exarch of Africa", "historiography", "autokrator", "Order of succession", "Syracuse, Sicily", "Latin emperor", "Cherson (theme)", "Helena of Constantinople", "Great Palace of Constantinople", "Theodora Porphyrogenita", "Maurice (emperor)", "De Imperatoribus Romanis", "First Bulgarian Empire", "dysentery", "Andreas Palaiologos", "Solidus (coin)", "Cappadocia", "Journal of Roman Studies", "Saracen", "Marcus (son of Basiliscus)", "Battle of Manzikert", "Dumbarton Oaks Papers", "Michael III", "Constantine Laskaris", "Logothetes tou genikou", "Constantius Gallus", "List of Roman and Byzantine empresses", "Theodosius I", "Macedonia (Roman province)", "Illus", "John Kantakouzenos", "Battle of Pliska", "Succession to the Byzantine Empire", "Constantine VI", "epilepsy", "Bessian", "Duchy of Athens", "Andronikos V Palaiologos", "Alexios V Doukas", "Roman naming conventions", "Konstantios Doukas", "Acacian Schism", "Nestorianism", "Second Bulgarian Empire", "sack of Constantinople", "Flavian dynasty", "Siege of Constantinople (1204)", "Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328", "Marcus Aurelius", "Alexander (Byzantine emperor)", "Maria of Antioch", "Licinia Eudoxia", "Imperator", "Michael VI Bringas", "Constantinople", "Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit", "Basil Lekapenos", "Julian the Apostate", "Crete", "Seljuk Turks", "Constantine VIII", "Theodora (11th century)", "Heraclius Constantine", "Paulicians", "Manuel II Palaiologos", "Nikephoros II Phokas", "Heterochromia iridum", "Constantine (son of Basil I)", "Julia gens", "Constantius Chlorus", "Ottoman emirate", "Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)", "Washington State University", "Charlemagne", "Alexios II Komnenos", "Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)", "Michael II", "Theodotus I of Constantinople", "Barbarian", "Leo Phokas the Elder", "Artabasdos", "Normans", "Monarch", "Leontius", "Battle of Adrianople", "Irene of Montferrat", "Empire of Nicaea", "Leo IV the Khazar", "Isaac Komnenos (son of John II)", "Justin II", "Augustus (honorific)", "Second Council of Nicaea", "Kahramanmaraş", "Helena Dragaš", "Athens", "Holy Roman Empire", "Sophia (empress)", "Byzantine civil war of 1373–1379", "Anastasius II (emperor)", "Marcian", "Holy Roman emperor", "Western Roman Empire", "Names of the Greeks", "Martina (empress)", "Kingdom of Hungary", "Zoë Porphyrogenita", "John VI Kantakouzenos", "Style (manner of address)", "corpus juris civilis", "Second Arab Siege of Constantinople", "Justiniana Prima", "Theotokos", "Byzantine coinage", "Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria", "Family tree of Roman emperors", "Anthemius (praetorian prefect)", "John Kourkouas", "Isauria", "Honorius (emperor)", "Eugenius", "Constantine IX Monomachos", "Byzantinische Zeitschrift", "Council of Florence", "Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium", "Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)", "List of Roman usurpers", "Political mutilation in Byzantine culture", "Romanos I Lekapenos", "Strategikon of Maurice", "Blinding (punishment)", "Komnenos", "Heraclonas", "Dominus (title)", "Phokas (Byzantine family)", "Turahan Bey", "Autokrator", "Aspar", "Sayf al-Dawla", "Fall of Constantinople", "Byzantine Empire", "Dumbarton Oaks", "Valens", "Battle of the Milvian Bridge", "testicular cancer", "Nicaea", "Roman citizenship", "Alexios III Angelos", "Byzantine Iconoclasm", "Leo VI the Wise", "Phocas", "John I Tzimiskes", "Amorium", "First Ecumenical Council", "Andronikos III Palaiologos", "Simeon I of Bulgaria", "Thomas the Slav", "Tiberius III", "icon", "John IV Laskaris", "Nerva–Antonine dynasty", "Julian (emperor)", "Anna of Savoy", "Verina", "Bulgars", "Romanos III Argyros", "Third Council of Constantinople", "Galata", "Opsikion", "Constantinian dynasty", "Theophylact (son of Michael I)", "Anatolic Theme", "Mehmed II", "Leo V the Armenian", "Diocletian", "hereditary succession", "Fatimid Caliphate", "Nikephoros (son of Artabasdos)", "Byzantium", "dynatoi", "Michael IX Palaiologos", "List of Roman emperors", "Lesbos", "Alexios IV Angelos", "Rus'–Byzantine War (970–971)", "Caesar (title)", "Anastasius I Dicorus", "Heraclius the Elder", "Dynasties", "Revolt of Vitalian", "Leo III the Isaurian", "Fourth Crusade", "Eastern Roman Empire", "Thierry de Loos", "Thessalonica", "Byzantine civil war of 1352–1357", "Irene of Athens", "Leo Tornikios", "Fabia Eudokia", "Procopius (usurper)", "Macedonian Renaissance", "Trajan", "Selymbria", "Michael VIII Palaiologos", "Tiberius (son of Constans II)", "Principality of Achaea", "Hippodrome of Constantinople", "cognomen", "Virgin Mary", "Eudokia Makrembolitissa", "Theodoric the Great", "First Arab Siege of Constantinople", "Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft", "Leo I (emperor)", "List of Byzantine emperors of Armenian origin", "John III Vatatzes", "Manuel I Komnenos", "Michael VI", "Theodora (wife of Theophilos)", "Constantine V", "Commagene", "Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)", "Philippicus", "Jovian (emperor)", "Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae", "Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347", "Theodosian Walls", "Nikephoros III Botaneiates", "Oxford University Press", "Roman Empire", "Augustus", "Mangana Monastery", "Reconquest of Constantinople", "Tiberius (son of Justinian II)", "Dominate", "Palaiologos", "Patriarch of Constantinople", "Prosopography of the Byzantine World", "Rûm", "Byzantine Senate", "Arcadius", "Theophano (born Anastaso)", "First Crusade", "Theodosius III", "Ariadne (empress)", "John the Orphanotrophos", "Heraclius", "List of Byzantine usurpers", "Valentinian III", "Dara (Mesopotamia)", "Leo Diogenes", "Battle of the Frigidus", "Augustus (title)", "Constantius II", "Crusader states", "Christian", "Constantine Lekapenos", "Arabissus", "Isaac I Komnenos", "Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)", "stratiotikos logothetes", "Excubitors", "Nicholas Laskaris (son of Theodore I)", "Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I)", "Cambridge University Press", "Theodosius (son of Maurice)", "Blachernae Palace", "Constantine VII", "Constantine (son of Leo V)", "Theodore I Laskaris", "Isaac II Angelos", "Dyrrhachium", "Constantine the Great", "Matthew Kantakouzenos", "Constantine (son of Theophilos)", "Nea Moni of Chios", "Andronikos I Komnenos", "Nomen gentilicium", "Constantine X Doukas", "Justin I", "Thessaly", "Christopher Lekapenos", "Theodosius II", "Andronikos IV Palaiologos", "Sack of Thessalonica (904)", "Basileus", "Dacia Aureliana", "silentiarius", "Henotikon", "Nicholas Mystikos", "Vladimir I of Kiev", "Aelia Eudocia Augusta", "De administrando imperio", "Epirus", "comes domesticorum", "Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628", "Battle of Cape Bon (468)", "Sea of Marmara", "Theodosian Code", "Carthage", "Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire", "Franks", "Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine", "Michael V Kalaphates", "fall of the Western Roman Empire", "gangrene", "Council of Ephesus", "Nicene Creed", "Nikephoros I", "List of Trapezuntine emperors", "Chalcedon", "Battle of Ankara", "Armenians", "born in the purple", "Constantine IV", "Michael IV the Paphlagonian", "Justinian II", "Michael I Rangabe", "Valentinian I", "Vandals", "Magnentius", "Licinius", "Frankokratia", "struggle for Constantinople", "John II Komnenos", "cerebral haemorrhage", "Macedonia (theme)", "List of Thessalonian emperors", "John VIII Palaiologos", "iconoclasm", "Romanos II", "Pechenegs", "Nikephoros Diogenes", "East–West Schism", "John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)", "Dardani", "Arianism", "Anastasian War", "appanage", "Hagia Sophia", "Pulcheria", "David (son of Heraclius)", "Theophilos (emperor)", "Muslim conquest of Syria", "History of the Byzantine Empire", "Heraclius (son of Constans II)", "Basil II", "Latin Empire", "Miaphysite", "Column of Theodosius", "John V Palaiologos", "Romanos IV Diogenes", "Theodore II Laskaris", "Justinian I", "ÖAW", "veneration", "Staurakios", "Nicaea (city)", "Ostrogoths", "Sicily", "Basil I", "Alexios I Komnenos", "George Mouzalon", "Naissus", "praenomen", "Études byzantines", "Balkans", "Stephen Lekapenos", "Basiliscus", "Muslim conquest of Sicily", "strategos", "Despot of the Morea", "George Maniakes", "Zeno (emperor)", "Zoe Karbonopsina", "Staurakios (son of Michael I)", "Isaurians", "Belisarius", "Constantine XI Palaiologos", "Sassanid Persia", "Rus' (people)", "Tiberius II Constantine", "Joseph Bringas", "De ceremoniis", "Michael VII Doukas", "Bardas", "Despotate of Epirus" ]
4,024	Butterfly effect	In chaos theory, the butterfly effect is the sensitive dependence on initial conditions in which a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state. The term is closely associated with the work of the mathematician and meteorologist Edward Norton Lorenz. He noted that the butterfly effect is derived from the example of the details of a tornado (the exact time of formation, the exact path taken) being influenced by minor perturbations such as a distant butterfly flapping its wings several weeks earlier. Lorenz originally used a seagull causing a storm but was persuaded to make it more poetic with the use of a butterfly and tornado by 1972. He discovered the effect when he observed runs of his weather model with initial condition data that were rounded in a seemingly inconsequential manner. He noted that the weather model would fail to reproduce the results of runs with the unrounded initial condition data. A very small change in initial conditions had created a significantly different outcome. The idea that small causes may have large effects in weather was earlier acknowledged by the French mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré. The American mathematician and philosopher Norbert Wiener also contributed to this theory. Lorenz's work placed the concept of instability of the Earth's atmosphere onto a quantitative base and linked the concept of instability to the properties of large classes of dynamic systems which are undergoing nonlinear dynamics and deterministic chaos. The concept of the butterfly effect has since been used outside the context of weather science as a broad term for any situation where a small change is supposed to be the cause of larger consequences. ==History== In The Vocation of Man (1800), Johann Gottlieb Fichte says "you could not remove a single grain of sand from its place without thereby ... changing something throughout all parts of the immeasurable whole". Chaos theory and the sensitive dependence on initial conditions were described in numerous forms of literature. This is evidenced by the case of the three-body problem by Poincaré in 1890. He later proposed that such phenomena could be common, for example, in meteorology. In 1898, Jacques Hadamard noted general divergence of trajectories in spaces of negative curvature. Pierre Duhem discussed the possible general significance of this in 1908. The idea that the death of one butterfly could eventually have a far-reaching ripple effect on subsequent historical events made its earliest known appearance in "A Sound of Thunder", a 1952 short story by Ray Bradbury. "A Sound of Thunder" features time travel. More precisely, though, almost the exact idea and the exact phrasing —of a tiny insect's wing affecting the entire atmosphere's winds— was published in a children's book which became extremely successful and well-known globally in 1962, the year before Lorenz published: In 1961, Lorenz was running a numerical computer model to redo a weather prediction from the middle of the previous run as a shortcut. He entered the initial condition 0.506 from the printout instead of entering the full precision 0.506127 value. The result was a completely different weather scenario. Lorenz wrote: In 1963, Lorenz published a theoretical study of this effect in a highly cited, seminal paper called Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow (the calculations were performed on a Royal McBee LGP-30 computer).}} Following proposals from colleagues, in later speeches and papers, Lorenz used the more poetic butterfly. According to Lorenz, when he failed to provide a title for a talk he was to present at the 139th meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1972, Philip Merilees concocted Does the flap of a butterfly's wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas? as a title. The phrase refers to the effect of a butterfly's wings creating tiny changes in the atmosphere that may ultimately alter the path of a tornado or delay, accelerate, or even prevent the occurrence of a tornado in another location. The butterfly does not power or directly create the tornado, but the term is intended to imply that the flap of the butterfly's wings can cause the tornado: in the sense that the flap of the wings is a part of the initial conditions of an interconnected complex web; one set of conditions leads to a tornado, while the other set of conditions doesn't. The flapping wing creates a small change in the initial condition of the system, which cascades to large-scale alterations of events (compare: domino effect). Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different—but it's also equally possible that the set of conditions without the butterfly flapping its wings is the set that leads to a tornado. The butterfly effect presents an obvious challenge to prediction, since initial conditions for a system such as the weather can never be known to complete accuracy. This problem motivated the development of ensemble forecasting, in which a number of forecasts are made from perturbed initial conditions. Some scientists have since argued that the weather system is not as sensitive to initial conditions as previously believed. David Orrell argues that the major contributor to weather forecast error is model error, with sensitivity to initial conditions playing a relatively small role. Stephen Wolfram also notes that the Lorenz equations are highly simplified and do not contain terms that represent viscous effects; he believes that these terms would tend to damp out small perturbations. Recent studies using generalized Lorenz models that included additional dissipative terms and nonlinearity suggested that a larger heating parameter is required for the onset of chaos. While the "butterfly effect" is often explained as being synonymous with sensitive dependence on initial conditions of the kind described by Lorenz in his 1963 paper (and previously observed by Poincaré), the butterfly metaphor was originally applied which took the idea a step further. Lorenz proposed a mathematical model for how tiny motions in the atmosphere scale up to affect larger systems. He found that the systems in that model could only be predicted up to a specific point in the future, and beyond that, reducing the error in the initial conditions would not increase the predictability (as long as the error is not zero). This demonstrated that a deterministic system could be "observationally indistinguishable" from a non-deterministic one in terms of predictability. Recent re-examinations of this paper suggest that it offered a significant challenge to the idea that our universe is deterministic, comparable to the challenges offered by quantum physics. In the book entitled The Essence of Chaos published in 1993, ==Illustrations== ==Theory and mathematical definition== Recurrence, the approximate return of a system toward its initial conditions, together with sensitive dependence on initial conditions, are the two main ingredients for chaotic motion. They have the practical consequence of making complex systems, such as the weather, difficult to predict past a certain time range (approximately a week in the case of weather) since it is impossible to measure the starting atmospheric conditions completely accurately. A dynamical system displays sensitive dependence on initial conditions if points arbitrarily close together separate over time at an exponential rate. The definition is not topological, but essentially metrical. Lorenz defined sensitive dependence as follows: The property characterizing an orbit (i.e., a solution) if most other orbits that pass close to it at some point do not remain close to it as time advances. If M is the state space for the map f^t, then f^t displays sensitive dependence to initial conditions if for any x in M and any δ > 0, there are y in M, with distance such that 0 < d(x, y) < \delta and such that d(f^\tau(x), f^\tau(y)) > \mathrm{e}^{a\tau} \, d(x,y) for some positive parameter a. The definition does not require that all points from a neighborhood separate from the base point x, but it requires one positive Lyapunov exponent. In addition to a positive Lyapunov exponent, boundedness is another major feature within chaotic systems. The simplest mathematical framework exhibiting sensitive dependence on initial conditions is provided by a particular parametrization of the logistic map: x_{n+1} = 4 x_n (1-x_n) , \quad 0\leq x_0\leq 1, which, unlike most chaotic maps, has a closed-form solution: x_{n}=\sin^{2}(2^{n} \theta \pi) where the initial condition parameter \theta is given by \theta = \tfrac{1}{\pi}\sin^{-1}(x_0^{1/2}). For rational \theta, after a finite number of iterations x_n maps into a periodic sequence. But almost all \theta are irrational, and, for irrational \theta, x_n never repeats itself – it is non-periodic. This solution equation clearly demonstrates the two key features of chaos – stretching and folding: the factor 2n shows the exponential growth of stretching, which results in sensitive dependence on initial conditions (the butterfly effect), while the squared sine function keeps x_n folded within the range [0, 1]. ==In physical systems== ===In weather=== ==== Overview ==== The butterfly effect is most familiar in terms of weather; it can easily be demonstrated in standard weather prediction models, for example. The climate scientists James Annan and William Connolley explain that chaos is important in the development of weather prediction methods; models are sensitive to initial conditions. They add the caveat: "Of course the existence of an unknown butterfly flapping its wings has no direct bearing on weather forecasts, since it will take far too long for such a small perturbation to grow to a significant size, and we have many more immediate uncertainties to worry about. So the direct impact of this phenomenon on weather prediction is often somewhat wrong." ==== Differentiating types of butterfly effects ==== The concept of the butterfly effect encompasses several phenomena. The two kinds of butterfly effects, including the sensitive dependence on initial conditions, In Palmer et al., A comparison of the two kinds of butterfly effects In recent studies, it was reported that both meteorological and non-meteorological linear models have shown that instability plays a role in producing a butterfly effect, which is characterized by brief but significant exponential growth resulting from a small disturbance. ==== Recent debates on butterfly effects ==== The first kind of butterfly effect (BE1), known as SDIC (Sensitive Dependence on Initial Conditions), is widely recognized and demonstrated through idealized chaotic models. However, opinions differ regarding the second kind of butterfly effect, specifically the impact of a butterfly flapping its wings on tornado formation, as indicated in two 2024 articles. In more recent discussions published by Physics Today, it is acknowledged that the second kind of butterfly effect (BE2) has never been rigorously verified using a realistic weather model. While the studies suggest that BE2 is unlikely in the real atmosphere, For the third kind of butterfly effect, the limited predictability within the Lorenz 1969 model is explained by scale interactions in one article the presence of SDIC (commonly known as the butterfly effect) implies that chaotic systems have a finite predictability limit. In a literature review, it was found that Lorenz's perspective on the predictability limit can be condensed into the following statement: (A). The Lorenz 1963 model qualitatively revealed the essence of a finite predictability within a chaotic system such as the atmosphere. However, it did not determine a precise limit for the predictability of the atmosphere. (B). In the 1960s, the two-week predictability limit was originally estimated based on a doubling time of five days in real-world models. Since then, this finding has been documented in Charney et al. (1966) and has become a consensus. Recently, a short video has been created to present Lorenz's perspective on predictability limit. A recent study refers to the two-week predictability limit, initially calculated in the 1960s with the Mintz-Arakawa model's five-day doubling time, as the "Predictability Limit Hypothesis." Inspired by Moore's Law, this term acknowledges the collaborative contributions of Lorenz, Mintz, and Arakawa under Charney's leadership. The hypothesis supports the investigation into extended-range predictions using both partial differential equation (PDE)-based physics methods and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques. ==== Revised perspectives on chaotic and non-chaotic systems ==== By revealing coexisting chaotic and non-chaotic attractors within Lorenz models, Shen and his colleagues proposed a revised view that "weather possesses chaos and order", in contrast to the conventional view of "weather is chaotic". As a result, sensitive dependence on initial conditions (SDIC) does not always appear. Namely, SDIC appears when two orbits (i.e., solutions) become the chaotic attractor; it does not appear when two orbits move toward the same point attractor. The above animation for double pendulum motion provides an analogy. For large angles of swing the motion of the pendulum is often chaotic. By comparison, for small angles of swing, motions are non-chaotic. Multistability is defined when a system (e.g., the double pendulum system) contains more than one bounded attractor that depends only on initial conditions. The multistability was illustrated using kayaking in Figure on the right side (i.e., Figure 1 of ) where the appearance of strong currents and a stagnant area suggests instability and local stability, respectively. As a result, when two kayaks move along strong currents, their paths display SDIC. On the other hand, when two kayaks move into a stagnant area, they become trapped, showing no typical SDIC (although a chaotic transient may occur). Such features of SDIC or no SDIC suggest two types of solutions and illustrate the nature of multistability. By taking into consideration time-varying multistability that is associated with the modulation of large-scale processes (e.g., seasonal forcing) and aggregated feedback of small-scale processes (e.g., convection), the above revised view is refined as follows: "The atmosphere possesses chaos and order; it includes, as examples, emerging organized systems (such as tornadoes) and time varying forcing from recurrent seasons." ===In quantum mechanics=== The potential for sensitive dependence on initial conditions (the butterfly effect) has been studied in a number of cases in semiclassical and quantum physics, including atoms in strong fields and the anisotropic Kepler problem. Some authors have argued that extreme (exponential) dependence on initial conditions is not expected in pure quantum treatments; however, the sensitive dependence on initial conditions demonstrated in classical motion is included in the semiclassical treatments developed by Martin Gutzwiller and John B. Delos and co-workers. The random matrix theory and simulations with quantum computers prove that some versions of the butterfly effect in quantum mechanics do not exist. Other authors suggest that the butterfly effect can be observed in quantum systems. Zbyszek P. Karkuszewski et al. consider the time evolution of quantum systems which have slightly different Hamiltonians. They investigate the level of sensitivity of quantum systems to small changes in their given Hamiltonians. David Poulin et al. presented a quantum algorithm to measure fidelity decay, which "measures the rate at which identical initial states diverge when subjected to slightly different dynamics". They consider fidelity decay to be "the closest quantum analog to the (purely classical) butterfly effect". Whereas the classical butterfly effect considers the effect of a small change in the position and/or velocity of an object in a given Hamiltonian system, the quantum butterfly effect considers the effect of a small change in the Hamiltonian system with a given initial position and velocity. This quantum butterfly effect has been demonstrated experimentally. Quantum and semiclassical treatments of system sensitivity to initial conditions are known as quantum chaos. ==In popular culture== The butterfly effect has appeared across mediums such as literature (for instance, A Sound of Thunder), films and television (such as The Simpsons), video games (such as Life Is Strange), webcomics (such as Homestuck), AI-driven expansive language models, and more.	[ "iterated function", "Lyapunov exponent", "numerical weather prediction", "Chaos theory", "butterfly", "nonlinear system", "Potentiality and actuality", "Chain reaction", "Henri Poincaré", "Lorenz system", "Encyclopedia (journal)", "American Journal of Physics", "Hamiltonian system", "Jacques Hadamard", "Journal of Chemical Physics", "periodic point", "Stephen Wolfram", "Scholarpedia", "Catastrophe theory", "Royal McBee", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "x-coordinate", "James Gleick", "Point of divergence", "deterministic system", "A Sound of Thunder", "David Orrell", "chaos theory", "iteration", "File:LorenzCoordinatesBig.png", "Poincaré recurrence theorem", "Pierre Duhem", "Determinism", "Tropical cyclogenesis", "tornado", "Clapotis", "WP:SEEALSO", "trajectory", "File:TwoLorenzOrbits.jpg", "Fractal", "semiclassical physics", "Norbert Wiener", "initial condition", "Norton's dome", "Snowball effect", "LGP-30", "gull", "ripple effect", "Positive feedback", "logistic map", "The Phantom Tollbooth", "Dynamical system", "closed-form solution", "double pendulum", "Journal of Mathematical Physics", "Kepler problem", "complex system", "YouTube", "Behavioral cusp", "Traffic congestion", "dynamical system", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "Edward Norton Lorenz", "Numerical analysis", "almost all", "Lorenz attractor", "Innovation butterfly", "Physics Today", "Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods", "Ripple effect", "Great Stirrup Controversy", "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "Unintended consequences", "atmosphere of Earth", "three-body problem", "Martin Gutzwiller", "Physical Review Letters", "vacuum tube", "The Vocation of Man", "Physical Review A", "Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)", "Ray Bradbury", "Cascading failure", "quantum mechanics", "Homestuck", "ensemble forecasting", "The Simpsons", "Chaos: Making a New Science", "quantum chaos", "Representativeness heuristic", "state space (dynamical system)", "Life Is Strange", "Alan Turing", "Avalanche effect", "Johann Gottlieb Fichte", "Domino effect", "Causality", "weather", "domino effect", "Kessler syndrome", "nonlinear dynamics" ]
4,027	Borland	Borland Software Corporation was a computing technology company founded in 1983 by Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, Mogens Glad, and Philippe Kahn. Its main business was developing and selling software development and software deployment products. Borland was first headquartered in Scotts Valley, California, then in Cupertino, California, and then in Austin, Texas. In 2009, the company became a full subsidiary of the British firm Micro Focus International plc. In 2023, Micro Focus (including Borland) was acquired by Canadian firm OpenText, which later absorbed Borland's portfolio into its application delivery management division. ==History== ===The 1980s: Foundations=== Borland Ltd. was founded in August 1981 by three Danish citizens Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, and Mogens Glad to develop products like Word Index for the CP/M operating system using an off-the-shelf company. However, the response to the company's products at the CP/M-82 show in San Francisco showed that a U.S. company would be needed to reach the American market. They met Philippe Kahn, who had just moved to Silicon Valley and had been a key developer of the Micral. Kahn was chairman, president, and CEO of Borland Inc. at its inception in 1983 and until 1995. The first name for the company was not Borland. It was MIT. The acronym MIT stood for "Market In Time". The name "Borland" originated from a small company in Ireland, which was one of MIT initial customers. After they went bankrupt, MIT sought permission to acquire and use the name "Borland" in the U.S., following a legal recommendation during a rebranding prompted by a letter from MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). The main shareholders at the incorporation of Borland were Niels Jensen (250,000 shares), Ole Henriksen (160,000), Mogens Glad (100,000), and Kahn (80,000). ===Borland International, Inc. era=== Borland developed various software development tools. Its first product was Turbo Pascal in 1983, developed by Anders Hejlsberg (who later developed .NET and C# for Microsoft) and before Borland acquired the product which was sold in Scandinavia under the name Compas Pascal. In 1984, Borland launched Sidekick, a time organization, notebook, and calculator utility that was an early terminate-and-stay-resident program (TSR) for MS-DOS compatible operating systems. By the mid-1980s, the company had an exhibit at the 1985 West Coast Computer Faire along with IBM and AT&T. Bruce Webster reported that "the legend of Turbo Pascal has by now reached mythic proportions, as evidenced by the number of firms that, in marketing meetings, make plans to become 'the next Borland'". After Turbo Pascal and Sidekick, the company launched other applications such as SuperKey and Lightning, all developed in Denmark. While the Danes remained majority shareholders, board members included Kahn, Tim Berry, John Nash, and David Heller. With the assistance of John Nash and David Heller, both British members of the Borland Board, the company was taken public on London's Unlisted Securities Market (USM) in 1986. Schroders was the lead investment banker. According to the London IPO filings, the management team was Philippe Kahn as president, Spencer Ozawa as VP of Operations, Marie Bourget as CFO, and Spencer Leyton as VP of sales and business development. All software development continued to take place in Denmark and later London as the Danish co-founders moved there. A first US IPO followed in 1989 after Ben Rosen joined the Borland board with Goldman Sachs as the lead banker and a second offering in 1991 with Lazard as the lead banker. In 1985, Borland acquired Analytica and its Reflex database product. Forrester Research considered Borland with Analytica, Ashton-Tate, Lotus Development, and Microsoft the "Big Four" of personal computer software. The engineering team of Analytica, managed by Brad Silverberg and including Reflex co-founder Adam Bosworth, became the core of Borland's engineering team in the US. Brad Silverberg was VP of engineering until he left in early 1990 to head up the Personal Systems division at Microsoft. Adam Bosworth initiated and headed up the Quattro project until moving to Microsoft later in 1990 to take over the project which eventually became Access. In 1987, Borland purchased Wizard Systems and incorporated portions of the Wizard C technology into Turbo C. Bob Jervis, the author of Wizard C became a Borland employee. Turbo C was released on May 18, 1987. This drove a wedge between Borland and Niels Jensen and the other members of his team who had been working on a brand-new series of compilers at their London development centre. They reached an agreement and spun off a company named Jensen & Partners International (JPI), later TopSpeed. JPI first launched an MS-DOS compiler named JPI Modula-2, which later became TopSpeed Modula-2, and followed up with TopSpeed C, TopSpeed C++, and TopSpeed Pascal compilers for both the MS-DOS and OS/2 operating systems. The TopSpeed compiler technology still exists as the underlying technology of the Clarion 4GL programming language, a Windows development tool. In September 1987, Borland purchased Ansa-Software, including their Paradox (version 2.0) database management tool. Richard Schwartz, a cofounder of Ansa, became Borland's CTO and Ben Rosen joined the Borland board. The Quattro Pro spreadsheet was launched in 1989. Lotus Development, under the leadership of Jim Manzi, sued Borland for copyright infringement (see Look and feel). The litigation, Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc., brought forward Borland's open standards position as opposed to Lotus' closed approach. Borland, under Kahn's leadership, took a position of principle and announced that they would defend against Lotus' legal position and "fight for programmer's rights". After a decision in favour of Borland by the First Circuit Court of Appeals, the case went to the United States Supreme Court. Because Justice John Paul Stevens had recused himself, only eight justices heard the case, and concluded in a 4–4 tie. Additionally, Borland's approach towards software piracy and intellectual property (IP) included its "Borland no-nonsense license agreement"; allowing the developer/user to utilize its products "just like a book". The user was allowed to make multiple copies of a program, as long as it was the only copy in use at any point in time. ===The 1990s: Rise and change=== In September 1991, Borland purchased Ashton-Tate, bringing the dBASE and InterBase databases to the house, in an all-stock transaction. However, competition with Microsoft was fierce. Microsoft launched the competing database Microsoft Access and bought the dBASE clone FoxPro in 1992, undercutting Borland's prices. During the early 1990s, Borland's implementation of C and C++ outsold Microsoft's. Borland survived as a company, but no longer dominated the software tools that it once had. It went through a radical transition in products, financing, and staff, and became a very different company from the one which challenged Microsoft and Lotus in the early 1990s. The internal problems that arose with the Ashton-Tate merger were a large part of the downfall. Ashton-Tate's product portfolio proved to be weak, with no provision for evolution into the GUI environment of Windows. Almost all product lines were discontinued. The consolidation of duplicate support and development offices was costly and disruptive. Worst of all, the highest revenue earner of the combined company was dBASE with no Windows version ready. Borland had an internal project to clone dBASE which was intended to run on Windows and was part of the strategy of the acquisition, but by late 1992 this was abandoned due to technical flaws and the company had to constitute a replacement team (the ObjectVision team, redeployed) headed by Bill Turpin to redo the job. Borland lacked the financial strength to project its marketing and move internal resources off other products to shore up the dBASE/W effort. Layoffs occurred in 1993 to keep the company afloat, the third instance of this in five years. By the time dBASE for Windows eventually shipped, the developer community had moved on to other products such as Clipper or FoxBase, and dBASE never regained a significant share of Ashton-Tate's former market. This happened against the backdrop of the rise in Microsoft's combined Office product marketing. A change in market conditions also contributed to Borland's fall from prominence. In the 1980s, companies had few people who understood the growing personal computer phenomenon and so most technical people were given free rein to purchase whatever software they thought they needed. Borland had done an excellent job marketing to those with a highly technical bent. By the mid-1990s, however, companies were beginning to ask what the return was on the investment they had made in this loosely controlled PC software buying spree. Company executives were starting to ask questions that were hard for technically minded staff to answer, and so corporate standards began to be created. This required new kinds of marketing and support materials from software vendors, but Borland remained focused on the technical side of its products. In 1993 Borland explored ties with WordPerfect as a possible way to form a suite of programs to rival Microsoft's nascent integration strategy. WordPerfect itself was struggling with a late and troubled transition to Windows. The eventual joint company effort, named Borland Office for Windows (a combination of the WordPerfect word processor, Quattro Pro spreadsheet, and Paradox database) was introduced at the 1993 Comdex computer show. Borland Office never made significant inroads against Microsoft Office. WordPerfect was then bought by Novell. In October 1994, Borland sold Quattro Pro and rights to sell up to a million copies of Paradox to Novell for $140 million in cash, repositioning the company on its core software development tools and the Interbase database engine and shifting toward client-server scenarios in corporate applications. This later proved a good foundation for the shift to web development tools. Philippe Kahn and the Borland board disagreed on how to focus the company, and Kahn resigned as chairman, CEO and president, after 12 years, in January 1995. Kahn remained on the board until November 7, 1996. Borland named Gary Wetsel as CEO, but he resigned in July 1996. William F. Miller was interim CEO until September of that year, when Whitney G. Lynn (the current chairman at mergers & acquisitions company XRP Healthcare) became interim president and CEO (along with other executive changes), followed by a succession of CEOs including Dale Fuller and Tod Nielsen. The Delphi 1 rapid application development (RAD) environment was launched in 1995, under the leadership of Anders Hejlsberg. In 1996 Borland acquired Open Environment Corporation, a Cambridge-based company founded by John J. Donovan. On November 25, 1996, Del Yocam was hired as Borland CEO and chairman. In 1997, Borland sold Paradox to Corel, but retained all development rights for the core BDE. In November 1997, Borland acquired Visigenic, a middleware company that was focused on implementations of CORBA. ===Inprise Corporation era=== In April 1998, Borland International, Inc. announced it had become Inprise Corporation. For several years, before and during the Inprise name, Borland suffered from serious financial losses and poor public image. When the name was changed to Inprise, many thought Borland had gone out of business. In March 1999, dBASE was sold to KSoft, Inc. which was soon renamed dBASE Inc. (In 2004 dBASE Inc. was renamed to DataBased Intelligence, Inc.). In 1999, Dale L. Fuller replaced Yocam. At this time Fuller's title was "interim president and CEO". The "interim" was dropped in December 2000. Keith Gottfried served in senior executive positions with the company from 2000 to 2004. A proposed merger between Inprise and Corel was announced in February 2000, aimed at producing Linux-based products. The plan was abandoned when Corel's shares fell and it became clear that there was no strategic fit. InterBase 6.0 was made available as open-source software in July 2000. In November 2000, Inprise Corporation announced the company intended to officially change its name to Borland Software Corporation. The legal name of the company would continue to be Inprise Corporation until the completion of the renaming process during the first quarter of 2001. Once the name change was completed, the company would also expect to change its Nasdaq market symbol from "INPR" to "BORL". ===Borland Software Corporation era=== On January 2, 2001, Borland Software Corporation announced it had completed its name change from Inprise Corporation. Effective at the opening of trading on Nasdaq, the company's Nasdaq market symbol would also be changed from "INPR" to "BORL". Under the Borland name and a new management team headed by president and CEO Dale L. Fuller, a now-smaller and profitable Borland refocused on Delphi and created a version of Delphi and C++Builder for Linux, both under the name Kylix. This brought Borland's expertise in integrated development environments to the Linux platform for the first time. Kylix was launched in 2001. Plans to spin off the InterBase division as a separate company were abandoned after Borland and the people who were to run the new company could not agree on terms for the separation. Borland stopped open-source releases of InterBase and has developed and sold new versions at a fast pace. In 2001, Delphi 6 became the first integrated development environment to support web services. All of the company's development platforms now support web services. C#Builder was released in 2003 as a native C# development tool, competing with Visual Studio .NET. By the 2005 release, C#Builder, Delphi for Win32, and Delphi for .NET were combined into one IDE named "Borland Developer Studio", though it was still popularly known as "Delphi". In late 2002 Borland purchased design tool vendor TogetherSoft and tool publisher Starbase, makers of the StarTeam configuration management tool and the CaliberRM requirements management tool (eventually, CaliberRM was renamed as "Caliber"). The latest releases of JBuilder and Delphi integrate these tools to give developers a broader set of tools for development. Former CEO Dale Fuller quit in July 2005, but remained on the board of directors. Former COO Scott Arnold took the title of interim president and chief executive officer until November 8, 2005, when it was announced that Tod Nielsen would take over as CEO effective November 9, 2005. Nielsen remained with the company until January 2009, when he accepted the position of chief operating officer at VMware; CFO Erik Prusch then took over as acting president and CEO. The transaction was approved by Borland shareholders on July 22, 2009, with Micro Focus acquiring the company for $1.50 per share. Following Micro Focus shareholder approval and the required corporate filings, the transaction was completed in late July 2009. Borland was estimated to have 750 employees at the time. On April 5, 2015, Micro Focus announced the completion of integrating the Attachmate Group of companies that was merged on November 20, 2014. During the integration period, the affected companies were merged into one organization. In the announced reorganization, Borland products would be part of the Micro Focus portfolio. ==Subsidiaries== Leaders: In October 2005, Borland acquired Leaders, to add its IT management and governance suite, named Tempo, to the Borland product line. CodeGear: On February 8, 2006, Borland announced the divestiture of their IDE division, including Delphi, JBuilder, and InterBase. At the same time, they announced the planned acquisition of Segue Software, a maker of software test and quality tools, to concentrate on application life-cycle management (ALM). On March 20, 2006, Borland announced its acquisition of Gauntlet Systems, a provider of technology that screens software under development for quality and security. On November 14, 2006, Borland announced its decision to separate the developer tools group into a wholly-owned subsidiary. The newly formed operation, CodeGear, was responsible for four IDE product lines. On May 7, 2008, Borland announced the sale of the CodeGear division to Embarcadero Technologies for an expected price and in CodeGear accounts receivables retained by Borland. ==Products== ===Recent=== The products acquired from Segue Software include Silk Central, Silk Performer, and Silk Test. The Silk line was first announced in 1997. Other programs are: ===Historical products=== ===Unreleased software=== Turbo Modula-2: Later sold by TopSpeed as TopSpeed Modula-2. ==Marketing== CB Magazine: It is an official magazine by Borland Japan. The magazine was republished on April 3, 1997. ===Renaming to Inprise Corporation=== Along with renaming from Borland International, Inc. to Inprise Corporation, the company refocused its efforts on targeting enterprise applications development. Borland hired a marketing firm Lexicon Branding to come up with a new name for the company. Yocam explained that the new name, Inprise, was meant to evoke "integrating the enterprise". The idea was to integrate Borland's tools, Delphi, C++Builder, and JBuilder with enterprise environment software, including Visigenic's implementations of CORBA, Visibroker for C++ and Java, and the new product, Application Server. ===Frank Borland=== Frank Borland is a mascot character for Borland products. According to Philippe Kahn, the mascot first appeared in advertisements and the cover of Borland Sidekick 1.0 manual, which was in 1984 during Borland International, Inc. era. Frank Borland also appeared in Turbo Tutor - A Turbo Pascal Tutorial, Borland JBuilder 2. A live action version of Frank Borland was made after Micro Focus plc had acquired Borland Software Corporation. This version was created by True Agency Limited. An introductory film was also made about the mascot.	[ "John Paul Stevens", "CodeWright", "SuperKey", "Linz", "Attachmate Group", "Lotus Development", "Linux", "IBM", "Turbo Pascal Editor Toolbox", "Turbo Profiler", "Silk Performer", "Singapore", "Borland Tempo", "software deployment", "Borland Enterprise Server", "Borland C++", "Byte (magazine)", "San Francisco", "Santa Ana, California", "Borland Paradox", "Borland Enterprise Studio", "Turbo Pascal", "OpenText Together", "database", "San Francisco Chronicle", "Subsidiary", "software development", "C++", "Turbo Delphi", "Danes", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Delphi (software)", "Keith Gottfried", "Turbo Pascal Numerical Methods Toolbox", "C Sharp (programming language)", "Turbo C", "CaliberRM", "OpenText", "Borland Sidekick", "Scotts Valley, California", "C++Builder", "Turbo Pascal Database Toolbox", "Wired (magazine)", "Borland Gauntlet", "off-the-shelf company", "Silk Test", "Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland International, Inc.", "intellectual property", "integrated development environment", "Borland Eureka the Solver", "Austin, Texas", "Novell", "Adam Bosworth", "John J. Donovan", "Microsoft", "ObjectVision", "Turbo Debugger", "InterBase", "BDE (Borland)", "Micral", "Sprint (word processor)", "Entera", "Anders Hejlsberg", "Schroders", "Terminate-and-stay-resident program", "Goldman Sachs", "Turbo Prolog", "SilkTest", "VMware", "rebranding", "First Circuit Court of Appeals", "Turbo Lightning", "California", "CP/M", "Sidekick Plus", "William F. Miller", "PowerBASIC", "West Coast Computer Faire", "C (programming language)", "Quattro Pro", "Turbo Assembler", "dBASE", "MS-DOS", ".NET", "Cupertino, California", "open-source software", "Del Yocam", "Brief (text editor)", "Visibroker", "Philippe Kahn", "Turbo Pascal Graphix Toolbox", "Brad Silverberg", "JBuilder", "List of file formats (alphabetical)", "Fortune (magazine)", "Micro Focus", "Borland Reflex", "Fox Business", "Ashton-Tate", "StarTeam", "Tim Berry (entrepreneur)", "Turbo Modula-2", "Look and feel", "Turbo C++", "Paradox (database)", "Turbo BASIC", "Clarion (programming language)", "Starbase Corporation", "Embarcadero Technologies", "Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc.", "Dale Fuller", "AT&T", "CodeGear", "FoxPro", "chief operating officer", "WordPerfect", "Bruce Webster", "rapid application development", "Corel", "Borland AppServer", "IntraBuilder", "Word Wizard", "Silk Central", "computing", "Borland CaliberRM", "Borland Caliber DefineIT", "Lexicon Branding", "software", "Forrester Research", "Turbo GameWorks", "terminate-and-stay-resident program", "DBASE", "Jim Manzi", "Visual Prolog", "Visual Studio .NET", "Microsoft Access", "Copyright infringement of software", "Ireland", "Turbo Pascal Tutor", "Borland Kylix" ]
4,031	Buckminster Fuller	Richard Buckminster Fuller (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, writer, designer, inventor, philosopher, and futurist. He styled his name as R. Buckminster Fuller in his writings, publishing more than 30 books and coining or popularizing such terms as "Spaceship Earth", "Dymaxion" (e.g., Dymaxion house, Dymaxion car, Dymaxion map), "ephemeralization", "synergetics", and "tensegrity". Fuller developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome; carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres. He also served as the second World President of Mensa International from 1974 to 1983. Fuller was awarded 28 United States patents and many honorary doctorates. In 1960, he was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal from The Franklin Institute. He was elected an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa in 1967, on the occasion of the 50-year reunion of his Harvard class of 1917 (from which he had been expelled in his first year). He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968. The same year, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member. He became a full Academician in 1970, and he received the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects the same year. Also in 1970, Fuller received the title of Master Architect from Alpha Rho Chi (APX), the national fraternity for architecture and the allied arts. In 1976, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. In 1977, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. He also received numerous other awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, presented to him on February 23, 1983, by President Ronald Reagan. == Life and work == Fuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller, a prosperous leather and tea merchant, and Caroline Wolcott Andrews. He was a grand-nephew of Margaret Fuller, an American journalist, critic, and women's rights advocate associated with the American transcendentalism movement. The unusual middle name, Buckminster, was an ancestral family name. As a child, Richard Buckminster Fuller tried numerous variations of his name. He used to sign his name differently each year in the guest register of his family summer vacation home at Bear Island, Maine. He finally settled on R. Buckminster Fuller. Fuller spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine. He attended Froebelian Kindergarten He was dissatisfied with the way geometry was taught in school, disagreeing with the notions that a chalk dot on the blackboard represented an "empty" mathematical point, or that a line could stretch off to infinity. To him these were illogical, and led to his work on synergetics. He often made items from materials he found in the woods, and sometimes made his own tools. He experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. By age 12, he had invented a 'push pull' system for propelling a rowboat by use of an inverted umbrella connected to the transom with a simple oar lock which allowed the user to face forward to point the boat toward its destination. Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term "invention." Years later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but also a habit of being familiar with and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require. Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade. === Education === Fuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that began studying at Harvard College, where he was affiliated with Adams House. He was expelled from Harvard twice: first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, and then, after having been readmitted, for his "irresponsibility and lack of interest." By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. === Depression and epiphany === Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life. His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio and spinal meningitis just before her fourth birthday. Barry Katz, a Stanford University scholar who wrote about Fuller, found signs that around this time in his life Fuller had developed depression and anxiety. Fuller dwelled on his daughter's death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers' damp and drafty living conditions. Fuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and purpose for his life. He felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in a white sphere of light. A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared: Fuller stated that this experience led to a profound re-examination of his life. He ultimately chose to embark on "an experiment, to find what a single individual could contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity." Speaking to audiences later in life, Fuller would frequently recount the story of his Lake Michigan experience, and its transformative impact on his life. === Recovery === In 1927, Fuller resolved to think independently which included a commitment to "the search for the principles governing the universe and help advance the evolution of humanity in accordance with them ... finding ways of doing more with less to the end that all people everywhere can have more and more." By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending much of his time at the popular café Romany Marie's, where he had spent an evening in conversation with Marie and Eugene O'Neill several years earlier. Fuller accepted a job decorating the interior of the café in exchange for meals, and models of the Dymaxion house were exhibited at the café. Isamu Noguchi arrived during 1929—Constantin Brâncuși, an old friend of Marie's, had directed him there including the modeling of the Dymaxion car based on recent work by Aurel Persu. It was the beginning of their lifelong friendship. === Geodesic domes === Fuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949. Fuller had been shy and withdrawn, but he was persuaded to participate in a theatrical performance of Erik Satie's Le piège de Méduse produced by John Cage, who was also teaching at Black Mountain. During rehearsals, under the tutelage of Arthur Penn, then a student at Black Mountain, Fuller broke through his inhibitions to become confident as a performer and speaker. At Black Mountain, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome. Although the geodesic dome had been created, built and awarded a German patent on June 19, 1925, by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld, Fuller was awarded United States patents. Fuller's patent application made no mention of Bauersfeld's self-supporting dome built some 26 years prior. Although Fuller undoubtedly popularized this type of structure he is mistakenly given credit for its design. One of his early models was first constructed in 1945 at Bennington College in Vermont, where he lectured often. Although Bauersfeld's dome could support a full skin of concrete it was not until 1949 that Fuller erected a geodesic dome building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. It was in diameter and constructed of aluminium aircraft tubing and a vinyl-plastic skin, in the form of an icosahedron. To prove his design, Fuller suspended from the structure's framework several students who had helped him build it. The U.S. government recognized the importance of this work, and employed his firm Geodesics, Inc. in Raleigh, North Carolina to make small domes for the Marines. Within a few years, there were thousands of such domes around the world. Fuller's first "continuous tension – discontinuous compression" geodesic dome (full sphere in this case) was constructed at the University of Oregon Architecture School in 1959 with the help of students. These continuous tension – discontinuous compression structures featured single force compression members (no flexure or bending moments) that did not touch each other and were 'suspended' by the tensional members. === Dymaxion Chronofile === For half of a century, Fuller developed many ideas, designs, and inventions, particularly regarding practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy, and ideas scrupulously by a daily diary (later called the Dymaxion Chronofile), and by twenty-eight publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited funds, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion car project. === World stage === International recognition began with the success of huge geodesic domes during the 1950s. Fuller lectured at North Carolina State University in Raleigh in 1949, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague. Fitzgibbon was director of Geodesics, Inc. and Synergetics, Inc. the first licensees to design geodesic domes. Thomas C. Howard was lead designer, architect, and engineer for both companies. Richard Lewontin, a new faculty member in population genetics at North Carolina State University, provided Fuller with computer calculations for the lengths of the domes' edges. Fuller began working with architect Shoji Sadao This building is now the "Montreal Biosphère". In 1962, the artist and searcher John McHale wrote the first monograph on Fuller, published by George Braziller in New York. After employing several Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIU) graduate students to rebuild his models following an apartment fire in the summer of 1959, Fuller was recruited by longtime friend Harold Cohen to serve as a research professor of "design science exploration" at the institution's School of Art and Design. According to SIU architecture professor Jon Davey, the position was "unlike most faculty appointments ... more a celebrity role than a teaching job" in which Fuller offered few courses and was only stipulated to spend two months per year on campus. Nevertheless, his time in Carbondale was "extremely productive", and Fuller was promoted to university professor in 1968 and distinguished university professor in 1972. During this period, he also held a joint fellowship at a consortium of Philadelphia-area institutions, including the University of Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr College, Haverford College, Swarthmore College, and the University City Science Center; as a result of this affiliation, the University of Pennsylvania appointed him university professor emeritus in 1975. His speech can be watched in the archives of the AA School of Architecture, in which he spoke after Sir Robert Sainsbury's introductory speech and Foster's keynote address. In May, 1983 Buckminster Fuller participated in an interview with futurist Barbara Marx Hubbard. The hour-long DVD, "Our Spiritual Experience: A Conversation with Buckminster Fuller and Barbara Marx Hubbard" was produced by David L. Smith and was hosted by Michael Toms of New Dimensions Radio. The program was recorded at Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio. It can be viewed at Spiritual Visionaries.com, a new website expected to go "public" in February, 2025.[David L. Smith Productions] === Death === In the year of his death, Fuller described himself as follows: Fuller died on July 1, 1983, 11 days before his 88th birthday. During the period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital, dying of cancer. It was while visiting her there that he exclaimed, at a certain point: "She is squeezing my hand!" He then stood up, had a heart attack, and died an hour later, at age 87. His wife of 66 years died 36 hours later. They are buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. == Philosophy == Buckminster Fuller was a Unitarian, and, like his grandfather Arthur Buckminster Fuller (brother of Margaret Fuller), a Unitarian minister. Fuller was also an early environmental activist, aware of Earth's finite resources, and promoted a principle he termed "ephemeralization", which, according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand, was defined as "doing more with less". Resources and waste from crude, inefficient products could be recycled into making more valuable products, thus increasing the efficiency of the entire process. Fuller also coined the word synergetics, a catch-all term used broadly for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, and more specifically, the empirical study of systems in transformation; his focus was on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components. Fuller was a pioneer in thinking globally and explored energy and material efficiency in the fields of architecture, engineering, and design. In his book Critical Path (1981) he cited the opinion of François de Chadenèdes (1920–1999) that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost in our current energy "budget" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux), had cost nature "over a million dollars" per U.S. gallon ($300,000 per litre) to produce. From this point of view, its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their actual earnings. An encapsulation quotation of his views might best be summed up as: "There is no energy crisis, only a crisis of ignorance." Though Fuller was concerned about sustainability and human survival under the existing socioeconomic system, he remained optimistic about humanity's future. Defining wealth in terms of knowledge as the "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life", his analysis of the condition of "Spaceship Earth" caused him to conclude that at a certain time during the 1970s, humanity had attained an unprecedented state. He was convinced that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of major recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had attained a critical level, such that competition for necessities had become unnecessary. Cooperation had become the optimum survival strategy. He declared: "selfishness is unnecessary and hence-forth unrationalizable ... War is obsolete." He criticized previous utopian schemes as too exclusive and thought this was a major source of their failure. To work, he felt that a utopia needed to include everyone. Fuller was influenced by Alfred Korzybski's idea of general semantics. In the 1950s, Fuller attended seminars and workshops organized by the Institute of General Semantics, and he delivered the annual Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture in 1955. Korzybski is mentioned in the Introduction of his book Synergetics. The two shared a remarkable amount of similarity in their general semantics formulations. In his 1970 book, I Seem To Be a Verb, he wrote: "I live on Earth at present, and I don't know what I am. I know that I am not a category. I am not a thing—a noun. I seem to be a verb, an evolutionary process—an integral function of the universe." Fuller wrote that the universe's natural analytic geometry was based on tetrahedra arrays. He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space. One confirming result was that the strongest possible homogeneous truss is cyclically tetrahedral. He had become a guru of the design, architecture, and "alternative" communities, such as Drop City, the community of experimental artists to whom he awarded the 1966 "Dymaxion Award" for "poetically economic" domed living structures. == Major design projects == === The geodesic dome === Fuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures – geodesic domes, which have been used as parts of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps, and exhibition attractions. An examination of the geodesic design by Walther Bauersfeld for the Zeiss-Planetarium, built some 28 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that Fuller's Geodesic Dome patent (U.S. 2,682,235; awarded in 1954) is the same design as Bauersfeld's. Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple "tensegrity" structures (tetrahedron, octahedron, and the closest packing of spheres), making them lightweight and stable. The geodesic dome was a result of Fuller's exploration of nature's constructing principles to find design solutions. The Fuller Dome is referenced in the Hugo Award-winning 1968 novel Stand on Zanzibar by John Brunner, in which a geodesic dome is said to cover the entire island of Manhattan, and it floats on air due to the hot-air balloon effect of the large air-mass under the dome (and perhaps its construction of lightweight materials). === Transportation === The Dymaxion car was a vehicle designed by Fuller, featured prominently at Chicago's 1933-1934 Century of Progress World's Fair. During the Great Depression, Fuller formed the Dymaxion Corporation and built three prototypes with noted naval architect Starling Burgess and a team of 27 workmen — using donated money as well as a family inheritance. Fuller associated the word Dymaxion, a blend of the words dynamic, maximum, and tension to sum up the goal of his study, "maximum gain of advantage from minimal energy input". The Dymaxion was not an automobile but rather the 'ground-taxying mode' of a vehicle that might one day be designed to fly, land and drive — an "Omni-Medium Transport" for air, land and water. Fuller focused on the landing and taxiing qualities, and noted severe limitations in its handling. The team made improvements and refinements to the platform, Shortly after launch, a prototype rolled over and crashed, killing the Dymaxion's driver and seriously injuring its passengers. Fuller blamed the accident on a second car that collided with the Dymaxion. Eyewitnesses reported, however, that the other car hit the Dymaxion only after it had begun to roll over. — eventually selling all three, dissolving Dymaxion Corporation and maintaining the Dymaxion was never intended as a commercial venture. One of the three original prototypes survives. === Housing === Fuller's energy-efficient and inexpensive Dymaxion house garnered much interest, but only two prototypes were ever produced. Here the term "Dymaxion" is used in effect to signify a "radically strong and light tensegrity structure". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. Designed and developed during the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened "bell" of certain jellyfish. It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two cylindrical packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers. A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to use natural winds for cooling and air circulation. Conceived nearly two decades earlier, and developed in Wichita, Kansas, the house was designed to be lightweight, adapted to windy climates, cheap to produce and easy to assemble. Because of its light weight and portability, the Dymaxion House was intended to be the ideal housing for individuals and families who wanted the option of easy mobility. The design included a "Go-Ahead-With-Life Room" stocked with maps, charts, and helpful tools for travel "through time and space". It was to be produced using factories, workers, and technologies that had produced World War II aircraft. It looked ultramodern at the time, built of metal, and sheathed in polished aluminum. The basic model enclosed of floor area. Due to publicity, there were many orders during the early Post-War years, but the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to management problems. In 1967, Fuller developed a concept for an offshore floating city named Triton City and published a report on the design the following year. Models of the city aroused the interest of President Lyndon B. Johnson who, after leaving office, had them placed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum. In 1969, Fuller began the Otisco Project, named after its location in Otisco, New York. The project developed and demonstrated concrete spray with mesh-covered wireforms for producing large-scale, load-bearing spanning structures built on-site, without the use of pouring molds, other adjacent surfaces, or hoisting. The initial method used a circular concrete footing in which anchor posts were set. Tubes cut to length and with ends flattened were then bolted together to form a duodeca-rhombicahedron (22-sided hemisphere) geodesic structure with spans ranging to . The form was then draped with layers of ¼-inch wire mesh attached by twist ties. Concrete was sprayed onto the structure, building up a solid layer which, when cured, would support additional concrete to be added by a variety of traditional means. Fuller referred to these buildings as monolithic ferroconcrete geodesic domes. However, the tubular frame form proved problematic for setting windows and doors. It was replaced by an iron rebar set vertically in the concrete footing and then bent inward and welded in place to create the dome's wireform structure and performed satisfactorily. Domes up to three stories tall built with this method proved to be remarkably strong. Other shapes such as cones, pyramids, and arches proved equally adaptable. The project was enabled by a grant underwritten by Syracuse University and sponsored by U.S. Steel (rebar), the Johnson Wire Corp (mesh), and Portland Cement Company (concrete). The ability to build large complex load bearing concrete spanning structures in free space would open many possibilities in architecture, and is considered one of Fuller's greatest contributions. === Dymaxion map and World Game === Fuller, along with co-cartographer Shoji Sadao, also designed an alternative projection map, called the Dymaxion map. This was designed to show Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface. In the 1960s, Fuller developed the World Game, a collaborative simulation game played on a 70-by-35-foot Dymaxion map, in which players attempt to solve world problems. The object of the simulation game is, in Fuller's words, to "make the world work, for 100% of humanity, in the shortest possible time, through spontaneous cooperation, without ecological offense or the disadvantage of anyone". == Appearance and style == Buckminster Fuller wore thick-lensed spectacles to correct his extreme hyperopia, a condition that went undiagnosed for the first five years of his life. Fuller's hearing was damaged during his naval service in World War I and deteriorated during the 1960s. Fuller adopted electronic hearing aids from the 1970s onward. Fuller learned the importance of physical appearance as part of one's credibility, and decided to become "the invisible man" by dressing in clothes that would not draw attention to himself.}} == Lifestyle == Following his global prominence from the 1960s onward, Fuller became a frequent flier, often crossing time zones to lecture. In the 1960s and 1970s, he wore three watches simultaneously; one for the time zone of his office at Southern Illinois University, one for the time zone of the location he would next visit, and one for the time zone he was currently in. In the 1970s, Fuller was only in 'homely' locations (his personal home in Carbondale, Illinois; his holiday retreat in Bear Island, Maine; and his daughter's home in Pacific Palisades, California) roughly 65 nights per year—the other 300 nights were spent in hotel beds in the locations he visited on his lecturing and consulting circuits. Fuller worked until he was tired, and then slept short naps. This generally resulted in Fuller sleeping 30-minute naps every 6 hours. This allowed him "twenty-two thinking hours a day", which aided his work productivity. Despite no longer personally partaking in the habit, in 1943 Fuller suggested Dymaxion sleep as a strategy that the United States could adopt to win World War II. by Barry Farrell in Life magazine, who noted that Fuller stayed up all night replying to mail during Farrell's 1970 trip to Bear Island. == Language and neologisms == Buckminster Fuller spoke and wrote in a unique style and said it was important to describe the world as accurately as possible. Fuller often created long run-on sentences and used unusual compound words (omniwell-informed, intertransformative, omni-interaccommodative, omniself-regenerative), as well as terms he himself invented. His style of speech was characterized by progressively rapid and breathless delivery and rambling digressions of thought, which Fuller described as "thinking out loud". The effect, combined with Fuller's dry voice and non-rhotic New England accent, was varyingly considered "hypnotic" or "overwhelming". Fuller used the word Universe without the definite or indefinite article (the or a) and always capitalized the word. Fuller wrote that "by Universe I mean: the aggregate of all humanity's consciously apprehended and communicated (to self or others) Experiences". The words "down" and "up", according to Fuller, are awkward in that they refer to a planar concept of direction inconsistent with human experience. The words "in" and "out" should be used instead, he argued, because they better describe an object's relation to a gravitational center, the Earth. "I suggest to audiences that they say, 'I'm going "outstairs" and "instairs."' At first that sounds strange to them; They all laugh about it. But if they try saying in and out for a few days in fun, they find themselves beginning to realize that they are indeed going inward and outward in respect to the center of Earth, which is our Spaceship Earth. And for the first time they begin to feel real 'reality.'" Fuller preferred the term "world-around" to replace "worldwide". The general belief in a flat Earth died out in classical antiquity, so using "wide" is an anachronism when referring to the surface of the Earth—a spheroidal surface has area and encloses a volume but has no width. Fuller held that unthinking use of obsolete scientific ideas detracts from and misleads intuition. Other neologisms collectively invented by the Fuller family, according to Allegra Fuller Snyder, are the terms "sunsight" and "sunclipse", replacing "sunrise" and "sunset" to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-Copernican celestial mechanics. Fuller also invented the word "livingry", as opposed to weaponry (or "killingry"), to mean that which is in support of all human, plant, and Earth life. "The architectural profession—civil, naval, aeronautical, and astronautical—has always been the place where the most competent thinking is conducted regarding livingry, as opposed to weaponry." As well as contributing significantly to the development of tensegrity technology, Fuller invented the term "tensegrity", a portmanteau of "tensional integrity". "Tensegrity describes a structural-relationship principle in which structural shape is guaranteed by the finitely closed, comprehensively continuous, tensional behaviors of the system and not by the discontinuous and exclusively local compressional member behaviors. Tensegrity provides the ability to yield increasingly without ultimately breaking or coming asunder." "Dymaxion" is a portmanteau of "dynamic maximum tension". It was invented around 1929 by two admen at Marshall Field's department store in Chicago to describe Fuller's concept house, which was shown as part of a house of the future store display. They created the term using three words that Fuller used repeatedly to describe his design – dynamic, maximum, and tension. Fuller also helped to popularize the concept of Spaceship Earth: "The most important fact about Spaceship Earth: an instruction manual didn't come with it." In the preface for his "cosmic fairy tale" Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears, Fuller stated that his distinctive speaking style grew out of years of embellishing the classic tale for the benefit of his daughter, allowing him to explore both his new theories and how to present them. The Tetrascroll narrative was eventually transcribed onto a set of tetrahedral lithographs (hence the name), as well as being published as a traditional book. Fuller's language posed problems for his credibility. John Julius Norwich recalled commissioning a 600-word introduction for a planned history of world architecture from him, and receiving a 3500-word proposal which ended: Norwich commented: "On reflection, I asked Dr. Nikolaus Pevsner instead." == Concepts and buildings == His concepts and buildings include: Dymaxion house (1928) R. Buckminster Fuller and Anne Hewlett Dome Home Aerodynamic Dymaxion car (1933) Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937) Dymaxion deployment unit (1940) Dymaxion map of the world (1946) Tensegrity structures (1949) Geodesic dome for Ford Motor Company (1953) Patent on geodesic domes (1954) Tokyo Tower (1958) (unselected design) Tokyo Olympic Stadium (1958) (unselected design) The World Game (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972) Patent on octet truss (1961) Montreal Biosphere (1967), United States pavilion at Expo 67 Fly's Eye Dome Dewan Tunku Geodesic Dome, KOMTAR, Penang, Malaysia (proposed 1974, completed 1985) Comprehensive anticipatory design science == Influence and legacy == Among the many people who were influenced by Buckminster Fuller are: Constance Abernathy, Ruth Asawa, J. Baldwin, Michael Ben-Eli, Pierre Cabrol, John Cage, Joseph Clinton, Peter Floyd, Medard Gabel, Michael Hays, David Johnston, Peter Jon Pearce, Robert Anton Wilson, Stewart Brand, Jason McLennan, and John Denver. An allotrope of carbon, fullerene—and a particular molecule of that allotrope C60 (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome. The 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene. On July 12, 2004, the United States Post Office released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and by the occasion of his 109th birthday. The stamp's design replicated the January 10, 1964, cover of Time magazine. Fuller was the subject of two documentary films: The World of Buckminster Fuller (1971) and Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud (1996). Additionally, filmmaker Sam Green and the band Yo La Tengo collaborated on a 2012 "live documentary" about Fuller, The Love Song of R. Buckminster Fuller. In June 2008, the Whitney Museum of American Art presented "Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe", the most comprehensive retrospective to date of his work and ideas. The exhibition traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago in 2009. It presented a combination of models, sketches, and other artifacts, representing six decades of the artist's integrated approach to housing, transportation, communication, and cartography. It also featured the extensive connections with Chicago from his years spent living, teaching, and working in the city. In 2009, a number of US companies decided to repackage spherical magnets and sell them as toys. One company, Maxfield & Oberton, told The New York Times that they saw the product on YouTube and decided to repackage them as "Buckyballs", because the magnets could self-form and hold together in shapes reminiscent of the Fuller inspired buckyballs. The buckyball toy launched at New York International Gift Fair in 2009 and sold in the hundreds of thousands, but by 2010 began to experience problems with toy safety issues and the company was forced to recall the packages that were labelled as toys. In 2012, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art hosted "The Utopian Impulse" – a show about Buckminster Fuller's influence in the Bay Area. Featured were concepts, inventions and designs for creating "free energy" from natural forces, and for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. The show ran January through July. In 2025 historian Eva Díaz published the book After Spaceship Earth: Art, Techno-utopia, and Other Science Fictions (Yale University Press) about the legacy of Buckminster Fuller's work in contemporary culture. The book considers works of art and design using geodesic domes in various ways: as ad-hoc architectural projects dealing with climate change, as spaces of exhibition display and communication design, as proposals to solve housing crises, and as critiques of corporate and governmental surveillance. The book also takes up the influence of Fuller and Stewart Brand in artworks exploring outer space exploration and colonization. == In popular culture == Fuller is quoted in "The Tower of Babble" from the musical Godspell: "Man is a complex of patterns and processes." Belgian rock band dEUS released the song The Architect, inspired by Fuller, on their 2008 album Vantage Point. Indie band Driftless Pony Club titled their 2011 album Buckminster after Fuller. Each of the album's songs is based upon his life and works. The design podcast 99% Invisible (2010–present) takes its title from a Fuller quote: "Ninety-nine percent of who you are is invisible and untouchable." Fuller is briefly mentioned in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014) when Kitty Pryde is giving a lecture to a group of students regarding utopian architecture. Robert Kiyosaki's 2009 book Conspiracy of the Rich and 2015 book Second Chance both concern Kiyosaki's interactions with Fuller as well as Fuller's unusual final book, Grunch of Giants. In The House of Tomorrow (2017), based on Peter Bognanni's 2010 novel of the same name, Ellen Burstyn's character is obsessed with Fuller and provides retro-futurist tours of her geodesic home that include videos of Fuller sailing and talking with Burstyn, who had in real life befriended Fuller. In The Simpsons' Treehouse of Horror episode airing on October 29, 1992, a scan over Springfield graveyard reveals graves for American workmanship, Drexell's class, slapstick, and Buckminster Fuller. == Patents == (from the Table of Contents of Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller (1983) ) 1927 Stockade: building structure 1927 Stockade: pneumatic forming process 1928 (Application Abandoned) 4D house 1937 Dymaxion car 1940 Dymaxion bathroom 1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (sheet) 1944 Dymaxion deployment unit (frame) 1946 Dymaxion map 1946 (No Patent) Dymaxion house (Wichita) 1954 Geodesic dome 1959 Paperboard dome 1959 Plydome 1959 Catenary (geodesic tent) 1961 Octet truss 1962 Tensegrity 1963 Submarisle (undersea island) 1964 Aspension (suspension building) 1965 Monohex (geodesic structures) 1965 Laminar dome 1965 (Filed – No Patent) Octa spinner 1967 Star tensegrity (octahedral truss) 1970 Rowing needles (watercraft) 1974 Geodesic hexa-pent 1975 Floatable breakwater 1975 Non-symmetrical tensegrity 1979 Floating breakwater 1980 Tensegrity truss 1983 Hanging storage shelf unit	[ "San Francisco Museum of Modern Art", "carbon", "transom (nautical)", "non-rhotic", "Catenary", "North Carolina State University", "Stanford University", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "meat-packing industry", "Great Depression", "KOMTAR", "USS Inca (SP-1212)", "Bennington College", "Stockade Building System", "steering", "population genetics", "Deus (band)", "Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago", "Kitty Pryde", "Milton Academy", "Allotropes of carbon", "Lithography", "fullerene", "Timothy Fuller", "R. Buckminster Fuller and Anne Hewlett Dome Home", "Joseph Clinton", "University City Science Center", "Barry Farrell", "Energy conversion efficiency", "International Union of Architects", "United States Navy", "American philosophy", "Frank P. Brown Medal", "Quentin Fiore", "Critical Path (book)", "Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station", "Cloud Nine (sphere)", "factory", "Allegra Fuller Snyder", "solar energy", "Pierre Cabrol", "Plydome", "guru", "Carbondale, Illinois", "John Julius Norwich", "Michael Ben-Eli", "Smithsonian Institution", "Geodesic dome", "List of covers of Time magazine (1960s)", "Medard Gabel", "Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud", "Penobscot Bay", "infinity", "American Humanist Association", "allotropy", "Alpha Rho Chi", "celestial mechanics", "Treehouse of Horror", "Los Angeles Times", "Western philosophy", "compression (physical)", "transcendentalism", "Arthur Penn", "National Academy of Design", "Whole Earth Catalog", "Yale University Press", "Philadelphia", "U.S. Steel", "Margaret Fuller", "Systems theory", "Greenwich Village", "Planetarium Jena", "Carbon sequestration", "crash rescue boat", "Isamu Noguchi", "Haverford College", "utopian architecture", "J. Baldwin", "Robert Sainsbury", "truss", "climate change", "research professor", "North Carolina", "vaudeville", "Kenneth Snelson", "Unitarianism", "indefinite article", "Eric A. Walker (engineer)", "rebar", "Harvard University", "World War I", "icosahedron", "Romany Marie", "Ellen Burstyn", "Adams House (Harvard University)", "Bryn Mawr College", "James Rhyne Killian", "Erik Satie", "Dymaxion bathroom", "American Academy of Achievement", "Energy slave", "20th-century philosophy", "Dymaxion", "University of Pennsylvania", "John Denver", "Paperboard dome", "American Institute of Architects", "William James Sidis", "Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum", "The House of Tomorrow (2017 film)", "Car and Driver", "Yo La Tengo", "Nine Chains to the Moon", "Century of Progress", "Richard Lewontin", "Manhattan", "Wichita, Kansas", "United States Post Office", "tension (mechanics)", "press brake", "Karlis Johansons", "Southern Illinois University Edwardsville", "Bucky Ball", "Epiphany (feeling)", "Floating cities and islands in fiction", "Post-scarcity economy", "United States Marine Corps", "Phi Beta Kappa", "Hugo Award", "Mensa International", "Bear Island, Maine", "Bear Island (Maine)", "polyphasic sleep", "Eugene O'Neill", "Spaceship Earth", "Geoscope", "Nicolaus Copernicus", "material efficiency", "spectacles", "Richard Smalley", "Life (magazine)", "Mount Auburn Cemetery", "X-Men: Days of Future Past", "Whitney Museum of American Art", "William Morrow & Company", "Sam Green (filmmaker)", "Advertising agency", "Spome", "definite article", "AIA Gold Medal", "geodesic dome", "Henry Ford Museum", "buckminsterfullerene", "Current solar income", "Emissions Reduction Currency System", "Peter Jon Pearce", "futurist", "The New Yorker", "sheet metal", "Le piège de Méduse", "Michael Hays", "University of Oregon", "analytic geometry", "New England accent", "Dome over Manhattan", "Jason McLennan", "Godspell", "99% Invisible", "flat Earth", "breakwater (structure)", "polio", "Noosphere", "Ephemeralization", "Saint Louis University", "Otisco, New York", "American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Nikolaus Pevsner", "octet truss", "Octet truss", "Walther Bauersfeld", "anxiety", "John McHale (artist)", "Peter Floyd", "Robert Curl", "Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles", "Guy Davenport", "The Buckminster Fuller Challenge", "Swarthmore College", "women's rights", "Treehouse of Horror III", "structural", "Vantage Point (Deus album)", "Southern Illinois University Carbondale", "Stand on Zanzibar", "Starling Burgess", "Friedrich Fröbel", "Spaceship earth", "octahedron", "John Brunner (novelist)", "Harvard College", "HuffPost", "slapstick", "World War II", "Design science revolution", "Arthur Buckminster Fuller", "Old Man River's City project", "hyperopia", "The Franklin Institute", "Milton, Massachusetts", "systems theorist", "spinal meningitis", "Dearborn, Michigan", "Space frame", "Dymaxion house", "U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission", "4D house", "Buckyballs (toy)", "Point (geometry)", "Fly's Eye Dome", "Black Mountain College", "general semantics", "Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture", "Los Angeles, California", "Dymaxion map", "Montreal Biosphère", "Expo 67", "UN Habitat I", "Drop City", "thin-shell structure", "Time (magazine)", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Norman Foster", "Goldilocks and the Three Bears", "St. Louis Literary Award", "machinist", "The Simpsons", "Perseus Books Group", "Craig Benzine", "Malaysia", "Shoji Sadao", "Harry Kroto", "Korzybski", "tensegrity", "Endurance", "Dymaxion car", "Gay 90s", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "Laminar dome", "Geocentric model", "Cloud Nine (tensegrity sphere)", "Robert Kiyosaki", "Ruth Asawa", "geometry", "Edwin Schlossberg", "sustainability", "High Times", "James Monroe Hewlett", "environmental activist", "Academy of Achievement", "Robert Anton Wilson", "Ronald Reagan", "Automobile platform", "World Game", "Constantin Brâncuși", "John Cage", "The New York Times", "renewable sources of energy", "Synergetics (Fuller)", "Aurel Persu", "Ted Nelson", "Syracuse University", "Montreal Biosphere", "lens", "ephemeralization", "Tensegrity", "classical antiquity", "Constance Abernathy", "Louisville, Kentucky", "Design science", "Institute of General Semantics", "Alfred Korzybski", "Dymaxion Chronofile", "Dymaxion deployment unit", "Eva Díaz (art historian)", "Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth", "Stewart Brand" ]
4,032	Bill Watterson	William Boyd Watterson II (born July 5, 1958) is an American cartoonist who authored the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes. The strip was syndicated from 1985 to 1995. Watterson concluded Calvin and Hobbes with a short statement to newspaper editors and his readers that he felt he had achieved all he could in the medium. Watterson is known for his negative views on comic syndication and licensing, his efforts to expand and elevate the newspaper comic as an art form, and his move back into private life after Calvin and Hobbes ended. Watterson was born in Washington, D.C., and grew up in Chagrin Falls, Ohio. The suburban Midwestern United States setting of Ohio was part of the inspiration for the setting of Calvin and Hobbes. Watterson currently lives in Cleveland Heights, Ohio. Watterson said his graphic inspirations were from George Herriman, Walt Kelly, Tex Avery and Chuck Jones. ==Early life== Bill Watterson was born on July 5, 1958, in Washington, D.C., to Kathryn Watterson (1933–2022) and James Godfrey Watterson (1932–2016). His father worked as a patent attorney. In 1965, six-year-old Watterson and his family moved to Chagrin Falls, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland. Watterson has a younger brother, Thomas Watterson, who lives in Austin, Texas, and worked as a musician before becoming an educator. On one occasion when he was in fourth grade, he wrote a letter to Schulz, who responded, much to Watterson's surprise. This made a big impression on him at the time. His parents encouraged him in his artistic pursuits. Later, they recalled him as a "conservative child" — imaginative, but "not in a fantasy way", and certainly nothing like the character of Calvin that he later created. Watterson found avenues for his cartooning talents throughout primary and secondary school, creating high school-themed super hero comics with his friends and contributing cartoons and art to the school newspaper and yearbook. After high school, Watterson attended Kenyon College, where he majored in political science. He had already decided on a career in cartooning but he felt studying political science would help him move into editorial cartooning. He continued to develop his art skills and during his sophomore year he painted Michelangelo's Creation of Adam on the ceiling of his dormitory room. He also contributed cartoons to the college newspaper, some of which included the original "Spaceman Spiff" cartoons. Watterson graduated from Kenyon in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. Later, when Watterson was creating names for the characters in his comic strip, he decided on Calvin (after the Protestant reformer John Calvin) and Hobbes (after the political philosopher Thomas Hobbes), allegedly as a "tip of the hat" to Kenyon's political science department. In The Complete Calvin and Hobbes, Watterson stated that Calvin was named for "a 16th-century theologian who believed in predestination" and Hobbes for "a 17th-century philosopher with a dim view of human nature". He then joined a small advertising agency and worked there for four years as a designer, creating grocery advertisements while also working on his own projects, including development of his own cartoon strip and contributions to Target: The Political Cartoon Quarterly. As a freelance artist, Watterson has drawn other works for various merchandise, including album art for his brother's band, calendars, clothing graphics, educational books, magazine covers, posters, and post cards. ===Calvin and Hobbes and rise to success=== Watterson has said that he works for personal fulfillment. As he told the graduating class of 1990 at Kenyon College, "It's surprising how hard we'll work when the work is done just for ourselves." Calvin and Hobbes was first published on November 18, 1985. In Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book, he wrote that his influences included Peanuts, Pogo, and Krazy Kat. Watterson wrote the introduction to the first volume of The Komplete Kolor Krazy Kat. Watterson's style also reflects the influence of Winsor McCay's Little Nemo in Slumberland. Like many artists, Watterson incorporated elements of his life, interests, beliefs, and values into his work—for example, his hobby as a cyclist, memories of his own father's speeches about "building character", and his views on merchandising and corporations. Watterson's cat Sprite very much inspired the personality and physical features of Hobbes. Watterson spent much of his career trying to change the climate of newspaper comics. He believed that the artistic value of comics was being undermined and that the space that they occupied in newspapers continually decreased, subject to arbitrary whims of shortsighted publishers. Furthermore, he opined that art should not be judged by the medium for which it is created (i.e., there is no "high" art or "low" art—just art). Watterson wrote a foreword for FoxTrot. ===Fight against merchandising his characters=== For years, Watterson battled against pressure from publishers to merchandise his work, something that he felt would cheapen his comic through compromising the act of creation or reading. He refused to merchandise his creations on the grounds that displaying Calvin and Hobbes images on commercially sold mugs, stickers, and T-shirts would devalue the characters and their personalities. Watterson said that Universal kept putting pressure on him and that he had signed his contract without fully perusing it because, as a new artist, he was happy just to find a syndicate willing to give him a chance (two other syndicates had previously turned him down). He added that the contract was so one-sided that, if Universal really wanted to, they could license his characters against his will, and could even fire him and continue Calvin and Hobbes with a new artist. Watterson's position eventually won out, and he was able to renegotiate his contract so that he would receive all rights to his work. Later he said that the licensing fight exhausted him and contributed to the need for a nine-month sabbatical in 1991. Despite Watterson's efforts, many unofficial knockoffs have been found, including items that depict Calvin and Hobbes consuming alcohol or Calvin urinating on a logo. Watterson has said, "Only thieves and vandals have made money on Calvin and Hobbes merchandise." ===Changing the format of the Sunday strip=== Watterson was critical of the prevailing format for the Sunday comic strip that was in place when he began drawing (and remained so, to varying degrees). The typical layout consists of three rows with eight total squares, which take up half a page if published with its normal size. Some newspapers are restricted with space for their Sunday features and reduce the size of the strip. One of the more common ways is to cut out the top two panels, which Watterson believed forced him to waste the space on throwaway jokes that did not always fit the strip. While he was set to return from his first sabbatical, Watterson discussed with his syndicate a new format for Calvin and Hobbes that would enable him to use his space more efficiently and would almost require the papers to publish it as a half-page. Universal agreed that they would sell the strip as the half-page and nothing else, which garnered anger from papers and criticism for Watterson from both editors and some of his fellow cartoonists (whom he described as "unnecessarily hot-tempered"). Eventually, Universal compromised and agreed to offer papers a choice between the full half-page or a reduced-sized version to alleviate concerns about the size issue. Watterson conceded that this caused him to lose space in many papers, but he said that, in the end, it was a benefit because he felt that he was giving the papers' readers a better strip for their money and editors were free not to run Calvin and Hobbes at their own risk. He added that he was not going to apologize for drawing a popular feature. ===End of Calvin and Hobbes=== On November 9, 1995, Watterson announced the end of Calvin and Hobbes with the following letter to newspaper editors: The last strip of Calvin and Hobbes was published on December 31, 1995. ==After Calvin and Hobbes== In the years since Calvin and Hobbes was ended, many attempts have been made to contact Watterson. Both The Plain Dealer and the Cleveland Scene sent reporters, in 1998 and 2003 respectively, but neither were able to make contact with the media-shy Watterson. Since 1995, Watterson has taken up painting, at one point drawing landscapes of the woods with his father. He has kept away from the public eye and shown no interest in resuming the strip, creating new works based on the strip's characters, or embarking on new commercial projects, though he has published several Calvin and Hobbes "treasury collection" anthologies. He does not sign autographs or license his characters. Watterson was once known to sneak autographed copies of his books onto the shelves of the Fireside Bookshop, a family-owned bookstore in his hometown of Chagrin Falls, Ohio. He ended this practice after discovering that some of the autographed books were being sold online for high prices. Watterson rarely gives interviews or makes public appearances. His lengthiest interviews include the cover story in The Comics Journal No. 127 in February 1989, an interview that appeared in a 1987 issue of Honk Magazine, On December 21, 1999, a short piece was published in the Los Angeles Times, written by Watterson to mark the forthcoming retirement of Peanuts creator Charles M. Schulz. Circa 2003, Gene Weingarten of The Washington Post sent Watterson the first edition of the Barnaby book as an incentive, hoping to land an interview. Weingarten passed the book to Watterson's parents, along with a message, and declared that he would wait in his hotel for as long as it took Watterson to contact him. Watterson's editor Lee Salem called the next day to tell Weingarten that the cartoonist would not be coming. In October 2005, Watterson answered 15 questions submitted by readers. In October 2007, he wrote a review of Schulz and Peanuts, a biography of Charles M. Schulz, in The Wall Street Journal. In 2008, he provided a foreword for the first book collection of Richard Thompson's Cul de Sac comic strip. In April 2011, a representative for Andrews McMeel received a package from a "William Watterson in Cleveland Heights, Ohio" which contained a oil-on-board painting of Cul de Sac character Petey Otterloop, done by Watterson for the Team Cul de Sac fundraising project for Parkinson's disease in honor of Richard Thompson, who was diagnosed in 2009. Watterson's syndicate revealed that the painting was the first new artwork of his that the syndicate has seen since Calvin and Hobbes ended in 1995. In October 2009, Nevin Martell published a book called Looking for Calvin and Hobbes, which included a story about the author seeking an interview with Watterson. In his search he interviews friends, co-workers and family but never gets to meet the artist himself. In early 2010, Watterson was interviewed by The Plain Dealer on the 15th anniversary of the end of Calvin and Hobbes. Explaining his decision to discontinue the strip, he said, In October 2013, the magazine Mental Floss published an interview with Watterson, only the second since the strip ended. Watterson again confirmed that he would not be revisiting Calvin and Hobbes, and that he was satisfied with his decision. He also gave his opinion on the changes in the comic-strip industry and where it would be headed in the future: In 2013 the documentary Dear Mr. Watterson, exploring the cultural impact of Calvin and Hobbes, was released. Watterson himself did not appear in the film. On February 26, 2014, Watterson published his first cartoon since the end of Calvin and Hobbes: a poster for the documentary Stripped. In 2014, Watterson co-authored The Art of Richard Thompson with Washington Post cartoonist Nick Galifianakis and David Apatoff. In June 2014, three strips of Pearls Before Swine (published June 4, June 5, and June 6, 2014) featured guest illustrations by Watterson after mutual friend Nick Galifianakis connected him and cartoonist Stephan Pastis, who communicated via e-mail. Pastis likened this unexpected collaboration to getting "a glimpse of Bigfoot". "I thought maybe Stephan and I could do this goofy collaboration and then use the result to raise some money for Parkinson's research in honor of Richard Thompson. It seemed like a perfect convergence", Watterson told The Washington Post. The day that Stephan Pastis returned to his own strip, he paid tribute to Watterson by alluding to the final strip of Calvin and Hobbes from December 31, 1995. On November 5, 2014, a poster was unveiled, drawn by Watterson for the 2015 Angoulême International Comics Festival where he was awarded the Grand Prix in 2014. On April 1, 2016, for April Fools' Day, Berkeley Breathed posted on Facebook that Watterson had signed "the franchise over to my 'administration'". He then posted a comic with Calvin, Hobbes, and Opus all featured. The comic is signed by Watterson, though the degree of his involvement was speculative. Breathed posted another "Calvin County" strip featuring Calvin and Hobbes, also "signed" by Watterson on April 1, 2017, along with a fake New York Times story ostensibly detailing the "merger" of the two strips. Berkeley Breathed included Hobbes in a November 27, 2017, strip as a stand-in for the character Steve Dallas. Hobbes has also returned in the June 9, 11, and 12, 2021, strips as a stand-in for Bill The Cat. ===Exhibitions=== In 2001, the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University mounted an exhibition of Watterson's Sunday strips. He chose thirty-six of his favorites, displaying them with both the original drawing and the colored finished product, with most pieces featuring personal annotations. Watterson also wrote an accompanying essay that served as the foreword for the exhibit, called "Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985–1995", which opened on September 10, 2001. It was taken down in January 2002. The accompanying published catalog had the same title. From March 22 to August 3, 2014, Watterson exhibited again at the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University. In conjunction with this exhibition, Watterson also participated in an interview with the school. An exhibition catalog named Exploring Calvin and Hobbes was released with the exhibit. The book contained a lengthy interview with Bill Watterson, conducted by Jenny Robb, the curator of the museum. ===The Mysteries=== Watterson released his first published work in 28 years on October 10, 2023, called The Mysteries. It was an illustrated "fable for grown-ups" about "what lies beyond human understanding". The work was a collaboration with the illustrator and caricaturist John Kascht. ==Awards and honors== Watterson was awarded the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in both 1986 and 1988. Watterson's second Reuben win made him the youngest cartoonist to be so honored, and only the sixth person to win twice, following Milton Caniff, Charles M. Schulz, Dik Browne, Chester Gould, and Jeff MacNelly. Gary Larson is the only cartoonist to win a second Reuben since Watterson. In 2014, Watterson was awarded the Grand Prix at the Angoulême International Comics Festival for his body of work, becoming just the fourth non-European cartoonist to be so honored in the first 41 years of the event. 1986: Reuben Award, Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year 1988: Reuben Award, Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year 1988: National Cartoonists Society, Newspaper Comic Strips Humor Award 1988: Sproing Award, for Tommy og Tigern (Calvin and Hobbes) 1989: Harvey Award, Special Award for Humor, for Calvin and Hobbes 1990: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1990: Max & Moritz Prize, Best Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1991: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1991: Adamson Award, for Kalle och Hobbe (Calvin and Hobbes) 1992: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1992: Eisner Award, Best Comic Strip Collection, for The Revenge of the Baby-Sat 1992: Angoulême International Comics Festival, Prize for Best Foreign Comic Book, for En avant tête de thon! 1993: Eisner Award, Best Comic Strip Collection, for Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons 1993: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1994: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1995: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1996: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 2014: Grand Prix, Angoulême International Comics Festival 2020: Inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame	[ "Mental Floss", "Cincinnati Post", "National Cartoonists Society", "Cul de Sac (comic strip)", "Gary Larson", "Chagrin Falls", "Stripped (film)", "Washington, D.C.", "Eisner Award", "Tex Avery", "FoxTrot", "Midwestern United States", "The Plain Dealer", "Chuck Jones", "Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum", "patent attorney", "Los Angeles Times", "Nick Galifianakis (cartoonist)", "corporations", "Harvey Award", "Peanuts", "human nature", "theologian", "Cleveland, Ohio", "political science", "Jim Borgman", "Angoulême International Comics Festival", "Dear Mr. Watterson", "Winsor McCay", "Chagrin Falls, Ohio", "sophomore", "Austin, Texas", "philosopher", "Chester Gould", "Bachelor of Arts", "Hobbes (Calvin and Hobbes)", "Sunday strip", "Cleveland", "advertising agency", "Parkinson's disease", "Berkeley Breathed", "Stephan Pastis", "High culture", "Ohio", "licensing", "art", "merchandising", "Ohio State University", "Dik Browne", "Gene Weingarten", "The Comics Journal", "Angoulême International Comics Festival Prize for Best Comic Book", "Bloomsbury Academic", "Print syndication", "Adamson Awards", "Jeff MacNelly", "Biography (TV program)", "Kenyon College", "cyclist", "The Wall Street Journal", "freelance", "Richard Thompson (cartoonist)", "Krazy Kat", "Walt Kelly", "Max & Moritz Prize", "Honk (magazine)", "Max & Moritz Prizes", "Michelangelo", "political cartoonist", "Barnaby (comic strip)", "John Calvin", "April Fools' Day", "Thomas Hobbes", "Facebook", "Milton Caniff", "Cleveland Scene", "predestination", "Sproing Award", "List of Eisner Award winners", "Little Nemo", "Culture", "suburban", "Calvin and Hobbes", "Letter (paper size)", "political philosopher", "George Herriman", "List of Harvey Award winners", "The Washington Post", "Creation of Adam", "Andrews McMeel", "Cleveland Heights, Ohio", "Pearls Before Swine (comics)", "Charles M. Schulz", "The New York Times", "Private sphere", "Reuben Awards", "Low culture", "Pogo (comics)", "The Cincinnati Enquirer" ]
4,035	Black	Black is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without chroma, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. Black and white have often been used to describe opposites such as good and evil, the Dark Ages versus the Age of Enlightenment, and night versus day. Since the Middle Ages, black has been the symbolic color of solemnity and authority, and for this reason it is still commonly worn by judges and magistrates. In the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, and over the centuries it was frequently associated with death, evil, witches, and magic. In the 14th century, it was worn by royalty, clergy, judges, and government officials in much of Europe. It became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century. Black is the most common ink color used for printing books, newspapers and documents, as it provides the highest contrast with white paper and thus is the easiest color to read. Similarly, black text on a white screen is the most common format used on computer screens. the darkest material is made by MIT engineers from vertically aligned carbon nanotubes. ==Etymology== The word black comes from Old English blæc ("black, dark", also, "ink"), from Proto-Germanic blakkaz ("burned"), from Proto-Indo-European bhleg- ("to burn, gleam, shine, flash"), from base *bhel- ("to shine"), related to Old Saxon blak ("ink"), Old High German blach ("black"), Old Norse blakkr ("dark"), Dutch blaken ("to burn"), and Swedish bläck ("ink"). More distant cognates include Latin flagrare ("to blaze, glow, burn"), and Ancient Greek phlegein ("to burn, scorch"). The Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity. Kuanos could mean both dark blue and black. The Ancient Romans had two words for black: ater was a flat, dull black, while niger was a brilliant, saturated black. Ater has vanished from the vocabulary, but niger was the source of the country name Nigeria, the English word Negro, and the word for "black" in most modern Romance languages (French: noir; Spanish and Portuguese: negro; Italian: nero; Romanian: negru). Old High German also had two words for black: swartz for dull black and blach for a luminous black. These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms swart for dull black and blaek for luminous black. Swart still survives as the word swarthy, while blaek became the modern English black. In heraldry, the word used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable, an animal. ==Art== ===Prehistoric=== Black was one of the first colors used in art. The Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. They began by using charcoal, and later achieved darker pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide. In the social hierarchy of ancient Rome, purple was reserved for the emperor; red was the color worn by soldiers (red cloaks for the officers, red tunics for the soldiers); white the color worn by the priests, and black was worn by craftsmen and artisans. The black they wore was not deep and rich; the vegetable dyes used to make black were not solid or lasting, so the blacks often faded to gray or brown. In Latin, the word for black, ater and to darken, atere, were associated with cruelty, brutality and evil. They were the root of the English words "atrocious" and "atrocity". For the Romans, black symbolized death and mourning. In the 2nd century BC Roman magistrates wore a dark toga, called a toga pulla, to funeral ceremonies. Later, under the Empire, the family of the deceased also wore dark colors for a long period; then, after a banquet to mark the end of mourning, exchanged the black for a white toga. In Roman poetry, death was called the hora nigra, the black hour. ===Postclassical=== In the early Middle Ages, black was commonly associated with darkness and evil. In Medieval paintings, the devil was usually depicted as having human form, but with wings and black skin or hair. ====12th and 13th centuries==== In fashion, black did not have the prestige of red, the color of the nobility. It was worn by Benedictine monks as a sign of humility and penitence. In the 12th century a famous theological dispute broke out between the Cistercian monks, who wore white, and the Benedictines, who wore black. A Benedictine abbot, Pierre the Venerable, accused the Cistercians of excessive pride in wearing white instead of black. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the founder of the Cistercians responded that black was the color of the devil, hell, "of death and sin", while white represented "purity, innocence and all the virtues". Black symbolized both power and secrecy in the medieval world. The emblem of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany was a black eagle. The black knight in the poetry of the Middle Ages was an enigmatic figure, hiding his identity, usually wrapped in secrecy. Black ink, invented in China, was traditionally used in the Middle Ages for writing, for the simple reason that black was the darkest color and therefore provided the greatest contrast with white paper or parchment, making it the easiest color to read. It became even more important in the 15th century, with the invention of printing. A new kind of ink, printer's ink, was created out of soot, turpentine and walnut oil. The new ink made it possible to spread ideas to a mass audience through printed books, and to popularize art through black and white prints. Because of its contrast and clarity, black ink on white paper continued to be the standard for printing books, newspapers and documents; and for the same reason black text on a white background is the most common format used on computer screens. The change to the more austere but elegant black was quickly picked up by the kings and nobility. It began in northern Italy, where the Duke of Milan and the Count of Savoy and the rulers of Mantua, Ferrara, Rimini and Urbino began to dress in black. It then spread to France, led by Louis I, Duke of Orleans, younger brother of King Charles VI of France. It moved to England at the end of the reign of King Richard II (1377–1399), where all the court began to wear black. In 1419–20, black became the color of the powerful Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good. It moved to Spain, where it became the color of the Spanish Habsburgs, of Charles V and of his son, Philip II of Spain (1527–1598). European rulers saw it as the color of power, dignity, humility and temperance. By the end of the 16th century, it was the color worn by almost all the monarchs of Europe and their courts. File:Philip the good.jpg\|Portrait of Philip the Good, Rogier van der Weyden, c. 1450 File:Petrus Christus - Portrait of a Young Woman - Google Art Project.jpg\|Portrait of a Young Girl, Petrus Christus, between 1465 and 1470 File:Titian - Portrait of Charles V Seated - WGA22964.jpg\|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Titian, c.1500–1558 File:Portrait of Philip II of Spain by Sofonisba Anguissola - 002b.jpg\|Portrait of Philip II of Spain (1527–1598) ===Modern=== ====16th and 17th centuries==== While black was the color worn by the Catholic rulers of Europe, it was also the emblematic color of the Protestant Reformation in Europe and the Puritans in England and America. John Calvin, Philip Melanchthon and other Protestant theologians denounced the richly colored and decorated interiors of Roman Catholic churches. They saw the color red, worn by the pope and his cardinals, as the color of luxury, sin, and human folly. In some northern European cities, mobs attacked churches and cathedrals, smashed the stained glass windows and defaced the statues and decoration. In Protestant doctrine, clothing was required to be sober, simple and discreet. Bright colors were banished and replaced by blacks, browns and grays; women and children were recommended to wear white. In the Protestant Netherlands, Rembrandt used this sober new palette of blacks and browns to create portraits whose faces emerged from the shadows expressing the deepest human emotions. The Catholic painters of the Counter-Reformation, like Rubens, went in the opposite direction; they filled their paintings with bright and rich colors. The new Baroque churches of the Counter-Reformation were usually shining white inside and filled with statues, frescoes, marble, gold and colorful paintings, to appeal to the public. But European Catholics of all classes, like Protestants, eventually adopted a sober wardrobe that was mostly black, brown and gray. File:Increase Mather.jpg\|Increase Mather, an American Puritan clergyman (1688). File:Rembrandt van Rijn - Self-Portrait - Google Art Project.jpg\|Rembrandt, Self-portrait (1659) File:Portrait of John, Duke of Braganza c. 1630 (The Royal Castle in Warsaw).png\|John, Duke of Braganza, later King John IV of Portugal (1628) File:Infantry Armor MET DP277181.jpg\|Black painted suit of German armor crafted circa 1600. In the second part of the 17th century, Europe and America experienced an epidemic of fear of witchcraft. People widely believed that the devil appeared at midnight in a ceremony called a Black Mass or black sabbath, usually in the form of a black animal, often a goat, a dog, a wolf, a bear, a deer or a rooster, accompanied by their familiar spirits, black cats, serpents and other black creatures. This was the origin of the widespread superstition about black cats and other black animals. In medieval Flanders, in a ceremony called Kattenstoet, black cats were thrown from the belfry of the Cloth Hall of Ypres to ward off witchcraft. Witch trials were common in both Europe and America during this period. During the notorious Salem witch trials in New England in 1692–93, one of those on trial was accused of being able turn into a "black thing with a blue cap," and others of having familiars in the form of a black dog, a black cat and a black bird. Nineteen women and men were hanged as witches. ====18th and 19th centuries==== In the 18th century, during the European Age of Enlightenment, black receded as a fashion color. Paris became the fashion capital, and pastels, blues, greens, yellow and white became the colors of the nobility and upper classes. But after the French Revolution, black again became the dominant color. Black was the color of the industrial revolution, largely fueled by coal, and later by oil. Thanks to coal smoke, the buildings of the large cities of Europe and America gradually turned black. By 1846 the industrial area of the West Midlands of England was "commonly called 'the Black Country'". Charles Dickens and other writers described the dark streets and smoky skies of London, and they were vividly illustrated in the wood-engravings of French artist Gustave Doré. A different kind of black was an important part of the romantic movement in literature. Black was the color of melancholy, the dominant theme of romanticism. The novels of the period were filled with castles, ruins, dungeons, storms, and meetings at midnight. The leading poets of the movement were usually portrayed dressed in black, usually with a white shirt and open collar, and a scarf carelessly over their shoulder, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron helped create the enduring stereotype of the romantic poet. The invention of inexpensive synthetic black dyes and the industrialization of the textile industry meant that high-quality black clothes were available for the first time to the general population. In the 19th century black gradually became the most popular color of business dress of the upper and middle classes in England, the Continent, and America. Black dominated literature and fashion in the 19th century, and played a large role in painting. James McNeill Whistler made the color the subject of his most famous painting, Arrangement in grey and black number one (1871), better known as Whistler's Mother. Some 19th-century French painters had a low opinion of black: "Reject black," Paul Gauguin said, "and that mix of black and white they call gray. Nothing is black, nothing is gray." But Édouard Manet used blacks for their strength and dramatic effect. Manet's portrait of painter Berthe Morisot was a study in black which perfectly captured her spirit of independence. The black gave the painting power and immediacy; he even changed her eyes, which were green, to black to strengthen the effect. Henri Matisse quoted the French impressionist Pissarro telling him, "Manet is stronger than us all – he made light with black." Pierre-Auguste Renoir used luminous blacks, especially in his portraits. When someone told him that black was not a color, Renoir replied: "What makes you think that? Black is the queen of colors. I always detested Prussian blue. I tried to replace black with a mixture of red and blue, I tried using cobalt blue or ultramarine, but I always came back to ivory black." Vincent van Gogh used black lines to outline many of the objects in his paintings, such as the bed in the famous painting of his bedroom. making them stand apart. His painting of black crows over a cornfield, painted shortly before he died, was particularly agitated and haunting. In the late 19th century, black also became the color of anarchism. (See the section political movements.) File:Carneiro e Gaspar, J. Courtois - Imperatriz Teresa Cristina.jpg\|Portrait of Empress Teresa Cristina of Brazil (circa 1870) File:Whistlers Mother high res.jpg\|Arrangement in Grey and Black Number 1 (1871) by James McNeill Whistler better known as Whistler's Mother. File:Edouard Manet - Berthe Morisot With a Bouquet of Violets - Google Art Project.jpg\|Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets, by Édouard Manet (1872). File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg\|The Theater Box (1874) by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, captured the luminosity of black fabric in the light. ====20th and 21st centuries==== In the 20th century, black was utilised by Italian and German fascism. (See the section political movements). In art, the colour regained some of the territory that it had lost during the 19th century. The Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, a member of the Suprematist movement, created the Black Square in 1915, is widely considered the first purely abstract painting. He wrote, "The painted work is no longer simply the imitation of reality, but is this very reality ... It is not a demonstration of ability, but the materialization of an idea." Black was appreciated by Henri Matisse. "When I didn't know what color to put down, I put down black," he said in 1945. "Black is a force: I used black as ballast to simplify the construction ... Since the impressionists it seems to have made continuous progress, taking a more and more important part in color orchestration, comparable to that of the double bass as a solo instrument." In the 1950s, black came to be a symbol of individuality and intellectual and social rebellion, the color of those who did not accept established norms and values. In Paris, it was worn by Left-Bank intellectuals and performers such as Juliette Gréco, and by some members of the Beat Movement in New York and San Francisco. Black leather jackets were worn by motorcycle gangs such as the Hells Angels and street gangs on the fringes of society in the United States. Black as a color of rebellion was celebrated in such films as The Wild One, with Marlon Brando. By the end of the 20th century, black was the emblematic color of punk fashion and the goth subculture. Goth fashion, which emerged in England in the 1980s, was inspired by Victorian era mourning dress. In men's fashion, black gradually ceded its dominance to navy blue, particularly in business suits. Black evening dress and formal dress in general were worn less and less. In 1960, John F. Kennedy was the last American President to be inaugurated wearing formal dress; Lyndon Johnson and his successors were inaugurated wearing business suits. Women's fashion was revolutionized and simplified in 1926 by the French designer Coco Chanel, who published a drawing of a simple black dress in Vogue magazine. She famously said, "A woman needs just three things; a black dress, a black sweater, and, on her arm, a man she loves." Other designers contributed to the trend of the little black dress. The Italian designer Gianni Versace said, "Black is the quintessence of simplicity and elegance," and French designer Yves Saint Laurent said, "black is the liaison which connects art and fashion. ===Chemistry=== ====Pigments==== The earliest pigments used by Neolithic man were charcoal, red ocher and yellow ocher. The black lines of cave art were drawn with the tips of burnt torches made of a wood with resin. Different charcoal pigments were made by burning different woods and animal products, each of which produced a different tone. The charcoal would be ground and then mixed with animal fat to make the pigment. Vine black was produced in Roman times by burning the cut branches of grapevines. It could also be produced by burning the remains of the crushed grapes, which were collected and dried in an oven. According to the historian Vitruvius, the deepness and richness of the black produced corresponded to the quality of the wine. The finest wines produced a black with a bluish tinge the color of indigo. The 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described how this pigment was made during the Renaissance in his famous handbook for artists: "...there is a black which is made from the tendrils of vines. And these tendrils need to be burned. And when they have been burned, throw some water onto them and put them out and then mull them in the same way as the other black. And this is a lean and black pigment and is one of the perfect pigments that we use." Cennini also noted that "There is another black which is made from burnt almond shells or peaches and this is a perfect, fine black." The dye was very expensive; a great quantity of gall-nuts were needed for a very small amount of dye. The gall-nuts which made the best dye came from Poland, eastern Europe, the near east and North Africa. Beginning in about the 14th century, dye from gall-nuts was used for clothes of the kings and princes of Europe. Another important source of natural black dyes from the 17th century onwards was the logwood tree, or Haematoxylum campechianum, which also produced reddish and bluish dyes. It is a species of flowering tree in the legume family, Fabaceae, that is native to southern Mexico and northern Central America. The modern nation of Belize grew from 17th century English logwood logging camps. Since the mid-19th century, synthetic black dyes have largely replaced natural dyes. One of the important synthetic blacks is Nigrosin, a mixture of synthetic black dyes (CI 50415, Solvent black 5) made by heating a mixture of nitrobenzene, aniline and aniline hydrochloride in the presence of a copper or iron catalyst. Its main industrial uses are as a colorant for lacquers and varnishes and in marker-pen inks. ====Inks==== The first known inks were made by the Chinese, and date back to the 23rd century B.C. They used natural plant dyes and minerals such as graphite ground with water and applied with an ink brush. Early Chinese inks similar to the modern inkstick have been found dating to about 256 BC at the end of the Warring States period. They were produced from soot, usually produced by burning pine wood, mixed with animal glue. To make ink from an inkstick, the stick is continuously ground against an inkstone with a small quantity of water to produce a dark liquid which is then applied with an ink brush. Artists and calligraphists could vary the thickness of the resulting ink by reducing or increasing the intensity and time of ink grinding. These inks produced the delicate shading and subtle or dramatic effects of Chinese brush painting. India ink (or "Indian ink" in British English) is a black ink once widely used for writing and printing and now more commonly used for drawing, especially when inking comic books and comic strips. The technique of making it probably came from China. India ink has been in use in India since at least the 4th century BC, where it was called masi. In India, the black color of the ink came from bone char, tar, pitch and other substances. The ancient Romans had a black writing ink they called atramentum librarium. Its name came from the Latin word atrare, which meant to make something black. (This was the same root as the English word atrocious.) It was usually made, like India ink, from soot, although one variety, called atramentum elephantinum, was made by burning the ivory of elephants. Gall-nuts were also used for making fine black writing ink. Iron gall ink (also known as iron gall nut ink or oak gall ink) was a purple-black or brown-black ink made from iron salts and tannic acids from gall nut. It was the standard writing and drawing ink in Europe, from about the 12th century to the 19th century, and remained in use well into the 20th century. File:Charcoal sticks 051907.jpg\|Sticks of vine charcoal and compressed charcoal. Charcoal, along with red and yellow ochre, was one of the first pigments used by Paleolithic man. File:Inkstick.jpg\|A Chinese inkstick, in the form of lotus flowers and blossoms. Inksticks are used in Chinese calligraphy and brush painting. File:Živočišné uhlí (Carbocit).jpg\|Ivory black or bone char, a natural black pigment made by burning animal bones. File:Oak apple.jpg\|The oak apple or gall-nut, a tumor growing on oak trees, was the main source of black dye and black writing ink from the 14th century until the 19th century. File:Noir de fumee.jpg\|The industrial production of lamp black, made by producing, collecting and refining soot, in 1906. ===Astronomy=== A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity prevents anything, including light, from escaping. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined boundary called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics. Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies. Although a black hole itself is black, infalling material forms an accretion disk, one of the brightest types of object in the universe. Black-body radiation refers to the radiation coming from a body at a given temperature where all incoming energy (light) is converted to heat. Black sky refers to the appearance of space as one emerges from Earth's atmosphere. File:NGC 406 Hubble WikiSky.jpg\|Image of the NGC 406 galaxy from the Hubble Space Telescope File:Spirit Rover-Mars Night Sky.jpg\|The night sky seen from Mars, with the two moons of Mars visible, taken by the NASA Spirit Rover. File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg\|Outside Earth's atmosphere, the sky is black day and night. File:Olber's Paradox - All Points.gif\|An illustration of Olbers' paradox (see below) File:Black hole - Messier 87 crop max res.jpg\|Image of the central black hole of Messier 87 taken by the Event Horizon Telescope. ====Why the night sky and space are black – Olbers' paradox==== The fact that outer space is black is sometimes called Olbers' paradox. In theory, because the universe is full of stars, and is believed to be infinitely large, it would be expected that the light of an infinite number of stars would be enough to brilliantly light the whole universe all the time. However, the background color of outer space is black. This contradiction was first noted in 1823 by German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers, who posed the question of why the night sky was black. The current accepted answer is that, although the universe may be infinitely large, it is not infinitely old. It is thought to be about 13.8 billion years old, so we can only see objects as far away as the distance light can travel in 13.8 billion years. Light from stars farther away has not reached Earth, and cannot contribute to making the sky bright. Furthermore, as the universe is expanding, many stars are moving away from Earth. As they move, the wavelength of their light becomes longer, through the Doppler effect, and shifts toward red, or even becomes invisible. As a result of these two phenomena, there is not enough starlight to make space anything but black. The daytime sky on Earth is blue because light from the Sun strikes molecules in Earth's atmosphere scattering light in all directions. Blue light is scattered more than other colors, and reaches the eye in greater quantities, making the daytime sky appear blue. This is known as Rayleigh scattering. The nighttime sky on Earth is black because the part of Earth experiencing night is facing away from the Sun, the light of the Sun is blocked by Earth itself, and there is no other bright nighttime source of light in the vicinity. Thus, there is not enough light to undergo Rayleigh scattering and make the sky blue. On the Moon, on the other hand, because there is virtually no atmosphere to scatter the light, the sky is black both day and night. This also holds true for other locations without an atmosphere, such as Mercury. ===Biology=== File:Corvus brachyrhynchos 30196.JPG\|The American crow is one of the most intelligent of all animals. File:01 Schwarzbär.jpg\|American black bear (Ursus americanus) near Riding Mountain Park, Manitoba, Canada File:Dendroaspis polylepis by Bill Love.jpg\|The black mamba of Africa is one of the most venomous snakes, as well as the fastest-moving snake in the world. File:Black Widow 11-06.jpg \|The black widow spider, or latrodectus, The females frequently eat their male partners after mating. The female's venom is at least three times more potent than that of the males, making a male's self-defense bite ineffective. File:Blackleopard.JPG\|A black panther is actually a melanistic leopard or jaguar, the result of an excess of melanin in their skin caused by a recessive gene. ==Culture== In China, the color black is associated with water, one of the five fundamental elements believed to compose all things; and with winter, cold, and the direction north, usually symbolized by a black tortoise. It is also associated with disorder, including the positive disorder which leads to change and new life. When the first emperor of China Qin Shi Huang seized power from the Zhou dynasty, he changed the Imperial color from red to black, saying that black extinguished red. Only when the Han dynasty appeared in 206 BC was red restored as the imperial color. In Japan, black is associated with mystery, the night, the unknown, the supernatural, the invisible and death. Combined with white, it can symbolize intuition. In 10th- and 11th-century Japan, it was believed that wearing black could bring misfortune. It was worn at court by those who wanted to set themselves apart from the established powers or who had renounced material possessions. In Japan black can also symbolize experience, as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté. The black belt in martial arts symbolizes experience, while a white belt is worn by novices. Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day. Black is associated with depth in Indonesia, as well as the subterranean world, demons, disaster, and the left hand. When combined with white, however, it symbolizes harmony and equilibrium. ===Political movements=== ==== Anarchism ==== Anarchism is a political philosophy, most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which holds that governments and capitalism are harmful and undesirable. The symbols of anarchism was usually either a black flag or a black letter A. More recently it is usually represented with a bisected red and black flag, to emphasise the movement's socialist roots in the First International. Anarchism was most popular in Spain, France, Italy, Ukraine and Argentina. There were also small but influential movements in the United States, Russia and many other countries all around the world. ==== Fascism ==== The Blackshirts () were Fascist paramilitary groups in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II. The Blackshirts were officially known as the Voluntary Militia for National Security (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale, or MVSN). Inspired by the black uniforms of the Arditi, Italy's elite storm troops of World War I, the Fascist Blackshirts were organized by Benito Mussolini as the military tool of his political movement. They used violence and intimidation against Mussolini's opponents. The emblem of the Italian fascists was a black flag with fasces, an axe in a bundle of sticks, an ancient Roman symbol of authority. Mussolini came to power in 1922 through his March on Rome with the blackshirts. Black was also adopted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in Germany. Red, white and black were the colors of the flag of the German Empire from 1870 to 1918. In Mein Kampf, Hitler explained that they were "revered colors expressive of our homage to the glorious past." Hitler also wrote that "the new flag ... should prove effective as a large poster" because "in hundreds of thousands of cases a really striking emblem may be the first cause of awakening interest in a movement." The black swastika was meant to symbolize the Aryan race, which, according to the Nazis, "was always anti-Semitic and will always be anti-Semitic." Several designs by a number of different authors were considered, but the one adopted in the end was Hitler's personal design. Black became the color of the uniform of the SS, the Schutzstaffel or "defense corps", the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, and was worn by SS officers from 1932 until the end of World War II. The Nazis used a black triangle to symbolize anti-social elements. The symbol originates from Nazi concentration camps, where every prisoner had to wear one of the Nazi concentration camp badges on their jacket, the color of which categorized them according to "their kind". Many Black Triangle prisoners were either mentally disabled or mentally ill. The homeless were also included, as were alcoholics, the Romani people, the habitually "work-shy", prostitutes, draft dodgers and pacifists. More recently the black triangle has been adopted as a symbol in lesbian culture and by disabled activists. Black shirts were also worn by the British Union of Fascists before World War II, and members of fascist movements in the Netherlands. ==== Patriotic resistance ==== The Lützow Free Corps, composed of volunteer German students and academics fighting against Napoleon in 1813, could not afford to make special uniforms and therefore adopted black, as the only color that could be used to dye their civilian clothing without the original color showing. In 1815 the students began to carry a red, black and gold flag, which they believed (incorrectly) had been the colors of the Holy Roman Empire (the imperial flag had actually been gold and black). In 1848, this banner became the flag of the German confederation. In 1866, Prussia unified Germany under its rule, and imposed the red, white and black of its own flag, which remained the colors of the German flag until the end of the Second World War. In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany returned to the original flag and colors of the students and professors of 1815, which is the flag of Germany today. File:Махновское знамя.svg\|A flag used by the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine during the Russian Civil War. It says, "Power begets parasites. Long live Anarchy!" File:March on Rome.jpg\|Benito Mussolini and his blackshirt followers during his March on Rome in 1922. File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R99621, Heinrich Himmler.jpg\|Black uniform of Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, the military wing of the Nazi Party (1938). === Military === Black has been a traditional color of cavalry and armoured or mechanized troops. German armoured troops (Panzerwaffe) traditionally wore black uniforms, and even in others, a black beret is common. In Finland, black is the symbolic color for both armoured troops and combat engineers, and military units of these specialities have black flags and unit insignia. The black beret and the color black is also a symbol of special forces in many countries. Soviet and Russian OMON special police and Russian naval infantry wear a black beret. A black beret is also worn by military police in the Canadian, Czech, Croatian, Portuguese, Spanish and Serbian armies. The silver-on-black skull and crossbones symbol or Totenkopf and a black uniform were used by Hussars and Black Brunswickers, the German Panzerwaffe and the Nazi Schutzstaffel, and U.S. 400th Missile Squadron (crossed missiles), and continues in use with the Estonian Kuperjanov Battalion. ===Religion=== In Christian theology, black was the color of the universe before God created light. In many religious cultures, from Mesoamerica to Oceania to India and Japan, the world was created out of a primordial darkness. In the Bible the light of faith and Christianity is often contrasted with the darkness of ignorance and paganism. In Christianity, the devil is often called the "prince of darkness". The term was used in John Milton's poem Paradise Lost, published in 1667, referring to Satan, who is viewed as the embodiment of evil. It is an English translation of the Latin phrase princeps tenebrarum, which occurs in the Acts of Pilate, written in the fourth century, in the 11th-century hymn Rhythmus de die mortis by Pietro Damiani, and in a sermon by Bernard of Clairvaux from the 12th century. The phrase also occurs in King Lear by William Shakespeare (), Act III, Scene IV, l. 14: 'The prince of darkness is a gentleman." Priests and pastors of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches commonly wear black, as do monks of the Benedictine Order, who consider it the color of humility and penitence. In Islam, black, along with green, plays an important symbolic role. It is the color of the Black Standard, the banner that is said to have been carried by the soldiers of Muhammad. It is also used as a symbol in Shi'a Islam (heralding the advent of the Mahdi), and the flag of followers of Islamism and Jihadism. In Hinduism, the goddess Kali, goddess of time and change, is portrayed with black or dark blue skin. wearing a necklace adorned with severed heads and hands. Her name means "The black one". She destroys anger and passion according to Hindu mythology and her devotees are supposed to abstain from meat or intoxication. Kali does not eat meat, but it is the śāstra's injunction that those who are unable to give up meat-eating, they may sacrifice one goat, not cow, one small animal before the goddess Kali, on amāvāsya (new moon) day, night, not day, and they can eat it. In Paganism, black represents dignity, force, stability, and protection. The color is often used to banish and release negative energies, or binding. An athame is a ceremonial blade often having a black handle, which is used in some forms of witchcraft. ===Sports=== The national rugby union team of New Zealand is called the All Blacks, in reference to their black outfits, and the color is also shared by other New Zealand national teams such as the Black Caps (cricket) and the Kiwis (rugby league). Association football (soccer) referees traditionally wear all-black uniforms, however nowadays other uniform colors may also be worn. In auto racing, a black flag signals a driver to go into the pits. In baseball, "the black" refers to the batter's eye, a blacked out area around the center-field bleachers, painted black to give hitters a decent background for pitched balls. A large number of teams have uniforms designed with black colors even when the team does not normally feature that color. Many feel the color sometimes imparts a psychological advantage in its wearers. Black is used by numerous professional and collegiate sports teams ===Idioms and expressions=== In general, the Negro race of African origin is called "Black", while the Caucasian race of European origin is called "White". In the United States, "Black Friday" (the day after Thanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in November) is traditionally the busiest shopping day of the year. Many Americans are on holiday because of Thanksgiving, and many retailers open earlier and close later than normal, and offer special prices. The day's name originated in Philadelphia sometime before 1961, and originally was used to describe the heavy and disruptive downtown pedestrian and vehicle traffic which would occur on that day. Later an alternative explanation began to be offered: that "Black Friday" indicates the point in the year that retailers begin to turn a profit, or are "in the black", because of the large volume of sales on that day. "In the black" means profitable. Accountants originally used black ink in ledgers to indicate profit, and red ink to indicate a loss. Black Friday also refers to any particularly disastrous day on financial markets. The first Black Friday (1869), 24 September 1869, was caused by the efforts of two speculators, Jay Gould and James Fisk, to corner the gold market on the New York Gold Exchange. A blacklist is a list of undesirable persons or entities (to be placed on the list is to be "blacklisted"). Black comedy is a form of comedy dealing with morbid and serious topics. The expression is similar to black humor or black humour. A black mark against a person relates to something bad they have done. A black mood is a bad one (cf Winston Churchill's clinical depression, which he called "my black dog"). Black market is used to denote the trade of illegal goods, or alternatively the illegal trade of otherwise legal items at considerably higher prices, e.g. to evade rationing. Black propaganda is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent. Blackmail is the act of threatening someone to do something that would hurt them in some way, such as by revealing sensitive information about them, in order to force the threatened party to fulfill certain demands. Ordinarily, such a threat is illegal. If the black eight-ball, in billiards, is sunk before all others are out of play, the player loses. The black sheep of the family is the ne'er-do-well. To blackball someone is to block their entry into a club or some such institution. In the traditional English gentlemen's club, members vote on the admission of a candidate by secretly placing a white or black ball in a hat. If upon the completion of voting, there was even one black ball amongst the white, the candidate would be denied membership, and he would never know who had "blackballed" him. Black tea in the Western culture is known as "crimson tea" in Chinese and culturally influenced languages (, Mandarin Chinese hóngchá; Japanese kōcha; Korean hongcha). "The black" is a wildfire suppression term referring to a burned area on a wildfire capable of acting as a safety zone. Black coffee refers to coffee without sugar or cream. ==Associations and symbolism== In the West, black is commonly associated with mourning and bereavement, and usually worn at funerals and memorial services. In some traditional societies, for example in Greece and Italy, some widows wear black for the rest of their lives. In contrast, across much of Africa and parts of Asia like Vietnam, white is a color of mourning. A "black day" (or week or month) usually refers to tragic date. The Romans marked fasti days with white stones and nefasti days with black. The term is often used to remember massacres. Black months include the Black September in Jordan, when large numbers of Palestinians were killed, and Black July in Sri Lanka, the killing of members of the Tamil population by the Sinhalese government. In the financial world, the term often refers to a dramatic drop in the stock market. For example, the Wall Street crash of 1929, the stock market crash on 29 October 1929, which marked the start of the Great Depression, is nicknamed Black Tuesday, and was preceded by Black Thursday, a downturn on 24 October the previous week. In western popular culture, black has long been associated with evil and darkness. It is the traditional color of witchcraft and black magic. Black is frequently used as a color of power, law and authority. In many countries judges and magistrates wear black robes. That custom began in Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries. Jurists, magistrates and certain other court officials in France began to wear long black robes during the reign of Philip IV of France (1285–1314), and in England from the time of Edward I (1271–1307). The custom spread to the cities of Italy at about the same time, between 1300 and 1320. The robes of judges resembled those worn by the clergy, and represented the law and authority of the King, while those of the clergy represented the law of God and authority of the church. Until the 20th century most police uniforms were black, until they were largely replaced by blue in France, the U.S. and other countries. In the United States, police cars are frequently Black and white. The riot control units of the Basque Autonomous Police in Spain are known as beltzak ("blacks") after their uniform. Black formal attire is still worn at many solemn occasions or ceremonies, from graduations to formal balls. Graduation gowns are copied from the gowns worn by university professors in the Middle Ages, which in turn were copied from the robes worn by judges and priests, who often taught at the early universities. The mortarboard hat worn by graduates is adapted from a square cap called a biretta worn by Medieval professors and clerics. In the 19th and 20th centuries, many machines and devices, large and small, were painted black, to stress their functionality. These included telephones, sewing machines, steamships, railroad locomotives, and automobiles. The Ford Model T, the first mass-produced car, was available only in black from 1914 to 1926. Of means of transportation, only airplanes were rarely ever painted black. The term "Black" is often used in the West to describe people whose skin is darker. In the United States, it is particularly used to describe African Americans. Black is also commonly used as a racial description in the United Kingdom, since ethnicity was first measured in the 2001 census. In Canada, census respondents can identify themselves as Black. In Brazil, the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) asks people to identify themselves as branco (white), pardo (brown), preto (black), or amarelo (yellow). Black and white have often been used to describe opposites, particularly light and darkness and good and evil. In Medieval literature, the white knight usually represented virtue, the black knight something mysterious and sinister. In American westerns, the hero often wore a white hat, the villain a black hat. In philosophy and arguments, the issue is often described as black-and-white, meaning that the issue at hand is dichotomized (having two clear, opposing sides with no middle ground). Black is commonly associated with secrecy. The Black Chamber was a term given to an office which secretly opened and read diplomatic mail and broke codes. Queen Elizabeth I had such an office, headed by her Secretary, Sir Francis Walsingham, which successfully broke the Spanish codes and broke up several plots against the Queen. In France a cabinet noir was established inside the French post office by Louis XIII to open diplomatic mail. It was closed during the French Revolution but re-opened under Napoleon I. The Habsburg Empire and Dutch Republic had similar black chambers. The United States created a secret peacetime Black Chamber, called the Cipher Bureau, in 1919. It was funded by the State Department and Army and disguised as a commercial company in New York. It successfully broke a number of diplomatic codes, including the code of the Japanese government. It was closed down in 1929 after the State Department withdrew funding, when the new Secretary of State, Henry Stimson, stated that "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail." The Cipher Bureau was the ancestor of the U.S. National Security Agency. A black project is a secret unacknowledged military project, such as Enigma Decryption during World War II, or a secret counter-narcotics or police sting operation. Black ops are covert operations carried out by a government, government agency or military. A black budget is a government budget that is allocated for classified or other secret operations of a nation. The black budget is an account expenses and spending related to military research and covert operations. The black budget is mostly classified due to security reasons. Black is the color most commonly associated with elegance in Europe and the United States. Black first became a fashionable color for men in Europe in the 17th century, in the courts of Italy and Spain. In the 19th century, it was the fashion for men both in business and for evening wear. For women's fashion, the defining moment was the invention of the simple black dress by Coco Chanel in 1926. Thereafter, a long black gown was used for formal occasions, while the simple black dress could be used for everything else. The expression "X is the new black" is a reference to the latest trend or fad that is considered a wardrobe basic for the duration of the trend, on the basis that black is always fashionable. The phrase has taken on a life of its own and has become a cliché.	[ "Berthe Morisot", "Ford Model T", "ink brush", "Great Depression", "Lone Ranger", "French language", "John IV of Portugal", "Thanksgiving Day", "Transmittance", "blacklist", "New Zealand national rugby union team", "Medieval literature", "Supreme Court of the United States", "La Loge", "Hubert de Givenchy", "evil", "University of Minnesota", "billiards", "sable", "black body", "Anarchist symbolism", "Russian Civil War", "Brazil", "Richard II", "HTML color names", "ink", "gum arabic", "Philadelphia", "Black July", "black knight", "Victorian fashion", "William Shakespeare", "Henri Matisse", "spacetime", "Black Brunswickers", "symbol", "Eastern Orthodox", "cognate", "black beret", "Édouard Manet", "Flowering plant", "Rich black", "Shi'a Islam", "catalyst", "wood-engraving", "black-and-white", "Paul Gauguin", "Nazi concentration camp badges", "Anubis Shrine", "Adolf Hitler", "Italian Fascism", "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor", "Pierre-Auguste Renoir", "black mamba", "Magic (supernatural)", "wildfire", "wildfire suppression", "melanistic", "Masi (india ink)", "John Calvin", "ebony", "Flags of the Makhnovshchina", "mourning", "bone char", "Nazi Party", "Hel (being)", "Philip IV of France", "hymn", "Basque Autonomous Police", "The Wild One", "nitrobenzene", "Wall Street crash of 1929", "History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars", "Nazis", "Black is Beautiful", "beltzak", "Kuperjanov Battalion", "black panther", "Inuit", "List of Black Fridays", "indigo", "Mercury (planet)", "soot", "Florence", "westerns", "John F. Kennedy", "German confederation", "black-figure pottery", "sable (heraldry)", "anarchism", "State Department", "walnut oil", "Ancient Rome", "dyes", "Qin Shi Huang", "Pinniped", "marten", "white", "Percy Bysshe Shelley", "grey", "Fra Angelico", "Black Flame: The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism (Counter-Power vol. 1)", "Enigma machine", "slip (ceramics)", "Nigrosin", "Paganism", "fasti", "AK Press", "black project", "black carbon", "Counter-Reformation", "event horizon", "latrodectus", "underworld", "Racing flags", "turpentine", "atom", "400th Missile Squadron", "Coco Chanel", "Acheron", "cliché", "pitch (resin)", "Black Mass", "French Revolution", "Tartarus", "Increase Mather", "Proto-Germanic", "Aryan", "Rayleigh scattering", "Lyndon Johnson", "Lamp black", "John Milton", "World War I", "Flanders", "iron oxides", "Bible", "dichotomy", "crow", "Ancient Greek", "Dutch language", "Fundamental interaction", "Christ", "Titian", "fascism", "National Security Agency", "jackal", "Charles VI of France", "Black Caps", "Devil", "paramilitary", "visible light", "visible spectrum", "Nazi concentration camp", "stock market crash", "Kasimir Malevich", "Audrey Hepburn", "Devil in Christianity", "Mahdi", "Christianity", "Rubens", "Old Norse language", "Gustave Doré", "British Union of Fascists", "yellow ocher", "Benito Mussolini", "Kazimir Malevich", "Elizabeth I", "college athletics", "A & C Black", "day", "Philip Melanchthon", "Pietro Damiani", "Louis XIII", "Old English", "sumptuary laws", "German language", "Black Power movement", "lamp black", "Iron gall ink", "gall wasp", "Jean Patou", "Vitruvius", "March on Rome", "Edward I", "Portrait of a Young Girl (Christus)", "gentlemen's club", "Black Country", "Referee (association football)", "SS", "infrared", "Chinese culture", "Dye", "auto racing", "scarlet (cloth)", "red ocher", "Portuguese language", "Optical properties of carbon nanotubes", "Proto-Indo-European language", "black humor", "Warring States period", "Marlon Brando", "Kali", "Standard Chinese", "Schutzstaffel", "Ypres", "supermassive black hole", "Middle Ages", "swastika", "Marie of Romania", "monks", "Panzerwaffe", "Tutankhamun", "batter's eye", "Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine", "witchcraft", "White", "Achilles", "Habsburg monarchy", "International Workingmen's Association", "atramentum", "ancient Rome", "Venice", "sting operation", "black triangle (badge)", "Juliette Gréco", "Louis I, Duke of Orleans", "Black-body radiation", "MIT", "Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)", "Dover Publications", "Colorfulness", "inkstone", "Petrus Christus", "Olbers' paradox", "Black propaganda", "graphite", "tannic acid", "Hinduism", "Doppler effect", "Duccio di Buoninsegna", "black budget", "legume", "Jihadism", "Vantablack", "Francis Walsingham", "Tamil people", "black light", "darkness", "blackshirt", "Roman Empire", "Yves Saint Laurent (designer)", "Hades", "Black Square", "Caucasian race", "Benedictine Order", "resin", "thermodynamics", "jaguar", "Black comedy", "Shades of black", "Napoleon", "Acts of Pilate", "paleolithic", "Black Friday (shopping)", "good", "Diffuse reflection", "Ajanta Caves", "Reflection (physics)", "Black Standard", "leopard", "American black bear", "Swedish language", "Witchcraft", "Protestant", "logwood tree", "Lützow Free Corps", "Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets", "Black Square (painting)", "Portrait of Philip the Good (van der Weyden)", "Han dynasty", "Philip II of Spain", "aniline", "Pigment", "Hussar", "Blackshirts", "printing", "Age of Enlightenment", "black hole", "Heinrich Himmler", "Icelandic language", "Queen Victoria", "Benedictine", "Paradise Lost", "Cistercian", "Muhammad", "Mesoamerica", "Lucien van der Walt", "rugby union", "Romani people", "little black dress", "rationing", "Charles Dickens", "Musee d'Orsay", "Rogier van der Weyden", "Neolithic", "Gutenberg Bible", "Lascaux Cave", "oak apple", "Breakfast at Tiffany's (film)", "Black ops", "Baroque", "goth subculture", "figurative language", "African Americans", "Bernard of Clairvaux", "Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers", "India ink", "Philip the Good", "carbon nanotubes", "Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies", "Christian theology", "Black Chamber", "Suprematist", "accretion disk", "Middle English", "Dutch Republic", "general relativity", "Anubis", "Gianni Versace", "Black tea", "galaxy", "Danish language", "civil rights movement", "Mars Black (pigment)", "Zhou dynasty", "Islam", "Melancholia", "ultraviolet", "romantic movement", "Blackball (blacklist)", "Ajax the Great", "animal glue", "Odin", "mortarboard", "Italian language", "Mars", "Satan", "Vincent van Gogh", "familiar spirit", "Chinese brush painting", "Old High German", "night", "black magic", "secrecy", "lesbian culture", "Pissarro", "Salem witch trials", "Sri Lanka", "Mein Kampf", "Oceania", "Totenkopf", "raven", "Phosphorescence", "inkstick", "goth fashion", "race (human categorization)", "Henry Stimson", "electromagnetic radiation", "outer space", "Islamism", "black humour", "Old Saxon language", "Naval Infantry (Russia)", "manganese oxide", "punk fashion", "riot control", "Beat Movement", "Kiwis (rugby league)", "Winston Churchill", "Whistler's Mother", "athame", "Milky Way Galaxy", "Jay Gould", "James Fisk (financier)", "Reports on Progress in Physics", "light", "Black market", "Arditi", "mass", "Lists of colors", "Vatican Museums", "Spanish language", "red figure pottery", "knight (stock character)", "Victorian era", "Black Friday (1869)", "James McNeill Whistler", "OMON", "Dark Ages (historiography)", "British English", "Ivory black", "melanin", "World War II", "Fabaceae", "Mineola, New York", "Solar thermal collector", "biretta", "black and white (police vehicle)", "Romanian language", "Latin", "Hells Angels", "Haematoxylum campechianum", "Prussia", "Romance languages", "Blackmail", "color", "Sinhalese people", "charcoal", "black sheep", "Black Lives Matter", "molecule", "Nótt", "Black September in Jordan", "Rembrandt", "Negro", "smoke", "Black Rose (disambiguation)", "recessive", "death", "Black-and-white dualism", "fasces", "King Lear", "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities", "Germanic languages" ]
4,036	Black Flag	Black Flag or black flag may refer to: ==Flags== The Black Standard, a legendary flag in Islamic tradition The Anarchist black flag The Jolly Roger, flag associated with piracy The Pan-African flag, a trans-national unity symbol Black flag (racing) ==Arts, entertainment, and media== Black Flag (band), an American hardcore punk band Black Flag (comics), a comic book superhero team from Maximum Press Black Flag (Ektomorf album), a 2012 album by Ektomorf Black Flag (Machine Gun Kelly mixtape), 2013 "Black Flag" (song), a 1992 song by King's X Black Flag (newspaper), a publication in Britain Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag, 2013 videogame by Ubisoft Black Flags: The Rise of ISIS, a 2015 Pulitzer prize-winning book by Joby Warrick ==Places== Black Flag, Western Australia, an abandoned town named after the Black Flag gold mine and farm ==Other uses== Ali Charaf Damache, a terror suspect with the nom de guerre "the Black Flag" Black Flag (insecticide) Black Flag Army, a militia in Vietnam and southern China, 1860s-1885 Chernoe Znamia, a 20th-century Russian anarchist organisation Ferraria crispa, a plant also known as black flag	[ "Jolly Roger", "Black flag (racing)", "Pan-African flag", "Black Standard", "Black Flag (Machine Gun Kelly mixtape)", "Black Flag (newspaper)", "Ali Charaf Damache", "Black Flag (Ektomorf album)", "Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag", "Black Flag (song)", "Black Flag Army", "Black Flags: The Rise of ISIS", "Black Flag, Western Australia", "Black Flag (insecticide)", "Black Flag (band)", "Black Flag (comics)", "Chernoe Znamia", "Anarchist black flag", "Ferraria crispa" ]
4,037	Bletchley Park	Bletchley Park is an English country house and estate in Bletchley, Milton Keynes (Buckinghamshire), that became the principal centre of Allied code-breaking during the Second World War. The mansion was constructed during the years following 1883 for the financier and politician Herbert Leon in the Victorian Gothic, Tudor and Dutch Baroque styles, on the site of older buildings of the same name. During World War II, the estate housed the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), which regularly penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powers most importantly the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers. The GC&CS team of codebreakers included John Tiltman, Dilwyn Knox, Alan Turing, Harry Golombek, Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander, Donald Michie, Bill Tutte and Stuart Milner-Barry. According to the official historian of British Intelligence, the "Ultra" intelligence produced at Bletchley shortened the war by two to four years, and without it the outcome of the war would have been uncertain. The team at Bletchley Park devised automatic machinery to help with decryption, culminating in the development of Colossus, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer. Codebreaking operations at Bletchley Park came to an end in 1946 and all information about the wartime operations was classified until the mid-1970s. After the war it had various uses including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters. By 1990 the huts in which the codebreakers worked were being considered for demolition and redevelopment. The Bletchley Park Trust was formed in February 1992 to save large portions of the site from development. More recently, Bletchley Park has been open to the public, featuring interpretive exhibits and huts that have been rebuilt to appear as they did during their wartime operations. It receives hundreds of thousands of visitors annually. The separate National Museum of Computing, which includes a working replica Bombe machine and a rebuilt Colossus computer, is housed in Block H on the site. ==History== The site appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as part of the Manor of Eaton. Browne Willis built a mansion there in 1711, but after Thomas Harrison purchased the property in 1793 this was pulled down. It was first known as Bletchley Park after its purchase by the architect Samuel Lipscomb Seckham in 1877, who built a house there. The estate of was bought in 1883 by Sir Herbert Samuel Leon, who expanded the then-existing house into what architect Landis Gores called a "maudlin and monstrous pile" combining Victorian Gothic, Tudor, and Dutch Baroque styles. At his Christmas family gatherings there was a fox hunting meet on Boxing Day with glasses of sloe gin from the butler, and the house was always "humming with servants". With 40 gardeners, a flower bed of yellow daffodils could become a sea of red tulips overnight. After the death of Herbert Leon in 1926, the estate continued to be occupied by his widow Fanny Leon (née Higham) until her death in 1937. In 1938, the mansion and much of the site was bought by a builder for a housing estate, but in May 1938 Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair, head of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or MI6), bought the mansion and of land for £6,000 (£ today) for use by GC&CS and SIS in the event of war. He used his own money as the Government said they did not have the budget to do so. A key advantage seen by Sinclair and his colleagues (inspecting the site under the cover of "Captain Ridley's shooting party") was Bletchley's geographical centrality. It was almost immediately adjacent to Bletchley railway station, where the "Varsity Line" between Oxford and Cambridgewhose universities were expected to supply many of the code-breakersmet the main West Coast railway line connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Edinburgh. Watling Street, the main road linking London to the north-west (subsequently the A5) was close by, and high-volume communication links were available at the telegraph and telephone repeater station in nearby Fenny Stratford. Bletchley Park was known as "B.P." to those who worked there. "Station X" (X = Roman numeral ten), "London Signals Intelligence Centre", and "Government Communications Headquarters" were all cover names used during the war. The formal posting of the many "Wrens"members of the Women's Royal Naval Serviceworking there, was to HMS Pembroke V. Royal Air Force names of Bletchley Park and its outstations included RAF Eastcote, RAF Lime Grove and RAF Church Green. The postal address that staff had to use was "Room 47, Foreign Office". After the war, the Government Code & Cypher School became the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), moving to Eastcote in 1946 and to Cheltenham in the 1950s. The site was used by various government agencies, including the GPO and the Civil Aviation Authority. One large building, block F, was demolished in 1987 by which time the site was being run down with tenants leaving. In 1990 the site was at risk of being sold for housing development. However, Milton Keynes Council made it into a conservation area. Bletchley Park Trust was set up in 1991 by a group of people who recognised the site's importance. The initial trustees included Roger Bristow, Ted Enever, Peter Wescombe, Dr Peter Jarvis of the Bletchley Archaeological & Historical Society, and Tony Sale who in 1994 became the first director of the Bletchley Park Museums. ==Personnel== Admiral Hugh Sinclair was the founder and head of GC&CS between 1919 and 1938 with Commander Alastair Denniston being operational head of the organization from 1919 to 1942, beginning with its formation from the Admiralty's Room 40 (NID25) and the War Office's MI1b. Key GC&CS cryptanalysts who moved from London to Bletchley Park included John Tiltman, Dillwyn "Dilly" Knox, Josh Cooper, Oliver Strachey and Nigel de Grey. These people had a variety of backgroundslinguists and chess champions were common, and Knox's field was papyrology. The British War Office recruited top solvers of cryptic crossword puzzles, as these individuals had strong lateral thinking skills. On the day Britain declared war on Germany, Denniston wrote to the Foreign Office about recruiting "men of the professor type". Personal networking drove early recruitments, particularly of men from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. Trustworthy women were similarly recruited for administrative and clerical jobs. In one 1941 recruiting stratagem, The Daily Telegraph was asked to organise a crossword competition, after which promising contestants were discreetly approached about "a particular type of work as a contribution to the war effort". Denniston recognised, however, that the enemy's use of electromechanical cipher machines meant that formally trained mathematicians would also be needed; Oxford's Peter Twinn joined GC&CS in February 1939; Cambridge's Alan Turing and Gordon Welchman began training in 1938 and reported to Bletchley the day after war was declared, along with John Jeffreys. Later-recruited cryptanalysts included the mathematicians Derek Taunt, Jack Good, Bill Tutte, and Max Newman; historian Harry Hinsley, and chess champions Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry. Joan Clarke was one of the few women employed at Bletchley as a full-fledged cryptanalyst. When seeking to recruit more suitably advanced linguists, John Tiltman turned to Patrick Wilkinson of the Italian section for advice, and he suggested asking Lord Lindsay of Birker, of Balliol College, Oxford, S. W. Grose, and Martin Charlesworth, of St John's College, Cambridge, to recommend classical scholars or applicants to their colleges. This eclectic staff of "Boffins and Debs" (scientists and debutantes, young women of high society) caused GC&CS to be whimsically dubbed the "Golf, Cheese and Chess Society". Among those who worked there and later became famous in other fields were historian Asa Briggs, politician Roy Jenkins and novelist Angus Wilson. During a morale-boosting visit on 9 September 1941, Winston Churchill reportedly remarked to Denniston or Menzies: "I told you to leave no stone unturned to get staff, but I had no idea you had taken me so literally." Six weeks later, having failed to get sufficient typing and unskilled staff to achieve the productivity that was possible, Turing, Welchman, Alexander and Milner-Barry wrote directly to Churchill. His response was "Action this day make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." After initial training at the Inter-Service Special Intelligence School set up by John Tiltman (initially at an RAF depot in Buckingham and later in Bedfordwhere it was known locally as "the Spy School") staff worked a six-day week, rotating through three shifts: 4 p.m. to midnight, midnight to 8 a.m. (the most disliked shift), and 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., each with a half-hour meal break. At the end of the third week, a worker went off at 8 a.m. and came back at 4 p.m., thus putting in 16 hours on that last day. The irregular hours affected workers' health and social life, as well as the routines of the nearby homes at which most staff lodged. The work was tedious and demanded intense concentration; staff got one week's leave four times a year, but some "girls" collapsed and required extended rest. Recruitment took place to combat a shortage of experts in Morse code and German. In January 1945, at the peak of codebreaking efforts, nearly 10,000 personnel were working at Bletchley and its outstations. About three-quarters of these were women. Among them were Eleanor Ireland, who worked on the Colossus computers and Ruth Briggs, a German scholar, who worked within the Naval Section. The female staff in Dilwyn Knox's section were sometimes termed "Dilly's Fillies". Knox's methods enabled Mavis Lever (who married mathematician and fellow code-breaker Keith Batey) and Margaret Rock to solve a German code, the Abwehr cipher. Many of the women had backgrounds in languages, particularly French, German and Italian. Among them were Rozanne Colchester, a translator who worked mainly for the Italian air forces Section, and Cicely Mayhew, recruited straight from university, who worked in Hut 8, translating decoded German Navy signals, as did Jane Fawcett (née Hughes) who decrypted a vital message concerning the German battleship Bismarck and after the war became an opera singer and buildings conservationist. ==Secrecy== Properly used, the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers should have been virtually unbreakable, but flaws in German cryptographic procedures, and poor discipline among the personnel carrying them out, created vulnerabilities that made Bletchley's attacks just barely feasible. These vulnerabilities, however, could have been remedied by relatively simple improvements in enemy procedures, and such changes would certainly have been implemented had Germany had any hint of Bletchley's success. Thus the intelligence Bletchley produced was considered wartime Britain's "Ultra secret"higher even than the normally highest classification and security was paramount. All staff signed the Official Secrets Act (1939) and a 1942 security warning emphasised the importance of discretion even within Bletchley itself: "Do not talk at meals. Do not talk in the transport. Do not talk travelling. Do not talk in the billet. Do not talk by your own fireside. Be careful even in your Hut ..." Nevertheless, there were security leaks. Jock Colville, the Assistant Private Secretary to Winston Churchill, recorded in his diary on 31 July 1941, that the newspaper proprietor Lord Camrose had discovered Ultra and that security leaks "increase in number and seriousness". Without doubt, the most serious of these was that Bletchley Park had been infiltrated by John Cairncross, the notorious Soviet mole and member of the Cambridge Spy Ring, who leaked Ultra material to Moscow. Despite the high degree of secrecy surrounding Bletchley Park during the Second World War, unique and hitherto unknown amateur film footage of the outstation at nearby Whaddon Hall came to light in 2020, after being anonymously donated to the Bletchley Park Trust. A spokesman for the Trust noted the film's existence was all the more incredible because it was "very, very rare even to have [still] photographs" of the park and its associated sites. == Early work == The first personnel of the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) moved to Bletchley Park on 15 August 1939. The Naval, Military, and Air Sections were on the ground floor of the mansion, together with a telephone exchange, teleprinter room, kitchen, and dining room; the top floor was allocated to MI6. Construction of the wooden huts began in late 1939, and Elmers School, a neighbouring boys' boarding school in a Victorian Gothic redbrick building by a church, was acquired for the Commercial and Diplomatic Sections. After the United States joined World War II, a number of American cryptographers were posted to Hut 3, and from May 1943 onwards there was close co-operation between British and American intelligence. (See 1943 BRUSA Agreement.) In contrast, the Soviet Union was never officially told of Bletchley Park and its activities, a reflection of Churchill's distrust of the Soviets even during the US-UK-USSR alliance imposed by the Nazi threat. The only direct enemy damage to the site was done 2021 November 1940 by three bombs probably intended for Bletchley railway station; Hut 4, shifted two feet off its foundation, was winched back into place as work inside continued. ==Intelligence reporting== Initially, when only a very limited amount of Enigma traffic was being read, deciphered non-Naval Enigma messages were sent from Hut 6 to Hut 3 which handled their translation and onward transmission. Subsequently, under Group Captain Eric Jones, Hut 3 expanded to become the heart of Bletchley Park's intelligence effort, with input from decrypts of "Tunny" (Lorenz SZ42) traffic and many other sources. Early in 1942 it moved into Block D, but its functions were still referred to as Hut 3. Hut 3 contained a number of sections: Air Section "3A", Military Section "3M", a small Naval Section "3N", a multi-service Research Section "3G" and a large liaison section "3L". It also housed the Traffic Analysis Section, SIXTA. An important function that allowed the synthesis of raw messages into valuable Military intelligence was the indexing and cross-referencing of information in a number of different filing systems. Intelligence reports were sent out to the Secret Intelligence Service, the intelligence chiefs in the relevant ministries, and later on to high-level commanders in the field. Naval Enigma deciphering was in Hut 8, with translation in Hut 4. Verbatim translations were sent to the Naval Intelligence Division (NID) of the Admiralty's Operational Intelligence Centre (OIC), supplemented by information from indexes as to the meaning of technical terms and cross-references from a knowledge store of German naval technology. Where relevant to non-naval matters, they would also be passed to Hut 3. Hut 4 also decoded a manual system known as the dockyard cipher, which sometimes carried messages that were also sent on an Enigma network. Feeding these back to Hut 8 provided excellent "cribs" for Known-plaintext attacks on the daily naval Enigma key. ==Listening stations== Initially, a wireless room was established at Bletchley Park. It was set up in the mansion's water tower under the code name "Station X", a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole. The "X" is the Roman numeral "ten", this being the Secret Intelligence Service's tenth such station. Due to the long radio aerials stretching from the wireless room, the radio station was moved from Bletchley Park to nearby Whaddon Hall to avoid drawing attention to the site. Subsequently, other listening stationsthe Y-stations, such as the ones at Chicksands in Bedfordshire, Beaumanor Hall, Leicestershire (where the headquarters of the War Office "Y" Group was located) and Beeston Hill Y Station in Norfolkgathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley. Coded messages were taken down by hand and sent to Bletchley on paper by motorcycle despatch riders or (later) by teleprinter. ==Additional buildings== The wartime needs required the building of additional accommodation. ===Huts=== Often a hut's number became so strongly associated with the work performed inside that even when the work was moved to another building it was still referred to by the original "Hut" designation. Hut 1: The first hut, built in 1939 used to house the Wireless Station for a short time, Hut 2: A recreational hut for "beer, tea, and relaxation". Hut 3: Intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Air Force decrypts Hut 4: Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma and Hagelin decrypts Hut 5: Military intelligence including Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ciphers and German police codes. Hut 6: Cryptanalysis of Army and Air Force Enigma Hut 7: Cryptanalysis of Japanese naval codes and intelligence. Hut 8: Cryptanalysis of Naval Enigma. Hut 11: Bombe building. Hut 14: Communications centre. Hut 15: SIXTA (Signals Intelligence and Traffic Analysis). Hut 16: ISK (Intelligence Service Knox) Abwehr ciphers. Hut 18: ISOS (Intelligence Section Oliver Strachey). Hut 23: Primarily used to house the engineering department. After February 1943, Hut 3 was renamed Hut 23. ===Blocks=== In addition to the wooden huts, there were a number of brick-built "blocks". Block A: Naval Intelligence. Block B: Italian Air and Naval, and Japanese code breaking. Block C: Stored the substantial punch-card indexes. Block D: From February 1943 it housed those from Hut 3, who synthesised intelligence from multiple sources, Huts 6 and 8 and SIXTA. Block E: Incoming and outgoing Radio Transmission and TypeX. Block F: Included the Newmanry and Testery, and Japanese Military Air Section. It has since been demolished. Block G: Traffic analysis and deception operations. Block H: Tunny and Colossus (now The National Museum of Computing). ==Work on specific countries' signals== ===German signals=== Most German messages decrypted at Bletchley were produced by one or another version of the Enigma cipher machine, but an important minority were produced by the even more complicated twelve-rotor Lorenz SZ42 on-line teleprinter cipher machine used for high command messages, known as Fish. Five weeks before the outbreak of war, Warsaw's Cipher Bureau revealed its achievements in breaking Enigma to astonished French and British personnel. The bombe was an electromechanical device whose function was to discover some of the daily settings of the Enigma machines on the various German military networks. Its pioneering design was developed by Alan Turing (with an important contribution from Gordon Welchman) and the machine was engineered by Harold 'Doc' Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company. Each machine was about high and wide, deep and weighed about a ton. At its peak, GC&CS was reading approximately 4,000 messages per day. As a hedge against enemy attack most bombes were dispersed to installations at Adstock and Wavendon (both later supplanted by installations at Stanmore and Eastcote), and Gayhurst. Luftwaffe messages were the first to be read in quantity. The German navy had much tighter procedures, and the capture of code books was needed before they could be broken. When, in February 1942, the German navy introduced the four-rotor Enigma for communications with its Atlantic U-boats, this traffic became unreadable for a period of ten months. Britain produced modified bombes, but it was the success of the US Navy Bombe that was the main source of reading messages from this version of Enigma for the rest of the war. Messages were sent to and fro across the Atlantic by enciphered teleprinter links. Bletchley's work was essential to defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, and to the British naval victories in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape. In 1941, Ultra exerted a powerful effect on the North African desert campaign against German forces under General Erwin Rommel. General Sir Claude Auchinleck wrote that were it not for Ultra, "Rommel would have certainly got through to Cairo". While not changing the events, "Ultra" decrypts featured prominently in the story of Operation SALAM, László Almásy's mission across the desert behind Allied lines in 1942. Prior to the Normandy landings on D-Day in June 1944, the Allies knew the locations of all but two of Germany's fifty-eight Western-front divisions. ===Italian signals=== Italian signals had been of interest since Italy's attack on Abyssinia in 1935. During the Spanish Civil War the Italian Navy used the K model of the commercial Enigma without a plugboard; this was solved by Knox in 1937. When Italy entered the war in 1940 an improved version of the machine was used, though little traffic was sent by it and there were "wholesale changes" in Italian codes and cyphers. Knox was given a new section for work on Enigma variations, which he staffed with women ("Dilly's girls"), who included Margaret Rock, Jean Perrin, Clare Harding, Rachel Ronald, Elisabeth Granger; and Mavis Lever. Mavis Lever solved the signals revealing the Italian Navy's operational plans before the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941, leading to a British victory. Although most Bletchley staff did not know the results of their work, Admiral Cunningham visited Bletchley in person a few weeks later to congratulate them. In June 1941, Willson became the first of the team to decode the Hagelin system, thus enabling military commanders to direct the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force to sink enemy ships carrying supplies from Europe to Rommel's Afrika Korps. This led to increased shipping losses and, from reading the intercepted traffic, the team learnt that between May and September 1941 the stock of fuel for the Luftwaffe in North Africa reduced by 90 per cent. After an intensive language course, in March 1944 Willson switched to Japanese language-based codes. A Middle East Intelligence Centre (MEIC) was set up in Cairo in 1939. When Italy entered the war in June 1940, delays in forwarding intercepts to Bletchley via congested radio links resulted in cryptanalysts being sent to Cairo. A Combined Bureau Middle East (CBME) was set up in November, though the Middle East authorities made "increasingly bitter complaints" that GC&CS was giving too little priority to work on Italian cyphers. However, the principle of concentrating high-grade cryptanalysis at Bletchley was maintained. John Chadwick started cryptanalysis work in 1942 on Italian signals at the naval base 'HMS Nile' in Alexandria. Later, he was with GC&CS; in the Heliopolis Museum, Cairo and then in the Villa Laurens, Alexandria. ===Soviet signals=== Soviet signals had been studied since the 1920s. In 193940, John Tiltman (who had worked on Russian Army traffic from 1930) set up two Russian sections at Wavendon (a country house near Bletchley) and at Sarafand in Palestine. Two Russian high-grade army and navy systems were broken early in 1940. Tiltman spent two weeks in Finland, where he obtained Russian traffic from Finland and Estonia in exchange for radio equipment. In June 1941, when the Soviet Union became an ally, Churchill ordered a halt to intelligence operations against it. In December 1941, the Russian section was closed down, but in late summer 1943 or late 1944, a small GC&CS Russian cypher section was set up in London overlooking Park Lane, then in Sloane Square. ===Japanese signals=== An outpost of the Government Code and Cypher School had been set up in Hong Kong in 1935, the Far East Combined Bureau (FECB). The FECB naval staff moved in 1940 to Singapore, then Colombo, Ceylon, then Kilindini, Mombasa, Kenya. They succeeded in deciphering Japanese codes with a mixture of skill and good fortune. The Army and Air Force staff went from Singapore to the Wireless Experimental Centre at Delhi, India. In early 1942, a six-month crash course in Japanese, for 20 undergraduates from Oxford and Cambridge, was started by the Inter-Services Special Intelligence School in Bedford, in a building across from the main Post Office. This course was repeated every six months until war's end. Most of those completing these courses worked on decoding Japanese naval messages in Hut 7, under John Tiltman. ==Postwar== ===Continued secrecy=== After the War, the secrecy imposed on Bletchley staff remained in force, so that most relatives never knew more than that a child, spouse, or parent had done some kind of secret war work. Churchill referred to the Bletchley staff as "the geese that laid the golden eggs and never cackled". That said, occasional mentions of the work performed at Bletchley Park slipped the censor's net and appeared in print. With the publication of F. W. Winterbotham's The Ultra Secret (1974) public discussion of Bletchley Park's work finally became possible, although some former staff considered themselves bound to silence forever. Professor Brian Randell was researching the history of computer science in Britain in 1975–76 for a conference on the history of computing held at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico on 10–15 June 1976, and received permission to present a paper on wartime development of the Colossi at the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill. (In October 1975 the British Government had released a series of captioned photographs from the Public Record Office.) The interest in the "revelations" in his paper resulted in a special evening meeting when Randell and Coombs answered further questions. Coombs later wrote that "no member of our team could ever forget the fellowship, the sense of purpose and, above all, the breathless excitement of those days". In 1977 Randell published an article "The First Electronic Computer" in several journals. In July 2009 the British government announced that Bletchley personnel would be recognised with a commemorative badge. ===Site=== After the war, the site passed through a succession of hands and saw a number of uses, including as a teacher-training college and local GPO headquarters. By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition for redevelopment. In February 1992, the Milton Keynes Borough Council declared most of the Park a conservation area, and the Bletchley Park Trust was formed to maintain the site as a museum. The site opened to visitors in 1993, and was formally inaugurated by the Duke of Kent as Chief Patron in July 1994. In 1999 the land owners, the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and BT, granted a lease to the Trust giving it control over most of the site. ==Heritage attraction== June 2014 saw the completion of an £8 million restoration project by museum design specialist, Event Communications, which was marked by a visit from Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. The Duchess' paternal grandmother, Valerie, and Valerie's twin sister, Mary (née Glassborow), both worked at Bletchley Park during the war. The twin sisters worked as Foreign Office Civilians in Hut 6, where they managed the interception of enemy and neutral diplomatic signals for decryption. Valerie married Catherine's grandfather, Captain Peter Middleton. A memorial at Bletchley Park commemorates Mary and Valerie Middleton's work as code-breakers. ===Exhibitions=== Block C Visitor Centre Secrets Revealed introduction The Road to Bletchley Park. Codebreaking in World War One. Intel Security Cybersecurity exhibition. Online security and privacy in the 21st century. Block B Lorenz Cipher Alan Turing Enigma machines Japanese codes Home Front exhibition. How people lived in WW2 The Mansion Office of Alistair Denniston Library. Dressed as a World War II naval intelligence office The Imitation Game exhibition Gordon Welchman: Architect of Ultra Intelligence exhibition Huts 3 and 6. Codebreaking offices as they would have looked during World War II. Hut 8. Interactive exhibitions explaining codebreaking Alan Turing's office Pigeon exhibition. The use of pigeons in World War II. Hut 11. Life as a WRNS Bombe operator Hut 12. Bletchley Park: Rescued and Restored. Items found during the restoration work. Wartime garages Hut 19. 2366 Bletchley Park Air Training Corp Squadron ===Learning Department=== The Bletchley Park Learning Department offers educational group visits with active learning activities for schools and universities. Visits can be booked in advance during term time, where students can engage with the history of Bletchley Park and understand its wider relevance for computer history and national security. Their workshops cover introductions to codebreaking, cyber security and the story of Enigma and Lorenz. ==Funding== In October 2005, American billionaire Sidney Frank donated £500,000 to Bletchley Park Trust to fund a new Science Centre dedicated to Alan Turing. Simon Greenish joined as Director in 2006 to lead the fund-raising effort in a post he held until 2012 when Iain Standen took over the leadership role. In July 2008, a letter to The Times from more than a hundred academics condemned the neglect of the site. In September 2008, PGP, IBM and other technology firms announced a fund-raising campaign to repair the facility. On 6 November 2008 it was announced that English Heritage would donate £300,000 to help maintain the buildings at Bletchley Park, and that they were in discussions regarding the donation of a further £600,000. In October 2011, the Bletchley Park Trust received a £4.6 million Heritage Lottery Fund grant to be used "to complete the restoration of the site, and to tell its story to the highest modern standards" on the condition that £1.7 million of match funding is raised by the Bletchley Park Trust. Just weeks later, Google contributed £550,000 and by June 2012 the trust had successfully raised £2.4 million to unlock the grants to restore Huts 3 and 6, as well as develop its exhibition centre in Block C. Additional income is raised by renting Block H to the National Museum of Computing, and some office space in various parts of the park to private firms. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the Trust expected to lose more than £2 million in 2020 and be required to cut a third of its workforce. Former MP John Leech asked Amazon, Apple, Google, Facebook and Microsoft to donate £400,000 each to secure the future of the Trust. Leech had led the successful campaign to pardon Alan Turing and implement Turing's Law. ==Other organisations sharing the campus== ===The National Museum of Computing=== The National Museum of Computing is housed in Block H, which is rented from the Bletchley Park Trust. Its Colossus and Tunny galleries tell an important part of allied breaking of German codes during World War II. There is a working reconstruction of a Bombe and a rebuilt Colossus computer which was used on the high-level Lorenz cipher, codenamed Tunny by the British. The museum, which opened in 2007, is an independent voluntary organisation that is governed by its own board of trustees. Its aim is "To collect and restore computer systems particularly those developed in Britain and to enable people to explore that collection for inspiration, learning and enjoyment." Through its many exhibits, the museum displays the story of computing through the mainframes of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of personal computing in the 1980s. It has a policy of having as many of the exhibits as possible in full working order. ===Science and Innovation Centre=== This consisted of serviced office accommodation housed in Bletchley Park's Blocks A and E, and the upper floors of the Mansion. Its aim was to foster the growth and development of dynamic knowledge-based start-ups and other businesses. It closed in 2021 and blocks A and E were taken into use as part of the museum. ===Proposed National College of Cyber Security=== In April 2020 Bletchley Park Capital Partners, a private company run by Tim Reynolds, Deputy Chairman of the National Museum of Computing, announced plans to sell off the freehold to part of the site containing former Block G for commercial development. Offers of between £4 million and £6 million were reportedly being sought for the 3 acre plot, for which planning permission for employment purposes was granted in 2005. Previously, the construction of a National College of Cyber Security for students aged from 16 to 19 years old had been envisaged on the site, to be housed in Block G after renovation with funds supplied by the Bletchley Park Science and Innovation Centre. ===RSGB National Radio Centre=== The Radio Society of Great Britain's National Radio Centre (including a library, radio station, museum and bookshop) are in a newly constructed building close to the main Bletchley Park entrance. ==Final recognition== Not until July 2009 did the British government fully acknowledge the contribution of the many people working for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley. Only then was a commemorative medal struck to be presented to those involved. The gilded medal bears the inscription GC&CS 1939–1945 Bletchley Park and its Outstations. ==In popular culture== ===Literature=== Bletchley featured heavily in Robert Harris' novel Enigma (1995). A fictionalised version of Bletchley Park is featured in Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon (1999). Bletchley Park plays a significant role in Connie Willis' novel All Clear (2010). The Agatha Christie novel N or M?, published in 1941, was about spies during the Second World War and featured a character called Major Bletchley. Christie was friends with one of the code-breakers at Bletchley Park, and MI5 thought that the character name might have been a joke indicating that she knew what was happening there. It turned out to be a coincidence. Bletchley Park is the setting of Kate Quinn's 2021 historical fiction novel, The Rose Code. Quinn used the likenesses of true veterans of Bletchley Park as inspiration for her story of three women who worked in some of the different areas at Bletchley Park. ===Film=== The film Enigma (2001), which was based upon Robert Harris's book and starred Kate Winslet, Saffron Burrows and Dougray Scott, is set in part in Bletchley Park. The film The Imitation Game (2014), starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Alan Turing, is set in Bletchley Park, and was partially filmed there. ===Radio=== The radio show Hut 33 is a situation comedy set in the fictional 33rd Hut of Bletchley Park. The Big Finish Productions Doctor Who audio Criss-Cross, released in September 2015, features the Sixth Doctor working undercover in Bletchley Park to decode a series of strange alien signals that have hindered his TARDIS, the audio also depicting his first meeting with his new companion Constance Clarke. The Bletchley Park Podcast began in August 2012, with new episodes being released approximately monthly. It features stories told by the codebreakers, staff and volunteers, audio from events and reports on the development of Bletchley Park. ===Television=== The 1979 ITV television serial Danger UXB features the character Steven Mount, a codebreaker at Bletchley who is driven to a nervous breakdown (and eventual suicide) by the stressful and repetitive nature of the work. In the TV series Foyle's War, Adam Wainwright (Samantha Stewart's fiancé, then husband) is a former Bletchley Park codebreaker. The Second World War code-breaking sitcom pilot "Satsuma & Pumpkin" was recorded at Bletchley Park in 2003 and featured Bob Monkhouse in his last screen role. The BBC declined to produce the show and develop it further before creating effectively the same show on Radio 4 several years later, featuring some of the same cast, entitled Hut 33. Bletchley came to wider public attention with the documentary series Station X (1999). The 2012 ITV programme The Bletchley Circle is a set of murder mysteries set in 1952 and 1953. The protagonists are four female former Bletchley codebreakers, who use their skills to solve crimes. The pilot episode's opening scene was filmed on-site, and the set was asked to remain there for its close adaptation of historiography. The 2018 programme The Bletchley Circle: San Francisco is a spin-off of The Bletchley Circle. It takes place in San Francisco and features two characters from the original series. Ian McEwan's television play The Imitation Game (1980) concludes at Bletchley Park. Bletchley Park was featured in the sixth and final episode of the BBC TV documentary The Secret War (1977), presented and narrated by William Woodard. This episode featured interviews with Gordon Welchman, Harry Golombek, Peter Calvocoressi, F. W. Winterbotham, Max Newman, Jack Good, and Tommy Flowers. The Agent Carter season 2 episode "Smoke & Mirrors" reveals that Agent Peggy Carter worked at Bletchley Park early in the war before joining the Strategic Scientific Reserve. ===Theatre=== The play Breaking the Code (1986) is set at Bletchley Park. ==Location== Bletchley Park is opposite Bletchley railway station. It is close to junctions 13 and 14 of the M1, about northwest of London.	[ "Milton Keynes", "Jock Colville", "Enigma (2001 film)", "Google", "Brian Randell", "cipher machine", "papyrology", "Heritage Lottery Fund", "acre", "Tommy Flowers", "sloe gin", "British Computer Society", "Claude Auchinleck", "Eric Nave", "The Times", "Luftwaffe", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Hut 33", "IBM", "Stuart Milner-Barry", "Enigma (novel)", "TARDIS", "Watling Street", "Kate Quinn", "BT Group", "daffodil", "Liverpool", "Roman numeral", "Asa Briggs", "Deb (society)", "Alan Brooke", "Dutch Baroque", "cryptanalysis", "Y-stations", "Biuro Szyfrów", "Lord Camrose", "Battle of Cape Matapan", "Kilindini Harbour", "Simon Greenish", "Wireless Experimental Centre", "Enigma machine", "West Coast Main Line", "Bletchley", "Harry Golombek", "Boxing Day", "All Clear", "Buckinghamshire", "Secret Intelligence Service", "Far East Combined Bureau", "Martin Charlesworth", "Stanmore", "BBC News", "Nigel de Grey", "Josh Cooper (cryptographer)", "Afrika Korps", "Jerzy Różycki", "Foyle's War", "Beaumanor Hall", "Water Eaton, Milton Keynes", "A5 road (Great Britain)", "Abwehr", "Event Communications", "Room 40", "Boffin", "Sarafand al-Amar", "Post Office Research Station", "Soviet Union", "GC&CS", "Polish Enigma doubles", "Vintage Books", "cryptic crossword", "N or M?", "Patrick Wilkinson (scholar)", "Italian Navy", "Sidney Frank", "John Harper (computer engineer)", "Joan Clarke", "Cambridge", "Dutch Baroque architecture", "Sri Lanka", "Mombasa", "W. T. Tutte", "Dilwyn Knox", "The National Museum of Computing", "cryptographer", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "Government Code and Cypher School", "U-boat", "List of SOE establishments", "despatch rider", "Gordon Welchman", "CAPTCHA", "Bedford", "Birmingham", "Henryk Zygalski", "Bombe", "The Bletchley Circle", "John Chadwick", "The Daily Telegraph", "Saffron Burrows", "United States", "László Almásy", "Derek Taunt", "John Tiltman", "Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope", "Mavis Batey", "Oxford University Press", "Doctor Who", "Marian Rejewski", "Alastair Denniston", "RAF Eastcote", "Robert Llewellyn", "Pretty Good Privacy", "Western Desert (Egypt)", "Milton Keynes Borough Council", "Victorian Gothic", "Colossus computer", "Keith Batey", "situation comedy", "Herbert Samuel Leon", "Civil Aviation Authority", "British Admiralty", "BBC Radio 4", "OpenStreetMap", "Hut 4", "Hut 3", "Microsoft", "Samuel Lipscomb Seckham", "Robert Harris (novelist)", "John R. F. Jeffreys", "Fenny Stratford", "St John's College, Cambridge", "United Kingdom", "The Bletchley Circle: San Francisco", "Hut 8", "United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)", "Audrey Ruth Briggs", "England", "General Post Office", "C-36 (cipher machine)", "Locus (magazine)", "Winston Churchill", "tulip", "Cryptanalysis", "Arlington Hall", "Connie Willis", "National College of Cyber Security", "Fish (cryptography)", "Eastcote", "Jane Fawcett", "Donald Michie", "F. W. Winterbotham", "Radio Society of Great Britain", "Government Communications Headquarters", "Hugh Foss", "Benedict Cumberbatch", "Harold Keen", "lateral thinking", "British Tabulating Machine Company", "Freehold (law)", "Beeston Hill Y Station", "Battle of North Cape", "Kate Winslet", "The Secret War (TV series)", "Edinburgh", "Hut 6", "Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom)", "nervous breakdown", "Ralph Tester", "Harry Hinsley", "Foreign Office", "James Ramsay Montagu Butler", "Margaret Rock", "Hut 6", "Browne Willis", "Cheltenham", "Newmanry", "German battleship Bismarck", "Peter Wescombe", "Testery", "Dollis Hill", "I.J. Good", "Hut 7", "Royal Navy", "Italy", "Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander", "Peter Calvocoressi", "Oxford", "Manchester", "Prince Edward, Duke of Kent", "Spanish Civil War", "Hugh Sinclair", "Domesday Book", "Cambridge Spy Ring", "Adstock", "Balliol College, Oxford", "bombe", "Cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher", "Allies of World War II", "Axis Powers", "British Intelligence", "memorial", "The Guardian", "London", "Oliver Strachey", "MI6", "Family of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge", "Agent Carter (TV series)", "Bletchley railway station", "Neal Stephenson", "World War II", "US Navy Bombe", "Known-plaintext attack", "Apple Inc.", "Uta Merzbach", "Bernard Willson", "Telecommunications network", "radio", "Facebook", "Station X (TV documentary)", "John Leech (politician)", "John Cairncross", "Cicely Mayhew", "The Imitation Game (play)", "Lorenz cipher", "Hut 7", "X, Y & Z: The Real Story of How Enigma Was Broken", "Rozanne Colchester", "Bob Monkhouse", "Dougray Scott", "Royal United Services Institute", "ITV (TV network)", "MI1", "Angus Wilson", "Tony Sale", "Sandie Lindsay, 1st Baron Lindsay of Birker", "Hut 8", "Hut 4", "Women's Royal Naval Service", "M1 motorway", "Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge", "Official Secrets Act 1939", "Normandy landings", "C-38 (cipher machine)", "Sixth Doctor", "The Imitation Game", "Sue Black (computer scientist)", "Dilly Knox", "Peter Twinn", "American Radio Relay League", "Roy Jenkins", "Mavis Lever", "Whaddon Hall", "War Office", "Breaking the Code", "Cryptanalysis of the Enigma", "Rotor machine", "Glasgow", "World War II cryptography", "Alan Turing", "Varsity Line", "English country house", "Statue of Alan Turing, Bletchley Park", "Erwin Rommel", "Amazon (company)", "North African Campaign", "Cryptonomicon", "Milton Keynes Council", "Danger UXB", "Eric Malcolm Jones", "RAF Chicksands", "Ian McEwan", "Military intelligence", "Office of Government Commerce", "Tudor Revival architecture", "Wavendon", "Royal Italian Navy", "1943 BRUSA Agreement", "Delhi", "Boris Hagelin", "Max Newman", "Gayhurst", "Herbert Leon", "Colombo", "Alan Turing law", "Operation Salaam", "Royal Air Force", "Big Finish Productions", "Battle of the Atlantic", "Eleanor Ireland", "Japanese naval codes", "English Heritage", "Smoke & Mirrors (Agent Carter)", "Intelligence Corps (United Kingdom)", "fox hunting", "Landis Gores", "Ultra (cryptography)" ]
4,041	Bede	{{Infobox saint \|honorific_prefix = Saint \|name=Bede the Venerable \|birth_date= Anglican Communion, and Lutheranism \|image=E-codices bke-0047 001v medium (cropped).jpg \|caption=The Venerable Bede writing. Detail from a 12th-century codex. \|birth_place= Kingdom of Northumbria, possibly Monkwearmouth in present-day Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty-ninth year, which would give a birth date in 672 or 673. In Bede's thirtieth year (about 702), he became a priest, with the ordination again performed by Bishop John. Bede may have worked on some of the Latin Bibles that were copied at Jarrow, one of which, the Codex Amiatinus, is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence. Bede was a teacher as well as a writer; he enjoyed music and was said to be accomplished as a singer and as a reciter of poetry in the vernacular. The standard theological view of world history at the time was known as the Six Ages of the World; in his book, Bede calculated the age of the world for himself, rather than accepting the authority of Isidore of Seville, and came to the conclusion that Christ had been born 3,952 years after the creation of the world, rather than the figure of over 5,000 years that was commonly accepted by theologians. The accusation occurred in front of the bishop of Hexham, Wilfrid, who was present at a feast when some drunken monks made the accusation. Wilfrid did not respond to the accusation, but a monk present relayed the episode to Bede, who replied within a few days to the monk, writing a letter setting forth his defence and asking that the letter also be read to Wilfrid. In 733, Bede travelled to York to visit Ecgbert, who was then bishop of York. The See of York was elevated to an archbishopric in 735, and it is likely that Bede and Ecgbert discussed the proposal for the elevation during his visit. Bede also travelled to the monastery of Lindisfarne and at some point visited the otherwise unknown monastery of a monk named , a visit that is mentioned in a letter to that monk. Because of his widespread correspondence with others throughout the British Isles, and because many of the letters imply that Bede had met his correspondents, it is likely that Bede travelled to some other places, although nothing further about timing or locations can be guessed. It seems certain that he did not visit Rome, however, as he did not mention it in the autobiographical chapter of his Historia Ecclesiastica. Nothhelm, a correspondent of Bede's who assisted him by finding documents for him in Rome, is known to have visited Bede, though the date cannot be determined beyond the fact that it was after Nothhelm's visit to Rome. Except for a few visits to other monasteries, his life was spent in a round of prayer, observance of the monastic discipline and study of the Sacred Scriptures. He was considered the most learned man of his time. Bede died at Jarrow on the Feast of the Ascension, 26 May 735 and was buried there. The account of Cuthbert does not make entirely clear whether Bede died before midnight or after. However, by the reckoning of Bede's time, passage from the old day to the new occurred at sunset, not midnight, and Cuthbert is clear that he died after sunset. Thus, while his box was brought at three o'clock Wednesday afternoon of 25 May, by the time of the final dictation it was considered 26 May, although it might still have been 25 May in modern usage. Cuthbert's letter also relates a five-line poem in the vernacular that Bede composed on his deathbed, known as "Bede's Death Song". It is the most-widely copied Old English poem and appears in 45 manuscripts, but its attribution to Bede is not certain—not all manuscripts name Bede as the author, and the ones that do are of later origin than those that do not. Bede's remains may have been translated to Durham Cathedral in the 11th century; his tomb there was looted in 1541, but the contents were probably re-interred in the Galilee chapel at the cathedral. The section in question is the only one in that work that is written in first-person view. Bede says: "Prayers are hindered by the conjugal duty because as often as I perform what is due to my wife I am not able to pray." Another passage, in the Commentary on Luke, also mentions a wife in the first person: "Formerly I possessed a wife in the lustful passion of desire and now I possess her in honourable sanctification and true love of Christ." == Works == Bede wrote scientific, historical and theological works, reflecting the range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture commentaries. He knew patristic literature, as well as Pliny the Elder, Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace and other classical writers. He knew some Greek. Bede's scriptural commentaries employed the allegorical method of interpretation, and his history includes accounts of miracles, which to modern historians has seemed at odds with his critical approach to the materials in his history. Modern studies have shown the important role such concepts played in the world-view of early medieval scholars. Although Bede is mainly studied as a historian now, in his time his works on grammar, chronology, and biblical studies were as important as his historical and hagiographical works. The non-historical works contributed greatly to the Carolingian Renaissance. He has been credited with writing a penitential, though his authorship of this work is disputed. === Ecclesiastical History of the English People === Bede's best-known work is the , or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in about 731. Bede was aided in writing this book by Albinus, abbot of St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury. The first of the five books begins with some geographical background and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Caesar's invasion in 55 BC. A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain, including the martyrdom of St Alban, is followed by the story of Augustine's mission to England in 597, which brought Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons. These ended in disaster when Penda, the pagan king of Mercia, killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632. The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby, traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury and recounts Wilfrid's efforts to bring Christianity to the Kingdom of Sussex. The fifth book brings the story up to Bede's day and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book; presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy, and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf's approval; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede's monastery had connections among the Northumbrian nobility. =	[ "St Paul's Church, Jarrow", "Bede's Death Song", "English Channel", "Gregory of Nazianzus", "Etymologiae", "Origen", "Paulinus of Nola", "Prosper of Aquitaine", "Ceawlin", "Anatolius of Laodicea", "Gregory the Great", "Pliny the Elder", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Penda of Mercia", "Paulinus of York", "Chronicon (Eusebius)", "John of Beverley", "Vulgate", "Pope Gregory I", "Jarrow Hall (museum)", "Lucretius", "Nothhelm", "Angles (tribe)", "Gregorian mission", "Augustine of Hippo", "Oswy of Northumbria", "San Beda University", "Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain", "In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)", "Æthelburh of Barking", "Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table", "General Roman Calendar", "Liber epigrammatum", "St Æthelthryth", "Codex Amiatinus", "season", "Advent", "monastery", "Bodo (given name)", "Kingdom of Northumbria", "bishop of Hexham", "Carolingian Empire", "Jerome", "Cuthbert", "Plautus", "Daniel of Winchester", "Synod of Whitby", "Constantius of Lyon", "Hexham Abbey", "Pope Sergius I", "Anselm of Canterbury", "Maurus Servius Honoratus", "length of day", "Medieval ecclesiastic historiography", "Notker the Stammerer", "Anglo-Saxons", "Carolingian Renaissance", "Calendar of saints (Church of England)", "Bodleian Library", "doi:10.2307/43626101", "Frank Stenton", "Old High German", "Dating creation", "hagiography", "Catholic Epistles", "Nothelm", "Tobias Reinhardt", "Leo Sherley-Price", "finite verb", "Internet Medieval Sourcebook", "List of English writers", "Eusebius", "Fathers of the Church", "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", "Edwin of Northumbria", "John Cassian", "Adomnán", "allegory", "Kinebertus", "Paradiso (Dante)", "Wilfrid", "Æthelthryth", "Julian of Eclanum", "New Moon", "Tyneside", "tide", "Saint Alban", "Benedict Biscop", "Augustine of Canterbury", "Paschal full moon", "Richard of St Victor", "Natural History (Pliny)", "Paul the Deacon", "orthography", "Procopius", "Beda (name)", "Isidore of Seville", "Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies", "Easter controversy", "Scripture", "Walter Goffart", "The Reckoning of Time", "Germanus of Auxerre", "Acts of the Apostles", "St Augustine's Abbey", "Bretwalda", "Translation (relic)", "Ancient Greek", "Paenitentiale Bedae", "Fulgentius of Ruspe", "Saint Fursey", "De natura rerum (Bede)", "Gregory of Tours", "St Augustine of Canterbury", "Genesis creation narrative", "York Minster", "Anglican Communion", "Theodore of Canterbury", "Canterbury", "Patrick Wormald", "monk", "Ceolwulf of Northumbria", "Charles Plummer (historian)", "History (The Journal of the Historical Association)", "List of manuscripts of Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica", "Saint", "Ambrose of Milan", "Church father", "spherical Earth", "elegiac meter", "Virgil", "Christian Classics Ethereal Library", "Durham Cathedral", "Polydore Vergil", "Wearside", "Codex Laudianus", "Orosius", "historian", "Cedd", "imperium", "Lastingham", "Monkwearmouth", "Great Britain", "Church Fathers", "Theophilus I of Alexandria", "Dante Alighieri", "Lutheranism", "Liturgy of the Hours", "Robin Fleming", "Dionysius Exiguus", "Anastasius of Persia", "Christianity", "cosmos", "relic", "Sulpicius Severus", "Tyconius", "Venerable", "veneration", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "List of works by Bede", "Iona Abbey", "Kingdom of Sussex", "Aldhelm", "Nazianzen", "Abbey of Saint Gall", "quill", "Six Ages of the World", "Geoffrey of Monmouth", "University of Oxford", "Barbara Yorke", "Annianus of Alexandria", "Terence", "History of England", "meter (music)", "Exegesis", "Council of Whitby", "deacon", "Desiderius of Vienne", "Matthew Parker", "Glastonbury Abbey", "Herodotus", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Ceolfrith", "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae", "Lindisfarne", "Evagrius of Antioch", "Cambridge University Press", "Cyprian", "Tyne and Wear", "Chad of Mercia", "Doctor of the Church", "Michael Lapidge", "Glossa Ordinaria", "Ecgbert of York", "West Saxon dialect", "codex", "indiction", "Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde", "Celtic Christianity", "Laurentian Library", "Pope Leo XIII", "Old English", "puer oblatus", "Jarrow", "European wars of religion", "Life of Wilfrid", "British Museum", "Ecclesiastical History of the English People", "Anglo-Saxon calendar", "Eutropius (historian)", "biretta", "Bede Metro station", "Lent", "Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)", "Latin", "Alcuin", "Charlemagne", "John Chrysostom", "Anno Domini", "Chronicon (Jerome)", "English Reformation", "Early Middle Ages", "heroic meter", "Wulfstan (Bishop of Worcester)", "Gildas", "Monkton, Tyne and Wear", "Paul of Tarsus", "Basil of Caesarea", "Canonization", "translation (relic)", "Fulda", "Journal of British Studies", "Speculum (journal)", "Brittany", "Benedicta Ward", "Ovid", "Gaius Julius Solinus", "Cassiodorus", "Durham Liber Vitae", "Athanasius", "Josephus", "computus", "Thomas Carlyle", "Horace", "William of Malmesbury", "Oswald of Northumbria", "Cicero", "Kingdom of Lindsey", "Beda College", "Liber Pontificalis", "Saint Boniface", "Julius Caesar", "Florence", "Stephen of Ripon", "Church History (Eusebius)", "zodiac", "Ambrose", "Albinus (abbot)", "Strasbourg", "Cyril of Alexandria", "archbishop of York", "Feast of the Ascension", "Church Father", "San Beda College Alabang", "date of Easter", "Monkwearmouth–Jarrow Abbey", "Anno Mundi", "classical antiquity", "Battle of Hatfield Chase", "Engelberg Abbey", "History of Portsmouth", "Roman Catholic Church", "Rome", "Augustine", "Henry of Huntingdon" ]
4,045	Bubble tea	Bubble tea (also known as pearl milk tea, bubble milk tea, tapioca milk tea, boba tea, or boba; , ) is a tea-based drink most often containing chewy tapioca balls, milk, and flavouring. It originated in Taiwan in the early 1980s and spread to other countries where there is a large East Asian diaspora population. Bubble tea is most commonly made with tapioca pearls (also known as "boba" or "balls"), but it can be made with other toppings as well, such as grass jelly, aloe vera, red bean, and popping boba. It has many varieties and flavours, but the two most popular varieties are pearl black milk tea and pearl green milk tea ("pearl" for the tapioca balls at the bottom). ==Description== Bubble teas fall under two categories: teas without milk and milk teas. Both varieties come with a choice of black, green, or oolong tea as the base. The oldest known bubble tea drink consisted of a mixture of hot Taiwanese black tea, tapioca pearls (), condensed milk, and syrup () or honey. Bubble tea is most commonly served cold. which was introduced to Taiwan from South America during Japanese colonial rule. Larger pearls () quickly replaced these. Some cafés specialize in bubble tea production. While some cafés may serve bubble tea in a glass, most Taiwanese bubble tea shops serve the drink in a plastic cup and use a machine to seal the top of the cup with heated plastic cellophane. The method allows the tea to be shaken in the serving cup and makes it spill-free until a person is ready to drink it. The cellophane is then pierced with an oversized straw, referred to as a boba straw, which is larger than a typical drinking straw to allow the toppings to pass through. Due to its popularity, bubble tea has inspired a variety of bubble tea flavoured snacks, such as bubble tea ice cream and bubble tea candy. The market size of bubble tea was valued at in 2022 and is projected to reach by the end of 2027. Some of the largest global bubble tea chains include Chatime, CoCo Fresh Tea & Juice and Gong Cha. ===Variants=== ==== Drink ==== Bubble tea comes in many variations which usually consist of black tea, green tea, oolong tea, and sometimes white tea. mango, coffee, and coconut. Flavouring ingredients such as a syrup or powder determines the flavour and usually the colour of the bubble tea, while other ingredients such as tea, milk, and boba are the basis. ==== Toppings ==== Tapioca pearls (boba) are the most common ingredient, although there are other ways to make the chewy spheres found in bubble tea. Jelly comes in different shapes: small cubes, stars, or rectangular strips, and flavours such as coconut jelly, konjac, lychee, grass jelly, mango, coffee, and green tea. Azuki bean or mung bean paste, typical toppings for Taiwanese shaved ice desserts, give bubble tea an added subtle flavour as well as texture. Aloe, egg pudding (custard), and sago also can be found in many bubble tea shops. Popping boba, or spheres that have fruit juices or syrups inside them, are another popular bubble tea topping. Flavours include mango, strawberry, coconut, kiwi, and honey melon. Some shops offer milk or cheese foam on top of the drink, giving the drink a consistency similar to that of whipped cream, and a saltier flavour profile. One shop described the effect of the cheese foam as "neutraliz[ing] the bitterness of the tea...and as you drink it you taste the returning sweetness of the tea." ==== Ice and sugar level ==== Bubble tea shops often give customers the option of choosing the amount of ice or sugar in their drink. Ice levels are usually specified ordinally (e.g., no ice, less ice, normal ice, more ice), and sugar levels in quarterly intervals (e.g., 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%). and other shapes. Some have used sealed plastic bags. Nevertheless, the plastic takeaway cup with a sealed cap is still the most common packaging method. ==== Preparation method ==== The tea can be made in batches during the day or the night before. Brewing different types of teas take different amounts of time and temperature. For instance, green tea requires brewing at a lower temperature, typically between with a brewing time of 8–10 minutes to extract its optimal flavour. In contrast, black tea needs to be made with hotter water, usually around with a brewing of around 15–20 minutes to bring out its sweetness. A tea warmer dispenser allows the tea to remain heated for up to eight hours. Pearls (boba) are made from tapioca starch. Most bubble tea stores buy packaged tapioca pearls in an uncooked stage. When the boba is uncooked and in the package, it is uncolored and hard. The boba does not turn chewy and dark until they are cooked and sugar is added to bring out its taste. Uncooked tapioca pearls in their package can be stored for around 9 to 12 months. Once cooked, they can be stored in a sealed container in the refrigerator. Despite this, most bubble tea stores will not sell their boba after 24 hours because it will start to harden and lose its chewiness. The traditional preparation method is to mix the ingredients (sugar, powders, and other flavourings) together using a bubble tea shaker cup, by hand. However, many present-day bubble tea shops use a bubble tea shaker machine. This eliminates the need for humans to shake the bubble tea by hand. It also reduces staffing needs as multiple cups of bubble tea may be prepared by a single barista. ==History== Milk and sugar have been added to tea in Taiwan since the Dutch colonization of Taiwan from 1624–1662. There are two competing stories for the discovery of bubble tea. == Popularity == In the 1990s, bubble tea spread across East and Southeast Asia with its ever-growing popularity. In regions like Hong Kong, mainland China, Japan, Vietnam, and Singapore, the bubble tea trend expanded rapidly among young people. In some popular shops, people would line up for more than thirty minutes to get a drink. In 2020, the date April 30 was officially declared as National Bubble Tea Day in Taiwan. According to Al Jazeera, bubble tea has become synonymous with Taiwan and is an important symbol of Taiwanese identity both domestically and internationally. Bubble tea is used to represent Taiwan in the context of the Milk Tea Alliance. === Hong Kong === Hong Kong is famous for its traditional Hong Kong–style milk tea, which is made with brewed black tea and evaporated milk. In 2020 it was estimated that the consumption of bubble tea was 5 times that of coffee in recent years. In 2019, annual sales from bubble tea shops reached as high as (roughly ). While bubble tea chains from Taiwan (e.g., Gong Cha and Coco) are still popular, more local brands, like Yi Dian Dian, Nayuki, Hey Tea, etc., are now dominating the market. It was not until the 2010s when the bubble tea trend finally swept Japan. === Singapore === Known locally in Chinese as (), bubble tea is loved by many in Singapore. The drink was sold in Singapore as early as 1992 and became phenomenally popular among young people in 2001. This soon ended because of the intense competition and price wars among shops. As a result, most bubble tea shops closed and bubble tea lost its popularity by 2003. In 2018, the interest in bubble tea rose again at an unprecedented speed in Singapore, as new brands like The Alley and Tiger Sugar entered the market; social media also played an important role in driving this renaissance of bubble tea. Some of the first stand-alone bubble tea shops can be traced to a food court in Arcadia, in Southern California, Chains like Tapioca Express, Quickly, Lollicup, and Happy Lemon emerged in the late 1990s and early 2000s, bringing the Taiwanese bubble tea trend to the US. It is also used disparagingly in the term boba liberal, a term that derides mainstream Asian-American liberalism. Other regions with large concentrations of bubble tea restaurants in the United States are the Northeast and Southwest. This is reflected in the coffeehouse-style teahouse chains that originate from the regions, such as Boba Tea Company from Albuquerque, New Mexico, No. 1 Boba Tea in Las Vegas, Nevada, and Kung Fu Tea from New York City. Albuquerque and Las Vegas have a large concentrations of boba tea restaurants, as the drink is popular especially among the Hispano, Navajo, Pueblo, and other Native American, Hispanic and Latino American communities in the Southwest. A massive shipping and supply chain crisis on the U.S. West coast, coupled with the obstruction of the Suez Canal in March 2021, caused a shortage of tapioca pearls for bubble tea shops in the U.S. and Canada. Most of the tapioca consumed in the U.S. is imported from Asia, since the critical ingredient, tapioca starch, is mostly grown in Asia. TikTok trends and the Korean Wave also fueled the popularity of bubble tea in the United States. ===Vietnam=== Taiwanese milk tea was introduced to Vietnam in the early 2000s, but it took a few years for this drink to become popular with young people. Roadside stalls and carts rarely served milk tea, and the milk tea trend gradually cooled down in the late 2000s. Many shops had to liquidate or close, while others struggled to survive. Bubble tea also gained controversy because of information about tea of unknown origin, tapioca pearls allegedly being made from polymer plastics, etc. By 2012, Taiwanese brands arrived in Vietnam, still the same old milk tea but served in a completely new style: milk tea with toppings, developing a chain model, and a space designed as well as any famous coffee shop. Also, the halo of Taiwanese milk tea gradually returned, especially around the end of 2016, to the beginning of 2017. According to a survey by Lozi, in 2017, the Vietnamese milk tea market witnessed an explosion with 100 large and small brands coexisting and over 1,500 points of sale, including major brands from Taiwan such as Ding Tea, Gong Cha, BoBaPop. This survey also shows that milk tea is becoming a popular drink in Vietnam when 53% of people are confirmed to drink milk tea at least once a week. From the consumer perspective, milk tea is characterized by its sweet, creamy taste, suitable for many customers, not only students, but also children and office workers. In addition, milk tea is constantly "transforming" to meet all customer needs, from cheese cream tea, fruit tea to low-fat tea. Another important point that makes milk tea popular is the service style. Instead of small shops and school gate carts like in the past, the milk tea is designed into a spacious space, with fixed seats, and cool air conditioning. ===Korea=== Milk tea is not only a daily drink, but it has also become a "fever drink" loved in many countries, including South Korea. In the capital Seoul alone, there are 4 famous milk tea shops, which are popular places for entertainment, dating, and meeting of Korean youth every weekend, which are Gong Cha, Cofioca, Amasvin, and Happy Lemon. In Korea, there are many different large and small milk tea shops, famous brands or just small shops with a drink counter and a table. Although pearl milk tea originated in Taiwan, it took certain changes in Korea. Koreans are very concerned about keeping in shape, every meal they have to check exactly how many calories they take in, so that they can do appropriate exercises to burn off excess fat. Therefore, when entering restaurants or bakeries in Korea, we will see the calorie index recorded very carefully as a way to protect the health of consumers. For example, at Gong Cha milk tea shops there, customers can choose the sweetness of their milk tea by choosing the sugar level (0%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 100%) and similarly choose ice to add personal favourite flavour to their milk tea. ===Australia=== Individual bubble tea shops began to appear in Australia in the 1990s, along with other regional drinks like Eis Cendol. Chains of stores were established as early as 2002, when the Bubble Cup franchise opened its first store in Melbourne. Although originally associated with the rapid growth of immigration from Asia and the vast tertiary student cohort from Asia, in Melbourne and Sydney bubble tea has become popular across many communities. === Mauritius === The first bubble tea shop in Mauritius opened in late 2012, and since then there have been bubble tea shops in most shopping malls on the island. Bubble tea shops have become a popular place for teenagers to hang out. ==Cultural influence== In 2020, the Unicode Consortium released the bubble tea emoji () as part of its version 13.0 update. On 29 January 2023, Google celebrated Bubble Tea with a doodle. ==Potential health concerns== In July 2019, Singapore's Mount Alvernia Hospital warned against the high sugar content of bubble tea since the drink had become extremely popular in Singapore. While it acknowledged the benefits of drinking green tea and black tea in reducing risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis, and cancer, respectively, the hospital cautions that the addition of other ingredients like non-dairy creamer and toppings in the tea could raise the fat and sugar content of the tea and increase the risk of chronic diseases. Non-dairy creamer is a milk substitute that contains trans fat in the form of hydrogenated palm oil. The hospital warned that this oil has been strongly correlated with an increased risk of heart disease and stroke. The other concern about bubble tea is its high calorie content, partially attributed to the high-carbohydrate tapioca pearls (), which can make up to half the calorie-count in a serving of bubble tea.	[ "Nayuki", "Los Angeles County, California", "mung bean", "Black tea", "Hong Kong", "oolong tea", "Boba Tea Company", "50 Lan", "Toast (food)", "Popping boba", "popping boba", "polymer", "Singapore", "coconut milk", "konjac", "tea", "diaspora", "shopping mall", "Gong Cha", "yuenyeung", "custard", "Taichung", "teahouse", "aloe vera", "stroke", "green tea", "Aloe", "price war", "Yifang Taiwan Fruit Tea", "Taiwan News", "New York City", "cardiovascular disease", "Teaspoon (restaurant)", "Kung Fu Tea", "Southwestern United States", "Mauritius", "Taiwan", "Tainan", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "Cendol", "WP:NOTRS", "cancer", "barista", "cassava", "heart disease", "soy milk", "Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest", "oolong", "palm oil", "condensed milk", "Vice (magazine)", "Taiwanese Americans", "Vietnam", "cellophane", "Albuquerque", "Mandarin duck", "mainland China", "Azuki bean", "Hispanos of New Mexico", "Arcadia, California", "tapioca", "Green tea", "New Mexico", "Dutch Formosa", "East Asian people", "Powdered milk", "South Korea", "milk", "Xing Fu Tang", "mango", "The Santa Fe New Mexican", "Bober Tea and Mochi Dough", "Happy Lemon", "LA Weekly", "fructose", "Navajo", "California", "TikTok", "sugar", "Korean Wave", "arthritis", "CoCo Fresh Tea & Juice", "Al Jazeera Media Network", "coconut", "Boba ice cream bar", "Sharetea", "Nata de coco", "pizza", "sago", "Cupertino, California", "diabetes", "Hey Tea", "ramen", "Las Vegas", "lychee", "boba liberal", "Seoul", "coffeehouse", "calorie", "Nevada", "almond milk", "grass jelly", "ice cream", "Pueblo", "milk tea", "Bloomberg News", "taro", "non-dairy creamer", "tapioca pearl", "Harajuku", "coffee", "trans fat", "Milk Tea Alliance", "Tapioca", "Drink", "South America", "sushi", "2021 Suez Canal obstruction", "Northeastern United States", "chronic disease", "Chatime", "Chun Shui Tang", "social media", "Brewing", "2000s", "Mount Alvernia Hospital", "Business Insider", "Milk tea", "Melbourne", "white tea", "black tea", "calories", "Unicode Consortium", "Tiger Sugar", "Japan", "emoji", "Tokyo", "Adzuki bean", "flavoring" ]
4,049	Battle of Blenheim	The Battle of Blenheim (; ; ) fought on , was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the reconstituted Grand Alliance. Louis XIV of France sought to knock the Holy Roman Emperor, Leopold, out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement. The dangers to Vienna were considerable: Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and Marshal Ferdinand de Marsin's forces in Bavaria threatened from the west, and Marshal Louis Joseph de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme's large army in northern Italy posed a serious danger with a potential offensive through the Brenner Pass. Vienna was also under pressure from Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches. Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg to help maintain Emperor Leopold within the Grand Alliance. A combination of deception and skilled administration – designed to conceal his true destination from friend and foe alike – enabled Marlborough to march unhindered from the Low Countries to the River Danube in five weeks. After securing Donauwörth on the Danube, Marlborough sought to engage Maximilian's and Marsin's army before Marshal Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard, could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest. The Franco-Bavarian commanders proved reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, and Marlborough failed in his attempts to force an engagement. When Tallard arrived to bolster Maximilian's army, and Prince Eugene of Savoy arrived with reinforcements for the Allies, the two armies finally met on the banks of the Danube in and around the small village of Blindheim, from which the English "Blenheim" is derived. Blenheim was one of the battles that altered the course of the war, which until then was favouring the French and Spanish Bourbons. Although the battle did not win the war, it prevented a potentially devastating loss for the Grand Alliance and shifted the war's momentum, ending French plans of knocking Emperor Leopold out of the war. The French suffered catastrophic casualties in the battle, including their commander-in-chief, Tallard, who was taken captive to England. Before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following year's campaign into France itself. This offensive never materialised, for the Grand Alliance's army had to depart the Moselle to defend Liège from a French counter-offensive. The war continued for another decade before ending in 1714. ==Background== By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year. The previous year had been one of successes for France and her allies, most particularly on the Danube, where Marshal Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars and Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, had created a direct threat to Vienna, the Habsburg capital. Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Ferdinand de Marsin. Nevertheless, the threat was still real: Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt was threatening the Empire's eastern approaches, and Marshal Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme's forces threatened an invasion from northern Italy. In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Vienna's fall was confidently anticipated, an event which would almost certainly have led to the collapse of the reconstituted Grand Alliance. To isolate the Danube from any Allied intervention, Marshal François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi's 46,000 troops were expected to pin the 70,000 Dutch and British troops around Maastricht in the Low Countries, while General Robert Jean Antoine de Franquetot de Coigny protected Alsace against surprise with a further corps. The only forces immediately available for Vienna's defence were the imperial army under Margrave Louis William of Baden of 36,000 men stationed in the Lines of Stollhofen to watch Marshal Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard, at Strasbourg; and 10,000 men under Prince Eugene of Savoy south of Ulm. Various Allied statesmen, including the Imperial Austrian Ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, and the Duke of Marlborough realised the implications of the situation on the Danube. To maintain secrecy, Marlborough kept his plans hidden from both the Dutch States General and the Parliament of England. In the Dutch Republic, only a select few – Grand Pensionary Anthonie Heinsius, Simon van Slingelandt, Jacob Hop, and François Fagel – were privy to his strategy from the outset. In England, Marlborough confided only in Sidney Godolphin, Queen Anne, and her husband. Marlborough, realising the only way to reinforce the Austrians was by the use of secrecy and guile, pretended to move his troops to the Moselle – a plan approved of by the Dutch States General – but once there, he would move further and link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany. The Dutch diplomat and field deputy Van Rechteren-Almelo would come to play an important role. He made sure that on their 450-kilometre-long march, the Allies would nowhere be denied passage by local rulers, nor would they need to look for provisions, horsefeed or new boots. He also saw to it that sufficient stopovers were arranged along the way to ensure that the Allies arrived at their destination in good condition. This was of paramount importance, for the success of the operation depended on a quick elimination of the Bavarian elector. However, it was not possible to make the logistical arrangements in advance that would have been indispensable to supply the Allied army south of the Danube. For this, the Allies should have had access to the free imperial cities of Ulm and Augsburg, but the Bavarian elector had taken these two cities. This could have become a problem for Marlborough had the Elector avoided a battle and instead entrenched himself south of the Danube. Had Villeroy then managed to take advantage of the weakening of Allied forces in the Netherlands by recapturing Liège and besieging Maastricht, it would have validated the concerns of some of his Dutch adversaries, who were against any major weakening of the forces in the Spanish Netherlands. ==Prelude== ===Protagonists march to the Danube=== Marlborough's march started on 19 May from Bedburg, northwest of Cologne. The army assembled by Marlborough's brother, General Charles Churchill, consisted of 66 squadrons of cavalry, 31 battalions of infantry and 38 guns and mortars, totalling 21,000 men, 16,000 of whom were British. This force was augmented en route, and by the time it reached the Danube it numbered 40,00047 battalions and 88 squadrons. While Marlborough led this army south, the Dutch general, Henry Overkirk, Count of Nassau, maintained a defensive position in the Dutch Republic against the possibility of Villeroi mounting an attack. Marlborough had assured the Dutch that if the French were to launch an offensive he would return in good time, but he calculated that as he marched south, the French army would be drawn after him. In this assumption Marlborough proved correct: Villeroi shadowed him with 30,000 men in 60 squadrons and 42 battalions. Marlborough wrote to Godolphin: "I am very sensible that I take a great deal upon me, but should I act otherwise, the Empire would be undone ..." In the meantime, the appointment of Henry Overkirk as Field Marshal caused significant controversy in the Dutch Republic. After the Earl of Athlone's death, the Dutch States General had put Overkirk in charge of the Dutch States Army, which led to much discontent among the other high-ranking Dutch generals. Ernst Wilhelm von Salisch, Daniël van Dopff and Menno van Coehoorn threatened to resign or go into the service of other countries, although all were eventually convinced to stay. The new infantry generals were also disgruntled — the Lord of Slangenburg because he had to serve the less experienced Overkirk; and the Count of Noyelles because he had to serve the orders of the 'insupportable' Slangenburg. Then there was the major problem of the position of the Prince of Orange. The provinces of Friesland and Groningen demanded that their 17-year-old stadtholder be appointed supreme infantry general. This divided the parties so much that a second Grand Assembly, as had existed in 1651, was considered. However, after pressure from the other provinces, Friesland and Groningen adjusted their demands and a compromise was found. The Prince of Orange would nominally be appointed infantry general, behind Slangenburg and Noyelles, but he would not really be in command until he was 20. While the Allies were making their preparations, the French were striving to maintain and re-supply Marsin. He had been operating with Maximilian II against Margrave Louis William, and was somewhat isolated from France: his only lines of communication lay through the rocky passes of the Black Forest. On 14 May, Tallard brought 8,000 reinforcements and vast supplies and munitions through the difficult terrain, whilst outmanoeuvring , the Imperial general who sought to block his path. Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngen's efforts to intercept him. On 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine. If he intended an attack along the Moselle his army would now have to turn west; instead it crossed to the right bank of the Rhine, and was reinforced by 5,000 waiting Hanoverians and Prussians. The French realised that there would be no campaign on the Moselle. A second possible objective now occurred to theman Allied incursion into Alsace and an attack on Strasbourg. Marlborough furthered this apprehension by constructing bridges across the Rhine at Philippsburg, a ruse that not only encouraged Villeroi to come to Tallard's aid in the defence of Alsace, but one that ensured the French plan to march on Vienna was delayed while they waited to see what Marlborough's army would do. Encouraged by Marlborough's promise to return to the Netherlands if a French attack developed there, transferring his troops up the Rhine on barges at a rate of a day, the Dutch States General agreed to release the Danish contingent of seven battalions and 22 squadrons as reinforcements. Marlborough reached Ladenburg, in the plain of the Neckar and the Rhine, and there halted for three days to rest his cavalry and allow the guns and infantry to close up. On 6 June he arrived at Wiesloch, south of Heidelberg. The following day, the Allied army swung away from the Rhine towards the hills of the Swabian Jura and the Danube beyond. At last Marlborough's destination was established without doubt. ===Strategy=== On 10 June, Marlborough met for the first time the President of the Imperial War Council, Prince Eugene – accompanied by Count Wratislaw – at the village of Mundelsheim, halfway between the Danube and the Rhine. By 13 June, the Imperial Field Commander, Margrave Louis William of Baden, had joined them in Großheppach. The three generals commanded a force of nearly 110,000 men. At this conference, it was decided that Prince Eugene would return with 28,000 men to the Lines of Stollhofen on the Rhine to watch Villeroi and Tallard and prevent them going to the aid of the Franco-Bavarian army on the Danube. Meanwhile, Marlborough's and Margrave Louis William's forces would combine, totalling 80,000 men, and march on the Danube to seek out Maximilian II and Marsin before they could be reinforced. Knowing Marlborough's destination, Tallard and Villeroi met at Landau in the Palatinate on 13 June to construct a plan to save Bavaria. The rigidity of the French command system was such that any variations from the original plan had to be sanctioned by Versailles. The Count of Mérode-Westerloo, commander of the Flemish troops in Tallard's army, wrote "One thing is certain: we delayed our march from Alsace for far too long and quite inexplicably." Approval from King Louis arrived on 27 June: Tallard was to reinforce Marsin and Maximilian II on the Danube via the Black Forest, with 40 battalions and 50 squadrons; Villeroi was to pin down the Allies defending the Lines of Stollhofen, or, if the Allies should move all their forces to the Danube, he was to join with Tallard; Coigny with 8,000 men would protect Alsace. On 1 July Tallard's army of 35,000 re-crossed the Rhine at Kehl and began its march. On 22 June, Marlborough's forces linked up with the Imperial forces at Launsheim, having covered in five weeks. Thanks to a carefully planned timetable, the effects of wear and tear had been kept to a minimum. Captain Parker described the march discipline: "As we marched through the country of our Allies, commissars were appointed to furnish us with all manner of necessaries for man and horse ... the soldiers had nothing to do but pitch their tents, boil kettles and lie down to rest." In response to Marlborough's manoeuvres, Maximilian and Marsin, conscious of their numerical disadvantage with only 40,000 men, moved their forces to the entrenched camp at Dillingen on the north bank of the Danube. Marlborough could not attack Dillingen because of a lack of siege guns – he had been unable to bring any from the Low Countries, and Margrave Louis William had failed to supply any, despite prior assurances that he would. The Allies needed a base for provisions and a good river crossing. Consequently, on 2 July Marlborough stormed the fortress of Schellenberg on the heights above the town of Donauwörth. Count Jean d'Arco had been sent with 12,000 men from the Franco-Bavarian camp to hold the town and grassy hill, but after a fierce battle, with heavy casualties on both sides, Schellenberg fell. This forced Donauwörth to surrender shortly afterward. Maximilian, knowing his position at Dillingen was now not tenable, took up a position behind the strong fortifications of Augsburg. Tallard's march presented a dilemma for Prince Eugene. If the Allies were not to be outnumbered on the Danube, he realised that he had to either try to cut Tallard off before he could get there, or to reinforce Marlborough. If he withdrew from the Rhine to the Danube, Villeroi might also make a move south to link up with Maximilian and Marsin. Prince Eugene compromisedleaving 12,000 troops behind guarding the Lines of Stollhofenhe marched off with the rest of his army to forestall Tallard. Lacking in numbers, Prince Eugene could not seriously disrupt Tallard's march but the French marshal's progress was proving slow. Tallard's force had suffered considerably more than Marlborough's troops on their march – many of his cavalry horses were suffering from glanders and the mountain passes were proving tough for the 2,000 wagonloads of provisions. Local German peasants, angry at French plundering, compounded Tallard's problems, leading Mérode-Westerloo to bemoan – "the enraged peasantry killed several thousand of our men before the army was clear of the Black Forest." At Augsburg, Maximilian was informed on 14 July that Tallard was on his way through the Black Forest. This good news bolstered his policy of inaction, further encouraging him to wait for the reinforcements. This reticence to fight induced Marlborough to undertake a controversial policy of spoliation in Bavaria, burning buildings and crops throughout the rich lands south of the Danube. This had two aims: firstly to put pressure on Maximilian to fight or come to terms before Tallard arrived with reinforcements; and secondly, to ruin Bavaria as a base from which the French and Bavarian armies could attack Vienna, or pursue Marlborough into Franconia if, at some stage, he had to withdraw northwards. But this destruction, coupled with a protracted siege of the town of Rain over 9 to 16 July, caused Prince Eugene to lament "... since the Donauwörth action I cannot admire their performances", and later to conclude "If he has to go home without having achieved his objective, he will certainly be ruined." ===Final positioning=== Tallard, with 34,000 men, reached Ulm, joining with Maximilian and Marsin at Augsburg on 5 August, although Maximilian had dispersed his army in response to Marlborough's campaign of ravaging the region. Also on 5 August, Prince Eugene reached Höchstädt, riding that same night to meet with Marlborough at Schrobenhausen. Marlborough knew that another crossing point over the Danube was required in case Donauwörth fell to the enemy; so on 7 August, the first of Margrave Louis William's 15,000 Imperial troops left Marlborough's main force to besiege the heavily defended city of Ingolstadt, farther down the Danube, with the remainder following two days later. With Prince Eugene's forces at Höchstädt on the north bank of the Danube, and Marlborough's at Rain on the south bank, Tallard and Maximilian debated their next move. Tallard preferred to bide his time, replenish supplies and allow Marlborough's Danube campaign to flounder in the colder autumn weather; Maximilian and Marsin, newly reinforced, were keen to push ahead. The French and Bavarian commanders eventually agreed to attack Prince Eugene's smaller force. On 9 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces began to cross to the north bank of the Danube. On 10 August, Prince Eugene sent an urgent dispatch reporting that he was falling back to Donauwörth. By a series of swift marches Marlborough concentrated his forces on Donauwörth and, by noon 11 August, the link-up was complete. During 11 August, Tallard pushed forward from the river crossings at Dillingen. By 12 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces were encamped behind the small River Nebel near the village of Blenheim on the plain of Höchstädt. On the same day, Marlborough and Prince Eugene carried out a reconnaissance of the French position from the church spire at Tapfheim, and moved their combined forces to Münster – from the French camp. A French reconnaissance under Jacques Joseph Vipart, Marquis de Silly went forward to probe the enemy, but were driven off by Allied troops who had deployed to cover the pioneers of the advancing army, labouring to bridge the numerous streams in the area and improve the passage leading westwards to Höchstädt. Marlborough quickly moved forward two brigades under the command of Lieutenant General John Wilkes and Brigadier Archibald Rowe to secure the narrow strip of land between the Danube and the wooded Fuchsberg hill, at the Schwenningen defile. Tallard's army numbered 56,000 men and 90 guns; the army of the Grand Alliance, 52,000 men and 66 guns. Some Allied officers who were acquainted with the superior numbers of the enemy, and aware of their strong defensive position, remonstrated with Marlborough about the hazards of attacking; but he was resolute – partly because the Dutch officer Willem Vleertman had scouted the marshy ground before them and reported that the land was perfectly suitable for the troops. ==Battle== ===The battlefield=== The battlefield stretched for nearly . The extreme right flank of the Franco-Bavarian army rested on the Danube, the undulating pine-covered hills of the Swabian Jura lay to their left. A small stream, the Nebel, fronted the French line; the ground either side of this was marshy and only fordable intermittently. The French right rested on the village of Blenheim near where the Nebel flows into the Danube; the village itself was surrounded by hedges, fences, enclosed gardens, and meadows. Between Blenheim and the village of Oberglauheim to the north west the fields of wheat had been cut to stubble and were now ideal for the deployment of troops. From Oberglauheim to the next hamlet of Lutzingen the terrain of ditches, thickets and brambles was potentially difficult ground for the attackers. ===Initial manoeuvres=== At 02:00 on 13 August, 40 Allied cavalry squadrons were sent forward, followed at 03:00, in eight columns, by the main Allied force pushing over the River Kessel. At about 06:00 they reached Schwenningen, from Blenheim. The British and German troops who had held Schwenningen through the night joined the march, making a ninth column on the left of the army. Marlborough and Prince Eugene made their final plans. The Allied commanders agreed that Marlborough would command 36,000 troops and attack Tallard's force of 33,000 on the left, including capturing the village of Blenheim, while Prince Eugene's 16,000 men would attack Maximilian and Marsin's combined forces of 23,000 troops on the right. If this attack was pressed hard, it was anticipated that Maximilian and Marsin would feel unable to send troops to aid Tallard on their right. Lieutenant-General John Cutts would attack Blenheim in concert with Prince Eugene's attack. With the French flanks busy, Marlborough could cross the Nebel and deliver the fatal blow to the French at their centre. The Allies would have to wait until Prince Eugene was in position before the general engagement could begin. Tallard was not anticipating an Allied attack; he had been deceived by intelligence gathered from prisoners taken by de Silly the previous day, and his army's strong position. Tallard and his colleagues believed that Marlborough and Prince Eugene were about to retreat north-westwards towards Nördlingen. Tallard wrote a report to this effect to King Louis that morning. Signal guns were fired to bring in the foraging parties and pickets as the French and Bavarian troops drew into battle-order to face the unexpected threat. At around 08:00 the French artillery on their right wing opened fire, answered by Colonel Holcroft Blood's batteries. The guns were heard by Prince Louis in his camp before Ingolstadt. An hour later Tallard, Maximilian, and Marsin climbed Blenheim's church tower to finalise their plans. It was settled that Maximilian and Marsin would hold the front from the hills to Oberglauheim, whilst Tallard would defend the ground between Oberglauheim and the Danube. The French commanders were divided as to how to utilise the Nebel. Tallard's preferred tactic was to lure the Allies across before unleashing his cavalry upon them. This was opposed by Marsin and Maximilian who felt it better to close their infantry right up to the stream itself, so that while the enemy was struggling in the marshes, they would be caught in crossfire from Blenheim and Oberglauheim. Tallard's approach was sound if all its parts were implemented, but in the event it allowed Marlborough to cross the Nebel without serious interference and fight the battle he had planned. ===Deployment=== The Franco-Bavarian commanders deployed their forces. In the village of Lutzingen, Count Alessandro de Maffei positioned five Bavarian battalions with a great battery of 16 guns at the village's edge. In the woods to the left of Lutzingen, seven French battalions under César Armand, Marquis de Rozel moved into place. Between Lutzingen and Oberglauheim Maximilian placed 27 squadrons of cavalry and 14 Bavarian squadrons commanded by d'Arco with 13 more in support nearby under Baron Veit Heinrich Moritz Freiherr von Wolframsdorf. To their right stood Marsin's 40 French squadrons and 12 battalions. The village of Oberglauheim was packed with 14 battalions commanded by , including the effective Irish Brigade known as the "Wild Geese". Six batteries of guns were ranged alongside the village. On the right of these French and Bavarian positions, between Oberglauheim and Blenheim, Tallard deployed 64 French and Walloon squadrons, 16 of which were from Marsin, supported by nine French battalions standing near the Höchstädt road. In the cornfield next to Blenheim stood three battalions from the Regiment de Roi. Nine battalions occupied the village itself, commanded by Philippe, Marquis de Clérambault. Four battalions stood to the rear and a further eleven were in reserve. These battalions were supported by Count Gabriel d'Hautefeuille's twelve squadrons of dismounted dragoons. By 11:00 Tallard, Maximilian, and Marsin were in place. Many of the Allied generals were hesitant to attack such a strong position. The Earl of Orkney later said that, "had I been asked to give my opinion, I had been against it." Prince Eugene was expected to be in position by 11:00, but due to the difficult terrain and enemy fire, progress was slow. Cutts' column – which by 10:00 had expelled the enemy from two water mills on the Nebel – had already deployed by the river against Blenheim, enduring over the next three hours severe fire from a six-gun heavy battery posted near the village. The rest of Marlborough's army, waiting in their ranks on the forward slope, were also forced to bear the cannonade from the French artillery, suffering 2,000 casualties before the attack could even start. Meanwhile, engineers repaired a stone bridge across the Nebel, and constructed five additional bridges or causeways across the marsh between Blenheim and Oberglauheim. Marlborough's anxiety was finally allayed when, just past noon, Colonel William Cadogan reported that Prince Eugene's Prussian and Danish infantry were in place – the order for the general advance was given. At 13:00, Cutts was ordered to attack the village of Blenheim whilst Prince Eugene was requested to assault Lutzingen on the Allied right flank. ===Blenheim=== Cutts ordered Rowe's brigade to attack. The English infantry rose from the edge of the Nebel, and silently marched towards Blenheim, a distance of some . James Ferguson's Scottish brigade supported Rowe's left, and moved towards the barricades between the village and the river, defended by Hautefeuille's dragoons. As the range closed to within , the French fired a deadly volley. Rowe had ordered that there should be no firing from his men until he struck his sword upon the palisades, but as he stepped forward to give the signal, he fell mortally wounded. The survivors of the leading companies closed up the gaps in their ranks and rushed forward. Small parties penetrated the defences, but repeated French volleys forced the English back and inflicted heavy casualties. As the attack faltered, eight squadrons of elite Gens d'Armes, commanded by the veteran Swiss officer, , fell on the English troops, cutting at the exposed flank of Rowe's own regiment. Wilkes' Hessian brigade, nearby in the marshy grass at the water's edge, stood firm and repulsed the Gens d'Armes with steady fire, enabling the English and Hessians to re-order and launch another attack. Although the Allies were again repulsed, these persistent attacks on Blenheim eventually bore fruit, panicking Clérambault into making the worst French error of the day. Without consulting Tallard, Clérambault ordered his reserve battalions into the village, upsetting the balance of the French position and nullifying the French numerical superiority. "The men were so crowded in upon one another", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, "that they couldn't even fire – let alone receive or carry out any orders". Marlborough, spotting this error, now countermanded Cutts' intention to launch a third attack, and ordered him simply to contain the enemy within Blenheim; no more than 5,000 Allied soldiers were able to pen in twice the number of French infantry and dragoons. ===Lutzingen=== On the Allied right, Prince Eugene's Prussian and Danish forces were desperately fighting the numerically superior forces of Maximilian and Marsin. Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau led forward four brigades across the Nebel to assault the well-fortified position of Lutzingen. Here, the Nebel was less of an obstacle, but the great battery positioned on the edge of the village enjoyed a good field of fire across the open ground stretching to the hamlet of Schwennenbach. As soon as the infantry crossed the stream, they were struck by Maffei's infantry, and salvoes from the Bavarian guns positioned both in front of the village and in enfilade on the wood-line to the right. Despite heavy casualties the Prussians attempted to storm the great battery, whilst the Danes, under Count Jobst von Scholten, attempted to drive the French infantry out of the copses beyond the village. With the infantry heavily engaged, Prince Eugene's cavalry picked its way across the Nebel. After an initial success, his first line of cavalry, under the Imperial General of Horse, Prince Maximilian of Hanover, were pressed by the second line of Marsin's cavalry and forced back across the Nebel in confusion. The exhausted French were unable to follow up their advantage, and both cavalry forces tried to regroup and reorder their ranks. Without cavalry support, and threatened with envelopment, the Prussian and Danish infantry were in turn forced to pull back across the Nebel. Panic gripped some of Prince Eugene's troops as they crossed the stream. Ten infantry colours were lost to the Bavarians, and hundreds of prisoners taken; it was only through the leadership of Prince Eugene and the Prince Maximilian of Hanover that the Imperial infantry was prevented from abandoning the field. After rallying his troops near Schwennenbach – well beyond their starting point – Prince Eugene prepared to launch a second attack, led by the second-line squadrons under the Duke of Württemberg-Teck. Yet again they were caught in the murderous crossfire from the artillery in Lutzingen and Oberglauheim, and were once again thrown back in disarray. The French and Bavarians were almost as disordered as their opponents, and they too were in need of inspiration from their commander, Maximilian, who was seen " ... riding up and down, and inspiring his men with fresh courage." Anhalt-Dessau's Danish and Prussian infantry attacked a second time but could not sustain the advance without proper support. Once again they fell back across the stream. ===Centre and Oberglauheim=== Whilst these events around Blenheim and Lutzingen were taking place, Marlborough was preparing to cross the Nebel. Hulsen's brigade of Hessians and Hanoverians and the earl of Orkney's British brigade advanced across the stream and were supported by dismounted British dragoons and ten British cavalry squadrons. This covering force allowed Charles Churchill's Dutch, British and German infantry and further cavalry units to advance and form up on the plain beyond. Marlborough arranged his infantry battalions in a novel manner, with gaps sufficient to allow the cavalry to move freely between them. He ordered the formation forward. Once again Zurlauben's Gens d'Armes charged, looking to rout Henry Lumley's English cavalry who linked Cutts' column facing Blenheim with Churchill's infantry. As the elite French cavalry attacked, they were faced by five English squadrons under Colonel Francis Palmes. To the consternation of the French, the Gens d'Armes were pushed back in confusion and were pursued well beyond the Maulweyer stream that flows through Blenheim. "What? Is it possible?" exclaimed Maximilian, "the gentlemen of France fleeing?" Palmes attempted to follow up his success but was repulsed by other French cavalry and musket fire from the edge of Blenheim. Nevertheless, Tallard was alarmed by the repulse of the Gens d'Armes and urgently rode across the field to ask Marsin for reinforcements; but on the basis of being hard pressed by Prince Eugene – whose second attack was in full flood – Marsin refused. As Tallard consulted with Marsin, more of his infantry were taken into Blenheim by Clérambault. Fatally, Tallard, although aware of the situation, did nothing to rectify it, leaving him with just the nine battalions of infantry near the Höchstädt road to oppose the massed enemy ranks in the centre. Zurlauben tried several more times to disrupt the Allies forming on Tallard's side of the stream. His front-line cavalry darted forward down the gentle slope towards the Nebel, but the attacks lacked co-ordination, and the Allied infantry's steady volleys disconcerted the French horsemen. During these skirmishes Zurlauben fell mortally wounded; he died two days later. At this stage the time was just after 15:00. The Danish cavalry, under Carl Rudolf, Duke of Württemberg-Neuenstadt, had made slow work of crossing the Nebel near Oberglauheim. Harassed by Marsin's infantry near the village, the Danes were driven back across the stream. Count Horn's Dutch infantry managed to push the French back from the water's edge, but it was apparent that before Marlborough could launch his main effort against Tallard, Oberglauheim would have to be secured. Count Horn directed Anton Günther, Fürst von Holstein-Beck to take the village, but his two Dutch brigades were cut down by the French and Irish troops, capturing and badly wounding Holstein-Beck during the action. The battle was now in the balance. If Holstein-Beck's Dutch column were destroyed, the Allied army would be split in two: Prince Eugene's wing would be isolated from Marlborough's, passing the initiative to the Franco-Bavarian forces. Seeing the opportunity, Marsin ordered his cavalry to change from facing Prince Eugene, and turn towards their right and the open flank of Churchill's infantry drawn up in front of Unterglau. Marlborough, who had crossed the Nebel on a makeshift bridge to take personal control, ordered Hulsen's Hanoverian battalions to support the Dutch infantry. A nine-gun artillery battery and a Dutch cavalry brigade under Averock were also called forward, but the cavalry soon came under pressure from Marsin's more numerous squadrons. Marlborough now requested Prince Eugene to release Count Hendrick Fugger and his Imperial Cuirassier brigade to help repel the French cavalry thrust. Despite his own difficulties, Prince Eugene at once complied. Although the Nebel stream lay between Fugger's and Marsin's squadrons, the French were forced to change front to meet this new threat, thus preventing Marsin from striking at Marlborough's infantry. Fugger's cuirassiers charged and, striking at a favourable angle, threw back Marsin's squadrons in disorder. With support from Blood's batteries, the Hessian, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry – now commanded by Count Berensdorf – succeeded in pushing the French and Irish infantry back into Oberglauheim so that they could not again threaten Churchill's flank as he moved against Tallard. The French commander in the village, de Blainville, was numbered among the heavy casualties. ===Breakthrough=== By 16:00, with large parts of the Franco-Bavarian army besieged in Blenheim and Oberglau, the Allied centre of 81 squadrons (nine squadrons had been transferred from Cutts' column) supported by 18 battalions was firmly planted amidst the French line of 64 squadrons and nine battalions of raw recruits. There was now a pause in the battle: Marlborough wanted to attack simultaneously along the whole front, and Prince Eugene, after his second repulse, needed time to reorganise. By just after 17:00 all was ready along the Allied front. Marlborough's two lines of cavalry had now moved to the front of his line of battle, with the two supporting lines of infantry behind them. Mérode-Westerloo attempted to extricate some French infantry crowded into Blenheim, but Clérambault ordered the troops back into the village. The French cavalry exerted themselves once more against the Allied first line – Lumley's English and Scots on the Allied left, and Reinhard Vincent Graf von Hompesch's Dutch and German squadrons on the Allied right. Tallard's squadrons, which lacked infantry support and were tired, managed to push the Allied first line back to their infantry support. With the battle still not won, Marlborough had to rebuke one of his cavalry officers who was attempting to leave the field – "Sir, you are under a mistake, the enemy lies that way ..." Marlborough commanded the second Allied line, under and , to move forward, and, driving through the centre, the Allies finally routed Tallard's tired cavalry. The Prussian Life Dragoons' Colonel, Ludwig von Blumenthal, and his second in command, Lieutenant Colonel von Hacke, fell next to each other, but the charge succeeded. With their cavalry in headlong flight, the remaining nine French infantry battalions fought with desperate valour, trying to form a square, but they were overwhelmed by Blood's close-range artillery and platoon fire. Mérode-Westerloo later wrote – "[They] died to a man where they stood, stationed right out in the open plain – supported by nobody." The majority of Tallard's retreating troops headed for Höchstädt but most did not make the safety of the town, plunging instead into the Danube where over 3,000 French horsemen drowned; others were cut down by the pursuing Allied cavalry. The Marquis de Gruignan attempted a counter-attack, but he was brushed aside by the triumphant Allies. After a final rally behind his camp's tents, shouting entreaties to stand and fight, Tallard was caught up in the rout and swept towards Sonderheim. Surrounded by a squadron of Hessian troops, Tallard surrendered to Lieutenant Colonel de Boinenburg, the Prince of Hesse-Kassel's aide-de-camp, and was sent under escort to Marlborough. Marlborough welcomed the French commander – "I am very sorry that such a cruel misfortune should have fallen upon a soldier for whom I have the highest regard." Meanwhile, the Allies had once again attacked the Bavarian stronghold at Lutzingen. Prince Eugene became exasperated with the performance of his Imperial cavalry whose third attack had failed: he had already shot two of his troopers to prevent a general flight. Then, declaring in disgust that he wished to "fight among brave men and not among cowards", Prince Eugene went into the attack with the Prussian and Danish infantry, as did Leopold I, waving a regimental colour to inspire his troops. This time the Prussians were able to storm the great Bavarian battery, and overwhelm the guns' crews. Beyond the village, Scholten's Danes defeated the French infantry in a desperate hand-to-hand bayonet struggle. When they saw that the centre had broken, Maximilian and Marsin decided the battle was lost; like the remnants of Tallard's army, they fled the battlefield, albeit in better order than Tallard's men. Attempts to organise an Allied force to prevent Marsin's withdrawal failed owing to the exhaustion of the cavalry, and the growing confusion in the field. ===Fall of Blenheim=== Marlborough now turned his attention from the fleeing enemy to direct Churchill to detach more infantry to storm Blenheim. Orkney's infantry, Hamilton's English brigade and St Paul's Hanoverians moved across the trampled wheat to the cottages. Fierce hand-to-hand fighting gradually forced the French towards the village centre, in and around the walled churchyard which had been prepared for defence. Lord John Hay and Charles Ross's dismounted dragoons were also sent, but suffered under a counter-charge delivered by the regiments of Artois and Provence under command of Colonel de la Silvière. Colonel Belville's Hanoverians were fed into the battle to steady the resolve of the dragoons, who attacked again. The Allied progress was slow and hard, and like the defenders, they suffered many casualties. Many of the cottages were now burning, obscuring the field of fire and driving the defenders out of their positions. Hearing the din of battle in Blenheim, Tallard sent a message to Marlborough offering to order the garrison to withdraw from the field. "Inform Monsieur Tallard", replied Marlborough, "that, in the position in which he is now, he has no command." Nevertheless, as dusk came the Allied commander was anxious for a quick conclusion. The French infantry fought tenaciously to hold on to their position in Blenheim, but their commander was nowhere to be found. By now Blenheim was under assault from every side by three British generals: Cutts, Churchill, and Orkney. The French had repulsed every attack, but many had seen what had happened on the plain: their army was routed and they were cut off. Orkney, attacking from the rear, now tried a different tactic – "... it came into my head to beat parley", he later wrote, "which they accepted of and immediately their Brigadier de Nouville capitulated with me to be prisoner at discretion and lay down their arms." Threatened by Allied guns, other units followed their example. It was not until 21:00 that the Marquis de Blanzac, who had taken charge in Clérambault's absence, reluctantly accepted the inevitability of defeat, and some 10,000 of France's best infantry had laid down their arms. During these events Marlborough was still in the saddle organising the pursuit of the broken enemy. Pausing for a moment, he scribbled on the back of an old tavern bill a note addressed to his wife, Sarah: "I have no time to say more but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory." ==Aftermath== French losses were immense, with over 27,000 killed, wounded and captured. Moreover, the myth of French invincibility had been destroyed, and King Louis's hopes of a victorious early peace were over. Mérode-Westerloo summarised the case against Tallard's army: It was a hard-fought contest: Prince Eugene observed that "I have not a squadron or battalion which did not charge four times at least." Although the war dragged on for years, the Battle of Blenheim was probably its most decisive victory; Marlborough and Prince Eugene had saved the Habsburg Empire and thereby preserved the Grand Alliance from collapse. Munich, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Ulm and the remaining territory of Bavaria soon fell to the Allies. By the Treaty of Ilbersheim, signed on 7 November, Bavaria was placed under Austrian military rule, allowing the Habsburgs to use its resources for the rest of the conflict. The remnants of Maximilian and Marsin's wing limped back to Strasbourg, losing another 7,000 men through desertion. Despite being offered the chance to remain as ruler of Bavaria, under the strict terms of an alliance with Austria, Maximilian left his country and family in order to continue the war against the Allies from the Spanish Netherlands where he still held the post of governor-general. Tallard – who, unlike his subordinates, was not ransomed or exchanged – was taken to England and imprisoned in Nottingham until his release in 1711. The 1704 campaign lasted longer than usual, for the Allies sought to extract the maximum advantage. Realising that France was too powerful to be forced to make peace by a single victory, Prince Eugene, Marlborough and Prince Louis met to plan their next moves. For the following year Marlborough proposed a campaign along the valley of the Moselle to carry the war deep into France. This required the capture of the major fortress of Landau which guarded the Rhine, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle itself. Trier was taken on 27 October and Landau fell on 23 November to Prince Louis and Prince Eugene; with the fall of Trarbach on 20 December, the campaign season for 1704 came to an end. The planned offensive never materialised as the Grand Alliance's army had to depart the Moselle to defend Liège from a French counteroffensive. The war raged on for another decade. Marlborough returned to England on 14 December (O.S) to the acclamation of Queen Anne and the country. In the first days of January, the 110 cavalry standards and 128 infantry colours that had been captured during the battle were borne in procession to Westminster Hall. In February 1705, Queen Anne, who had made Marlborough a duke in 1702, granted him the Park of Woodstock Palace and promised a sum of £240,000 to build a suitable house as a gift from a grateful Crown in recognition of his victory; this resulted in the construction of Blenheim Palace. The British historian Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy considered Blenheim one of the pivotal battles in history, writing: "Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of Alexander in extent and those of the Romans in durability." The military historian John A. Lynn considers this claim unjustified, for King Louis never had such an objective; the campaign in Bavaria was intended only to bring a favourable peace settlement and not domination over Europe. Lake Poet Robert Southey criticised the Battle of Blenheim in his anti-war poem "After Blenheim", but later praised the victory as "the greatest victory which had ever done honour to British arms".	[ "nl:Grote Vergadering", "François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi", "Ulm", "Dutch Republic", "Franconia", "Alessandro, Marquis de Maffei", "Ingolstadt", "Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)", "Simon van Slingelandt", "Charles Ross (British Army officer, born 1667)", "Munich", "Madrid", "University of Chicago Press", "Frederik Johan van Baer", "Kessel (river)", "counteroffensive", "Black Forest", "Jacob van Schuppen", "Reinhard Vincent Graf von Hompesch", "Habsburg monarchy", "Schwenningen, Bavaria", "Flemish people", "Flight of the Wild Geese", "Dutch States General", "Ladenburg", "counter-offensive", "Jean-Philippe-Eugène de Mérode-Westerloo", "Woodstock, Oxfordshire", "Uffizi", "Battle of Schellenberg", "Grand Pensionary", "Daniël van Dopff", "Kehl", "s:Text on the Column of Victory in the grounds of Blenheim Palace", "Groningen (province)", "Jean Baptist, Comte d'Arco", "siege gun", "Jacques-Louis Comte de Noyelles", "Höchstädt an der Donau", "Trier", "Lines of Stollhofen", "Kingdom of France", "Field Marshal", "Yale University Press", "HarperCollins", "Anton Günther, Fürst von Holstein-Beck", "Danish Auxiliary Corps in Anglo-Dutch service 1701–1714", "s:The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World/Chapter XI", "Prince Eugene of Savoy", "Anthonie Heinsius", "George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney", "Treaty of The Hague (1701)", "Willem Vleertman", "Landau", "César Armand, Marquis de Rozel", "Squadron (cavalry)", "Alexander the Great", "Field deputies (Dutch Republic)", "Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Indiana University Press", "Jobst von Scholten", "Trarbach", "Lord John Hay (Scottish Army officer)", "Bedburg", "Low Countries", "Adolf Hendrik van Rechteren, Lord of Almelo", "Vienna", "John William Friso", "John Wilkes (soldier)", "form a square", "Oxford University Press", "Neckar", "Weinstadt", "Roman Empire", "Eberhard Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg", "Nördlingen", "free imperial cities", "glanders", "Dutch States Army", "Westminster Hall", "Louis XIV of France", "Electorate of Bavaria", "Parliament of England", "stadtholder", "Cologne", "Godert de Ginkel, 1st Earl of Athlone", "Ludwig von Blumenthal", "Blenheim Palace", "Louis XIV", "Münster, Bavaria", "Lake Poet", "Spanish Netherlands", "Routledge", "Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain", "Winston Churchill", "Veit Heinrich Moritz Freiherr von Wolframsdorf", "John Wenceslau Wratislaw von Mitrowitz", "Jacques Joseph Vipart, Marquis de Silly", "James Ferguson (major-general)", "Blindheim", "Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau", "cavalry", "Versailles", "Tapfheim", "Holcroft Blood", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Louis Joseph de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme", "Robert Southey", "After Blenheim", "Prince George of Denmark", "Maximilian Wilhelm of Brunswick-Lüneburg", "Old Style and New Style dates", "Moselle", "Treaty of Ilbersheim", "Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden", "Coblenz", "second in command", "Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough", "Frederick I of Sweden", "Bavaria", "Hanoverians", "Maastricht", "Schrobenhausen", "Augsburg", "Imperial War Council", "s:Marlborough's note to his wife Sarah at the end of the Battle of Blenheim", "Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard", "Swabian Jura", "Hesse", "Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars", "Picket (military)", "Wiesloch", "Archibald Rowe", "battalion", "George Douglas-Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney", "palisade", "Daniel Parke", "River Danube", "Prussia", "Menno van Coehoorn", "John Cutts, 1st Baron Cutts", "Grenadier Guards", "Ferdinand de Marsin", "Francis II Rákóczi", "Henry Lumley", "nl:Jacob Hop", "Edward Shepherd Creasy", "Charles Churchill (British Army general)", "War of the Spanish Succession", "William Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan", "Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria", "Dillingen an der Donau", "Carl Rudolf, Duke of Württemberg-Neuenstadt", "Thames & Hudson", "States of Friesland", "Electoral Palatinate", "Francis Palmes", "Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk", "House of Bourbon", "nl:François Fagel (1659-1746)", "infantry", "Brenner Pass", "Ernst Wilhelm von Salisch", "John A. Lynn", "Pioneer (military)", "enfilade", "Liège", "Philippe, Marquis de Clérambault", "Duke of Marlborough", "Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin", "Rhine", "Danube", "Gabriel d'Hautefeuille", "Weidenfeld & Nicolson", "Rain (Lech)", "Nottingham", "Mundelsheim", "Rákóczi's War for Independence", "cuirassiers", "Strasbourg", "s:The Battle of Blenheim", "Robert Jean Antoine de Franquetot de Coigny", "Lutzingen", "Royal Scots Fusiliers", "Philippsburg", "Eugene of Savoy", "Donauwörth", "Heidelberg", "aide-de-camp", "Judocus de Vos", "Alsace" ]
4,050	Battle of Ramillies	The Battle of Ramillies (), fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. For the Grand AllianceAustria, England, and the Dutch Republicthe battle had followed an indecisive campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had been forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands and suffered defeat in northern Italy. Yet despite his opponents' setbacks LouisXIV wanted peace, but on reasonable terms. Because of this, as well as to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706. The campaign began well for Louis XIV's generals: in Italy Marshal Vendôme defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Calcinato in April, while in Alsace Marshal Villars forced the Margrave of Baden back across the Rhine. Encouraged by these early gains LouisXIV urged Marshal Villeroi to go over to the offensive in the Spanish Netherlands and, with victory, gain a 'fair' peace. Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven (Louvain) at the head of 60,000 men and marched towards Tienen (Tirlemont), as if to threaten Zoutleeuw (Léau). Also determined to fight a major engagement, the Duke of Marlborough, commander-in-chief of Anglo-Dutch forces, assembled his armysome 62,000 mennear Maastricht, and marched past Zoutleeuw. With both sides seeking battle, they soon encountered each other on the dry ground between the rivers Mehaigne and Petite Gette, close to the small village of Ramillies. In less than four hours Marlborough's Dutch, English, and Danish forces overwhelmed Villeroi's and Max Emanuel's Franco-Spanish-Bavarian army. The Duke's subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battlesomething his opponents failed to realise until it was too latecaught the French in a tactical vice. With their foe broken and routed, the Allies were able to fully exploit their victory. Town after town fell, including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp; by the end of the campaign Villeroi's army had been driven from most of the Spanish Netherlands. With Prince Eugene's subsequent success at the Battle of Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that LouisXIV would suffer during the war. Thus, the year 1706 proved, for the Allies, to be an annus mirabilis. ==Background== After their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the French found some respite in next year. The Duke of Marlborough had intended the 1705 campaignan invasion of France through the Moselle valleyto complete the work of Blenheim and persuade King LouisXIV to make peace but the plan had been thwarted by friend and foe alike. The reluctance of his Dutch allies to see their frontiers denuded of troops for another gamble in Germany had denied Marlborough the initiative Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor LeopoldI in May and the accession of JosephI, which unavoidably complicated matters for the Grand Alliance. Marshal Villeroi, exerting considerable pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse, took Huy on 10 June before pressing on towards Liège. With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commanderwhose supplies had by now become very shortwas forced to call off his campaign on 16 June. "What a disgrace for Marlborough," exulted Villeroi, "to have made false movements without any result!" With Marlborough's departure north, the French transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, while Villars marched off to the Rhine. The Anglo-Dutch forces gained minor compensation for the failed Moselle campaign with the success at Elixheim and the crossing of the Lines of Brabant in the Spanish Netherlands (Huy was also retaken on 11 July) but a chance to bring the French to a decisive engagement eluded Marlborough. The year 1705 proved almost entirely barren for the Duke, whose military disappointments were only partly compensated by efforts on the diplomatic front where, at the courts of Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Vienna, Berlin and Hanover, Marlborough sought to bolster support for the Grand Alliance and extract promises of prompt assistance for the following year's campaign. ==Prelude== On 11 January 1706 Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour but he had already been planning his strategy for the coming season. The first option (although it is debatable to what extent the Duke was committed to such an enterprise) was a plan to transfer his forces from the Spanish Netherlands to northern Italy; once there, he intended linking up with Prince Eugene in order to defeat the French and safeguard Savoy from being overrun. Savoy would then serve as a gateway into France by way of the mountain passes or an invasion with naval support along the Mediterranean coast via Nice and Toulon, in connexion with redoubled Allied efforts in Spain. It seems that the Duke's favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley (where Marshal Marsin had recently taken command of French forces) and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France. But these decisions soon became academic. Shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of big Allied setbacks in the wider war. Determined to show the Grand Alliance that France was still resolute, LouisXIV prepared to launch a double surprise in Alsace and northern Italy. On the latter front Marshal Vendôme defeated the Imperial army at Calcinato on 19 April, pushing the Imperialists back in confusion (French forces were now in a position to prepare for the long-anticipated siege of Turin). In Alsace, Marshal Villars took Baden by surprise and captured Haguenau, driving him back across the Rhine in some disorder, thus creating a threat on Landau. With these reverses, the Dutch refused to contemplate Marlborough's ambitious march to Italy or any plan that denuded their borders of the Duke and their army. In the interest of coalition harmony, Marlborough prepared to campaign in the Low Countries. On 17 May the Duke concentrated his Dutch and English troops at Tongeren, near Maastricht. The Hanoverians, Hessians and Danes, despite earlier undertakings, found, or invented, pressing reasons for withholding their support. Additionally, the King in Prussia, Frederick I, had kept his troops in quarters behind the Rhine while his personal disputes with Vienna and the States General at The Hague remained unresolved. Nevertheless, the Duke could think of no circumstances why the French would leave their strong positions and attack his army, even if Villeroi was first reinforced by substantial transfers from Marsin's command. But in this he had miscalculated. Although LouisXIV wanted peace he wanted it on reasonable terms; for that, he needed victory in the field and to convince the Allies that his resources were by no means exhausted. Following the successes in Italy and along the Rhine, LouisXIV was now hopeful of similar results in Flanders. Far from standing on the defensive thereforeand unbeknown to MarlboroughLouisXIV was persistently goading his marshal into action. "[Villeroi] began to imagine," wrote St Simon, "that the King doubted his courage, and resolved to stake all at once in an effort to vindicate himself." Accordingly, on 18 May, Villeroi set off from Leuven at the head of 70 battalions, 132 squadrons and 62 cannoncomprising an overall force of some 60,000 troopsand crossed the river Dyle to seek battle with the enemy. Spurred on by his growing confidence in his ability to out-general his opponent, and by Versailles’ determination to avenge Blenheim, Villeroi and his generals anticipated success. Neither opponent expected the clash at the exact moment or place where it occurred. The French moved first to Tienen, (as if to threaten Zoutleeuw, abandoned by the French in October 1705), before turning southwards, heading for Jodoignethis line of march took Villeroi's army towards the narrow aperture of dry ground between the rivers Mehaigne and Petite Gette close to the small villages of Ramillies and Taviers; but neither commander quite appreciated how far his opponent had travelled. Villeroi still believed (on 22 May) the Allies were a full day's march away when in fact they had camped near Corswaren waiting for the Danish squadrons to catch up; for his part, Marlborough deemed Villeroi still at Jodoigne when in reality he was now approaching the plateau of Mont St. André with the intention of pitching camp near Ramillies (see map at right). The following day, at 01:00, Marlborough dispatched Cadogan, his Quartermaster-General, with an advanced guard to reconnoitre the same dry ground that Villeroi's army was now heading toward, country that was well known to the Duke from previous campaigns. Two hours later the Duke followed with the main body: 74 battalions, 123 squadrons, 90 pieces of artillery and 20 mortars, totalling 62,000 troops. About 08:00, after Cadogan had just passed Merdorp, his force made brief contact with a party of French hussars gathering forage on the edge of the plateau of Jandrenouille. After a brief exchange of shots the French retired and Cadogan's dragoons pressed forward. With a short lift in the mist, Cadogan soon discovered the smartly ordered lines of Villeroi's advance guard some off; a galloper hastened back to warn Marlborough. Two hours later the Duke, accompanied by the Dutch field commander Field Marshal Overkirk, Quartermaster-General Daniël van Dopff, and the Allied staff, rode up to Cadogan where on the horizon to the westward he could discern the massed ranks of the French army deploying for battle along the front. ==Battle== ===Battlefield=== The battlefield of Ramillies is very similar to that of Blenheim, for here too there is an immense area of arable land unimpeded by woods or hedges. Villeroi's right rested on the villages of Franquenée and Taviers, with the river Mehaigne protecting his flank. A large open plain, about wide, lay between Taviers and Ramillies, but unlike Blenheim, there was no stream to hinder the cavalry. His centre was secured by Ramillies itself, lying on a slight eminence which gave distant views to the north and east. The French left flank was protected by broken country, and by a stream, the Petite Gheete, which runs deep between steep and slippery slopes. On the French side of the stream the ground rises to Offus, the village which, together with Autre-Eglise farther north, anchored Villeroi's left flank. To the west of the Petite Gheete rises the plateau of Mont St. André; a second plain, the plateau of Jandrenouilleupon which the Anglo-Dutch army amassedrises to the east.Overkirk drew the 69 squadrons of the Dutch and Danish horse, supported by 19 battalions of Dutch infantry and two artillery pieces. Meanwhile, Villeroi deployed his forces. In Taviers on his right, he placed two battalions of the Greder Suisse Régiment, with a smaller force forward in Franquenée; the whole position was protected by the boggy ground of the river Mehaigne, thus preventing an Allied flanking movement. In the open country between Taviers and Ramillies, he placed 82 squadrons under General de Guiscard supported by several interleaved brigades of French, Swiss and Bavarian infantry. Along the Ramillies–Offus–Autre Eglise ridge-line, Villeroi positioned Walloon and Bavarian infantry, supported by the Elector of Bavaria's 50 squadrons of Bavarian and Walloon cavalry placed behind on the plateau of Mont St. André. Ramillies, Offus and Autre-Eglise were all packed with troops and put in a state of defence, with alleys barricaded and walls loop-holed for muskets. Villeroi also positioned powerful batteries near Ramillies. These guns (some of which were of the three barrelled kind first seen at Elixheim the previous year) enjoyed good arcs of fire, able to fully cover the approaches of the plateau of Jandrenouille over which the Allied infantry would have to pass. Marlborough, however, noticed several important weaknesses in the French dispositions. Tactically, it was imperative for Villeroi to occupy Taviers on his right and Autre-Eglise on his left, but by adopting this posture he had been forced to over-extend his forces. Moreover, this dispositionconcave in relation to the Allied armygave Marlborough the opportunity to form a more compact line, drawn up in a shorter front between the 'horns' of the French crescent; when the Allied blow came it would be more concentrated and carry more weight. Additionally, the Duke's disposition facilitated the transfer of troops across his front far more easily than his foe, a tactical advantage that would grow in importance as the events of the afternoon unfolded. ===Taviers=== At 13:00 the batteries went into action; a little later two Allied columns set out from the extremities of their line and attacked the flanks of the Franco-Bavarian army. To the south, 4 Dutch battalions, under the command of Colonel Wertmüller, came forward with their two field guns to seize the hamlet of Franquenée. The small Swiss garrison in the village, shaken by the sudden onslaught and unsupported by the battalions to their rear, were soon compelled back towards the village of Taviers. Taviers was of particular importance to the Franco-Bavarian position: it protected the otherwise unsupported flank of General de Guiscard's cavalry on the open plain, while at the same time, it allowed the French infantry to pose a threat to the flanks of the Dutch and Danish squadrons as they came forward into position. But hardly had the retreating Swiss rejoined their comrades in that village when the Dutch Guards renewed their attack. The fighting amongst the alleys and cottages soon deteriorated into a fierce bayonet and clubbing mêlée, but the superiority in Dutch firepower soon told. The accomplished French officer, Colonel de la Colonie, standing on the plain nearby remembered: "This village was the opening of the engagement, and the fighting there was almost as murderous as the rest of the battle put together." By about 15:00 the Swiss had been pushed out of the village into the marshes beyond. Villeroi's right flank fell into chaos and was now open and vulnerable. Alerted to the situation de Guiscard ordered an immediate attack with 14 squadrons of French dragoons currently stationed in the rear. Two other battalions of the Greder Suisse Régiment were also sent, but the attack was poorly co-ordinated and consequently went in piecemeal. The Anglo-Dutch commanders now sent dismounted Dutch dragoons into Taviers, which, together with the Guards and their field guns, poured concentrated musketry- and canister-fire into the advancing French troops. Colonel d’Aubigni, leading his regiment, fell mortally wounded. As the French ranks wavered, the leading squadrons of Württemberg's Danish horsenow unhampered by enemy fire from either villagewere also sent into the attack and fell upon the exposed flank of the Franco-Swiss infantry and dragoons. De la Colonie, with his Grenadiers Rouge regiment, together with the Cologne Guards who were brigaded with them, was now ordered forward from his post south of Ramillies to support the faltering counter-attack on the village. But on his arrival, all was chaos: "Scarcely had my troops got over when the dragoons and Swiss who had preceded us, came tumbling down upon my battalions in full flight... My own fellows turned about and fled along with them." ===Offus and Autre-Eglise=== While the attack on Taviers went on the Earl of Orkney launched his first line of English across the Petite Gheete in a determined attack against the barricaded villages of Offus and Autre-Eglise on the Allied right. Villeroi, posting himself near Offus, watched anxiously the redcoats' advance, mindful of the counsel he had received on 6 May from LouisXIV: "Have particular care to that part of the line which will endure the first shock of the English troops." The vigour of the English assault, however, was such that they threatened to break through the line of the villages and out onto the open plateau of Mont St André beyond. This was potentially dangerous for the Allied infantry who would then be at the mercy of the Elector's Bavarian and Walloon squadrons patiently waiting on the plateau for the order to move. Although Henry Lumley's English cavalry had managed to cross the marshy ground around the Petite Gheete, it was soon evident to Marlborough that sufficient cavalry support would not be practicable and that the battle could not be won on the Allied right. The Duke, therefore, called off the attack against Offus and Autre-Eglise. To make sure that Orkney obeyed his order to withdraw, Marlborough sent his Quartermaster-General in person with the command. Despite Orkney's protestations, Cadogan insisted on compliance and, reluctantly, Orkney gave the word for his troops to fall back to their original positions on the edge of the plateau of Jandrenouille. It is still not clear how far Orkney's advance was planned only as a feint; according to historian David Chandler it is probably more accurate to surmise that Marlborough launched Orkney in a serious probe with a view to sounding out the possibilities of the sector. ===Ramillies=== Meanwhile, the Dutch assault on Ramillies was gaining pace. Marlborough's younger brother, General of Infantry Charles Churchill, ordered four brigades of foot to attack the village. The assault consisted of 12 battalions of Dutch infantry commanded by Major Generals Scholten and Sparre; two brigades of Saxons under Count Schulenburg; a Scottish brigade in Dutch service led by the 2nd Duke of Argyle; and a small brigade of Protestant Swiss. The 20 French and Bavarian battalions in Ramillies, supported by the Irish who had left Ireland in the Flight of the Wild Geese to join Clare's Dragoons who fought as infantry and captured a colour from the British 3rd Regiment of Foot and a small brigade of Cologne and Bavarian Guards under the Marquis de Maffei, put up a determined defence, initially driving back the attackers with severe losses as commemorated in the song Clare's Dragoons. Seeing that Scholten and Sparre were faltering, Marlborough now ordered Orkney's second-line British and Danish battalions (who had not been used in the assault on Offus and Autre-Eglise) to move south towards Ramillies. Shielded as they were from observation by a slight fold in the land, their commander, Brigadier-General Van Pallandt, ordered the regimental colours to be left in place on the edge of the plateau to convince their opponents they were still in their initial position. Therefore, unbeknown to the French who remained oblivious to the Allies' real strength and intentions on the opposite side of the Petite Gheete, Marlborough was throwing his full weight against Ramillies and the open plain to the south. Villeroi meanwhile, was still moving more reserves of infantry in the opposite direction towards his left flank; crucially, it would be some time before the French commander noticed the subtle change in emphasis of the Allied dispositions. Around 15:30 Overkirk advanced his massed squadrons on the open plain in support of the infantry attack on Ramillies. 48 Dutch squadrons, supported on their left by 21 Danish squadrons, led by Count Tilly and Lieutenants Generals Hompesch, d'Auvergne, Ostfriesland and Dopffsteadily advanced towards the enemy (taking care not to prematurely tire the horses), before breaking into a trot to gain the impetus for their charge. The Marquis de Feuquières writing after the battle described the scene: "They advanced in four lines... As they approached they advanced their second and fourth lines into the intervals of their first and third lines; so that when they made their advance upon us, they formed only one front, without any intermediate spaces." This made it nearly impossible for the French cavalry to perform flanking manoeuvres. The initial clash favoured the Dutch and Danish squadrons. The disparity of numbersexacerbated by Villeroi stripping their ranks of infantry to reinforce his left flankenabled Overkirk's cavalry to throw the first line of French horse back in some disorder towards their second-line squadrons. This line also came under severe pressure and, in turn, was forced back to their third-line of cavalry and the few battalions still remaining on the plain. But these French horsemen were amongst the best in LouisXIV's armythe Maison du Roi, supported by four elite squadrons of Bavarian Cuirassiers. Ably led by de Guiscard, the French cavalry rallied, thrusting back the Allied squadrons in successful local counterattacks. On Overkirk's right flank, close to Ramillies, ten of his squadrons suddenly broke ranks and were scattered, riding headlong to the rear to recover their order, leaving the left flank of the Allied assault on Ramillies dangerously exposed. Notwithstanding the lack of infantry support, de Guiscard threw his cavalry forward in an attempt to split the Allied army in two. A crisis threatened the centre, but from his vantage point Marlborough was at once aware of the situation. It was a critical moment of the battle. "Major-General Murray," recalled one eyewitness: "...seeing him fall, marched up in all haste with two Swiss battalions to save him and stop the enemy who were hewing all down in their way." Samuel Constant de Rebecque helped Marlborough back on his feet, while Marlborough's newly appointed aide-de-camp, Richard Molesworth, galloped to the rescue, mounted the Duke on his horse and made good their escape, before Murray's disciplined ranks threw back the pursuing French troopers. ===Breakthrough=== The time was about 16:30, and the two armies were in close contact across the whole front, from the skirmishing in the marshes in the south, through the vast cavalry battle on the open plain; to the fierce struggle for Ramillies at the centre, and to the north, where, around the cottages of Offus and Autre-Eglise, Orkney and de la Guiche faced each other across the Petite Gheete ready to renew hostilities. The arrival of the transferring squadrons now began to tip the balance in favour of the Allies. Tired, and suffering a growing list of casualties, the numerical inferiority of Guiscard's squadrons battling on the plain at last began to tell. After earlier failing to hold or retake Franquenée and Taviers, Guiscard's right flank had become dangerously exposed and a fatal gap had opened on the right of their line. Taking advantage of this breach, Württemberg's Danish cavalry now swept forward, wheeling to penetrate the flank of the Maison du Roi whose attention was almost entirely fixed on holding back the Dutch. Sweeping forwards, virtually without resistance, the 21 Danish squadrons reformed behind the French around the area of the Tomb of Ottomond, facing north across the plateau of Mont St André towards the exposed flank of Villeroi's army. The final Allied reinforcements for the cavalry contest to the south were at last in position; Marlborough's superiority on the left could no longer be denied, and his fast-moving plan took hold of the battlefield. Now, far too late, Villeroi tried to redeploy his 50 unused squadrons, but a desperate attempt to form line facing south, stretching from Offus to Mont St André, floundered amongst the baggage and tents of the French camp carelessly left there after the initial deployment. The Allied commander ordered his cavalry forward against the now heavily outnumbered French and Bavarian horsemen. De Guiscard's right flank, without proper infantry support, could no longer resist the onslaught and, turning their horses northwards, they broke and fled in complete disorder. Even the squadrons currently being scrambled together by Villeroi behind Ramillies could not withstand the onslaught. "We had not got forty yards on our retreat," remembered Captain Peter Drake, an Irishman serving with the French"when the words sauve qui peut went through the great part, if not the whole army, and put all to confusion" In Ramillies the Allied infantry, now reinforced by the English troops brought down from the north, at last broke through. The Régiment de Picardie stood their ground but were caught between Colonel Borthwick's Scots-Dutch regiment and the English reinforcements. Borthwick was killed, as was Charles O’Brien, the Irish Viscount Clare in French service, fighting at the head of his regiment. The Marquis de Maffei attempted one last stand with his Bavarian and Cologne Guards, but it proved in vain. Noticing a rush of horsemen fast approaching from the south, he later recalled: "...I went towards the nearest of these squadrons to instruct their officer, but instead of being listened to [I] was immediately surrounded and called upon to ask for quarter." ===Pursuit=== The roads leading north and west were choked with fugitives. Orkney now sent his English troops back across the Petite Gheete stream to once again storm Offus where de la Guiche's infantry had begun to drift away in the confusion. To the right of the infantry Lord John Hay's 'Scots Greys' also picked their way across the stream and charged the Régiment du Roi within Autre-Eglise. "Our dragoons," wrote John Deane, "pushing into the village... made terrible slaughter of the enemy." Far to the south, the remnants of de la Colonie's brigade headed in the opposite direction towards the French held fortress of Namur. The retreat became a rout. Individual Allied commanders drove their troops forward in pursuit, allowing their beaten enemy no chance to recover. Soon the Allied infantry could no longer keep up, but their cavalry were off the leash, heading through the gathering night for the crossings on the river Dyle. At last, however, Marlborough called a halt to the pursuit shortly after midnight near Meldert, from the field. ==Aftermath== What was left of Villeroi's army was now broken in spirit; the imbalance of the casualty figures amply demonstrates the extent of the disaster for LouisXIV's army: (see below). In addition, hundreds of French soldiers were fugitives, many of whom would never remuster to the colours. Villeroi also lost 52 artillery pieces and his entire engineer pontoon train. In the words of Marshal Villars, the French defeat at Ramillies was "the most shameful, humiliating and disastrous of routs". Town after town now succumbed to the Allies. Leuven fell on 25 May 1706; three days later, the Allies entered Brussels, the capital of the Spanish Netherlands. Marlborough realised the great opportunity created by the early victory of Ramillies: "We now have the whole summer before us," wrote the Duke from Brussels to Robert Harley: "...and with the blessing of God I shall make the best use of it." Malines, Lierre, Ghent, Alost, Damme, Oudenaarde, Bruges, and on 6 June Antwerp, all subsequently fell to Marlborough's victorious army and, like Brussels, proclaimed the Austrian candidate for the Spanish throne, the Archduke Charles, as their sovereign. Villeroi was helpless to arrest the process of collapse. When LouisXIV learnt of the disaster he recalled Marshal Vendôme from northern Italy to take command in Flanders; but it would be weeks before the command changed hands. As news spread of the Allies' triumph, the Prussians, Hessians and Hanoverian contingents, long delayed by their respective rulers, eagerly joined the pursuit of the broken French and Bavarian forces. "This," wrote Marlborough wearily, "I take to be owing to our late success." Meanwhile, Overkirk took the port of Ostend on 4 July thus opening a direct route to the English Channel for communication and supply, but the Allies were making scant progress against Dendermonde whose governor, the Marquis de Valée, was stubbornly resisting. Only later when Cadogan and Churchill went to take charge did the town's defences begin to fail. Vendôme formally took over command in Flanders on 4 August; Villeroi would never again receive a major command: "I cannot foresee a happy day in my life save only that of my death." LouisXIV was more forgiving to his old friend: "At our age, Marshal, we must no longer expect good fortune." In the meantime, Marlborough invested the elaborate fortress of Menin which, after a costly siege, capitulated on 22 August. Dendermonde finally succumbed on 6 September followed by Aththe last conquest of 1706on 2 October. By the time Marlborough had closed down the Ramillies campaign he had denied the French most of the Spanish Netherlands west of the Meuse and north of the Sambreit was an unsurpassed operational triumph for the English Duke but once again it was not decisive as these gains did not defeat France. Emperor JosephI, acting on behalf of his younger brother King CharlesIII, absent in Spain, claimed that reconquered Brabant and Flanders should be put under immediate possession of a governor named by himself. The Dutch, however, who had supplied the major share of the troops and money to secure the victory (the Austrians had produced nothing of either) claimed the government of the region till the war was over, and that after the peace they should continue to garrison Barrier Fortresses stronger than those which had fallen so easily to LouisXIV's forces in 1701. Marlborough mediated between the two parties but favoured the Dutch position. To sway the Duke's opinion, the Emperor offered Marlborough the governorship of the Spanish Netherlands. It was a tempting offer, but in the name of Allied unity, it was one he refused. In the end England and the Dutch Republic took control of the newly won territory for the duration of the war; after which it was to be handed over to the direct rule of CharlesIII, subject to the reservation of a Dutch Barrier, the extent and nature of which had yet to be settled. Meanwhile, on the Upper Rhine, Villars had been forced onto the defensive as battalion after battalion had been sent north to bolster collapsing French forces in Flanders; there was now no possibility of his undertaking the re-capture of Landau. Further good news for the Allies arrived from northern Italy where, on 7 September, Prince Eugene had routed a French army before the Piedmontese capital, Turin, driving the Franco-Spanish forces from northern Italy. Only from Spain did LouisXIV receive any good news where Das Minas and Galway had been forced to retreat from Madrid towards Valencia, allowing PhilipV to re-enter his capital on 4 October. All in all though, the situation had changed considerably and LouisXIV began to look for ways to end what was fast becoming a ruinous war for France. For Queen Anne also, the Ramillies campaign had one overriding significance: "Now we have God be thanked so hopeful a prospect of peace." Instead of continuing the momentum of victory, however, cracks in Allied unity would enable LouisXIV to reverse some of the major setbacks suffered at Turin and Ramillies. ==Casualties== The total number of French casualties cannot be calculated precisely, so complete was the collapse of the Franco-Bavarian army that day. David G. Chandler's Marlborough as Military Commander and A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe are consistent with regards to French casualty figures, i.e. 12,000 dead and wounded plus some 7,000 taken prisoner. James Falkner, in Ramillies 1706: Year of Miracles, also notes 12,000 dead and wounded and "up to 10,000" taken prisoner. In Notes on the history of military medicine, Garrison puts French casualties at 13,000, including 2,000 killed, 3,000 wounded and 6,000 missing. In The Collins Encyclopaedia of Military History, Dupuy puts Villeroi's dead and wounded at 8,000, with a further 7,000 captured. Neil Litten, using French archives, suggests 7,000 killed and wounded and 6,000 captured, with a further 2,000 choosing to desert. John Millner's memoirsCompendious Journal (1733)is more specific, recording 12,087 of Villeroi's army were killed or wounded, with another 9,729 taken prisoner. In Marlborough, however, Correlli Barnett puts the total casualty figure as high as 30,000–15,000 dead and wounded with an additional 15,000 taken captive. Trevelyan estimates Villeroi's casualties at 13,000 but adds "his losses by desertion may have doubled that number". La Colonie omits a casualty figure in his Chronicles of an old Campaigner but Saint-Simon in his Memoirs states 4,000 killed adding "many others were wounded and many important persons were taken prisoner". Voltaire, however, in Histoire du siècle du LouisXIV records "the French lost there twenty thousand men". Gaston Bodart states 2,000 killed or wounded, 6,000 captured and 7,000 scattered for a total of 13,000 casualties. Périni writes that both sides lost 2 to 3,000 killed or wounded (the Dutch losing precisely 716 killed and 1,712 wounded), and that 5,600 French were captured.	[ "Aalst, Belgium", "François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi", "Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford (1672–1739)", "English Channel", "Dutch Republic", "Alessandro, Marquis de Maffei", "Minerva", "John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough", "Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)", "Colours, standards and guidons", "Mechelen", "Chandler, David G.", "Correlli Barnett", "Madrid", "muskets", "Reinhard Vincent Graf von Hompesch", "Battle of Turin", "Battle of Calcinato", "Flight of the Wild Geese", "Damme", "Alsace", "Maison militaire du roi de France", "Lier, Belgium", "Lines of Brabant", "Antoine de Pas de Feuquières", "Battle of Schellenberg", "Leuven", "Daniël van Dopff", "Denmark–Norway", "Bruges", "Claude Frédéric t'Serclaes, Count of Tilly", "Pontoon bridge", "Queen Anne of Great Britain", "Louis XIV of France", "Kingdom of England", "Prince Eugene of Savoy", "Gete", "George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney", "Landau", "Squadron (cavalry)", "Siege of Barcelona (1705)", "Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Jobst von Scholten", "Düsseldorf", "hussar", "Haguenau", "Royal Scots Greys", "Tienen", "Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment)", "Jodoigne", "Palace of Versailles", "The Hague", "Voltaire", "States General of the Netherlands", "Karel Willem Sparre", "Ath", "Turin", "Mehaigne", "Valencia", "Sicco van Goslinga", "Huy", "Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer", "Dijle", "Ostend", "Louis XIV of France", "Namur", "Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg", "Spanish Netherlands", "Sambre", "Enlightenment in Spain", "Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme", "David G. Chandler", "Meuse", "Nice", "Siege of Menin (1706)", "Gaston Bodart", "Louis Joseph de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme", "Veurne", "Old Style and New Style dates", "Moselle", "Toulon", "Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden", "Piedmont", "Maastricht", "Volley gun", "Royal Navy", "Brussels", "Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon", "Huchtenburg", "François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy", "London", "annotate", "Frankfurt", "Berlin", "Marquis de Valée", "cannon", "Robert Murray (died 1719)", "battalion", "Frederick I of Prussia", "Menen", "Ferdinand de Marsin", "Henry Lumley", "annus mirabilis", "War of the Spanish Succession", "William Cadogan, 1st Earl Cadogan", "Charles Churchill (British Army general)", "Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria", "Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor", "John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll", "Carl Rudolf, Duke of Württemberg-Neuenstadt", "Duchy of Savoy", "Charles O'Brien, 5th Viscount Clare", "Clare's Dragoons", "Richard Molesworth, 3rd Viscount Molesworth", "Samuel Constant de Rebecque", "Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk", "House of Bourbon", "Siege of Ostend (1706)", "António Luís de Sousa, 2nd Marquess of Minas", "Liège", "Zoutleeuw", "Oudenaarde", "HMS Ramillies", "Dendermonde", "Claude Louis Hector de Villars", "Rhine", "Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin", "Antwerp", "Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor", "Philip V of Spain", "Battle of Blenheim", "Battle of Elixheim", "Hanover", "G. M. Trevelyan", "Ramillies, Belgium", "Ghent", "Tongeren", "Vienna", "Henri de Massue, Earl of Galway" ]
4,051	Brian Kernighan	Brian Wilson Kernighan (; born January 30, 1942) Kernighan authored many Unix programs, including ditroff. He is coauthor of the AWK and AMPL programming languages. The "K" of K&R C and of AWK both stand for "Kernighan". In collaboration with Shen Lin he devised well-known heuristics for two NP-complete optimization problems: graph partitioning and the travelling salesman problem. In a display of authorial equity, the former is usually called the Kernighan–Lin algorithm, while the latter is known as the Lin–Kernighan heuristic. Kernighan has been a professor of computer science at Princeton University since 2000 and is the director of undergraduate studies in the department of computer science. In 2015, he co-authored the book ''The Go Programming Language. ==Early life and education== Kernighan was born in Toronto. He attended the University of Toronto between 1960 and 1964, earning his bachelor's degree in engineering physics. ==Career and research== Kernighan has held a professorship in the department of computer science at Princeton since 2000. Each fall he teaches a course called "Computers in Our World", which introduces the fundamentals of computing to non-majors. Kernighan was the software editor for Prentice Hall International. His "Software Tools" series spread the essence of "C/Unix thinking" with makeovers for BASIC, FORTRAN, and Pascal, and most notably his "Ratfor" (rational FORTRAN) was put in the public domain. He has said that if stranded on an island with only one programming language it would have to be C. Kernighan coined the term "Unix" and helped popularize Thompson's Unix philosophy. Kernighan is also known for coining the expression "What You See Is All You Get" (WYSIAYG), which is a sarcastic variant of the original "What You See Is What You Get" (WYSIWYG). Kernighan's term is used to indicate that WYSIWYG systems might throw away information in a document that could be useful in other contexts. In 1972, Kernighan described memory management in strings using "hello" and "world", in the B programming language, which became the iconic example we know today. Kernighan's original 1978 implementation of was sold at The Algorithm Auction, the world's first auction of computer algorithms. In 1996, Kernighan taught CS50 which is the Harvard University introductory course in computer science. Kernighan was an influence on David J. Malan who subsequently taught the course and scaled it up to run at multiple universities and in multiple digital formats. Kernighan was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2002 for contributions to software and to programming languages. He was also elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2019. In 2022, Kernighan stated that he was actively working on improvements to the AWK programming language, which he took part in creating in 1977. ===Books and reports=== The Elements of Programming Style, with P. J. Plauger Software Tools, a book and set of tools for Ratfor, co-created in part with P. J. Plauger Software Tools in Pascal, a book and set of tools for Pascal, with P. J. Plauger The C Programming Language, with C creator Dennis Ritchie, the first book on C The Practice of Programming, with Rob Pike The Unix Programming Environment, a tutorial book, with Rob Pike "Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language", a popular criticism of Niklaus Wirth's Pascal. Some parts of the criticism are obsolete due to ISO 7185 (Programming Languages - Pascal); the criticism was written before ISO 7185 was created. (AT&T Computing Science Technical Report #100) UNIX: A History and a Memoir, a historical account of the development of Unix from the perspective of his role at Bell Labs ===Programs=== 1972: The first documented "Hello, world!" program, in Kernighan's "A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B" 1973: ditroff, or "device independent troff", which allowed troff to be used with any device 1974: The eqn typesetting language for troff, with Lorinda Cherry The Go Programming Language (2015) with Alan Donovan Understanding the Digital World: What You Need to Know about Computers, the Internet, Privacy, and Security (2017) Millions, Billions, Zillions: Defending Yourself in a World of Too Many Numbers (2018) UNIX: A History and a Memoir (2019)	[ "programming language", "WYSIWYG", "The Practice of Programming", "The Daily Princetonian", "travelling salesman problem", "Alan Donovan", "Dennis M. Ritchie", "B (programming language)", "heuristic", "University of Toronto", "Ontario", "computer algorithm", "AMPL", "Harvard University", "engineering physics", "Go (programming language)", "electrical engineering", "troff", "C (programming language)", "Lin–Kernighan heuristic", "National Academy of Engineering", "The Elements of Programming Style", "Peter J. Weinberger", "pic language", "P. J. Plauger", "Fortran", "Princeton University", "Niklaus Wirth", "List of pioneers in computer science", "computer scientist", "Shen Lin", "CS50", "Ken Thompson", "public domain", "m4 (computer language)", "Dennis Ritchie", "Unix", "Ratfor", "Unix philosophy", "American Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Toronto", "David J. Malan", "Doctor of Philosophy", "The Unix Programming Environment", "\"Hello, world!\" program", "David M. Gay", "eqn (software)", "Computer science", "Bachelor of Applied Science", "Linux Journal", "Rob Pike", "Bell Labs", "Alfred Aho", "The C Programming Language", "NP-complete", "Kernighan–Lin algorithm", "The New York Times", "graph partition", "BASIC", "\"Hello, World!\" program", "Robert Fourer", "Pascal (programming language)", "The Algorithm Auction", "Lorinda Cherry", "P. J. Plauger", "AWK", "bachelor's degree", "Prentice Hall", "The AWK Programming Language" ]
4,052	BCPL	BCPL ("Basic Combined Programming Language") is a procedural, imperative, and structured programming language. Originally intended for writing compilers for other languages, BCPL is no longer in common use. However, its influence is still felt because a stripped down and syntactically changed version of BCPL, called B, was the language on which the C programming language was based. BCPL introduced several features of many modern programming languages, including using curly braces to delimit code blocks. BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967. ==Design== BCPL was designed so that small and simple compilers could be written for it; reputedly some compilers could be run in 16 kilobytes. Furthermore, the original compiler, itself written in BCPL, was easily portable. BCPL was thus a popular choice for bootstrapping a system. A major reason for the compiler's portability lay in its structure. It was split into two parts: the front end parsed the source and generated O-code, an intermediate language. The back end took the O-code and translated it into the machine code for the target machine. Only of the compiler's code needed to be rewritten to support a new machine, a task that usually took between 2 and 5 person-months. This approach became common practice later (e.g. Pascal, Java). The language is unusual in having only one data type: a word, a fixed number of bits, usually chosen to align with the same platform architecture's machine word and of adequate capacity to represent any valid storage address. For many machines of the time, this data type was a 16-bit word. This choice later proved to be a significant problem when BCPL was used on machines in which the smallest addressable item was not a word but a byte or on machines with larger word sizes such as 32-bit or 64-bit. The interpretation of any value was determined by the operators used to process the values. (For example, + added two values together, treating them as integers; ! indirected through a value, effectively treating it as a pointer.) In order for this to work, the implementation provided no type checking. The mismatch between BCPL's word orientation and byte-oriented hardware was addressed in several ways. One was by providing standard library routines for packing and unpacking words into byte strings. Later, two language features were added: the bit-field selection operator and the infix byte indirection operator (denoted by %). BCPL handles bindings spanning separate compilation units in a unique way. There are no user-declarable global variables; instead, there is a global vector, similar to "blank common" in Fortran. All data shared between different compilation units comprises scalars and pointers to vectors stored in a pre-arranged place in the global vector. Thus, the header files (files included during compilation using the "GET" directive) become the primary means of synchronizing global data between compilation units, containing "GLOBAL" directives that present lists of symbolic names, each paired with a number that associates the name with the corresponding numerically addressed word in the global vector. As well as variables, the global vector contains bindings for external procedures. This makes dynamic loading of compilation units very simple to achieve. Instead of relying on the link loader of the underlying implementation, effectively, BCPL gives the programmer control of the linking process. The global vector also made it very simple to replace or augment standard library routines. A program could save the pointer from the global vector to the original routine and replace it with a pointer to an alternative version. The alternative might call the original as part of its processing. This could be used as a quick ad hoc debugging aid. BCPL was the first brace programming language and the braces survived the syntactical changes and have become a common means of denoting program source code statements. In practice, on limited keyboards of the day, source programs often used the sequences $( and $) or [ and ] in place of the symbols { and }. The single-line // comments of BCPL, which were not adopted by C, reappeared in C++ and later in C99. The book BCPL: The language and its compiler describes the philosophy of BCPL as follows: ==History== BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967. BCPL was a response to difficulties with its predecessor, Cambridge Programming Language, later renamed Combined Programming Language (CPL), which was designed during the early 1960s. Richards created BCPL by "removing those features of the full language which make compilation difficult". The first compiler implementation, for the IBM 7094 under Compatible Time-Sharing System, was written while Richards was visiting Project MAC at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the spring of 1967. The language was first described in a paper presented to the 1969 Spring Joint Computer Conference. BCPL has been rumored to have originally stood for "Bootstrap Cambridge Programming Language", but CPL was never created since development stopped at BCPL, and the acronym was later reinterpreted for the BCPL book. BCPL is the language in which the original "Hello, World!" program was written. The first MUD was also written in BCPL (MUD1). Several operating systems were written partially or wholly in BCPL (for example, TRIPOS and the earliest versions of AmigaDOS). BCPL was also the initial language used in the Xerox PARC Alto project. Among other projects, the Bravo document preparation system was written in BCPL. An early compiler, bootstrapped in 1969, by starting with a paper tape of the O-code of Richards's Atlas 2 compiler, targeted the ICT 1900 series. The two machines had different word-lengths (48 vs 24 bits), different character encodings, and different packed string representations—and the successful bootstrapping increased confidence in the practicality of the method. By late 1970, implementations existed for the Honeywell 635 and Honeywell 645, IBM 360, PDP-10, TX-2, CDC 6400, UNIVAC 1108, PDP-9, KDF 9 and Atlas 2. In 1974 a dialect of BCPL was implemented at BBN without using the intermediate O-code. The initial implementation was a cross-compiler hosted on BBN's TENEX PDP-10s, and directly targeted the PDP-11s used in BBN's implementation of the second generation IMPs used in the ARPANET. There was also a version produced for the BBC Micro in the mid-1980s, by Richards Computer Products, a company started by John Richards, the brother of Martin Richards. The BBC Domesday Project made use of the language. Versions of BCPL for the Amstrad CPC and Amstrad PCW computers were also released in 1986 by UK software house Arnor Ltd. MacBCPL was released for the Apple Macintosh in 1985 by Topexpress Ltd, of Kensington, England. Both the design and philosophy of BCPL strongly influenced B, which in turn influenced C. Programmers at the time debated whether an eventual successor to C would be called "D", the next letter in the alphabet, or "P", the next letter in the parent language name. The language most accepted as being C's successor is C++ (with ++ being C's increment operator), although meanwhile, a D programming language also exists. In 1979, implementations of BCPL existed for at least 25 architectures; the language gradually fell out of favour as C became popular on non-Unix systems. Martin Richards maintains a modern version of BCPL on his website, last updated in 2023. This can be set up to run on various systems including Linux, FreeBSD, and Mac OS X. The latest distribution includes graphics and sound libraries, and there is a comprehensive manual. He continues to program in it, including for his research on musical automated score following. A common informal MIME type for BCPL is . ==Examples== === Hello world === Richards and Whitby-Strevens provide an example of the "Hello, World!" program for BCPL using a standard system header, 'LIBHDR': GET "LIBHDR" LET START() BE WRITES("Hello, World") === Further examples === If these programs are run using Richards' current version of Cintsys (December 2018), LIBHDR, START and WRITEF must be changed to lower case to avoid errors. Print factorials: GET "LIBHDR" LET START() = VALOF $( FOR I = 1 TO 5 DO WRITEF("%N! = %I4N", I, FACT(I)) RESULTIS 0 $) AND FACT(N) = N = 0 -> 1, N FACT(N - 1) Count solutions to the N queens problem: GET "LIBHDR" GLOBAL $( COUNT: 200 ALL: 201 $) LET TRY(LD, ROW, RD) BE TEST ROW = ALL THEN COUNT := COUNT + 1 ELSE $( LET POSS = ALL & ~(LD \| ROW \| RD) UNTIL POSS = 0 DO $( LET P = POSS & -POSS POSS := POSS - P TRY(LD + P << 1, ROW + P, RD + P >> 1) $) $) LET START() = VALOF $( ALL := 1 FOR I = 1 TO 12 DO $( COUNT := 0 TRY(0, 0, 0) WRITEF("%I2-QUEENS PROBLEM HAS %I5 SOLUTIONSN", I, COUNT) ALL := 2 ALL + 1 $) RESULTIS 0 $)	[ "programming language", "type checking", "TENEX (operating system)", "integer", "comment (computer programming)", "CDC 6400", "Word (computer architecture)", "Dennis M. Ritchie", "Word processor", "B (programming language)", "score following", "Java (programming language)", "IBM 360", "University of Cambridge", "hello world program", "Byte addressing", "TRIPOS", "PDP-11", "Martin Richards (computer scientist)", "Jargon File", "BBC Micro", "brace programming language", "Compatible Time-Sharing System", "procedural programming", "byte", "C99", "Go (programming language)", "GE-600 series", "C (programming language)", "cross-compiler", "Amstrad CPC", "compilation unit", "IBM 7094", "PDP-10", "Fortran", "kilobyte", "Bravo (software)", "Project MAC", "increment operator", "Joint Computer Conference", "Titan (1963 computer)", "man-month", "Xerox PARC", "Amstrad PCW", "x86", "compiler", "CPL (programming language)", "AmigaDOS", "TX-2", "imperative programming", "Multi-user dungeon", "operating system", "PDP-9", "KDF 9", "BBN Technologies", "Combined Programming Language", "UNIVAC 1108", "BBC Domesday Project", "Alto (computer)", "C++", "Eight queens puzzle", "intermediate language", "data type", "BASIC", "\"Hello, World!\" program", "ARPANET", "Pascal (programming language)", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "structured programming", "MUD1", "Interface Message Processor", "Media type", "bootstrapping (compilers)", "ICT 1900 series", "D (programming language)" ]
4,054	Battleship	A battleship is a large, heavily armored warship with a main battery consisting of large guns, designed to serve as capital ships. From their advent in the late 1880s, battleships were among the largest and most formidable weapon systems ever built, until they were surpassed by aircraft carriers beginning in the 1940s. The modern battleship traces its origin to the sailing ship of the line, which was developed into the steam ship of the line and soon thereafter the ironclad warship. After a period of extensive experimentation in the 1870s and 1880s, ironclad design was largely standardized by the British , which are usually referred to as the first "pre-dreadnought battleships". These ships carried an armament that usually included four large guns and several medium-caliber guns that were to be used against enemy battleships, and numerous small guns for self defense. Naval powers around the world built dozens of pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s and early 1900s, though they saw relatively little combat; only two major wars were fought during the period that included pre-dreadnought battles: the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. The following year, the British launched the revolutionary all-big-gun battleship . This ship discarded the medium-caliber guns in exchange for a uniform armament of ten large guns. All other major navies quickly began (or had already started) "dreadnoughts" of their own, leading to a major naval arms race. During World War I, only one major fleet engagement took place: the Battle of Jutland in 1916, but neither side was able to achieve a decisive result. In the Interwar period, the major naval powers concluded a series of agreements beginning with the Washington Naval Treaty that imposed limits on battleship building to stop a renewed arms race. During this period, relatively few battleships were built, but advances in technology led to the maturation of the fast battleship concept, and several of these ships were built in the 1930s. The treaty system eventually broke down after Japan refused to sign the Second London Naval Treaty in 1936. Although the rise of the aircraft carrier during World War II largely relegated battleships to secondary duties, they still saw significant action during that conflict. Notable engagements include the battles of Cape Spartivento and Cape Matapan in 1940 and 1941, respectively; the sortie by the German battleship in 1941; the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in 1942; and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944. After World War II, most battleships were placed in reserve, broken up, or used as target ships, and few saw significant active service during the Cold War. The four American s were reactivated during the Korean War in the early 1950s and again in the 1980s as part of the 600-ship Navy. Even at the height of their dominance of naval combat, some strategists questioned the usefulness of battleships. Beginning in the mid-1880s, the (Young School) argued that construction of expensive capital ships should stop in favor of cheap cruisers and torpedo boats. Despite a period of popularity for the , the idea fell out of favor and the battleship remained the arbiter of naval combat until World War II. Even afterward, they remained potent symbols of a country's might and they retained significant psychological and diplomatic effects. A number of battleships—predominantly American—remain as museum ships. == Background == === Ships of the line === A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades, which came to prominence with the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century. From 1794, the alternative term 'line of battle ship' was contracted to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'. The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a ship of the line could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull, knocking down masts, wrecking her rigging, and killing her crew. They also imparted a psychological effect on the crews of smaller vessels. Ships of the line were also fairly resilient to the guns of the day; for example, the British Royal Navy lost no first-rate (the largest type of ship of the line) to enemy action during the entire 18th century. Over time, ships of the line gradually became larger and carried more guns, but otherwise remained quite similar. Development of the first-rates was particularly conservative, as these ships represented a major investment. By the early 1800s, the traditional "seventy-four" (so-named because it carried 74 guns) was no longer considered to be a proper ship of the line, having been supplanted by 84- and 120-gun ships. The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft and later for frigates. Early vessels used paddle wheels for propulsion, but by the 1840s, the first screw propeller equipped vessels began to appear. The value of these smaller steam-powered warships demonstrated their worth, when vessels like the British Nemesis proved to be critical to the Anglo-French success in the First Opium War in the 1840s. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun in 1850—the first true steam battleship. Napoléon, which was designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme, was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of , regardless of the wind. This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships. France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden, steam-screw battleships although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships, including Russia (9), the Ottoman Empire (3), Sweden (2), Naples (1), Denmark (1) and Austria (1). Concurrent with the development of steam power, another major technological step heralded the end of the traditional ship of the line: guns capable of firing explosive shells. Pioneering work was done by the French artillery officer Henri-Joseph Paixhans beginning in 1809. The American artillerist George Bomford followed not far behind, designing the first shell-firing Columbiad in 1812. The British and Russians began to follow suit in the 1830s, though early smoothbore guns could not fire shells as far as solid shot, which hampered widespread adoption in any fleet. By the early 1840s, the French Paixhans gun and American Dahlgren gun had begun to be adopted by their respective navies. In the Crimean War of 1853–1855, six Russian ships of the line and two frigates of the Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853. The battle was widely seen as vindication of the shell gun. Nevertheless, wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells, as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa, where the modern Austrian steam ship of the line ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads, many of which were shells, but including at least one shot at point-blank range. Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day. === Ironclads === As amply demonstrated at the Battle of Sinope, and again during the Anglo-French blockade of Sevastopol from 1854–1855, wooden ships had become vulnerable to shell-firing guns. This prompted the French emperor Napoleon III to order the first ironclad warships: the s. Three of these ships led the Anglo-French attack on the Russian fortress on the Kinburn Peninsula in the Battle of Kinburn in 1855, where they bore the brunt of Russian artillery fire, but were not seriously damaged. The success of these ships prompted the French and British to order several similar vessels. In March 1858, the French took development of the ironclad to its next logical step: a proper, ocean-going armored warship. This vessel, another design by Dupuy de Lome, was , and after her launching in 1859, Napoleon III ordered another five similar ships, which sparked a naval arms race with Britain. The first French ironclads had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerations. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys, Gloire and her contemporaries were fitted with screw propellers, and their wooden hulls were protected by a layer of thick iron armor. Britain responded promptly with , a similar but much larger ironclad with an iron hull. By the time Warrior was completed in 1861, another nine ironclads were under construction in British shipyards, some of which were conversions of screw ships of the line that were already being built. During the Unification of Italy in 1860, the Kingdom of Sardinia entered the ironclad building race by ordering the s from French shipyards; their long-term rival across the Adriatic Sea, the Austrian Empire, quickly responded later that year with the two s. Spain and Russia ordered ironclads in 1861, as did the United States and rebel Confederate States of America after the start of the American Civil War. Construction of these large and expensive warships remained controversial until March 1862, when news of the Battle of Hampton Roads, fought between the Union and the Confederate , firmly settled debate in favor of even larger construction programs. From the 1860s to 1880s, navies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets, central-batteries, or barbettes; ironclads of the period also prominently used the ram as a principal weapon. As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs. The British Chief Constructor, Edward Reed, produced the s in 1869. These were mastless turret ships, which adopted twin-screw propulsion and an arrangement of two pairs of guns, one fore and one aft of the superstructre, that prefigured the advent of the pre-dreadnought battleship some two decades later. By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood. The French Navy's , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a combination central battery and barbette ship, which became the first capital ship in the world to use steel as the principal building material. The rapid pace of technological developments, particularly in terms of gun capabilities and thickness of armor to combat them, quickly rendered ships obsolescent. In the continuous attempt by gun manufacturers to keep ahead of developments in armor plate, larger and larger guns were fitted to many of the later ironclads. Some of these, such as the British , carried guns as large as in diameter, while the Italian s were armed with colossal guns. The French experimented with very large guns in the 1870s, but after significant trouble with these guns (and the development of slower-burning gunpowder), they led the way toward smaller-caliber guns with longer barrels, which had higher muzzle velocity and thus greater penetration than the larger guns. ===Jeune École=== In the 1880s, opposition to fleets of large, expensive ironclads arose around the world, but most notably in France, where a group of naval officers led by Admiral Théophile Aube formed the (Young School). The theory, which held as one of its core tenets that small, cheap torpedo boats could easily defeat ironclads, was based on combat experience during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The doctrine also posited that modern steel-hulled cruisers could defeat a more powerful navy by attacking the country's merchant shipping, rather than engage in a direct battle. The concept proved to be highly influential for several years, shaping the construction programs of France, Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary, among others throughout the world. ==Development of the modern battleship== === Pre-dreadnought battleships === In 1889, the British government passed the Naval Defence Act 1889, which embarked on a major naval construction program aimed at establishing the so-called two-power standard, whereby the Royal Navy would be stronger than the next two largest navies combined. The plan saw the construction of the eight s, which have been regarded as the first class of battleship that would retrospectively be referred to as "pre-dreadnought battleships". These large battleships incorporated a number of major improvements over earlier vessels like the Devastations, including a high freeboard for true ocean-going capability, more extensive armor protection, heavier secondary battery guns, and greater speed. The ships were armed with four guns in two twin mounts, fore and aft, which established the pattern for subsequent battleships. After building a trio of smaller second class battleships intended for the colonial empire, Britain followed with the nine-strong s in 1893–1895, which improved on the basic Royal Sovereign design. These ships adopted the gun, which would become the standard for all subsequent British pre-dreadnoughts. Foreign navies quickly began pre-dreadnoughts of their own; France began in 1889 and Germany laid down four s in 1890. The United States Navy laid down three s in 1891, the same year work began on the Russian battleship . Japan ordered the two s from British yards, to an improved Royal Sovereign design, in 1894. The Austro-Hungarian Navy eventually ordered its own pre-dreadnoughts, beginning with the in 1899. All of these ships carried guns of between , save the Austro-Hungarian vessels, which, being significantly smaller than the rest, only carried guns. Most pre-dreadnoughts followed the same general pattern, which typically saw a ship armed with four large guns, usually 12-inch weapons, along with a secondary of medium-caliber guns (usually guns early in the period), which were also intended for combat at close range with other battleships. They also generally carried a light armament for defense against torpedo boats and other light craft. Some ships varied from this general pattern, such as the American Indianas, which carried a heavier secondary battery of guns, and the German Brandenburgs, which had six 11-inch guns for instead of the usual four heavy guns. Many of the early French pre-dreadnoughts, such as , carried a mixed heavy armament of two 12-inch and two guns. Pre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad throughout the 1890s and early 1900s. Compound armor gave way to much stronger Harvey armor developed in the United States in 1890, which was in turn superseded by the German Krupp armor in 1894. As armor became stronger, it could be reduced in thickness considerably, which saved weight that could be allocated to other aspects of the ship design, and generally permitted larger and more capable battleships. At the same time, the advent of smokeless powder continued the trend begun in the French navy of comparatively smaller guns firing at higher velocities. Early on in the pre-dreadnought era, most navies standardized on the 12-inch gun; only Germany remained the significant outlier, relying on 11-inch and even 9.4-inch guns for its pre-dreadnoughts. Similarly, later in the pre-dreadnought era, the secondary batteries grew in caliber, usually to guns. Some final classes, such as the British with a secondary battery of guns, or the French that had 9.4-inch secondaries, have been subsequently referred to as "semi-dreadnoughts", reflecting their transitional step between classic pre-dreadnought designs and the all-big-gun battleships that would soon appear. In the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany. The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorized a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power. Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened. In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 ironclad battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together. In 1897, Britain's lead was far smaller due to competition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan. The Ottoman Empire, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile, and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors. ====Early combat experiences==== Pre-dreadnought battleships received their first test in combat in the Spanish-American War in 1898 at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. An American squadron that included four pre-dreadnoughts had blockaded a Spanish squadron of four armored cruisers in Santiago de Cuba until 3 July, when the Spanish ships attempted to break through and escape. All four cruisers were destroyed in the ensuing engagement, as were a pair of Spanish destroyers, and American ships received little damage in return. The battle seemed to indicate that the mixed batteries of pre-dreadnought battleships were very effective, as the medium-caliber guns had inflicted most of the damage (which reinforced the observations of the Battle of Manila Bay, where only cruisers armed with medium guns had been present). It also led navies around the world to begin working on better solutions for rangefinding in the hope of improving gunnery at longer ranges. Conflicting colonial ambitions in Korea and Manchuria led Russia and Japan to the next major use of pre-dreadnoughts in combat. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, squadrons of battleships engaged in a number of battles, including the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima. Naval mines also proved to be a deadly threat to battleships on both sides, sinking the Russian in March 1904 and the Japanese battleships and on the same day in May. The action in the Yellow Sea began during a Russian attempt to break out of Port Arthur, which the Japanese under Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō had blockaded. The Russians outmaneuvered the Japanese and briefly escaped, but the latter's superior speed allowed them to catch up. A 12-inch shell struck the Russian flagship, killing the squadron commander and causing the Russian ships to fall into disarray and retreat back to Port Arthur. With night falling, the Japanese broke off and reimposed the blockade. At Tsushima, Togo outmaneuvered the Russian Second Pacific Squadron that had been sent to reinforce the Pacific Fleet, and the Japanese battleships quickly inflicted fatal damage with long-range fire from their 12-inch guns. In both actions during the Russo-Japanese War, the fleets engaged at longer range (as far as at the Yellow Sea), where only their 12-inch guns were effective. Only in the final stages of the battle at Tsushima, by which time the Russian fleet had been severely damaged and most of its modern battleships sunk or disabled, did the Japanese fleet close to effective range of their secondary guns, fighting as close as . The actions, particularly the decisive engagement at Tsushima, demonstrated that the lessons taken from the Spanish-American War were incorrect, and that the large-caliber gun should be the only offensive weapon carried by battleships. === Dreadnought battleships === In the early 1900s, some naval theorists had begun to argue for future battleships to discard the heavy secondary batteries and instead carry only big guns. The first prominent example was Vittorio Cuniberti, the chief engineer of the Italian (Royal Navy); he published an article in 1903 titled "An Ideal Battleship for the British Navy" in Jane's Fighting Ships. By the time that British Admiral Sir John ("Jackie") Fisher became the First Sea Lord in late 1904, he had already become convinced that a similar concept—that of a fast capital ship carrying the largest quick-firing guns available (which at that time were weapons)—was the path forward. The Japanese Navy was the first to actually order any of these new ships, beginning with the two s in 1904, though due to shortages of 12-inch guns, they were completed with a mix of 12- and guns. By early 1905, Fisher had converted to the 12-inch gun for his proposed new capital ships, and in March that year, the German Navy had decided to build an all-big-gun battleship for the planned . The American was authorized in 1905, but work did not begin until December 1906. Though several navies had begun design work on all-big-gun battleships, the first to be completed was the British , which had been ordered by Fisher. He actually preferred a very large armored cruiser equipped with an all-big-gun armament, which would come to be known as the battlecruiser, and he only included Dreadnought in his 1905 construction program to appease naval officers who favored continued battleship building. Fisher believed that Britain's security against the French and Russian threats would be better guaranteed by squadrons of fast battlecruisers, three of which were laid down in 1906. Regardless of Fisher's intentions, the rapidly changing strategic calculus invalidated his plans and ensured that when the 1906–1907 program was being debated, Germany would be Britain's primary rival, the Royal Navy chose to build three more dreadnoughts instead of further battlecruisers. Reactions from the other naval powers was immediate; very few pre-dreadnoughts were built afterward, and in the first seven years of the ensuing arms race, all of the major naval powers either had their own dreadnoughts in service or nearing completion. Of these competitions, the Anglo-German race was the most significant, though others took place, such as the South American contest. Even naval powers of the second and third rank, such as Spain; Brazil, Chile, and Argentina in South America; and Greece and the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean had begun dreadnought programs, either domestically or ordering abroad. Dreadnought carried ten 12-inch guns, all in twin turrets: one was forward, two further aft, all on the centerline, and the remaining pair were wing turrets with more restricted arcs of fire. She disposed of the medium-caliber secondary battery and carried only guns for anti-torpedo boat work. A variety of experimental arrangements followed, including the "hexagonal" layout adopted by the German Nassaus (which had four of their six twin turrets on the "wings"), or the Italian and Russian s that mounted their guns all on the centerline, but with restricted arcs of fire for half of the guns. The South Carolinas dispensed with Dreadnoughts wing turrets, adopting instead a superfiring arrangement of eight guns in four twin turrets, which gave them the same broadside as Dreadnought, despite having two fewer guns. Technological development continued over the decade that followed Dreadnoughts launch. Already by 1910, the British had begun the first of the so-called "super-dreadnoughts" that carried significantly more powerful guns, all on the centerline. The United States followed suit in 1911, though increasing the caliber of their guns to . France adopted a gun for its s, laid down in 1912. That year, Japan laid down the first of its s, also armed with a 14-inch main battery. The Germans waited until 1913, but skipped directly to guns. By this time, Britain had led the way to the 15-inch gun with the begun in late 1912. But more importantly than the increase of caliber, these were the first completely oil-fired battleships these were the first fast battleships. At around the same time, the United States introduced the next major innovation in battleship design: the all or nothing armor system in the laid down in 1912. The heaviest possible armor was used to protect the ship's propulsion machinery and ammunition magazines, but intermediate protection was stripped away from non-essential areas, since this mid-weight armor only served to detonate armor-piercing shells. == World War I == By the start of World War I in July 1914, the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet outnumbered the German High Seas Fleet by 21 to 13 in numbers of dreadnought battleships and 4 to 3 in battlecruisers. And over the course of the war, Britain would add another 14 dreadnoughts, while Germany completed another 6. German strategy presumed that Britain would launch an immediate offensive into the southern North Sea, but the British preferred to establish a distant blockade, which very quickly stopped German maritime trade. Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory. The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds. The British fleet commander, Admiral John Jellicoe, refused to be drawn into unfavorable conditions and enforced the blockade at the English Channel and between Scotland and Norway. In the Baltic Sea, Germany found itself in the reverse situation, in an even more lopsided fashion versus its Russian opponent. The Russian Baltic Fleet had only four dreadnoughts at the start of the war, so they adopted a purely defensive approach to guard the capital at Petrograd and the northern flank of the Russian army units fighting on the Eastern Front. In the Mediterranean Sea, Italy initially remained neutral, despite being a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, leaving the latter to face the French Navy and British Mediterranean Fleet alone. After ensuring the French army units in French North Africa were safely convoyed to France, the French fleet sailed to the Adriatic Sea to blockade the Austro-Hungarian fleet, which refused to leave their fortified bases. The French, like the other major European naval commanders, had failed to consider that their opponents would not concede to engaging in battle on terms unfavorable to them. The Adriatic quickly turned into another stalemate as the threat of Austro-Hungarian mines and submarines prevented a more aggressive employment of the French fleet. The Germans embarked on a number of sweeps into the North Sea and raids on British coastal towns to draw out part of the Grand Fleet, which would be isolated and destroyed. These included the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, where the Germans nearly caught an isolated British battle squadron, but turned away, thinking that it was the entire Grand Fleet. This strategy ultimately led to the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916, the largest clash of battleship fleets. The first stage of the battle was fought largely by the two sides' battlecruiser squadrons, though the British were supported by four of the Queen Elizabeth-class battleships. After both battleship fleets engaged, the British crossed the Germans' "T" twice, but the latter managed to extricate themselves from the action as darkness fell. Early on 1 June, the High Seas Fleet had reached port. In the course of the fighting, three British battlecruisers were destroyed, as was one German battlecruiser and the old pre-dreadnought . Numerous cruisers and destroyers were lost on both sides as well. The Germans made two further offensive operations in the months after Jutland. The first, which led to the inconclusive action of 19 August, saw one German battleship torpedoed by a British submarine and two British cruisers sunk by German U-boats. This incident convinced the British that the risks posed by submarines were too great to send the Grand Fleet into the southern North Sea, barring exceptional circumstances like a German invasion of Britain. In the second German operation, which took place on 18–19 October, a German cruiser was damaged by a submarine and the Grand Fleet remained in port. By this time, the Germans were similarly convinced of the futility of their attempts to isolate part of the British fleet, and discontinued such raids. They instead turned to unrestricted submarine warfare, which resulted in their battleships being reduced to a supporting force that guarded the U-boat bases. In the Baltic, the Germans made two attempts to capture the islands in the Gulf of Riga. The first came in August 1915, and in the ensuing Battle of the Gulf of Riga, a pair of German dreadnoughts engaged in an artillery duel at long range with the Russian pre-dreadnought guarding the minefields that protected the gulf. The Germans were drove off the Russian ship, cleared the minefield, but by the time they entered the gulf, submarines had reportedly arrived. Unwilling to risk the battleships in the shallow, confined waters of the gulf, the Germans retreated. The second attempt—Operation Albion—took place in October 1917. During the Battle of Moon Sound, another pair of German dreadnoughts damaged Slava so badly that she had to be scuttled, and the Germans completed their amphibious assault on the islands. The modern units of the French and British fleets in the Mediterranean spent much of the war guarding the entrance to the Adriatic, first based at Malta and later moving to Corfu. They saw very little action through the war. In May 1915, Italy entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente, declaring war on their former allies; the Austro-Hungarians, who were prepared for the betrayal, sailed with the bulk of their fleet to raid the Italian coast on the first hours of the war on 24 May; the battleships were sent to bombard Ancona, but there were no heavy Italian or French units close enough to intervene. For their part, the Italians were content to reinforce the blockading force guarding the Adriatic, as they, too, were unwilling to risk their capital ships in the mine and submarine infested waters of the Austrian Littoral. Instead, light forces carried out most of the operations. Meanwhile, several French and British pre-dreadnoughts were sent to attack the Ottoman defenses guarding the Dardanelles. In the ensuing naval operations from February to March 1915, several battleships were sunk or damaged by mines and torpedoes. When the fleets failed to break through the defenses, the British and French decided to land at Gallipoli to try to take the fortifications by land; the remaining battleships were thereafter used to provide naval gunfire support. This, too, ultimately failed and by January 1916, the British and French withdrew their troops. Russian battleships saw more action in the Black Sea against their Ottoman opponents. The Ottomans had the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly the German Goeben), which the Russians attempted to destroy in a series of short engagements, including the Battle of Cape Sarych in November 1914, the Action of 10 May 1915, and the Action of 8 January 1916, though they were unsuccessful in all three attempts, primarily because the faster Yavuz Sultan Selim'' could easily escape from the more numerous but slow Russian pre-dreadnoughts. By 1916, the Russians had completed a pair of dreadnoughts in the Black Sea, which severely curtailed Ottoman freedom of maneuver. In the course of the war, older pre-dreadnoughts proved to be highly vulnerable to underwater damage, whether by naval mine or ship-launched or submarine-delivered torpedoes. was sunk by a German U-boat in the English Channel in 1915. At the Dardanelles, was sunk by a German U-boat, was sunk by the Ottoman destroyer . The British and and the French were all sunk by mines. and were both sunk by mines in the Mediterranean in 1916 and 1917, respectively. was similarly mined and sunk off the British coast in 1916, and was sunk by a U-boat in the final days of the war. The French were sunk by U-boats in 1916, and was torpedoed and sunk by a U-boat in 1917 At Jutland, the only battleship lost was the old pre-dreadnought Pommern, which was torpedoed by a destroyer. In contrast, dreadnoughts proved to be much more resilient to underwater attack. was damaged by a torpedo at Jutland, but nevertheless returned to port. The German was torpedoed at the action of 19 August 1916, and and were torpedoed by the same submarine in November 1917; all three survived. was mined during Operation Albion and remained in action against Russian artillery batteries for some time thereafter. Dreadnoughts lost to underwater attack were rare. was sunk by a mine in October 1914, the Austro-Hungarian was sunk by Italian MAS boats in June 1918, and five months later, Italian frogmen sank using a powerful limpet mine. == Inter-war period == In the immediate aftermath of the war, the most modern units of the German fleet was interned at Scapa Flow, where in June 1919, their crews scuttled the fleet to avoid it being handed over to the Allies. The remaining dreadnoughts still in German ports were therefore seized as compensation for the scuttled ships. The postwar of Weimar Germany was limited to a contingent of eight old pre-dreadnoughts (of which two would be kept in reserve) under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; new battleships were subject to severe restrictions on size and armament. The surviving battleships of Austria-Hungary, the other defeated Central Power, were soon distributed among the Allies, to be broken up. While the other major naval powers remained free to build new battleships, most of them were financially crippled after the war. The prospect of a renewed naval arms race between the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan, appealed to few politicians in the three countries, and so they concluded the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922, which also included Italy and France. The treaty limited the number and size of battleships, and imposed a ten-year building holiday, along with other provisions. The treaty also imposed a ratio of 5:5:3 on total displacement of battleships for the US, UK, and Japan, respectively, and it severed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The only exceptions to the building holiday were for the two British s, which were permitted to give Britain parity with the latest American and Japanese battleships, which were all armed with guns. The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First London Naval Treaty (1930) and the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which both set additional limits on major warships. The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919–1939 than in 1905–1914. The treaties also inhibited development by imposing upper limits on the weights of ships. Designs like the projected British , the first American , and the Japanese —all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board. Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships. The collapse of the treaty system began during the negotiations for the Second London Treaty, where Japan demanded parity with Britain and the US, which the latter two flatly rejected. Japan withdrew from the treaty system in 1936, though the agreements remained in effect until January 1937. === Rise of air power === As early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft. Between 1916 and 1918, US Admiral William Fullam published a series of papers stating that aircraft would become an independent strike arm of the fleet, and argued that the s then under construction should be converted to aircraft carriers than scrapped. By the end of World War I, aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon. In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled The Command of the Air, which foresaw the dominance of air power over conventional military and naval forces. In 1921, US General Billy Mitchell used the ex-German dreadnought in a series of bombing tests conducted by the Navy and Army. The test involved a series of attacks on the stationary, unmanned ships using low-level, land-based bombers dropping bombs that ranged from . Ostfriesland was sunk by the heaviest bombs, though Mitchell broke the rules of the tests and the subsequent report concluded that had the ship been crewed, underway, and firing back at the aircraft, damage control teams aboard Ostfriesland could have managed any damage inflicted. Mitchell and his supporters nevertheless embarked on a public campaign that falsely claimed that Ostfriesland was a super-battleship, and the quick sinking proved that battleships were obsolete. Mitchell would eventually be subjected to a court martial, convicted, and discharged from the Army over his insubordinate tactics. Naval aviation traces its origin back to the first decade of the 20th century, though early efforts were based on using aircraft to scout for the fleet and help direct gunfire at long range. A number of experimental aircraft carriers were employed during World War I, primarily by the Royal Navy, all converted from merchant vessels or existing warships. The US Navy completed its first carrier, , in 1922. But aircraft carriers in the 1920s faced a number of challenges to be overcome: aircraft of the day were short-ranged, which meant the carrier had to be very close to the enemy to be able to launch and then recover a strike, which exposed the carriers to attack. In addition, the available planes had insufficient power to carry meaningful bomb loads. Early naval aviators nevertheless pioneered effective tactics like dive bombing during this period. === Fast battleships and the end of the treaty system === Because the Washington Treaty system precluded the construction of any new battleships until the early 1930s, the major naval powers began a program of modernization for their most effective battleships. Britain conducted a series of refits to their Queen Elizabeth-class battleships through the 1920s, adding anti-torpedo bulges, additional anti-aircraft guns, and aircraft catapults; further refits in the 1930s increased armor protection and further strengthened their anti-aircraft batteries. The s were less heavily modified during the period. The US , , and es received similar treatments in the 1920s, while the Nevada\| and es received new turbines, additional armor, and more anti-aircraft guns. The Japanese similarly updated their Fusō, , and s, and rebuilt three of the four s into fast battleships, albeit with significantly inferior protection compared to the other ships. They all also received distinctive pagoda masts. was initially disarmed to serve as a training ship under the terms of the Washington Treaty, but was remilitarized in the late 1930s. In the 1930s, all four classes were lengthened and had their propulsion systems improved to increase their speeds. The French and Italian navies were exempted from the 10-year building holiday, owing to the comparative obsolescence of their battleships; they were permitted to build worth of battleships. But the weak economies of both countries led both to defer new construction until Germany began building the of heavily armed cruiser at the end of the 1920s. This prompted the French to build the of small, fast battleships armed with guns, which led to a short arms race in Europe in the mid-1930s. The Italians responded with the significantly larger and more powerful , armed with 15-inch guns. The French, in turn, began the s to counter the Littorios. By this time, Nazi Germany had signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935, which removed the restrictions imposed by Versailles and pegged German naval strength to 35% of British tonnage. This permitted the construction of two s, which were also a response to the Dunkerques. The advent of the Richelieus prompted the Germans to build the two s late in the decade. The Germans thereafter embarked on the ambitious Plan Z naval construction program, which included a total of eight battleships, of which the Bismarcks would be the first two. Against the backdrop of European rearmament in the mid-1930s, Britain began planning its first battleship class in a decade: the . These were armed with 14-inch guns intended to comply with the terms of the Second London Naval Conference, and they were laid down in 1937. The United States began their at the same time, and though they were intended to be armed with 14-inch guns, Japan's refusal to agree to the Second London Treaty led the US to invoke a clause of the treaty that allowed an increase to 16-inch guns. In 1939, these were followed by the four s, and in 1940 by the first of four s. For its part, Japan had decided to embark on a program of four very large s, armed with guns, as early as 1934, though work did not begin on the first ship until late 1937. == World War II == ===European theater=== The German pre-dreadnought fired the first shots of World War II by initiating the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte in the early hours on 1 August 1939. The German Scharnhorst-class battleships caught the British carrier off the coast of Norway and sank her during the Norwegian campaign. Following the collapse of France in June 1940 and subsequent surrender, the British embarked on a campaign to neutralize or destroy British battleships that might be seized to reinforce the German fleet, including the attack on Mers-el-Kébir and the Battle of Dakar in July and September, respectively. In the former action, the British sank a pair of older Bretagne-class battleships and the fast battleship , though the latter was refloated and repaired. At Dakar, the French battleship and other forces fended off the British task force, which resulted in the torpedoing of the battleship , which was severely damaged. Italy entered the war in June 1940, shortly before the French defeat. In November, the British launched a nighttime airstrike on the naval base at Taranto; in the Battle of Taranto, Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers disabled three Italian battleships, though they were subsequently repaired. Over the next year, Italian and British battleships engaged in a number of inconclusive actions as they contested the supply lines to North Africa. These included the Battle of Cape Spartivento in November 1940 and the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941. At Matapan, the battleship was badly damaged by a Swordfish, though the ship returned to port. The British battleships , , and nevertheless caught a group of three heavy cruisers that evening and destroyed them in a furious, close-range night action. Convoy battles continued through 1941 and into 1942, with actions such as First and Second Sirte. By 1943, Italian operations were sharply reduced due to a shortage of fuel, and after the Allied invasion of Italy, the country surrendered, allowing most of its fleet to be interned at Malta. While on the way, the battleship was sunk by a German Fritz X guided glide bomb. In the meantime, in January 1941, the Germans began to send their few battleships on commerce raiding operations in the Atlantic, starting with the two Scharnhorst-class ships in Operation Berlin, which was not particularly successful. followed with Operation Rheinübung in May, which resulted in two actions, the Battle of the Denmark Strait and the sinking of Bismarck. During the operation, Bismarck was crippled by Swordfish torpedo bombers, which allowed a pair of British battleships to catch and destroy her. By 1942, the last operational German battleships— and —were sent to occupied Norway to serve as a fleet in being to tie down British naval resources and to attack supply convoys to the Soviet Union. The battleship eventually sank Scharnhorst at the Battle of North Cape in December 1943, and Tirpitz was destroyed by British heavy bombers in 1944. ===Pacific theater=== On 7 December 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor. Over the course of two waves of dive-, level- and torpedo bombers, the Japanese sank or destroyed five battleships and inflicted serious damage to the facilities there. Three days later, land-based Japanese aircraft operating out of French Indochina, then occupied by Japan, caught and sank the British battleship and the battlecruiser off the coast of British Malaya. Though the Taranto and Pearl Harbor strikes were significant steps toward aircraft replacing the battleship as the primary naval striking arm, the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse marked the first time aircraft had sunk capital ships that were maneuvering and returning fire. Employment of battleships during the Pacific War was limited by a number of factors. Japanese strategic doctrine, the , envisioned a decisive clash of battleships at the end of the war, and so kept most of their battleships in home waters, and only the four Kongōs were routinely detached to escort the aircraft carriers of the . For their part, the US kept its surviving pre-war battleships out of action primarily because they were too slow to keep up with the carriers. Later in the war, they were employed as coastal bombardment vessels. Nevertheless, American and Japanese battleships saw significant action during the Guadalcanal campaign in 1942, most notably at the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November. There, an American squadron centered on the battleships and intercepted and sank the battleship , though South Dakota received significant damage in return. As more and more of the American fast battleships entered service from 1942, onward, they were frequently used as escorts for the fast carrier task force that was the US Navy's primary striking arm in its campaign across the central Pacific. During the Philippines campaign, battleships played a central role during the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944. The action was one of the largest naval battles in history, which took place over several days and as three Japanese fleets attacked the Allied invasion fleet. The Japanese battleship , part of Center Force, was sunk by American carrier aircraft during the Battle of Sibuyan Sea on 24 October. During the Battle of Surigao Strait the following night, several US battleships that had been repaired from the attack on Pearl Harbor defeated the Japanese Southern Force that included a pair of battleships. Center Force attacked again on 25 October and in the Battle off Samar, but was driven off by destroyers and aircraft from several escort carriers. During the Battle of Okinawa in April 1945, Japan sent Yamato as a final suicide mission to attack the landing beaches and attempt to stop the invasion of the island. American aircraft scored between nine and thirteen torpedo hits and six bomb hits on the ship and sank her. was sunk by US aircraft off Kure, Japan, in July. Only survived the war. The war ended with the Japanese surrender aboard the battleship in September 1945. == Cold War: end of the battleship era == After World War II, several navies retained their existing battleships, but most were either placed in their reserve fleets or scrapped outright. Of their surviving pre-war battleships, most of the American vessels were either scrapped or sunk as target ships by 1948, though the most modern vessels, those of the and es, survived until the late 1950s and early 1960s. One of the earlier vessels, , was preserved as a museum ship. The four King George V-class ships were all broken up by 1957, Only two battleships—the British and the French —were completed after the war. Vanguard did not long outlast the King George Vs, being scrapped herself in 1960. Jean Bart (and her sister Richelieu) remained in the French fleet's inventory until the early 1960s, when they were discarded. Three of the six American North Carolina- and South Dakota-class ships were similarly scrapped in the early 1960s, but the other three—, , and —were retained as museum ships. With the reduced naval budgets of the immediate postwar period, the US Navy chose to concentrate its resources on its carrier force. Besides the rise of aircraft carriers as the preeminent naval striking force, the advent of nuclear weapons influenced the decision to abandon large battleship fleets. In 1946, Nagato, which was seized by the US, and four American battleships were used during the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapons tests, though three of the American ships survived the two blasts and were later sunk with conventional weapons. Of the remaining, smaller battleships fleets, Italy retained its two s, of 1913 vintage, until the late 1950s and early 1960s, when they were scrapped. One other battleship, was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed Novorossiysk; she was sunk by a mine in the Black Sea on 29 October 1955. The two surviving Littorio-class ships were taken by the US and UK as war reparations and scrapped in the late 1940s. The Soviets still had a pair of World War I-era battleships— and —, but they, too, were scrapped in the late 1950s. The three large South American navies still had a handful of pre-World War I dreadnoughts in service after the war. Brazil eventually discarded its two s in the early 1950s; Argentina sold its two s in 1956; the last ship in the region, the Chilean , followed them to the breakers' yard in 1959. The four Iowa-class battleships were the only vessels of the type to see significant combat after World War II. All four ships were reactivated for gunfire support duties during the Korean War in the early 1950s, and was also deployed during the Vietnam War in 1968–1969 for the same task. All four ships were modernized in the early 1980s with Tomahawk cruise missiles, Harpoon anti-ship missiles, and Phalanx CIWS systems, along with the latest radar systems. They were recommissioned as part of the 600-ship Navy program under President Ronald Reagan. New Jersey next saw action in 1982, bombarding Syrian artillery during the Lebanese Civil War. Missouri and took part in Operation Desert Storm against Iraqi forces in 1991, bombarding enemy positions along the coast. The ships proved to be expensive to operate, and they required thousands of men to keep in service, so Iowa and New Jersey were already back in reserve by that time, and Missouri and Wisconsin were also decommissioned by the end of 1991. All four were struck from the Naval Vessel Register in 1995. When the last Iowa-class ship was finally stricken from the Naval Vessel Registry, no battleships remained in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide. A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in drydock. The U.S. has eight battleships on display: Massachusetts, North Carolina, Alabama, Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Texas. Missouri and New Jersey are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively. Iowa is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro, California. Wisconsin now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk, Virginia. Massachusetts, which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service, is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River, Massachusetts. Texas, the first battleship turned into a museum, is normally on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, near Houston, but as of 2021 is closed for repairs. North Carolina is on display in Wilmington, North Carolina. Alabama is on display in Mobile, Alabama. The USS Arizona Memorial was erected over the wreck of , which was sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, to commemorate those killed in the raid. Memorials were also placed to mark the wreck of , also sunk during the attack. The only other 20th-century battleship on display is the Japanese pre-dreadnought , preserved since 1923. == Strategy and doctrine == === Doctrine === For much of their existence, battleships were the embodiment of sea power. The American naval officer Alfred Thayer Mahan argued in his seminal 1890 work, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas was a prerequisite for the projection of force. Conversely, countries with weak navies would inevitably decline. Mahan argued that the cruiser warfare advocated by the Jeune Ecole could never be decisive, and that only fleets of battleships could control sea lanes and enforce blockades of an enemy's coast. The book proved to be widely influential across the world's navies; it was translated into German in 1896, where it was used to support the German naval expansion program championed by Alfred von Tirpitz. A Japanese-language translation also appeared in 1896, and it soon became required reading at the Japanese naval academy. By the end of the decade, Russian, French, Italian, and Spanish versions were produced. A competing doctrine, that of the "fleet in being" dates at least as far back as the 17th century Royal Navy; its commander, Lord Torrington, argued that his fleet, though significantly outnumbered by the French navy of the day, posed enough of a risk as to dissuade a French attempt to invade England. The "fleet in being" in part acts as a deterrent against attack. The concept underpinned Tirpitz's so-called "risk theory" that was the basis of his program to build a German battle fleet. Even if the Royal Navy maintained a numerical superiority, the risk that the German fleet would inflict grievous damage even in the case of a British victory would militate against any such battle taking place, and Germany would be free to pursue its global ambitions. === Tactics === By the 1890s, naval tacticians had developed a number of formations in which to employ battleships. The most prominent were referred to as "line ahead" and "line abreast". The former, the standard tactic during the age of sail, arrayed ships in a single-file line, which emphasized broadside fire. The latter placed ships side-by-side, which was suited to close-range melees where ramming and torpedoes could be effectively employed; after Tegetthoff's success at Lissa in 1866 used a modified line abreast formation, the tactic enjoyed a period of popularity for several years. By the 1880s, line-ahead tactics had returned to prominence. Royal Navy officers devised the tactic referred to as "crossing the T" of an enemy fleet, whereby one fleet steaming in line-ahead formation crossed in front of another line of battleships. This maneuver would allow one's own battleships to concentrate entire broadsides on the leading enemy ship, while one's opponent could only reply with their forward guns. Many navies adopted the tactic soon thereafter. As the threat of underwater attack, including mines and torpedoes, developed after the 1860s, capital ships could no longer maintain close blockades of enemy ports. This required smaller, faster scouts to observe hostile ports so that an enemy fleet could be brought to battle. Modern cruisers began to be built in the 1880s for this purpose. Almost immediately after the invention of the airplane, navies recognized its potential as a reconnaissance unit for the fleet's battleships. The Austro-Hungarian Navy, then following the Jeune École doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s, devised the tactic of placing torpedo boats alongside battleships; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes. While this tactic was made less effective by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained. By the 1890s, the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats. The other major naval powers quickly followed suit with similar vessels of their own. === Psychological and diplomatic impact === The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact. Similar to possessing nuclear weapons in the second half of the 20th century, the ownership of battleships marked a country as a regional or global power, and the ability to build them domestically signified that a country could claim to be a great power. Even during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant. In 1946, USS Missouri was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region. In September 1983, when Druze militia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS New Jersey stopped the firing. Gunfire from New Jersey later killed militia leaders. === Cost-effectiveness === Battleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested. As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, "The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people". The Jeune École school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet. It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports. The ideas of the Jeune École were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented. The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticized by historians, who emphasize the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle. == Former operators == : lost its entire navy following the collapse of the Empire at the end of World War I. : sole surviving battleship TCG Turgut Reis was scrapped in 1956. : lost its two surviving s during the Spanish Civil War, both in 1937. : lost its two s during the German bombing of Salamis in 1941. : scuttled its two surviving s in 1945, during the closing months of World War II. : surrendered its sole surviving battleship, , to the United States following World War II. : sold its last battleship, , for scrap in 1953. : decommissioned its in 1961. : scrapped its last in 1959. : sold its last battleships, and , in 1956. : sold its last battleship, , in 1959. : scrapped its last battleship, , in 1960. : scrapped its last battleship, , in 1970. : decommissioned its last battleship, , in 1991.	[ "Battle of Cape Spartivento", "Triple Alliance (1882)", "English Channel", "barbette", "Battle of Okinawa", "torpedo boat", "Tomahawk (missile family)", "Kingdom of Naples", "Columbiad", "magazine (artillery)", "Henri-Joseph Paixhans", "fuel oil", "quick-firing gun", "treaty battleship", "Kantai Kessen", "Operation Ten-Go", "Alfred Thayer Mahan", "Black Sea Fleet", "Guadalcanal campaign", "Phalanx CIWS", "Camden, New Jersey", "Battle of the Yellow Sea", "Wilmington, North Carolina", "Battle of Hampton Roads", "raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby", "Battle of Cape Matapan", "Ottoman Empire", "fast carrier task force", "United States Navy", "naval gunfire support", "Dahlgren gun", "secondary battery", "Anglo-German Naval Agreement", "Dalian", "hull (watercraft)", "Russian Empire", "Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington", "Confederate States of America", "Cold War", "San Pedro, California", "Pacific War", "aircraft catapult", "Krupp armor", "military aviation", "great power", "Spanish-American War", "attack on Mers-el-Kébir", "Eastern Front (World War I)", "William Fullam", "mast (sailing)", "first-rate", "George Bomford", "Battle off Samar", "commerce raiding", "fleet in being", "heavy bomber", "Naval Vessel Register", "rigging", "turret ship", "Shell (projectile)", "Tōgō Heihachirō", "Henri Dupuy de Lôme", "Dardanelles", "Amphibious warfare", "anti-torpedo bulge", "Treaty of Versailles", "Nazi Germany", "British Malaya", "Théophile Aube", "Soviet Union", "Greece", "naval ram", "sea power", "List of battleships", "Unification of Italy", "steam power", "two-power standard", "pre-dreadnought battleship", "BL 12-inch Mk VIII naval gun", "Second London Naval Treaty", "Fairey Swordfish", "nuclear weapon", "destroyer", "Gallipoli campaign", "Washington Naval Treaty", "caliber", "Battle of Lissa (1866)", "superfiring", "gunpowder", "Battle of Leyte Gulf", "frigate", "Paixhans gun", "artillery battery", "Petrograd", "U-boat", "Operation Albion", "North Sea", "Plan Z", "main battery", "Alfred von Tirpitz", "Battle of Surigao Strait", "Naval Defence Act 1889", "line ahead", "World War I", "naval armour", "Director of Naval Construction", "Crossing the T", "Battle of Taranto", "French Indochina", "London Naval Treaty", "screw propeller", "dive bombing", "age of sail", "museum ship", "Baltic Sea", "Austro-Hungarian Navy", "rangefinding", "Weimar Germany", "ironclad warship", "Gulf of Riga", "Mediterranean Sea", "Austrian Littoral", "Kingdom of Sardinia", "Battle of Manila Bay", "cruiser", "Harpoon (missile)", "Naval operations in the Dardanelles campaign", "reserve fleet", "armored cruiser", "Battle of Tsushima", "Second Battle of Sirte", "sea denial", "Battle of Moon Sound", "Anglo-Japanese Alliance", "Percy Scott", "Naval Battle of Guadalcanal", "muzzle velocity", "escort carrier", "Austrian Empire", "court martial", "Corfu", "600-ship Navy", "glide bomb", "submarine", "Napoleon III", "Arc of fire", "French North Africa", "Regia Marina", "Broadside (naval)", "Battle of Kinburn (1855)", "Anglo–German naval arms race", "Allied invasion of Italy", "Battle of the Denmark Strait", "Lebanese Civil War", "motor torpedo boats", "List of sunken battleships", "San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site", "Manchuria", "Naval mine", "Operation Desert Storm", "coastal defence ship", "Houston", "First Battle of Sirte", "German Empire", "Action of 10 May 1915", "smokeless powder", "Mobile, Alabama", "Battle of North Cape", "Vittorio Cuniberti", "BL 13.5-inch Mk I – IV naval gun", "Battle of Sinop", "Gun turret", "Battleship Memorial Park", "Operation Crossroads", "freeboard (nautical)", "Kure", "Kido Butai", "Mediterranean Fleet", "steel", "John Jellicoe", "Royal Navy", "Bombardment of Ancona", "central battery ship", "training ship", "barbette ship", "Spanish Civil War", "Nemesis (1839)", "Grand Fleet", "scuttling", "Malta", "Westerplatte", "Seventy-four (ship)", "Battle of France", "Philippines campaign (1944–1945)", "Allies of World War II", "naval gun", "keel laying", "blockade", "USS Arizona Memorial", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Norwegian campaign", "SMS Weissenburg", "Kingdom of Italy", "World War II", "Battle of Cape Sarych", "unrestricted submarine warfare", "Attack on Pearl Harbor", "superstructre", "Battle of the Gulf of Riga", "Fall River, Massachusetts", "ship of the line", "Balkans", "Korean War", "target ship", "Action of 8 January 1916", "Reichsmarine", "Last battle of Bismarck", "Etienne Lamy", "ship breaking", "Giulio Douhet", "fast battleship", "Compound armor", "marine propulsion", "ship launching", "capital ship", "Triple Entente", "Sevastopol", "limpet mine", "SMS Goeben", "torpedo bomber", "pagoda mast", "Taranto", "John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher", "Russo-Japanese War", "Billy Mitchell", "Black Sea", "scuttling of the German fleet at Scapa Flow", "Jeune École", "French Navy", "warship", "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)", "Fritz X", "dreadnought", "bowsprit", "Operation Berlin (Atlantic)", "monitor (warship)", "Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse", "The Influence of Sea Power upon History", "MAS (motorboat)", "wing turret", "Crimean War", "First Opium War", "Battle of Dakar", "centerline (nautical)", "Harvey armor", "First Sea Lord", "All or nothing (armor)", "Battleship Cove", "Japanese surrender", "aircraft carrier", "action of 19 August 1916", "Kinburn Peninsula", "Empire of Japan", "smoothbore", "Edward Reed (naval architect)", "Druze", "List of battleships of World War I", "Ronald Reagan", "carronade", "Battle of Jutland", "American Civil War", "arms race", "gun", "Operation Rheinübung", "Adriatic Sea", "Naval Vessel Registry", "line of battle", "Baltic Fleet", "List of battleships of World War II", "Santiago de Cuba", "Battle of Sibuyan Sea", "Scapa Flow", "steam ship of the line", "Deterrence theory", "largest naval battles in history", "High Seas Fleet", "List of steam powered ships of the line", "battlecruiser", "Battle of Santiago de Cuba", "South American dreadnought race", "Vietnam War", "Norfolk, Virginia" ]
4,055	Bifröst	In Norse mythology, Bifröst (modern icelandic: Bifröst ; from Old Norse: /ˈbiv.rɔst/), also called Bilröst and often anglicized as Bifrost, is a burning rainbow bridge that reaches between Midgard (Earth) and Asgard, the realm of the gods. The bridge is attested as Bilröst in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; as Bifröst in the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson; and in the poetry of skalds. Both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda alternately refer to the bridge as Ásbrú (Old Norse "Æsir's bridge"). According to the Prose Edda, the bridge ends in heaven at Himinbjörg, the residence of the god Heimdall, who guards it from the jötnar. The bridge's destruction during Ragnarök by the forces of Muspell is foretold. Scholars have proposed that the bridge may have originally represented the Milky Way and have noted parallels between the bridge and another bridge in Norse mythology, Gjallarbrú. == Etymology == Scholar Andy Orchard suggests that Bifröst may mean "shimmering path." He notes that the first element of Bilröst—bil (meaning "a moment")—"suggests the fleeting nature of the rainbow," which he connects to the first element of Bifröst—the Old Norse verb bifa (meaning "to shimmer" or "to shake")—noting that the element evokes notions of the "lustrous sheen" of the bridge. Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek says that Bifröst either means "the swaying road to heaven" (also citing bifa) or, if Bilröst is the original form of the two (which Simek says is likely), "the fleetingly glimpsed rainbow" (possibly connected to bil, perhaps meaning "moment, weak point"). == Attestations == Two poems in the Poetic Edda and two books in the Prose Edda provide information about the bridge: === Poetic Edda === In the Poetic Edda, the bridge is mentioned in the poems Grímnismál and Fáfnismál, where it is referred to as Bilröst. In one of two stanzas in the poem Grímnismál that mentions the bridge, Grímnir (the god Odin in disguise) provides the young Agnarr with cosmological knowledge, including that Bilröst is the best of bridges. Later in Grímnismál, Grímnir notes that Asbrú "burns all with flames" and that, every day, the god Thor wades through the waters of Körmt and Örmt and the two Kerlaugar: In Fáfnismál, the dying wyrm Fafnir tells the hero Sigurd that, during the events of Ragnarök, bearing spears, gods will meet at Óskópnir. From there, the gods will cross Bilröst, which will break apart as they cross over it, causing their horses to dredge through an immense river. ===Prose Edda=== The bridge is mentioned in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál, where it is referred to as Bifröst. In chapter 13 of Gylfaginning, Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) asks the enthroned figure of High what way exists between heaven and earth. Laughing, High replies that the question isn't an intelligent one, and goes on to explain that the gods built a bridge from heaven and earth. He incredulously asks Gangleri if he has not heard the story before. High says that Gangleri must have seen it, and notes that Gangleri may call it a rainbow. High says that the bridge consists of three colors, has great strength, "and is built with art and skill to a greater extent than other constructions." High notes that, although the bridge is strong, it will break when "Muspell's lads" attempt to cross it, and their horses will have to make do with swimming over "great rivers." Gangleri says that it doesn't seem that the gods "built the bridge in good faith if it is liable to break, considering that they can do as they please." High responds that the gods do not deserve blame for the breaking of the bridge, for "there is nothing in this world that will be secure when Muspell's sons attack." In chapter 17, High tells Gangleri that the location of Himinbjörg "stands at the edge of heaven where Bifrost reaches heaven." While describing the god Heimdallr in chapter 27, High says that Heimdallr lives in Himinbjörg by Bifröst, and guards the bridge from mountain jotnar while sitting at the edge of heaven. In chapter 34, High quotes the first of the two Grímnismál stanzas that mention the bridge. In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragnarök. High says that, during Ragnarök, the sky will split open, and from the split will ride forth the "sons of Muspell". When the "sons of Muspell" ride over Bifröst it will break, "as was said above." In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, the bridge receives a single mention. In chapter 16, a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason is provided, where Bifröst is referred to as "the powers' way." == Theories == In his translation of the Poetic Edda, Henry Adams Bellows comments that the Grímnismál stanza mentioning Thor and the bridge stanza may mean that "Thor has to go on foot in the last days of the destruction, when the bridge is burning. Another interpretation, however, is that when Thor leaves the heavens (i.e., when a thunder-storm is over) the rainbow-bridge becomes hot in the sun." Several scholars have proposed that Bifröst may represent the Milky Way. == Adaptations == In the final scene of Richard Wagner's 1869 opera Das Rheingold, the god Froh summons a rainbow bridge, over which the gods cross to enter Valhalla. In J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the "level bridge" of "The Fall of Númenor", an early version of the Akallabeth, recalls Bifröst. It departs from the earth at a tangent, allowing immortal Elves but not mortal Men to travel the Old Straight Road to the lost earthly paradise of Valinor after the world has been remade. Bifröst appears in comic books associated with the Marvel Comics character Thor and in subsequent adaptations of those comic books. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Thor, Jane Foster describes the Bifröst as an Einstein–Rosen bridge, which functions as a means of transportation across space in a short period of time.	[ "Fáfnismál", "Valinor", "Jötunn", "sacred waters", "Sigurd", "Snorri Sturluson", "Andy Orchard", "Akallabeth", "Fafnir", "Henry Adams Bellows (businessman)", "Old Norse", "Orion Publishing Group", "Richard Wagner", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Old Straight Road", "Tolkien and the Great War: The Threshold of Middle-earth", "wyrm (dragon)", "Thor (film)", "John Lindow", "legendarium", "Norse mythology", "Gylfaginning", "Jane Foster (Marvel Cinematic Universe)", "McFarland & Company", "Das Rheingold", "Múspellsheimr", "Yggdrasil", "High, Just-As-High, and Third", "Rudolf Simek", "Grímnismál", "Willy Pogany", "rainbow", "List of names of Odin", "Asgard", "Oxford University Press", "Himinbjörg", "Hjuki and Bil", "Ragnarök", "Agnarr Geirröðsson", "Körmt and Örmt", "Urðarbrunnr", "earthly paradise", "Horses of the Æsir", "Everyman's Library", "Boydell & Brewer", "Heimdall", "Midgard", "Odin", "Marvel Comics", "Poetic Edda", "Gjallarbrú", "Marvel Cinematic Universe", "Kerlaugar", "Muspelheim", "Einstein–Rosen bridge", "Thor (Marvel Comics)", "Oxford World's Classics", "skald", "Milky Way", "Emil Doepler", "Gylfi", "ash tree", "Benjamin Thorpe", "Thor", "Froh", "Icelandic language", "Óskópnir", "Úlfr Uggason", "Houghton Mifflin Harcourt", "Skáldskaparmál", "Heimdallr", "Valhalla", "Æsir", "Prose Edda" ]
4,057	Battlecruiser	The battlecruiser (also written as battle cruiser or battle-cruiser) was a type of capital ship of the first half of the 20th century. These were similar in displacement, armament and cost to battleships, but differed in form and balance of attributes. Battlecruisers typically had thinner armour (to a varying degree) and a somewhat lighter main gun battery than contemporary battleships, installed on a longer hull with much higher engine power in order to attain greater speeds. The first battlecruisers were designed in the United Kingdom, as a development of the armoured cruiser, at the same time as the dreadnought succeeded the pre-dreadnought battleship. The goal of the design was to outrun any ship with similar armament, and chase down any ship with lesser armament; they were intended to hunt down slower, older armoured cruisers and destroy them with heavy gunfire while avoiding combat with the more powerful but slower battleships. However, as more and more battlecruisers were built, they were increasingly used alongside the better-protected battleships. Battlecruisers served in the navies of the United Kingdom, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Australia and Japan during World War I, most notably at the Battle of the Falkland Islands and in the several raids and skirmishes in the North Sea which culminated in a pitched fleet battle, the Battle of Jutland. British battlecruisers in particular suffered heavy losses at Jutland, where poor fire safety and ammunition handling practices left them vulnerable to catastrophic magazine explosions following hits to their main turrets from large-calibre shells. This dismal showing led to a persistent general belief that battlecruisers were too thinly armoured to function successfully. By the end of the war, capital ship design had developed, with battleships becoming faster and battlecruisers becoming more heavily armoured, blurring the distinction between a battlecruiser and a fast battleship. The Washington Naval Treaty, which limited capital ship construction from 1922 onwards, treated battleships and battlecruisers identically, and the new generation of battlecruisers planned by the United States, Great Britain and Japan were scrapped or converted into aircraft carriers under the terms of the treaty. Improvements in armour design and propulsion created the 1930s "fast battleship" with the speed of a battlecruiser and armour of a battleship, making the battlecruiser in the traditional sense effectively an obsolete concept. Thus from the 1930s on, only the Royal Navy continued to use "battlecruiser" as a classification for the World War I–era capital ships that remained in the fleet; while Japan's battlecruisers remained in service, they had been significantly reconstructed and were re-rated as full-fledged fast battleships. Some new vessels built during that decade, the German s and s and the French s are all sometimes referred to as battlecruisers, although the owning navies referred to them as "battleships" (), "armoured ships" () and "battleships" () respectively. Battlecruisers were put into action again during World War II, and only one survived to the end, . There was also renewed interest in large "cruiser-killer" type warships whose design was scaled-up from a heavy cruiser rather than a lighter/faster battleship derivative, but few were ever begun and only two members of the were commissioned in time to see war service. Construction of large cruisers as well as fast battleships were curtailed in favor of more-needed aircraft carriers, convoy escorts, and cargo ships. During (and after) the Cold War, the Soviet of large guided missile cruisers have been the only ships termed "battlecruisers"; the class is also the only example of a nuclear-powered battlecruiser. As of 2024, Russia operates two units: the Pyotr Velikiy has remained in active service since its 1998 commissioning, while the Admiral Nakhimov has been inactive (in storage or refitting) since 1999. ==Background== The battlecruiser was developed by the Royal Navy in the first years of the 20th century as an evolution of the armoured cruiser. The first armoured cruisers had been built in the 1870s, as an attempt to give armour protection to ships fulfilling the typical cruiser roles of patrol, trade protection and power projection. However, the results were rarely satisfactory, as the weight of armour required for any meaningful protection usually meant that the ship became almost as slow as a battleship. As a result, navies preferred to build protected cruisers with an armoured deck protecting their engines, or simply no armour at all. In the 1890s, new Krupp steel armour meant that it was now possible to give a cruiser side armour which would protect it against the quick-firing guns of enemy battleships and cruisers alike. In 1896–97 France and Russia, who were regarded as likely allies in the event of war, started to build large, fast armoured cruisers taking advantage of this. In the event of a war between Britain and France or Russia, or both, these cruisers threatened to cause serious difficulties for the British Empire's worldwide trade. Britain, which had concluded in 1892 that it needed twice as many cruisers as any potential enemy to adequately protect its empire's sea lanes, responded to the perceived threat by laying down its own large armoured cruisers. Between 1899 and 1905, it completed or laid down seven classes of this type, a total of 35 ships. This building program, in turn, prompted the French and Russians to increase their own construction. The Imperial German Navy began to build large armoured cruisers for use on their overseas stations, laying down eight between 1897 and 1906. In the period 1889–1896, the Royal Navy spent £7.3 million on new large cruisers. From 1897 to 1904, it spent £26.9 million. Many armoured cruisers of the new kind were just as large and expensive as the equivalent battleship. The increasing size and power of the armoured cruiser led to suggestions in British naval circles that cruisers should displace battleships entirely. The battleship's main advantage was its 12-inch heavy guns, and heavier armour designed to protect from shells of similar size. However, for a few years after 1900 it seemed that those advantages were of little practical value. The torpedo now had a range of 2,000 yards, and it seemed unlikely that a battleship would engage within torpedo range. However, at ranges of more than 2,000 yards it became increasingly unlikely that the heavy guns of a battleship would score any hits, as the heavy guns relied on primitive aiming techniques. The secondary batteries of 6-inch quick-firing guns, firing more plentiful shells, were more likely to hit the enemy. As naval expert Fred T. Jane wrote in June 1902,Is there anything outside of 2,000 yards that the big gun in its hundreds of tons of medieval castle can affect, that its weight in 6-inch guns without the castle could not affect equally well? And inside 2,000, what, in these days of gyros, is there that the torpedo cannot effect with far more certainty? In 1904, Admiral John "Jacky" Fisher became First Sea Lord, the senior officer of the Royal Navy. He had for some time thought about the development of a new fast armoured ship. He was very fond of the "second-class battleship" , a faster, more lightly armoured battleship. As early as 1901, there is confusion in Fisher's writing about whether he saw the battleship or the cruiser as the model for future developments. This did not stop him from commissioning designs from naval architect W. H. Gard for an armoured cruiser with the heaviest possible armament for use with the fleet. The design Gard submitted was for a ship between , capable of , armed with four 9.2-inch and twelve guns in twin gun turrets and protected with six inches of armour along her belt and 9.2-inch turrets, on her 7.5-inch turrets, 10 inches on her conning tower and up to on her decks. However, mainstream British naval thinking between 1902 and 1904 was clearly in favour of heavily armoured battleships, rather than the fast ships that Fisher favoured. The Battle of Tsushima proved the effectiveness of heavy guns over intermediate ones and the need for a uniform main caliber on a ship for fire control. Even before this, the Royal Navy had begun to consider a shift away from the mixed-calibre armament of the 1890s pre-dreadnought to an "all-big-gun" design, and preliminary designs circulated for battleships with all 12-inch or all 10-inch guns and armoured cruisers with all 9.2-inch guns. In late 1904, not long after the Royal Navy had decided to use 12-inch guns for its next generation of battleships because of their superior performance at long range, Fisher began to argue that big-gun cruisers could replace battleships altogether. The continuing improvement of the torpedo meant that submarines and destroyers would be able to destroy battleships; this in Fisher's view heralded the end of the battleship or at least compromised the validity of heavy armour protection. Nevertheless, armoured cruisers would remain vital for commerce protection. Fisher's views were very controversial within the Royal Navy, and even given his position as First Sea Lord, he was not in a position to insist on his own approach. Thus he assembled a "Committee on Designs", consisting of a mixture of civilian and naval experts, to determine the approach to both battleship and armoured cruiser construction in the future. While the stated purpose of the committee was to investigate and report on future requirements of ships, Fisher and his associates had already made key decisions. The terms of reference for the committee were for a battleship capable of with 12-inch guns and no intermediate calibres, capable of docking in existing drydocks; and a cruiser capable of , also with 12-inch guns and no intermediate armament, armoured like , the most recent armoured cruiser, and also capable of using existing docks. The construction of the new class was begun in 1906 and completed in 1908, delayed perhaps to allow their designers to learn from any problems with Dreadnought. The ships fulfilled the design requirement quite closely. On a displacement similar to Dreadnought, the Invincibles were longer to accommodate additional boilers and more powerful turbines to propel them at . Moreover, the new ships could maintain this speed for days, whereas pre-dreadnought battleships could not generally do so for more than an hour. Armed with eight 12-inch Mk X guns, compared to ten on Dreadnought, they had of armour protecting the hull and the gun turrets. (Dreadnoughts armour, by comparison, was at its thickest.) The class had a very marked increase in speed, displacement and firepower compared to the most recent armoured cruisers but no more armour. Confusion about how to refer to these new battleship-size armoured cruisers set in almost immediately. Even in late 1905, before work was begun on the Invincibles, a Royal Navy memorandum refers to "large armoured ships" meaning both battleships and large cruisers. In October 1906, the Admiralty began to classify all post-Dreadnought battleships and armoured cruisers as "capital ships", while Fisher used the term "dreadnought" to refer either to his new battleships or the battleships and armoured cruisers together. At the same time, the Invincible class themselves were referred to as "cruiser-battleships", "dreadnought cruisers"; the term "battlecruiser" was first used by Fisher in 1908. Finally, on 24 November 1911, Admiralty Weekly Order No. 351 laid down that "All cruisers of the "Invincible" and later types are for the future to be described and classified as "battle cruisers" to distinguish them from the armoured cruisers of earlier date." Along with questions over the new ships' nomenclature came uncertainty about their actual role due to their lack of protection. If they were primarily to act as scouts for the battle fleet and hunter-killers of enemy cruisers and commerce raiders, then the seven inches of belt armour with which they had been equipped would be adequate. If, on the other hand, they were expected to reinforce a battle line of dreadnoughts with their own heavy guns, they were too thin-skinned to be safe from an enemy's heavy guns. The Invincibles were essentially extremely large, heavily armed, fast armoured cruisers. However, the viability of the armoured cruiser was already in doubt. A cruiser that could have worked with the Fleet might have been a more viable option for taking over that role. Because of the Invincibles size and armament, naval authorities considered them capital ships almost from their inception—an assumption that might have been inevitable. Complicating matters further was that many naval authorities, including Lord Fisher, had made overoptimistic assessments from the Battle of Tsushima in 1905 about the armoured cruiser's ability to survive in a battle line against enemy capital ships due to their superior speed. These assumptions had been made without taking into account the Russian Baltic Fleet's inefficiency and tactical ineptitude. By the time the term "battlecruiser" had been given to the Invincibles, the idea of their parity with battleships had been fixed in many people's minds. Those in favor of the battlecruiser countered with two points—first, since all capital ships were vulnerable to new weapons such as the torpedo, armour had lost some of its validity; and second, because of its greater speed, the battlecruiser could control the range at which it engaged an enemy. ==Battlecruisers in the dreadnought arms race== Between the launching of the Invincibles to just after the outbreak of the First World War, the battlecruiser played a junior role in the developing dreadnought arms race, as it was never wholeheartedly adopted as the key weapon in British imperial defence, as Fisher had presumably desired. The biggest factor for this lack of acceptance was the marked change in Britain's strategic circumstances between their conception and the commissioning of the first ships. The prospective enemy for Britain had shifted from a Franco-Russian alliance with many armoured cruisers to a resurgent and increasingly belligerent Germany. Diplomatically, Britain had entered the Entente cordiale in 1904 and the Anglo-Russian Entente. Neither France nor Russia posed a particular naval threat; the Russian navy had largely been sunk or captured in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, while the French were in no hurry to adopt the new dreadnought-type design. Britain also boasted very cordial relations with two of the significant new naval powers: Japan (bolstered by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, signed in 1902 and renewed in 1905), and the US. These changed strategic circumstances, and the great success of the Dreadnought ensured that she rather than the Invincible became the new model capital ship. Nevertheless, battlecruiser construction played a part in the renewed naval arms race sparked by the Dreadnought. For their first few years of service, the Invincibles entirely fulfilled Fisher's vision of being able to sink any ship fast enough to catch them, and run from any ship capable of sinking them. An Invincible would also, in many circumstances, be able to take on an enemy pre-dreadnought battleship. Naval circles concurred that the armoured cruiser in its current form had come to the logical end of its development and the Invincibles were so far ahead of any enemy armoured cruiser in firepower and speed that it proved difficult to justify building more or bigger cruisers. This lead was extended by the surprise both Dreadnought and Invincible produced by having been built in secret; this prompted most other navies to delay their building programmes and radically revise their designs. This was particularly true for cruisers, because the details of the Invincible class were kept secret for longer; this meant that the last German armoured cruiser, , was armed with only guns, and was no match for the new battlecruisers. The Royal Navy's early superiority in capital ships led to the rejection of a 1905–1906 design that would, essentially, have fused the battlecruiser and battleship concepts into what would eventually become the fast battleship. The 'X4' design combined the full armour and armament of Dreadnought with the 25-knot speed of Invincible. The additional cost could not be justified given the existing British lead and the new Liberal government's need for economy; the slower and cheaper , a relatively close copy of Dreadnought, was adopted instead. The X4 concept would eventually be fulfilled in the and later by other navies. The next British battlecruisers were the three , slightly improved Invincibles built to fundamentally the same specification, partly due to political pressure to limit costs and partly due to the secrecy surrounding German battlecruiser construction, particularly about the heavy armour of . This class came to be widely seen as a mistake and the next generation of British battlecruisers were markedly more powerful. By 1909–1910 a sense of national crisis about rivalry with Germany outweighed cost-cutting, and a naval panic resulted in the approval of a total of eight capital ships in 1909–1910. Fisher pressed for all eight to be battlecruisers, but was unable to have his way; he had to settle for six battleships and two battlecruisers of the . The Lions carried eight 13.5-inch guns, the now-standard caliber of the British "super-dreadnought" battleships. Speed increased to and armour protection, while not as good as in German designs, was better than in previous British battlecruisers, with armour belt and barbettes. The two Lions were followed by the very similar . By 1911 Germany had built battlecruisers of her own, and the superiority of the British ships could no longer be assured. Moreover, the German Navy did not share Fisher's view of the battlecruiser. In contrast to the British focus on increasing speed and firepower, Germany progressively improved the armour and staying power of their ships to better the British battlecruisers. Von der Tann, begun in 1908 and completed in 1910, carried eight 11.1-inch guns, but with 11.1-inch (283 mm) armour she was far better protected than the Invincibles. The two s were quite similar but carried ten 11.1-inch guns of an improved design. , designed in 1909 and finished in 1913, was a modified Moltke; speed increased by one knot to , while her armour had a maximum thickness of 12 inches, equivalent to the s of a few years earlier. Seydlitz was Germany's last battlecruiser completed before World War I. The next step in battlecruiser design came from Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy had been planning the ships from 1909, and was determined that, since the Japanese economy could support relatively few ships, each would be more powerful than its likely competitors. Initially the class was planned with the Invincibles as the benchmark. On learning of the British plans for Lion, and the likelihood that new U.S. Navy battleships would be armed with guns, the Japanese decided to radically revise their plans and go one better. A new plan was drawn up, carrying eight 14-inch guns, and capable of , thus marginally having the edge over the Lions in speed and firepower. The heavy guns were also better-positioned, being superfiring both fore and aft with no turret amidships. The armour scheme was also marginally improved over the Lions, with nine inches of armour on the turrets and on the barbettes. The first ship in the class was built in Britain, and a further three constructed in Japan. The Japanese also re-classified their powerful armoured cruisers of the Tsukuba and Ibuki classes, carrying four 12-inch guns, as battlecruisers; nonetheless, their armament was weaker and they were slower than any battlecruiser. The next British battlecruiser, , was intended initially as the fourth ship in the Lion class, but was substantially redesigned. She retained the eight 13.5-inch guns of her predecessors, but they were positioned like those of Kongō for better fields of fire. She was faster (making on sea trials), and carried a heavier secondary armament. Tiger was also more heavily armoured on the whole; while the maximum thickness of armour was the same at nine inches, the height of the main armour belt was increased. Not all the desired improvements for this ship were approved, however. Her designer, Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, had wanted small-bore water-tube boilers and geared turbines to give her a speed of , but he received no support from the authorities and the engine makers refused his request. 1912 saw work begin on three more German battlecruisers of the , the first German battlecruisers to mount 12-inch guns. These ships, like Tiger and the Kongōs, had their guns arranged in superfiring turrets for greater efficiency. Their armour and speed was similar to the previous Seydlitz class. In 1913, the Russian Empire also began the construction of the four-ship , which were designed for service in the Baltic Sea. These ships were designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns, with armour up to 12 inches thick, and a speed of . The heavy armour and relatively slow speed of these ships made them more similar to German designs than to British ships; construction of the Borodinos was halted by the First World War and all were scrapped after the end of the Russian Civil War. ==World War I== ===Construction=== For most of the combatants, capital ship construction was very limited during the war. Germany finished the Derfflinger class and began work on the . The Mackensens were a development of the Derfflinger class, with 13.8-inch guns and a broadly similar armour scheme, designed for . In Britain, Jackie Fisher returned to the office of First Sea Lord in October 1914. His enthusiasm for big, fast ships was unabated, and he set designers to producing a design for a battlecruiser with 15-inch guns. Because Fisher expected the next German battlecruiser to steam at 28 knots, he required the new British design to be capable of 32 knots. He planned to reorder two s, which had been approved but not yet laid down, to a new design. Fisher finally received approval for this project on 28 December 1914 and they became the . With six 15-inch guns but only 6-inch armour they were a further step forward from Tiger in firepower and speed, but returned to the level of protection of the first British battlecruisers. At the same time, Fisher resorted to subterfuge to obtain another three fast, lightly armoured ships that could use several spare gun turrets left over from battleship construction. These ships were essentially light battlecruisers, and Fisher occasionally referred to them as such, but officially they were classified as large light cruisers. This unusual designation was required because construction of new capital ships had been placed on hold, while there were no limits on light cruiser construction. They became and her sisters and , and there was a bizarre imbalance between their main guns of 15 inches (or in Furious) and their armour, which at thickness was on the scale of a light cruiser. The design was generally regarded as a failure (nicknamed in the Fleet Outrageous, Uproarious and Spurious), though the later conversion of the ships to aircraft carriers was very successful. Fisher also speculated about a new mammoth, but lightly built battlecruiser, that would carry guns, which he termed ; this never got beyond the concept stage. It is often held that the Renown and Courageous classes were designed for Fisher's plan to land troops (possibly Russian) on the German Baltic coast. Specifically, they were designed with a reduced draught, which might be important in the shallow Baltic. This is not clear-cut evidence that the ships were designed for the Baltic: it was considered that earlier ships had too much draught and not enough freeboard under operational conditions. Roberts argues that the focus on the Baltic was probably unimportant at the time the ships were designed, but was inflated later, after the disastrous Dardanelles Campaign. The final British battlecruiser design of the war was the , which was born from a requirement for an improved version of the Queen Elizabeth battleship. The project began at the end of 1915, after Fisher's final departure from the Admiralty. While initially envisaged as a battleship, senior sea officers felt that Britain had enough battleships, but that new battlecruisers might be required to combat German ships being built (the British overestimated German progress on the Mackensen class as well as their likely capabilities). A battlecruiser design with eight 15-inch guns, 8 inches of armour and capable of 32 knots was decided on. The experience of battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland meant that the design was radically revised and transformed again into a fast battleship with armour up to 12 inches thick, but still capable of . The first ship in the class, , was built according to this design to counter the possible completion of any of the Mackensen-class ship. The plans for her three sisters, on which little work had been done, were revised once more later in 1916 and in 1917 to improve protection. The Admiral class would have been the only British ships capable of taking on the German Mackensen class; nevertheless, German shipbuilding was drastically slowed by the war, and while two Mackensens were launched, none were ever completed. The Germans also worked briefly on a further three ships, of the , which were modified versions of the Mackensens with 15-inch guns. Work on the three additional Admirals was suspended in March 1917 to enable more escorts and merchant ships to be built to deal with the new threat from U-boats to trade. They were finally cancelled in February 1919. The German battlecruiser perhaps made the most impact early in the war. Stationed in the Mediterranean, she and the escorting light cruiser evaded British and French ships on the outbreak of war, and steamed to Constantinople (Istanbul) with two British battlecruisers in hot pursuit. The two German ships were handed over to the Ottoman Navy, and this was instrumental in bringing the Ottoman Empire into the war as one of the Central Powers. Goeben herself, renamed Yavuz Sultan Selim, fought engagements against the Imperial Russian Navy in the Black Sea before being knocked out of the action for the remainder of the war after the Battle of Imbros against British forces in the Aegean Sea in January 1918. The original battlecruiser concept proved successful in December 1914 at the Battle of the Falkland Islands. The British battlecruisers and did precisely the job for which they were intended when they chased down and annihilated the German East Asia Squadron, centered on the armoured cruisers and , along with three light cruisers, commanded by Admiral Maximilian Graf Von Spee, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the battle, the Australian battlecruiser had unsuccessfully searched for the German ships in the Pacific. During the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915, the aftermost barbette of the German flagship Seydlitz was struck by a British 13.5-inch shell from HMS Lion. The shell did not penetrate the barbette, but it dislodged a piece of the barbette armour that allowed the flame from the shell's detonation to enter the barbette. The propellant charges being hoisted upwards were ignited, and the fireball flashed up into the turret and down into the magazine, setting fire to charges removed from their brass cartridge cases. The gun crew tried to escape into the next turret, which allowed the flash to spread into that turret as well, killing the crews of both turrets. Seydlitz was saved from near-certain destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines, which had been effected by Wilhelm Heidkamp. This near-disaster was due to the way that ammunition handling was arranged and was common to both German and British battleships and battlecruisers, but the lighter protection on the latter made them more vulnerable to the turret or barbette being penetrated. The Germans learned from investigating the damaged Seydlitz and instituted measures to ensure that ammunition handling minimised any possible exposure to flash. Apart from the cordite handling, the battle was mostly inconclusive, though both the British flagship Lion and Seydlitz were severely damaged. Lion lost speed, causing her to fall behind the rest of the battleline, and Beatty was unable to effectively command his ships for the remainder of the engagement. A British signalling error allowed the German battlecruisers to withdraw, as most of Beatty's squadron mistakenly concentrated on the crippled armoured cruiser Blücher, sinking her with great loss of life. The British blamed their failure to win a decisive victory on their poor gunnery and attempted to increase their rate of fire by stockpiling unprotected cordite charges in their ammunition hoists and barbettes. At the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units. The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the British Grand Fleet. The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: Invincible, Queen Mary, and exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews. The exact reason why the ships' magazines detonated is not known, but the abundance of exposed cordite charges stored in their turrets, ammunition hoists and working chambers in the quest to increase their rate of fire undoubtedly contributed to their loss. Beatty's flagship Lion herself was almost lost in a similar manner, save for the heroic actions of Major Francis Harvey. The better-armoured German battlecruisers fared better, in part due to the poor performance of British fuzes (the British shells tended to explode or break up on impact with the German armour). —the only German battlecruiser lost at Jutland—had only 128 killed, for instance, despite receiving more than thirty hits. The other German battlecruisers, , Von der Tann, Seydlitz, and , were all heavily damaged and required extensive repairs after the battle, Seydlitz barely making it home, for they had been the focus of British fire for much of the battle. ==Interwar period== In the years immediately after World War I, Britain, Japan and the US all began design work on a new generation of ever more powerful battleships and battlecruisers. The new burst of shipbuilding that each nation's navy desired was politically controversial and potentially economically crippling. This nascent arms race was prevented by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, where the major naval powers agreed to limits on capital ship numbers. The German navy was not represented at the talks; under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was not allowed any modern capital ships at all. Through the 1920s and 1930s only Britain and Japan retained battlecruisers, often modified and rebuilt from their original designs. The line between the battlecruiser and the modern fast battleship became blurred; indeed, the Japanese Kongōs were formally redesignated as battleships after their very comprehensive reconstruction in the 1930s. ===Plans in the aftermath of World War I=== Hood, launched in 1918, was the last World War I battlecruiser to be completed. Owing to lessons from Jutland, the ship was modified during construction; the thickness of her belt armour was increased by an average of 50 percent and extended substantially, she was given heavier deck armour, and the protection of her magazines was improved to guard against the ignition of ammunition. This was hoped to be capable of resisting her own weapons—the classic measure of a "balanced" battleship. Hood was the largest ship in the Royal Navy when completed; because of her great displacement, in theory she combined the firepower and armour of a battleship with the speed of a battlecruiser, causing some to refer to her as a fast battleship. However, her protection was markedly less than that of the British battleships built immediately after World War I, the . The United States Navy, which had worked on its battlecruiser designs since 1913 and watched the latest developments in this class with great care, responded with the . If completed as planned, they would have been exceptionally fast and well armed with eight 16-inch guns, but carried armour little better than the Invincibles—this after an increase in protection following Jutland. The final stage in the post-war battlecruiser race came with the British response to the Amagi and Lexington types: four G3 battlecruisers. Royal Navy documents of the period often described any battleship with a speed of over about as a battlecruiser, regardless of the amount of protective armour, although the G3 was considered by most to be a well-balanced fast battleship. The Washington Naval Treaty meant that none of these designs came to fruition. Ships that had been started were either broken up on the slipway or converted to aircraft carriers. In Japan, Amagi and were selected for conversion. Amagi was damaged beyond repair by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and was broken up for scrap; the hull of one of the proposed Tosa-class battleships, , was converted in her stead. The United States Navy also converted two battlecruiser hulls into aircraft carriers in the wake of the Washington Treaty: and , although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: Constellation, Ranger, Constitution and United States were scrapped). In Britain, Fisher's "large light cruisers," were converted to carriers. Furious had already been partially converted during the war and Glorious and Courageous were similarly converted. ===Rebuilding programmes=== In total, nine battlecruisers survived the Washington Naval Treaty, although HMS Tiger later became a victim of the London Naval Conference 1930 and was scrapped. Because their high speed made them valuable surface units in spite of their weaknesses, most of these ships were significantly updated before World War II. and were modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s. Between 1934 and 1936, Repulse was partially modernized and had her bridge modified, an aircraft hangar, catapult and new gunnery equipment added and her anti-aircraft armament increased. Renown underwent a more thorough reconstruction between 1937 and 1939. Her deck armour was increased, new turbines and boilers were fitted, an aircraft hangar and catapult added and she was completely rearmed aside from the main guns which had their elevation increased to +30 degrees. The bridge structure was also removed and a large bridge similar to that used in the battleships installed in its place. While conversions of this kind generally added weight to the vessel, Renowns tonnage actually decreased due to a substantially lighter power plant. Similar thorough rebuildings planned for Repulse and Hood were cancelled due to the advent of World War II. Unable to build new ships, the Imperial Japanese Navy also chose to improve its existing battlecruisers of the Kongō class (initially the , , and —the only later as it had been disarmed under the terms of the Washington treaty) in two substantial reconstructions (one for Hiei). During the first of these, elevation of their main guns was increased to +40 degrees, anti-torpedo bulges and of horizontal armour added, and a "pagoda" mast with additional command positions built up. This reduced the ships' speed to . The second reconstruction focused on speed as they had been selected as fast escorts for aircraft carrier task forces. Completely new main engines, a reduced number of boilers and an increase in hull length by allowed them to reach up to 30 knots once again. They were reclassified as "fast battleships," although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War I–era battleships in the American or the British navies, with dire consequences during the Pacific War, when Hiei and Kirishima were easily crippled by US gunfire during actions off Guadalcanal, forcing their scuttling shortly afterwards. Perhaps most tellingly, Hiei was crippled by medium-caliber gunfire from heavy and light cruisers in a close-range night engagement. There were two exceptions: Turkey's Yavuz Sultan Selim and the Royal Navy's Hood. The Turkish Navy made only minor improvements to the ship in the interwar period, which primarily focused on repairing wartime damage and the installation of new fire control systems and anti-aircraft batteries. Hood was in constant service with the fleet and could not be withdrawn for an extended reconstruction. She received minor improvements over the course of the 1930s, including modern fire control systems, increased numbers of anti-aircraft guns, and in March 1941, radar. ===Naval rearmament=== In the late 1930s navies began to build capital ships again, and during this period a number of large commerce raiders and small, fast battleships were built that are sometimes referred to as battlecruisers, such as the s and s and the French s. Germany and Russia designed new battlecruisers during this period, though only the latter laid down two of the 35,000-ton . They were still on the slipways when the Germans invaded in 1941 and construction was suspended. Both ships were scrapped after the war. The Germans planned three battlecruisers of the as part of the expansion of the Kriegsmarine (Plan Z). With six 15-inch guns, high speed, excellent range, but very thin armour, they were intended as commerce raiders. Only one was ordered shortly before World War II; no work was ever done on it. No names were assigned, and they were known by their contract names: 'O', 'P', and 'Q'. The new class was not universally welcomed in the Kriegsmarine. Their abnormally-light protection gained it the derogatory nickname Ohne Panzer Quatsch (without armour nonsense) within certain circles of the Navy. ==World War II== The Royal Navy deployed some of its battlecruisers during the Norwegian Campaign in April 1940. The and the were engaged during the action off Lofoten by Renown in very bad weather and disengaged after Gneisenau was damaged. One of Renowns 15-inch shells passed through Gneisenaus director-control tower without exploding, severing electrical and communication cables as it went and destroyed the rangefinders for the forward 150 mm (5.9 in) turrets. Main-battery fire control had to be shifted aft due to the loss of electrical power. Another shell from Renown knocked out Gneisenaus aft turret. The British ship was struck twice by German shells that failed to inflict any significant damage. She was the only pre-war battlecruiser to survive the war. In the early years of the war various German ships had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the Atlantic. Allied battlecruisers such as Renown, Repulse, and the fast battleships Dunkerque and were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce-raiding German ships. The one stand-up fight occurred when the battleship and the heavy cruiser sortied into the North Atlantic to attack British shipping and were intercepted by Hood and the battleship in May 1941 in the Battle of the Denmark Strait. Hood was destroyed when the Bismarcks 15-inch shells caused a magazine explosion. Only three men survived. The first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was Repulse when she was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers north of Singapore on 10 December 1941 whilst in company with Prince of Wales. She was lightly damaged by a single bomb and near-missed by two others in the first Japanese attack. Her speed and agility enabled her to avoid the other attacks by level bombers and dodge 33 torpedoes. The last group of torpedo bombers attacked from multiple directions and Repulse was struck by five torpedoes. She quickly capsized with the loss of 27 officers and 486 crewmen; 42 officers and 754 enlisted men were rescued by the escorting destroyers. The loss of Repulse and Prince of Wales conclusively proved the vulnerability of capital ships to aircraft without air cover of their own. The Japanese Kongō-class battlecruisers were extensively used as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career due to their high speed. Although classified as fast battleships by the Japanese, their World War I–era armament was weaker and their upgraded armour was still thin compared to contemporary battleships. On 13 November 1942, during the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, Hiei stumbled across American cruisers and destroyers at point-blank range. The ship was badly damaged in the encounter and had to be towed by her sister ship Kirishima. Both were spotted by American aircraft the following morning and Kirishima was forced to cast off her tow because of repeated aerial attacks. Hieis captain ordered her crew to abandon ship after further damage and scuttled Hiei in the early evening of 14 November. On the night of 14/15 November during the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, Kirishima returned to Ironbottom Sound, but encountered the American battleships and . While failing to detect Washington, Kirishima engaged South Dakota with some effect. Washington opened fire a few minutes later at short range and badly damaged Kirishima, knocking out her aft turrets, jamming her rudder, and hitting the ship below the waterline. The flooding proved to be uncontrollable and Kirishima capsized three and a half hours later. Returning to Japan after the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Kongō was torpedoed and sunk by the American submarine on 21 November 1944. ===Large cruisers or "cruiser killers"=== A late renaissance in popularity of ships between battleships and cruisers in size occurred on the eve of World War II. Described by some as battlecruisers, but never classified as capital ships, they were variously described as "super cruisers", "large cruisers" or even "unrestricted cruisers". The Dutch, American, and Japanese navies all planned these new classes specifically to counter the heavy cruisers, or their counterparts, being built by their naval rivals. The first such battlecruisers were the Dutch Design 1047, designed to protect their colonies in the East Indies in the face of Japanese aggression. Never officially assigned names, these ships were designed with German and Italian assistance. While they broadly resembled the German Scharnhorst class and had the same main battery, they would have been more lightly armoured and only protected against eight-inch gunfire. Although the design was mostly completed, work on the vessels never commenced as the Germans overran the Netherlands in May 1940. The first ship would have been laid down in June of that year. The only class of these late battlecruisers actually built were the United States Navy's "large cruisers". Two of them were completed, and ; a third, , was cancelled while under construction and three others, to be named Philippines, Puerto Rico and Samoa, were cancelled before they were laid down. The USN classified them "large cruisers" instead of battlecruisers. These ships were named after territories or protectorates, while battleships were named after states and cruisers after cities. With a displacement of and a main armament of nine 12-inch guns in three triple turrets, they were twice the size of s and had guns some 50% larger in diameter. The Alaskas design was a scaled-up cruiser rather than a lighter/faster battleship derivative, as they lacked the thick armoured belt and intricate torpedo defence system of contemporary battleships. However, unlike World War I-era battlecruisers, the Alaskas were considered a balanced design according to cruiser standards as their protection could withstand fire from their own caliber of gun, albeit only in a very narrow range band. They were designed to hunt down Japanese heavy cruisers, though by the time they entered service most Japanese cruisers had been sunk by American aircraft or submarines. Like the contemporary fast battleships, their speed ultimately made them more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the surface combatants they were developed to be. The Japanese started designing the B64 class, which was similar to the Alaska but with guns. News of the Alaskas led them to upgrade the design, creating Design B-65. Armed with 356 mm guns, the B65s would have been the best armed of the new breed of battlecruisers, but they still would have had only sufficient protection to keep out eight-inch shells. Much like the Dutch, the Japanese got as far as completing the design for the B65s, but never laid them down. By the time the designs were ready the Japanese Navy recognized that they had little use for the vessels and that their priority for construction should lie with aircraft carriers. Like the Alaskas, the Japanese did not call these ships battlecruisers, referring to them instead as super-heavy cruisers. ==Cold War–era designs== In spite of the fact that most navies abandoned the battleship and battlecruiser concepts after World War II, Joseph Stalin's fondness for big-gun-armed warships caused the Soviet Union to plan a large cruiser class in the late 1940s. In the Soviet Navy, they were termed "heavy cruisers" (tyazhelny kreyser). The fruits of this program were the Project 82 (Stalingrad) cruisers, of standard load, nine guns and a speed of . Three ships were laid down in 1951–1952, but they were cancelled in April 1953 after Stalin's death. Only the central armoured hull section of the first ship, Stalingrad, was launched in 1954 and then used as a target. The Soviet is sometimes referred to as a battlecruiser. This description arises from their over displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a First World War battleship and more than twice the displacement of contemporary cruisers; upon entry into service, Kirov was the largest surface combatant to be built since World War II. The Kirov class lacks the armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from ordinary cruisers and they are classified as heavy nuclear-powered missile cruisers (Тяжелый Атомный Ракетный Крейсер (ТАРКР)) by Russia, with their primary surface armament consisting of twenty P-700 Granit surface to surface missiles. Four members of the class were completed during the 1980s and 1990s, but due to budget constraints only the is operational with the Russian Navy, though plans were announced in 2010 to return the other three ships to service. As of 2021, was being refitted, but the other two ships are reportedly beyond economical repair. ==Operators== operates one with one more being overhauled. ===Former operators=== five surviving battlecruisers were all scuttled at Scapa Flow in 1919. decommissioned its only battlecruiser HMAS Australia in 1921. whose s (upgraded and reclassified as fast battleships in the 1930s) all served in and were sunk in World War II, the last in 1945. last battlecruiser, HMS Renown was decommissioned in 1945, following World War II. two Alaska-class large cruisers were both decommissioned in 1947. decommissioned its only battlecruiser TCG Yavuz in 1950.	[ "Nuclear marine propulsion", "Rear Admiral", "battleship", "Freeboard (nautical)", "Fred T. Jane", "barbette", "pier", "Quick firing guns", "magazine (artillery)", "Joseph Stalin", "Stalingrad-class battlecruiser", "First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal", "Istanbul", "slipway", "Dreadnought (book)", "Singapore", "Ottoman Empire", "Royal Australian Navy", "conning tower", "Vice Admiral", "British Grand Fleet", "List of battlecruisers", "Russian Empire", "heavy cruiser", "Cold War", "Pacific War", "aircraft catapult", "International Naval Research Organization", "List of battlecruisers of World War II", "pitched battle", "Aegean Sea", "armoured cruiser", "ship class", "sea trial", "Russian Civil War", "cordite", "Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau", "Treaty of Versailles", "surface combatant", "Dardanelles Campaign", "superfire", "pre-dreadnought battleship", "destroyer", "Bombing of Kure (July 1945)", "Washington Naval Treaty", "Imperial Russian Navy", "Francis John William Harvey", "Battle of Leyte Gulf", "Design 1047 battlecruiser", "capital ships", "Plan Z", "North Sea", "Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)", "anti-torpedo bulges", "Battle of Imbros", "Dutch East Indies", "rangefinders", "boiler (steam generator)", "P-700 Granit", "Baltic Sea", "Russian battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy", "Wilhelm Heidkamp", "G3 battlecruiser", "cruiser", "Kriegsmarine", "torpedo", "Ironbottom Sound", "Ottoman Navy", "Ibuki-class armored cruiser", "HMS Renown (1916)", "Anglo-Japanese Alliance", "United Kingdom", "gun turret", "submarine", "scuttled", "Battle of the Denmark Strait", "East Asia Squadron", "water-tube boiler", "Imperial German Navy", "Norwegian Campaign", "bridge (nautical)", "sortie", "drydock", "U.S. Navy", "BL 15 inch Mk I naval gun", "List of British ordnance terms", "action off Lofoten", "Krupp armour", "draft (hull)", "London Naval Conference 1930", "Tsukuba-class cruiser", "point-blank range", "BL 12 inch Mk X naval gun", "Battle of the Falkland Islands", "Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal", "Royal Navy", "List of sunken battlecruisers", "Central Powers", "Anglo-Russian Entente", "Leberecht Maass", "1923 Great Kantō earthquake", "Entente cordiale", "HMAS Australia (1911)", "Imperial Japanese Navy", "Hamburg", "steam turbine", "Russian battlecruiser Admiral Nakhimov", "World War II", "Atlantic Ocean", "German Imperial Navy", "Cruiser", "First Lord of the Admiralty", "Alaska-class cruiser", "David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty", "protected cruiser", "List of battlecruisers of World War I", "Soviet Navy", "Battle of Heligoland Bight (1914)", "ship breaking", "fast battleship", "capital ship", "torpedo bomber", "pre-dreadnought", "sister ship", "SMS Goeben", "John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher", "Russo-Japanese War", "Black Sea", "British Empire", "Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse", "dreadnought", "naval architect", "BL 13.5 inch Mk V naval gun", "List of ships of the Second World War", "capsized", "First Sea Lord", "Heligoland Bight", "aircraft carrier", "Design B-65 cruiser", "hangar", "Kure, Hiroshima", "Maximilian von Spee", "Major (rank)", "Battle of Jutland", "light cruiser", "Baltic Fleet", "belt armour", "William Palmer, 2nd Earl of Selborne", "Russian Navy", "Sir Eustace Tennyson d'Eyncourt, 1st Baronet" ]
4,059	Bob Hawke	Robert James Lee Hawke (9 December 1929 – 16 May 2019) was an Australian politician and trade unionist who served as the 23rd prime minister of Australia from 1983 to 1991. He held office as the leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP), having previously served as the president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions from 1969 to 1980 and president of the Labor Party national executive from 1973 to 1978. Hawke was born in Border Town, South Australia. He attended the University of Western Australia and went on to study at University College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar. In 1956, Hawke joined the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) as a research officer. Having risen to become responsible for national wage case arbitration, he was elected as president of the ACTU in 1969, where he achieved a high public profile. In 1973, he was appointed as president of the Labor Party. In 1980, Hawke stood down from his roles as ACTU and Labor Party president to announce his intention to enter parliamentary politics, and was subsequently elected to the Australian House of Representatives as a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Wills at the 1980 federal election. Three years later, he was elected unopposed to replace Bill Hayden as leader of the Australian Labor Party, and within five weeks led Labor to a landslide victory at the 1983 election, and was sworn in as prime minister. He led Labor to victory a further three times, with successful outcomes in 1984, 1987 and 1990 elections, making him the most electorally successful prime minister in the history of the Labor Party. The Hawke government implemented a significant number of reforms, including major economic reforms, the establishment of Landcare, the introduction of the universal healthcare scheme Medicare, brokering the Prices and Incomes Accord, creating APEC, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial sector, introducing the Family Assistance Scheme, enacting the Sex Discrimination Act to prevent discrimination in the workplace, declaring "Advance Australia Fair" as the country's national anthem, initiating superannuation pension schemes for all workers, negotiating a ban on mining in Antarctica and overseeing passage of the Australia Act that removed all remaining jurisdiction by the United Kingdom from Australia. In June 1991, Hawke faced a leadership challenge by the Treasurer, Paul Keating, but Hawke managed to retain power; however, Keating mounted a second challenge six months later, and won narrowly, replacing Hawke as prime minister. Hawke subsequently retired from parliament, pursuing both a business career and a number of charitable causes, until his death in 2019, aged 89. Hawke remains his party's longest-serving Prime Minister, and Australia's third-longest-serving prime minister behind Robert Menzies and John Howard. He is also the only prime minister to be born in South Australia and the only one raised and educated in Western Australia. Hawke holds the highest-ever approval rating for an Australian prime minister, reaching 75% approval in 1984. Hawke is frequently ranked within the upper tier of Australian prime ministers by historians. ==Early life and family== Bob Hawke was born on 9 December 1929 in Border Town, South Australia, the second child of Arthur "Clem" Hawke (1898–1989), a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Edith Emily (Lee) (1897–1979) (known as Ellie), a schoolteacher. His uncle, Bert, was the Labor premier of Western Australia between 1953 and 1959. Hawke's brother Neil, who was seven years his senior, died at the age of seventeen after contracting meningitis, for which there was no cure at the time. At the age of fifteen, he presciently boasted to friends that he would one day become the prime minister of Australia. At the age of seventeen, Hawke had a serious crash while riding his Panther motorcycle that left him in a critical condition for several days. This near-death experience acted as his catalyst, driving him to make the most of his talents and not let his abilities go to waste. He joined the Labor Party in 1947 at the age of eighteen. ==Education and early career== Hawke was educated at West Leederville State School, Perth Modern School and the University of Western Australia, graduating in 1952 with Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws degrees. He was also president of the university's guild during the same year. The following year, Hawke won a Rhodes Scholarship to attend University College, Oxford, where he began a Bachelor of Arts course in philosophy, politics and economics (PPE). He soon found he was covering much the same ground as he had in his education at the University of Western Australia, and transferred to a Bachelor of Letters course. He wrote his thesis on wage-fixing in Australia and successfully presented it in January 1956. In 1956, Hawke accepted a scholarship to undertake doctoral studies in the area of arbitration law in the law department at the Australian National University in Canberra. ===World record beer skol (scull)=== Hawke is well known for a "world record" allegedly achieved at Oxford University for a beer skol (scull) of a yard of ale in 11 seconds. The record is widely regarded as having been important to his career and ocker chic image. A 2023 article in the Journal of Australian Studies by C. J. Coventry concluded that Hawke's achievement was "possibly fabricated" and "cultural propaganda" designed to make Hawke appealing to unionised workers and nationalistic middle-class voters. The article contends that "its location and time remain uncertain; there are no known witnesses; the field of competition was exclusive and with no scientific accountability; the record was first published in a beer pamphlet; and Hawke's recollections were unreliable." ==Australian Council of Trade Unions== Not long after Hawke began work at the ACTU, he became responsible for the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. He was first appointed as an ACTU advocate in 1959. The 1958 case, under previous advocate R.L. Eggleston, had yielded only a five-shilling increase. The 1959 case found for a fifteen-shilling increase, and was regarded as a personal triumph for Hawke. He went on to attain such success and prominence in his role as an ACTU advocate that, in 1969, he was encouraged to run for the position of ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held elected office in a trade union. He was elected ACTU President in 1969 on a modernising platform by the narrow margin of 399 to 350, with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the Communist Party of Australia. He later credited Ray Gietzelt, General Secretary of the FMWU, as the single most significant union figure in helping him achieve this outcome. Questioned after his election on his political stance, Hawke stated that "socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself", saying instead his approach to politics was pragmatic. His commitment to the cause of Jewish Refuseniks purportedly led to a planned assassination attempt on Hawke by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, and its Australian operative Munif Mohammed Abou Rish. In 1971, Hawke along with other members of the ACTU requested that South Africa send a non-racially biased team for the rugby union tour, with the intention of unions agreeing not to serve the team in Australia. Prior to arrival, the Western Australian branch of the Transport Workers' Union, and the Barmaids' and Barmens' Union, announced that they would serve the team, which allowed the Springboks to land in Perth. The tour commenced on 26 June and riots occurred as anti-apartheid protesters disrupted games. Hawke and his family started to receive malicious mail and phone calls from people who thought that sport and politics should not mix. Hawke remained committed to the ban on apartheid teams and later that year, the South African cricket team was successfully denied and no apartheid team was to ever come to Australia again. It was this ongoing dedication to racial equality in South Africa that would later earn Hawke the respect and friendship of Nelson Mandela. In industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for, and considerable skill at, negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for. As early as 1972, speculation began that he would seek to enter the Parliament of Australia and eventually run to become the Leader of the Australian Labor Party. But while his professional career continued successfully, his heavy drinking and womanising placed considerable strains on his family life. In June 1973, Hawke was elected as the Federal President of the Labor Party. Two years later, when the Whitlam government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, Hawke showed an initial keenness to enter Parliament at the ensuing election. Harry Jenkins, the MP for Scullin, came under pressure to step down to allow Hawke to stand in his place, but he strongly resisted this push. Hawke eventually decided not to attempt to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted. After Labor was defeated at the election, Whitlam initially offered the leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him. Despite not taking on the offer, Hawke remained influential, playing a key role in averting national strike action. During the 1977 federal election, he emerged as a strident opponent of accepting Vietnamese boat people as refugees into Australia, stating that they should be subject to normal immigration requirements and should otherwise be deported. He further stated only refugees selected off-shore should be accepted. Hawke resigned as President of the Labor Party in August 1978. Neil Batt was elected in his place. The strain of this period took its toll on Hawke and in 1979 he suffered a physical collapse. This shock led Hawke to publicly announce his alcoholism in a television interview, and that he would make a concerted—and ultimately successful—effort to overcome it. He was helped through this period by the relationship that he had established with writer Blanche d'Alpuget, who, in 1982, published a biography of Hawke. His popularity with the public was, if anything, enhanced by this period of rehabilitation, and opinion polling suggested that he was a more popular public figure than either Labor Leader Bill Hayden or Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. ===Informer for the United States=== During the period of 1973 to 1979, Hawke acted as an informant for the United States government. According to Coventry, Hawke as concurrent leader of the ACTU and ALP informed the US of details surrounding labour disputes, especially those relating to American companies and individuals, such as union disputes with Ford Motor Company and the black ban of Frank Sinatra. The major industrial action taken against Sinatra came about because Sinatra had made sexist comments against female journalists. The dispute was the subject of the 2003 film The Night We Called It a Day. Hawke was described by US diplomats as "a bulwark against anti-American sentiment and resurgent communism during the economic turmoil of the 1970s", and often disputed with the Whitlam government over issues of foreign policy and industrial relations. US diplomats played a major role in shaping Hawke's consensus politics and economics. Biographer Troy Bramston rejects the view that Hawke's prolonged, discreet involvement with known members of the Central Intelligence Agency within the US Embassy amounted to Hawke being a CIA "spy". ==Member of Parliament== Hawke's first attempt to enter Parliament came during the 1963 federal election. He stood in the seat of Corio in Geelong and managed to achieve a 3.1% swing against the national trend, although he fell short of ousting longtime Liberal incumbent Hubert Opperman. Hawke rejected several opportunities to enter Parliament throughout the 1970s, something he later wrote that he "regretted". He eventually stood for election to the House of Representatives at the 1980 election for the safe Melbourne seat of Wills, winning it comfortably. Immediately upon his election to Parliament, Hawke was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet by Labor Leader Bill Hayden as Shadow Minister for Industrial Relations. Hayden, after having led the Labor Party to narrowly lose the 1980 election, was increasingly subject to criticism from Labor MPs over his leadership style. To quell speculation over his position, Hayden called a leadership spill on 16 July 1982, believing that if he won he would be guaranteed to lead Labor through to the next election. Hawke decided to challenge Hayden in the spill, but Hayden defeated him by five votes; the margin of victory, however, was too slim to dispel doubts that he could lead the Labor Party to victory at an election. Despite his defeat, Hawke began to agitate more seriously behind the scenes for a change in leadership, with opinion polls continuing to show that Hawke was a far more popular public figure than both Hayden and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. Hayden was further weakened after Labor's unexpectedly poor performance at a by-election in December 1982 for the Victorian seat of Flinders, following the resignation of the sitting member, former deputy Liberal leader Phillip Lynch. Labor needed a swing of 5.5% to win the seat and had been predicted by the media to win, but could only achieve 3%. Labor Party power-brokers, such as Graham Richardson and Barrie Unsworth, now openly switched their allegiance from Hayden to Hawke. Less than two months after the Flinders by-election result, Hayden announced his resignation as Leader of the Labor Party on 3 February 1983. Hawke was subsequently elected as Leader unopposed on 8 February, However, he was unable to have the Governor-General confirm the election before Labor announced the change. At the 1983 election, Hawke led Labor to a landslide victory, achieving a 24-seat swing and ending seven years of Liberal Party rule. With the election called at the same time that Hawke became Labor leader this meant that Hawke never sat in Parliament as Leader of the Opposition having spent the entirety of his short Opposition leadership in the election campaign which he won. ==Prime Minister of Australia (1983–1991)== ===Leadership style=== After Labor's landslide victory, Hawke was sworn in as the Prime Minister by the Governor-General Ninian Stephen on 11 March 1983. The style of the Hawke government was deliberately distinct from the Whitlam government, the Labor government that preceded it. Rather than immediately initiating multiple extensive reform programs as Whitlam had, Hawke announced that Malcolm Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred. As part of his internal reforms package, Hawke divided the government into two tiers, with only the most senior ministers sitting in the Cabinet of Australia. The Labor caucus was still given the authority to determine who would make up the Ministry, but this move gave Hawke unprecedented powers to empower individual ministers. After Australia won the America's Cup in 1983 Hawke said "any boss who sacks anyone for not turning up today is a bum", effectively declaring an impromptu national public holiday. In particular, the political partnership that developed between Hawke and his Treasurer, Paul Keating, proved to be essential to Labor's success in government, with multiple Labor figures in years since citing the partnership as the party's greatest ever. The two men proved a study in contrasts: Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left high school early. Hawke's enthusiasms were cigars, betting and most forms of sport; Keating preferred classical architecture, Mahler symphonies and collecting British Regency and French Empire antiques. Despite not knowing one another before Hawke assumed the leadership in 1983, the two formed a personal as well as political relationship which enabled the Government to pursue a significant number of reforms, although there were occasional points of tension between the two. The Labor Caucus under Hawke also developed a more formalised system of parliamentary factions, which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations. Although the Fraser government had played a part in the process of financial deregulation by commissioning the 1981 Campbell Report, opposition from Fraser himself had stalled this process. Shortly after its election in 1983, the Hawke government took the opportunity to implement a comprehensive program of economic reform, in the process "transform(ing) economics and politics in Australia". Among other reforms, the Hawke government floated the Australian dollar, repealed rules that prohibited foreign-owned banks to operate in Australia, dismantled the protectionist tariff system, privatised several state sector industries, ended the subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off part of the state-owned Commonwealth Bank. The taxation system was also significantly reformed, with income tax rates reduced and the introduction of a fringe benefits tax and a capital gains tax; the latter two reforms were strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but were never reversed by them when they eventually returned to office in 1996. Partially offsetting these imposts upon the business community—the "main loser" from the 1985 Tax Summit according to Paul Kelly—was the introduction of full dividend imputation, a reform insisted upon by Keating. Funding for schools was also considerably increased as part of this package, while financial assistance was provided for students to enable them to stay at school longer; the number of Australian children completing school rose from 3 in 10 at the beginning of the Hawke government to 7 in 10 by its conclusion in 1991. Considerable progress was also made in directing assistance "to the most disadvantaged recipients over the whole range of welfare benefits." ===Social and environmental policy=== Although criticisms were leveled against the Hawke government that it did not achieve all it said it would do on social policy, it nevertheless enacted a series of reforms which remain in place to the present day. From 1983 to 1989, the Government oversaw the permanent establishment of universal health care in Australia with the creation of Medicare, doubled the number of subsidised childcare places, began the introduction of occupational superannuation, oversaw a significant increase in school retention rates, created subsidised homecare services, oversaw the elimination of poverty traps in the welfare system, increased the real value of the old-age pension, reintroduced the six-monthly indexation of single-person unemployment benefits, and established a wide-ranging programme for paid family support, known as the Family Income Supplement. A number of other new social security benefits were introduced under the Hawke-Keating Government. In 1984, for instance, a remote area allowance was introduced for pensioners and beneficiaries residing in special areas of Tax Zone A, and in 1985 a special addition to family allowances was made payable (as noted by one study) “to certain families with multiple births (three children or more) until the children reach six years of age.” The following year, rent assistance was extended to unemployment beneficiaries, together with a young homeless allowance for sickness and unemployment beneficiaries under the age of 18 who were homeless and didn’t have parental or custodial support. However, the payment of family allowances for student children reaching the age of 18 was discontinued except in the case of certain families on low incomes. During the 1980s, the proportion of total government outlays allocated to families, the sick, single parents, widows, the handicapped, and veterans was significantly higher than under the previous Fraser and Whitlam governments. In 1989, Hawke oversaw the gradual re-introduction of some tuition fees for university study, setting up the Higher Education Contributions Scheme (HECS). Under the original HECS, a $1,800 fee was charged to all university students, and the Commonwealth paid the balance. A student could defer payment of this HECS amount and repay the debt through the tax system, when the student's income exceeds a threshold level. As part of the reforms, Colleges of Advanced Education entered the university sector by various means. by doing so, university places were able to be expanded. Further notable policy decisions taken during the Government's time in office included the public health campaign regarding HIV/AIDS, and Indigenous land rights reform, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the Government being launched, although the latter would be overtaken by events, notably the Mabo court decision. The Hawke government also drew attention for a series of notable environmental decisions, particularly in its second and third terms. In 1983, Hawke personally vetoed the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, responding to a groundswell of protest around the issue. Hawke also secured the nomination of the Wet Tropics of Queensland as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, preventing the forests there from being logged. Hawke would later appoint Graham Richardson as Environment Minister, tasking him with winning the second-preference support from environmental parties, something which Richardson later claimed was the major factor in the government's narrow re-election at the 1990 election. In the Government's fourth term, Hawke personally led the Australian delegation to secure changes to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, ultimately winning a guarantee that drilling for minerals within Antarctica would be totally prohibited until 2048 at the earliest. Hawke later claimed that the Antarctic drilling ban was his "proudest achievement". ===Industrial relations policy=== As a former ACTU President, Hawke was well-placed to engage in reform of the industrial relations system in Australia, taking a lead on this policy area as in few others. Working closely with ministerial colleagues and the ACTU Secretary, Bill Kelty, Hawke negotiated with trade unions to establish the Prices and Incomes Accord in 1983, an agreement whereby unions agreed to restrict their demands for wage increases, and in turn the Government guaranteed to both minimise inflation and promote an increased social wage, including by establishing new social programmes such as Medicare. Inflation had been a significant issue for the previous decade prior to the election of the Hawke government, regularly running into double-digits. The process of the Accord, by which the Government and trade unions would arbitrate and agree upon wage increases in many sectors, led to a decrease in both inflation and unemployment through to 1990. Criticisms of the Accord would come from both the right and the left of politics. Left-wing critics claimed that it kept real wages stagnant, and that the Accord was a policy of class collaboration and corporatism. By contrast, right-wing critics claimed that the Accord reduced the flexibility of the wages system. Supporters of the Accord, however, pointed to the improvements in the social security system that occurred, including the introduction of rental assistance for social security recipients, the creation of labour market schemes such as NewStart, and the introduction of the Family Income Supplement. In 1986, the Hawke government passed a bill to de-register the Builders Labourers Federation federally due to the union not following the Accord agreements. Despite a percentage fall in real money wages from 1983 to 1991, the social wage of Australian workers was argued by the Government to have improved drastically as a result of these reforms, and the ensuing decline in inflation. The Accord was revisited six further times during the Hawke government, each time in response to new economic developments. The seventh and final revisiting would ultimately lead to the establishment of the enterprise bargaining system, although this would be finalised shortly after Hawke left office in 1991. ===Foreign policy=== Arguably the most significant foreign policy achievement of the Government took place in 1989, after Hawke proposed a south-east Asian region-wide forum for leaders and economic ministers to discuss issues of common concern. After winning the support of key countries in the region, this led to the creation of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). The first APEC meeting duly took place in Canberra in November 1989; the economic ministers of Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and the United States all attended. APEC would subsequently grow to become one of the most pre-eminent high-level international forums in the world, particularly after the later inclusions of China and Russia, and the Keating government's later establishment of the APEC Leaders' Forum. Hawke also took a major public stand after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre; despite having spent years trying to get closer relations with China, Hawke gave a tearful address on national television describing the massacre in graphic detail, and unilaterally offered asylum to over 42,000 Chinese students who were living in Australia at the time, many of whom had publicly supported the Tiananmen protesters. Hawke did so without even consulting his Cabinet, stating later that he felt he simply had to act. The Hawke government pursued a close relationship with the United States, assisted by Hawke's close friendship with US Secretary of State George Shultz; this led to a degree of controversy when the Government supported the US's plans to test ballistic missiles off the coast of Tasmania in 1985, as well as seeking to overturn Australia's long-standing ban on uranium exports. Although the US ultimately withdrew the plans to test the missiles, the furore led to a fall in Hawke's approval ratings. Shortly after the 1990 election, Hawke would lead Australia into its first overseas military campaign since the Vietnam War, forming a close alliance with US President George H. W. Bush to join the coalition in the Gulf War. The Royal Australian Navy contributed several destroyers and frigates to the war effort, which successfully concluded in February 1991, with the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. The success of the campaign, and the lack of any Australian casualties, led to a brief increase in the popularity of the Government. Through his role on the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, Hawke played a leading role in ensuring the Commonwealth initiated an international boycott on foreign investment into South Africa, building on work undertaken by his predecessor Malcolm Fraser, and in the process clashing publicly with Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher, who initially favoured a more cautious approach. The resulting boycott, led by the Commonwealth, was widely credited with helping bring about the collapse of apartheid, and resulted in a high-profile visit by Nelson Mandela in October 1990, months after the latter's release from a 27-year stint in prison. During the visit, Mandela publicly thanked the Hawke government for the role it played in the boycott. ===Election wins and leadership challenges=== Hawke benefited greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal Party fell after the resignation of Fraser following the 1983 election. The Liberals were torn between supporters of the more conservative John Howard and the more liberal Andrew Peacock, with the pair frequently contesting the leadership. Hawke and Keating were also able to use the concealment of the size of the budget deficit by Fraser before the 1983 election to great effect, damaging the Liberal Party's economic credibility as a result. However, Hawke's time as Prime Minister also saw friction develop between himself and the grassroots of the Labor Party, many of whom were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to cooperate with business interests. Hawke regularly and publicly expressed his willingness to cull Labor's "sacred cows". The Labor Left faction, as well as prominent Labor backbencher Barry Jones, offered repeated criticisms of a number of government decisions. Hawke was also subject to challenges from some former colleagues in the trade union movement over his "confrontationalist style" in siding with the airline companies in the 1989 Australian pilots' strike. Nevertheless, Hawke was able to comfortably maintain a lead as preferred prime minister in the vast majority of opinion polls carried out throughout his time in office. He recorded the highest popularity rating ever measured by an Australian opinion poll, reaching 75% approval in 1984. After leading Labor to a comfortable victory in the snap 1984 election, called to bring the mandate of the House of Representatives back in line with the Senate, Hawke was able to secure an unprecedented third consecutive term for Labor with a comfortable victory in the double dissolution election of 1987. Hawke was subsequently able to lead the nation in the bicentennial celebrations of 1988, culminating with him welcoming Queen Elizabeth II to open the newly constructed Parliament House. The late-1980s recession, and the accompanying high interest rates, saw the Government fall in opinion polls, with many doubting that Hawke could win a fourth election. Keating, who had long understood that he would eventually succeed Hawke as prime minister, began to plan a leadership change; at the end of 1988, Keating put pressure on Hawke to retire in the new year. Hawke rejected this suggestion but reached a secret agreement with Keating, the so-called "Kirribilli Agreement", stating that he would step down in Keating's favour at some point after the 1990 election. Hawke subsequently won that election, in the process leading Labor to a record fourth consecutive electoral victory, albeit by a slim margin. Hawke appointed Keating as deputy prime minister to replace the retiring Lionel Bowen. By the end of 1990, frustrated by the lack of any indication from Hawke as to when he might retire, Keating made a provocative speech to the Federal Parliamentary Press Gallery. Hawke considered the speech disloyal, and told Keating he would renege on the Kirribilli Agreement as a result. After attempting to force a resolution privately, Keating finally resigned from the Government in June 1991 to challenge Hawke for the leadership. His resignation came soon after Hawke vetoed in Cabinet a proposal backed by Keating and other ministers for mining to take place at Coronation Hill in Kakadu National Park. Hawke won the leadership spill, and in a press conference after the result, Keating declared that he had fired his "one shot" on the leadership. Hawke appointed John Kerin to replace Keating as Treasurer. Despite his victory in the June spill, Hawke quickly began to be regarded by many of his colleagues as a "wounded" leader; he had now lost his long-term political partner, his ratings in opinion polls were beginning to fall significantly, and after nearly nine years as Prime Minister, there was speculation that it would soon be time for a new leader. Hawke's leadership was ultimately irrevocably damaged at the end of 1991; after Liberal Leader John Hewson released 'Fightback!', a detailed proposal for sweeping economic change, including the introduction of a goods and services tax, Hawke was forced to sack Kerin as Treasurer after the latter made a public gaffe attempting to attack the policy. Keating duly challenged for the leadership a second time on 19 December, arguing that he would better placed to defeat Hewson; this time, Keating succeeded, narrowly defeating Hawke by 56 votes to 51. In a speech to the House of Representatives following the vote, Hawke declared that his nine years as prime minister had left Australia a better and wealthier country, and he was given a standing ovation by those present. He subsequently tendered his resignation to the Governor-General and pledged support to his successor. Hawke briefly returned to the backbench, before resigning from Parliament on 20 February 1992, sparking a by-election which was won by the independent candidate Phil Cleary from among a record field of 22 candidates. Keating would go on to lead Labor to a fifth victory at the 1993 election, although he was defeated by the Liberal Party at the 1996 election. Hawke wrote that he had very few regrets over his time in office, although stated he wished he had been able to advance the cause of Indigenous land rights further. His bitterness towards Keating over the leadership challenges surfaced in his earlier memoirs, although by the 2000s Hawke stated he and Keating had buried their differences, and that they regularly dined together and considered each other friends. The publication of the book Hawke: The Prime Minister, by Hawke's second wife, Blanche d'Alpuget, in 2010, reignited conflict between the two, with Keating accusing Hawke and d'Alpuget of spreading falsehoods about his role in the Hawke government. Despite this, the two campaigned together for Labor several times, including at the 2019 election, where they released their first joint article for nearly three decades; Craig Emerson, who worked for both men, said they had reconciled in later years after Hawke grew ill. ==Retirement and later life== After leaving Parliament, Hawke entered the business world, taking on a number of directorships and consultancy positions which enabled him to achieve considerable financial success. He avoided public involvement with the Labor Party during Keating's tenure as prime minister, not wanting to be seen as attempting to overshadow his successor. After Keating's defeat and the election of the Howard government at the 1996 election, he returned to public campaigning with Labor and regularly appearing at election launches. Despite his personal affection for Queen Elizabeth II, boasting that he had been her "favourite Prime Minister", Hawke was an enthusiastic republican and joined the campaign for a Yes vote in the 1999 republic referendum. In 2002, Hawke was named to South Australia's Economic Development Board during the Rann government. In the lead up to the 2007 election, Hawke made a considerable personal effort to support Kevin Rudd, making speeches at a large number of campaign office openings across Australia, and appearing in multiple campaign advertisements. As well as campaigning against WorkChoices, Hawke also attacked John Howard's record as Treasurer, stating "it was the judgement of every economist and international financial institution that it was the restructuring reforms undertaken by my government, with the full cooperation of the trade union movement, which created the strength of the Australian economy today". In February 2008, after Rudd's victory, Hawke joined former Prime Ministers Gough Whitlam, Malcolm Fraser and Paul Keating in Parliament House to witness the long anticipated apology to the Stolen Generations. In 2009, Hawke helped establish the Centre for Muslim and Non-Muslim Understanding at the University of South Australia. Interfaith dialogue was an important issue for Hawke, who told The Adelaide Review that he was "convinced that one of the great potential dangers confronting the world is the lack of understanding in regard to the Muslim world. Fanatics have misrepresented what Islam is. They give a false impression of the essential nature of Islam." In 2016, after taking part in Andrew Denton's Better Off Dead podcast, Hawke added his voice to calls for voluntary euthanasia to be legalised. Hawke labelled as 'absurd' the lack of political will to fix the problem. He revealed that he had such an arrangement with his wife Blanche should such a devastating medical situation occur. He also publicly advocated for nuclear power and the importation of international spent nuclear fuel to Australia for storage and disposal, stating that this could lead to considerable economic benefits for Australia. In late December 2018, Hawke revealed that he was in "terrible health". While predicting a Labor win in the upcoming 2019 federal election, Hawke said he "may not witness the party's success". In May 2019, the month of the election, he issued a joint statement with Paul Keating endorsing Labor's economic plan and condemning the Liberal Party for "completely [giving] up the economic reform agenda". They stated that "Shorten's Labor is the only party of government focused on the need to modernise the economy to deal with the major challenge of our time: human induced climate change". It was the first joint press statement released by the two since 1991. In March 2022, Troy Bramston, a journalist for The Australian and a political historian, wrote an unauthorised biography of Hawke titled Bob Hawke: Demons and Destiny. Hawke gave Bramston full access to his previously unavailable personal papers and granted a series of interviews for the book. Bramston was the last person to interview Hawke before his death. The book, drawing on extensive Australian and international archives, and interviews with more than 100 people, is regarded as "definitive" and was shortlisted for the Australian Political Book of the Year Award. On 16 May 2019, two days before the election, Hawke died at his home in Northbridge at the age of 89, following a short illness. His family held a private cremation on 27 May at Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium where he was subsequently interred. A state memorial was held at the Sydney Opera House on 14 June; speakers included Craig Emerson as master of ceremonies and Kim Beazley reading the eulogy, as well as Paul Keating, Julia Gillard, Bill Kelty, Ross Garnaut, and incumbent Prime Minister Scott Morrison and Opposition Leader Anthony Albanese. ==Personal life== Hawke married Hazel Masterson in 1956 at Perth Trinity Church. They had three children: Susan (born 1957), Stephen (born 1959) and Roslyn (born 1961). Their fourth child, Robert Jr, died in early infancy in 1963. Hawke was named Victorian Father of the Year in 1971, an honour which his wife disputed due to his heavy drinking and womanising. The couple divorced in 1994, after he left her for the writer Blanche d'Alpuget, and the two lived together in Northbridge, a suburb on the North Shore of Sydney. Hawke was a supporter of National Rugby League club the Canberra Raiders. ===Alcoholism and abstinence=== Throughout his life before politics, Hawke was a heavy drinker. There is evidence that Hawke did drink alcohol while in office, provided by then Vice-President of the United States of America, George H. W. Bush, who later recalled shared drunken behaviour during Hawke's 1983 first official visit to the United States. By the time he entered politics he was a self-described agnostic. Hawke told Andrew Denton in 2008 that his father's Christian faith had continued to influence his outlook, saying "My father said if you believe in the fatherhood of God you must necessarily believe in the brotherhood of man, it follows necessarily, and even though I left the church and was not religious, that truth remained with me." == Legacy == A biographical television film, Hawke, premiered on the Ten Network in Australia on 18 July 2010, with Richard Roxburgh playing the title character. Rachael Blake and Felix Williamson portrayed Hazel Hawke and Paul Keating, respectively. Roxburgh reprised his role as Hawke in the 2020 episode "Terra Nullius" of the Netflix series The Crown. The Bob Hawke Gallery in Bordertown, which contains memorabilia from his life, was opened by Hawke in 2002. Hawke House, the house in Bordertown where Hawke spent his early childhood, was purchased by the Australian Government in 2021 and opened as an accommodation and function space in May 2024. A bronze bust of Hawke is located at the town's civic centre. The Australian Government pledged $5 million in July 2019 to establish a new annual scholarship—the Bob Hawke John Monash Scholarship—through the General Sir John Monash Foundation. In March 2020, the Australian Electoral Commission announced that it would create a new Australian electoral division in the House of Representatives named in honour of Hawke. The Division of Hawke was first contested at the 2022 federal election, and is located in the state of Victoria, near the seat of Wills, which Hawke represented from 1980 to 1992. ==Honours== Orders 1979: Companion of the Order of Australia (AC), "For services to trade unionism and industrial relations" Foreign honours 1989: Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the White Elephant 1999: Freedom of the City of London 2008 Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu 2012 Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun August 2009: Australian Labor Party Life membership, Bob Hawke became only the third person to be awarded life membership of the Australian Labor Party, after Gough and Margaret Whitlam. During the conferring, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd referred to Hawke as "the heart and soul of the Labor Party". March 2014: University of Western Australia Student Guild Life membership Fellowships University College, Oxford Honorary degrees Nanjing University, Honorary doctorate University of Oxford, Honorary Doctor of Civil Law Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Honorary doctorate University of New South Wales, Honorary doctorate ===Other=== University of South Australia, the Hawke Centre and the Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library	[ "The Sydney Morning Herald", "Division of Corio", "University College, Oxford", "Hawke government", "Wet Tropics of Queensland", "Australian House of Representatives", "Canberra Raiders", "Australian dollar", "Early 1990s recession", "US President", "nuclear power", "Goods and Services Tax (Australia)", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Refuseniks", "religion", "Higher Education Contributions Scheme", "National Rugby League", "Ash Wednesday bushfires", "University of Western Australia", "destroyer", "Freedom of the City of London", "Robert Menzies", "Premier of South Australia", "Shadow Cabinet", "Andrew Peacock", "Phillip Lynch", "Vietnamese boat people", "Rann government", "Second Hawke Ministry", "Phelon & Moore", "Treasurer of Australia", "Nelson Mandela", "Commonwealth Bank", "ACTU", "ocker", "1984 Australian federal election", "Albert Monk", "Companion of the Order of Australia", "Order of the White Elephant", "United States Secretary of State", "Hubert Opperman", "Craig Emerson", "Antarctica", "John Howard", "United Nations", "agnostic", "Australian Rostrum", "Leaders of the Australian Labor Party", "Iraq", "North Shore (Sydney)", "1963 Australian federal election", "Leader of the Opposition (Australia)", "Geelong", "National Archives of Australia", "The Canberra Times", "Leader of the Australian Labor Party", "Divisions of the Australian House of Representatives", "Prime Minister of Australia", "Howard government", "Brian Howe (politician)", "The Conversation (website)", "apartheid", "Malcolm Fraser", "Tasmania", "Deputy Prime Minister of Australia", "Barry Jones (Australian politician)", "Gustav Mahler", "List of prime ministers of Australia by time in office", "Prices and Incomes Accord", "Landcare Australia", "Kakadu National Park", "Ross Garnaut", "John Button (Australian politician)", "Australian Electoral Commission", "1971 South Africa rugby union tour of Australia", "member of parliament", "John Kerin", "1975 Australian constitutional crisis", "1983 Australian federal election", "Medicare (Australia)", "Order of Logohu", "Lionel Bowen", "Governor-General of Australia", "1983 Australian Labor Party leadership spill", "1975 Australian federal election", "Canberra", "Mabo v Queensland (No 2)", "classical architecture", "frigate", "UNESCO", "Gulf War", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "National Museum of Australia", "South Africa national rugby union team", "Network Ten", "political faction", "Labor Left", "Simon & Schuster", "Percy Clarey", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Apology to Australia's Indigenous peoples", "The Crown (TV series)", "Brunei", "informant", "The Adelaide Review", "Historical rankings of prime ministers of Australia", "Ross McMullin", "state funeral", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem", "Fraser government", "alcohol poisoning", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Indigenous land rights in Australia", "University of Sydney", "Opinion poll", "Coalition of the Gulf War", "Edith Hawke", "YouTube", "Sydney Opera House", "Felix Williamson", "Australia Act 1986", "Blanche d'Alpuget", "The Guardian", "The Night We Called It a Day (film)", "Liberal Party of Australia", "1987 Australian federal election", "Bordertown, South Australia", "Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission", "Clem Hawke", "Canberra Press Gallery", "Division of Hawke", "West Leederville, Western Australia", "Division of Wills", "History of Australian currency", "World Heritage Site", "Scott Morrison", "South Australia", "division of Wills", "Subiaco, Western Australia", "Hawke (film)", "Rhodes Scholarship", "APEC Australia 1989", "Kirribilli Agreement of 1988", "Nielsen Corporation", "Ronald Reagan", "George H. W. Bush", "Ray Gietzelt", "philosophy, politics and economics", "Parliament of Australia", "Teetotalism", "Vietnam War", "1990 Australian federal election", "UniSA", "Government of Australia", "Royal Australian Navy", "December 1991 Australian Labor Party leadership spill", "Ford Motor Company", "Franklin Dam", "Harry Jenkins Sr.", "double dissolution", "Coronation Hill", "Third Hawke Ministry", "Kim Beazley", "Margaret Whitlam", "List of Australian Leaders of the Opposition", "1992 Wills by-election", "C. J. Coventry", "State Register of Heritage Places", "universal health care", "Queen Elizabeth II", "House of Representatives (Australia)", "1980 Australian federal election", "Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation", "Hawke–Keating government", "Division of Flinders", "Bob Hawke College", "University of South Australia", "Cabinet of Australia", "Macquarie University", "University of New South Wales", "WorkChoices", "Richard Roxburgh", "Cambodia", "The Age", "Communist Party of Australia", "George Shultz", "Congregationalist", "Rikkyo University", "Hazel Masterson", "Radio National Breakfast", "Julia Gillard", "United Kingdom", "Adelaide Review", "ABC News (Australia)", "Paul Keating", "Transport Workers' Union of Australia", "Bert Hawke", "Enterprise bargaining agreement", "Family allowance", "1993 Australian federal election", "Division of Scullin", "1983 America's Cup", "meningitis", "Perth Modern School", "HIV/AIDS in Australia", "Bill Hayden", "Munif Mohammed Abou Rish", "Rachael Blake", "United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia", "Parliament House, Canberra", "dividend imputation", "Australian Bicentenary", "Economic Development Board (South Australia)", "The Honourable", "1989 Australian pilots' strike", "Hawke Centre", "master of ceremonies", "Andrew Denton", "Elizabeth II", "Builders Labourers Federation", "Northbridge, New South Wales", "FMWU", "Gough Whitlam", "Tom Burns (Australian politician)", "premier of Western Australia", "Anthony Albanese", "Whitlam government", "Margaret Thatcher", "prime minister of Australia", "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty", "New Holland Publishers", "Melbourne", "Bachelor of Laws", "Asylum in Australia", "Fightback! (policy)", "Frank Sinatra", "Kuwait", "Fourth Hawke Ministry", "corporatism", "Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium", "Advance Australia Fair", "1977 Australian federal election", "1982 Flinders by-election", "Bill Kelty", "2022 Australian federal election", "Australian Labor Party National Executive", "Gordon Bryant", "cricket", "Australian Labor Party", "First French Empire", "1999 Australian republic referendum", "Ninian Stephen", "Paul Kelly (journalist)", "Hazel Hawke", "June 1991 Australian Labor Party leadership spill", "Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting", "Australian Council of Trade Unions", "viral video", "Prime Ministers Avenue", "spent nuclear fuel", "1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre", "White House", "University of Western Australia Student Guild", "Bachelor of Arts", "Australian National University", "Kevin Rudd", "Stolen Generations", "2019 Australian federal election", "Phil Cleary", "British Regency", "Cliff Dolan", "universal healthcare", "John Hewson", "uranium", "Keating government", "Barrie Unsworth", "Neil Batt", "Australian Geographic", "2007 Australian federal election", "leader of the Australian Labor Party", "First McGowan Ministry", "News.com.au", "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine", "University of Oxford", "class collaboration", "Superannuation in Australia", "Sex Discrimination Act 1984", "Tribune (Australian newspaper)", "Nanjing University", "pragmatism", "Gareth Evans (politician)", "Guardian Australia", "South Africa", "General strike", "The Crown (season 4)", "Sir Ninian Stephen", "The Australian", "Graham Richardson", "Australian Senate", "landslide victory", "Victoria (Australia)", "Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun", "Neville Wran", "Ballarat Botanical Gardens", "Bachelor of Letters", "Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)", "First Hawke Ministry", "1996 Australian federal election" ]
4,060	Baldr	Baldr (Old Norse also Balder, Baldur) is a god in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, he is a son of the god Odin and the goddess Frigg, and has numerous brothers, such as Thor and Váli. In wider Germanic mythology, the god was known in Old English as ', and in Old High German as ', all ultimately stemming from the Proto-Germanic theonym ('hero' or 'prince'). During the 12th century, Danish accounts by Saxo Grammaticus and other Danish Latin chroniclers recorded a euhemerized account of his story. Compiled in Iceland during the 13th century, but based on older Old Norse poetry, the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda contain numerous references to the death of Baldr as both a great tragedy to the Æsir and a harbinger of Ragnarök. According to Gylfaginning, a book of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, Baldr's wife is Nanna and their son is Forseti. Baldr had the greatest ship ever built, Hringhorni, and there is no place more beautiful than his hall, Breidablik. ==Name== The Old Norse theonym Baldr ('brave, defiant'; also 'lord, prince') and its various Germanic cognates – including Old English Bældæg and Old High German Balder (or Palter) – probably stems from Proto-Germanic Balðraz ('Hero, Prince'; cf. Old Norse mann-baldr 'great man', Old English bealdor 'prince, hero'), itself a derivative of balþaz, meaning 'brave' (cf. Old Norse ballr 'hard, stubborn', Gothic balþa* 'bold, frank', Old English beald 'bold, brave, confident', Old Saxon bald 'valiant, bold', Old High German bald 'brave, courageous'). This etymology was originally proposed by Jacob Grimm (1835), who also speculated on a comparison with the Lithuanian báltas ('white', also the name of a light-god) based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' then 'strong'. According to linguist Vladimir Orel, this could be linguistically tenable. Philologist Rudolf Simek also argues that the Old English Bældæg should be interpreted as meaning 'shining day', from a Proto-Germanic root bēl- (cf. Old English bæl, Old Norse bál 'fire') attached to dæg ('day'). Old Norse also shows the usage of the word as an honorific in a few cases, as in baldur î brynju (Sæm. 272b) and herbaldr (Sæm. 218b), in general epithets of heroes. In continental Saxon and Anglo-Saxon tradition, the son of Woden is called not Bealdor but Baldag (Saxon) and Bældæg, Beldeg (Anglo-Saxon), which shows association with "day", possibly with Day personified as a deity. This, as Grimm points out, would agree with the meaning "shining one, white one, a god" derived from the meaning of Baltic baltas, further adducing Slavic Belobog and German Berhta. ==Attestations== ===Merseburg Incantation=== One of the two Merseburg Incantations names Balder (in the genitive singular Balderes), but also mentions a figure named Phol, considered to be a byname for Baldr (as in Scandinavian Falr, Fjalarr; (in Saxo) Balderus : Fjallerus). The incantation relates of Phol ende Wotan riding to the woods, where the foot of Baldr's foal is sprained. Sinthgunt (the sister of the sun), Frigg and Odin sing to the foot in order for it to heal. The identification with Balder is not conclusive. Modern scholarship suggests that the god Freyr might be meant. ===Poetic Edda=== Unlike the Prose Edda, in the Poetic Edda the tale of Baldr's death is referred to rather than recounted at length. Baldr is mentioned in Völuspá, in Lokasenna, and is the subject of the Eddic poem Baldr's Dreams. Among the visions which the Völva sees and describes in Völuspá is Baldr's death. In stanza 32, the Völva says she saw the fate of Baldr "the bleeding god": In the next two stanzas, the Völva refers to Baldr's killing, describes the birth of Váli for the slaying of Höðr and the weeping of Frigg: In the next stanza, Loki responds to Frigg, and says that he is the reason Baldr "will never ride home again": Apart from this description, Baldr is known primarily for the story of his death, which is seen as the first in a chain of events that will ultimately lead to the destruction of the gods at Ragnarök. Baldr had a dream of his own death and his mother, Frigg, had the same dream. Since dreams were usually prophetic, this depressed him, and so Frigg made every object on earth vow never to hurt Baldr. All objects made this vow, save for the mistletoe—a detail which has traditionally been explained with the idea that it was too unimportant and nonthreatening to bother asking it to make the vow, but which Merrill Kaplan has instead argued echoes the fact that young people were not eligible to swear legal oaths, which could make them a threat later in life. When Loki, the mischief-maker, heard of this, he made a magical spear from this plant (in some later versions, an arrow). He hurried to the place where the gods were indulging in their new pastime of hurling objects at Baldr, which would bounce off without harming him. Loki gave the spear to Baldr's brother, the blind god Höðr, who then inadvertently killed his brother with it (other versions suggest that Loki guided the arrow himself). For this act, Odin and the ásynja Rindr gave birth to Váli, who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr. Baldr was ceremonially burnt upon his ship Hringhorni, the largest of all ships. On the pyre he was given the magical ring Draupnir. At first the gods were not able to push the ship out onto sea, and so they sent for Hyrrokin, a giantess, who came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook. As he was carried to the ship, Odin whispered something in his ear. The import of this speech was held to be unknowable, and the question of what was said was thus used as an unanswerable riddle by Odin in other sources, namely against the giant Vafthrudnir in the Eddic poem Vafthrudnismal and in the riddles of Gestumblindi in Hervarar saga. Upon seeing the corpse being carried to the ship, Nanna, his wife, died of grief. She was then placed on the funeral fire (perhaps a toned-down instance of Sati, also attested in the Arab traveller Ibn Fadlan's account of a funeral among the Rus'), after which it was set on fire. Baldr's horse with all its trappings was also laid on the pyre. As the pyre was set on fire, Thor blessed it with his hammer Mjǫllnir. As he did a small dwarf named Litr came running before his feet. Thor then kicked him into the pyre. Upon Frigg's entreaties, delivered through the messenger Hermod, Hel promised to release Baldr from the underworld if all objects alive and dead would weep for him. All did, except a giantess, Þökk (often presumed to be the god Loki in disguise), who refused to mourn the slain god. Thus Baldr had to remain in the underworld, not to emerge until after Ragnarök, when he and his brother Höðr would be reconciled and rule the new earth together with Thor's sons. Besides these descriptions of Baldr, the Prose Edda also explicitly links him to the Anglo-Saxon Beldeg in its prologue. ===Gesta Danorum=== Writing during the end of the 12th century, the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus tells the story of Baldr (recorded as Balderus) in a form that professes to be historical. According to him, Balderus and Høtherus were rival suitors for the hand of Nanna, daughter of Gewar, King of Norway. Balderus was a demigod and common steel could not wound his sacred body. The two rivals encountered each other in a terrific battle. Though Odin and Thor and the other gods fought for Balderus, he was defeated and fled away, and Høtherus married the princess. Nevertheless, Balderus took heart of grace and again met Høtherus in a stricken field. But he fared even worse than before. Høtherus dealt him a deadly wound with a magic sword, named Mistletoe, which he had received from Mimir, the satyr of the woods; after lingering three days in pain Balderus died of his injury and was buried with royal honours in a barrow. ===Utrecht Inscription=== A Latin votive inscription from Utrecht, from the 3rd or 4th century C.E., has been theorized as containing the dative form Baldruo, pointing to a Latin nominative singular Baldruus, which some have identified with the Norse/Germanic god, although both the reading and this interpretation have been questioned. === Anglo-Saxon Chronicle === In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Baldr is named as the ancestor of the monarchy of Kent, Bernicia, Deira, and Wessex through his supposed son Brond. ===Toponyms=== There are a few old place names in Scandinavia that contain the name Baldr. The most certain and notable one is the (former) parish name Balleshol in Hedmark county, Norway: "a Balldrshole" 1356 (where the last element is hóll m "mound; small hill"). Others may be (in Norse forms) Baldrsberg in Vestfold county, Baldrsheimr in Hordaland county Baldrsnes in Sør-Trøndelag county—and (very uncertain) the Balsfjorden fjord and Balsfjord Municipality in Troms county. In Copenhagen, there is also a Baldersgade, or "Balder's Street". A street in downtown Reykjavík is called Baldursgata (Baldur's Street). In Sweden there is a Baldersgatan (Balder's Street) in Stockholm. There is also Baldersnäs (Balder's isthmus), Baldersvik (Balder's bay), Balders udde (Balder's headland) and Baldersberg (Balder's mountain) at various places.	[ "Belobog", "Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia", "Norway", "Hel (location)", "Jacob Grimm", "æsir", "Old Norse poetry", "Váli", "Denmark", "Rudolf Simek", "Ragnarök", "Hringhorni", "Loki", "Litr", "Lemminkäinen", "Deutsche Mythologie", "Odin", "Hilda Ellis Davidson", "Nanna (Norse deity)", "Hyrrokin", "Dagr", "mistletoe", "Old High German", "Váli (son of Odin)", "Prose Edda", "Snorri Sturluson", "Völuspá", "Gothic language", "Freyr", "Balleshol", "John Lindow", "Reykjavík", "Wotan", "Vafthrudnir", "Calvin Thomas (linguist)", "Berhta", "Balsfjord Municipality", "Móði and Magni", "Saxo Grammaticus", "Copenhagen", "Sons of Odin", "Thor", "magic sword", "Stockholm", "Frigg", "Kingdom of Kent", "Þökk", "Hermóðr", "North Germanic languages", "Bernicia", "Old Norse", "giantess", "Norse funeral", "Gylfaginning", "Mjǫllnir", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies", "Sati (practice)", "Rindr", "steel", "theonym", "American-Scandinavian Foundation", "Jackson Crawford", "flyting", "Völva", "Höðr", "Merseburg Incantations", "Poetic Edda", "Lithuanian language", "Forseti", "Cambridge University Press", "Mistilteinn", "Old English", "Iceland", "Æsir", "Hel (goddess)", "vow", "Vladimir Orel", "Deira", "Henry Adams Bellows (businessman)", "Wessex", "Norse mythology", "Anatoly Liberman", "Germanic mythology", "Saemundar Edda", "Euhemerism", "Gestumblindi", "Rus' people", "Breidablik", "Morphological derivation", "Draupnir", "Proto-Germanic language", "Balsfjorden", "Sweden", "List of Germanic deities", "Lokasenna", "Vafthrudnismal", "Matricaria perforata", "Hervarar saga", "Hackett Publishing Company", "Baldr's Dreams" ]
4,061	Breidablik	Breiðablik (sometimes anglicised as Breithablik or Breidablik) is the home of Baldr in Nordic mythology. ==Meaning== The word has been variously translated as 'broad sheen', 'Broad gleam', 'Broad-gleaming' or 'the far-shining one', ==Attestations== ===Grímismál=== The Eddic poem Grímnismál describes Breiðablik as the fair home of Baldr: ===Gylfaginning=== In Snorri Sturluson's Gylfaginning, Breiðablik is described in a list of places in heaven, identified by some scholars as Asgard: Later in the work, when Snorri describes Baldr, he gives another description, citing Grímnismál, though he does not name the poem: ==Interpretation and discussion== The name of Breiðablik has been noted to link with Baldr's attributes of light and beauty. Similarities have been drawn between the description of Breiðablik in Grímnismál and Heorot in Beowulf, which are both free of 'baleful runes' ( and respectively). In Beowulf, the lack of refers to the absence of crimes being committed, and therefore both halls have been proposed to be sanctuaries. ==In popular culture== Breidablik is a sacred weapon in Fire Emblem Heroes that the Summoner uses to summon Heroes coming from different Fire Emblem games. In the PlayStation game Xenogears, Bledavik is the name of the capital city of the desert kingdom of Aveh on the Ignas continent.	[ "Baldr", "Snorri Sturluson", "Henry Adams Bellows (businessman)", "Old Norse", "Beowulf", "Xenogears", "Álfheimr", "sanctuaries", "Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur", "Gylfaginning", "PlayStation (console)", "Heorot", "Grímnismál", "Fire Emblem Heroes", "Asgard", "Fire Emblem", "Nóatún (mythology)", "Eddic poem", "Nordic mythology", "Þrúðvangr" ]
4,062	Bilskirnir	Bilskirnir (Old Norse "lightning-crack") is the hall of the god Thor in Norse mythology. Here he lives with his wife Sif and their children. According to Grímnismál, the hall is the greatest of buildings and contains 540 rooms, located in Asgard, as are all the dwellings of the gods, in the kingdom of Þrúðheimr (or Þrúðvangar according to Gylfaginning and Ynglinga saga). ==Modern influence== The hall inspired the name of an Asgard starship commanded by Supreme Commander Thor, in the television series Stargate SG-1 named Beliskner. There is a NS / pagan black metal band from Hesse, Germany named Bilskirnir.	[ "Germany", "Þrúðvangar", "Old Norse", "Orion Publishing Group", "Thor (Stargate)", "pagan black metal", "Norse mythology", "National Socialist black metal", "Gylfaginning", "Sif", "Ynglinga saga", "Grímnismál", "Asgard", "Stargate SG-1", "Þrúðheimr", "Hesse", "Asgard (Stargate)", "Thor", "starship", "Æsir" ]
4,063	Brísingamen	In Norse mythology, Brísingamen (or Brísinga men) is the torc or necklace of the goddess Freyja, of which little else is known for certain. ==Etymology== The name is an Old Norse compound brísinga-men whose second element is men "(ornamental) neck-ring (of precious metal), torc". The etymology of the first element is uncertain. It has been derived from Old Norse brísingr, a poetic term for "fire" or "amber" mentioned in the anonymous versified word-lists (þulur) appended to many manuscripts of the Prose Edda, making Brísingamen "gleaming torc", "sunny torc", or the like. However, Brísingr can also be an ethnonym, in which case Brísinga men is "torc of the Brísings"; the Old English parallel in Beowulf supports this derivation, though who the Brísings (Old Norse Brísingar) may have been remains unknown. ==Attestations== ===Beowulf=== Brísingamen is referred to in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as Brosinga mene. The brief mention in Beowulf is as follows (trans. by Howell Chickering, 1977): The Beowulf poet is clearly referring to the legends about Theoderic the Great. The Þiðrekssaga tells that the warrior Heime (Háma in Old English) takes sides against Ermanaric ("Eormanric"), king of the Goths, and has to flee his kingdom after robbing him; later in life, Hama enters a monastery and gives them all his stolen treasure. However, this saga makes no mention of the great necklace. ===Poetic Edda=== In the poem Þrymskviða of the Poetic Edda, Þrymr, the king of the jǫtnar, steals Thor's hammer, Mjölnir. Freyja lends Loki her falcon cloak to search for it; but upon returning, Loki tells Freyja that Þrymr has hidden the hammer and demanded to marry her in return. Freyja is so wrathful that all the Æsir’s halls beneath her are shaken and the necklace Brísingamen breaks off from her neck. Later Thor borrows Brísingamen when he dresses up as Freyja to go to the wedding at Jǫtunheimr. ===Prose Edda=== Húsdrápa, a skaldic poem partially preserved in the Prose Edda, relates the story of the theft of Brísingamen by Loki. One day when Freyja wakes up and finds Brísingamen missing, she enlists the help of Heimdallr to help her search for it. Eventually they find the thief, who turns out to be Loki who has transformed himself into a seal. Heimdallr turns into a seal as well and fights Loki (trans. Byock 2005): After a lengthy battle at Singasteinn, Heimdallr wins and returns Brísingamen to Freyja. Snorri Sturluson quoted this old poem in Skáldskaparmál, saying that because of this legend Heimdallr is called "Seeker of Freyja's Necklace" (Skáldskaparmál, section 8) and Loki is called "Thief of Brísingamen" (Skáldskaparmál, section 16). A similar story appears in the later Sörla þáttr, where Heimdallr does not appear. ===Sörla þáttr=== Sörla þáttr is a short story in the later and extended version of the Saga of Olaf Tryggvason in the manuscript of the Flateyjarbók, which was written and compiled by two Christian priests, Jon Thordson and Magnus Thorhalson, in the late 14th century. In the end of the story, the arrival of Christianity dissolves the old curse that traditionally was to endure until Ragnarök. The battle of Högni and Heðinn is recorded in several medieval sources, including the skaldic poem Ragnarsdrápa, Skáldskaparmál (section 49), and Gesta Danorum: king Högni's daughter, Hildr, is kidnapped by king Heðinn. When Högni comes to fight Heðinn on an island, Hildr comes to offer her father a necklace on behalf of Heðinn for peace; but the two kings still battle, and Hildr resurrects the fallen to make them fight until Ragnarök. None of these earlier sources mentions Freyja or king Olaf Tryggvason, the historical figure who Christianized Norway and Iceland in the 10th Century. ==Archaeological record== A Völva was buried with considerable splendour in Hagebyhöga in Östergötland, Sweden. In addition to being buried with her wand, she had received great riches which included horses, a wagon and an Arabian bronze pitcher. There was also a silver pendant, which represents a woman with a broad necklace around her neck. This kind of necklace was only worn by the most prominent women during the Iron Age and some have interpreted it as Freyja's necklace Brísingamen. The pendant may represent Freyja herself. ==Modern influence== Alan Garner wrote a children's fantasy novel called The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, published in 1960, about an enchanted teardrop bracelet. Diana Paxson's novel Brisingamen features Freyja and her necklace. Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab has a perfumed oil scent named Brisingamen. Freyja's necklace Brisingamen features prominently in Betsy Tobin's novel Iceland, where the necklace is seen to have significant protective powers. The Brisingamen feature as a major item in Joel Rosenberg's Keepers of the Hidden Ways series of books. In it, there are seven jewels that were created for the necklace by the Dwarfs and given to the Norse goddess. She in turn eventually split them up into the seven separate jewels and hid them throughout the realm, as together they hold the power to shape the universe by its holder. The book's plot is about discovering one of them and deciding what to do with the power they allow while avoiding Loki and other Norse characters. In Christopher Paolini's The Inheritance Cycle, the word "brisingr" means fire. This is probably a distillation of the word brisinga. Ursula Le Guin's short story Semley's Necklace, the first part of her novel Rocannon's World, is a retelling of the Brisingamen story on an alien planet. Brisingamen is represented as a card in the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game, "Nordic Relic Brisingamen". Brisingamen was part of MMORPG Ragnarok Online lore, which is ranked as "God item". The game is heavily based from Norse mythology. In the Firefly Online game, one of the planets of the Himinbjörg system (which features planets named after figures from Germanic mythology) is named Brisingamen. It is third from the star, and has moons named Freya, Beowulf, and Alberich. The Brisingamen is an item that can be found and equipped in the video game, Castlevania: Lament of Innocence. In the French comics Freaks' Squeele, the character of Valkyrie accesses her costume change ability by touching a decorative torc necklace affixed to her forehead, named Brizingamen.	[ "de:Halsband", "Betsy Tobin", "Ursula Le Guin", "torc", "The Dowry of Angyar", "Mjölnir", "Östergötland", "Ragnarök", "Freyja", "Loki", "Freaks' Squeele", "concubinage", "Ragnarsdrápa", "Rings in Germanic cultures", "necklace", "Prose Edda", "Legends about Theoderic the Great", "Aphrodite", "ethnonym", "Jötunn", "Baptism", "Snorri Sturluson", "Gesta Danorum", "Christianize", "Jötunheimr", "John Lindow", "Christopher Paolini", "Singasteinn", "Alberich", "Ermanaric", "Sörla þáttr", "Castlevania: Lament of Innocence", "Húsdrápa", "Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game", "Himinbjörg", "Oxford World's Classics", "skald", "Flateyjarbók", "Joel Rosenberg (science fiction author)", "Thor", "Hildr", "Alan Garner", "Old Norse", "Christianity", "Olaf Tryggvason", "Þrymr", "de:Halskette", "Harmonia", "Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab", "Ragnarok Online", "Þrymskviða", "fantasy", "Diana L. Paxson", "Völva", "Poetic Edda", "The Weirdstone of Brisingamen", "Háma", "Fjaðrhamr", "Frederick York Powell", "Old English", "Heimdallr", "Æsir", "Carolyne Larrington", "Skáldskaparmál", "wand", "Henry Adams Bellows (businessman)", "Beowulf", "Younger Edda", "Rasmus B. Anderson", "Norrœna Society", "Norse mythology", "Necklace of Harmonia", "legends about Theoderic the Great", "Goths", "The Inheritance Cycle", "Sweden", "priest", "Rocannon's World", "Guðbrandur Vigfússon" ]
4,064	Borsuk–Ulam theorem	In mathematics, the Borsuk–Ulam theorem states that every continuous function from an n-sphere into Euclidean n-space maps some pair of antipodal points to the same point. Here, two points on a sphere are called antipodal if they are in exactly opposite directions from the sphere's center. Formally: if f: S^n \to \R^n is continuous then there exists an x\in S^n such that: f(-x)=f(x). The case n=1 can be illustrated by saying that there always exist a pair of opposite points on the Earth's equator with the same temperature. The same is true for any circle. This assumes the temperature varies continuously in space, which is, however, not always the case. The case n=2 is often illustrated by saying that at any moment, there is always a pair of antipodal points on the Earth's surface with equal temperatures and equal barometric pressures, assuming that both parameters vary continuously in space. The Borsuk–Ulam theorem has several equivalent statements in terms of odd functions. Recall that S^n is the n-sphere and B^n is the n-ball: If g : S^n \to \R^n is a continuous odd function, then there exists an x\in S^n such that: g(x)=0. If g : B^n \to \R^n is a continuous function which is odd on S^{n-1} (the boundary of B^n), then there exists an x\in B^n such that: g(x)=0. ==History== According to , the first historical mention of the statement of the Borsuk–Ulam theorem appears in . The first proof was given by , where the formulation of the problem was attributed to Stanisław Ulam. Since then, many alternative proofs have been found by various authors, as collected by . ==Equivalent statements== The following statements are equivalent to the Borsuk–Ulam theorem. === With odd functions === A function g is called odd (aka antipodal or antipode-preserving) if for every x, g(-x)=-g(x). The Borsuk–Ulam theorem is equivalent to each of the following statements: (1) Each continuous odd function S^n\to \R^n has a zero. (2) There is no continuous odd function S^n \to S^{n-1}. Here is a proof that the Borsuk-Ulam theorem is equivalent to (1): (\Longrightarrow) If the theorem is correct, then it is specifically correct for odd functions, and for an odd function, g(-x)=g(x) iff g(x)=0. Hence every odd continuous function has a zero. (\Longleftarrow ) For every continuous function f:S^n\to \R^n, the following function is continuous and odd: g(x)=f(x)-f(-x). If every odd continuous function has a zero, then g has a zero, and therefore, f(x)=f(-x). To prove that (1) and (2) are equivalent, we use the following continuous odd maps: the obvious inclusion i: S^{n-1}\to \R^n\setminus \{0\} , and the radial projection map p: \R^n\setminus \{0\} \to S^{n-1} given by x \mapsto \frac{x}. The proof now writes itself. ((1) \Longrightarrow (2)) We prove the contrapositive. If there exists a continuous odd function f:S^n\to S^{n-1}, then i\circ f is a continuous odd function S^n\to \R^n\setminus \{0\}. ((1) \Longleftarrow (2)) Again we prove the contrapositive. If there exists a continuous odd function f:S^n\to \R^{n}\setminus\{0\}, then p\circ f is a continuous odd function S^n\to S^{n-1}. == Proofs == ===1-dimensional case=== The 1-dimensional case can easily be proved using the intermediate value theorem (IVT). Let g be the odd real-valued continuous function on a circle defined by g(x)=f(x)-f(-x). Pick an arbitrary x. If g(x)=0 then we are done. Otherwise, without loss of generality, g(x)>0. But g(-x) Hence, by the IVT, there is a point y at which g(y)=0. ===General case=== ====Algebraic topological proof==== Assume that h: S^n \to S^{n-1} is an odd continuous function with n > 2 (the case n = 1 is treated above, the case n = 2 can be handled using basic covering theory). By passing to orbits under the antipodal action, we then get an induced continuous function h': \mathbb{RP}^n \to \mathbb{RP}^{n-1} between real projective spaces, which induces an isomorphism on fundamental groups. By the Hurewicz theorem, the induced ring homomorphism on cohomology with \mathbb F_2 coefficients [where \mathbb F_2 denotes the field with two elements], \mathbb F_2[a]/a^{n+1} = H^\left(\mathbb{RP}^n; \mathbb{F}_2\right) \leftarrow H^\left(\mathbb{RP}^{n-1}; \mathbb F_2\right) = \mathbb F_2[b]/b^{n}, sends b to a. But then we get that b^n = 0 is sent to a^n \neq 0, a contradiction. One can also show the stronger statement that any odd map S^{n-1} \to S^{n-1} has odd degree and then deduce the theorem from this result. ====Combinatorial proof==== The Borsuk–Ulam theorem can be proved from Tucker's lemma. Let g : S^n \to \R^n be a continuous odd function. Because g is continuous on a compact domain, it is uniformly continuous. Therefore, for every \epsilon > 0, there is a \delta > 0 such that, for every two points of S_n which are within \delta of each other, their images under g are within \epsilon of each other. Define a triangulation of S_n with edges of length at most \delta. Label each vertex v of the triangulation with a label l(v)\in {\pm 1, \pm 2, \ldots, \pm n} in the following way: The absolute value of the label is the index of the coordinate with the highest absolute value of g: \|l(v)\| = \arg\max_k (\|g(v)_k\|). The sign of the label is the sign of g at the above coordinate, so that: l(v) = \sgn (g(v)_) \|l(v)\|. Because g is odd, the labeling is also odd: l(-v) = -l(v). Hence, by Tucker's lemma, there are two adjacent vertices u, v with opposite labels. Assume w.l.o.g. that the labels are l(u)=1, l(v)=-1. By the definition of l, this means that in both g(u) and g(v), coordinate #1 is the largest coordinate: in g(u) this coordinate is positive while in g(v) it is negative. By the construction of the triangulation, the distance between g(u) and g(v) is at most \epsilon, so in particular \|g(u)_1 - g(v)_1\| = \|g(u)_1\| + \|g(v)_1\| \leq \epsilon (since g(u)_1 and g(v)_1 have opposite signs) and so \|g(u)_1\| \leq \epsilon. But since the largest coordinate of g(u) is coordinate #1, this means that \|g(u)_k\| \leq \epsilon for each 1 \leq k \leq n. So \|g(u)\| \leq c_n \epsilon, where c_n is some constant depending on n and the norm \|\cdot\| which you have chosen. The above is true for every \epsilon > 0; since S_n is compact there must hence be a point u in which \|g(u)\|=0. == Corollaries== No subset of \R^n is homeomorphic to S^n The ham sandwich theorem: For any compact sets A1, ..., An in \R^n we can always find a hyperplane dividing each of them into two subsets of equal measure. == Equivalent results == Above we showed how to prove the Borsuk–Ulam theorem from Tucker's lemma. The converse is also true: it is possible to prove Tucker's lemma from the Borsuk–Ulam theorem. Therefore, these two theorems are equivalent. == Generalizations == In the original theorem, the domain of the function f is the unit n-sphere (the boundary of the unit n-ball). In general, it is true also when the domain of f is the boundary of any open bounded symmetric subset of \R^n containing the origin (Here, symmetric means that if x is in the subset then -x is also in the subset). More generally, if M is a compact n-dimensional Riemannian manifold, and f: M \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n is continuous, there exists a pair of points x and y in M such that f(x) = f(y) and x and y are joined by a geodesic of length \delta, for any prescribed \delta > 0. Consider the function A which maps a point to its antipodal point: A(x) = -x. Note that A(A(x))=x. The original theorem claims that there is a point x in which f(A(x))=f(x). In general, this is true also for every function A for which A(A(x))=x. However, in general this is not true for other functions A.	[ "Topological combinatorics", "Hurewicz theorem", "Fundamenta Mathematicae", "Necklace splitting problem", "GF(2)", "ham sandwich theorem", "Imre Bárány", "degree of a continuous mapping", "Compact space", "Journal of Combinatorial Theory", "continuous function", "Covering space", "n-ball", "Kakutani's theorem (geometry)", "Ham sandwich theorem", "Annals of Mathematics", "ring homomorphism", "homeomorphic", "Stanisław Ulam", "n-sphere", "Tucker's lemma", "odd function", "uniformly continuous", "intermediate value theorem", "Real projective space", "Earth", "antipodal point", "Riemannian manifold", "Euclidean space", "Fundamental group", "cohomology", "mathematics" ]
4,067	Bragi	Bragi (Old Norse) is the skaldic god of poetry in Norse mythology. ==Etymology== The theonym Bragi probably stems from the masculine noun bragr, which can be translated in Old Norse as 'poetry' (cf. Icelandic bragur 'poem, melody, wise') or as 'the first, noblest' (cf. poetic Old Norse bragnar 'chiefs, men', bragningr 'king'). It is unclear whether the theonym semantically derives from the first meaning or the second. A connection has been also suggested with the Old Norse bragarfull, the cup drunk in solemn occasions with the taking of vows. The word is usually taken to semantically derive from the second meaning of bragr ('first one, noblest'). A relation with the Old English term brego ('lord, prince') remains uncertain. Bragi regularly appears as a personal name in Old Norse and Old Swedish sources, which according to linguist Jan de Vries might indicate the secondary character of the god's name. ==Attestations== Snorri Sturluson writes in the Gylfaginning after describing Odin, Thor, and Baldr: In Skáldskaparmál Snorri writes: That Bragi is Odin's son is clearly mentioned only here and in some versions of a list of the sons of Odin (see Sons of Odin). But "wish-son" in stanza 16 of the Lokasenna could mean "Odin's son" and is translated by Hollander as Odin's kin. Bragi's mother is possibly Frigg. In that poem Bragi at first forbids Loki to enter the hall but is overruled by Odin. Loki then gives a greeting to all gods and goddesses who are in the hall save to Bragi. Bragi generously offers his sword, horse, and an arm ring as peace gift but Loki only responds by accusing Bragi of cowardice, of being the most afraid to fight of any of the Æsir and Elves within the hall. Bragi responds that if they were outside the hall, he would have Loki's head, but Loki only repeats the accusation. When Bragi's wife Iðunn attempts to calm Bragi, Loki accuses her of embracing her brother's slayer, a reference to matters that have not survived. It may be that Bragi had slain Iðunn's brother. A passage in the Poetic Edda poem Sigrdrífumál describes runes being graven on the sun, on the ear of one of the sun-horses and on the hoofs of the other, on Sleipnir's teeth, on bear's paw, on eagle's beak, on wolf's claw, and on several other things including on Bragi's tongue. Then the runes are shaved off and the shavings are mixed with mead and sent abroad so that Æsir have some, Elves have some, Vanir have some, and Men have some, these being speech runes and birth runes, ale runes, and magic runes. The meaning of this is obscure. The first part of Snorri Sturluson's Skáldskaparmál is a dialogue between Ægir and Bragi about the nature of poetry, particularly skaldic poetry. Bragi tells the origin of the mead of poetry from the blood of Kvasir and how Odin obtained this mead. He then goes on to discuss various poetic metaphors known as kennings. Snorri Sturluson clearly distinguishes the god Bragi from the mortal skald Bragi Boddason, whom he often mentions separately. The appearance of Bragi in the Lokasenna indicates that if these two Bragis were originally the same, they have become separated for that author also, or that chronology has become very muddled and Bragi Boddason has been relocated to mythological time. Compare the appearance of the Welsh Taliesin in the second branch of the Mabinogi. Legendary chronology sometimes does become muddled. Whether Bragi the god originally arose as a deified version of Bragi Boddason was much debated in the 19th century, especially by the scholars Eugen Mogk and Sophus Bugge. The debate remains undecided. In the poem Eiríksmál Odin, in Valhalla, hears the coming of the dead Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe and his host, and bids the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli rise to greet him. Bragi is then mentioned, questioning how Odin knows that it is Eric and why Odin has let such a king die. In the poem Hákonarmál, Hákon the Good is taken to Valhalla by the valkyrie Göndul and Odin sends Hermóðr and Bragi to greet him. In these poems Bragi could be either a god or a dead hero in Valhalla. Attempting to decide is further confused because Hermóðr also seems to be sometimes the name of a god and sometimes the name of a hero. That Bragi was also the first to speak to Loki in the Lokasenna as Loki attempted to enter the hall might be a parallel. It might have been useful and customary that a man of great eloquence and versed in poetry should greet those entering a hall. He is also depicted in tenth-century court poetry of helping to prepare Valhalla for new arrivals and welcoming the kings who have been slain in battle to the hall of Odin. ==Skalds named Bragi== ===Bragi Boddason=== In the Prose Edda Snorri Sturluson quotes many stanzas attributed to Bragi Boddason the old (Bragi Boddason inn gamli), a Norwegian court poet who served several Swedish kings, Ragnar Lodbrok, Östen Beli and Björn at Hauge who reigned in the first half of the 9th century. This Bragi was reckoned as the first skaldic poet, and was certainly the earliest skaldic poet then remembered by name whose verse survived in memory. Snorri especially quotes passages from Bragi's Ragnarsdrápa, a poem supposedly composed in honor of the famous legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok ('Hairy-breeches') describing the images on a decorated shield which Ragnar had given to Bragi. The images included Thor's fishing for Jörmungandr, Gefjun's ploughing of Zealand from the soil of Sweden, the attack of Hamdir and Sorli against King Jörmunrekk, and the never-ending battle between Hedin and Högni. ===Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old=== Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old is mentioned only in the Skjáldskaparmál. This Bragi is the sixth of the second of two groups of nine sons fathered by King Hálfdan the Old on Alvig the Wise, daughter of King Eymund of Hólmgard. This second group of sons are all eponymous ancestors of legendary families of the north. Snorri says: Bragi, from whom the Bragnings are sprung (that is the race of Hálfdan the Generous). Of the Bragnings as a race and of Hálfdan the Generous nothing else is known. However, Bragning is often, like some others of these dynastic names, used in poetry as a general word for 'king' or 'ruler'. ===Bragi Högnason=== In the eddic poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, Bragi Högnason, his brother Dag, and his sister Sigrún were children of Högne, the king of East Götaland. The poem relates how Sigmund's son Helgi Hundingsbane agreed to take Sigrún daughter of Högni as his wife against her unwilling betrothal to Hodbrodd son of Granmar the king of Södermanland. In the subsequent battle of Frekastein (probably one of the 300 hill forts of Södermanland, as stein meant "hill fort") against Högni and Granmar, all the chieftains on Granmar's side are slain, including Bragi, except for Bragi's brother Dag. ==In popular culture== In the 2002 Ensemble Studios game Age of Mythology, Bragi is one of nine minor gods Norse players can worship.	[ "Baldr", "Norway", "bragarfull", "Snorri Sturluson", "Hermóðr", "Old Norse", "Jörmungandr", "Mabinogion", "Zealand (Denmark)", "Sophus Bugge", "Kvasir", "John Lindow", "Norse mythology", "Ægir", "Gylfaginning", "Bragi Boddason", "Ermanaric", "Hedin and Högni", "hill fort", "Ragnar Lodbrok", "Eiríksmál", "Ensemble Studios", "Hamdir and Sorli", "Semantics", "Björn at Hauge", "Age of Mythology", "theonym", "kenning", "Helgi Hundingsbane", "Elves", "East Götaland", "Södermanland", "Granmar", "Eric Bloodaxe", "Göndul", "Vanir", "Östen Beli", "Iðunn", "Odin", "Ragnarsdrápa", "Jan de Vries (linguist)", "Wales", "Sigrdrífumál", "Högne", "skald", "Sinfjötli", "Hákonarmál", "Helgakviða Hundingsbana II", "Sleipnir", "Nils Blommér", "Lokasenna", "Gefjun", "Eugen Mogk", "Sigmund", "Thor", "Sons of Odin", "Icelandic language", "Old English", "poetry", "Taliesin", "Æsir", "Valhalla", "Frigg", "valkyrie", "Skáldskaparmál", "Novgorod" ]
4,068	Blaise Pascal	Blaise Pascal (19June 162319August 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, philosopher, and Catholic writer. Pascal was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen. His earliest mathematical work was on projective geometry; he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of conic sections at the age of 16. He later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. In 1642, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines (called Pascal's calculators and later Pascalines), establishing him as one of the first two inventors of the mechanical calculator. Like his contemporary René Descartes, Pascal was also a pioneer in the natural and applied sciences. Pascal wrote in defense of the scientific method and produced several controversial results. He made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalising the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Following Torricelli and Galileo Galilei, in 1647 he rebutted the likes of Aristotle and Descartes who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. He is also credited as the inventor of modern public transportation, having established the carrosses à cinq sols, the first modern public transport service, shortly before his death in 1662. In 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism. Following a religious experience in late 1654, he began writing influential works on philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the and the Pensées, the former set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. The latter contains Pascal's wager, known in the original as the Discourse on the Machine, a fideistic probabilistic argument for why one should believe in God. In that year, he also wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659, he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids. Following several years of illness, Pascal died in Paris at the age of 39. ==Early life and education== Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, which is in France's Auvergne region, by the Massif Central. He lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Étienne Pascal, also an amateur mathematician, was a local judge and member of the "Noblesse de Robe". Pascal had two sisters, the younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte. === Move to Paris === In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, Étienne Pascal moved with his children to Paris. The newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid who eventually became a key member of the family. Étienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children. The young Pascal showed an extraordinary intellectual ability, with an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science. Etienne had tried to keep his son from learning mathematics; but by the age of 12, Pascal had rediscovered, on his own, using charcoal on a tile floor, Euclid’s first thirty-two geometric propositions, and was thus given a copy of Euclid's Elements. ==== Essay on Conics ==== Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections. Following Desargues' thinking, the 16-year-old Pascal produced, as a means of proof, a short treatise on what was called the Mystic Hexagram, Essai pour les coniques (Essay on Conics) and sent it — his first serious work of mathematics — to Père Mersenne in Paris; it is known still today as Pascal's theorem. It states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle (or conic) then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line (called the Pascal line). Pascal's work was so precocious that René Descartes was convinced that Pascal's father had written it. When assured by Mersenne that it was, indeed, the product of the son and not the father, Descartes dismissed it with a sniff: "I do not find it strange that he has offered demonstrations about conics more appropriate than those of the ancients," adding, "but other matters related to this subject can be proposed that would scarcely occur to a 16-year-old child." ===Leaving Paris=== In France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and sold. In 1631, Étienne sold his position as second president of the Cour des Aides for 65,665 livres. The money was invested in a government bond which provided, if not a lavish, then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, and enjoy, Paris, but in 1638 Cardinal Richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Years' War, defaulted on the government's bonds. Suddenly Étienne Pascal's worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300. Like so many others, Étienne was eventually forced to flee Paris because of his opposition to the fiscal policies of Richelieu, leaving his three children in the care of his neighbour Madame Sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all France. It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned. In time, Étienne was back in good graces with the Cardinal and in 1639 had been appointed the king's commissioner of taxes in the city of Rouen—a city whose tax records, thanks to uprisings, were in utter chaos. ===Pascaline=== In 1642, in an effort to ease his father's endless, exhausting calculations, and recalculations, of taxes owed and paid (into which work the young Pascal had been recruited), Pascal, not yet 19, constructed a mechanical calculator capable of addition and subtraction, called Pascal's calculator or the Pascaline. Of the eight Pascalines known to have survived, four are held by the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and one more by the Zwinger museum in Dresden, Germany, exhibit two of his original mechanical calculators. Although these machines are pioneering forerunners to a further 400 years of development of mechanical methods of calculation, and in a sense to the later field of computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. Partly because it was still quite cumbersome to use in practice, but probably primarily because it was extraordinarily expensive, the Pascaline became little more than a toy, and a status symbol, for the very rich both in France and elsewhere in Europe. Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade, and he refers to some 50 machines that were built to his design. He built 20 finished machines over the following 10 years. ==Mathematics== ===Probability=== In 1654, prompted by his friend the Chevalier de Méré, Pascal corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on the subject of gambling problems, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of probability. The specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point. From this discussion, the notion of expected value was introduced. John Ross writes, "Probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision-making, and an individual's and society's ability to influence the course of future events." Pascal, in the Pensées, used a probabilistic argument, Pascal's wager, to justify belief in God and a virtuous life. However, Pascal and Fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far. Christiaan Huygens, learning of the subject from the correspondence of Pascal and Fermat, wrote the first book on the subject. Later figures who continued the development of the theory include Abraham de Moivre and Pierre-Simon Laplace. The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for Leibniz's formulation of the calculus. ===Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle=== Pascal's Traité du triangle arithmétique, written in 1654 but published posthumously in 1665, described a convenient tabular presentation for binomial coefficients which he called the arithmetical triangle, but is now called Pascal's triangle. The triangle can also be represented: He defined the numbers in the triangle by recursion: Call the number in the (m + 1)th row and (n + 1)th column tmn. Then tmn = tm–1,n + tm,n–1, for m = 0, 1, 2, ... and n = 0, 1, 2, ... The boundary conditions are tm,−1 = 0, t−1,n = 0 for m = 1, 2, 3, ... and n = 1, 2, 3, ... The generator t00 = 1. Pascal concluded with the proof, t_{mn} = \frac{(m+n)(m+n-1)\cdots(m+1)}{n(n-1)\cdots 1}. In the same treatise, Pascal gave an explicit statement of the principle of mathematical induction. That same year, Pascal had a religious experience, and mostly gave up work in mathematics. ===Cycloid=== In 1658, Pascal, while suffering from a toothache, began considering several problems concerning the cycloid. His toothache disappeared, and he took this as a heavenly sign to proceed with his research. Eight days later he had completed his essay and, to publicize the results, proposed a contest. Pascal proposed three questions relating to the center of gravity, area and volume of the cycloid, with the winner or winners to receive prizes of 20 and 40 Spanish doubloons. Pascal, Gilles de Roberval and Pierre de Carcavi were the judges, and neither of the two submissions (by John Wallis and Antoine de Lalouvère) were judged to be adequate. While the contest was ongoing, Christopher Wren sent Pascal a proposal for a proof of the rectification of the cycloid; Roberval claimed promptly that he had known of the proof for years. Wallis published Wren's proof (crediting Wren) in Wallis's Tractus Duo, giving Wren priority for the first published proof. ==Physics== Pascal contributed to several fields in physics, most notably the fields of fluid mechanics and pressure. In honour of his scientific contributions, the name Pascal has been given to the SI unit of pressure and Pascal's law (an important principle of hydrostatics). He introduced a primitive form of roulette and the roulette wheel in his search for a perpetual motion machine. ===Fluid dynamics=== His work in the fields of hydrodynamics and hydrostatics centered on the principles of hydraulic fluids. His inventions include the hydraulic press (using hydraulic pressure to multiply force) and the syringe. He proved that hydrostatic pressure depends not on the weight of the fluid but on the elevation difference. He demonstrated this principle by attaching a thin tube to a barrel full of water and filling the tube with water up to the level of the third floor of a building. This caused the barrel to leak, in what became known as Pascal's barrel experiment. ===Vacuum=== By 1647, Pascal had learned of Evangelista Torricelli's experimentation with barometers. Having replicated an experiment that involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, Pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube. At the time, most scientists including Descartes believed in a plenum, i. e. some invisible matter filled all of space, rather than a vacuum ("Nature abhors a vacuum)." This was based on the Aristotelian notion that everything in motion was a substance, moved by another substance. Furthermore, light passed through the glass tube, suggesting a substance such as aether rather than vacuum filled the space. Following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 Pascal produced Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide ("New experiments with the vacuum"), which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by air pressure. It also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube. This work was followed by Récit de la grande expérience de l'équilibre des liqueurs ("Account of the great experiment on equilibrium in liquids") published in 1648. === First atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment === The Torricellian vacuum found that air pressure is equal to the weight of 30 inches of mercury. If air has a finite weight, Earth's atmosphere must have a maximum height. Pascal reasoned that if true, air pressure on a high mountain must be less than at a lower altitude. He lived near the Puy de Dôme mountain, tall, but his health was poor so could not climb it. On 19 September 1648, after many months of Pascal's friendly but insistent prodding, Florin Périer, husband of Pascal's elder sister Gilberte, was finally able to carry out the fact-finding mission vital to Pascal's theory. The account, written by Périer, reads: Pascal replicated the experiment in Paris by carrying a barometer up to the top of the bell tower at the church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie, a height of about 50 metres. The mercury dropped two lines. He found with both experiments that an ascent of 7 fathoms lowers the mercury by half a line. Note: Pascal used pouce and ligne for "inch" and "line", and toise for "fathom". In a reply to Étienne Noël, who believed in the plenum, Pascal wrote, echoing contemporary notions of science and falsifiability: "In order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity." Blaise Pascal Chairs are given to outstanding international scientists to conduct their research in the Ile de France region. ==Adult life: religion, literature, and philosophy== === Religious conversion === In the winter of 1646, Pascal's 58-year-old father broke his hip when he slipped and fell on an icy street of Rouen; given the man's age and the state of medicine in the 17th century, a broken hip could be a very serious condition, perhaps even fatal. Rouen was home to two of the finest doctors in France, Deslandes and de la Bouteillerie. The elder Pascal "would not let anyone other than these men attend him...It was a good choice, for the old man survived and was able to walk again..." However treatment and rehabilitation took three months, during which time La Bouteillerie and Deslandes had become regular visitors. Both men were followers of Jean Guillebert, proponent of a splinter group from Catholic teaching known as Jansenism. This still fairly small sect was making surprising inroads into the French Catholic community at that time. It espoused rigorous Augustinism. Blaise spoke with the doctors frequently, and after their successful treatment of his father, borrowed from them works by Jansenist authors. In this period, Pascal experienced a sort of "first conversion" and began to write on theological subjects in the course of the following year. Pascal fell away from this initial religious engagement and experienced a few years of what some biographers have called his "worldly period" (1648–54). His father died in 1651 and left his inheritance to Pascal and his sister Jacqueline, for whom Pascal acted as conservator. Jacqueline announced that she would soon become a postulant in the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal. Pascal was deeply affected and very sad, not because of her choice, but because of his chronic poor health; he needed her just as she had needed him. By the end of October in 1651, a truce had been reached between brother and sister. In return for a healthy annual stipend, Jacqueline signed over her part of the inheritance to her brother. Gilberte had already been given her inheritance in the form of a dowry. In early January, Jacqueline left for Port-Royal. On that day, according to Gilberte concerning her brother, "He retired very sadly to his rooms without seeing Jacqueline, who was waiting in the little parlor..." In early June 1653, after what must have seemed like endless badgering from Jacqueline, Pascal formally signed over the whole of his sister's inheritance to Port-Royal, which, to him, "had begun to smell like a cult." With two-thirds of his father's estate now gone, the 29-year-old Pascal was now consigned to genteel poverty. For a while, Pascal pursued the life of a bachelor. During visits to his sister at Port-Royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to God. ====Memorial==== On the 23 of November, 1654, between 10:30 and 12:30 at night, Pascal had an intense religious experience and immediately wrote a brief note to himself which began: "Fire. God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholars..." and concluded by quoting Psalm 119:16: "I will not forget thy word. Amen." He seems to have carefully sewn this document into his coat and always transferred it when he changed clothes; a servant discovered it only by chance after his death. This piece is now known as the Memorial. The story of a carriage accident as having led to the experience described in the Memorial is disputed by some scholars. His belief and religious commitment revitalized, Pascal visited the older of two convents at Port-Royal for a two-week retreat in January 1655. For the next four years, he regularly travelled between Port-Royal and Paris. It was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the Provincial Letters. == Literature == In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French Classical Period and is read today as one of the greatest masters of French prose. His use of satire and wit influenced later polemicists. === The Provincial Letters === Beginning in 1656–57, Pascal published his memorable attack on casuistry, a popular ethical method used by Catholic thinkers in the early modern period (especially the Jesuits, and in particular Antonio Escobar). Pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity and all sorts of sins. The 18-letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte and incensed Louis XIV. The king ordered that the book be shredded and burnt in 1660. In 1661, in the midst of the formulary controversy, the Jansenist school at Port-Royal was condemned and closed down; those involved with the school had to sign a 1656 papal bull condemning the teachings of Jansen as heretical. The final letter from Pascal, in 1657, had defied Alexander VII himself. Even Pope Alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by Pascal's arguments. Aside from their religious influence, the Provincial Letters were popular as a literary work. Pascal's use of humor, mockery, and vicious satire in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later French writers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It is in the Provincial Letters that Pascal made his oft-quoted apology for writing a long letter, as he had not had time to write a shorter one. From Letter XVI, as translated by Thomas M'Crie: 'Reverend fathers, my letters were not wont either to be so prolix, or to follow so closely on one another. Want of time must plead my excuse for both of these faults. The present letter is a very long one, simply because I had no leisure to make it shorter.' Charles Perrault wrote of the Letters: "Everything is there—purity of language, nobility of thought, solidity in reasoning, finesse in raillery, and throughout an agrément not to be found anywhere else." === Philosophy === Pascal is arguably best known as a philosopher, considered by some the second greatest French mind behind René Descartes. He was a dualist following Descartes. However, he is also remembered for his opposition to both the rationalism of the likes of Descartes and simultaneous opposition to the main countervailing epistemology, empiricism, preferring fideism. In terms of God, Descartes and Pascal disagreed. Pascal wrote that "I cannot forgive Descartes. In all his philosophy he would have been quite willing to dispense with God, but he couldn't avoid letting him put the world in motion; afterwards he didn't need God anymore". He opposed the rationalism of people like Descartes as applied to the existence of a God, preferring faith as "reason can decide nothing here". For Pascal the nature of God was such that such proofs cannot reveal God. Humans "are in darkness and estranged from God" because "he has hidden Himself from their knowledge". He cared above all about the philosophy of religion. Pascalian theology has grown out of his perspective that humans are, according to Wood, "born into a duplicitous world that shapes us into duplicitous subjects and so we find it easy to reject God continually and deceive ourselves about our own sinfulness". ===Philosophy of mathematics=== Pascal's major contribution to the philosophy of mathematics came with his De l'Esprit géométrique ("Of the Geometrical Spirit"), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous Petites écoles de Port-Royal ("Little Schools of Port-Royal"). The work was unpublished until over a century after his death. Here, Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal of such a method would be to found all propositions on already established truths. At the same time, however, he claimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them up—first principles, therefore, cannot be reached. Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them. Nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true. Pascal also used De l'Esprit géométrique to develop a theory of definition. He distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent. The second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of essentialism. Pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of formalism as formulated by Descartes. In De l'Art de persuader ("On the Art of Persuasion"), Pascal looked deeper into geometry's axiomatic method, specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based. Pascal agreed with Montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. He asserted that these principles can be grasped only through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to God in searching out truths. ==Pensées== Pascal's most influential theological work, referred to posthumously as the Pensées ("Thoughts") is widely considered to be a masterpiece, and a landmark in French prose. When commenting on one particular section (Thought #72), Sainte-Beuve praised it as the finest pages in the French language. Will Durant hailed the Pensées as "the most eloquent book in French prose". The Pensées was not completed before his death. It was to have been a sustained and coherent examination and defense of the Christian faith, with the original title Apologie de la religion Chrétienne ("Defense of the Christian Religion"). The first version of the numerous scraps of paper found after his death appeared in print as a book in 1669 titled Pensées de M. Pascal sur la religion, et sur quelques autres sujets ("Thoughts of M. Pascal on religion, and on some other subjects") and soon thereafter became a classic. One of the Apologies main strategies was to use the contradictory philosophies of Pyrrhonism and Stoicism, personalized by Montaigne on one hand, and Epictetus on the other, in order to bring the unbeliever to such despair and confusion that he would embrace God. ==Last works and death== T. S. Eliot described him during this phase of his life as "a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world." Pascal's ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for a person to suffer. In 1659, Pascal fell seriously ill. During his last years, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, "Don't pity me, sickness is the natural state of Christians, because in it we are, as we should always be, in the suffering of evils, in the deprivation of all the goods and pleasures of the senses, free from all the passions that work throughout the course of life, without ambition, without avarice, in the continual expectation of death." Desiring to imitate Jesus’ poverty of spirit, in his spirit of zeal and charity, Pascal said if God allowed him to recover from his illness, he would be resolved to "have no other employment or occupation for the rest of my life than the service of the poor." Louis XIV suppressed the Jansenist movement at Port-Royal in 1661. In response, Pascal wrote one of his final works, Écrit sur la signature du formulaire ("Writ on the Signing of the Form"), exhorting the Jansenists not to give in. Later that year, his sister Jacqueline died, which convinced Pascal to cease his polemics on Jansenism. === Inventor of public transportation === Pascal's last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating one of the first land-based public transport services, the carrosses à cinq sols, a network of horse-drawn multi-seat carriages that carried passengers on five fixed routes. Pascal also designated the operation principles which were later used to plan public transportation - the carriages had a fixed route, fixed price (five sols, hence the name), and left even if there were no passengers. The lines were not commercially successful, and the last one closed by 1675. Nonetheless, he has been described as the inventor of public transportation. === Illness and death === In 1662, Pascal's illness became more violent, and his emotional condition had severely worsened since his sister's death. Aware that his health was fading quickly, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried. In Paris on 18 August 1662, Pascal went into convulsions and received extreme unction. He died the next morning, his last words being "May God never abandon me," and was buried in the cemetery of Saint-Étienne-du-Mont. The headaches which affected Pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion. ==Legacy == One of the Universities of Clermont-Ferrand, FranceUniversité Blaise Pascalis named after him. Établissement scolaire français Blaise-Pascal in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo is named after Pascal. The 1969 Eric Rohmer film My Night at Maud's is based on the work of Pascal. Roberto Rossellini directed a filmed biopic, Blaise Pascal, which originally aired on Italian television in 1971. Pascal was a subject of the first edition of the 1984 BBC Two documentary, Sea of Faith, presented by Don Cupitt. The chameleon in the animated film Tangled is named for Pascal. A programming language is named for Pascal. In 2014, Nvidia announced its new Pascal microarchitecture, which is named for Pascal. The first graphics cards featuring Pascal were released in 2016. The 2017 game Nier: Automata has multiple characters named after famous philosophers; one of these is a sentient pacifistic machine named Pascal, who serves as a major supporting character. Pascal creates a village for machines to live peacefully with the androids they are at war with and acts as a parental figure for other machines trying to adapt to their newly-found individuality. The otter in the Animal Crossing series is named for Pascal. The minor planet 4500 Pascal is named in his honor. Pope Paul VI, in encyclical Populorum progressio, issued in 1967, quotes Pascal's Pensées: In 2023, Pope Francis released an apostolic letter, Sublimitas et miseria hominis, dedicated to Blaise Pascal, in commemoration of the fourth centenary of his birth. Pascal influenced both French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, who named his Pascalian Meditations (1997) after him, and French philosopher Louis Althusser. ==Works== Essai pour les coniques [Essay on conics] (1639) Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide [New experiments with the vacuum] (1647) Récit de la grande expérience de l'équilibre des liqueurs [Account of the great experiment on equilibrium in liquids] (1648) Traité du triangle arithmétique [Treatise on the arithmetical triangle] (written ; publ. 1665) [The provincial letters] (1656–57) De l'Esprit géométrique [On the geometrical spirit] (1657 or 1658) Écrit sur la signature du formulaire (1661) Pensées [Thoughts] (incomplete at death; publ. 1670) Discours sur les passions de l'amour [Discourse on the Passion of Love] (forgery) On the Conversion of the Sinner	[ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "Scientific revolution", "Catholic Church", "Cardinal Richelieu", "casuistry", "Stoicism", "Fideism", "Pascal's calculator", "Dresden", "Chevalier de Méré", "French language", "HathiTrust", "John Wallis", "Euclid's Elements", "government bond", "Mercury (element)", "Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution", "American Mathematical Monthly", "Descartes", "Cartesianism", "Alexander VII", "Blaise Pascal Chair", "recursion", "mechanical calculator", "Pensées", "List of pioneers in computer science", "Epictetus", "Auvergne (region)", "public transport", "carrosses à cinq sols", "Torricellian vacuum", "Aristotle", "Euclid", "syringe", "The Story of Civilization", "Pascal's triangle", "Will Durant", "barometer", "Port-Royal-des-Champs", "Zwinger museum", "Formalism (philosophy)", "Augustin Pajou", "lesion", "Gambler's ruin", "Western philosophy", "Antonio Escobar y Mendoza", "Abraham de Moivre", "postulant", "HarperCollins", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Hexagram", "fathoms", "Pascal and Maximus", "Pascal's theorem", "expected value", "Jean Guillebert", "Pyrrhonism", "arc length", "hexagon", "Physics", "My Night at Maud's", "Tangled", "Pierre-Simon Laplace", "Roberto Rossellini", "Stafford Harry Northcote, Viscount Saint Cyres", "essentialism", "Ecclesiastical letter", "polemic", "Augustinism", "pascal (unit)", "falsifiability", "rationalism", "Montaigne", "Voltaire", "Wired (magazine)", "computer engineering", "polemics", "stomach cancer", "child prodigy", "Oxford University Press", "Jesuits", "doubloon", "University of St Andrews", "Lucien Goldmann", "Discours sur les passions de l'amour", "Antoine Compagnon", "physicist", "philosopher", "Louis XIV of France", "formulary controversy", "Jean-Jacques Rousseau", "BBC Two", "List of works by Eugène Guillaume", "Pierre de Carcavi", "cycloid", "Center of mass", "Christian mysticism", "fideism", "Evangelista Torricelli", "Pierre Bourdieu", "Jacqueline Pascal", "hydraulic press", "René Descartes", "4500 Pascal", "T. S. Eliot", "Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve", "Pascal's mugging", "encyclical", "Lubumbashi", "Étienne Noël", "Hermetic seal", "axioms", "roulette", "Animal Crossing", "Eric Rohmer", "conic section", "Sea of Faith (TV series)", "projective geometry", "Cour des Aides", "Musée des Arts et Métiers", "Nature abhors a vacuum", "Louis Althusser", "Pascal's wager", "Douglas Groothuis", "sin", "graphics cards", "binomial coefficient", "empiricism", "French sol", "philosophy of mathematics", "hydraulic fluid", "Pope Francis", "Saint-Jacques Tower", "Christiaan Huygens", "air pressure", "calculus", "Ethics", "mathematician", "Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary", "Gérard Desargues", "hydrodynamics", "Marin Mersenne", "Probability theory", "Massif Central", "status symbol", "Christian faith", "Gilberte Périer", "17th-century philosophy", "Marguerite Périer", "Collins English Dictionary", "Clermont-Ferrand", "Pascal's law", "Antoine de Lalouvère", "Nvidia", "Puy de Dôme", "Pascal's barrel", "division of the stakes", "social sciences", "Hip fracture", "Faulhaber's formula", "Galileo Galilei", "Christopher Wren", "autopsy", "Luminiferous aether", "Pascal microarchitecture", "probability", "tuberculosis", "Philip Thody", "Pierre de Fermat", "extreme unction", "Florin Périer", "Université Blaise Pascal", "Don Cupitt", "Rüdiger Campe", "Pope Paul VI", "s:en:Studies of a Biographer/Pascal", "perpetual motion", "Saint-Étienne-du-Mont", "fluid", "mathematical induction", "Negative binomial distribution", "probability theory", "Établissement scolaire français Blaise-Pascal", "definition", "papal bull", "toise", "Problem of points", "Livre tournois", "Petites écoles de Port-Royal", "Michel de Montaigne", "Nier: Automata", "vacuum", "hydrostatics", "Expected value", "Gilles de Roberval", "s:Blaise Pascal/On the Conversion of the Sinner", "axiomatic method", "Thirty Years' War", "pressure", "scientific method", "Horror vacui (physics)", "Pascal's rule", "Lettres provinciales", "Étienne Pascal", "Île-de-France (region)", "book burning", "Pascal's simplex", "Paris", "Lexico", "brain damage", "Pascal (programming language)", "Catholicism", "Donald Adamson", "minor planet", "Nobles of the Robe", "Rouen", "Louvre", "Jansenism", "Populorum progressio", "Pascal's pyramid", "humanism" ]
4,069	Brittonic languages	The Brittonic languages (also Brythonic or British Celtic; ; ; and ) form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic languages; the other is Goidelic. It comprises the extant languages Breton, Cornish, and Welsh. The name Brythonic was derived by Welsh Celticist John Rhys from the Welsh word , meaning Ancient Britons as opposed to an Anglo-Saxon or Gael. The Brittonic languages derive from the Common Brittonic language, spoken throughout Great Britain during the Iron Age and Roman period. In the 5th and 6th centuries emigrating Britons also took Brittonic speech to the continent, most significantly in Brittany and Britonia. During the next few centuries, in much of Britain the language was replaced by Old English and Scottish Gaelic, with the remaining Common Brittonic language splitting into regional dialects, eventually evolving into Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Cumbric, and probably Pictish. Welsh and Breton continue to be spoken as native languages, while a revival in Cornish has led to an increase in speakers of that language. Cumbric and Pictish are extinct, having been replaced by Goidelic and Anglic speech. The Isle of Man and Orkney may also have originally spoken a Brittonic language, but this was later supplanted by Goidelic on the Isle of Man and Norse on Orkney. There is also a community of Brittonic language speakers in (the Welsh settlement in Patagonia). ==Name== The names "Brittonic" and "Brythonic" are scholarly conventions referring to the Celtic languages of Britain and to the ancestral language they originated from, designated Common Brittonic, in contrast to the Goidelic languages originating in Ireland. Both were created in the 19th century to avoid the ambiguity of earlier terms such as "British" and "Cymric". "Brythonic" was coined in 1879 by the Celticist John Rhys from the Welsh word . "Brittonic", derived from "Briton" and also earlier spelled "Britonic" and "Britonnic", emerged later in the 19th century. "Brittonic" became more prominent through the 20th century, and was used in Kenneth H. Jackson's highly influential 1953 work on the topic, Language and History in Early Britain. Jackson noted by that time that "Brythonic" had become a dated term: "of late there has been an increasing tendency to use Brittonic instead." Comparable historical terms include the Medieval Latin and and the Welsh . An early written reference to the British Isles may derive from the works of the Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia; later Greek writers such as Diodorus of Sicily and Strabo who quote Pytheas' use of variants such as (), "The Britannic [land, island]", and (), "Britannic islands", with being a Celtic word that might mean 'painted ones' or 'tattooed folk', referring to body decoration. ==Evidence== Knowledge of the Brittonic languages comes from a variety of sources. The early language's information is obtained from coins, inscriptions, and comments by classical writers as well as place names and personal names recorded by them. For later languages, there is information from medieval writers and modern native speakers, together with place names. The names recorded in the Roman period are given in Rivet and Smith. ==Characteristics== The Brittonic branch is also referred to as P-Celtic because linguistic reconstruction of the Brittonic reflex of the Proto-Indo-European phoneme is p as opposed to Goidelic k. Such nomenclature usually implies acceptance of the P-Celtic and Q-Celtic hypothesis rather than the Insular Celtic hypothesis because the term includes certain Continental Celtic languages as well. Other major characteristics include: The retention of the Proto-Celtic sequences and , which mostly result from the Proto-Indo-European syllabic nasals. Celtic (written u in Latin texts and ou in Greek) became gw- in initial position, -w- internally, whereas in Gaelic it is f- in initial position and disappears internally: Proto-Celtic 'white, fair' became Welsh (masculine), (feminine), Cornish , Breton . Contrast Irish 'fair'. Proto-Celtic 'servant, young man' became Welsh, Cornish, and Breton . Contrast Middle Irish . Initial s-: Initial s- followed by a vowel was changed to h-: Welsh 'old', 'long', 'similar' Cornish 'ancient', 'long', 'similar' Breton 'ancient', 'long', 'similar' Contrast Irish 'old', 'long', 'similarity' Initial s- was lost before , and : became Welsh , Cornish and Breton 'smooth'. Contrast Irish 'smooth, slimy' became Welsh , Cornish , and Breton 'marrow'. Contrast Irish The initial clusters sp-, sr-, sw- became f-, fr-, chw-: became Welsh 'ankle', Cornish 'shank, lower leg' and Breton 'ankle'. Contrast Old Irish 'heel, ankle' 'nostril' became Welsh , Cornish and Breton . Contrast Irish 'you' (plural) became Welsh , Cornish and Breton . Contrast Old Irish Lenition: Voiceless plosives become voiced plosives in intervocalic position. d , g , b Contrast Irish th, ch, ph Voiced plosives , (later or , then lost in Welsh and Cornish; remained as in Breton), , and became soft spirants in an intervocalic position and before liquids: Welsh , Cornish , Breton , , Contrast Irish dh, gh, bh, mh Voiceless spirants: Geminated voiceless plosives transformed into spirants; (pp), (cc), (tt) became (later ), (ch/c'h), (th/zh) before a vowel or liquid: > Breton , Cornish , Welsh , 'tree trunk' > Breton , Cornish , Welsh , 'cat' vs. Irish > Breton , Cornish , Welsh , 'cheek' Voiceless stops become spirants after liquids: 'bear' > Welsh/Cornish , Breton , compare Old Irish Nasal assimilation: Voiced stops were assimilated to a preceding nasal: Brittonic retains original nasals before -t and -k, whereas Goidelic alters -nt to -d, and -nk to -g: Breton 'hundred' vs. Irish ; Breton '[personification of] Death', Irish 'die' ==Classification== The family tree of the Brittonic languages is as follows: Common Brittonic Western Brittonic Cumbric Welsh Southwestern Brittonic Cornish Breton Brittonic languages in use today are Welsh, Cornish and Breton. Welsh and Breton have been spoken continuously since they formed. For all practical purposes Cornish died out during the 18th or 19th century, but a revival movement has more recently created small numbers of new speakers. Also notable are the extinct language Cumbric, and possibly the extinct Pictish. One view, advanced in the 1950s and based on apparently unintelligible ogham inscriptions, was that the Picts may have also used a non-Indo-European language. This view, while attracting broad popular appeal, has virtually no following in contemporary linguistic scholarship. ==History and origins== The modern Brittonic languages are generally considered to all derive from a common ancestral language termed Brittonic, British, Common Brittonic, Old Brittonic or Proto-Brittonic, which is thought to have developed from Proto-Celtic or early Insular Celtic by the 6th century BC. A major archaeogenetics study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the middle to late Bronze Age, during the 500-year period 1,300–800 BC. The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul. but not northern Britain. Brittonic languages were probably spoken before the Roman invasion throughout most of Great Britain, though the Isle of Man later had a Goidelic language, Manx. During the period of the Roman occupation of what is now England and Wales (AD 43 to ), Common Brittonic borrowed a large stock of Latin words, both for concepts unfamiliar in the pre-urban society of Celtic Britain such as urbanization and new tactics of warfare, as well as for rather more mundane words which displaced native terms (most notably, the word for 'fish' in all the Brittonic languages derives from the Latin rather than the native – which may survive, however, in the Welsh name of the River Usk, ). Approximately 800 of these Latin loan-words have survived in the three modern Brittonic languages. Pictish may have resisted Latin influence to a greater extent than the other Brittonic languages. It is probable that at the start of the Post-Roman period, Common Brittonic was differentiated into at least two major dialect groups – Southwestern and Western. (Additional dialects have also been posited, but have left little or no evidence, such as an Eastern Brittonic spoken in what is now the East of England.) Between the end of the Roman occupation and the mid-6th century, the two dialects began to diverge into recognizably separate varieties, the Western into Cumbric and Welsh, and the Southwestern into Cornish and its closely related sister language Breton, which was carried to continental Armorica. Jackson showed that a few of the dialect distinctions between West and Southwest Brittonic go back a long way. New divergencies began around AD 500 but other changes that were shared occurred in the 6th century. Other common changes occurred in the 7th century onward and are possibly due to inherent tendencies. Thus the concept of a Common Brittonic language ends by AD 600. Substantial numbers of Britons certainly remained in the expanding area controlled by Anglo-Saxons, but over the fifth and sixth centuries they mostly adopted the Old English language and culture. Brittonic elements found in England include and for 'hill', while some such as co[o]mb[e] (from ) for 'small deep valley' and tor for 'hill, rocky headland' are examples of Brittonic words that were borrowed into English. Others reflect the presence of Britons such as Dumbarton – from the Scottish Gaelic meaning 'Fort of the Britons', and Walton meaning (in Anglo-Saxon) a 'settlement' where the 'Britons' still lived. The number of Celtic river names in England generally increases from east to west, a map showing these being given by Jackson. These include Avon, Chew, Frome, Axe, Brue and Exe, but also river names containing the elements der-/dar-/dur- and -went e.g. Derwent, Darwen, Deer, Adur, Dour, Darent, and Went. These names exhibit multiple different Celtic roots. One is * 'water' (Breton , Cumbric , Welsh ), also found in the place-name Dover (attested in the Roman period as ); this is the source of rivers named Dour. Another is 'oak' or 'true' (Bret. , Cumb. , W. ), coupled with two agent suffixes, and ; this is the origin of Derwent, Darent, and Darwen (attested in the Roman period as ). The final root to be examined is . In Roman Britain, there were three tribal capitals named (modern Winchester, Caerwent, and Caistor St Edmunds), whose meaning was 'place, town'. ===Brittonicisms in English=== Some, including J. R. R. Tolkien, have argued that Celtic has acted as a substrate to English for both the lexicon and syntax. It is generally accepted that Brittonic effects on English are lexically few, aside from toponyms, consisting of a small number of domestic and geographical words, which "may" include bin, brock, carr, comb, crag and tor. Another legacy may be the sheep-counting system yan tan tethera in the north, in the traditionally Celtic areas of England such as Cumbria. Several words of Cornish origin are still in use in English as mining-related terms, including costean, gunnies, and vug. Those who argue against the theory of a more significant Brittonic influence than is widely accepted point out that many toponyms have no semantic continuation from the Brittonic language. A notable example is Avon which comes from the Celtic term for river or the Welsh term for river, , but was used by the English as a personal name. and the name of the river Trent simply comes from the Welsh word for a 'trespasser' (figuratively suggesting 'overflowing river'). Scholars supporting a Brittonic substrate in English argue that the use of periphrastic constructions (using auxiliary verbs such as do and be in the continuous/progressive) of the English verb, which is more widespread than in the other Germanic languages, is traceable to Brittonic influence. Others, however, find this unlikely since many of these forms are only attested in the later Middle English period; these scholars claim a native English development rather than Celtic influence. Ian G. Roberts postulates Northern Germanic influence, despite such constructions not existing in Norse. Literary Welsh has the simple present = 'I love' and the present stative (al. continuous/progressive) = 'I am loving', where the Brittonic syntax is partly mirrored in English. (However, English I am loving comes from older I am a-loving, from still older 'I am in the process of loving'). In the Germanic sister languages of English, there is only one form, for example in German, though in colloquial usage in some German dialects, a progressive aspect form has evolved which is formally similar to those found in Celtic languages, and somewhat less similar to the Modern English form, e.g. 'I am working' is , literally: 'I am on the working'. The same structure is also found in modern Dutch (), alongside other structures (e.g. , lit. 'I sit to working'). These parallel developments suggest that the English progressive is not necessarily due to Celtic influence; moreover, the native English development of the structure can be traced over 1000 years and more of English literature. Some researchers (Filppula, et al., 2001) argue that other elements of English syntax reflect Brittonic influences. For instance, in English tag questions, the form of the tag depends on the verb form in the main statement (aren't I?, isn't he?, won't we?, etc.). The German and the French , by contrast, are fixed forms which can be used with almost any main statement. It has been claimed that the English system has been borrowed from Brittonic, since Welsh tag questions vary in almost exactly the same way. ===Brittonic effect on the Goidelic languages=== Far more notable, but less well known, are Brittonic influences on Scottish Gaelic, though Scottish and Irish Gaelic, with their wider range of preposition-based periphrastic constructions, suggest that such constructions descend from their common Celtic heritage. Scottish Gaelic contains several P-Celtic loanwords, but, as there is a far greater overlap in terms of Celtic vocabulary than with English, it is not always possible to disentangle P- and Q-Celtic words. However, some common words such as = Welsh , Cumbric are particularly evident. The Brittonic influence on Scots Gaelic is often indicated by considering Irish language usage, which is not likely to have been influenced so much by Brittonic. In particular, the word (anglicised as "strath") is a native Goidelic word, but its usage appears to have been modified by the Welsh cognate whose meaning is slightly different. The effect on Irish has been the loan from British of many Latin-derived words. This has been associated with the Christianisation of Ireland from Britain.	[ "University of Sussex", "Cornwall", "Britonia", "P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages", "Cumbria", "Anglicisation", "River Ouse, Yorkshire", "Breton language", "Pictish language", "gunnies", "BBC News", "yan tan tethera", "hydronym", "verb", "Anglo-Saxons", "Gaels", "Brill Publishers", "American Geological Institute", "Internet Archive", "Common Brittonic", "Strabo", "Four Courts Press", "Shropshire", "Dumbarton", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "Nature (journal)", "Proto-Celtic language", "tag question", "Medieval Latin", "ogham", "sonorant", "Patagonia", "University of York", "Cumbric language", "Y Wladfa", "Oxford University Press", "East of England", "B. T. Batsford", "Britons (Celtic people)", "Bronze Age Britain", "River Usk", "Gaul", "auxiliary verb", "John Rhys", "Herefordshire", "Cwm (landform)", "Pictish", "Routledge", "Toponymy", "England", "P-Celtic", "Cornish language", "Great Britain", "Hen Ogledd", "Anglo-Frisian languages", "Armorica", "Devon", "Insular Celtic languages", "Colchester", "archaeogenetics", "Irish language", "Welsh language", "Roman Britain", "consonant", "Walhaz", "Barry Cunliffe", "Southwestern Brittonic languages", "Segontium", "US Bureau of Mines", "Boydell & Brewer", "Goidelic", "Wales", "Isle of Man", "Galicia (Spain)", "Cumbric", "London", "British Iron Age", "Manx language", "Orkney", "University of Potsdam", "Cambridge University Press", "Dover", "Tor (rock formation)", "Demetae", "Aberdeen", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Old English", "Celtic studies", "sound change", "Old English language", "Celtic language-death in England", "linguistic reconstruction", "Old French", "Diodorus of Sicily", "Linguistic reconstruction", "Latin", "Goidelic languages", "Early Middle Ages", "Perth, Scotland", "Celtic languages", "Dyfed", "Dorchester, Dorset", "Scottish Gaelic", "Celtic language decline in England", "Brittany", "Penicuik", "periphrastic", "Germanic peoples", "Cornish language revival", "Pictland", "costean", "Scotland", "Kenneth H. Jackson", "John T. Koch", "York", "Southwest Brittonic languages", "OED Online", "vug", "Western Brittonic languages", "Weidenfeld & Nicolson", "Indo-European languages", "Marseille", "De Gruyter", "University of Joensuu", "Nuclear Celtic languages", "Continental Celtic languages", "Rudolf Thurneysen", "Pytheas", "Henry of Huntingdon", "Germanic languages" ]
4,071	Bronski Beat	Bronski Beat were a British synth-pop band formed in 1983 in London, England. The initial lineup, which recorded the majority of their hits, consisted of Scottish musicians Jimmy Somerville (vocals) and Steve Bronski (keyboards, percussion) and English musician Larry Steinbachek (keyboards, percussion). Simon Davolls contributed backing vocals to many songs. Throughout the band's career, Bronski was the only member to appear in every lineup. Bronski Beat achieved success in the mid-1980s, particularly with the 1984 single "Smalltown Boy", from their debut album, The Age of Consent. "Smalltown Boy" was their only US Billboard Hot 100 single. All members of the band were openly gay and their songs reflected this, often containing political commentary on gay issues. Somerville left Bronski Beat in 1985 and went on to have success as lead singer of the Communards and as a solo artist. He was replaced by vocalist John Foster, with whom the band continued to have hits in the UK and Europe through 1986. Foster left Bronski Beat after their second album, and the band were joined by Jonathan Hellyer before dissolving in 1995. Steve Bronski revived the band in 2016, recording new material with 1990s member Ian Donaldson. Steinbachek died later that year; and Larry Steinbachek (from Southend, Essex) Bronski Beat signed a recording contract with London Records in 1984 after doing only nine live gigs. The band's debut single, "Smalltown Boy", about a gay teenager leaving his family and fleeing his home town, was a hit, peaking at No 3 in the UK Singles Chart, and topping charts in Belgium and the Netherlands. The single was accompanied by a promotional video directed by Bernard Rose, showing Somerville trying to befriend an attractive diver at a swimming pool, then being attacked by the diver's homophobic associates, being returned to his family by the police and having to leave home. (The police officer was played by Colin Bell, then the marketing manager of London Records.) "Smalltown Boy" reached 48 in the U.S. chart and peaked at 8 in Australia. The follow-up single, "Why?", adopted a hi-NRG sound and was more lyrically focused on anti-gay prejudice. It also achieved Top 10 status in the UK, reaching 6, This event is featured in the film Pride. The third single, released before Christmas 1984, was a revival of "It Ain't Necessarily So", the George and Ira Gershwin classic (from Porgy and Bess). The song questions the accuracy of biblical tales. It also reached the UK Top 20. Although the original had been one of Marc Almond's all-time favourite songs, he had never read the lyrics and thus incorrectly sang "What’ll it be, what’ll it be, you and me" instead of "Falling free, falling free, falling free" on the finished record. The band and their producer Mike Thorne had gone back into the studio in early 1985 to record a new single, "Run from Love", and PolyGram (London Records' parent company at that time) had pressed a number of promo singles and 12" versions of the song and sent them to radio and record stores in the UK. However, the single was shelved as tensions in the band, both personal and political, resulted in Somerville leaving Bronski Beat in the summer of that year. "Run from Love" was subsequently released in remix form on the Bronski Beat album Hundreds & Thousands, a collection of mostly remixes (LP) and B-sides (as bonus tracks on the CD version) as well as the hit "I Feel Love". Somerville went on to form the Communards with Richard Coles while the remaining members of Bronski Beat searched for a new vocalist. ===1985–1995: Somerville's departure, John Foster and Jonathan Hellyer eras=== Bronski Beat recruited John Foster as Somerville's replacement (Foster is credited as "Jon Jon"). A single, "Hit That Perfect Beat", was released in November 1985, reaching 3 in the UK. Bronski died on 7 December 2021, at the age of 61, in a Central London flat fire. ==Members== === Founding members === Steve Bronski – keyboards, synthesizers, programming, percussion, acoustic guitar, vocals (1983–1995, 2016–2018; died 2021) Jimmy Somerville – vocals, tambourine (1983–1985, 1987) Larry Steinbachek – keyboards, synthesizers, percussion (1983–1995; died 2016) === Other members === Richard Coles – saxophone, clarinet (1983–1984, 1985) John Foster – vocals (1985–1987, 1994–1995) Jonathan Hellyer – vocals (1989–1994, 1995) Ian Donaldson – keyboards, synthesizers, programming (1994–1995, 2016–2018) Stephen Granville – vocals (2016–2018) ==Awards and nominations== {\| class=wikitable \|- ! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result !! Ref. \|- \| rowspan=6\|1984 \| NME Awards \| rowspan=3\|Themselves \| rowspan=2\|Best New Act \| \|- \| rowspan=5\|Smash Hits Poll Winners Party \| \|- \| Best Group \| \|- \| The Age of Consent \| Best LP \| \|- \| "Why?" \| rowspan=2\|Best Single \| \|- \| rowspan=2\|"Smalltown Boy" \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 1985 \| rowspan="2" \| Brit Awards \| Best British Single \| \|- \| Themselves \| Best British Group \| \|- \| rowspan=2\|Billboard Music Awards \| "Smalltown Boy" \| Top Dance Play Single \| \| \|- \| rowspan=2\|1986 \| Themselves \| Top Dance Club Play Artist \| \| \|- \|Ivor Novello Awards \| "Hit That Perfect Beat" \| The Best Film Theme or Song \| \|- \| 2017 \| Gay Music Chart Awards \| "Smalltown Boy" (Arnaud Rebotini Remix) \| Best Original Soundtrack \| \| ==Discography== Studio albums 1984: The Age of Consent 1986: Truthdare Doubledare 1987: Out & About 1995: Rainbow Nation 2017: The Age of Reason	[ "Truthdare Doubledare", "prejudice", "alternative rock", "George Gershwin", "recording contract", "Manchester University Press", "Southend-on-Sea", "NME Awards", "Letter to Brezhnev", "Jimmy Somerville", "concert", "Rose McDowall", "BBC News", "The Communards", "Porgy and Bess", "Coming out", "record label", "Bernard Rose (director)", "Donna Summer", "dance-pop", "Strawberry Switchblade", "Synth-pop", "Marc Almond", "Heroes (David Bowie song)", "hi-NRG", "BBC", "Kent Music Report", "Brixton Academy", "remix", "Dutch Top 40", "age of consent", "Jonathan Hellyer", "Steve Bronski", "Children In Need", "Why? (Bronski Beat song)", "music video", "St Ives, New South Wales", "A-side and B-side", "Single Top 100", "Divine (actor)", "Mike Thorne", "Hi-NRG", "Michael Laub", "Top 40", "Tight Fit", "Billboard Music Award for Top Dance/Electronic Song", "Hundreds & Thousands (album)", "Smalltown Boy", "Hot Press", "Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners", "The Age of Consent (album)", "Love to Love You Baby (song)", "Cha Cha Heels", "Essex", "Richard Coles", "Arnaud Rebotini", "John Leyton", "Brit Award for British Single of the Year", "OfficialCharts.com", "record chart", "techno", "ZYX Music", "Pitchfork (website)", "I Feel Love", "disco", "UK Albums Chart", "Billboard Hot 100", "Medley (music)", "Electric Ballroom", "Larry Steinbachek", "UK Singles Chart", "Smash Hits Poll Winners Party", "Stereogum", "Framed Youth: The Revenge of the Teenage Perverts", "the Communards", "All Living Fear", "Brixton", "Hit That Perfect Beat", "electronic music", "Classical music", "Brit Award for British Group", "Parting Glances", "Billboard Music Award for Top Dance/Electronic Artist", "Glasgow", "synth-pop", "1985 Brit Awards", "acoustic music", "Johnny Remember Me", "Billboard Music Awards", "Eartha Kitt", "Ira Gershwin", "Jimmy Somerville discography", "Ivor Novello Awards", "New Order (band)", "London Records", "Pride (2014 film)", "It Ain't Necessarily So" ]
4,074	Barrel (disambiguation)	A barrel is a cylindrical container, traditionally made with wooden material. Barrel may also refer to: BARREL (Balloon Array for RBSP Relativistic Electron Losses), a NASA mission Barrel (album), a 1970 album by Lee Michaels Barrel (horology), a watch component Barrel (unit), several units of volume Barrel (wine), for fermenting or ageing wine Barrel (fastener), a simple hinge consisting of a barrel and a pivot Gun barrel the venturi of a carburetor a component of a clarinet a component of a snorkel a tank in Harry Turtledove's books; see Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun the outside of a low voltage DC connector "The Barrel", a song by Aldous Harding from her 2019 album Designer	[ "Barrel (album)", "sl:Sod", "Barrel (wine)", "Barrel roll (disambiguation)", "Keg", "Barrel (horology)", "Barrel (fastener)", "Barrel (unit)", "Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun", "carburetor", "Polarity symbols", "Gun barrel", "Designer (album)", "Clarinet", "Beryl (disambiguation)", "BARREL", "barrel", "Barrell", "Snorkel (swimming)", "Barrow (disambiguation)" ]
4,077	Binary prefix	A binary prefix is a unit prefix that indicates a multiple of a unit of measurement by an integer power of two. The most commonly used binary prefixes are kibi (symbol Ki, meaning ), mebi (), and gibi (). They are most often used in information technology as multipliers of bit and byte, when expressing the capacity of storage devices or the size of computer files. The binary prefixes "kibi", "mebi", etc. were defined in 1999 by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), in the IEC 60027-2 standard (Amendment 2). They were meant to replace the metric (SI) decimal power prefixes, such as "kilo" (), "mega" () and "giga" (), == Comparison of binary and decimal prefixes == The relative difference between the values in the binary and decimal interpretations increases, when using the SI prefixes as the base, from 2.4% for kilo to nearly 27% for the quetta prefix. == History == === Early prefixes === The original metric system adopted by France in 1795 included two binary prefixes named double- (2×) and demi- (×). Ubuntu, and Debian, have been updated to use "MB" and "GB" to denote decimal prefixes when displaying disk drive capacities and file sizes. Some manufacturers, such as Seagate Technology, have released recommendations stating that properly-written software and documentation should specify clearly whether prefixes such as "K", "M", or "G" mean binary or decimal multipliers. The 5.25-inch diskette sold with the IBM PC AT could hold = bytes, and thus was marketed as "1200 KB" with the binary sense of "KB". However, the capacity was also quoted "1.2 MB", which was a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since the "M" meant 1000 × 1024. The precise value was (decimal) or (binary). The 5.25-inch Apple Disk II had 256 bytes per sector, 13 sectors per track, 35 tracks per side, or a total capacity of bytes. It was later upgraded to 16 sectors per track, giving a total of = bytes, which was described as "140KB" using the binary sense of "K". The most recent version of the physical hardware, the "3.5-inch diskette" cartridge, had 720 512-byte blocks (single-sided). Since two blocks comprised 1024 bytes, the capacity was quoted "360 KB", with the binary sense of "K". On the other hand, the quoted capacity of "1.44 MB" of the High Density ("HD") version was again a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since it meant 1440 pairs of 512-byte sectors, or = . Some operating systems displayed the capacity of those disks using the binary sense of "MB", as "1.4 MB" (which would be ≈ ). User complaints forced both Apple and Microsoft The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which maintains the International System of Units (SI), expressly prohibits the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommends the use of the IEC prefixes as an alternative since units of information are not included in the SI. == Other uses == While the binary prefixes are predominantly used with units of data, bits and bytes, they may be used with other unit of measure. For example, in signal processing it may be convenient to use a binary prefix with the unit of frequency, hertz (Hz), to produce a unit such as the kibihertz (KiHz), which is equal to .	[ "Communications of the ACM", "IEEE 610.10-1994 standard", "JEDEC", "Word (computer architecture)", "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers", "MiB", "Fujifilm", "Binary engineering notation", "IBM PC", "Western Digital Corporation", "program (computer)", "Wallace Givens", "PCI-X", "Viking Interworks", "Data storage device", "semiconductor chip", "American Chemical Society", "suffix", "Vroegh v. Eastman Kodak Co.", "USB flash drives", "bit", "Seagate Technology", "CENELEC", "consumer confusion", "IEC 60027-2", "Microsoft Windows", "computer processor", "Mac OS X", "signal processing", "IEEE 1541-2002", "DDR SDRAM", "EPROM", "International Union of Crystallography", "double (metric prefix)", "Verbatim Corporation", "computer bus", "Gratis versus libre", "Memorex", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "Parallel ATA", "JEDEC memory standards", "International Bureau of Weights and Measures", "E notation", "IEC 80000-13", "Octet (computing)", "SanDisk", "Ubuntu", "ISO/IEC 80000", "Conférence générale des poids et mesures", "subscript", "ls", "SAE International", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Bruce Alan Martin", "PC AT", "compact disc", "Technical standard", "main memory", "disk drives", "powers of two", "Nature (journal)", "EEPROM", "Western Digital", "flash memory", "United States", "double data rate", "International System of Units", "units of measurement", "Sandia National Laboratories", "European Union", "metric system", "IBM 701", "Magneto-optical drive", "Associated Universities Inc.", "compact disk", "Disk II", "GNU", "disk drive", "demi (metric prefix)", "quetta-", "PNY Technologies", "decimal scientific notation", "cache memory", "IBM 1401", "56k", "HP 2100", "block (data storage)", "Timeline of binary prefixes", "ronna-", "lawsuit", "CDC 7600", "IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering", "file (computer)", "PDP-11", "HD DVD", "Count Key Data", "IBM 350", "memory module", "Nibble", "address line", "Floppy disks", "magnetic storage", "IBM System/370", "random access memory", "Brookhaven National Laboratory", "Manual page (Unix)", "read-only memory", "International Electrotechnical Commission", "Debian", "SI prefix", "IBM PC/XT", "International Organization for Standardization", "United States District Court for the Northern District of California", "Clock signal", "National Institute of Science and Technology", "ISO 80000-1", "Cambridge University Press", "solid state drives", "ANSI/IEEE 1084-1986 standard", "power of 10", "word (computer architecture)", "Markus Kuhn (computer scientist)", "SanDisk Corporation", "Ethernet", "Corsair Gaming", "binary scientific notation", "unit prefix", "information technology", "byte", "IBM 360", "disk formatting", "DVD", "Donald Knuth", "κ", "Control Data Corporation", "B notation (scientific notation)", "Hertz (unit)", "IEEE 100-2000 standard", "Germinal (month)", "Blu-ray Disc", "operating system", "ST-412", "multiple (mathematics)", "IEEE", "IBM 702", "Classic Mac OS", "kibihertz", "ANSI/IEEE 1212-1991 standard", "HP 3000", "List of floppy disk formats", "VAX-11/780", "NIST", "John Wiley & Sons", "Eastman Kodak", "optical disc", "personal computer" ]
4,078	National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum	{{Infobox museum \| name = National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum \| logo = National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum logo.svg \| logo_upright = 0.5 \| logo_alt = C \| logo_caption = \| image = National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Cooperstown, NY.jpg \| image_upright = 1.25 \| alt = \| caption = The Hall of Fame in 2020 \| map_relief = \| map_size = \| map_type = \| map_caption = Cooperstown \| coordinates = \| former_name = \| established = (Baseball)Dedicated June 12, 1939 \| dissolved = \| location = Cooperstown, New York, U.S. \| type = Professional sports hall of fame \| accreditation = \| key_holdings = \| collections = \| founder = Stephen Carlton Clark \| executive_director = \| leader_type = \| leader = \| director = \| president = Josh Rawitch (since 2021) \| ceo = \| chairperson = Jane Forbes Clark Dale Petroskey became the organization's president in 1999. In 2002, the Hall launched Baseball as America, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has since also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not visit. The Hall and Museum completed a series of renovations in spring 2005. The Hall of Fame also presents an annual exhibit at FanFest at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game. ==Inductees== Among baseball fans, "Hall of Fame" means not only the museum and facility in Cooperstown, New York, but the pantheon of players, managers, umpires, executives, and pioneers who have been inducted into the Hall. The first five men elected were Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Honus Wagner, Christy Mathewson and Walter Johnson, chosen in 1936; roughly 20 more were selected before the entire group was inducted at the Hall's 1939 opening. , 351 people had been elected to the Hall of Fame, including 278 former professional players, 23 managers, 10 umpires, and 40 pioneers, executives, and organizers. 119 members of the Hall of Fame have been inducted posthumously, including four who died after their selection was announced. Of the 39 members primarily recognized for their contributions to Negro league baseball, 31 were inducted posthumously, including all 26 selected since the 1990s. The Hall of Fame includes one woman, baseball executive Effa Manley. The newest members of the Hall of Fame as of January 21, 2025, are Dick Allen, Dave Parker, CC Sabathia, Ichiro Suzuki, and Billy Wagner. In 2019, former Yankees closer Mariano Rivera became the first player to be elected unanimously on the writers' ballot. Derek Jeter, Marvin Miller, Ted Simmons, and Larry Walker were to be inducted in 2020, but their induction ceremony was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic until September 8, 2021. The ceremony was open to the public, as COVID restrictions had been lifted. ===Selection process=== Players are currently inducted into the Hall of Fame through election by either the Baseball Writers' Association of America (or BBWAA), or the Veterans Committee, which now consists of four subcommittees, each of which considers and votes for candidates from a separate era of baseball. Five years after retirement, any player with 10 years of major league experience who passes a screening committee (which removes from consideration players of clearly lesser qualification) is eligible to be elected by BBWAA members with 10 years' membership or more who also have been actively covering MLB at any time in the 10 years preceding the election (the latter requirement was added for the 2016 election). From a final ballot typically including 25–40 candidates, each writer may vote for up to 10 players; until the late 1950s, voters were advised to cast votes for the maximum 10 candidates. Any player named on 75% or more of all ballots cast is elected. A player who is named on fewer than 5% of ballots is dropped from future elections. In some instances, the screening committee had restored their names to later ballots, but in the mid-1990s, dropped players were made permanently ineligible for Hall of Fame consideration, even by the Veterans Committee. A 2001 change in the election procedures restored the eligibility of these dropped players; while their names will not appear on future BBWAA ballots, they may be considered by the Veterans Committee. Players receiving 5% or more of the votes but fewer than 75% are reconsidered annually until a maximum of ten years of eligibility (lowered from fifteen years for the 2015 election). Under special circumstances, certain players may be deemed eligible for induction even though they have not met all requirements. Addie Joss was elected in 1978, despite only playing nine seasons before he died of meningitis. Additionally, if an otherwise eligible player dies before his fifth year of retirement, then that player may be placed on the ballot at the first election at least six months after his death. Roberto Clemente set the precedent: the writers put him up for consideration after his death on New Year's Eve, 1972, and he was inducted in 1973. The five-year waiting period was established in 1954 after an evolutionary process. In 1936 all players were eligible, including active ones. From the 1937 election until the 1945 election, there was no waiting period, so any retired player was eligible, but writers were discouraged from voting for current major leaguers. Since there was no formal rule preventing a writer from casting a ballot for an active player, the scribes did not always comply with the informal guideline; Joe DiMaggio received a vote in 1945, for example. From the 1946 election until the 1954 election, an official one-year waiting period was in effect. (DiMaggio, for example, retired after the 1951 season and was first eligible in the 1953 election.) The modern rule establishing a wait of five years was passed in 1954, although those who had already been eligible under the old rule were grandfathered into the ballot, thus permitting Joe DiMaggio to be elected within four years of his retirement. Contrary to popular belief, no formal exception was made for Lou Gehrig (other than to hold a special one-man election for him): there was no waiting period at that time, and Gehrig met all other qualifications, so he would have been eligible for the next regular election after he retired during the 1939 season. However, the BBWAA decided to hold a special election at the 1939 Winter Meetings in Cincinnati, specifically to elect Gehrig (most likely because it was known that he was terminally ill, making it uncertain that he would live long enough to see another election). Nobody else was on that ballot, and the numerical results have never been made public. Since no elections were held in 1940 or 1941, the special election permitted Gehrig to enter the Hall while still alive. If a player fails to be elected by the BBWAA within 10 years of his eligibility for election, he may be selected by the Veterans Committee. Following changes to the election process for that body made in 2010 and 2016, the Veterans Committee is now responsible for electing all otherwise eligible candidates who are not eligible for the BBWAA ballot — both long-retired players and non-playing personnel (managers, umpires, and executives). From 2011 to 2016, each candidate could be considered once every three years; now, the frequency depends on the era in which an individual made his greatest contributions. A more complete discussion of the new process is available below. From 2008 to 2010, following changes made by the Hall in July 2007, the main Veterans Committee, then made up of living Hall of Famers, voted only on players whose careers began in 1943 or later. These changes also established three separate committees to select other figures: One committee voted on managers and umpires for induction in every even-numbered year. This committee voted only twice—in 2007 for induction in 2008 and in 2009 for induction in 2010. One committee voted on executives and builders for induction in every even-numbered year. This committee conducted its only two votes in the same years as the managers/umpires committee. The pre–World War II players committee was intended to vote every five years on players whose careers began in 1942 or earlier. It conducted its only vote as part of the election process for induction in 2009. Players of the Negro leagues have also been considered at various times, beginning in 1971. In 2005, the Hall completed a study on African American players between the late 19th century and the integration of the major leagues in 1947, and conducted a special election for such players in February 2006; seventeen figures from the Negro leagues were chosen in that election, in addition to the eighteen previously selected. Following the 2010 changes, Negro leagues figures were primarily considered for induction alongside other figures from the 1871–1946 era, called the "Pre-Integration Era" by the Hall; since 2016, Negro leagues figures are primarily considered alongside other figures from what the Hall calls the "Early Baseball" era (1871–1949). Predictably, the selection process catalyzes endless debate among baseball fans over the merits of various candidates. Even players elected years ago remain the subjects of discussions as to whether they deserved election. For example, Bill James' 1994 book Whatever Happened to the Hall of Fame? goes into detail about who he believes does and does not belong in the Hall of Fame. ===Non-induction of banned players=== The selection rules for the Baseball Hall of Fame were modified to prevent the induction of anyone on Baseball's "permanently ineligible" list. The most prominent former players to be affected are Pete Rose and "Shoeless Joe" Jackson—many others have been barred from participation in MLB, but none have Hall of Fame qualifications on the level of Jackson or Rose. Jackson and Rose were both banned from MLB for life for actions related to gambling on games involving their own teams. Jackson was determined to have cooperated with those who conspired to intentionally lose the 1919 World Series, and for accepting payment for losing, although his actual level of culpability is fiercely debated. The ensuing Black Sox Scandal led directly to baseball's Rule 21, prominently posted in every clubhouse locker room, which mandates permanent banishment from MLB for having a gambling interest of any sort on a game in which a player, manager or umpire is directly involved. Rose voluntarily accepted a permanent spot on the ineligible list in return for MLB's promise to make no official finding in relation to alleged betting on the Cincinnati Reds when he was their manager in the 1980s. No credible evidence has ever emerged to support allegations that Rose bet against his team and/or that his betting influenced his managerial decisions, nevertheless, the betting constituted a clear violation of the aforementioned Rule 21. After years of denial, Rose admitted that he bet on the Reds in his 2004 autobiography. Baseball fans are deeply split on the issue of whether Rose and/or Jackson (now both deceased) should remain banned or have their punishments posthumously revoked. Writer Bill James, though he advocates Rose eventually making it into the Hall of Fame, compared the people who want to put Jackson in the Hall of Fame to "those women who show up at murder trials wanting to marry the cute murderer". ===Changes to Veterans Committee process=== The actions and composition of the Veterans Committee have been at times controversial, with occasional selections of contemporaries and teammates of the committee members over seemingly more worthy candidates. In 2001, the Veterans Committee was reformed to comprise the living Hall of Fame members and other honorees. The revamped Committee held three elections, in 2003 and 2007, for both players and non-players, and in 2005 for players only. No individual was elected in that time, sparking criticism among some observers who expressed doubt whether the new Veterans Committee would ever elect a player. The Committee members, most of whom were Hall members, were accused of being reluctant to elect new candidates in the hope of heightening the value of their own selection. After no one was selected for the third consecutive election in 2007, Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt noted, "The same thing happens every year. The current members want to preserve the prestige as much as possible, and are unwilling to open the doors." ====Eligibility==== The eligibility criteria for Era Committee consideration differ between players, managers, and executives. Players: When a player is no longer eligible on the BBWAA ballot (either 15 years after retirement—five-year period and the 10 years after he first becomes eligible to appear on the BBWAA ballot or when the player is not eligible after earning less than five percent of the BBWAA ballot during a year), he will be considered by the respective committee. The Hall has not yet established a policy on when players who die while active or during the standard five-year waiting period for BBWAA eligibility will be eligible for committee consideration. As noted earlier, such players become eligible for the BBWAA ballot six months after their deaths. Managers and umpires who have served at least 10 seasons in that role are eligible five years after retirement, unless they are 65 or older, in which case the waiting period is six months. Executives are eligible five years after retirement, or upon reaching age 70. For those who meet the age cutoff, they are explicitly eligible for consideration regardless of their current position in an organization or their status as active or retired. Before the 2016 changes to the committee system, active executives 65 years or older were eligible for consideration. Although the Hall always made the final decision on which logo was shown, until 2001 the Hall deferred to the wishes of players or managers whose careers were linked with multiple teams. Some examples of inductees associated with multiple teams are the following: Frank Robinson: Robinson chose to have the Baltimore Orioles cap displayed on his plaque, although he had played ten seasons with the Cincinnati Reds and six seasons with Baltimore. Robinson won four pennants and two World Series with the Orioles and one pennant with Cincinnati. His second World Series ring came in the 1970 World Series against the Reds. Robinson also won an MVP award while playing for each team. Catfish Hunter: Hunter chose not to have any logo on his cap when elected to the Hall of Fame in 1987. Hunter had success for both teams for which he played – the Kansas City/Oakland Athletics (his first ten seasons) and the New York Yankees (his final five seasons). Furthermore, both during and after his career he maintained good relations with both teams and their respective owners (Charles Finley and George Steinbrenner), and did not wish to slight either team by selecting the other. Nolan Ryan: Born and raised in Texas, Ryan entered the Hall in 1999 wearing a Texas Rangers cap on his plaque, although he spent only five seasons with the Rangers, while raised in the Houston area and having longer and more successful tenures with the Houston Astros (nine seasons, 1980–88 and his record-setting fifth career no-hitter) and California Angels (eight seasons, 1972–79 and the first four of his seven career no-hitters). Ryan's only championship was as a member of the New York Mets in 1969. Ryan finished his career with the Rangers, reaching his 5,000th strikeout and 300th win, and throwing the last two of his no-hitters. He had personally chosen the Rangers due to these figures as well as because Texas encompasses the city of Houston, thereby representing both teams. Despite this, his biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Angels. Ryan later took ownership of the Rangers when they were sold to his Rangers Baseball Express group in 2010. He sold his Rangers interest in 2013. From 2014 to 2019, Nolan was in the Astros' front office as a special assistant. In 2020 Ryan discontinued his executive role with the Astros. The minor-league team in which he has an ownership interest, the Round Rock Express of Round Rock, Texas outside of Austin, will be the AAA franchise of the Texas Rangers. Reggie Jackson: Jackson chose to be depicted with a Yankees cap over an Athletics cap. As a member of the Kansas City/Oakland A's, Jackson played ten seasons (1967–75, '87), winning three World Series (1972, 1973, 1974) and the 1973 AL MVP Award. During his five years in New York (1977–81), Jackson won two World Series (1977–78), with his crowning achievement occurring during Game Six of the 1977 World Series, when he hit three home runs on consecutive pitches and earned his nickname "Mr. October". Carlton Fisk: Fisk went into the hall with a Boston Red Sox cap on his plaque in 2000 despite having played with the Chicago White Sox longer and posting more significant numbers with the White Sox. Fisk's choice of the Red Sox was likely due to his being a New England native, as well as his famous "Stay fair!" walk-off home run in Game Six of the 1975 World Series for which he is most associated. Sparky Anderson: Also in 2000, Anderson entered the Hall with a Cincinnati Reds cap on his plaque despite managing almost twice as many seasons with the Detroit Tigers (17 in Detroit; nine in Cincinnati). He chose the Reds to honor that team's former general manager Bob Howsam, who gave him his first major-league managing job. Anderson won two World Series with the Reds and one with the Tigers. Dave Winfield: Winfield had spent the most years in his career with the Yankees and had great success there, though he chose to go into the Hall as a member of the San Diego Padres due to his feud with Yankees owner George Steinbrenner. In all of the above cases, the "primary team" is the team for which the inductee spent the largest portion of his career except for Ryan, whose primary team is listed as the Angels despite playing one fewer season for that team than for the Astros. In 2001, the Hall of Fame decided to change the policy on cap logo selection, as a result of rumors that some teams were offering compensation, such as number retirement, money, or organizational jobs, in exchange for the cap designation. (For example, though Wade Boggs denied the claims, some media reports had said that his contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays required him to request depiction in the Hall of Fame as a Devil Ray.) The Hall decided that it would no longer defer to the inductee, though the player's wishes would be considered, when deciding on the logo to appear on the plaque. Newly elected members affected by the change include the following: Gary Carter: Inducted in 2003, Carter was the first player to be affected by the new policy. Carter won his only championship with the 1986 New York Mets, and wanted his induction plaque to depict him wearing a Mets cap, though he had spent twelve years (1974–84, 1992) with the Montreal Expos and five (1985–89) with the Mets. The Hall of Fame decided that Carter's impact on the Montreal franchise warranted depicting him with an Expos cap. Wade Boggs: Boggs's only title was as a member of the 1996 New York Yankees, for whom he played from 1993 to 1997, but his best career numbers were posted during his 11 years (1982–92) with the Boston Red Sox. Boggs would eventually be depicted wearing a Boston cap for his 2005 induction. Andre Dawson: Dawson's cap depicts him as a member of the Expos, his team for eleven years, despite his expressed preference to be shown as a member of the Chicago Cubs. While Dawson played only six years with the Cubs, five of his eight All-Star appearances were as a Cub, and his only MVP award came in his first year with the team in 1987. Tony La Russa: Manager La Russa chose not to have a logo after managing three teams over 33 years—the Chicago White Sox, Oakland Athletics, and St. Louis Cardinals. His greatest successes were with the A's (three pennants and a World Series title in 10 years) and Cardinals (three pennants and two World Series in 16 years). Nonetheless, La Russa felt that his induction to the Hall was due to his tenures with all three teams, and stated that not including a logo meant that "fans of all [three] clubs can celebrate this honor with me." La Russa's biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Cardinals. Greg Maddux: Although Maddux had his greatest success while with the Atlanta Braves for 11 seasons, he had two stints with the Chicago Cubs for a total of 10 seasons, including the first seven of his MLB career. Maddux believed that both fanbases were equally important in his career, and so the cap on his plaque does not feature any logo. His biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Mariners. Vladimir Guerrero: Guerrero played the majority of his career with the Montreal Expos, spending eight of his sixteen seasons with the team. However, he recorded the majority of his success during his time with the Angels, including five out of his nine All-Star selections, his MVP award, four out of his eight Silver Slugger awards, and all five of his playoff berths. Guerrero ultimately had an Angels logo on his plaque, becoming the only member of the team to have as such. His biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Expos. Mike Mussina, who played 10 seasons with the Baltimore Orioles and eight seasons with the New York Yankees, decided to go into the Hall without a logo on his plaque, saying "I don't feel like I can pick one team over the other because they were both great to me. I did a lot in Baltimore and they gave me the chance and then in New York we went to the playoffs seven of eight years, and both teams were involved. To go in with no logo was the only decision I felt good about". Mussina's biography at the Hall lists his primary team as the Orioles. Roy Halladay was posthumously elected to the Hall on January 22, 2019, in his first year of eligibility, garnering 85.4 percent of the vote. Halladay was a six-time All-Star and won a Cy Young award with the Toronto Blue Jays from 1998 to 2009, and then was a two-time All-Star and won a Cy Young award with the Philadelphia Phillies over his final four seasons. He spent 12 of his 16 MLB seasons with the Blue Jays and earned 148 of his 203 victories with them, although his team never reached the playoffs. For the Phillies, he threw a perfect game and a postseason no-hitter, though his final two seasons were injury-plagued. Halladay was quoted as saying after he retired in 2013 that he'd like to enter the Hall of Fame as a Blue Jay, and he signed a ceremonial contract to retire with Toronto. However, he died in a plane crash on November 7, 2017. The Hall deferred to the wishes of his wife and sons who chose not to have a logo for his cap, which leaves Roberto Alomar as the sole Cooperstown inductee as a Blue Jay. Halladay's biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Blue Jays. ==The museum== Sam Crane (who had played a decade in 19th century baseball before becoming a manager and sportswriter) had first approached the idea of making a memorial to the great players of the past in what was believed to have been the birthplace of baseball: Cooperstown, New York, but the idea did not muster much momentum until after his death in 1925. In 1934, the idea for establishing a Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum was devised by several individuals, such as Ford C. Frick (president of the National League) and Alexander Cleland, a Scottish immigrant who decided to serve as the first executive secretary for the Museum for the next seven years that worked with the interests of the Village and Major League Baseball. Stephen Carlton Clark (a Cooperstown native) paid for the construction of the museum, which was planned to open in 1939 to mark the "Centennial of Baseball", which included renovations to Doubleday Field. William Beattie served as the first curator of the museum. According to the Hall of Fame, approximately 260,000 visitors enter the museum each year, and the running total has surpassed 17 million. The Hall has seen a noticeable decrease in attendance since the mid-2010s. A 2013 story on ESPN.com about the village of Cooperstown and its relation to the game partially linked the reduced attendance with Cooperstown Dreams Park, a youth baseball complex about away in the town of Hartwick. The 22 fields at Dreams Park currently draw 17,000 players each summer for a week of intensive play; while the complex includes housing for the players, their parents and grandparents must stay elsewhere. According to the story, Prior to Dreams Park, a room might be filled for a week by several sets of tourists. Now, that room will be taken by just one family for the week, and that family may only go into Cooperstown and the Hall of Fame once. While there are other contributing factors (the recession and high gas prices among them), the Hall's attendance has tumbled since Dreams Park opened. The Hall drew 383,000 visitors in 1999. It drew 262,000 last year. ===First floor=== Baseball at the Movies houses baseball movie memorabilia while a screen shows footage from those movies. The Bullpen Theater is the site of daily programming at the museum (trivia games, book discussions, etc.) and is decorated with pictures of famous relief pitchers. Inductee Row features images of Hall of Famers inducted from 1937 to 1939. The Perez-Steele Art Gallery features art of all media related to baseball. Dick Perez served as an artist for various projects at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum for 20 years, starting in 1981 The Plaque Gallery, the most recognizable site at the museum, contains induction plaques of all members. Since 2016, sculptor Tom Tsuchiya has been creating the bas-relief likeness plaques due to a commission from Matthews International. The Sandlot Kids Clubhouse has various interactive displays for young children. A theater area continually plays the popular Abbott and Costello routine "Who's on First?" Scribes and Mikemen honors BBWAA Career Excellence Award and Ford C. Frick Award winners with a photo display and has artifacts related to baseball writing and broadcasting. Floor-to-ceiling windows at the Scribes and Mikemen exhibit face an outdoor courtyard with statues of Johnny Podres and Roy Campanella (representing the Brooklyn Dodgers 1955 championship team), and an unnamed All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player. A Satchel Paige statue was unveiled and dedicated during the 2006 Induction Weekend. The Game is the major feature of the second floor. It is where the most artifacts are displayed. The Game is set up in a timeline format, starting with baseball's beginnings and culminating with the game we know today. There are several offshoots of this meandering timeline: Taking The Field (19th century baseball) Babe Ruth: His Life and Legend The Souls of the Game: Voices of Black Baseball (the Museum's newest permanent exhibit documenting pre-Negro leagues history through the present day) Diamond Dreams (women in baseball) ¡Viva Baseball! (a bilingual exhibit, in English and Spanish, that celebrates baseball in Latin America) Whole New Ballgame opened in 2015 and is located in the Janetschek Gallery. This exhibit completes the timeline of baseball through the last 45 years into the game we know today. It features environmental video walls and new interactive elements to go along with artifacts from the Museum's collection. The Today's Game exhibit holds objects donated to the Hall of Fame from the past year or two. ===Third floor=== Autumn Glory is devoted to post-season baseball and has, among other artifacts, a case of World Series rings from the 1900s to present. Hank Aaron: Chasing the Dream One for the Books tells the story of baseball's most cherished records through more than 200 artifacts. The exhibit allows fans to search records dating back through baseball history via an interactive Top Ten Tower while giving visitors a look at exciting moments throughout the years via a multimedia wall. BBWAA awards: Replicas of various awards distributed by the BBWAA at the end of each season, along with a list of past winners. A case dedicated to Ichiro Suzuki setting the major league record for base hits in a single season, with 262 in 2004, after George Sisler had held the record for 84 years with 257. An inductee database touch-screen computer with statistics for every inductee. Programs from every World Series. Sacred Ground is devoted entirely to ballparks and everything about them, especially the fan experience and the business of a ballpark. The centerpiece is a computer tour of three former ballparks: Boston's South End Grounds, Chicago's Comiskey Park, and Brooklyn's Ebbets Field. The Your Team Today exhibit is built like a baseball clubhouse, with 30 glass-enclosed locker stalls, one for each Major League franchise. In each stall there is a jersey and other items from the designated big league team, along with a brief team history. ==Notable events== ===1982 unauthorized sales=== A controversy erupted in 1982, when it emerged that some historic items given to the Hall had been sold on the collectibles market. The items had been lent to the Baseball Commissioner's office, gotten mixed up with other property owned by the Commissioner's office and employees of the office, and moved to the garage of Joe Reichler, an assistant to Commissioner Bowie Kuhn, who sold the items to resolve his personal financial difficulties. Under pressure from the New York Attorney General, the Commissioner's Office made reparations, but the negative publicity damaged the Hall of Fame's reputation, and made it more difficult for it to solicit donations. ===2014 commemorative coins=== In 2012, Congress passed and President Barack Obama signed a law ordering the United States Mint to produce and sell commemorative, non-circulating coins to benefit the private, non-profit Hall. The bill, , was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Rep. Richard Hanna, a Republican from New York, and passed the House on October 26, 2011. The coins, which depict baseball gloves and balls, are the first concave designs produced by the Mint. The mintage included 50,000 gold coins, 400,000 silver coins, and 750,000 clad (nickel-copper) coins. The Mint released them on March 27, 2014, and the gold and silver editions quickly sold out. The Hall receives money from surcharges included in the sale price: a total of $9.5 million if all the coins are sold.	[ "2005 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting", "1936 in sports", "Honus Wagner", "1969 World Series", "South End Grounds", "Sport (US magazine)", "AL MVP", "United States House of Representatives", "Nisei Baseball Research Project", "Federal League", "Great Depression", "New England", "1955 Brooklyn Dodgers season", "GovTrack", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Stephen Carlton Clark", "Abner Doubleday", "California Angels", "Reggie Jackson", "Roy Campanella", "Barack Obama", "Joe DiMaggio", "1986 World Series", "Roger Kahn", "Catfish Hunter", "Tampa Bay Devil Rays", "Satchel Paige", "2010 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting", "Roy Halladay", "Houston Astros", "1970 World Series", "Honor Rolls of Baseball", "Republican Party (United States)", "Randy Johnson", "baseball positions", "Bill James", "Negro Leagues Baseball Museum", "Negro league baseball", "Los Angeles Times", "Texas Rangers (baseball)", "Origins of baseball", "Cincinnati Reds", "Tony La Russa", "Baltimore Orioles", "Chicago White Sox", "Lou Gehrig", "Dave Winfield", "Sam Crane (second baseman)", "Charlie Finley", "Nolan Ryan", "1978 World Series", "Joe Cronin", "Randy Johnson's perfect game", "Dave Parker", "Gary Carter", "Award share", "Prohibition in the United States", "Bowie Kuhn", "Wade Boggs", "Black Sox Scandal", "Whatever Happened to the Hall of Fame?", "Oakland Athletics", "Hank Aaron", "Andre Dawson", "All-American Girls Professional Baseball League", "BBWAA Career Excellence Award", "Metonymy", "History of the Brooklyn Dodgers", "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis", "Johnny Podres", "Mike Mussina", "hops", "Larry Walker", "Baseball Writers' Association of America", "Hank Greenberg", "relief pitcher", "2008 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting", "Charlie Gehringer", "Ty Cobb", "1996 World Series", "history of baseball in the United States", "Ichiro Suzuki", "Babe Ruth", "Mike Schmidt", "Veterans Committee", "Tom Tsuchiya", "Richard L. Hanna", "Jimmie Foxx", "Walter Johnson", "Comiskey Park", "Carlton Fisk", "My Prison Without Bars", "Joe Gordon", "1975 World Series", "Ogden Nash", "Who's on First?", "Negro leagues", "ESPN.com", "Baseball Prospectus", "World Series", "Bob Feller Act of Valor Award", "Chicago Cubs", "Christy Mathewson", "Bob Howsam", "Vladimir Guerrero", "Roberto Alomar", "Bill Dickey", "San Diego Padres", "BBWAA", "museum", "The New Yorker", "Dick Perez", "Cooperstown, New York", "Ford C. Frick", "Shoeless Joe Jackson", "1919 World Series", "Mariano Rivera", "Sparky Anderson", "August Herrmann", "Abbott and Costello", "Major League Baseball All-Star Game", "2001 World Series", "Baseball Commissioner", "MLB.com", "Billy Wagner", "Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award", "Toronto Blue Jays", "Doubleday myth", "Matthews International", "1972 World Series", "National League (baseball)", "manager (baseball)", "Singer Sewing Machine Company", "Detroit Tigers", "Ford C. Frick Award", "List of Major League Baseball awards", "Montreal Expos", "Hartwick, New York", "2009 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting", "Major League Baseball", "Ted Simmons", "Marvin Miller", "Ted Bundy", "2003 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting", "Joe Reichler", "sports film", "1974 World Series", "Jane Forbes Clark", "CC Sabathia", "Great Recession", "Dale Petroskey", "Derek Jeter", "George Steinbrenner", "World Series ring", "Professional sports", "Roberto Clemente", "umpire (baseball)", "Greg Maddux", "Boston Braves (baseball)", "New York Mets", "Addie Joss", "1977 World Series", "Ebbets Field", "Pete Rose", "Philadelphia Phillies", "Dick Allen", "George Sisler", "New York Yankees", "United States Mint", "American Civil War", "hall of fame", "Effa Manley", "Boston Red Sox", "Frank Robinson", "List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame", "1973 World Series", "2007 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting" ]
4,079	BPP (complexity)	In computational complexity theory, a branch of computer science, bounded-error probabilistic polynomial time (BPP) is the class of decision problems solvable by a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time with an error probability bounded by 1/3 for all instances. BPP is one of the largest practical classes of problems, meaning most problems of interest in BPP have efficient probabilistic algorithms that can be run quickly on real modern machines. BPP also contains P, the class of problems solvable in polynomial time with a deterministic machine, since a deterministic machine is a special case of a probabilistic machine. Informally, a problem is in BPP if there is an algorithm for it that has the following properties: It is allowed to flip coins and make random decisions It is guaranteed to run in polynomial time On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/3 of giving the wrong answer, whether the answer is YES or NO. == Definition == A language L is in BPP if and only if there exists a probabilistic Turing machine M, such that M runs for polynomial time on all inputs For all x in L, M outputs 1 with probability greater than or equal to 2/3 For all x not in L, M outputs 1 with probability less than or equal to 1/3 Unlike the complexity class ZPP, the machine M is required to run for polynomial time on all inputs, regardless of the outcome of the random coin flips. Alternatively, BPP can be defined using only deterministic Turing machines. A language L is in BPP if and only if there exists a polynomial p and deterministic Turing machine M, such that M runs for polynomial time on all inputs For all x in L, the fraction of strings y of length p(\|x\|) which satisfy is greater than or equal to 2/3 For all x not in L, the fraction of strings y of length p(\|x\|) which satisfy is less than or equal to 1/3 In this definition, the string y corresponds to the output of the random coin flips that the probabilistic Turing machine would have made. For some applications this definition is preferable since it does not mention probabilistic Turing machines. In practice, an error probability of 1/3 might not be acceptable; however, the choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary. Modifying the definition to use any constant between 0 and 1/2 (exclusive) in place of 1/3 would not change the resulting set BPP. For example, if one defined the class with the restriction that the algorithm can be wrong with probability at most 1/2100, this would result in the same class of problems. The error probability does not even have to be constant: the same class of problems is defined by allowing error as high as 1/2 − n−c on the one hand, or requiring error as small as 2−nc on the other hand, where c is any positive constant, and n is the length of input. This flexibility in the choice of error probability is based on the idea of running an error-prone algorithm many times, and using the majority result of the runs to obtain a more accurate algorithm. The chance that the majority of the runs are wrong drops off exponentially as a consequence of the Chernoff bound. == Problems == All problems in P are obviously also in BPP. However, many problems have been known to be in BPP but not known to be in P. The number of such problems is decreasing, and it is conjectured that P = BPP. For a long time, one of the most famous problems known to be in BPP but not known to be in P was the problem of determining whether a given number is prime. However, in the 2002 paper PRIMES is in P, Manindra Agrawal and his students Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena found a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm for this problem, thus showing that it is in P. An important example of a problem in BPP (in fact in co-RP) still not known to be in P is polynomial identity testing, the problem of determining whether a polynomial is identically equal to the zero polynomial, when you have access to the value of the polynomial for any given input, but not to the coefficients. In other words, is there an assignment of values to the variables such that when a nonzero polynomial is evaluated on these values, the result is nonzero? It suffices to choose each variable's value uniformly at random from a finite subset of at least d values to achieve bounded error probability, where d is the total degree of the polynomial. == Related classes == If the access to randomness is removed from the definition of BPP, we get the complexity class P. In the definition of the class, if we replace the ordinary Turing machine with a quantum computer, we get the class BQP. Adding postselection to BPP, or allowing computation paths to have different lengths, gives the class BPPpath. BPPpath is known to contain NP, and it is contained in its quantum counterpart PostBQP. A Monte Carlo algorithm is a randomized algorithm which is likely to be correct. Problems in the class BPP have Monte Carlo algorithms with polynomial bounded running time. This is compared to a Las Vegas algorithm which is a randomized algorithm which either outputs the correct answer, or outputs "fail" with low probability. Las Vegas algorithms with polynomial bound running times are used to define the class ZPP. Alternatively, ZPP contains probabilistic algorithms that are always correct and have expected polynomial running time. This is weaker than saying it is a polynomial time algorithm, since it may run for super-polynomial time, but with very low probability. == Complexity-theoretic properties == It is known that BPP is closed under complement; that is, BPP = co-BPP. BPP is low for itself, meaning that a BPP machine with the power to solve BPP problems instantly (a BPP oracle machine) is not any more powerful than the machine without this extra power. In symbols, BPPBPP = BPP. The relationship between BPP and NP is unknown: it is not known whether BPP is a subset of NP, NP is a subset of BPP or neither. If NP is contained in BPP, which is considered unlikely since it would imply practical solutions for NP-complete problems, then NP = RP and PH ⊆ BPP. It is known that RP is a subset of BPP, and BPP is a subset of PP. It is not known whether those two are strict subsets, since we don't even know if P is a strict subset of PSPACE. BPP is contained in the second level of the polynomial hierarchy and therefore it is contained in PH. More precisely, the Sipser–Lautemann theorem states that \mathsf{BPP} \subseteq \Sigma_2 \cap \Pi_2 . As a result, P = NP leads to P = BPP since PH collapses to P in this case. Thus either P = BPP or P ≠ NP or both. Adleman's theorem states that membership in any language in BPP can be determined by a family of polynomial-size Boolean circuits, which means BPP is contained in P/poly. Indeed, as a consequence of the proof of this fact, every BPP algorithm operating on inputs of bounded length can be derandomized into a deterministic algorithm using a fixed string of random bits. Finding this string may be expensive, however. Some weak separation results for Monte Carlo time classes were proven by , see also . === Closure properties === The class BPP is closed under complementation, union and intersection. === Relativization === Relative to oracles, we know that there exist oracles A and B, such that PA = BPPA and PB ≠ BPPB. Moreover, relative to a random oracle with probability 1, P = BPP and BPP is strictly contained in NP and co-NP. There is even an oracle in which (and hence ), which can be iteratively constructed as follows. For a fixed ENP (relativized) complete problem, the oracle will give correct answers with high probability if queried with the problem instance followed by a random string of length kn (n is instance length; k is an appropriate small constant). Start with n=1. For every instance of the problem of length n fix oracle answers (see lemma below) to fix the instance output. Next, provide the instance outputs for queries consisting of the instance followed by kn-length string, and then treat output for queries of length ≤(k+1)n as fixed, and proceed with instances of length n+1. The lemma ensures that (for a large enough k), it is possible to do the construction while leaving enough strings for the relativized answers. Also, we can ensure that for the relativized , linear time suffices, even for function problems (if given a function oracle and linear output size) and with exponentially small (with linear exponent) error probability. Also, this construction is effective in that given an arbitrary oracle A we can arrange the oracle B to have and . Also, for a oracle (and hence ), one would fix the answers in the relativized E computation to a special nonanswer, thus ensuring that no fake answers are given. == Derandomization == The existence of certain strong pseudorandom number generators is conjectured by most experts of the field. Such generators could replace true random numbers in any polynomial-time randomized algorithm, producing indistinguishable results. The conjecture that these generators exist implies that randomness does not give additional computational power to polynomial time computation, that is, P = RP = BPP. More strongly, the assumption that P = BPP is in some sense equivalent to the existence of strong pseudorandom number generators. László Babai, Lance Fortnow, Noam Nisan, and Avi Wigderson showed that unless EXPTIME collapses to MA, BPP is contained in \textsf{i.o.-SUBEXP} = \bigcap\nolimits_{\varepsilon>0} \textsf{i.o.-DTIME} \left (2^{n^\varepsilon} \right). The class i.o.-SUBEXP, which stands for infinitely often SUBEXP, contains problems which have sub-exponential time algorithms for infinitely many input sizes. They also showed that P = BPP if the exponential-time hierarchy, which is defined in terms of the polynomial hierarchy and E as EPH, collapses to E; however, note that the exponential-time hierarchy is usually conjectured not to collapse. Russell Impagliazzo and Avi Wigderson showed that if any problem in E, where \mathsf{E} = \mathsf{DTIME} \left( 2^{O(n)} \right), has circuit complexity 2Ω(n) then P = BPP.	[ "decision problem", "prime number", "random oracle", "Noam Nisan", "Monte Carlo algorithm", "Russell Impagliazzo", "probabilistic Turing machine", "pseudorandom number generators", "primality test", "PH (complexity)", "Lance Fortnow", "sub-exponential time", "Chernoff bound", "computational complexity theory", "EXPTIME", "NP (complexity)", "probabilistic algorithm", "postselection", "Manindra Agrawal", "László Babai", "randomized algorithm", "quantum computer", "PostBQP", "P/poly", "List of complexity classes", "Simon Fraser University", "RP (complexity)", "Neeraj Kayal", "BQP", "Complement (complexity)", "E (complexity)", "mathematical constant", "low (complexity)", "polynomial hierarchy", "Avi Wigderson", "AKS primality test", "MA (complexity)", "Las Vegas algorithm", "Boolean circuit", "ZPP (complexity)", "subset", "polynomial identity testing", "PP (complexity)", "Adleman's theorem", "P (complexity)", "exponential decay", "NP-complete", "PSPACE", "Turing machine", "co-NP", "polynomial time", "oracle machine", "Nitin Saxena", "Sipser–Lautemann theorem", "conjecture", "probability" ]
4,080	BQP	In computational complexity theory, bounded-error quantum polynomial time (BQP) is the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances. It is the quantum analogue to the complexity class BPP. A decision problem is a member of BQP if there exists a quantum algorithm (an algorithm that runs on a quantum computer) that solves the decision problem with high probability and is guaranteed to run in polynomial time. A run of the algorithm will correctly solve the decision problem with a probability of at least 2/3. ==Definition== BQP can be viewed as the languages associated with certain bounded-error uniform families of quantum circuits. Similarly to other "bounded error" probabilistic classes, the choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary. We can run the algorithm a constant number of times and take a majority vote to achieve any desired probability of correctness less than 1, using the Chernoff bound. The complexity class is unchanged by allowing error as high as 1/2 − n−c on the one hand, or requiring error as small as 2−nc on the other hand, where c is any positive constant, and n is the length of input. == Relationship to other complexity classes == thumb\|The suspected relationship of BQP to other problem spaces [[PP (complexity)\|PP and PSPACE. which showed that, relative to an oracle, BQP was not contained in PH. It can be proven that there exists an oracle A such that \mathsf{BQP}^\mathrm{A}\nsubseteq\mathsf{PH}^\mathrm{A}. Adding postselection to BQP results in the complexity class PostBQP which is equal to PP. === A complete problem for Promise-BQP === Promise-BQP is the class of promise problems that can be solved by a uniform family of quantum circuits (i.e., within BQP). Completeness proofs focus on this version of BQP. Similar to the notion of NP-completeness and other complete problems, we can define a complete problem as a problem that is in Promise-BQP and that every other problem in Promise-BQP reduces to it in polynomial time. ==== APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB ==== The APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB problem is complete for efficient quantum computation, and the version presented below is complete for the Promise-BQP complexity class (and not for the total BQP complexity class, for which no complete problems are known). APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB's completeness makes it useful for proofs showing the relationships between other complexity classes and BQP. Given a description of a quantum circuit acting on qubits with gates, where is a polynomial in and each gate acts on one or two qubits, and two numbers \alpha, \beta \in [0,1], \alpha > \beta, distinguish between the following two cases: measuring the first qubit of the state C\|0\rangle^{\otimes n} yields \|1\rangle with probability \geq \alpha measuring the first qubit of the state C\|0\rangle^{\otimes n} yields \|1\rangle with probability \leq \beta Here, there is a promise on the inputs as the problem does not specify the behavior if an instance is not covered by these two cases. Claim. Any BQP problem reduces to APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB. Proof. Suppose we have an algorithm that solves APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB, i.e., given a quantum circuit acting on qubits, and two numbers \alpha, \beta \in [0,1], \alpha > \beta, distinguishes between the above two cases. We can solve any problem in BQP with this oracle, by setting \alpha = 2/3, \beta = 1/3. For any L \in \mathsf{BQP} , there exists family of quantum circuits \{Q_n\colon n \in \mathbb{N}\} such that for all n \in \mathbb{N}, a state \|x\rangle of n qubits, if x \in L, Pr(Q_n(\|x\rangle)=1) \geq 2/3; else if x \notin L, Pr(Q_n(\|x\rangle)=0) \geq 2/3 . Fix an input \|x\rangle of qubits, and the corresponding quantum circuit Q_n. We can first construct a circuit C_x such that C_x\|0\rangle^{\otimes n} = \|x\rangle. This can be done easily by hardwiring \|x\rangle and apply a sequence of CNOT gates to flip the qubits. Then we can combine two circuits to get C' = Q_nC_x, and now C'\|0\rangle^{\otimes n} = Q_n\|x\rangle. And finally, necessarily the results of Q_n is obtained by measuring several qubits and apply some (classical) logic gates to them. We can always defer the measurement and reroute the circuits so that by measuring the first qubit of C'\|0\rangle^{\otimes n} = Q_n\|x\rangle, we get the output. This will be our circuit , and we decide the membership of x \in L by running A(C) with \alpha = 2/3, \beta = 1/3. By definition of BQP, we will either fall into the first case (acceptance), or the second case (rejection), so L \in \mathsf{BQP} reduces to APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB. === BQP and EXP === We begin with an easier containment. To show that \mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{EXP}, it suffices to show that APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB is in EXP since APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB is BQP-complete. Note that this algorithm also requires 2^{O(n)} space to store the vectors and the matrices. We will show in the following section that we can improve upon the space complexity. === BQP and PSPACE === Sum of histories is a technique introduced by physicist Richard Feynman for path integral formulation. APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB can be formulated in the sum of histories technique to show that \mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{PSPACE}. Consider a quantum circuit , which consists of gates, g_1, g_2, \cdots, g_m, where each g_j comes from a universal gate set and acts on at most two qubits. To understand what the sum of histories is, we visualize the evolution of a quantum state given a quantum circuit as a tree. The root is the input \|0\rangle^{\otimes n}, and each node in the tree has 2^n children, each representing a state in \mathbb C^n. The weight on a tree edge from a node in -th level representing a state \|x\rangle to a node in j+1-th level representing a state \|y\rangle is \langle y\|g_{j+1}\|x\rangle, the amplitude of \|y\rangle after applying g_{j+1} on \|x\rangle. The transition amplitude of a root-to-leaf path is the product of all the weights on the edges along the path. To get the probability of the final state being \|\psi\rangle, we sum up the amplitudes of all root-to-leave paths that ends at a node representing \|\psi\rangle. More formally, for the quantum circuit , its sum over histories tree is a tree of depth , with one level for each gate g_i in addition to the root, and with branching factor 2^n. Notice in the sum over histories algorithm to compute some amplitude \alpha_x, only one history is stored at any point in the computation. Hence, the sum over histories algorithm uses O(nm) space to compute \alpha_x for any since O(nm) bits are needed to store the histories in addition to some workspace variables. Therefore, in polynomial space, we may compute \sum_x \|\alpha_x\|^2 over all with the first qubit being , which is the probability that the first qubit is measured to be 1 by the end of the circuit. Notice that compared with the simulation given for the proof that \mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{EXP}, our algorithm here takes far less space but far more time instead. In fact it takes O(m\cdot 2^{mn} ) time to calculate a single amplitude! === BQP and PP === A similar sum-over-histories argument can be used to show that \mathsf{BQP} \subseteq \mathsf{PP}. === P and BQP === We know \mathsf{P} \subseteq \mathsf{BQP} , since every classical circuit can be simulated by a quantum circuit. It is conjectured that BQP solves hard problems outside of P, specifically, problems in NP. The claim is indefinite because we don't know if P=NP, so we don't know if those problems are actually in P. Below are some evidence of the conjecture: Integer factorization (see Shor's algorithm) Discrete logarithm Simulation of quantum systems (see universal quantum simulator) Approximating the Jones polynomial at certain roots of unity Harrow-Hassidim-Lloyd (HHL) algorithm	[ "Almost Wide Probabilistic Polynomial-Time", "algorithm", "P versus NP problem", "quantum algorithm", "Stanford University", "HHL algorithm", "probabilistic Turing machine", "Ran Raz", "Chernoff bound", "computational complexity theory", "NP-completeness", "NP (complexity)", "quantum Turing machine", "promise problem", "quantum circuit", "Oracle machine", "QMA", "complexity class", "postselection", "Quantum complexity theory", "Princeton University", "Richard Feynman", "BPP (complexity)", "quantum computer", "PostBQP", "QIP (complexity)", "Controlled NOT gate", "RP (complexity)", "Integer factorization", "Bounded-error probabilistic polynomial", "universal quantum simulator", "low (complexity)", "Jones polynomial", "Hidden subgroup problem", "polynomial hierarchy", "Shor's algorithm", "Circuit complexity", "PP (complexity)", "P (complexity)", "Discrete logarithm", "Deferred Measurement Principle", "PSPACE", "Polynomial hierarchy", "Quantum logic gate", "decision problems", "polynomial time", "with high probability", "path integral formulation", "Language (computability)", "complete (complexity)", "IP (complexity)" ]
4,082	Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human	Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (1995) is a science fiction novel by American writer K. W. Jeter. It is a continuation of both the film Blade Runner and the novel upon which the film was based, Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? ==Plot== Several months after the events depicted in Blade Runner, Deckard has retired to an isolated shack outside the city, taking the replicant Rachael with him in a Tyrell transport container, which slows down the replicant aging process. He is approached by a woman who explains she is Sarah Tyrell, niece of Eldon Tyrell, heiress to the Tyrell Corporation and the human template ("templant") for the Rachael replicant. She asks Deckard to hunt down the "missing" sixth replicant. At the same time, the templant for Roy Batty hires Dave Holden, the blade runner attacked by Leon, to help him hunt down the man he believes is the sixth replicant—Deckard. Deckard and Holden's investigations lead them to re-visit Sebastian, Bryant, and John Isidore (from the book Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?), learning more about the nature of the blade runners and the replicants. When Deckard, Batty, and Holden finally clash, Batty's super-human fighting prowess leads Holden to believe he has been duped all along and that Batty is the sixth replicant, leading to Holden shooting him. Deckard returns to Sarah with his suspicion: there is no sixth replicant. Sarah, speaking via a remote camera, confesses that she invented and maintained the rumor herself in order to deliberately discredit and eventually destroy the Tyrell Corporation because her uncle Eldon had based Rachel on her and then abandoned the real Sarah. Sarah brings Rachael back to the Corporation to meet with Deckard, and they escape. However, Holden, recovering from his injuries during the fight, later uncovers the truth: Rachael has been killed by Tyrell agents, and the "Rachael" who escaped with Deckard was actually Sarah. She has completed her revenge by both destroying Tyrell and taking back Rachael's place. ==Characters== Rick Deckard: The Tyrell Corporation finally locates him, residing at a cabin in the woods with the frozen Rachael. In exchange for getting Rachael back, Deckard agrees to hunt the missing sixth replicant. Roy Batty: The man which Tyrell used as the template for his combat replicants is in fact a man of considerable instability, suffering from a brain disorder that prevents him from experiencing fear. Sarah Tyrell: The niece of Eldon Tyrell, Sarah locates and hires Deckard to eliminate the final replicant in order to retain her corporation's hold over the market. Dave Holden: Starting off bed-ridden after his attack by the replicant Leon, Holden is rescued by Roy who in turn leads him to some startling revelations. J.R. Isidore: A lowly employee of a vet's office, Isidore also works as an underground replicant sympathizer, having made modifications to replicants in order to help them escape detection. ==Relationship to other works== The book's plot draws from other material related to Blade Runner in a number of ways: Deckard, Pris, Sebastian, Leon, Batty, and Holden all appeared in Blade Runner. Many of the parts of the "conspiracy" are based on errors or plot holes identified by fans of the original movie, such as Leon's ability to bring a gun into the Tyrell building, or the reference to the sixth replicant. The character of John Isidore, and his "pet hospital", is taken from Dick's original novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, although that book contained no suggestion that the shop ran a sideline in modifying replicants. Blade Runner's Sebastian was based on Electric Sheep's Isidore, though Jeter features them as separate characters in The Edge of Human. The idea of replicant models being mass-produced, and in particular a woman identical to Rachael existing, is also from Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?; although in that book, Pris was the replicant double of Rachael, and there was no suggestion that replicants were constructed based on human templates. The etymology of the term "blade runner" is revealed to come from the German phrase bleib ruhig, meaning "remain calm." It was supposedly developed by the Tyrell Corporation to prevent news about replicants malfunctioning. However, it also contradicts material in some ways: Sebastian was stated as being dead in the movie, yet he is alive in The Edge of Human. Pris was clearly stated as being a replicant in both the movie and the original novel, yet The Edge of Human claims she was human. Pris was clearly destroyed by Deckard in both the movie and the original novel. Sebastian's ability to bring Pris back to life as a replicant introduces numerous problems: the book implies that Sebastian was able to do this without realising that her original body was human. It is likewise unclear why Deckard would have left her, or any suspected replicant he retired, in a state from which they could be repaired. "The Final Cut" of Blade Runner removed the reference of a surviving sixth replicant, as it was normally considered a leftover from an early script. ==Reception== Michael Giltz of Entertainment Weekly gave the book a "C−", feeling that "only hardcore fans will be satisfied by this tale" and saying Jeter's "habit of echoing dialogue and scenes from the film is annoying and begs comparisons he would do well to avoid." Tal Cohen of Tal Cohen's Bookshelf called The Edge of Human "a good book", praising Jeter's "further, and deeper, investigation of the questions Philip K. Dick originally asked", but criticized the book for its "needless grandioseness" and for "rel[ying] on Blade Runner too heavily, [as] the number of new characters introduced is extremely small..." Ian Kaplan of BearCave.com gave the book three stars out of five, saying that while he was "not entirely satisfied" and felt that the "story tends to be shallow", "Jeter does deal with the moral dilemma of the Blade Runners who hunt down beings that are virtually human in every way." J. Patton of The Bent Cover praised Jeter for "[not] try[ing] to emulate Philip K. Dick", adding, "This book also has all the grittiness and dark edges that the movie showed off so well, along with a very fast pace that will keep you reading into the wee hours of the night." ==Failed film adaptation== In the late 1990s, Edge of Human had been adapted into a screenplay by Stuart Hazeldine, Blade Runner Down, that was to be filmed as the sequel to the 1982 film Blade Runner. Ultimately neither this script nor the Jeter novel were used for the eventual sequel, Blade Runner 2049, which follows a different story.	[ "Hardcover", "Orion books", "Science fiction", "science fiction", "K. W. Jeter", "Paperback", "Bantam Books", "Stuart Hazeldine", "Blade Runner", "Blade Runner 2049", "Blade Runner: Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "Blade Runner (franchise)", "Blade Runner 1: A Story of the Future", "Philip K. Dick", "Entertainment Weekly", "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon", "Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night" ]
4,086	Brainfuck	Brainfuck is an esoteric programming language created in 1993 by Swiss student Urban Müller. Designed to be extremely minimalistic, the language consists of only eight simple commands, a data pointer, and an instruction pointer. Brainfuck is an example of a so-called Turing tarpit: it can be used to write any program, but it is not practical to do so because it provides so little abstraction that the programs get very long or complicated. While Brainfuck is fully Turing-complete, it is not intended for practical use but to challenge and amuse programmers. Brainfuck requires one to break down commands into small and simple instructions. The language takes its name from the slang term brainfuck, which refers to things so complicated or unusual that they exceed the limits of one's understanding, as it was not meant or made for designing actual software but to challenge the boundaries of computer programming. Because the language's name contains profanity, many substitutes are used, such as brainfsck, branflakes, brainoof, brainfrick, BrainF, and BF. == History == Müller designed Brainfuck with the goal of implementing the smallest possible compiler, inspired by the 1024-byte compiler for the FALSE programming language. Müller's original compiler was implemented in Motorola 68000 assembly on the Amiga and compiled to a binary with a size of 296 bytes. He uploaded the first Brainfuck compiler to Aminet in 1993. The program came with a "Readme" file, which briefly described the language, and challenged the reader "Who can program anything useful with it? :)". Müller also included an interpreter and some examples. A second version of the compiler used only 240 bytes. == Language design == The language consists of eight commands. A brainfuck program is a sequence of these commands, possibly interspersed with other characters (which are ignored). The commands are executed sequentially, with some exceptions: an instruction pointer begins at the first command, and each command it points to is executed, after which it normally moves forward to the next command. The program terminates when the instruction pointer moves past the last command. The brainfuck language uses a simple machine model consisting of the program and instruction pointer, as well as a one-dimensional array of at least 30,000 byte cells initialized to zero; a movable data pointer (initialized to point to the leftmost byte of the array); and two streams of bytes for input and output (most often connected to a keyboard and a monitor respectively, and using the ASCII character encoding). The eight language commands each consist of a single character: [ and ] match as parentheses usually do: each [ matches exactly one ] and vice versa, the [ comes first, and there can be no unmatched [ or ] between the two. Brainfuck programs are usually difficult to comprehend. This is partly because any mildly complex task requires a long sequence of commands and partly because the program's text gives no direct indications of the program's state. These, as well as Brainfuck's inefficiency and its limited input/output capabilities, are some of the reasons it is not used for serious programming. Nonetheless, like any Turing-complete language, Brainfuck is theoretically capable of computing any computable function or simulating any other computational model if given access to an unlimited amount of memory and time. A variety of Brainfuck programs have been written. Although Brainfuck programs, especially complicated ones, are difficult to write, it is quite trivial to write an interpreter for Brainfuck in a more typical language such as C due to its simplicity. Brainfuck interpreters written in the Brainfuck language itself also exist. == Examples == === Adding two values === As a first, simple example, the following code snippet will add the current cell's value to the next cell: Each time the loop is executed, the current cell is decremented, the data pointer moves to the right, that next cell is incremented, and the data pointer moves left again. This sequence is repeated until the starting cell is 0. [->+<] This can be incorporated into a simple addition program as follows: ++ Cell c0 = 2 > +++++ Cell c1 = 5 [ Start your loops with your cell pointer on the loop counter (c1 in our case) < + Add 1 to c0 > - Subtract 1 from c1 ] End your loops with the cell pointer on the loop counter At this point our program has added 5 to 2 leaving 7 in c0 and 0 in c1 but we cannot output this value to the terminal since it is not ASCII encoded To display the ASCII character "7" we must add 48 to the value 7 We use a loop to compute 48 = 6 * 8 ++++ ++++ c1 = 8 and this will be our loop counter again [ < +++ +++ Add 6 to c0 > - Subtract 1 from c1 ] < . Print out c0 which has the value 55 which translates to "7"! === Hello World! === The following program prints "Hello World!" and a newline to the screen: [ This program prints "Hello World!" and a newline to the screen; its length is 106 active command characters. [It is not the shortest.] This loop is an "initial comment loop", a simple way of adding a comment to a BF program such that you don't have to worry about any command characters. Any ".", ",", "+", "-", "<" and ">" characters are simply ignored, the "[" and "]" characters just have to be balanced. This loop and the commands it contains are ignored because the current cell defaults to a value of 0; the 0 value causes this loop to be skipped. ] ++++++++ Set Cell #0 to 8 [ >++++ Add 4 to Cell #1; this will always set Cell #1 to 4 [ as the cell will be cleared by the loop >++ Add 2 to Cell #2 >+++ Add 3 to Cell #3 >+++ Add 3 to Cell #4 >+ Add 1 to Cell #5 <<<<- Decrement the loop counter in Cell #1 ] Loop until Cell #1 is zero; number of iterations is 4 >+ Add 1 to Cell #2 >+ Add 1 to Cell #3 >- Subtract 1 from Cell #4 >>+ Add 1 to Cell #6 [<] Move back to the first zero cell you find; this will be Cell #1 which was cleared by the previous loop <- Decrement the loop Counter in Cell #0 ] Loop until Cell #0 is zero; number of iterations is 8 The result of this is: Cell no : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Contents: 0 0 72 104 88 32 8 Pointer : ^ >>. Cell #2 has value 72 which is 'H' >---. Subtract 3 from Cell #3 to get 101 which is 'e' +++++++..+++. Likewise for 'llo' from Cell #3 >>. Cell #5 is 32 for the space <-. Subtract 1 from Cell #4 for 87 to give a 'W' <. Cell #3 was set to 'o' from the end of 'Hello' +++.------.--------. Cell #3 for 'rl' and 'd' >>+. Add 1 to Cell #5 gives us an exclamation point >++. And finally a newline from Cell #6 For readability, this code has been spread across many lines, and blanks and comments have been added. Brainfuck ignores all characters except the eight commands +-[],. so no special syntax for comments is needed (as long as the comments do not contain the command characters). The code could just as well have been written as: ++++++++[>++++[>++>+++>+++>+<<<<-]>+>+>->>+[<]<-]>>.>---.+++++++..+++.>>.<-.<.+++.------.--------.>>+.>++. === ROT13 === This program enciphers its input with the ROT13 cipher. To do this, it must map characters A-M (ASCII 65–77) to N-Z (78–90), and vice versa. Also it must map a-m (97–109) to n-z (110–122) and vice versa. It must map all other characters to themselves; it reads characters one at a time and outputs their enciphered equivalents until it reads an EOF (here assumed to be represented as either -1 or "no change"), at which point the program terminates. -,+[ Read first character and start outer character reading loop -[ Skip forward if character is 0 >>++++[>++++++++<-] Set up divisor (32) for division loop (MEMORY LAYOUT: dividend copy remainder divisor quotient zero zero) <+<-[ Set up dividend (x minus 1) and enter division loop >+>+>-[>>>] Increase copy and remainder / reduce divisor / Normal case: skip forward <[[>+<-]>>+>] Special case: move remainder back to divisor and increase quotient <<<<<- Decrement dividend ] End division loop ]>>>[-]+ End skip loop; zero former divisor and reuse space for a flag >--[-[<->+++[-]]]<[ Zero that flag unless quotient was 2 or 3; zero quotient; check flag ++++++++++++<[ If flag then set up divisor (13) for second division loop (MEMORY LAYOUT: zero copy dividend divisor remainder quotient zero zero) >-[>+>>] Reduce divisor; Normal case: increase remainder >[+[<+>-]>+>>] Special case: increase remainder / move it back to divisor / increase quotient <<<<<- Decrease dividend ] End division loop >>[<+>-] Add remainder back to divisor to get a useful 13 >[ Skip forward if quotient was 0 -[ Decrement quotient and skip forward if quotient was 1 -<<[-]>> Zero quotient and divisor if quotient was 2 ]<<[<<->>-]>> Zero divisor and subtract 13 from copy if quotient was 1 ]<<[<<+>>-] Zero divisor and add 13 to copy if quotient was 0 ] End outer skip loop (jump to here if ((character minus 1)/32) was not 2 or 3) <[-] Clear remainder from first division if second division was skipped <.[-] Output ROT13ed character from copy and clear it <-,+ Read next character ] End character reading loop === Simulation of abiogenesis === In 2024, a Google research project used a slightly modified 10-command version of Brainfuck as the basis of an artificial digital environment. In this environment, they found that replicators arose naturally and competed with each other for domination of the environment.	[ "wikt:brainfuck", "instruction pointer", "Turing completeness", "Aminet", "Turing tarpit", "Esoteric programming language", "JSFuck", "esoteric programming language", "Program Counter", "Branch (computer science)", "Amiga", "byte", "ROT13", "Program counter", "state (computer science)", "P′′", "data pointer", "ASCII", "computer programming", "Imperative programming", "compiler", "Structured programming", "Assembly language", "Hello world program", "programmers", "command (computing)", "JavaScript", "Malbolge", "pointer (computer programming)", "README", "profanity", "Binary file", "Motorola 68000" ]
4,091	Bartolomeo Ammannati	Bartolomeo Ammannati (18 June 1511 – 13 April 1592) was an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Settignano, near Florence, Italy. He studied under Baccio Bandinelli and Jacopo Sansovino (assisting on the design of the Library of St. Mark's, the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice) and closely imitated the style of Michelangelo. Ammannati continued work on this fountain for a decade, adding around the perimeter a cornucopia of demigod figures: bronze reclining river gods, laughing satyrs and marble sea horses emerging from the water. In 1550 Ammannati married Laura Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman. Later in his life he had a religious crisis, influenced by Counter-Reformation piety, which resulted in condemning his own works depicting nudity, and he left all his possessions to the Jesuits. He died in Florence in 1592. ==Works== Victory (1540), marble, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence Leda with the Swan, marble, also in Bargello, Florence Venus (1558–59), marble, Prado Museum, Madrid Parnassus (1563), marble, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence Allegory of Winter (1563–65), stone, Villa Medici, Castello Goddess Opi (1572–75), bronze, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence ==Gallery== File:Pigna - Collegio romano 1080166.JPG\|The Jesuit College in Rome, 1582–1584, was one of Ammannati's later designs. File:Venus by Baccio Bandinelli (Prado, E-171) 01.jpg\|Venus, a variation on the classical type known as Venus Pudica. However, the arms are the result of an 18th-century restoration, as the original had the arms cut off in order to allow water to flow out. File:Bartolomeo ammannati (attr.), vasca con arme busdraghi e dragone, 04.JPG\|Dragon File:Parco di Castello, fontana del Gennaio 1.JPG\|Parco di Villa Reale di Castello (Villa di Castello), Fountain of January (Fontana del Gennaio) in Florence, Italy File:Da bartolomeo ammannati, giustizia, firenze tardo 16mo secolo.JPG\|Justice File:Cristo e la cananea di Alessandro Allori detail.jpg\|Christ and Canaanite woman by Alessandro Allori. Commissioned by Ammannati for funeral of his wife poet Laura Battiferri (painted as old woman with the book).	[ "Roman College", "Alessandro Allori", "Ponte Santa Trinita", "Biblioteca Marciana", "Bargello", "Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany", "nudity", "Vincenzo Danti", "Aphrodite of Knidos", "Madrid", "Villa Medici", "Settignano", "Venus (mythology)", "Lucca", "Mannerism", "Baccio Bandinelli", "Museo del Prado", "Accademia delle Arti del Disegno", "Jesuits", "Laura Battiferri", "Sculpture", "Florence", "Piazza della Signoria", "Palazzo Vecchio", "Giambologna", "Fountain of Neptune, Florence", "Counter-Reformation", "satyr", "Michelangelo", "Jacopo Sansovino", "Benvenuto Cellini", "Giorgio Vasari", "Palazzo Pitti", "Villa Giulia", "Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola", "Rome", "Leda (mythology)" ]
4,092	Bishop	A bishop is an ordained member of the clergy who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance and administration of dioceses. The role or office of the bishop is called episcopacy or the episcopate. Organizationally, several Christian denominations utilize ecclesiastical structures that call for the position of bishops, while other denominations have dispensed with this office, seeing it as a symbol of power. Bishops have also exercised political authority within their dioceses. Traditionally, bishops claim apostolic succession, a direct historical lineage dating back to the original Twelve Apostles or Saint Paul. The bishops are by doctrine understood as those who possess the full priesthood given by Jesus Christ, and therefore may ordain other clergy, including other bishops. A person ordained as a deacon, priest (i.e. presbyter), and then bishop is understood to hold the fullness of the ministerial priesthood, given responsibility by Christ to govern, teach and sanctify the Body of Christ (the Church). Priests, deacons and lay ministers co-operate and assist their bishops in pastoral ministry. Some Pentecostal and other Protestant denominations have bishops who oversee congregations, though they do not necessarily claim apostolic succession. == Etymology and terminology == The English word bishop derives, via Latin , Old English , and Middle English , from the Greek word , meaning "overseer" or "supervisor". Greek was the language of the early Christian church, The English words priest and presbyter both derive, via Latin, from the Greek word , meaning "elder" or "senior", and not originally referring to priesthood. In the early Christian era the two terms were not always clearly distinguished, but is used in the sense of the order or office of bishop, distinct from that of , in the writings attributed to Ignatius of Antioch in the second century. == History in Christianity == The earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters (). In Acts 11:30 and Acts 15:22, a collegiate system of government in Jerusalem is chaired by James the Just, according to tradition the first bishop of the city. In Acts 14:23, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia. The word presbyter was not yet distinguished from overseer (, later used exclusively to mean bishop), as in Acts 20:17, Titus 1:5–7 and 1 Peter 5:1. The earliest writings of the Apostolic Fathers, the Didache and the First Epistle of Clement, for example, show the church used two terms for local church offices—presbyters (seen by many as an interchangeable term with or overseer) and deacon. In the First epistle to Timothy and Epistle to Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. Both letters state that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church. Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight. Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches. Eventually the head or "monarchic" bishop came to rule more clearly, and all local churches would eventually follow the example of the other churches and structure themselves after the model of the others with the one bishop in clearer charge, though the role of the body of presbyters remained important. === Apostolic Fathers === Around the end of the 1st century, the church's organization became clearer in historical documents. In the works of the Apostolic Fathers, and Ignatius of Antioch in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important or, rather, already was very important and being clearly defined. While Ignatius of Antioch offers the earliest clear description of monarchial bishops (a single bishop over all house churches in a city) he is an advocate of monepiscopal structure rather than describing an accepted reality. To the bishops and house churches to which he writes, he offers strategies on how to pressure house churches who do not recognize the bishop into compliance. Other contemporary Christian writers do not describe monarchial bishops, either continuing to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of (bishops, plural) in a city. Clement of Alexandria (end of the 2nd century) writes about the ordination of a certain Zachæus as bishop by the imposition of Simon Peter Bar-Jonah's hands. The words bishop and ordination are used in their technical meaning by the same Clement of Alexandria. The bishops in the 2nd century are defined also as the only clergy to whom the ordination to priesthood (presbyterate) and diaconate is entrusted: "a priest (presbyter) lays on hands, but does not ordain." (). At the beginning of the 3rd century, Hippolytus of Rome describes another feature of the ministry of a bishop, which is that of the : the primate of sacrificial priesthood and the power to forgive sins. == Christian bishops and civil government == The efficient organization of the Roman Empire became the template for the organisation of the church in the 4th century, particularly after Constantine's Edict of Milan. As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy. In 391, Theodosius I decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned. The most usual term for the geographic area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the diocese, began as part of the structure of the Roman Empire under Diocletian. As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration. This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two popes: Pope Leo I in the 5th century, and Pope Gregory I in the 6th century. Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders. In the Eastern churches, latifundia entailed to a bishop's see were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring civil power was much weaker than in the West. However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called prince bishops, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages. === Bishops holding political office === As well as being Archchancellors of the Holy Roman Empire after the 9th century, bishops generally served as chancellors to medieval monarchs, acting as head of the justiciary and chief chaplain. The Lord Chancellor of England was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey by Henry VIII. Similarly, the position of Kanclerz in the Polish kingdom was always held by a bishop until the 16th century. In modern times, the principality of Andorra is headed by Co-Princes of Andorra, one of whom is the Bishop of Urgell and the other, the sitting President of France, an arrangement that began with the Paréage of Andorra (1278), and was ratified in the 1993 constitution of Andorra. The office of the Papacy is inherently held by the sitting Roman Catholic Bishop of Rome. Though not originally intended to hold temporal authority, since the Middle Ages the power of the Papacy gradually expanded deep into the secular realm and for centuries the sitting Bishop of Rome was the most powerful governmental office in Central Italy. In modern times, the Pope is also the sovereign Prince of Vatican City, an internationally recognized micro-state located entirely within the city of Rome. In France, prior to the Revolution, representatives of the clergy — in practice, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries — comprised the First Estate of the Estates-General. This role was abolished after separation of Church and State was implemented during the French Revolution. In the 21st century, the more senior bishops of the Church of England continue to sit in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as representatives of the established church, and are known as Lords Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man, whose diocese lies outside the United Kingdom, is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man. In the past, the Bishop of Durham had extensive vice-regal powers within his northern diocese, which was a county palatine, the County Palatine of Durham, (previously, Liberty of Durham) of which he was ex officio the earl. In the 19th century, a gradual process of reform was enacted, with the majority of the bishop's historic powers vested in The Crown by 1858. Eastern Orthodox bishops, along with all other members of the clergy, are canonically forbidden to hold political office. Occasional exceptions to this rule are tolerated when the alternative is political chaos. In the Ottoman Empire, the Patriarch of Constantinople, for example, had de facto administrative, cultural and legal jurisdiction, as well as spiritual authority, over all Eastern Orthodox Christians of the empire, as part of the Ottoman millet system. An Orthodox bishop headed the Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro from 1516 to 1852, assisted by a secular guvernadur. More recently, Archbishop Makarios III of Cyprus, served as President of the Cyprus from 1960 to 1977, an extremely turbulent time period on the island. In 2001, Peter Hollingworth, AC, OBE – then the Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane – was controversially appointed Governor-General of Australia. Although Hollingworth gave up his episcopal position to accept the appointment, it still attracted considerable opposition in a country which maintains a formal separation between Church and State. === Episcopacy during the English Civil War === During the period of the English Civil War, the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy. Presbyterianism was the polity of most Reformed Christianity in Europe, and had been favored by many in England since the English Reformation. Since in the primitive church the offices of presbyter and were not clearly distinguished, many Puritans held that this was the only form of government the church should have. The Anglican divine, Richard Hooker, objected to this claim in his famous work Of the Laws of Ecclesiastic Polity while, at the same time, defending Presbyterian ordination as valid (in particular Calvin's ordination of Beza). This was the official stance of the English Church until the Commonwealth, during which time, the views of Presbyterians and Independents (Congregationalists) were more freely expressed and practiced. == Christian churches == === Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican churches === Bishops form the leadership in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, certain Lutheran churches, the Anglican Communion, the Independent Catholic churches, the Independent Anglican churches, and certain other, smaller, denominations. The traditional role of a bishop is as pastor of a diocese (also called a bishopric, synod, eparchy or see), and so to serve as a "diocesan bishop", or "eparch" as it is called in many Eastern Christian churches. Dioceses vary considerably in size, geographically and population-wise. Some dioceses around the Mediterranean Sea which were Christianised early are rather compact, whereas dioceses in areas of rapid modern growth in Christian commitment—as in some parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, South America and the Far East—are much larger and more populous. As well as traditional diocesan bishops, many churches have a well-developed structure of church leadership that involves a number of layers of authority and responsibility. ==== Duties ==== In Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, High Church Lutheranism, and Anglicanism, only a bishop can ordain other bishops, priests, and deacons. In the Eastern liturgical tradition, a priest can celebrate the Divine Liturgy only with the blessing of a bishop. In Byzantine usage, an antimension signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose omophorion the priest at a local parish is serving. In Syriac Church usage, a consecrated wooden block called a thabilitho is kept for the same reasons. The bishop is the ordinary minister of the sacrament of confirmation in the Latin Church, and in the Old Catholic communion only a bishop may administer this sacrament. In the Lutheran and Anglican churches, the bishop normatively administers the rite of confirmation, although in those denominations that do not have an episcopal polity, confirmation is administered by the priest. However, in the Byzantine and other Eastern rites, whether Eastern or Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Catholic, chrismation is done immediately after baptism, and thus the priest is the one who confirms, using chrism blessed by a bishop. ==== Ordination of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican bishops ==== Bishops in all of these communions are ordained by other bishops through the laying on of hands. Ordination of a bishop, and thus continuation of apostolic succession, takes place through a ritual centred on the imposition of hands and prayer. Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Old Catholic and some Lutheran bishops claim to be part of the continuous sequence of ordained bishops since the days of the apostles referred to as apostolic succession. In Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Lutheran churches participating in the Porvoo Communion (those of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania), as well as many non-Porvoo membership Lutheran churches (including those of Kenya, Latvia, and Russia), as well as the confessional Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses, believe that they ordain their bishops in the apostolic succession in lines stemming from the original apostles. The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History states that "In Sweden the apostolic succession was preserved because the Catholic bishops were allowed to stay in office, but they had to approve changes in the ceremonies." ===== Peculiar to the Catholic Church ===== While traditional teaching maintains that any bishop with apostolic succession can validly perform the ordination of another bishop, some churches require two or three bishops participate, either to ensure sacramental validity or to conform with church law. Catholic doctrine holds that one bishop can validly ordain another (priest) as a bishop. Though a minimum of three bishops participating is desirable (there are usually several more) in order to demonstrate collegiality, canonically only one bishop is necessary. The practice of only one bishop ordaining was normal in countries where the church was persecuted under Communist rule. The title of archbishop or metropolitan may be granted to a senior bishop, usually one who is in charge of a large ecclesiastical jurisdiction. He may, or may not, have provincial oversight of suffragan bishops and may possibly have auxiliary bishops assisting him. Apart from the ordination, which is always done by other bishops, there are different methods as to the actual selection of a candidate for ordination as bishop. In the Catholic Church the Congregation for Bishops generally oversees the selection of new bishops with the approval of the pope. The papal nuncio usually solicits names from the bishops of a country, consults with priests and leading members of a laity, and then selects three to be forwarded to the Holy See. In Europe, some cathedral chapters have duties to elect bishops. The Eastern Catholic churches generally elect their own bishops. Most Eastern Orthodox churches allow varying amounts of formalised laity or lower clergy influence on the choice of bishops. This also applies in those Eastern churches which are in union with the pope, though it is required that he give assent. The pope, in addition to being the Bishop of Rome and spiritual head of the Catholic Church, is also the Patriarch of the Latin Church. Each bishop within the Latin Church is answerable directly to the Pope and not any other bishop except to metropolitans in certain oversight instances. The pope previously used the title Patriarch of the West, but this title was dropped from use in 2006, a move which caused some concern within the Eastern Orthodox Communion as, to them, it implied wider papal jurisdiction. ===== Recognition of other churches' ordinations ===== The Catholic Church does recognise as valid (though illicit) ordinations done by breakaway Catholic, Old Catholic or Oriental bishops, and groups descended from them; it also regards as both valid and licit those ordinations done by bishops of the Eastern churches, so long as those receiving the ordination conform to other canonical requirements (for example, is an adult male) and an eastern orthodox rite of episcopal ordination, expressing the proper functions and sacramental status of a bishop, is used; this has given rise to the phenomenon of (for example, clergy of the Independent Catholic groups which claim apostolic succession, though this claim is rejected by both Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy). With respect to Lutheranism, "the Catholic Church has never officially expressed its judgement on the validity of orders as they have been handed down by episcopal succession in these two national Lutheran churches" (the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland) though it does "question how the ecclesiastical break in the 16th century has affected the apostolicity of the churches of the Reformation and thus the apostolicity of their ministry". Since Pope Leo XIII issued the bull in 1896, the Catholic Church has insisted that Anglican orders are invalid because of the Reformed changes in the Anglican ordination rites of the 16th century and divergence in understanding of the theology of priesthood, episcopacy and Eucharist. However, since the 1930s, Utrecht Old Catholic bishops (recognised by the Holy See as validly ordained) have sometimes taken part in the ordination of Anglican bishops. According to the writer Timothy Dufort, by 1969, all Church of England bishops had acquired Old Catholic lines of apostolic succession recognised by the Holy See. This development has been used to argue that the strain of apostolic succession has been re-introduced into Anglicanism, at least within the Church of England. However, other issues, such as the Anglican ordination of women, is at variance with Catholic understanding of Christian teaching, and have contributed to the reaffirmation of Catholic rejection of Anglican ordinations. The Eastern Orthodox Churches do not accept the validity of any ordinations performed by the Independent Catholic groups, as Eastern Orthodoxy considers to be spurious any consecration outside the church as a whole. Eastern Orthodoxy considers apostolic succession to exist only within the Universal Church, and not through any authority held by individual bishops; thus, if a bishop ordains someone to serve outside the (Eastern Orthodox) Church, the ceremony is ineffectual, and no ordination has taken place regardless of the ritual used or the ordaining prelate's position within the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The position of the Catholic Church is slightly different. Whilst it does recognise the validity of the orders of certain groups which separated from communion with Holy See (for instance, the ordinations of the Old Catholics in communion with Utrecht, as well as the Polish National Catholic Church - which received its orders directly from Utrecht, and was until recently part of that communion), Catholicism does not recognise the orders of any group whose teaching is at variance with what they consider the core tenets of Christianity; this is the case even though the clergy of the Independent Catholic groups may use the proper ordination ritual. There are also other reasons why the Holy See does not recognise the validity of the orders of the Independent clergy: They hold that the continuing practice among many Independent clergy of one person receiving multiple ordinations in order to secure apostolic succession, betrays an incorrect and mechanistic theology of ordination. They hold that the practice within Independent groups of ordaining women (such as within certain member communities of the Anglican Communion) demonstrates an understanding of priesthood that they vindicate is totally unacceptable to the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches as they believe that the Universal Church does not possess such authority; thus, they uphold that any ceremonies performed by these women should be considered being sacramentally invalid. Some provinces of the Anglican Communion have begun ordaining women as bishops in recent decades – for example, England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Cuba. The first woman to be consecrated a bishop within Anglicanism was Barbara Harris, who was ordained in the United States in 1989. In 2006, Katharine Jefferts Schori, the Episcopal Bishop of Nevada, became the first woman to become the presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church. In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), the largest Lutheran Church bodies in the United States and Canada, respectively, and roughly based on the Nordic Lutheran national churches (similar to that of the Church of England), bishops are elected by Synod Assemblies, consisting of both lay members and clergy, for a term of six years, which can be renewed, depending upon the local synod's "constitution" (which is mirrored on either the ELCA or ELCIC's national constitution). Since the implementation of concordats between the ELCA and the Episcopal Church of the United States and the ELCIC and the Anglican Church of Canada, all bishops, including the presiding bishop (ELCA) or the national bishop (ELCIC), have been consecrated using the historic succession in line with bishops from the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden, with at least one Anglican bishop serving as co-consecrator. Since going into ecumenical communion with their respective Anglican body, bishops in the ELCA or the ELCIC not only approve the "rostering" of all ordained pastors, diaconal ministers, and associates in ministry, but they serve as the principal celebrant of all pastoral ordination and installation ceremonies, diaconal consecration ceremonies, as well as serving as the "chief pastor" of the local synod, upholding the teachings of Martin Luther as well as the documentations of the Ninety-Five Theses and the Augsburg Confession. Unlike their counterparts in the United Methodist Church, ELCA and ELCIC synod bishops do not appoint pastors to local congregations (pastors, like their counterparts in the Episcopal Church, are called by local congregations). The presiding bishop of the ELCA and the national bishop of the ELCIC, the national bishops of their respective bodies, are elected for a single 6-year term and may be elected to an additional term. Although ELCA agreed with the Episcopal Church to limit ordination to the bishop "ordinarily", ELCA pastor-ordinators are given permission to perform the rites in "extraordinary" circumstance. In practice, "extraordinary" circumstance have included disagreeing with Episcopalian views of the episcopate, and as a result, ELCA pastors ordained by other pastors are not permitted to be deployed to Episcopal Churches (they can, however, serve in Presbyterian Church USA, United Methodist Church, Reformed Church in America, and Moravian Church congregations, as the ELCA is in full communion with these denominations). The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS), the second and third largest Lutheran bodies in the United States and the two largest Confessional Lutheran bodies in North America, do not follow an episcopal form of governance, settling instead on a form of quasi-congregationalism patterned off what they believe to be the practice of the early church. The second largest of the three predecessor bodies of the ELCA, the American Lutheran Church, was a congregationalist body, with national and synod presidents before they were re-titled as bishops (borrowing from the Lutheran churches in Germany) in the 1980s. With regard to ecclesial discipline and oversight, national and synod presidents typically function similarly to bishops in episcopal bodies. === Methodism === ====African Methodist Episcopal Church==== In the African Methodist Episcopal Church, "Bishops are the Chief Officers of the Connectional Organization. They are elected for life by a majority vote of the General Conference which meets every four years." ==== Christian Methodist Episcopal Church ==== In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected by "delegate" votes for as many years deemed until the age of 74, then the bishop must retire. Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the church. The General Conference, a meeting every four years, has an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, CME bishops serve for four-year terms. In 2010, Teresa E. Jefferson-Snorton was elected as a bishop, becoming the first woman to hold that position. As of 2024, she remains the only female bishop in CME. ==== United Methodist Church ==== In the United Methodist Church (the largest branch of Methodism in the world) bishops serve as administrative and pastoral superintendents of the church. They are elected for life from among the ordained elders (presbyters) by vote of the delegates in regional (called jurisdictional) conferences, and are consecrated by the other bishops present at the conference through the laying on of hands. In the United Methodist Church bishops remain members of the "Order of Elders" while being consecrated to the "Office of the Episcopacy". Within the United Methodist Church only bishops are empowered to consecrate bishops and ordain clergy. Among their most critical duties is the ordination and appointment of clergy to serve local churches as pastor, presiding at sessions of the Annual, Jurisdictional, and General Conferences, providing pastoral ministry for the clergy under their charge, and safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the church. Furthermore, individual bishops, or the Council of Bishops as a whole, often serve a prophetic role, making statements on important social issues and setting forth a vision for the denomination, though they have no legislative authority of their own. In all of these areas, bishops of the United Methodist Church function very much in the historic meaning of the term. According to the Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church, a bishop's responsibilities are: In each Annual Conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four-year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new Conference. United Methodist bishops may be male or female, with Marjorie Matthews being the first woman to be consecrated a bishop in 1980. The collegial expression of episcopal leadership in the United Methodist Church is known as the Council of Bishops. The Council of Bishops speaks to the church and through the church into the world and gives leadership in the quest for Christian unity and interreligious relationships. The Conference of Methodist Bishops includes the United Methodist Council of Bishops plus bishops from affiliated autonomous Methodist or United Churches. John Wesley consecrated Thomas Coke a "General Superintendent", and directed that Francis Asbury also be consecrated for the United States of America in 1784, where the Methodist Episcopal Church first became a separate denomination apart from the Church of England. Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church. At first he did not call himself bishop, but eventually submitted to the usage by the denomination. Notable bishops in United Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, Richard Whatcoat, Philip William Otterbein, Martin Boehm, Jacob Albright, John Seybert, Matthew Simpson, John S. Stamm, William Ragsdale Cannon, Marjorie Matthews, Leontine T. Kelly, William B. Oden, Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda, Joseph Sprague, William Henry Willimon, and Thomas Bickerton. === The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints === In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Bishop is the leader of a local congregation, called a ward. As with most LDS priesthood holders, the bishop is a part-time lay minister and earns a living through other employment. As such, it is his duty to preside, call local leaders, and judge the worthiness of members for certain activities. The bishop does not deliver sermons at every service (generally asking members to do so), but is expected to be a spiritual guide for his congregation. It is therefore believed that he has both the right and ability to receive divine inspiration (through the Holy Spirit) for the ward under his direction. Because it is a part-time position, all able members are expected to assist in the management of the ward by holding delegated lay positions (for example, women's and youth leaders, teachers) referred to as callings. The bishop is especially responsible for leading the youth, in connection with the fact that a bishop is the president of the Aaronic priesthood in his ward (and is thus a form of Mormon Kohen). Although members are asked to confess serious sins to him, unlike the Catholic Church, he is not the instrument of divine forgiveness, but merely a guide through the repentance process (and a judge in case transgressions warrant excommunication or other official discipline). The bishop is also responsible for the physical welfare of the ward, and thus collects tithing and fast offerings and distributes financial assistance where needed. A literal descendant of Aaron has "legal right" to act as a bishop after being found worthy and ordained by the First Presidency. In the absence of a literal descendant of Aaron, a high priest in the Melchizedek priesthood is called to be a bishop. In special circumstances (such as a ward consisting entirely of young university students), a bishop may be chosen from outside the ward. Traditionally, bishops are married, though this is not always the case. A bishop is typically released after about five years and a new bishop is called to the position. Although the former bishop is released from his duties, he continues to hold the Aaronic priesthood office of bishop. Church members frequently refer to a former bishop as "Bishop" as a sign of respect and affection. Latter-day Saint bishops do not wear any special clothing or insignia the way clergy in many other churches do, but are expected to dress and groom themselves neatly and conservatively per their local culture, especially when performing official duties. Bishops (as well as other members of the priesthood) can trace their line of authority back to Joseph Smith, who, according to church doctrine, was ordained to lead the church in modern times by the ancient apostles Peter, James, and John, who were ordained to lead the Church by Jesus Christ. At the global level, the presiding bishop oversees the temporal affairs (buildings, properties, commercial corporations, and so on) of the worldwide church, including the church's massive global humanitarian aid and social welfare programs. The presiding bishop has two counselors; the three together form the presiding bishopric. As opposed to ward bishoprics, where the counselors do not hold the office of bishop, all three men in the presiding bishopric hold the office of bishop, and thus the counselors, as with the presiding bishop, are formally referred to as "Bishop". === Irvingism === ==== New Apostolic Church ==== The New Apostolic Church (NAC) knows three classes of ministries: Deacons, Priests and Apostles. The Apostles, who are all included in the apostolate with the Chief Apostle as head, are the highest ministries. Of the several kinds of priest....ministries, the bishop is the highest. Nearly all bishops are set in line directly from the chief apostle. They support and help their superior apostle. === Pentecostalism === ==== Church of God in Christ ==== In the Church of God in Christ (COGIC), the ecclesiastical structure is composed of large dioceses that are called "jurisdictions" within COGIC, each under the authority of a bishop, sometimes called "state bishops". They can either be made up of large geographical regions of churches or churches that are grouped and organized together as their own separate jurisdictions because of similar affiliations, regardless of geographical location or dispersion. Each state in the U.S. has at least one jurisdiction while others may have several more, and each jurisdiction is usually composed of between 30 and 100 churches. Each jurisdiction is then broken down into several districts, which are smaller groups of churches (either grouped by geographical situation or by similar affiliations) which are each under the authority of District Superintendents who answer to the authority of their jurisdictional/state bishop. There are currently over 170 jurisdictions in the United States, and over 30 jurisdictions in other countries. The bishops of each jurisdiction, according to the COGIC Manual, are considered to be the modern day equivalent in the church of the early apostles and overseers of the New Testament church, and as the highest ranking clergymen in the COGIC, they are tasked with the responsibilities of being the head overseers of all religious, civil, and economic ministries and protocol for the church denomination. They also have the authority to appoint and ordain local pastors, elders, ministers, and reverends within the denomination. The bishops of the COGIC denomination are all collectively called "The Board of Bishops". From the Board of Bishops, and the General Assembly of the COGIC, the body of the church composed of clergy and lay delegates that are responsible for making and enforcing the bylaws of the denomination, every four years, twelve bishops from the COGIC are elected as "The General Board" of the church, who work alongside the delegates of the General Assembly and Board of Bishops to provide administration over the denomination as the church's head executive leaders. One of twelve bishops of the General Board is also elected the "presiding bishop" of the church, and two others are appointed by the presiding bishop himself, as his first and second assistant presiding bishops. Bishops in the Church of God in Christ usually wear black clergy suits which consist of a black suit blazer, black pants, a purple or scarlet clergy shirt and a white clerical collar, which is usually referred to as "Class B Civic attire". Bishops in COGIC also typically wear the Anglican Choir Dress style vestments of a long purple or scarlet chimere, cuffs, and tippet worn over a long white rochet, and a gold pectoral cross worn around the neck with the tippet. This is usually referred to as "Class A Ceremonial attire". The bishops of COGIC alternate between Class A Ceremonial attire and Class B Civic attire depending on the protocol of the religious services and other events they have to attend." The above understanding is part of the basis of Adventist organizational structure. The world wide Seventh-day Adventist church is organized into local districts, conferences or missions, union conferences or union missions, divisions, and finally at the top is the general conference. At each level (with exception to the local districts), there is an elder who is elected president and a group of elders who serve on the executive committee with the elected president. Those who have been elected president would in effect be the "bishop" while never actually carrying the title or ordained as such because the term is usually associated with the episcopal style of church governance most often found in Catholic, Anglican, Methodist and some Pentecostal/Charismatic circles. === Others === Some Baptists also have begun taking on the title of bishop. In some smaller Protestant denominations and independent churches, the term bishop is used in the same way as pastor, to refer to the leader of the local congregation, and may be male or female. This usage is especially common in African-American churches in the US. In the Church of Scotland, which has a Presbyterian church structure, the word "bishop" refers to an ordained person, usually a normal parish minister, who has temporary oversight of a trainee minister. In the Presbyterian Church (USA), the term bishop is an expressive name for a Minister of Word and Sacrament who serves a congregation and exercises "the oversight of the flock of Christ." The term is traceable to the 1789 Form of Government of the PC (USA) and the Presbyterian understanding of the pastoral office. While not considered orthodox Christian, the Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica uses roles and titles derived from Christianity for its clerical hierarchy, including bishops who have much the same authority and responsibilities as in Catholicism. The Salvation Army does not have bishops but has appointed leaders of geographical areas, known as Divisional Commanders. Larger geographical areas, called Territories, are led by a Territorial Commander, who is the highest-ranking officer in that Territory. Jehovah's Witnesses do not use the title 'Bishop' within their organizational structure, but appoint elders to be overseers (to fulfill the role of oversight) within their congregations. The Batak Christian Protestant Church of Indonesia, the most prominent Protestant denomination in Indonesia, uses the term Ephorus instead of bishop. In the Vietnamese syncretist religion of Caodaism, bishops () comprise the fifth of nine hierarchical levels, and are responsible for spiritual and temporal education as well as record-keeping and ceremonies in their parishes. At any one time there are seventy-two bishops. Their authority is described in Section I of the text (revealed through seances in December 1926). Caodai bishops wear robes and headgear of embroidered silk depicting the Divine Eye and the Eight Trigrams. (The color varies according to branch.) This is the full ceremonial dress; the simple version consists of a seven-layered turban. == Dress and insignia in Christianity == Traditionally, a number of items are associated with the office of a bishop, most notably the mitre and the crosier. Other vestments and insignia vary between Eastern and Western Christianity. In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, the choir dress of a bishop includes the purple cassock with amaranth trim, rochet, purple zucchetto (skull cap), purple biretta, and pectoral cross. The cappa magna may be worn, but only within the bishop's own diocese and on especially solemn occasions. The mitre, zucchetto, and stole are generally worn by bishops when presiding over liturgical functions. For liturgical functions other than the Mass the bishop typically wears the cope. Within his own diocese and when celebrating solemnly elsewhere with the consent of the local ordinary, he also uses the crosier. When celebrating Mass, a bishop, like a priest, wears the chasuble. The Caeremoniale Episcoporum recommends, but does not impose, that in solemn celebrations a bishop should also wear a dalmatic, which can always be white, beneath the chasuble, especially when administering the sacrament of holy orders, blessing an abbot or abbess, and dedicating a church or an altar. The Caeremoniale Episcoporum no longer makes mention of episcopal gloves, episcopal sandals, liturgical stockings (also known as buskins), or the accoutrements that it once prescribed for the bishop's horse. The coat of arms of a Latin Church Catholic bishop usually displays a galero with a cross and crosier behind the escutcheon; the specifics differ by location and ecclesiastical rank (see Ecclesiastical heraldry). Anglican bishops generally make use of the mitre, crosier, ecclesiastical ring, purple cassock, purple zucchetto, and pectoral cross. However, the traditional choir dress of Anglican bishops retains its late mediaeval form, and looks quite different from that of their Catholic counterparts; it consists of a long rochet which is worn with a chimere. In the Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Rite Catholic) a bishop will wear the mandyas, panagia (and perhaps an enkolpion), sakkos, omophorion and an Eastern-style mitre. Eastern bishops do not normally wear an episcopal ring; the faithful kiss (or, alternatively, touch their forehead to) the bishop's hand. To seal official documents, he will usually use an inked stamp. An Eastern bishop's coat of arms will normally display an Eastern-style mitre, cross, eastern style crosier and a red and white (or red and gold) mantle. The arms of Oriental Orthodox bishops will display the episcopal insignia (mitre or turban) specific to their own liturgical traditions. Variations occur based upon jurisdiction and national customs. === Cathedra === In Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican cathedrals there is a special chair set aside for the exclusive use of the bishop. This is the bishop's cathedra and is often called the throne. In some Christian denominations, for example, the Anglican Communion, parish churches may maintain a chair for the use of the bishop when he visits; this is to signify the parish's union with the bishop. File:Kyr-Jonas presovsky-arcibiskup-a-metropolita-1.jpg\|Byzantine Rite Catholic bishop in non-liturgical clothing File:Bishop Trevor Williams.jpg\|An Anglican bishop with a crosier, wearing a rochet under a red chimere and cuffs, a black tippet, and a pectoral cross File:BishopThom.jpg\|An Episcopal bishop immediately before presiding at the Great Vigil of Easter in the narthex of St. Michael's Episcopal Cathedral in Boise, Idaho. File:Ephorus HKBP (cropped).jpg\|An Ephorus of the Batak Christian Protestant Church in Indonesia, one of the largest Lutheran churches in Southeast Asia, wearing uses white bands and Geneva gown ==The term's use in non-Christian religions== === Buddhism === The leader of the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA) is their bishop, The Japanese title for the bishop of the BCA is , although the English title is favored over the Japanese. When it comes to many other Buddhist terms, the BCA chose to keep them in their original language (terms such as and ), but with some words (including ), they changed/translated these terms into English words. Between 1899 and 1944, the BCA held the name Buddhist Mission of North America. The leader of the Buddhist Mission of North America was called (superintendent/director) between 1899 and 1918. In 1918 the was promoted to bishop (). However, according to George J. Tanabe, the title "bishop" was in practice already used by Hawaiian Shin Buddhists (in Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii) even when the official title was kantoku. Bishops are also present in other Japanese Buddhist organizations. Higashi Hongan-ji's North American District, Honpa Honganji Mission of Hawaii, Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Temples of Canada, a Jodo Shu temple in Los Angeles, the Shingon temple Koyasan Buddhist Temple, Sōtō Mission in Hawai‘i (a Soto Zen Buddhist institution), and the Sōtō Zen Buddhist Community of South America () all have or have had leaders with the title bishop. As for the Sōtō Zen Buddhist Community of South America, the Japanese title is , but the leader is in practice referred to as "bishop". === Tenrikyo === Tenrikyo is a Japanese New Religion with influences from both Shinto and Buddhism. The leader of the Tenrikyo North American Mission has the title of bishop.	[ "Stromata", "Coadjutor bishop", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church", "Pope", "canon law", "Ottoman Empire", "Separation of church and state", "Bishop of Coventry", "autocephalous", "monastery", "Philippine Independent Church", "deaconess", "Sub-Saharan Africa", "Nordic countries", "List of bishops of Turku", "imposition of hands", "Clement of Alexandria", "Constantine I and Christianity", "List of Lutheran clergy", "First epistle to Timothy", "Presiding bishop", "episcopal gloves", "Jesus in Christianity", "chaplain", "Rhenish Missionary Society", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada", "Unitatis Redintegratio", "Bishops in the Catholic Church", "titular see", "Church of Scotland", "Liberty of Durham", "Theodosius I", "Paréage of Andorra (1278)", "Mediterranean Sea", "Independent Catholic Churches", "Lord Chancellor", "Legislative Council of the Isle of Man", "Congregationalists", "Presbyterian Church (USA)", "county palatine", "Thyateira", "Gay bishops", "Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro", "Great Britain", "List of Companions of the Order of Australia", "Peter Hollingworth", "First Council of Nicaea", "Stole (vestment)", "Estates of the realm", "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church", "province", "Māori language", "zucchetto", "First Presidency (LDS Church)", "Buddhist Churches of America", "Ecclesiastical polity", "Moravian Church", "Early centers of Christianity", "abbot", "Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia", "Bishops in the Church of Scotland", "John Calvin", "Catholicos", "John the Baptist", "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "Ecclesiastical heraldry", "Paul of Tarsus", "Continuing Anglican movement", "World Digital Library", "mandyas", "surplice", "high priest (Latter Day Saints)", "President of France", "Philip William Otterbein", "pastor", "Church History (Eusebius)", "episcopal sandals", "Pope Benedict XVI", "Cyprus", "sangha", "Caeremoniale Episcoporum", "Buddhist Terms and Concepts", "Richard Whatcoat", "synagogue", "Church of England", "Holy Roman Empire", "episcopal vicar", "Ordinary (officer)", "micro-state", "Bishop of Rome", "John Seybert", "William Henry Willimon", "Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica", "Bishop of Durham", "auxiliary bishop", "chrismation", "Augsburg Confession", "prayer", "Millet (Ottoman Empire)", "Batak Christian Protestant Church", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "Ignatius of Antioch", "Henry VIII of England", "Sacraments of the Catholic Church", "Dāna", "Governor-General of Australia", "Theotokos", "High Church Lutheranism", "Oriental Orthodoxy", "enkolpion", "Anglican ministry", "French Revolution", "ruff (clothing)", "rochet", "Escutcheon (heraldry)", "ecclesiastical province", "Edict of Milan", "Jōdo-shū", "throne", "Martin Luther", "chimere", "John S. Stamm", "Saint Peter", "Walter Obare", "clergy", "Ancient Greek", "Christianity in the 4th century", "Coventry", "Laity", "established church", "obispo maximo", "Confessional Lutheran", "New Apostolic Church", "Reformed Christianity", "Cardinal (Catholic Church)", "Congregation for Bishops", "William B. Oden", "Evangelical Lutheran Church in America", "Ganzibra", "Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee)", "Matthew Simpson", "Christianity", "Catholic", "ordain", "narthex", "Priest (Catholic Church)", "French States-General", "Congregationalist polity", "Indonesia", "List of Catholic bishops of the United States", "religious denomination", "African Methodist Episcopal Church", "cappa magna", "Episcopal see", "deacon", "Teresa E. Jefferson-Snorton", "Makarios III", "latifundia", "Polish National Catholic Church", "Tithe", "Old English", "Pope Leo XIII", "Suffragan bishop", "Higashi Hongan-ji", "Protestantism in Indonesia", "Holy Orders", "cathedral", "Diocletian", "Confirmation", "Oriental Orthodox Churches", "Southeast Asia", "Holy Spirit in Christianity", "Pentecostal Church of God", "List of metropolitans and patriarchs of Moscow", "fast offering", "Episcopal polity", "pectoral cross", "First Epistle of Clement", "Apostolic Age", "Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod", "Pentecostal", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Hippolytus of Rome", "Patriarch of Antioch", "County Palatine of Durham", "Elder (Christianity)", "Methodist Episcopal Church", "Appointment of Catholic bishops", "Co-Princes of Andorra", "Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg", "presbyter", "Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops", "Laying on of hands", "Middle Ages", "Bishop of Alexandria", "American Lutheran Church", "Eastern Roman Empire", "Caodaism", "Shingon Buddhism", "Holy See", "France", "James, son of Zebedee", "presbyters", "Eastern Catholic Churches", "Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii", "Anglican Church of Canada", "stake (Latter Day Saints)", "Church of God in Christ", "United Methodist Church", "lower clergy", "nation", "Koyasan Buddhist Temple", "Bishop (Latter Day Saints)", "chasuble", "Geneva gown", "pallium", "ordained", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Melchizedek priesthood", "Epistle to Titus", "ward (LDS Church)", "Germans", "Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda", "Bishop of Warwick", "archdiocese", "Apostolic Fathers", "Vatican City", "Thomas Wolsey", "guvernadur", "Roman Empire", "Independent Catholic", "ex officio member", "United Kingdom", "synod", "House of Lords", "Christianity in the 5th century", "Supreme bishop", "John Wesley", "England", "Patriarch of the West", "Anglicanism", "Lutheran", "cathedra", "sanctify", "Hierarchy of the Catholic Church", "Suffragan Bishop in Europe", "English Civil War", "ordination of women", "Andorra", "Chief Apostle", "Eastern Catholic", "cope", "Christian denomination", "Protestant", "Joseph Sprague", "Reformed Church in America", "Presbyterianism", "Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod", "Scottish Episcopal Church", "United and uniting churches", "Assistant bishop", "William Ragsdale Cannon", "Titular bishop", "Presbyterian polity", "Archbishop", "Appointment of Church of England bishops", "General conference (United Methodist Church)", "Christianity in the 16th century", "omophorion", "Bishop of Sodor and Man", "Didache", "sui iuris", "Minister (Christianity)", "James, brother of Jesus", "galero", "Richard Hooker", "Boise, Idaho", "Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem", "liturgical stockings", "diocese", "Mass in the Catholic Church", "cassock", "Bishop in Europe", "Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Temples of Canada", "South America", "Patriarch of Alexandria", "International Standard Version", "Far East", "Shepherd", "Christianity in the 6th century", "Thomas Bickerton", "Kanclerz", "Priest", "Thomas Coke (bishop)", "Catholicism", "Eastern Rite Catholic", "Middle English", "Episcopal Diocese of Nevada", "Marjorie Matthews", "Diocese of London", "Jacob Albright", "Catholic Church", "United Methodist Council of Bishops", "Divine Liturgy", "Pope Gregory I", "Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland", "choir dress", "dalmatic", "Seven Sacraments Altarpiece", "Acts 20:28", "Anglican Diocese of Brisbane", "panagia", "Saint Paul", "antimins", "List of types of spiritual teachers", "autonomous area", "Ecumenical Patriarchate", "Christmas Conference", "Diocesan bishop", "Pope Theodore I", "Germany", "Tenrikyo", "Anglican", "Hippo Regius", "Body of Christ", "Pentarchy (Christianity)", "bands (neckwear)", "Prince-Bishop", "Metropolitan bishop", "Primate (bishop)", "particular church", "Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden", "thabilitho", "holy orders", "Fall of the Western Roman Empire", "Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses", "Anglican Communion", "Theodore Beza", "Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)", "Puritans", "vicar general", "earl", "baptism", "episcopi vagantes", "Major archbishop", "Spokesperson bishops in the Church of England", "Concordia Theological Seminary", "Kohen", "Porvoo Communion", "sakkos", "Latin Church", "Church (congregation)", "eparchy", "Aaronic priesthood (LDS Church)", "Presiding Bishop (LDS Church)", "Twelve Apostles", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Elder (Methodism)", "Order of precedence in the Catholic Church", "Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople", "Barbara Harris (bishop)", "house church", "presbyterate", "Lords Spiritual", "Bishop of the Buddhist Churches of America", "biretta", "Latin", "The Crown", "Christianity in the 1st century", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell", "Order of the British Empire", "buskins", "Bishop of Stepney", "Patriarch", "Communist", "clerical collar", "Leontine T. Kelly", "Pope Leo I", "Lord Bishop", "apostolic succession", "Byzantine Rite", "Episcopal Church of the United States", "crosier", "Joseph Smith", "The Reverend", "Soto Zen", "Eastern Churches", "Salvation Army", "pope", "Apostolicae curae", "President of Cyprus", "Old Catholic", "District Superintendent (United Methodist Church)", "Martin Boehm", "chancellor" ]
4,093	Bertrand Andrieu	Bertrand Andrieu (24 November 1761 – 6 December 1822) was a French engraver of medals. He was born in Bordeaux. In France, he was considered as the restorer of the art, which had declined after the time of Louis XIV. During the last twenty years of his life, the French government commissioned him to undertake every major work of importance.	[ "engraving", "Kingdom of France", "French people", "Bordeaux", "Louis XIV of France", "s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Andrieu, Bertrand" ]
4,097	Bordeaux	Bordeaux (, ; ; Gascon ; ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde department, southwestern France. A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department. Its inhabitants are called "Bordelais (masculine) or "Bordelaises (feminine). The term "Bordelais" may also refer to the city and its surrounding region. The city of Bordeaux proper had a population of 259,809 in 2020 within its small municipal territory of , but together with its suburbs and exurbs the Bordeaux metropolitan area had a population of 1,376,375 that same year (Jan. 2020 census), is the fifth most populated metropolitan council in France after those of Paris, Marseille, Lyon and Lille. Bordeaux is a world capital of wine: many châteaux and vineyards stand on the hillsides of the Gironde, and the city is home to the world's main wine fair, Vinexpo. Bordeaux is also one of the centers of gastronomy and business tourism for the organization of international congresses. It is a central and strategic hub for the aeronautics, military and space sector, home to major companies such as Dassault Aviation, ArianeGroup, Safran and Thales. The link with aviation dates back to 1910, the year the first airplane flew over the city. A crossroads of knowledge through university research, it is home to one of the only two megajoule lasers in the world, as well as a university population of more than 130,000 students within the Bordeaux Metropolis. Bordeaux is an international tourist destination for its architectural and cultural heritage with more than 362 historic monuments, making it, after Paris, the city with the most listed or registered monuments in France. The "Pearl of Aquitaine" has been voted European Destination of the year in a 2015 online poll. The metropolis has also received awards and rankings by international organizations such as in 1957, Bordeaux was awarded the Europe Prize for its efforts in transmitting the European ideal. In June 2007, the Port of the Moon in historic Bordeaux was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, for its outstanding architecture and urban ensemble and in recognition of Bordeaux's international importance over the last 2000 years. Bordeaux is also ranked as a Sufficiency city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. == History == === 5th century BC to 11th century AD === Around 300 BC, the region was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, who named the town Burdigala, probably of Aquitanian origin. In 107 BC, the Battle of Burdigala was fought by the Romans who were defending the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe allied to Rome, and the Tigurini led by Divico. The Romans were defeated and their commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, was killed in battle. The city came under Roman rule around 60 BC, and it became an important commercial centre for tin and lead. During this period were built the amphitheatre and the monument Les Piliers de Tutelle. In 276 AD, it was sacked by the Vandals. The Vandals attacked again in 409, followed by the Visigoths in 414, and the Franks in 498, and afterwards the city fell into a period of relative obscurity. In the late 6th century AD the city re-emerged as the seat of a county and an archdiocese within the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks, but royal Frankish power was never strong. The city started to play a regional role as a major urban center on the fringes of the newly founded Frankish Duchy of Vasconia. Around 585 Gallactorius was made Count of Bordeaux and fought the Basques. In 732, the city was plundered by the troops of Abd er Rahman who stormed the fortifications and overwhelmed the Aquitanian garrison. Duke Eudes mustered a force to engage the Umayyads, eventually engaging them in the Battle of the River Garonne somewhere near the river Dordogne. The battle had a high death toll, and although Eudes was defeated he had enough troops to engage in the Battle of Poitiers and so retain his grip on Aquitaine. In 737, following his father Eudes's death, the Aquitanian duke Hunald led a rebellion to which Charles responded by launching an expedition that captured Bordeaux. However, it was not retained for long, during the following year the Frankish commander clashed in battle with the Aquitanians but then left to take on hostile Burgundian authorities and magnates. In 745 Aquitaine faced another expedition where Charles's sons Pepin and Carloman challenged Hunald's power and defeated him. Hunald's son Waifer replaced him and confirmed Bordeaux as the capital city (along with Bourges in the north). During the last stage of the war against Aquitaine (760–768), it was one of Waifer's last important strongholds to fall to the troops of King Pepin the Short. Charlemagne built the fortress of Fronsac (Frontiacus, Franciacus) near Bordeaux on a hill across the border with the Basques (Wascones), where Basque commanders came and pledged their loyalty (769). In 778, Seguin (or Sihimin) was appointed count of Bordeaux, probably undermining the power of the Duke Lupo, and possibly leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. In 814, Seguin was made Duke of Vasconia, but was deposed in 816 for failing to suppress a Basque rebellion. Under the Carolingians, sometimes the Counts of Bordeaux held the title concomitantly with that of Duke of Vasconia. They were to keep the Basques in check and defend the mouth of the Garonne from the Vikings when they appeared in c. 844. In Autumn 845, the Vikings were raiding Bordeaux and Saintes, count Seguin II marched on them but was captured and executed. Although the port of Bordeaux was a buzzing trade center, the stability and success of the city was threatened by Viking and Norman incursions and political instability. The restoration of the Ramnulfid Dukes of Aquitaine under William IV and his successors (known as the House of Poitiers) brought continuity of government. === 12th century to 15th century, the English era === From the 12th to the 15th century, Bordeaux flourished once more following the marriage of Eléonore, Duchess of Aquitaine and the last of the House of Poitiers, to Henry II Plantagenêt, Count of Anjou and the grandson of Henry I of England, who succeeded to the English crown months after their wedding, bringing into being the vast Angevin Empire, which stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland. After granting a tax-free trade status with England, Henry was adored by the locals as they could be even more profitable in the wine trade, their main source of income, and the city benefited from imports of cloth and wheat. The belfry (Grosse Cloche) and city cathedral St-André were built, the latter in 1227, incorporating the artisan quarter of Saint-Paul. Under the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny it became briefly the capital of an independent state (1362–1372) under Edward, the Black Prince, but after the Battle of Castillon (1453) it was annexed by France. === 15th century to 17th century === In 1462, Bordeaux created a local parliament. Bordeaux adhered to the Fronde, being effectively annexed to the Kingdom of France only in 1653, when the army of Louis XIV entered the city. === 18th century, the golden era === The 18th century saw another golden age of Bordeaux. The Port of the Moon supplied the majority of Europe with coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton and indigo, becoming France's busiest port and the second busiest port in the world after London. In total, the Bordeaux shipowners deported 150,000 Africans in some 500 expeditions. === French Revolution: political disruption and loss of the most profitable colony === At the beginning of the French Revolution (1789), many local revolutionaries were members of the Girondists. This Party represented the provincial bourgeoisie, favorable towards abolishing aristocracy privileges, but opposed to the Revolution's social dimension. The Gironde valley's economic value and significance was satiated by the city's commercial power which was in dire contrast to the emerging widespread poverty affecting its inhabitants. Trade and commerce were the driving factors in the region's economic prosperity, still this resulted in a significant number of locals struggling to survive on a daily basis due to lack of food and resources. This socioeconomic disparity served as fertile ground for discontent, sparking frequent episodes of mass unrest well before the tumultuous events of 1783. [1] In 1793, the Montagnards led by Robespierre and Marat came to power. Fearing a bourgeois misappropriation of the Revolution, they executed a great number of Girondists. During the purge, the local Montagnard Section renamed the city of Bordeaux "Commune-Franklin" (Franklin-municipality) in homage to Benjamin Franklin. At the same time, in 1791, a slave revolt broke out at Saint-Domingue (current Haiti), the most profitable of the French colonies. In the lively era of the 18th century, Bordeaux emerged as a center of economic activity, particularly known at first for its successful wine trade. The city's placement along the Gironde River was very strategic, helping to facilitate the transportation of produce to markets both internationally and domestically, which led to an increase in exports and Bordeaux's economic prosperity. There was a significant transformation to the economic landscape of Bordeaux in 1785, which was spurred by the attraction of large profits, traders and merchants in Bordeaux began to turn their attention to the slave trade. This was a very important moment in the city's economic history seeing as it diversified its commercial expansion, at a serious moral cost. This introduced a new layer of difficulty to Bordeaux's economic activities. Even though it brought along significant wealth to certain segments of society, it complicated the socio-economic inconsistencies within the region. The entry into the slave trade brought even more tension within Bordeaux society. The trade exacerbated the divide between an elite with growing wealth and those living in poverty. This economic divide laid out the foundation for the mass unrest that would break out in the French Revolution. [2] Three years later, the Montagnard Convention abolished slavery. In 1802, Napoleon revoked the manumission law but lost the war against the army of former slaves. In 1804, Haiti became independent. The loss of this "Pearl" of the West Indies generated the collapse of Bordeaux's port economy, which was dependent on the colonial trade and trade in slaves. Towards the end of the Peninsular War of 1814, the Duke of Wellington sent William Beresford with two divisions and seized Bordeaux, encountering little resistance. Bordeaux was largely anti-Bonapartist and the majority supported the Bourbons. The British troops were treated as liberators. Distinguished historian of the French revolution Suzanne Desan explains that "examining intricate local dynamics" is essential to studying the Revolution by region. [3] === 19th century, rebirth of the economy === From the Bourbon Restoration, the economy of Bordeaux was rebuilt by traders and shipowners. They engaged to construct the first bridge of Bordeaux, and customs warehouses. The shipping traffic grew through the new African colonies. Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a longtime prefect of Bordeaux, used Bordeaux's 18th-century large-scale rebuilding as a model when he was asked by Emperor Napoleon III to transform the quasi-medieval Paris into a "modern" capital that would make France proud. Victor Hugo found the town so beautiful he said: "Take Versailles, add Antwerp, and you have Bordeaux". In 1870, at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war against Prussia, the French government temporarily relocated to Bordeaux from Paris. === 21st century, listed as World heritage === In 2007, 40% of the city surface area, located around the Port of the Moon, was listed as World Heritage Site. UNESCO inscribed Bordeaux as "an inhabited historic city, an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble, created in the age of the Enlightenment, whose values continued up to the first half of the 20th century, with more protected buildings than any other French city except Paris". == Geography == Bordeaux is located close to the European Atlantic coast, in the southwest of France and in the north of the Aquitaine region. It is around southwest of Paris. The city is built on a bend of the river Garonne, and is divided into two parts: the right bank to the east and left bank in the west. Historically the left bank is more developed because when flowing outside the bend, the water makes a furrow of the required depth to allow the passing of merchant ships, which used to offload on this side of the river. But, today, the right bank is developing, including new urban projects. In Bordeaux, the Garonne River is accessible to ocean liners through the Gironde estuary. The right bank of the Garonne is a low-lying, often marshy plain. === Climate === Bordeaux's climate can be classified as oceanic (Köppen climate classification Cfb), bordering on a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). However, the Trewartha climate classification system classifies the city as solely humid subtropical, due to a recent rise in temperatures related – to some degree or another – to climate change and the city's urban heat island. The city enjoys cool to mild, wet winters, due to its relatively southerly latitude, and the prevalence of mild, westerly winds from the Atlantic. Its summers are warm and somewhat drier, although wet enough to avoid a Mediterranean classification. Frosts occur annually, but snowfall is quite infrequent, occurring for no more than 3–4 days a year. The summer of 2003 set a record with an average temperature of , while February 1956 was the coldest month on record with an average temperature of −2.00 °C at Bordeaux Mérignac-Airport. == Economy == Bordeaux is a major centre for business in France as it has the sixth largest metropolitan population in France. It serves as a major regional center for trade, administration, services and industry. === Wine === The vine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-first century, to provide wine for local consumption, and wine production has been continuous in the region since. Bordeaux wine growing area has about of vineyards, 57 appellations, 10,000 wine-producing estates (châteaux) and 13,000 grape growers. With an annual production of approximately 960 million bottles, the Bordeaux area produces large quantities of everyday wine as well as some of the most expensive wines in the world. Included among the latter are the area's five premier cru (First Growth) red wines (four from Médoc and one, Château Haut-Brion, from Graves), established by the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855: Both red and white wines are made in the Bordeaux region. Red Bordeaux wine is called claret in the United Kingdom. Red wines are generally made from a blend of grapes, and may be made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit verdot, Malbec, and, less commonly in recent years, Carménère. White Bordeaux is made from Sauvignon blanc, Sémillon, and Muscadelle. Sauternes is a sub-region of Graves known for its intensely sweet, white, dessert wines such as Château d'Yquem. Because of a wine glut (wine lake) in the generic production, the price squeeze induced by an increasingly strong international competition, and vine pull schemes, the number of growers has recently dropped from 14,000 and the area under vine has also decreased significantly. In the meantime, the global demand for first growths and the most famous labels markedly increased and their prices skyrocketed. The Cité du Vin, a museum as well as a place of exhibitions, shows, movie projections and academic seminars on the theme of wine opened its doors in June 2016. === Others === The Laser Mégajoule will be one of the most powerful lasers in the world, allowing fundamental research and the development of the laser and plasma technologies. Some 15,000 people work for the aeronautic industry in Bordeaux. The city has some of the biggest companies including Dassault, EADS Sogerma, Snecma, Thales, SNPE, and others. The Dassault Falcon private jets are built there as well as the military aircraft Rafale and Mirage 2000, the Airbus A380 cockpit, the boosters of Ariane 5, and the M51 SLBM missile. Tourism, especially wine tourism, is a major industry. Globelink.co.uk mentioned Bordeaux as the best tourist destination in Europe in 2015. Gourmet Touring is a tourism company operating in the Bordeaux wine region. Access to the port from the Atlantic is via the Gironde estuary. Almost nine million tonnes of goods arrive and leave each year. === Major companies === This list includes indigenous Bordeaux-based companies and companies that have major presence in Bordeaux, but are not necessarily headquartered there. Arena Groupe Bernard Groupe Castel Cdiscount Dassault Jock Marie Brizard McKesson Corporation Oxbow Ricard Sanofi Aventis Smurfit Kappa Snecma Solectron Thales Group Tours in Bordeaux == Population == In January 2020, there were 259,809 inhabitants in the city proper (commune) of Bordeaux. had its largest population of 284,494 at the 1954 census. The built-up area has grown for more than a century beyond the municipal borders of Bordeaux due to the small size of the commune () and urban sprawl. By January 2020 there were 1,376,375 people living in the overall metropolitan area (aire d'attraction) of Bordeaux, and INSEE They are divided according to the following composition: === Mayors of Bordeaux === Since the Liberation (1944), there have been six mayors of Bordeaux: RPR was renamed to UMP in 2002 which was later renamed to LR in 2015. === Elections === ==== Presidential elections of 2007 ==== At the 2007 presidential election, the Bordelais gave 31.37% of their votes to Ségolène Royal of the Socialist Party against 30.84% to Nicolas Sarkozy, president of the UMP. Then came François Bayrou with 22.01%, followed by Jean-Marie Le Pen who recorded 5.42%. None of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark. Nationally, Nicolas Sarkozy led with 31.18%, then Ségolène Royal with 25.87%, followed by François Bayrou with 18.57%. After these came Jean-Marie Le Pen with 10.44%, none of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark. In the second round, the city of Bordeaux gave Ségolène Royal 52.44% against 47.56% for Nicolas Sarkozy, the latter being elected President of the Republic with 53.06% against 46.94% for Ségolène Royal. The abstention rates for Bordeaux were 14.52% in the first round and 15.90% in the second round. ==== Parliamentary elections of 2007 ==== In the parliamentary elections of 2007, the left won eight constituencies against only three for the right. After the partial 2008 elections, the eighth district of Gironde switched to the left, bringing the count to nine. In Bordeaux, the left was for the first time in its history the majority as it held two of three constituencies following the elections. In the first division of the Gironde, the outgoing UMP MP Chantal Bourragué was well ahead with 44.81% against 25.39% for the Socialist candidate Béatrice Desaigues. In the second round, it was Chantal Bourragué who was re-elected with 54.45% against 45.55% for his socialist opponent. In the second district of Gironde the UMP mayor and all new Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea Alain Juppé confronted the General Counsel PS Michèle Delaunay. In the first round, Alain Juppé was well ahead with 43.73% against 31.36% for Michèle Delaunay. In the second round, it was finally Michèle Delaunay who won the election with 50.93% of the votes against 49.07% for Alain Juppé, the margin being only 670 votes. The defeat of the so-called constituency "Mayor" showed that Bordeaux was rocking increasingly left. Finally, in the third constituency of the Gironde, Noël Mamère was well ahead with 39.82% against 28.42% for the UMP candidate Elizabeth Vine. In the second round, Noël Mamère was re-elected with 62.82% against 37.18% for his right-wing rival. ==== Municipal elections of 2008 ==== In 2008 municipal elections saw the clash between mayor of Bordeaux, Alain Juppé and the President of the Regional Council of Aquitaine Socialist Alain Rousset. The PS had put up a Socialist heavyweight in the Gironde and had put great hopes in this election after the victory of Ségolène Royal and Michèle Delaunay in 2007. However, after a rather exciting campaign it was Alain Juppé who was widely elected in the first round with 56.62 percent, far ahead of Alain Rousset who garnered 34.14 percent of the vote. At present, of the eight cantons that has Bordeaux, five are held by the PS and three by the UMP, the left eating a little each time into the right's numbers. ==== European elections of 2009 ==== In the European elections of 2009, Bordeaux voters largely voted for the UMP candidate Dominique Baudis, who won 31.54% against 15.00% for PS candidate Kader Arif. The candidate of Europe Ecology José Bové came second with 22.34%. None of the other candidates reached the 10% mark. The 2009 European elections were like the previous ones in eight constituencies. Bordeaux is located in the district "Southwest", here are the results: UMP candidate Dominique Baudis: 26.89%. His party gained four seats. PS candidate Kader Arif: 17.79%, gaining two seats in the European Parliament. Europe Ecology candidate Bove: 15.83%, obtaining two seats. MoDem candidate Robert Rochefort: 8.61%, winning a seat. Left Front candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon: 8.16%, gaining the last seat. At regional elections in 2010, the Socialist incumbent president Alain Rousset won the first round by totaling 35.19% in Bordeaux, but this score was lower than the plan for Gironde and Aquitaine. Xavier Darcos, Minister of Labour followed with 28.40% of the votes, scoring above the regional and departmental average. Then came Monique De Marco, Green candidate with 13.40%, followed by the member of Pyrenees-Atlantiques and candidate of the MoDem Jean Lassalle who registered a low 6.78% while qualifying to the second round on the whole Aquitaine, closely followed by Jacques Colombier, candidate of the National Front, who gained 6.48%. Finally the candidate of the Left Front Gérard Boulanger with 5.64%, no other candidate above the 5% mark. In the second round, Alain Rousset had a tidal wave win as national totals rose to 55.83%. If Xavier Darcos largely lost the election, he nevertheless achieved a score above the regional and departmental average obtaining 33.40%. Jean Lassalle, who qualified for the second round, passed the 10% mark by totaling 10.77%. The ballot was marked by abstention amounting to 55.51% in the first round and 53.59% in the second round. Only candidates obtaining more than 5% are listed ==== 2017 elections ==== Bordeaux voted for Emmanuel Macron in the presidential election. In the 2017 parliamentary election, La République En Marche! won most of the constituencies in Bordeaux. ==== 2019 European elections ==== Bordeaux voted in the 2019 European Parliament election in France. ==== Municipal elections of 2020 ==== After 73 years of right-of-centre rule, the ecologist Pierre Hurmic (EELV) came in ahead of Nicolas Florian (LR/LaREM). === Parliamentary representation === The city area is represented by the following constituencies: Gironde's 1st, Gironde's 2nd, Gironde's 3rd, Gironde's 4th, Gironde's 5th, Gironde's 6th, Gironde's 7th. == Education == === University === During Antiquity, a first university had been created by the Romans in 286. The city was an important administrative centre and the new university had to train administrators. Only rhetoric and grammar were taught. Ausonius and Sulpicius Severus were two of the teachers. In 1441, when Bordeaux was an English town, the Pope Eugene IV created a university by demand of the archbishop Pey Berland. In 1793, during the French Revolution, the National Convention abolished the university, and replace them with the École centrale in 1796. In Bordeaux, this one was located in the former buildings of the college of Guyenne. In 1808, the university reappeared with Napoleon. Bordeaux accommodates approximately 70,000 students on one of the largest campuses of Europe (235 ha). === Schools === Bordeaux has numerous public and private schools offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Engineering schools: Arts et Métiers ParisTech, graduate school of industrial and mechanical engineering ESME-Sudria, graduate school of engineering École nationale supérieure d'électronique, informatique, télécommunications, mathématique et mécanique de Bordeaux (ENSEIRB-MATMECA) École supérieure de technologie des biomolécules de Bordeaux École nationale supérieure des sciences agronomiques de Bordeaux Aquitaine École nationale supérieure de chimie et physique de Bordeaux École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies Institut des sciences et techniques des aliments de Bordeaux Institut de cognitique École supérieure d'informatique École privée des sciences informatiques Business and management schools: The Bordeaux MBA (International College of Bordeaux) IUT Techniques de Commercialisation of Bordeaux (business school) INSEEC Business School (Institut des hautes études économiques et commerciales) KEDGE Business School (former BEM – Bordeaux Management School) Vatel Bordeaux International Business School E-Artsup Institut supérieur européen de gestion group Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action Other: École nationale de la magistrature (National school for the judiciary) (EFAP) (CNAM) (law school) === Weekend education === The , a part-time Japanese supplementary school, is held in the Salle de L'Athénée Municipal in Bordeaux. == Attractions and tourism == In October 2021, Bordeaux was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Copenhagen, Dublin, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca, and Valencia. === Heritage and architecture === Bordeaux is classified "City of Art and History". The city is home to 362 monuments historiques (national heritage sites), with some buildings dating back to Roman times. Bordeaux, Port of the Moon, has been inscribed on UNESCO World Heritage List as "an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble". Bordeaux is home to one of Europe's biggest 18th-century architectural urban areas, making it a sought-after destination for tourists and cinema production crews. It stands out as one of the first French cities, after Nancy, to have entered an era of urbanism and metropolitan big scale projects, with the team Gabriel father and son, architects for King Louis XV, under the supervision of two intendants (Governors), first Nicolas-François Dupré de Saint-Maur then the Marquis de Tourny. Saint-André Cathedral, Saint-Michel Basilica and Saint-Seurin Basilica are part of the World Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France. The organ in Saint-Louis-des-Chartrons is registered on the French monuments historiques. Notable historic buildings include: Place de la Bourse (1735–1755), designed by the Royal architect Jacques Gabriel as landscape for an equestrian statue of Louis XV, now replaced by the Fountain of the Three Graces. Grand Théâtre (1780), a large neoclassical theater built in the 18th century. Allées de Tourny Cours de l'Intendance Place du Chapelet Place du Parlement Place des Quinconces, the largest square in France. Monument aux Girondins Place Saint-Pierre Pont de pierre (1822) Bordeaux Cathedral (Saint André), consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1096 and dedicated to the Apostle Saint Andrew. Of the original Romanesque edifice only a wall in the nave remains. The Royal Door is from the early 13th century, while the rest of the construction is mostly from the 14th and 15th centuries. Tour Pey-Berland (1440–1450), a massive, quadrangular Gothic tower annexed to the cathedral. Sainte-Croix church: This church, dedicated to the Holy Cross, stands on the site of a seventh-century abbey destroyed by the Saracens. Rebuilt under the Carolingians, it was again destroyed by the Normans in 845 and 864. The present building was erected and was built in the late 11th and early 12th centuries. The façade is in Romanesque style. The Gothic Saint Michel Basilica, constructed between the end of the 14th century and the 16th century. Basilica of Saint Severinus, the oldest church in Bordeaux, built in the early sixth century on the site of a palaeo-Christian necropolis. It has an 11th-century portico, while the apse and transept are from the 12th. The 13th-century nave has chapels from the 11th and the 14th centuries. The ancient crypt houses tombs of the Merovingian family. Église Saint-Pierre, Gothic church Église Saint-Éloi, Gothic church Église Saint-Bruno, baroque church decorated with frescoes Église Notre-Dame, baroque church Église Saint-Paul-Saint-François-Xavier, baroque church Palais Rohan, once the archbishop's residence, now city hall , the remains of a late second-century Roman amphitheatre Porte Cailhau, a medieval gatehouse in the old city walls. La Grosse Cloche (15th century), the second remaining gate in the medieval walls. It was the belfry of the old Town Hall. It consists of two circular towers and a central bell tower housing a bell weighing . The clock is from 1759. Grande Synagogue, completed 1882 Rue Sainte-Catherine, the longest pedestrian street in France Darwin ecosystem, alternative place into former military barracks The BETASOM submarine base File:Le Palais Gallien vestige gallo-romain à Bordeaux.jpg\|Palais Gallien File:Cathédrale St André Bordeaux 3.jpg\|Bordeaux Cathedral (Saint André) File:Bordeaux Porte Cailhau R02.jpg\|Porte Cailhau File:Grand Théâtre Bordeaux.jpg\|Grand Théâtre File:Bordeaux Notre-Dame R01.jpg\|The Notre Dame church File:151 - Le Pont de Pierre - Bordeaux.jpg\|Pont de Pierre File:Bordeaux - Basilique Saint-Michel - Vue générale.jpg\|Basilica of Saint Michel File:Puerta de Burdeos.JPG\|Grosse cloche File:026 - Hôtel de ville Place Pey-Berland - Bordeaux.jpg\|Palais Rohan (town hall) File:FacadeSainteCroixBordeauxsoir.jpg\|Sainte-Croix church File:Bordeaux Place du Parlement R01.jpg\|Place du Parlement File:Synagogue Bx 5.jpg\|The Grand Synagogue File:Façades de deux ouvrages Art Déco du Quartier Lescure (Bordeaux).jpg\|Facades of the Art déco district File:Darwin - Magasin général.jpg\|Darwin district File:Basesousmarine.JPG\|Submarine Pen Contemporary buildings in contemporary architectural style include: Cité Frugès, district of Pessac, built by Le Corbusier, 1924–1926, listed as UNESCO heritage Fire Station, la Benauge, Claude Ferret/Adrien Courtois/Yves Salier, 1951–1954 Mériadeck district, 1960–70's Court of first instance, Richard Rogers, 1998 CTBA, wood and furniture research center, A. Loisier, 1998 Hangar 14 on the Quai des Chartrons, 1999 The Management Science faculty on the Bastide, Anne Lacaton/Jean-Philippe Vassal, 2006 The Jardin botanique de la Bastide, Catherine Mosbach/Françoise Hélène Jourda/Pascal Convert, 2007 The Nuyens School complex on the Bastide, Yves Ballot/Nathalie Franck, 2007 Seeko'o Hotel on the Quai de Bacalan, King Kong architects, 2007 Matmut Atlantique stadium, Herzog & de Meuron, 2015 Cité du Vin, XTU architects, Anouk Legendre & Nicolas Desmazières, 2016 MECA, Maison de l'Économie Créative et de la culture de la Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine, Bjarke Ingels, 2019 File:Cité Frugès, Pessac 08.jpg\|Cité Frugès, at Pessac File:Bordeaux Meriadeck.JPG\|Mériadeck district File:Bordeaux Palais de Justice 23.JPG\|Court of first instance File:Seeko'o Hotel, Bordeaux, July 2014 (03).JPG\|Seeko'o hotel File:Cite du vin Bordeaux 2017 (37500642606).jpg\|Cité du Vin File:RB 20200222 Bordeaux-11.jpg\|MECA === Museums === Musée des Beaux-Arts (Fine arts museum), one of the finest painting galleries in France with paintings by painter such as Tiziano, Veronese, Rubens, Van Dyck, Frans Hals, Claude, Chardin, Delacroix, Renoir, Seurat, Redon, Matisse and Picasso. Musée d'Aquitaine (archeological and history museum) Musée du Vin et du Négoce (museum of the wine trade) (museum of decorative arts and design) Musée d'Histoire Naturelle (natural history museum) Musée Mer Marine (Sea and Navy museum) Cité du Vin CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux (modern art museum) Musée national des douanes (history of French customs) Bordeaux Patrimoine Mondial (architectural and heritage interpretation centre) Musée d'ethnologie (ethnology museum) Institut culturel Bernard Magrez, modern and streetart museum into an 18th-century mansion Cervantez Institute (into the house of Goya) Cap Sciences Centre Jean Moulin File:Beaux arts bordeaux.jpg\|Musée des Beaux-Arts File:Musée Aquitaine.JPG\|Musée d'Aquitaine File:Hôtel de Lalande - Musée des arts décoratifs et du design de Bordeaux.jpg\| File:CAPC janvier 2018.jpg\|CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux File:Musée du vin et du négoce de Bordeaux (3).jpg\|Musée du vin et du négoce de Bordeaux === Slavery memorials === Slavery was part of a growing drive for the city. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Bordeaux was an important slave port, which saw some 500 slave expeditions that cause the deportation of 150,000 Africans by Bordeaux shipowners. Secondly, even though the "Triangular trade" represented only 5% of Bordeaux's wealth, the city's direct trade with the Caribbean, that accounted for the other 95%, concerns the colonial stuffs made by the slave (sugar, coffee, cocoa). And thirdly, in that same period, a major migratory movement by Aquitanians took place to the Caribbean colonies, with Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) being the most popular destination. 40% of the white population of the island came from Aquitaine. They prospered with plantations incomes, until the first slave revolts which concluded in 1848 in the final abolition of slavery in France. A statue of Modeste Testas, an Ethiopian woman who was enslaved by the Bordeaux-based Testas brothers was unveiled in 2019. She was trafficked by them from West Africa, to Philadelphia (where one of the brothers coerced her to have two children by him) and was ultimately freed and lived in Haiti. The bronze sculpture was created by the Haitian artists Woodly Caymitte. A number of traces and memorial sites are visible in the city. Moreover, in May 2009, the Museum of Aquitaine opened the spaces dedicated to "Bordeaux in the 18th century, trans-Atlantic trading and slavery". This work, richly illustrated with original documents, contributes to disseminate the state of knowledge on this question, presenting above all the facts and their chronology. === Shopping === Bordeaux has many shopping options. In the heart of Bordeaux is Rue Sainte-Catherine. This pedestrianised street has of shops, restaurants and cafés; it is also one of the longest shopping streets in Europe. Rue Sainte-Catherine starts at Place de la Victoire and ends at Place de la Comédie by the Grand Théâtre. The shops become progressively more upmarket as one moves towards Place de la Comédie and the nearby Cours de l'Intendance is where there are the more exclusive shops and boutiques. == Culture == Bordeaux is the first city in France to have created, in the 1980s, an architecture exhibition and research centre, Arc en rêve. The city has a large number of cinemas, theatres, and is the home of the Opéra national de Bordeaux. There are many music venues of varying capacity. The city also offers several festivals throughout the year. The Bordeaux International Festival of Women in Cinema (Festival international du cinéma au féminin de Bordeaux) took place in Bordeaux from 2002 until 2005. The Festival international du film indépendant de Bordeaux (Fifib or FIFIB), was established in 2012. File:GrandTheatreBordeaux2.jpg\|Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux File:Bordeaux - Théâtre Femina.jpg\|Théâtre Femina File:RB 20200222 Bordeaux-11.jpg\|MECA, Maison de l'Économie Créative et de la Culture en Aquitaine == Transport == === Road === Bordeaux is an important road and motorway junction. The city is connected to Paris by the A10 motorway, with Lyon by the A89, with Toulouse by the A62, and with Spain by the A63. There is a ring road called the "Rocade" which is often very busy. Another ring road is under consideration. Bordeaux has five road bridges that cross the Garonne, the Pont de pierre built in the 1820s and three modern bridges built after 1960: the Pont Saint Jean, just south of the Pont de pierre (both located downtown), the Pont d'Aquitaine, a suspension bridge downstream from downtown, and the Pont François Mitterrand, located upstream of downtown. These two bridges are part of the ring-road around Bordeaux. A fifth bridge, the Pont Jacques-Chaban-Delmas, was constructed in 2009–2012 and opened to traffic in March 2013. Located halfway between the Pont de pierre and the Pont d'Aquitaine and serving downtown rather than highway traffic, it is a vertical-lift bridge with a height in closed position comparable to that of Pont de pierre, and to the Pont d'Aquitaine when open. All five road bridges, including the two highway bridges, are open to cyclists and pedestrians as well. Another bridge, the Pont Jean-Jacques Bosc, is to be built in 2018. Lacking any steep hills, Bordeaux is relatively friendly to cyclists. Cycle paths (separate from the roadways) exist on the highway bridges, along the riverfront, on the university campuses, and incidentally elsewhere in the city. Cycle lanes and bus lanes that explicitly allow cyclists exist on many of the city's boulevards. A paid bicycle-sharing system with automated stations was established in 2010. === Rail === The main railway station, Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean, near the center of the city, has 12 million passengers a year. It is served by the French national (SNCF) railway's high speed train, the TGV, that gets to Paris in two hours, with connections to major European centers such as Lille, Brussels, Amsterdam, Cologne, Geneva and London. The TGV also serves Toulouse and Irun (Spain) from Bordeaux. A regular train service is provided to Nantes, Nice, Marseille and Lyon. The Gare Saint-Jean is the major hub for regional trains (TER) operated by the SNCF to Arcachon, Limoges, Agen, Périgueux, Langon, Pau, Le Médoc, Angoulême and Bayonne. Historically the train line used to terminate at a station on the right bank of the river Garonne near the Pont de Pierre, and passengers crossed the bridge to get into the city. Subsequently, a double-track steel railway bridge was constructed in the 1850s, by Gustave Eiffel, to bring trains across the river direct into Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean. The old station was later converted and in 2010 comprised a cinema and restaurants. The two-track Eiffel bridge with a speed limit of became a bottleneck and a new bridge was built, opening in 2009. The new bridge has four tracks and allows trains to pass at . During the planning there was much lobbying by the Eiffel family and other supporters to preserve the old bridge as a footbridge across the Garonne, with possibly a museum to document the history of the bridge and Gustave Eiffel's contribution. The decision was taken to save the bridge, but by early 2010 no plans had been announced as to its future use. The bridge remains intact, but unused and without any means of access. The LGV Sud Europe Atlantique became fully operational in July 2017, shortening the journey time from Bordeaux city to Paris to 2hrs 4mins. === Air === Bordeaux is served by Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport, located from the city centre in the suburban city of Mérignac. === Trams, buses and boats === Bordeaux has an important public transport system called Transports Bordeaux Métropole (TBM). This company is run by the Keolis group. The network consists of: Four tram lines (A, B, C and D) 75 bus routes, all connected to the tramway network (from 1 to 96) 13 night bus routes (from 1 to 16) An electric bus shuttle in the city centre A boat shuttle on the Garonne river This network is operated from 5 am to 2 am. There had been several plans for a subway network to be set up, but they stalled for both geological and financial reasons. Work on the Tramway de Bordeaux system was started in the autumn of 2000, and services started in December 2003 connecting Bordeaux with its suburban areas. The tram system uses Alstom APS a form of ground-level power supply technology developed by French company Alstom and designed to preserve the aesthetic environment by eliminating overhead cables in the historic city. Conventional overhead cables are used outside the city. The system was controversial for its considerable cost of installation, maintenance and also for the numerous initial technical problems that paralysed the network. Many streets and squares along the tramway route became pedestrian areas, with limited access for cars. The Bordeaux Tramway system reached the Mérignac airport on April 29th 2023 with the opening of a 5-km extension of Line A. === Taxis === There are more than 400 taxicabs in Bordeaux. === Public transportation statistics === The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bordeaux, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 51 min. 12.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 13 min, while 15.5% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 8% travel for over in a single direction. == Sport == The 41,458-capacity Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux is the largest stadium in Bordeaux. The stadium was opened in 2015 and replaced the Stade Chaban-Delmas, which was a venue for the FIFA World Cup in 1938 and 1998, as well as the 2007 Rugby World Cup. In the 1938 FIFA World Cup, it hosted a violent quarter-final known as the Battle of Bordeaux. The ground was formerly known as the Stade du Parc Lescure until 2001, when it was renamed in honour of the city's long-time mayor, Jacques Chaban-Delmas. There are two major sport teams in Bordeaux, Girondins de Bordeaux is the football team who, following administrative relegation, currently play in Championnat National 2, the fourth tier of French football. They are one of the most successful clubs in France, with six Division 1/Ligue 1 titles. Union Bordeaux Bègles is a rugby team in the Top 14 in the Ligue Nationale de Rugby. Skateboarding, rollerblading, and BMX biking are activities enjoyed by many young inhabitants of the city. Bordeaux is home to a quay which runs along the Garonne river. On the quay there is a skate-park divided into three sections. One section is for Vert tricks, one for street style tricks, and one for little action sports athletes with easier features and softer materials. The skate-park is very well maintained by the municipality. Other sports clubs include top flight ice hockey team Boxers de Bordeaux and third-tier basketball team JSA Bordeaux Basket Bordeaux is also the home to one of the strongest cricket teams in France and are champions of the South West League. There is a wooden velodrome, Vélodrome du Lac, in Bordeaux which hosts international cycling competition in the form of UCI Track Cycling World Cup events. The 2015 Trophee Eric Bompard was in Bordeaux. But the Free Skate was cancelled in all of the divisions due to the Paris and aftermath. The Short Program occurred hours before the bombing. French skaters Chafik Besseghier (68.36) in tenth place, Romain Ponsart (62.86) in 11th. Mae-Berenice-Meite (46.82) in 11th and Laurine Lecavelier (46.53) in 12th. Vanessa James/Morgan Cipres (65.75) in second. Between 1951 and 1955, an annual Formula 1 motor race was held on a 2.5-kilometre circuit which looped around the Esplanade des Quinconces and along the waterfront, attracting drivers such as Juan Manuel Fangio, Stirling Moss, Jean Behra and Maurice Trintignant. == Notable people == File:Ausonius.jpg\|Ausonius File:Anthony Frederick Sandys - Queen Eleanor.JPG\|Eleanor of Aquitaine File:Richard II King of England.jpg\|Richard II of England File:Montaigne-Dumonstier.jpg\|Michel de Montaigne File:Sta. Joana de Lestonnac.jpg\|Sainte Jeanne de Lestonnac File:Charles Montesquieu.jpg\|Montesquieu File:Rosa Bonheur, 1865, wearing the Legion of Honour.jpg\|Rosa Bonheur File:095 Odilon Redon Mon portrait.jpg\|Odilon Redon File:Self-Portrait Albert Marquet (1904).jpg\|Albert Marquet Ausonius (310–395), Roman poet and teacher of rhetoric Jean Alaux (1786–1864), painter Bertrand Andrieu (1761–1822), engraver Jean Anouilh (1910–1987), dramatist Lucien Arman (1811–1873), shipbuilder and politician Yvonne Arnaud (1892–1958), pianist, singer and actress Xavier Arnozan (1852–1928), physician Floyd Ayité (born 1988), Togolese footballer Jonathan Ayité (born 1985), Togolese footballer Jean-Baptiste Barrière (1707–1747), cellist, composer Gérard Bayo (born 1936), writer and poet Jean Bertheroy (1858-1927), writer François Bigot (1703–1778), last "Intendant" of New France Arnaud Binard (born 1971), actor and producer Rosa Bonheur (1822–1899), animal painter and sculptor Grégory Bourdy (born 1982), golfer Samuel Boutal (born 1969), footballer Alice Caffarel (born 1961), linguist Edmond de Caillou (died c. February 1316) Gascon knight fighting in Scotland Gérald Caussé, Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Leopold Chasseriau (1825–1891), planter René Clément (1913–1996), actor, director, writer Jean-René Cruchet (1875–1959), pathologist José Cubero Sánchez (1964–1985), Spanish bullfighter Boris Cyrulnik (born 1937), psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Damia (1899–1978), singer and actress Étienne Noël Damilaville (1723–1768), encyclopédiste Lili Damita (1901–1994), actress Frédéric Daquin, (born 1978), footballer Danielle Darrieux (1917–2017), actress Bernard Delvaille (1931–2006), poet, essayist David Diop (1927–1960), poet Jean-Francois Domergue, footballer Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204), duchess of Aquitaine, queen of France and queen of England Jacques Ellul (1912–1994), sociologist, theologian, Christian anarchist Jean Eustache (1938–1981), Nouvelle Vague director Marie Fel (1713–1794), opera singer Jean-Luc Fournet (1965), papyrologist Pierre-Jean Garat (1762–1823), singer Armand Gensonné (1758–1793), politician Sébastien Gervais (born 1976), professional footballer Stephen Girard (1750–1831), merchant, banker, and Philadelphia philanthropist Jérôme Gnako (born 1968), footballer Randolphe Gohi (born 1969), former professional footballer Eugène Goossens (1867–1958), conductor, violinist Anna Hamilton (1864–1935), doctor, superintendent of the Protestant Hospital at Bordeaux (1901–1934) Adolphe Jacquies (c. 1798–1860), Canadian shopkeeper, printer, trade unionist, and newspaper publisher Joseph Kabris (1780-1822), sailor known for his tattoos Pierre Lacour (1745–1814), painter Léopold Lafleurance (1865–1953), flautist Joseph Henri Joachim Lainé (1767–1835), statesman Sainte Jeanne de Lestonnac (1556–1640), Roman Catholic saint and foundress of the Sisters of the Company of Mary, Our Lady Christophe Lestrade (born 1969), former professional footballer André Lhote (1885–1962), cubist painter Jeanne Henriette Louis, (1938), professor of North American civilization Jean-Baptiste Lynch (1749–1835), politician Lucenzo (born 1983), singer Jean-Jacques Magendie (1766–1835), officer François Magendie (1783–1855), physiologist Bruno Marie-Rose (born 1965), athlete (sprinter) Albert Marquet, (1875–1947), painter François Mauriac (1885–1970), writer, Nobel laureate 1952 Benjamin Millepied (born 1977), dancer and choreographer Édouard Molinaro (1928–2013), film director, screenwriter Pierre Molinier (1900–1976), painter, photographer Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), essayist Montesquieu (1689–1755), man of letters and political philosopher Olivier Mony (1966–), writer and literary critic Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty (1768–1815), general Elie Okobo, basketball player Pierre Palmade (born 1968), actor and comedian St. Paulinus of Nola (354–431), educator, religious figure Émile Péreire (1800–1875), banker and industrialist Sophie Pétronin (born 1945), aid worker and humanitarian Albert Pitres (1848–1928), neurologist Hippolyte Pradelles (1824–1913), naturalist painter Georges Antoine Pons Rayet (1839–1906), astronomer, discoverer of the Wolf-Rayet stars, & founder of the Bordeaux Observatory Odilon Redon (1840–1916), painter Richard II of England (1367–1400), king Pierre Rode (1774–1830), violinist Olinde Rodrigues (1795–1851), mathematician, banker and social reformer Marie-Sabine Roger (born 1957), writer Eugenie Santa Coloma Sourget (1827–1895), composer, pianist and singer Bernard Sarrette (1765–1858), conductor and music pedagogue Jean-Jacques Sempé (1932–2022), cartoonist Florent Serra (born 1981), tennis player Alfred Smith, (1854–1932), painter Soko (born 1985), singer Philippe Sollers, (born 1936), writer Wilfried Tekovi, (born 1989), Togolese footballer Elie Vinet (1509–1587), historian and humanist of the Renaissance Adam Siao Him Fa, (born 2001), professional figure skater Claude Dagens, (born 1940), prelate == International relationships == === Twin towns – sister cities === Bordeaux is twinned with: Ashdod, Israel, since 1984 Bristol, United Kingdom, since 1947 Casablanca, Morocco, since 1988 Lima, Peru, since 1957 Madrid, Spain, since 1984 Oran, Algeria, since 2003 Quebec City, Quebec Canada, since 1962 Saint Petersburg, Russia, since 1993 Wuhan, China, since 1998	[ "Gironde's 2nd constituency", "Gironde's 1st constituency", "Triangular trade", "Garonne", "Paulinus of Nola", "French National School for the Judiciary", "Jean Alaux", "M51 (missile)", "BEM", "Alfred Smith (artist)", "Munich", "Madrid", "equestrian statue", "Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin", "Jonathan Ayité", "Boxers de Bordeaux", "Bordeaux–Paris", "Pont de pierre (Bordeaux)", "Nicolas Sarkozy", "Bike lane", "Pascal Convert", "Cité du Vin", "Arena (swimwear)", "plasma (physics)", "Eugène Delacroix", "bell tower", "André-Daniel Laffon de Ladebat", "Robespierre", "World Heritage List", "Kingdom of France", "fr:Cap Sciences", "Philadelphia", "Bertrand Andrieu", "Gauls", "La France Insoumise", "Marie Fel", "Cabinet des Médailles", "Safran", "Porto", "Port of the Moon", "Indirect election", "Odo the Great", "Jean Eustache", "2017 French legislative election", "Palma de Mallorca", "Allobroges", "French New Wave", "Parti communiste français", "Valencia", "Battle of the River Garonne", "Top 14", "Chantal Bourragué", "Basilica of Saint Severinus of Bordeaux", "Philippe Poutou", "Pernod Ricard", "Cantons of Bordeaux", "Jacques Gabriel", "Twin towns and sister cities", "Gironde's 6th constituency", "Jérôme Gnako", "Europe Ecology – The Greens", "Armand Gensonné", "Waiofar", "Langon, Gironde", "Nancy, France", "New Deal (France)", "Marguerite-Élie Guadet", "FC Girondins de Bordeaux", "Port of Bordeaux", "List of mayors of Bordeaux", "Journal officiel de la République française", "Pierre-Jean Garat", "Bordeaux Tramway Line C", "The Republicans (France)", "Riga", "Matisse", "Society of the Friends of the Blacks", "Rocade de Bordeaux", "SNCF", "CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux", "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration", "Vinexpo", "Bordeaux Tramway Line B", "Paolo Veronese", "Toussaint Louverture", "Albert Marquet", "Marine Le Pen", "Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action", "Edward, the Black Prince", "Peninsular War", "Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology", "Battle of Bordeaux (football)", "Gironde's 4th constituency", "Agen", "Benjamin Millepied", "Kraków", "Championnat National 2", "François Mauriac", "Sébastien Gervais", "École centrale", "Jean-Paul Marat", "A62 autoroute", "Jean Bertheroy", "Sauvignon blanc", "Jock (company)", "French wine", "Lupo II of Gascony", "Floyd Ayité", "Francia", "Normans", "Jean-Luc Mélenchon", "The Washington Post", "Graves (wine region)", "Stirling Moss", "Van Dyck", "Solectron", "bus lane", "Florence", "Jean-Jacques Sempé", "Renoir", "Elisée Reclus", "Booster (rocketry)", "Sophie Pétronin", "Groupe Castel", "New Anticapitalist Party", "Alstom APS", "urban sprawl", "Ljubljana", "Ancient Rome", "Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty", "Girondists", "Mayor (France)", "Atlantic history", "Randolphe Gohi", "Jean-Francois Domergue", "Transports Bordeaux Métropole", "Casablanca", "U-boats", "BETASOM", "Bordeaux Métropole", "Montagnard (French Revolution)", "Ariane 5", "Saint-Domingue", "Smurfit Kappa", "Hugues Martin", "Miroir d'eau", "amphitheatre", "Bell tower", "Gironde", "urbanism", "Duke of Wellington", "Departments of France", "Édouard Molinaro", "Tour Pey-Berland", "Michèle Delaunay", "Ensemble!", "Lille", "Franco-Prussian war", "Count of Bordeaux", "Génération.s", "Saint-Louis-des-Chartrons", "Malbec", "wine lake", "Eleanor of Aquitaine", "Visigoths", "Stephen Girard", "Duchy of Aquitaine", "Battle of Castillon", "Los Angeles", "French Revolution", "UNESCO", "Vikings", "Jean-Baptiste Lynch", "Tramway de Bordeaux", "École nationale supérieure des sciences agronomiques de Bordeaux Aquitaine", "Saint Petersburg", "World War I", "Jean-Baptiste Barrière", "Victor Hugo", "Sémillon", "Riga City Council", "Pepin the Short", "Lucien Arman", "Amsterdam", "vine pull schemes", "Louis XIV of France", "Cologne", "List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants", "Portuguese people", "McKesson Corporation", "Jacques Ellul", "LGV Sud Europe Atlantique", "Mouvement démocrate (France)", "Gérald Caussé", "wine tourism", "Frédéric Daquin", "fr:Liste des monuments historiques de Bordeaux", "Woodly Caymitte", "Jean-René Cruchet", "National Convention", "Rosa Bonheur", "pedestrianised", "Napoleon III of France", "Bernard Sarrette", "Bordeaux wine regions", "Research", "Great Synagogue of Bordeaux", "Carolingian dynasty", "bullfighter", "Ségolène Royal", "Gironde's 5th constituency", "Rubens", "Danielle Darrieux", "Gironde estuary", "Florent Serra", "Jean-Luc Fournet", "Jean-Marie Le Pen", "Jean-Jacques Magendie", "abolitionism", "Le Corbusier", "apse", "Picasso", "ESME-Sudria", "Mediterranean climate", "dessert wine", "Claude Lorrain", "Fronsac, Gironde", "Georges Rayet", "Château Haut-Brion", "Union Bordeaux Bègles", "Lucius Cassius Longinus (consul 107 BC)", "Basilica of St. Michael, Bordeaux", "René Clément", "Trolleybus", "Lucenzo", "Interchange (road)", "Arc en rêve", "Louis XV of France", "2019 European Parliament election in France", "José Cubero Sánchez", "British Museum", "Prefectures of France", "Aquitaine", "Transport express régional", "Communes of the Gironde department", "Joseph Kabris", "Institut des hautes études économiques et commerciales", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bordeaux", "Dordogne (river)", "Bruno Marie-Rose", "Haiti", "Place Publique", "William IV, Duke of Aquitaine", "Battle of Burdigala", "FIFA World Cup", "gatehouse", "Bjarke Ingels", "Seguin II of Gascony", "World Heritage Site", "Musée des Beaux-Arts de Bordeaux", "Dog breed", "Radical Movement", "Pierre Lacour", "Grégory Bourdy", "Lili Damita", "Eugène Goossens, fils", "Richard II of England", "claret", "History of slavery", "Radical Party of the Left", "Meteo France", "Pey Berland", "François Bigot", "Yvonne Arnaud", "French colonial empire", "Antwerp", "missile", "Maurice Trintignant", "INSEEC", "Seurat", "Elie Vinet", "Samuel Boutal", "Marseille", "The Europe Prize", "Combined Operations Headquarters", "Leopold Chasseriau", "Alain Juppé", "bell (instrument)", "fleur-de-lis", "Bordeaux wine", "Palais Rohan, Bordeaux", "French football league system", "urban heat island", "Left Party (France)", "Spanish people", "Institut de cognitique", "École nationale supérieure de chimie et de physique de Bordeaux", "Pont Jacques-Chaban-Delmas", "William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford", "Nicolas Florian", "Périgueux", "Frans Hals", "military aircraft", "Köppen climate classification", "Pont d'Aquitaine", "Étienne Noël Damilaville", "List of Celtic tribes", "Roman consul", "Gourmet Touring", "Sainte-Catherine Street (Bordeaux)", "ancient Rome", "Jean Anouilh", "Hippolyte Pradelles", "Pyrenees", "velodrome", "Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques", "WP:EPONYMOUS", "Sisters of the Company of Mary, Our Lady", "Petit verdot", "Institut supérieur européen de gestion group", "Alice Caffarel", "County of Bordeaux", "JSA Bordeaux Basket", "David Diop", "rhetoric", "A63 autoroute", "Musée des beaux-arts de Bordeaux", "Oxbow (surfwear)", "Musée d'Aquitaine", "Philippe Sollers", "association football", "appellations", "Hunald I", "Aristides de Sousa Mendes", "Pope Eugene IV", "Musée des Arts Décoratifs et du Design", "TGV", "Arts et Métiers ParisTech", "climate change", "Art déco", "Germans", "Charles Martel", "Émile Péreire", "Pessac", "Elie Okobo", "Nicolas-François Dupré de Saint-Maur", "Duchy of Vasconia", "Pope Urban II", "Jardin botanique de la Bastide", "Slave Trade", "road bicycle racing", "Union of Democrats and Independents", "European Commission", "Claude Dagens", "Dassault Aviation", "Burdigalian", "Lima", "Versailles, Yvelines", "portico", "Groupe Bernard", "Battle of Roncevaux Pass", "Stade Chaban-Delmas", "List of constituencies of the National Assembly of France", "Henry II of England", "Lyon", "Jean Behra", "KEDGE Business School", "Bernard Magrez", "EPSI", "Odilon Redon", "2007 Rugby World Cup", "Battle of Tours", "Georges-Eugène Haussmann", "Bonapartist", "Place des Quinconces", "Napoleon", "National Rugby League (France)", "Henry I of England", "Merovingian dynasty", "Herzog & de Meuron", "transept", "Muscadelle", "François Hollande", "creativecommons:by/4.0/", "Olinde Rodrigues", "Les Republicains", "Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi", "École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies", "Pierre Molinier", "Pierre Palmade", "Port de la Lune", "Béatrice Desaigues", "Communes of France", "Fronde", "Cdiscount", "François Magendie", "Fukuoka", "Marie-Louise Damien", "Gascon language", "House of Poitiers", "Château d'Yquem", "Museum of Aquitaine", "Nouvelle-Aquitaine", "Anna Hamilton", "Parti socialiste (France)", "Bituriges Vivisci", "Carménère", "Gironde's 7th constituency", "MECA of Bordeaux", "Miocene", "château", "Nantes", "Encyclopédistes", "ocean liner", "Counts and dukes of Anjou", "Atlantic Ocean", "Jacques Chaban-Delmas", "Emmanuel Macron", "rugby union", "Duke of Aquitaine", "Pierre Rode", "Thales Group", "Bernard Delvaille", "Jardin botanique de Bordeaux", "Olivier Mony", "Jeanne Henriette Louis", "Bus lines in Bordeaux", "Ramallah", "House of Bourbon", "Mérignac, Gironde", "taxicab", "Plantation economy", "Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux", "Modeste Testas", "Arnaud Binard", "Dogue de Bordeaux", "Limited-access road", "humid subtropical climate", "Beltway", "Pierre Hurmic", "Adam Siao Him Fa", "Marie Brizard et Roger International", "Alain Rousset", "Romanesque architecture", "Franks", "Viking", "Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean", "Joseph Henri Joachim Lainé", "Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport", "Canelé", "Dassault Group", "Globalization and World Cities Research Network", "Merlot", "Prefectures in France", "Umayyad Caliphate", "Basques", "UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics", "Snecma", "Haitian Revolution", "Gérard Bayo", "vertical-lift bridge", "latitude", "Airbus A380", "Musée national des douanes", "megajoule laser", "Cité Frugès de Pessac", "Quebec City", "Angevin Empire", "Ausonius", "vineyard", "Marie-Sabine Roger", "Toulouse", "cricket", "Aquitanian language", "Ramnulfids", "Seguin I of Gascony", "Eugenie Santa Coloma Sourget", "grammar", "Rally for the Republic", "Vandals", "Alstom", "Fon people", "dog fighting", "A10 autoroute (France)", "Place de la Bourse", "exurb", "Bourbon Restoration in France", "tin", "suburb", "ground-level power supply", "Irun", "Adolphe Jacquies", "Christophe Lestrade", "Operation Frankton", "Bordeaux Tramway Line D", "Gironde's 3rd constituency", "Edmond de Caillou", "André Lhote", "Xavier Arnozan", "oceanic climate", "Soko (singer)", "Piliers de Tutelle", "German military administration in occupied France during World War II", "Union for a Popular Movement", "Gustave Eiffel", "Église Sainte-Croix", "Jean-François Ducos", "Tiziano", "Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas", "Boris Cyrulnik", "Copenhagen", "Médoc", "First Growth", "ArianeGroup", "Tremissis", "Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855", "Regia Marina", "INSEE", "Arcachon", "Cabernet Sauvignon", "Cabernet Franc", "World Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Dublin", "Sulpicius Severus", "Treaty of Brétigny", "Girondins", "lead", "E-Artsup", "LaREM", "Samsun", "2017 French presidential election", "Functional area (France)", "1938 FIFA World Cup", "Bordeaux Cathedral", "President of the Republic", "Albert Pitres", "Agir (France)", "Limoges", "Métropole", "François Bayrou", "Bordeaux International Festival of Women in Cinema", "Oran", "Wuhan", "Bristol", "Divico", "World War II", "Baku", "Les Républicains", "Hoshuko", "Richard Rogers", "Duke of Gascony", "Jeanne de Lestonnac", "Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul", "Tribunal d'instance", "Ligue 1", "Tigurini", "monuments historiques", "Montesquieu", "Ashdod", "laser", "Laser Mégajoule", "Turkish people", "Michel de Montaigne", "Benjamin Franklin", "Mascaron (architecture)", "cockpit", "Wilfried Tekovi", "Léopold Lafleurance", "Bayonne", "Dassault Mirage 2000", "12th U-boat Flotilla", "Sanofi-Aventis", "Trewartha climate classification", "EADS Sogerma", "Francisco Goya", "Bilbao", "Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux", "Paris", "2003 European heat wave", "Jean-Fernand Audeguil", "Juan Manuel Fangio", "La République En Marche!", "bicycle-sharing system", "Battle of the Atlantic", "Jean-Baptiste Boyer-Fonfrède", "place de la Bourse", "Liberation of France", "A89 autoroute", "French Section of the Workers' International", "Bordeaux Tramway Line A", "Dassault Rafale" ]
4,098	Puzzle Bobble	internationally known as Bust-A-Move, is a 1994 tile-matching puzzle arcade game developed and published by Taito. It is based on the 1986 arcade game Bubble Bobble, featuring characters and themes from that game. Its characteristically cute Japanese animation and music, along with its play mechanics and level designs, made it successful as an arcade title and spawned several sequels and ports to home gaming systems. ==Gameplay== At the start of each round, the rectangular playing arena contains a prearranged pattern of colored "bubbles". At the bottom of the screen, the player controls a device called a "pointer", which aims and fires bubbles up the screen. The color of bubbles fired is randomly generated and chosen from the colors of bubbles still left on the screen. The objective of the game is to clear all the bubbles from the arena without any bubble crossing the bottom line. Bubbles will fire automatically if the player remains idle. After clearing the arena, the next round begins with a new pattern of bubbles to clear. The arcade version of the game consists of 30 levels. The fired bubbles travel in straight lines (possibly bouncing off the sidewalls of the arena), stopping when they touch other bubbles or reach the top of the arena. If a bubble touches identically colored bubbles, forming a group of three or more, those bubbles—as well as any bubbles hanging from them—are removed from the field of play, and points are awarded. After every few shots, the "ceiling" of the playing arena drops downwards slightly, along with all the bubbles stuck to it. The number of shots between each drop of the ceiling is influenced by the number of bubble colors remaining. The closer the bubbles get to the bottom of the screen, the faster the music plays and if they cross the line at the bottom then the game is over. ==Release== Two different versions of the original game were released. Puzzle Bobble was originally released in Japan only in June 1994 by Taito, running on Taito B System hardware (with the preliminary title "Bubble Buster"). Then, six months later in December, the international Neo Geo version of Puzzle Bobble was released. It was almost identical aside from being in stereo and having some different sound effects and translated text. ==Reception== In Japan, Game Machine listed the Neo Geo version of Puzzle Bobble on their February 15, 1995 issue as being the second most-popular arcade game at the time. It went on to become Japan's second highest-grossing arcade printed circuit board (PCB) software of 1995, below Virtua Fighter 2. In North America, RePlay reported the Neo Geo version of Puzzle Bobble to be the fourth most-popular arcade game in February 1995. Reviewing the Super NES version, Mike Weigand of Electronic Gaming Monthly called it "a thoroughly enjoyable and incredibly addicting puzzle game". He considered the two player mode the highlight, but also said that the one player mode provides a solid challenge. GamePro gave it a generally negative review, saying it starts out fun but that ultimately lacks intricacy and longevity. They elaborated that in one player mode all the levels feel the same, and that two player matches are over too quickly to build up any excitement. They also criticized the lack of any 3D effects in the graphics. Next Generation reviewed the SNES version of the game and called it "addictive as hell". A reviewer for Next Generation, while questioning the continued viability of the action puzzle genre, admitted that the game is "very simple and very addictive". He remarked that though the 3DO version makes no significant additions, none are called for by a game with such simple enjoyment. GamePros brief review of the 3DO version commented that the game's controls are responsive, and they also praised visuals and music. Edge magazine ranked the game 73rd on their 100 Best Video Games in 2007. IGN rated the SNES version 54th in its Top 100 SNES Games. ==Legacy== The simplicity of the concept has led to many clones, both commercial and otherwise. 1996's Snood replaced the bubbles with small creatures and has been successful in its own right. Worms Blast was Team 17's take on the concept. On September 24, 2000, British game publisher Empire Interactive released a similar game, Spin Jam, for the original PlayStation console. Mobile clones include Bubble Witch Saga and Bubble Shooter. Frozen Bubble is a free software clone. For Bubble Bobbles 35th anniversary, Taito launched Puzzle Bobble VR: Vacation Odyssey on the Oculus Quest and Oculus Quest 2, later coming to PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 as Puzzle Bobble 3D: Vacation Odyssey in 2021.'' === Puzzle Bobble Everybubble! === Puzzle Bobble Everybubble! was released on May 23, 2023, for Nintendo Switch. The game also comes with an extra mode called "Puzzle Bobble vs. Space Invaders", where up to four players can work together to erase bubble-encased invaders before they reach the player while only being able to aim straight up.	[ "Tile-matching video game", "Kawaii", "Nintendo Switch", "3DO Interactive Multiplayer", "Oculus Quest 2", "Snood (video game)", "Neo Geo", "Interplay Productions", "Space Invaders", "GT Interactive", "WonderSwan", "3DO", "Anime", "Bubble Bobble", "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "Neo Geo MVS", "Bubble Shooter", "Arcade game", "Taito", "Allgame", "Virtua Fighter 2", "1995 in video games", "PlayStation (console)", "Taito B System", "International Data Group", "Future Publishing", "arcade game", "printed circuit board", "ja:アミューズメント通信社", "PlayStation 5", "GamePro", "Empire Interactive", "Single-player video game", "Next Generation (magazine)", "IGN", "Sunsoft", "Super Nintendo Entertainment System", "Neo Geo CD", "Frozen Bubble", "Oculus Quest", "Microsoft Windows", "PlayStation Portable", "ja:ゲームマシン", "SNK", "free software", "SNES", "Stereophonic sound", "Edge (magazine)", "Arcade video game", "Multiplayer video game", "Puzzle video game", "PlayStation 4", "United Kingdom", "Panasonic", "Future US", "Worms Blast", "Super Play", "Game Gear", "Imagine Media" ]
4,099	Bone	A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have complex internal and external structures. They are lightweight yet strong and hard and serve multiple functions. Bone tissue (osseous tissue), which is also called bone in the uncountable sense of that word, is hard tissue, a type of specialised connective tissue. It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity. Bone tissue is made up of different types of bone cells. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in the formation and mineralisation of bone; osteoclasts are involved in the resorption of bone tissue. Modified (flattened) osteoblasts become the lining cells that form a protective layer on the bone surface. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly collagen called ossein and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts. Bone tissue is mineralized tissue of two types, cortical bone and cancellous bone. Other types of tissue found in bones include bone marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels, and cartilage. In the human body at birth, approximately 300 bones are present. Many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear. The Ancient Greek word for bone is ὀστέον ("osteon"), hence the many terms that use it as a prefix—such as osteopathy. In anatomical terminology, including the Terminologia Anatomica international standard, the word for a bone is os (for example, os breve, os longum, os sesamoideum). == Structure == Bone is not uniformly solid, but consists of a flexible matrix (about 30%) and bound minerals (about 70%), which are intricately woven and continuously remodeled by a group of specialized bone cells. Their unique composition and design allows bones to be relatively hard and strong, while remaining lightweight. Bone matrix is 90 to 95% composed of elastic collagen fibers, also known as ossein, and the remainder is ground substance. The elasticity of collagen improves fracture resistance. The matrix is hardened by the binding of inorganic mineral salt, calcium phosphate, in a chemical arrangement known as bone mineral, a form of calcium apatite. It is the mineralization that gives bones rigidity. Bone is actively constructed and remodeled throughout life by specialized bone cells known as osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Within any single bone, the tissue is woven into two main patterns: cortical and cancellous bone, each with a distinct appearance and characteristics. ===Cortex=== The hard outer layer of bones is composed of cortical bone, which is also called compact bone as it is much denser than cancellous bone. It forms the hard exterior (cortex) of bones. The cortical bone gives bone its smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult human skeleton. It facilitates bone's main functions—to support the whole body, to protect organs, to provide levers for movement, and to store and release chemical elements, mainly calcium. It consists of multiple microscopic columns, each called an osteon or Haversian system. Each column is multiple layers of osteoblasts and osteocytes around a central canal called the osteonic canal. Volkmann's canals at right angles connect the osteons together. The columns are metabolically active, and as bone is reabsorbed and created the nature and location of the cells within the osteon will change. Cortical bone is covered by a periosteum on its outer surface, and an endosteum on its inner surface. The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon. === Trabeculae === Cancellous bone or spongy bone, also known as trabecular bone, is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network that follows the material properties of biofoams. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone and it is less dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints, and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red bone marrow where hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula. The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution that a bone experiences within long bones such as the femur. As far as short bones are concerned, trabecular alignment has been studied in the vertebral pedicle. Thin formations of osteoblasts covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces, known as trabeculae. Within these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone. The words cancellous and trabecular refer to the tiny lattice-shaped units (trabeculae) that form the tissue. It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of Crisóstomo Martinez. ===Marrow=== Bone marrow, also known as myeloid tissue in red bone marrow, can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow or hematopoietic marrow, but as the child ages the hematopoietic fraction decreases in quantity and the fatty/ yellow fraction called marrow adipose tissue (MAT) increases in quantity. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the bone marrow of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones. ===Vascular supply=== Bone receives about 10% of cardiac output. Blood enters the endosteum, flows through the marrow, and exits through small vessels in the cortex. Once the osteoblast is finished working it is actually trapped inside the bone once it hardens. When the osteoblast becomes trapped, it becomes known as an osteocyte. Other osteoblasts remain on the top of the new bone and are used to protect the underlying bone, these become known as bone lining cells. ====Osteocyte==== Osteocytes are cells of mesenchymal origin and originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by a bone matrix that they themselves produced. The spaces the cell body of osteocytes occupy within the mineralized collagen type I matrix are known as lacunae, while the osteocyte cell processes occupy channels called canaliculi. The many processes of osteocytes reach out to meet osteoblasts, osteoclasts, bone lining cells, and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication. Osteocytes remain in contact with other osteocytes in the bone through gap junctions—coupled cell processes which pass through the canalicular channels. ====Osteoclast==== Osteoclasts are very large multinucleate cells that are responsible for the breakdown of bones by the process of bone resorption. New bone is then formed by the osteoblasts. Bone is constantly remodeled by the resorption of osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are large cells with multiple nuclei located on bone surfaces in what are called Howship's lacunae (or resorption pits). These lacunae are the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate. The reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts also plays a role in calcium homeostasis. ===Composition=== Bones consist of living cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes) embedded in a mineralized organic matrix. The primary inorganic component of human bone is hydroxyapatite, the dominant bone mineral, having the nominal composition of Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. The organic components of this matrix consist mainly of type I collagen—"organic" referring to materials produced as a result of the human body—and inorganic components, which alongside the dominant hydroxyapatite phase, include other compounds of calcium and phosphate including salts. Approximately 30% of the acellular component of bone consists of organic matter, while roughly 70% by mass is attributed to the inorganic phase. The collagen fibers give bone its tensile strength, and the interspersed crystals of hydroxyapatite give bone its compressive strength. These effects are synergistic. The exact composition of the matrix may be subject to change over time due to nutrition and biomineralization, with the ratio of calcium to phosphate varying between 1.3 and 2.0 (per weight), and trace minerals such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and carbonate also be found. Type I collagen composes 90–95% of the organic matrix, with the remainder of the matrix being a homogenous liquid called ground substance consisting of proteoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate, as well as non-collagenous proteins such as osteocalcin, osteopontin or bone sialoprotein. Collagen consists of strands of repeating units, which give bone tensile strength, and are arranged in an overlapping fashion that prevents shear stress. The function of ground substance is not fully known. Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the arrangement of collagen: woven and lamellar. Woven bone (also known as fibrous bone), which is characterized by a haphazard organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak. Lamellar bone, which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets ("lamellae") and is mechanically strong. is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). In cross-section, the fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in plywood, assisting in the bone's ability to resist torsion forces. After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone during a process known as "bony substitution". Compared to woven bone, lamellar bone formation takes place more slowly. The orderly deposition of collagen fibers restricts the formation of osteoid to about 1 to 2 μm per day. Lamellar bone also requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in parallel or concentric layers. ====Deposition==== The extracellular matrix of bone is laid down by osteoblasts, which secrete both collagen and ground substance. These cells synthesise collagen alpha polypetpide chains and then secrete collagen molecules. The collagen molecules associate with their neighbors and crosslink via lysyl oxidase to form collagen fibrils. At this stage, they are not yet mineralized, and this zone of unmineralized collagen fibrils is called "osteoid". Around and inside collagen fibrils calcium and phosphate eventually precipitate within days to weeks becoming then fully mineralized bone with an overall carbonate substituted hydroxyapatite inorganic phase. In order to mineralise the bone, the osteoblasts secrete alkaline phosphatase, some of which is carried by vesicles. This cleaves the inhibitory pyrophosphate and simultaneously generates free phosphate ions for mineralization, acting as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. Vesicles may initiate some of the early mineralization events by rupturing and acting as a centre for crystals to grow on. Bone mineral may be formed from globular and plate structures, and via initially amorphous phases. ==Types== Five types of bones are found in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid. Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much longer than its width; and by an epiphysis, a rounded head at each end of the shaft. They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are the eight carpal bones of the wrist, the seven articulating tarsal bones of the ankle and the sesamoid bone of the kneecap. Long bones such as the clavicle, that have a differently shaped shaft or ends are also called modified long bones. Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones. Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum. Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform. Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. Often this irregular shape is due to their many centers of ossification or because they contain bony sinuses. The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some bones of the skull are irregular bones. Examples include the ethmoid and sphenoid bones. ==Terminology== In the study of anatomy, anatomists use a number of anatomical terms to describe the appearance, shape and function of bones. Other anatomical terms are also used to describe the location of bones. Like other anatomical terms, many of these derive from Latin and Greek. Some anatomists still use Latin to refer to bones. The term "osseous", and the prefix "osteo-", referring to things related to bone, are still used commonly today. Some examples of terms used to describe bones include the term "foramen" to describe a hole through which something passes, and a "canal" or "meatus" to describe a tunnel-like structure. A protrusion from a bone can be called a number of terms, including a "condyle", "crest", "spine", "eminence", "tubercle" or "tuberosity", depending on the protrusion's shape and location. In general, long bones are said to have a "head", "neck", and "body". When two bones join, they are said to "articulate". If the two bones have a fibrous connection and are relatively immobile, then the joint is called a "suture". ==Development== The formation of bone is called ossification. During the fetal stage of development this occurs by two processes: intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone from connective tissue whereas endochondral ossification involves the formation of bone from cartilage. Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such as mesenchyme tissue rather than from cartilage. The process includes: the development of the ossification center, calcification, trabeculae formation and the development of the periosteum. Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones and most other bones in the body; it involves the development of bone from cartilage. This process includes the development of a cartilage model, its growth and development, development of the primary and secondary ossification centers, and the formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plates. Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers". They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). At skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified. The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous. The following steps are followed in the conversion of cartilage to bone: Zone of reserve cartilage. This region, farthest from the marrow cavity, consists of typical hyaline cartilage that as yet shows no sign of transforming into bone. Zone of cell proliferation. A little closer to the marrow cavity, chondrocytes multiply and arrange themselves into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae. While nutritional and pharmacological approaches may also improve bone health, the strength and balance adaptations from resistance training are a substantial added benefit. Sports such as soccer, basketball, and tennis have shown to have positive effects on bone mineral density as well as bone mineral content in teenagers. Children and adolescents who participate in regular physical activity will place the groundwork for bone health later in life, reducing the risk of bone-related conditions such as osteoporosis. This means that bone resists pushing (compressional) stress well, resist pulling (tensional) stress less well, but only poorly resists shear stress (such as due to torsional loads). While bone is essentially brittle, bone does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen. Mechanically, bones also have a special role in hearing. The ossicles are three small bones in the middle ear which are involved in sound transduction. ===Synthetic=== The cancellous part of bones contain bone marrow. Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Progenitor cells such as the hematopoietic stem cell divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to white blood cells, and erythroblasts which give rise to red blood cells. Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes. This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the circulation. Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way. As well as creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the major sites where defective or aged red blood cells are destroyed. ===Metabolic=== Mineral storage – bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus. Determined by the species, age, and the type of bone, bone cells make up to 15 percent of the bone. Growth factor storage—mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others. Fat storage – marrow adipose tissue (MAT) acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids. Acid-base balance – bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts. Detoxification – bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion. Endocrine organ – bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption. Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat. Calcium balance – the process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations. ==== Calcium ==== Strong bones during our youth is essential for preventing osteoporosis and bone fragility as we age. The importance of insuring factors that could influence increases in BMD while lowering our risks for further bone degradation is necessary during our childhood as these factors lead to a supportive and healthy lifestyle/bone health. Up till the age of 30, the bone stores that we have will ultimately start to decrease as we surpass this age. Influencing factors that can help us have larger stores and higher amounts of BMD will allow us to see less harmful results as we reach older adulthood. The issue of having fragile bones during our childhood leads to an increase in certain disorders and conditions such as juvenile osteoporosis, though it is less common to see, the necessity for a healthy routine especially when it comes to bone development is essential in our youth. Children that naturally have lower bone mineral density have a lower quality of life and therefore lead a life that is less fulfilling and uncomfortable. Factors such as increases in Calcium intake has been shown to increase BMD stores. Studies have shown that increasing calcium stores whether that be through supplementation or intake via foods and beverages such as leafy greens and milk have pushed the notion that prepuberty or even early pubertal children will see increases in BMD with the addition of increase Calcium intake. This data shows that ensuring adequate calcium intake in children reinforces the structure and rate at which bones will begin to densify. Further detailing how structuring a strong nutritional plan with adequate amounts of Calcium sources can lead to strong bones but also can be a worth-while strategy into preventing further damage or degradation of bone stores as we age. The connection between Calcium intake & BMD and its effects on youth as a whole is a very world-wide issue and has been shown to affect different ethnicities in a variety of differing ways. In a recent study, The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair microdamaged bones from everyday stress, and to shape the skeleton during growth. Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress. The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical enzymes that either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed, or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the activity of each other. For example, the rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation. Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorption of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin. ==Volume== Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption. Certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been isolated and classified via bone cultures. These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins. Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation of osteoblast precursors. Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of local bone formation. ==Clinical significance== A number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis and tumors. Conditions relating to bone can be managed by a variety of doctors, including rheumatologists for joints, and orthopedic surgeons, who may conduct surgery to fix broken bones. Other doctors, such as rehabilitation specialists may be involved in recovery, radiologists in interpreting the findings on imaging, and pathologists in investigating the cause of the disease, and family doctors may play a role in preventing complications of bone disease such as osteoporosis. When a doctor sees a patient, a history and exam will be taken. Bones are then often imaged, called radiography. This might include ultrasound X-ray, CT scan, MRI scan and other imaging such as a Bone scan, which may be used to investigate cancer. Other tests such as a blood test for autoimmune markers may be taken, or a synovial fluid aspirate may be taken. ===Fractures=== In normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the growth of cancer. Common fractures include wrist fractures and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful. When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism. Compound fractures involve the bone's penetration through the skin. Some complex fractures can be treated by the use of bone grafting procedures that replace missing bone portions. Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by X-rays, CT scans and MRIs. Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a Salter–Harris fracture. When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised. This is to promote bone healing. In addition, surgical measures such as internal fixation may be used. Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo rehabilitation. ===Tumors=== Tumor that can affect bone in several ways. Examples of benign bone tumors include osteoma, osteoid osteoma, osteochondroma, osteoblastoma, enchondroma, giant-cell tumor of bone, and aneurysmal bone cyst. ===Cancer=== Cancer can arise in bone tissue, and bones are also a common site for other cancers to spread (metastasise) to. Cancers that arise in bone are called "primary" cancers, although such cancers are rare. Metastases within bone are "secondary" cancers, with the most common being breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and kidney cancer. Secondary cancers that affect bone can either destroy bone (called a "lytic" cancer) or create bone (a "sclerotic" cancer). Cancers of the bone marrow inside the bone can also affect bone tissue, examples including leukemia and multiple myeloma. Bone may also be affected by cancers in other parts of the body. Cancers in other parts of the body may release parathyroid hormone or parathyroid hormone-related peptide. This increases bone reabsorption, and can lead to bone fractures. Bone tissue that is destroyed or altered as a result of cancers is distorted, weakened, and more prone to fracture. This may lead to compression of the spinal cord, destruction of the marrow resulting in bruising, bleeding and immunosuppression, and is one cause of bone pain. If the cancer is metastatic, then there might be other symptoms depending on the site of the original cancer. Some bone cancers can also be felt. Cancers of the bone are managed according to their type, their stage, prognosis, and what symptoms they cause. Many primary cancers of bone are treated with radiotherapy. Cancers of bone marrow may be treated with chemotherapy, and other forms of targeted therapy such as immunotherapy may be used. Palliative care, which focuses on maximising a person's quality of life, may play a role in management, particularly if the likelihood of survival within five years is poor. ===Diabetes=== Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the body attacks the insulin-producing pancreas cells causing the body to not make enough insulin. In contrast type 2 diabetes in which the body creates enough Insulin, but becomes resistant to it over time. over the first 24 months of the COVID-19 Pandemic. With the increase of developing some form of diabetes across all ranges continually growing the health impacts on bone development and bone health in these populations are still being researched. Most evidence suggests that diabetes, either Type 1 and Type 2, inhibits osteoblastic activity and causes both lower BMD and BMC in both adults and children. The weakening of these developmental aspects is thought to lead to an increased risk of developing many diseases such as osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, osteopenia and fractures. Development of any of these diseases is thought to be correlated with a decrease in ability to perform in athletic environments and activities of daily living. Focusing on therapies that target molecules like osteocalcin or AGEs could provide new ways to improve bone health and help manage the complications of diabetes more effectively. ===Other painful conditions=== Osteomyelitis is inflammation of the bone or bone marrow due to bacterial infection. Osteomalacia is a painful softening of adult bone caused by severe vitamin D deficiency. Osteogenesis imperfecta Osteochondritis dissecans Ankylosing spondylitis Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by an excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis damages bones and joints and is painful. ===Osteoporosis=== Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures. Osteoporosis is defined in women by the World Health Organization as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average. This density is measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs. For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and are at risk of fracture. One of the most important risk factors for osteoporosis is advanced age. Accumulation of oxidative DNA damage in osteoblastic and osteoclastic cells appears to be a key factor in age-related osteoporosis. Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium and trace mineral supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and hormone replacement therapy. ===Osteopathic medicine=== Osteopathic medicine is a school of medical thought that links the musculoskeletal system to overall health. , over 77,000 physicians in the United States are trained in osteopathic medical schools. == Bone health == Bone health is vastly important all throughout life due to a number of reasons, some of those being, without strong healthy bones we are more at risk for different chronic diseases, and fractures as well as day-to-day function being more difficult with poor bone health. Developing strong bones as a child is one of the most important steps to having healthy bones all throughout life because this is when a strong foundation is built, which will make it much easier to maintain musculoskeletal health in later years. Adolescence offers a window to really develop bones in either a positive or negative way. It is estimated that diet and exercise during these years can impact peak bone mass as an adult nearly 20-40%. One study done on children with developmental coordination disorder found an increase in bone mass up to 4% and 5% in the cortical areas of the tibia alone from a 13-week training period, which is truly significant when considering how participants only participated in the multimodal workouts twice per week, and it would be reasonable to expect these increases to be greater if workouts were more frequent, especially in youth without developmental coordination disorder. Peak bone mass occurs between the second and third decade of most people's lives, and with this being the case if we can really stockpile as much bone mass and increase our BMD and BMC by living healthy active lives, and having good diets that consume adequate calcium and vitamin D then we will truly have a leg up in our later lives as well as actively decreasing risks of certain chronic diseases such as osteoporosis. == Osteology == The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is frequently used in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks. This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve the process of maceration. Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can also be made from external bones such as antlers. ==Other animals== Bird skeletons are very lightweight. Their bones are smaller and thinner, to aid flight. Among mammals, bats come closest to birds in terms of bone density, suggesting that small dense bones are a flight adaptation. Many bird bones have little marrow due to them being hollow. A bird's beak is primarily made of bone as projections of the mandibles which are covered in keratin. Some bones, primarily formed separately in subcutaneous tissues, include headgears (such as bony core of horns, antlers, ossicones), osteoderm, and os penis/os clitoris. A deer's antlers are composed of bone which is an unusual example of bone being outside the skin of the animal once the velvet is shed. The extinct predatory fish Dunkleosteus had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws. The proportion of cortical bone that is 80% in the human skeleton may be much lower in other animals, especially in marine mammals and marine turtles, or in various Mesozoic marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, among others. This proportion can vary quickly in evolution; it often increases in early stages of returns to an aquatic lifestyle, as seen in early whales and pinnipeds, among others. It subsequently decreases in pelagic taxa, which typically acquire spongy bone, but aquatic taxa that live in shallow water can retain very thick, pachyostotic, osteosclerotic, or pachyosteosclerotic bones, especially if they move slowly, like sea cows. In some cases, even marine taxa that had acquired spongy bone can revert to thicker, compact bones if they become adapted to live in shallow water, or in hypersaline (denser) water. Many animals, particularly herbivores, practice osteophagy—the eating of bones. This is presumably carried out in order to replenish lacking phosphate. Many bone diseases that affect humans also affect other vertebrates—an example of one disorder is skeletal fluorosis. ==Society and culture== Bones from slaughtered animals have a number of uses. In prehistoric times, they have been used for making bone tools. They have further been used in bone carving, already important in prehistoric art, and also in modern time as crafting materials for buttons, beads, handles, bobbins, calculation aids, head nuts, dice, poker chips, pick-up sticks, arrows, scrimshaw, ornaments, etc. Bone glue can be made by prolonged boiling of ground or cracked bones, followed by filtering and evaporation to thicken the resulting fluid. Historically once important, bone glue and other animal glues today have only a few specialized uses, such as in antiques restoration. Essentially the same process, with further refinement, thickening and drying, is used to make gelatin. Broth is made by simmering several ingredients for a long time, traditionally including bones. Bone char, a porous, black, granular material primarily used for filtration and also as a black pigment, is produced by charring mammal bones. Oracle bone script was a writing system used in ancient China based on inscriptions in bones. Its name originates from oracle bones, which were mainly ox clavicle. The Ancient Chinese (mainly in the Shang dynasty), would write their questions on the oracle bone, and burn the bone, and where the bone cracked would be the answer for the questions. To point the bone at someone is considered bad luck in some cultures, such as Australian aborigines, such as by the Kurdaitcha. The wishbones of fowl have been used for divination, and are still customarily used in a tradition to determine which one of two people pulling on either prong of the bone may make a wish. Various cultures throughout history have adopted the custom of shaping an infant's head by the practice of artificial cranial deformation. A widely practised custom in China was that of foot binding to limit the normal growth of the foot. ==Additional images== File:Gray72-en.svg\|Cells in bone marrow File:Bertazzo S - SEM deproteined trabecular - wistar rat - x100.tif\|Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnification File:Bone structure marco photo.jpg\|Structure detail of an animal bone	[ "fibroblast growth factor 23", "white blood cell", "osteology", "Osteopathic medicine", "parathyroid hormone-related peptide", "phosphate", "chemotherapy", "elasticity (physics)", "Shang dynasty", "bat", "dense", "Furcula", "estrogen", "bone cell", "kidney cancer", "Ossification", "mitosis", "osteochondroma", "sodium", "modern time", "cancer staging", "bone grafting", "enchondroma", "multinucleate", "Limb (anatomy)", "Ossicle (echinoderm)", "pH", "Paget's disease of bone", "carpal bones", "bone mineral density", "phosphorus", "osteocalcin", "osteopathy", "osteoprogenitor", "ossicles", "metastasise", "Osteopathic medicine in the United States", "kidney", "sphenoid bone", "bone resorption", "Secretion", "whale", "farm", "os clitoris", "pick-up sticks", "ageing", "long bone", "osseous tissue", "lung cancer", "white blood cells", "vertebrate", "Napier's bones", "electron micrograph", "protein", "antler", "family doctor", "Cancer", "Osteosclerosis", "ultimate tensile strength", "Flat bone", "trabecula", "Vitamin D", "dual energy X-ray absorptiometry", "marine reptile", "marine mammal", "ichthyosaur", "tarsus (skeleton)", "radiology", "erythroblast", "matrix (biology)", "sternum", "Palliative care", "fluoride", "pelvic bones", "lever", "parafollicular cell", "bone tumor", "lytic cycle", "quality of life", "Fat", "Osteochondritis dissecans", "antiques restoration", "Alkali salt", "bicarbonate", "thyroid gland", "bone carving", "pelvis", "bone tool", "pathologist", "hematopoietic stem cell", "Enzyme inhibitor", "bone morphogenetic protein", "monocyte", "nerve", "Porosity", "bisphosphonate", "bobbin", "hydroxyapatite", "beta cell", "DNA damage (naturally occurring)", "National Bone Health Campaign", "glucocorticoid", "trace mineral", "osteopontin", "prehistoric art", "Phagocytosis", "animal locomotion", "leukemia", "juvenile osteoporosis", "filtration", "Precipitation (chemistry)", "mandible", "ossein", "Dunkleosteus", "calcium", "Bone decalcification", "bone remodeling", "surface-area-to-volume ratio", "Vertebral column", "Columbia University College of Dental Medicine", "bone healing", "Hypersaline lake", "Skeletal fluorosis", "prenatal development", "vertebral", "Salter–Harris fracture", "enzyme", "archeology", "fragility fracture", "cancellous tissue", "epiphysis", "cytokine", "human skeleton", "Acid", "thyroid hormone", "heart", "mineralization (biology)", "skull", "piezoelectricity", "compressive strength", "periosteum", "proteoglycan", "rehabilitation medicine", "marrow adipose tissue", "osteon", "foot binding", "Volkmann's canal", "Osteoblast", "Ancient Greek", "blood sugar", "joint", "potassium", "os penis", "hormone replacement therapy", "Cortical bone", "keratin", "biomineralization", "Blood gas tension", "Artificial bone", "mass noun", "human body", "Homo sapiens", "stem cell", "poker chip", "bead", "Growth factor", "skeletal muscle", "epiphyseal plate", "medullary cavity", "CT scan", "Bone fracture", "cross section (geometry)", "androgen", "hard tissue", "collagen", "Broth", "insulin", "X-ray", "osteocyte", "heavy metals", "internal fixation", "gelatin", "chondroitin sulfate", "forensics", "Epiphysis", "Osteomyelitis", "fat embolism", "magnesium", "anatomical terminology", "Sesamoid bone", "hematopoietic", "bone mineral", "growth hormone", "excretion", "bone sialoprotein", "calcification", "synergy", "tobacco smoking", "circulatory system", "pedicle of vertebral arch", "Infant", "pituitary", "tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase", "granulocyte", "pisiform", "handle", "diaphysis", "Vesicle (biology and chemistry)", "tensile strength", "Compound fracture", "Last Glacial Period", "artificial cranial deformation", "Irregular bone", "ossification", "beak", "Blood vessel", "Namibia", "divination", "Australian aborigines", "Chronic (medicine)", "maceration (bone)", "prehistoric times", "Greek language", "orthopedic", "Ankylosing spondylitis", "charring", "Homo neanderthalensis", "parathyroid hormone", "calcium phosphate", "reabsorption", "ancient China", "menopause", "osteoporosis", "Crisóstomo Martinez", "Hearing (sense)", "osteophagy", "head nut", "ribs", "Wolff's law", "red blood cell", "synovial fluid", "mineral", "Anatomical terminology", "bruising", "stapes", "megakaryocyte", "bone marrow", "torsion (mechanics)", "paracrine", "macrophage colony-stimulating factor", "osteoblast", "Adipose tissue", "macrophage", "intramembranous ossification", "endosteum", "lacuna (histology)", "ultrasound", "middle ear", "Terminologia Anatomica", "Bone glue", "fatty acid", "Osteogenesis imperfecta", "Rockwell scale", "medications", "flail chest", "honeycomb", "osteoid osteoma", "scrimshaw", "Rheumatology", "osteoprotegerin", "Oracle bone script", "Cuttlebone", "sclerosis (medicine)", "homeostasis", "Sirenia", "osteoid", "5-year survival", "ossification center", "ligand", "fetus", "Pachyostosis", "Mesozoic", "button", "radiotherapy", "paracrine signalling", "calcium homeostasis", "Function (biology)", "Cell nucleus", "Organ (biology)", "Distraction osteogenesis", "exercise", "hyaluronic acid", "Long bone", "dice", "thyroid cancer", "connective tissue", "carbonate", "plywood", "mineralized tissues", "mesenchyme", "myeloid tissue", "Short bone", "compartment syndrome", "pigment", "wikt:point the bone", "interleukin 6", "Calcium", "Bird", "Anatomical terms of location", "biofoams", "hematopoiesis", "Collagen", "femur", "ligament", "prostaglandin", "pinniped", "deer", "Brittleness", "acid-base balance", "MRI", "osteoclast", "Osteoclast", "prostate cancer", "Kurdaitcha", "Stiffness", "type 2 diabetes", "Bone marrow", "hormone", "short bone", "endochondral ossification", "brain", "anatomy", "platelet", "tendon", "Type 1 diabetes", "Endocrine system", "cartilage", "Micrometre", "ground substance", "metacarpus", "Bone char", "radiography", "concentric", "calcitonin", "hearing", "aneurysmal bone cyst", "breast cancer", "scanning electron microscope", "tarsal bone", "blood vessel", "arrow", "vertebral fracture", "Bone remodeling", "osteoma", "Haversian canal", "World Health Organization", "patella", "giant-cell tumor of bone", "immunosuppression", "Bone health", "immunotherapy", "kneecap", "mineralized tissue", "shear stress", "biomechanics", "spinal cord", "MRI scan", "wikt:os", "cube", "birth", "Physical medicine and rehabilitation", "skeleton", "Bone scan", "Strontium ranelate", "Latin", "Skeleton", "bone fracture", "ethmoid", "hip fracture", "marine turtles", "CT scans", "lungs", "osteoblastoma", "oracle bone", "multiple myeloma", "glucose", "metatarsus", "Osteocyte", "anthropology", "Base (chemistry)", "wrist", "wrist fracture", "standard deviation", "Microdamage in bone", "hydroxide", "Calcareous", "sesamoid bone", "Osteomalacia", "bleeding", "apatite", "herbivore" ]
4,100	Bretwalda	Bretwalda (also brytenwalda and bretenanwealda, sometimes capitalised) is an Old English word. The first record comes from the late 9th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It is given to some of the rulers of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from the 5th century onwards who had achieved overlordship of some or all of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It is unclear whether the word dates back to the 5th century and was used by the kings themselves or whether it is a later, 9th-century, invention. The term bretwalda also appears in a 10th-century charter of Æthelstan. The literal meaning of the word is disputed and may translate to either 'wide-ruler' or 'Britain-ruler'. The rulers of Mercia were generally the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings from the mid 7th century to the early 9th century but are not accorded the title of bretwalda by the Chronicle, which had an anti-Mercian bias. The Annals of Wales continued to recognise the kings of Northumbria as "Kings of the Saxons" until the death of Osred I of Northumbria in 716. ==Bretwaldas== ===Listed by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle=== Ælle of Sussex (488– 514) Ceawlin of Wessex (560–592, died 593) Æthelberht of Kent (590–616) Rædwald of East Anglia (c. 600–around 624) Edwin of Deira (616–633) Oswald of Northumbria (633–642) Oswiu of Northumbria (642–670) Egbert of Wessex (829–839) Alfred of Wessex (871–899) ===Mercian rulers with similar or greater authority=== Penda of Mercia (626/633–655) Wulfhere of Mercia (658–675) Æthelred of Mercia (675–704, died 716) Æthelbald of Mercia (716–757) Offa of Mercia (757–796) Cœnwulf of Mercia (796–821) ===Other claimants=== Æthelstan of Wessex (927–939) ==Etymology== The first syllable of the term bretwalda may be related to Briton or Britain. The second element is taken to mean 'ruler' or 'sovereign'. Thus, one interpretation might be 'sovereign of Britain'. Otherwise, the word may be a compound containing the Old English adjective brytten ('broad', from the verb breotan meaning 'to break' or 'to disperse'), an element also found in the terms bryten rice ('kingdom'), bryten-grund ('the wide expanse of the earth') and bryten cyning ('king whose authority was widely extended'). Though the origin is ambiguous, the draughtsman of the charter issued by Æthelstan used the term in a way that can only mean 'wide-ruler'. The latter etymology was first suggested by John Mitchell Kemble which Kemble translates as 'ruler of all these islands'; and that bryten- is a common prefix to words meaning 'wide or general dispersion' and that the similarity to the word bretwealh ('Briton') is "merely accidental". The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings that Bede listed in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum in 731. All subsequent manuscripts of the Chronicle use the term Brytenwalda, which may have represented the original term or derived from a common error. There is no evidence that the term was a title that had any practical use, with implications of formal rights, powers and office, or even that it had any existence before the 9th-century. Bede wrote in Latin and never used the term and his list of kings holding imperium should be treated with caution, not least in that he overlooks kings such as Penda of Mercia, who clearly held some kind of dominance during his reign. Similarly, in his list of bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignored such Mercian kings as Offa. The use of the term Bretwalda was the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon kings to the whole of Great Britain. The concept of the overlordship of the whole of Britain was at least recognised in the period, whatever was meant by the term. Quite possibly it was a survival of a Roman concept of "Britain": it is significant that, while the hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the title rex Britanniae, when England was unified the title used was rex Angulsaxonum, ('king of the Anglo-Saxons'.) ==Modern interpretation by historians== For some time, the existence of the word bretwalda in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was based in part on the list given by Bede in his Historia Ecclesiastica, led historians to think that there was perhaps a "title" held by Anglo-Saxon overlords. This was particularly attractive as it would lay the foundations for the establishment of an English monarchy. The 20th-century historian Frank Stenton said of the Anglo-Saxon chronicler that "his inaccuracy is more than compensated by his preservation of the English title applied to these outstanding kings". He argued that the term bretwalda "falls into line with the other evidence which points to the Germanic origin of the earliest English institutions". Over the later 20th century, this assumption was increasingly challenged. Patrick Wormald interpreted it as "less an objectively realized office than a subjectively perceived status" and emphasised the partiality of its usage in favour of Southumbrian rulers. In 1991, Steven Fanning argued that "it is unlikely that the term ever existed as a title or was in common usage in Anglo-Saxon England". The fact that Bede never mentioned a special title for the kings in his list implies that he was unaware of one. Modern interpretations view the concept of bretwalda overlordship as complex and an important indicator of how a 9th-century chronicler interpreted history and attempted to insert the increasingly powerful Saxon kings into that history. ==Overlordship== A complex array of dominance and subservience existed during the Anglo-Saxon period. A king who used charters to grant land in another kingdom indicated such a relationship. If the other kingdom were fairly large, as when the Mercians dominated the East Anglians, the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of the Mercian dominance of the Hwicce, which was a comparatively small kingdom. Mercia was arguably the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom for much of the late 7th though 8th centuries, though Mercian kings are missing from the two main "lists". For Bede, Mercia was a traditional enemy of his native Northumbria and he regarded powerful kings such as the pagan Penda as standing in the way of the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. Bede omits them from his list, even though it is evident that Penda held a considerable degree of power. Similarly powerful Mercia kings such as Offa are missed out of the West Saxon Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of their kings to rule over other Anglo-Saxon peoples.	[ "Britons (historical)", "sovereign", "Latin", "Oswiu of Northumbria", "Alfred of Wessex", "Southumbrian", "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", "Edwin of Northumbria", "Egbert of Wessex", "List of monarchs of Essex", "Penda of Mercia", "Emperor", "Æthelred of Mercia", "List of monarchs of Wessex", "charter", "Wessex", "Æthelberht of Kent", "Anglo-Saxon Charters", "High King", "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "Coenwulf of Mercia", "Æthelstan", "List of monarchs of Sussex", "King of the Britons", "Hwicce", "Ceawlin of Wessex", "List of monarchs of Northumbria", "List of monarchs of Kent", "Heptarchy", "Oswald of Northumbria", "Osred I of Northumbria", "Annales Cambriæ", "History of Anglo-Saxon England", "List of monarchs of Mercia", "Bede", "Simon Keynes", "Offa of Mercia", "Wulfhere of Mercia", "Æthelbald of Mercia", "List of legendary kings of Britain", "Patrick Wormald", "Ælle of Sussex", "John Mitchell Kemble", "List of English monarchs", "Rædwald of East Anglia", "Mercia", "Old English", "Athelstan of England", "Frank Stenton", "Compound (linguistics)", "Kingdom of East Anglia", "List of monarchs of East Anglia" ]
4,101	Brouwer fixed-point theorem	Brouwer's fixed-point theorem is a fixed-point theorem in topology, named after L. E. J. (Bertus) Brouwer. It states that for any continuous function f mapping a nonempty compact convex set to itself, there is a point x_0 such that f(x_0)=x_0. The simplest forms of Brouwer's theorem are for continuous functions f from a closed interval I in the real numbers to itself or from a closed disk D to itself. A more general form than the latter is for continuous functions from a nonempty convex compact subset K of Euclidean space to itself. Among hundreds of fixed-point theorems, Brouwer's is particularly well known, due in part to its use across numerous fields of mathematics. In its original field, this result is one of the key theorems characterizing the topology of Euclidean spaces, along with the Jordan curve theorem, the hairy ball theorem, the invariance of dimension and the Borsuk–Ulam theorem. This gives it a place among the fundamental theorems of topology. The theorem is also used for proving deep results about differential equations and is covered in most introductory courses on differential geometry. It appears in unlikely fields such as game theory. In economics, Brouwer's fixed-point theorem and its extension, the Kakutani fixed-point theorem, play a central role in the proof of existence of general equilibrium in market economies as developed in the 1950s by economics Nobel prize winners Kenneth Arrow and Gérard Debreu. The theorem was first studied in view of work on differential equations by the French mathematicians around Henri Poincaré and Charles Émile Picard. Proving results such as the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem requires the use of topological methods. This work at the end of the 19th century opened into several successive versions of the theorem. The case of differentiable mappings of the -dimensional closed ball was first proved in 1910 by Jacques Hadamard and the general case for continuous mappings by Brouwer in 1911. ==Statement== The theorem has several formulations, depending on the context in which it is used and its degree of generalization. The simplest is sometimes given as follows: In the plane: Every continuous function from a closed disk to itself has at least one fixed point. This can be generalized to an arbitrary finite dimension: In Euclidean space:Every continuous function from a closed ball of a Euclidean space into itself has a fixed point. A slightly more general version is as follows: Convex compact set:Every continuous function from a nonempty convex compact subset K of a Euclidean space to K itself has a fixed point. An even more general form is better known under a different name: Schauder fixed point theorem:Every continuous function from a nonempty convex compact subset K of a Banach space to K itself has a fixed point. ==Importance of the pre-conditions== The theorem holds only for functions that are endomorphisms (functions that have the same set as the domain and codomain) and for nonempty sets that are compact (thus, in particular, bounded and closed) and convex (or homeomorphic to convex). The following examples show why the pre-conditions are important. ===The function f as an endomorphism=== Consider the function f(x) = x+1 with domain [-1,1]. The range of the function is [0,2]. Thus, f is not an endomorphism. ===Boundedness=== Consider the function f(x) = x+1, which is a continuous function from \mathbb{R} to itself. As it shifts every point to the right, it cannot have a fixed point. The space \mathbb{R} is convex and closed, but not bounded. ===Closedness=== Consider the function f(x) = \frac{x+1}{2}, which is a continuous function from the open interval (-1,1) to itself. Since the point x=1 is not part of the interval, there is no point in the domain such that f(x) = x. The set (-1,1) is convex and bounded, but not closed. On the other hand, the function f does have a fixed point in the closed interval [-1,1], namely x=1. The closed interval [-1,1] is compact, the open interval (-1,1) is not. ===Convexity=== Convexity is not strictly necessary for Brouwer's fixed-point theorem. Because the properties involved (continuity, being a fixed point) are invariant under homeomorphisms, Brouwer's fixed-point theorem is equivalent to forms in which the domain is required to be a closed unit ball D^n. For the same reason it holds for every set that is homeomorphic to a closed ball (and therefore also closed, bounded, connected, without holes, etc.). The following example shows that Brouwer's fixed-point theorem does not work for domains with holes. Consider the function f(x)=-x, which is a continuous function from the unit circle to itself. Since -x≠x holds for any point of the unit circle, f has no fixed point. The analogous example works for the n-dimensional sphere (or any symmetric domain that does not contain the origin). The unit circle is closed and bounded, but it has a hole (and so it is not convex) . The function f have a fixed point for the unit disc, since it takes the origin to itself. A formal generalization of Brouwer's fixed-point theorem for "hole-free" domains can be derived from the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem.	[ "David Gale", "Charles Émile Picard", "bijective", "American Mathematical Society", "closed set", "Encyclopædia Universalis", "Stokes' theorem", "bounded set", "cyclic group", "limit cycle", "degree of a continuous mapping", "PlanetMath", "homology theory", "Metric space", "University Press of Virginia", "Henri Poincaré", "retraction (topology)", "Piers Bohl", "Hilbert's fifth problem", "set theory", "manifold", "differential geometry", "Cauchy–Lipschitz theorem", "Stefan Banach", "indirect proof", "Arrow–Debreu model", "Jacques Hadamard", "winding number", "De Rham cohomology", "John Forbes Nash", "set-valued function", "Closed set", "Approximation theory", "Émile Borel", "homeomorphism", "Computability", "group homomorphism", "Historia Mathematica", "Root of a function", "Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées", "Convex set", "Set-valued function", "functional analysis", "Jordan curve theorem", "Hex (board game)", "Homology (mathematics)", "constructive set theory", "Hilbert space", "Studia Mathematica", "closed ball", "contraction mapping", "Jacobian determinant", "Banach space", "mathematical logic", "Hartman-Grobman theorem", "cut-the-knot", "topology", "Amer. Math. Monthly", "continuous function", "convex set", "vector field", "compact space", "Sperner's lemma", "fixed-point theorem", "Mathematics of Computation", "constructive proof", "convolution", "simplicial homology", "James A. Yorke", "inverse function theorem", "intuitionistic logic", "Homeomorphism", "determinacy", "Gérard Debreu", "flow (mathematics)", "open cover", "Central Limit Theorem", "Schauder fixed point theorem", "Euclidean space", "Latvia", "de Rham cohomology", "Sard's theorem", "Fixed-point theorems in infinite-dimensional spaces", "shaken, not stirred", "Kakutani fixed-point theorem", "Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer", "WebCite", "differential topology", "bump function", "volume form", "Hausdorff space", "Infinite compositions of analytic functions", "compactness", "invariance of dimension", "Lefschetz fixed-point theorem", "differential equation", "stability of the solar system", "Springer-Verlag", "Nash equilibrium", "general equilibrium", "codomain", "Disk (mathematics)", "Weierstrass approximation theorem", "Jacobian matrix and determinant", "constructivism (mathematics)", "fundamental group", "Borsuk–Ulam theorem", "hairy ball theorem", "Constructivism (mathematics)", "surjective", "Birkhäuser", "topological manifold", "partial differential equation", "Graduate Studies in Mathematics", "intermediate value theorem", "Cambridge University Press", "algebraic topology", "Jules Tannery", "boundary (topology)", "homotopy", "sphere", "interior (topology)", "Mathematische Annalen", "Kenneth Arrow", "Morris Hirsch", "Banach fixed-point theorem", "singular homology", "three-body problem", "fixed-point theorems in infinite-dimensional spaces", "Kakutani fixed point theorem", "Topological combinatorics", "continuous function (topology)", "fixed point theorem", "regular value", "Constructive proof", "weak Kőnig's lemma", "Jacques Tits", "Compact space", "Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik", "connected space", "simply connected", "Borsuk-Ulam theorem", "game theory", "Arte", "fixed-point theory", "SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis", "mollifier", "Hotelling's law", "Weak Kőnig's lemma", "simplex", "hemi-continuous", "Hans Freudenthal", "Fixed-point computation", "intuitionist", "reverse mathematics", "Oscar II, King of Sweden", "Poincaré–Bendixson theorem", "Lp space", "Poincaré–Miranda theorem" ]
4,106	Benzoic acid	{{Chembox \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 476995928 \| ImageFileL1 = Benzoesäure.svg \| ImageSizeL1 = 100px \| ImageNameL1 = Skeletal formula \| ImageClassL1 = skin-invert-image \| ImageFileR1 = Benzoic-acid-3D-balls.png \| ImageSizeR1 = 100px \| ImageNameR1 = Ball-and-stick model \| ImageFile2 = Pile of benzoic acid crystals.jpg \| ImageSize2 = 270px \| PIN = Benzoic acid \| SystematicName = Benzenecarboxylic acid \| OtherNames = \| Section1 = \| Section2 = \| Section3 = \| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry \| DeltaHf = −385.2kJ/mol \| GHSSignalWord = Danger \| HPhrases = and serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites. Salts of benzoic acid are used as food preservatives. Benzoic acid is an important precursor for the industrial synthesis of many other organic substances. The salts and esters of benzoic acid are known as benzoates (). == History == Benzoic acid was discovered in the sixteenth century. The dry distillation of gum benzoin was first described by Nostradamus (1556), and then by Alexius Pedemontanus (1560) and Blaise de Vigenère (1596). Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler determined the composition of benzoic acid. These latter also investigated how hippuric acid is related to benzoic acid. In 1875 Salkowski discovered the antifungal properties of benzoic acid, which explains the preservation of benzoate-containing cloudberry fruits. == Production == === Industrial preparations === Benzoic acid is produced commercially by partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen. The process is catalyzed by cobalt or manganese naphthenates. The process uses abundant materials, and proceeds in high yield. The first industrial process involved the reaction of benzotrichloride (trichloromethyl benzene) with calcium hydroxide in water, using iron or iron salts as catalyst. The resulting calcium benzoate is converted to benzoic acid with hydrochloric acid. The product contains significant amounts of chlorinated benzoic acid derivatives. For this reason, benzoic acid for human consumption was obtained by dry distillation of gum benzoin. Food-grade benzoic acid is now produced synthetically. === Laboratory synthesis === Benzoic acid is cheap and readily available, so the laboratory synthesis of benzoic acid is mainly practiced for its pedagogical value. It is a common undergraduate preparation. Benzoic acid can be purified by recrystallization from water because of its high solubility in hot water and poor solubility in cold water. The avoidance of organic solvents for the recrystallization makes this experiment particularly safe. This process usually gives a yield of around 65%. ==== By hydrolysis ==== Like other nitriles and amides, benzonitrile and benzamide can be hydrolyzed to benzoic acid or its conjugate base in acid or basic conditions. ==== From Grignard reagent==== Bromobenzene can be converted to benzoic acid by "carboxylation" of the intermediate phenylmagnesium bromide. This synthesis offers a convenient exercise for students to carry out a Grignard reaction, an important class of carbon–carbon bond forming reaction in organic chemistry. ==== Oxidation of benzyl compounds==== Benzyl alcohol and benzyl chloride and virtually all benzyl derivatives are readily oxidized to benzoic acid. == Uses == Benzoic acid is mainly consumed in the production of phenol by oxidative decarboxylation at 300−400 °C: The temperature required can be lowered to 200 °C by the addition of catalytic amounts of copper(II) salts. The phenol can be converted to cyclohexanol, which is a starting material for nylon synthesis. ===Precursor to plasticizers=== Benzoate plasticizers, such as the glycol-, diethyleneglycol-, and triethyleneglycol esters, are obtained by transesterification of methyl benzoate with the corresponding diol. and some bacteria. It is either added directly or created from reactions with its sodium, potassium, or calcium salt. The mechanism starts with the absorption of benzoic acid into the cell. If the intracellular pH changes to 5 or lower, the anaerobic fermentation of glucose through phosphofructokinase is decreased by 95%. The efficacy of benzoic acid and benzoate is thus dependent on the pH of the food. Benzoic acid, benzoates and their derivatives are used as preservatives for acidic foods and beverages such as citrus fruit juices (citric acid), sparkling drinks (carbon dioxide), soft drinks (phosphoric acid), pickles (vinegar) and other acidified foods. Typical concentrations of benzoic acid as a preservative in food are between 0.05 and 0.1%. Foods in which benzoic acid may be used and maximum levels for its application are controlled by local food laws. Concern has been expressed that benzoic acid and its salts may react with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in some soft drinks, forming small quantities of carcinogenic benzene. === Medicinal === Benzoic acid is a constituent of Whitfield's ointment which is used for the treatment of fungal skin diseases such as ringworm and athlete's foot. As the principal component of gum benzoin, benzoic acid is also a major ingredient in both tincture of benzoin and Friar's balsam. Such products have a long history of use as topical antiseptics and inhalant decongestants. Benzoic acid was used as an expectorant, analgesic, and antiseptic in the early 20th century. ===Niche and laboratory uses=== In teaching laboratories, benzoic acid is a common standard for calibrating a bomb calorimeter. == Biology and health effects == Benzoic acid occurs naturally as do its esters in many plant and animal species. Appreciable amounts are found in most berries (around 0.05%). Ripe fruits of several Vaccinium species (e.g., cranberry, V. vitis macrocarpon; bilberry, V. myrtillus) contain as much as 0.03–0.13% free benzoic acid. Benzoic acid is also formed in apples after infection with the fungus Nectria galligena. Among animals, benzoic acid has been identified primarily in omnivorous or phytophageous species, e.g., in viscera and muscles of the rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) as well as in gland secretions of male muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) or Asian bull elephants (Elephas maximus). In terms of its biosynthesis, benzoate is produced in plants from cinnamic acid. A pathway has been identified from phenol via 4-hydroxybenzoate. == Reactions == Reactions of benzoic acid can occur at either the aromatic ring or at the carboxyl group. ===Aromatic ring=== Electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction will take place mainly in 3-position due to the electron-withdrawing carboxylic group; i.e. benzoic acid is meta directing. === Carboxyl group === Reactions typical for carboxylic acids apply also to benzoic acid. Benzoic acid is metabolized by butyrate-CoA ligase into an intermediate product, benzoyl-CoA, which is then metabolized by glycine N-acyltransferase into hippuric acid. Humans metabolize toluene which is also excreted as hippuric acid. For humans, the World Health Organization's International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) suggests a provisional tolerable intake would be 5 mg/kg body weight per day. Cats have a significantly lower tolerance against benzoic acid and its salts than rats and mice. Lethal dose for cats can be as low as 300 mg/kg body weight. The oral for rats is 3040 mg/kg, for mice it is 1940–2263 mg/kg.	[ "4-hydroxybenzoate", "calcium hydroxide", "carboxylic group", "Benzoyl chloride", "Phenylacetic acid", "Hunsdiecker decarboxylation", "tincture of benzoin", "E210", "calcium", "benzoyl-CoA", "substituent", "Plane (geometry)", "Benzamide", "Salt (chemistry)", "Justus von Liebig", "terephthalic acid", "bilberry", "benzene", "ester", "benzotrichloride", "Nostradamus", "sodium", "bomb calorimeter", "apple", "Alcohol (chemistry)", "iron", "citrus fruit", "pH", "cranberry", "acetate", "Monoclinic", "hippuric acid", "carboxyl group", "Benzylamine", "hexane", "Cloudberry", "sodium benzoate", "Benzonitrile", "Antifungal medication", "nitrile", "halogenation", "benzyl chloride", "antiseptic", "rat", "Mold (fungus)", "manganese", "rock ptarmigan", "Liebigs Annalen", "carboxyl", "benzoyl", "Concentration", "Aminobenzoic acid", "carbon dioxide", "soft drinks", "phenyl", "aromaticity", "cyclohexanol", "dry distillation", "plasticizer", "Potassium benzoate", "potassium", "Nectria galligena", "athlete's foot", "Sodium benzoate", "Elephas maximus", "glycine N-acyltransferase", "Recrystallization (chemistry)", "benzyl alcohol", "preservative", "Pickling", "catalyst", "benzoyl chloride", "benzyl", "E numbers", "acetone", "Chemical structure", "carbon–carbon bond", "thionyl chloride", "sodium borohydride", "Grignard reaction", "Orthoester", "oxygen", "potassium benzoate", "citric acid", "benzaldehyde", "Benzyl alcohol", "secondary metabolite", "partial oxidation", "Fermentation (biochemistry)", "food preservative", "nylon", "salt (chemistry)", "Whitfield's ointment", "Friedrich Wöhler", "vinegar", "deactivating group", "World Health Organization", "yeast", "Precursor (chemistry)", "Decarboxylation", "phosphorus pentoxide", "chloroform", "transesterification", "phenol", "Alexius Pedemontanus", "hydrochloric acid", "naphthenate", "carbon tetrachloride", "butyrate-CoA ligase", "benzonitrile", "Acetate CoA-transferase", "phthalate", "Benzoin (resin)", "The China Post", "Elsevier Science", "diol", "benzoic anhydride", "ammonia", "acetic anhydride", "benzamide", "Vaccinium", "Debye", "ascorbic acid", "Acyl halide", "expectorant", "Blaise de Vigenère", "biosynthesis", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "organic compound", "dioxane", "Nitrobenzoic acid", "gum benzoin", "benzoin (resin)", "calcium benzoate", "Bromobenzene", "cobalt", "oxidative decarboxylation", "Electrophilic aromatic substitution", "ethyl ether", "cinnamic acid", "electrophilic aromatic substitution", "Halogenation", "quinoline", "Taipei", "ethanol", "amide", "Org. React.", "glucose", "Benzaldehyde", "muskox", "methyl benzoate", "toluene", "decongestant", "ringworm", "phosphorus chlorides", "lithium aluminium hydride", "DIBAL-H", "International Programme on Chemical Safety", "analgesic", "carboxylic acid", "phenylmagnesium bromide", "mouse", "fruit juice", "Cat", "Hydroxybenzoic acid", "bacteria", "phosphoric acid", "phosphofructokinase" ]
4,107	Boltzmann distribution	In statistical mechanics and mathematics, a Boltzmann distribution (also called Gibbs distribution) is a probability distribution or probability measure that gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy and the temperature of the system. The distribution is expressed in the form: p_i \propto \exp\left(- \frac{\varepsilon_i}{kT} \right) where is the probability of the system being in state , is the exponential function, is the energy of that state, and a constant of the distribution is the product of the Boltzmann constant and thermodynamic temperature . The symbol \propto denotes proportionality (see for the proportionality constant). The term system here has a wide meaning; it can range from a collection of 'sufficient number' of atoms or a single atom to a macroscopic system such as a natural gas storage tank. Therefore, the Boltzmann distribution can be used to solve a wide variety of problems. The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied. The ratio of probabilities of two states is known as the Boltzmann factor and characteristically only depends on the states' energy difference: \frac{p_i}{p_j} = \exp\left( \frac{\varepsilon_j - \varepsilon_i}{kT} \right) The Boltzmann distribution is named after Ludwig Boltzmann who first formulated it in 1868 during his studies of the statistical mechanics of gases in thermal equilibrium. Boltzmann's statistical work is borne out in his paper “On the Relationship between the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Mechanical Theory of Heat and Probability Calculations Regarding the Conditions for Thermal Equilibrium" The distribution was later investigated extensively, in its modern generic form, by Josiah Willard Gibbs in 1902. The Boltzmann distribution should not be confused with the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution or Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The Boltzmann distribution gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy, while the Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions give the probabilities of particle speeds or energies in ideal gases. The distribution of energies in a one-dimensional gas however, does follow the Boltzmann distribution. ==The distribution== The Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution that gives the probability of a certain state as a function of that state's energy and temperature of the system to which the distribution is applied. It is given as p_i=\frac{1}{Q} \exp\left(- \frac{\varepsilon_i}{kT} \right) = \frac{ \exp\left(- \tfrac{\varepsilon_i}{kT} \right) }{ \displaystyle \sum_{j=1}^{M} \exp\left(- \tfrac{\varepsilon_j}{kT} \right) } where: is the exponential function, is the probability of state , is the energy of state , is the Boltzmann constant, is the absolute temperature of the system, is the number of all states accessible to the system of interest, The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied than the states with higher energy. It can also give us the quantitative relationship between the probabilities of the two states being occupied. The ratio of probabilities for states and is given as \frac{p_i}{p_j} = \exp\left( \frac{\varepsilon_j - \varepsilon_i}{kT} \right) where: is the probability of state , the probability of state , is the energy of state , is the energy of state . The corresponding ratio of populations of energy levels must also take their degeneracies into account. The Boltzmann distribution is often used to describe the distribution of particles, such as atoms or molecules, over bound states accessible to them. If we have a system consisting of many particles, the probability of a particle being in state is practically the probability that, if we pick a random particle from that system and check what state it is in, we will find it is in state . This probability is equal to the number of particles in state divided by the total number of particles in the system, that is the fraction of particles that occupy state . p_i = \frac{N_i}{N} where is the number of particles in state and is the total number of particles in the system. We may use the Boltzmann distribution to find this probability that is, as we have seen, equal to the fraction of particles that are in state i. So the equation that gives the fraction of particles in state as a function of the energy of that state is In order for this to be possible, there must be some particles in the first state to undergo the transition. We may find that this condition is fulfilled by finding the fraction of particles in the first state. If it is negligible, the transition is very likely not observed at the temperature for which the calculation was done. In general, a larger fraction of molecules in the first state means a higher number of transitions to the second state. This gives a stronger spectral line. However, there are other factors that influence the intensity of a spectral line, such as whether it is caused by an allowed or a forbidden transition. The softmax function commonly used in machine learning is related to the Boltzmann distribution: (p_1, \ldots, p_M) = \operatorname{softmax} \left[- \frac{\varepsilon_1}{kT}, \ldots, - \frac{\varepsilon_M}{kT} \right] == Generalized Boltzmann distribution == Distribution of the form \Pr\left(\omega\right)\propto\exp\left[\sum_{\eta=1}^{n}\frac{X_{\eta}x_{\eta}^{\left(\omega\right)}}{k_{B}T}-\frac{E^{\left(\omega\right)}}{k_{B}T}\right] is called generalized Boltzmann distribution by some authors. The Boltzmann distribution is a special case of the generalized Boltzmann distribution. The generalized Boltzmann distribution is used in statistical mechanics to describe canonical ensemble, grand canonical ensemble and isothermal–isobaric ensemble. The generalized Boltzmann distribution is usually derived from the principle of maximum entropy, but there are other derivations. The generalized Boltzmann distribution has the following properties: It is the only distribution for which the entropy as defined by Gibbs entropy formula matches with the entropy as defined in classical thermodynamics. The canonical ensemble can however still be applied to the collective states of the entire system considered as a whole, provided the entire system is in thermal equilibrium. With quantum gases of non-interacting particles in equilibrium, the number of particles found in a given single-particle state does not follow Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, and there is no simple closed form expression for quantum gases in the canonical ensemble. In the grand canonical ensemble the state-filling statistics of quantum gases are described by Fermi–Dirac statistics or Bose–Einstein statistics, depending on whether the particles are fermions or bosons, respectively. == In mathematics == In more general mathematical settings, the Boltzmann distribution is also known as the Gibbs measure. In statistics and machine learning, it is called a log-linear model. In deep learning, the Boltzmann distribution is used in the sampling distribution of stochastic neural networks such as the Boltzmann machine, restricted Boltzmann machine, energy-based models and deep Boltzmann machine. In deep learning, the Boltzmann machine is considered to be one of the unsupervised learning models. In the design of Boltzmann machine in deep learning, as the number of nodes are increased the difficulty of implementing in real time applications becomes critical, so a different type of architecture named Restricted Boltzmann machine is introduced. == In economics == The Boltzmann distribution can be introduced to allocate permits in emissions trading. The new allocation method using the Boltzmann distribution can describe the most probable, natural, and unbiased distribution of emissions permits among multiple countries. The Boltzmann distribution has the same form as the multinomial logit model. As a discrete choice model, this is very well known in economics since Daniel McFadden made the connection to random utility maximization.	[ "Boltzmann constant", "softmax function", "Canonical ensemble", "canonical partition function", "Daniel McFadden", "absolute temperature", "principle of maximum entropy", "Spin (physics)", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Entropy (classical thermodynamics)", "proportionality (mathematics)", "spectral line", "emissions trading", "unsupervised learning", "Softmax function", "microstate (statistical mechanics)", "Degeneracy (quantum mechanics)", "analytical solution", "magnetic ordering", "Lagrange multipliers", "Brillouin function", "discrete choice", "Bose–Einstein statistics", "Energy based model", "Charles Scribner's Sons", "Deep Boltzmann Machine", "probabilities", "quantum mechanics", "Fermi–Dirac statistics", "grand canonical ensemble", "probability measure", "exponential function", "thermodynamic temperature", "Entropy (statistical thermodynamics)", "entropy", "forbidden transition", "heat bath", "Boltzmann machine", "thermal equilibrium", "Natural gas storage", "Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics", "ferromagnetism", "classical mechanics", "system", "Restricted Boltzmann machine", "Negative temperature", "spectroscopy", "Ludwig Boltzmann", "Gibbs measure", "probability distribution", "Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution", "statistical frequency", "paramagnetic", "sampling distribution", "stochastic neural network", "Multinomial logistic regression", "fermion", "expectation value", "machine learning", "fundamental thermodynamic relation", "isothermal–isobaric ensemble", "restricted Boltzmann machine", "boson", "microcanonical ensemble", "canonical ensemble", "log-linear model", "statistical mechanics", "deep learning", "Josiah Willard Gibbs", "mathematics", "antiferromagnetism" ]
4,109	Leg theory	Leg theory is a bowling tactic in the sport of cricket. The term leg theory is somewhat archaic, but the basic tactic remains a play in modern cricket. Simply put, leg theory involves concentrating the bowling attack at or near the line of leg stump. This may or may not be accompanied by a concentration of fielders on the leg side. The line of attack aims to cramp the batsman, making him play the ball with the bat close to the body. This makes it difficult to hit the ball freely and score runs, especially on the off side. Since a leg theory attack means the batsman is more likely to hit the ball on the leg side, additional fielders on that side of the field can be effective in preventing runs and taking catches. Stifling the batsman in this manner can lead to impatience and frustration, resulting in rash play by the batsman which in turn can lead to a quick dismissal. Concentrating attack on the leg stump is considered by many cricket fans and commentators to lead to boring play, as it stifles run scoring and encourages batsmen to play conservatively. Leg theory can be a moderately successful tactic when used with both fast bowling and spin bowling, particularly leg spin to right-handed batsmen or off spin to left-handed batsmen. However, because it relies on lack of concentration or discipline by the batsman, it can be risky against patient and skilled players, especially batsmen who are strong on the leg side. The English opening bowlers Sydney Barnes and Frank Foster used leg theory with some success in Australia in 1911–12. In England, at around the same time, Fred Root was one of the main proponents of the same tactic. ==Fast leg theory== In 1930, England captain Douglas Jardine, together with Nottinghamshire's captain Arthur Carr and his bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, developed a variant of leg theory in which the bowlers bowled fast, short-pitched balls that would rise into the batsman's body, together with a heavily stacked ring of close fielders on the leg side. The idea was that when the batsman defended against the ball, he would be likely to deflect the ball into the air for a catch. Jardine called this modified form of the tactic fast leg theory. On the 1932–33 English tour of Australia, Larwood and Voce bowled fast leg theory at the Australian batsmen. It turned out to be extremely dangerous, and most Australian players sustained injuries from being hit by the ball. Wicket-keeper Bert Oldfield's skull was fractured by a ball hitting his head (although the ball had first glanced off the bat and Larwood had an orthodox field), almost precipitating a riot by the Australian crowd. The Australian press dubbed the tactic Bodyline, and claimed it was a deliberate attempt by the English team to intimidate and injure the Australian players. Reports of the controversy reaching England at the time described the bowling as fast leg theory, which sounded to many people to be a harmless and well-established tactic. This led to a serious misunderstanding amongst the English public and the Marylebone Cricket Club – the administrators of English cricket – of the dangers posed by Bodyline. The English press and cricket authorities declared the Australian protests to be a case of sore losing and "squealing". It was only with the return of the English team and the subsequent use of Bodyline against English players in England by the touring West Indian cricket team in 1933 that demonstrated to the country the dangers it posed. The MCC subsequently revised the Laws of Cricket to prevent the use of "fast leg theory" tactics in future, also limiting the traditional tactic.	[ "Wicket-keeper", "batsman", "Bert Oldfield", "fielding positions in cricket", "West Indies cricket team", "cricket bat", "Sydney Barnes", "leg side", "Fielding (cricket)", "bowling (cricket)", "Australia", "stump (cricket)", "Frank Foster (cricketer)", "Laws of Cricket", "Douglas Jardine", "fast bowling", "Merriam-Webster", "cricket", "Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club", "Bill Voce", "Off theory", "Marylebone Cricket Club", "Fred Root", "sport", "spin bowling", "Bodyline", "leg spin", "cricket ball", "Arthur Carr (cricketer)", "off spin", "England cricket team", "Harold Larwood", "line and length" ]
4,110	Blythe Danner	Blythe Katherine Danner (born February 3, 1943) is an American actress. Accolades she has received include two Primetime Emmy Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her role as Izzy Huffstodt on Huff (2004–2006), and a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress for her performance in Butterflies Are Free on Broadway (1969–1972). Danner was twice nominated for the Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for portraying Marilyn Truman on Will & Grace (2001–06; 2018–20), and the Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie for her roles in We Were the Mulvaneys (2002) and Back When We Were Grownups (2004). For the latter, she also received a Golden Globe Award nomination. Danner played Dina Byrnes in Meet the Parents (2000) and its sequels Meet the Fockers (2004) and Little Fockers (2010). She has collaborated on several occasions with Woody Allen, appearing in three of his films: Another Woman (1988), Alice (1990), and Husbands and Wives (1992). Her other notable film credits include 1776 (1972), Hearts of the West (1975), The Great Santini (1979), Mr. & Mrs. Bridge (1990), The Prince of Tides (1991), To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995), The Myth of Fingerprints (1997), The X-Files (1998), Forces of Nature (1999), The Love Letter (1999), The Last Kiss (2006), Paul (2011), Hello I Must Be Going (2012), I'll See You in My Dreams (2015), and What They Had (2018). Danner is the sister of Harry Danner and the widow of Bruce Paltrow. She is the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow. She is the grandmother of media personality Apple Martin. == Early life == Danner was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Katharine (née Kile) and Harry Earl Danner, a bank executive. She has a brother, opera singer and actor Harry Danner, a sister and a maternal half-brother. Danner has Pennsylvania Dutch, some English and Irish ancestry; her maternal grandmother was a German immigrant, and one of her paternal great-grandmothers was born in Barbados to a family of European descent. Danner graduated from George School, a Quaker high school located near Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in 1960. ==Career== A graduate of Bard College, Danner's first roles included the 1967 musical Mata Hari and the 1968 Off-Broadway production of Summertree. Her early Broadway appearances included Cyrano de Bergerac (1968) and her Theatre World Award-winning performance in The Miser (1969). She won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for portraying a free-spirited divorcée in Butterflies Are Free (1970). In 1972, Danner portrayed Martha Jefferson in the film version of 1776. That same year, she played the unknowing wife of a husband who committed murder, opposite Peter Falk and John Cassavetes, in the Columbo episode "Étude in Black". Her earliest starring film role was opposite Alan Alda in To Kill a Clown (1972). Danner appeared in the episode of MAS*H entitled "The More I See You", playing the love interest of Alda's character Hawkeye Pierce. She played lawyer Amanda Bonner in television's Adam's Rib, opposite Ken Howard as Adam Bonner. She played Zelda Fitzgerald in F. Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles' (1974). She was the eponymous heroine in the film Lovin' Molly (1974) (directed by Sidney Lumet). She appeared in Futureworld, playing Tracy Ballard with co-star Peter Fonda (1976). In the 1982 TV movie Inside the Third Reich, she played the wife of Albert Speer. In the film version of Neil Simon's semi-autobiographical play Brighton Beach Memoirs (1986), she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish mother. She has appeared in two films based on the novels of Pat Conroy, The Great Santini (1979) and The Prince of Tides (1991), as well as two television movies adapted from books by Anne Tyler, Saint Maybe and Back When We Were Grownups, both for the Hallmark Hall of Fame. Danner appeared opposite Robert De Niro in the 2000 comedy hit Meet the Parents, and its sequels, Meet the Fockers (2004) and Little Fockers (2010). From 2001 to 2006, she regularly appeared on NBC's sitcom Will & Grace as Will Truman's mother Marilyn. From 2004 to 2006, she starred in the main cast of the comedy-drama series Huff. In 2005, she was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on Will & Grace, Huff, and the television film Back When We Were Grownups, winning for her role in Huff. The following year, she won a second consecutive Emmy Award for Huff. For 25 years, she has been a regular performer at the Williamstown Summer Theater Festival, where she also serves on the board of directors. In 2006, Danner was awarded an inaugural Katharine Hepburn Medal by Bryn Mawr College's Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center. In 2015, Danner was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. ==Environmental activism== Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as recycling and conservation for over 30 years. She has been active with INFORM, Inc., is on the Board of Environmental Advocates of New York and the board of directors of the Environmental Media Association, and won the 2002 EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award. In 2011, Danner joined Moms Clean Air Force, to help call on parents to join in the fight against toxic air pollution. ==Health care activism== After the death of her husband Bruce Paltrow from oral cancer, she became involved with the nonprofit Oral Cancer Foundation. In 2005, she filmed a public service announcement to raise public awareness of the disease and the need for early detection. She has since appeared on morning talk shows and given interviews in such magazines as People. The Bruce Paltrow Oral Cancer Fund, administered by the Oral Cancer Foundation, raises funding for oral cancer research and treatment, with a particular focus on those communities in which healthcare disparities exist. She has also appeared in commercials for Prolia, a brand of denosumab used in the treatment of osteoporosis. ==Personal life== Danner was married to producer and director Bruce Paltrow, who died of oral cancer in 2002. She and Paltrow had two children together, actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow. Danner's niece is the actress Katherine Moennig, the daughter of her maternal half-brother William. Danner co-starred with her daughter in the 1992 television film Cruel Doubt and again in the 2003 film Sylvia, in which she portrayed Aurelia Plath, mother to Gwyneth's title role of Sylvia Plath. Danner is a practitioner of transcendental meditation, which she has described as "very helpful and comforting". ==Acting credits== ===Film=== ===Television=== ===Stage=== ==Awards and nominations==	[ "Pennsylvania", "Environmental Media Association", "Gotham Awards", "MASH (TV series)", "Columbo", "Two and a Half Men", "Mark Taper Forum", "Jan Hus Presbyterian Church", "American Theatre Wing", "The Court-Martial of George Armstrong Custer", "Thomas Jefferson (film)", "Detachment (film)", "Adam's Rib (TV series)", "1776 (film)", "Butterflies Are Free (play)", "Anne Tyler", "What They Had", "Supporting characters on Will & Grace", "Belasco Theatre", "Homage (film)", "Hearts of the West", "Given name", "The Proposition (1998 film)", "Beyond All Boundaries", "Elizabeth Bacon Custer", "Nurse Jackie", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play", "The Great Santini", "Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture", "denosumab", "List of MASH episodes (Season 4)", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series", "Tumbledown (film)", "Beatrice (Much Ado About Nothing)", "The Prince of Tides", "Theatre World Award", "Futureworld", "Cyrano de Bergerac (play)", "Follies", "All About Eve", "Napoleon (1995 film)", "Ken Howard", "Guilty Conscience (film)", "Saturday Night Live", "Saturn Award for Best Actress", "Delacorte Theater", "Harry Danner", "Inside the Third Reich (film)", "Hearts of the West (1975 film)", "breakfast television", "I'll See You in My Dreams (2015 film)", "Moonlight (play)", "Philadelphia", "Blanche DuBois", "Woody Allen", "Booth Theatre", "Moms Clean Air Force", "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2", "Tattingers", "Waiting for Forever", "Trafalgar Theatre", "Ahmanson Theatre", "Bard College", "Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All (film)", "Brooklyn Academy of Music", "Criterion Center Stage Right", "Aurelia Plath", "Brighton Beach Memoirs (film)", "The Miser", "Eleanor Gehrig", "Meet the Parents", "Neil Simon", "New York City Center", "Strange but True (film)", "George M!", "Odd Mom Out", "Trinity Repertory Company", "osteoporosis", "Bryn Mawr College", "Murder She Purred: A Mrs. Murphy Mystery", "Hallmark Hall of Fame", "Nice Work If You Can Get It (musical)", "Lovin' Molly", "Environmental Media Awards", "Huff (TV series)", "To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar", "Alan Alda", "F. Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles'", "You Can't Take It with You (play)", "We Were the Mulvaneys", "Patrick Melrose (miniseries)", "Back When We Were Grownups", "American Gods (TV series)", "Demeter", "Mata Hari (1967 musical)", "The New York Idea", "Imperial Theatre", "Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical", "Ridley Jones", "Cruel Doubt", "Man, Woman and Child (film)", "Vivian Beaumont Theater", "Hello I Must Be Going (2012 film)", "Santa Monica, California", "Gypsy (TV series)", "Primetime Emmy Award", "Forces of Nature (1999 film)", "Zelda Fitzgerald", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film", "Apple Martin", "Oral Cancer Foundation", "The Chaperone (2018 film)", "recycling", "Anne Sullivan", "Judgment (film)", "Lovers (play)", "Laura Pels Theatre", "Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play", "Martha Jefferson", "Frank Rich", "Theater Company of Boston", "Alice (1990 film)", "Hawkeye Pierce", "Will Truman", "Carousel (musical)", "Happiness for Beginners", "From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)", "George School", "conservation ethic", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie", "Little Fockers", "Husbands and Wives", "The Christian Science Monitor", "John Cassavetes", "The Lucky One (film)", "Barbados", "The Miracle Continues", "The Slap (American TV series)", "Saint Maybe", "American Theater Hall of Fame", "transcendental meditation", "Viola (Twelfth Night)", "Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania", "People (American magazine)", "Columbo (TV series)", "oral cancer", "Samuel J. Friedman Theatre", "Albert Speer", "Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series", "Elizabeth Todd Edwards", "Mr. & Mrs. Bridge", "public service announcement", "What's Your Number?", "We Were the Mulvaneys (film)", "The Deep Blue Sea (play)", "Children of the Sun (play)", "Suddenly Last Summer", "Sidekicks (1974 film)", "Saturday Night Live (season 7)", "Tony Award", "Broadway theatre", "Presidio Med", "INFORM, Inc.", "Pennsylvania Dutch", "Betrayal (play)", "Brighton Beach Memoirs", "Up All Night (TV series)", "The Glass Menagerie", "The Seagull", "Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture", "Great Performances", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie", "Medium (TV series)", "The Last Kiss (2006 film)", "Robert De Niro", "Williamstown Theatre Festival", "A Streetcar Named Desire", "Love Letters (play)", "The Myth of Fingerprints", "Murder of a Cat", "The Invisible Circus (film)", "Hearts Beat Loud", "The Love Letter (1999 film)", "Katharine Hepburn", "Carnegie Hall", "Blithe Spirit (play)", "Will & Grace", "Madoff (miniseries)", "Sylvia (play)", "Ring Round the Moon", "To Kill a Clown", "Katherine Moennig", "The Country House (play)", "Gwyneth Paltrow", "Sylvia (2003 film)", "Major Barbara", "Neil Simon Theatre", "Circle in the Square Theatre", "Jew", "Another Woman (1988 film)", "Tracey Ullman Takes on New York", "Ruth Madoff", "The Lightkeepers", "The X-Files (film)", "Tales from the Crypt (TV series)", "Twelfth Night", "Tonight at 8.30", "Much Ado About Nothing", "Howl's Moving Castle (film)", "Sylvia Plath", "Peter Falk", "Are You in the House Alone?", "Mad City (film)", "Bruce Paltrow", "Elsa Maxwell", "No Looking Back (1998 film)", "Three Sisters (play)", "Pat Conroy", "Paul (2011 film)", "Peter Fonda", "Picnic (play)", "Sidney Lumet", "Meet the Fockers", "Jake Paltrow", "The Tomorrow Man", "The Philadelphia Story (play)", "Dr. Cook's Garden", "Three Days of Rain" ]
4,111	Bioleaching	Bioleaching is the extraction or liberation of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms. Bioleaching is one of several applications within biohydrometallurgy and several methods are used to treat ores or concentrates containing copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt. Bioleaching falls into two broad categories. The first, is the use of microorganisms to oxidize refractory minerals to release valuable metals such and gold and silver. Most commonly the minerals that are the target of oxidization are pyrite and arsenopyrite. The second category is leaching of sulphide minerals to release the associated metal, for example, leaching of pentlandite to release nickel, or the leaching of chalcocite, covellite or chalcopyrite to release copper. == Process == Bioleaching can involve numerous ferrous iron and sulfur oxidizing bacteria, including Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (formerly known as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans) and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans (formerly known as Thiobacillus thiooxidans). As a general principle, in one proposed method of bacterial leaching known as Indirect Leaching, Fe3+ ions are used to oxidize the ore. This step is entirely independent of microbes. The role of the bacteria is further oxidation of the ore, but also the regeneration of the chemical oxidant Fe3+ from Fe2+. For example, bacteria catalyse the breakdown of the mineral pyrite (FeS2) by oxidising the sulfur and metal (in this case ferrous iron, (Fe2+)) using oxygen. This yields soluble products that can be further purified and refined to yield the desired metal. Pyrite leaching (FeS2): In the first step, disulfide is spontaneously oxidized to thiosulfate by ferric ion (Fe3+), which in turn is reduced to give ferrous ion (Fe2+): (1) \mathrm{FeS_2 + 6 \ Fe^{\,3+} + 3 \ H_2O \longrightarrow 7 \ Fe^{\,2+} + S_2O_3^{\,2-} + 6 \ H^+} spontaneous The ferrous ion is then oxidized by bacteria using oxygen: (2) \mathrm{4 \ Fe^{\,2+} + \ O_2 + 4 \ H^+ \longrightarrow 4 \ Fe^{\,3+} + 2 \ H_2O} (iron oxidizers) Thiosulfate is also oxidized by bacteria to give sulfate: (3) \mathrm{S_2O_3^{\,2-} + 2 \ O_2 + H_2O \longrightarrow 2 \ SO_4^{\,2-} + 2 \ H^+} (sulfur oxidizers) The ferric ion produced in reaction (2) oxidized more sulfide as in reaction (1), closing the cycle and given the net reaction: (4) \mathrm{2 \ FeS_2 + 7 \ O_2 + 2 \ H_2O \longrightarrow 2 \ Fe^{\,2+} + 4 \ SO_4^{\,2-} + 4 \ H^+} The net products of the reaction are soluble ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid. The microbial oxidation process occurs at the cell membrane of the bacteria. The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce energy for the bacteria while reducing oxygen to water. The critical reaction is the oxidation of sulfide by ferric iron. The main role of the bacterial step is the regeneration of this reactant. The process for copper is very similar, but the efficiency and kinetics depend on the copper mineralogy. The most efficient minerals are supergene minerals such as chalcocite, Cu2S and covellite, CuS. The main copper mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is not leached very efficiently, which is why the dominant copper-producing technology remains flotation, followed by smelting and refining. The leaching of CuFeS2 follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu2+ ions being left in solution. Chalcopyrite leaching: (1) \mathrm{CuFeS_2 + 4 \ Fe^{\,3+} \longrightarrow Cu^{\,2+} + 5 \ Fe^{\,2+} + 2 \ S_0} spontaneous (2) \mathrm{4 \ Fe^{\,2+} + O_2 + 4 \ H^+ \longrightarrow 4 \ Fe^{\,3+} + 2 \ H_2O} (iron oxidizers) (3) \mathrm{2 \ S^0 + 3 \ O_2 + 2 \ H_2O \longrightarrow 2 \ SO_4^{\,2-} + 4 \ H^+} (sulfur oxidizers) net reaction: (4) \mathrm{CuFeS_2 + 4 \ O_2 \longrightarrow Cu^{\,2+} + Fe^{\,2+} + 2 \ SO_4^{\,2-}} In general, sulfides are first oxidized to elemental sulfur, whereas disulfides are oxidized to give thiosulfate, and the processes above can be applied to other sulfidic ores. Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores such as pitchblende also uses ferric iron as an oxidant (e.g., UO2 + 2 Fe3+ ==> UO22+ + 2 Fe2+). In this case, the sole purpose of the bacterial step is the regeneration of Fe3+. Sulfidic iron ores can be added to speed up the process and provide a source of iron. Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores by layering of waste sulfides and elemental sulfur, colonized by Acidithiobacillus spp., has been accomplished, which provides a strategy for accelerated leaching of materials that do not contain sulfide minerals. == Further processing == The dissolved copper (Cu2+) ions are removed from the solution by ligand exchange solvent extraction, which leaves other ions in the solution. The copper is removed by bonding to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number of smaller groups, each possessing a lone electron pair. The ligand-copper complex is extracted from the solution using an organic solvent such as kerosene: Cu2+(aq) + 2LH(organic) → CuL2(organic) + 2H+(aq) The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to the ligand. Because this complex has no charge, it is no longer attracted to polar water molecules and dissolves in the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the solution. Because the initial reaction is reversible, it is determined by pH. Adding concentrated acid reverses the equation, and the copper ions go back into an aqueous solution. Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning process to increase its purity: An electric current is passed through the resulting solution of copper ions. Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there. The copper can also be concentrated and separated by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron: Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s) → Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq) The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the copper. Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses electrons). Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution. Treating the mixture with sodium cyanide in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to charcoal. ==With fungi== Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. Fungi can be grown on many different substrates, such as electronic scrap, catalytic converters, and fly ash from municipal waste incineration. Experiments have shown that two fungal strains (Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum) were able to mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than 95%. Aspergillus niger can produce some organic acids such as citric acid. This form of leaching does not rely on microbial oxidation of metal but rather uses microbial metabolism as source of acids that directly dissolve the metal. == Feasibility == ===Economic feasibility=== Bioleaching is in general simpler and, therefore, cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants. And low concentrations are not a problem for bacteria because they simply ignore the waste that surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases. These microorganisms actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements. The company simply collects the ions out of the solution after the bacteria have finished. Bioleaching can be used to extract metals from low concentration ores such as gold that are too poor for other technologies. It can be used to partially replace the extensive crushing and grinding that translates to prohibitive cost and energy consumption in a conventional process. Because the lower cost of bacterial leaching outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal. High concentration ores, such as copper, are more economical to smelt rather bioleach due to the slow speed of the bacterial leaching process compared to smelting. The slow speed of bioleaching introduces a significant delay in cash flow for new mines. Nonetheless, at the largest copper mine of the world, Escondida in Chile the process seems to be favorable. Economically it is also very expensive and many companies once started can not keep up with the demand and end up in debt. ===In space=== In 2020 scientists showed, with an experiment with different gravity environments on the ISS, that microorganisms could be employed to mine useful elements from basaltic rocks via bioleaching in space. == Environmental impact == The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of sulfur dioxide emissions during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled. Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. Sulfuric acid and H+ ions that have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming "Yellow Boy" pollution. For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a biosafety failure. Unlike other methods, once started, bioheap leaching cannot be quickly stopped, because leaching would still continue with rainwater and natural bacteria. Projects like Finnish Talvivaara proved to be environmentally and economically disastrous.	[ "electric current", "chalcocite", "Solubility", "living organism", "Pyrite", "sulfuric acid", "ISS", "reversible reaction", "biohydrometallurgy", "metal", "Chalcopyrite", "Yle", "factory", "e-waste", "iron", "chemical", "complex (chemistry)", "Toxicity", "aqueous solution", "pH", "chalcopyrite", "Phytomining", "atom", "nickel", "electric charge", "zinc", "molybdenum", "air pollution", "Indirect Leaching", "Sphingomonas desiccabilis", "biomining", "product (chemistry)", "biological reproduction", "ore", "Chile", "mineral", "functional group", "strain (biology)", "ion", "precipitation (chemistry)", "energy", "covellite", "Talvivaara", "Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans", "cash flow", "recycling", "sulfur dioxide", "Escondida", "catalyst", "disulfide", "sodium cyanide", "chemical reaction", "electron", "arsenic", "incineration", "cell (biology)", "oxygen", "citric acid", "basalt", "biochemical", "lead", "iron ore", "Sulfuric acid", "groundwater", "pentlandite", "catalytic converter", "fly ash", "Acid mine drainage", "biosafety", "microorganism", "thiosulfate", "silver", "lone electron pair", "copper", "kerosene", "concentration", "ligand", "single displacement reaction", "polar molecule", "refractory", "gold", "antimony", "sulfide", "pitchblende", "cell membrane", "organic compound", "pyrite", "sulfur", "cobalt", "Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans", "water", "charcoal", "ferrous sulfate", "adsorption", "Fungus", "Heavy ion", "sulphide", "arsenopyrite", "acid mine drainage", "cathode" ]
4,113	Bouldering	Bouldering is a form of rock climbing that is performed on small rock formations or artificial rock walls without the use of ropes or harnesses. While bouldering can be done without any equipment, most climbers use climbing shoes to help secure footholds, chalk to keep their hands dry and to provide a firmer grip, and bouldering mats to prevent injuries from falls. Unlike free solo climbing, which is also performed without ropes, bouldering problems (the sequence of moves that a climber performs to complete the climb) are usually less than tall. Traverses, which are a form of boulder problem, require the climber to climb horizontally from one end to another. Artificial climbing walls allow boulderers to climb indoors in areas without natural boulders. In addition, bouldering competitions take place in both indoor and outdoor settings. The sport was originally a method of training for roped climbs and mountaineering, so climbers could practice specific moves at a safe distance from the ground. Additionally, the sport served to build stamina and increase finger strength. Throughout the 20th century, bouldering evolved into a separate discipline. Individual problems are assigned ratings based on difficulty. Although there have been various rating systems used throughout the history of bouldering, modern problems usually use either the V-scale or the Fontainebleau scale. == Outdoor bouldering == The characteristics of boulder problems depend largely on the type of rock being climbed. For example, granite often features long cracks and slabs while sandstone rocks are known for their steep overhangs and frequent horizontal breaks. Limestone and volcanic rock are also used for bouldering. There are many prominent bouldering areas throughout the United States, including Hueco Tanks in Texas, Mount Blue Sky in Colorado, The Appalachian Mountains in The Eastern United States, and The Buttermilks in Bishop, California. Squamish, British Columbia is one of the most popular bouldering areas in Canada. Europe is also home to a number of bouldering sites, such as Fontainebleau in France, Meschia in Italy, Albarracín in Spain, and various mountains throughout Switzerland. == Indoor bouldering == Artificial climbing walls are used to simulate boulder problems in an indoor environment, usually at climbing gyms. These walls are constructed with wooden panels, polymer cement panels, concrete shells, or precast molds of actual rock walls. Holds, usually made of plastic, are then bolted onto the wall to create problems. Some problems use steep overhanging surfaces which force the climber to support much of their weight using their upper body strength. Climbing gyms often feature multiple problems within the same section of wall. Historically, the most common method route-setters used to designate the intended problem was by placing colored tape next to each hold. For example, red tape would indicate one bouldering problem while green tape would be used to set a different problem in the same area. Indoor bouldering requires very little in terms of equipment: at minimum, climbing shoes; at maximum, a chalk bag, chalk, a brush, and climbing shoes. == Grading == Bouldering problems are assigned numerical difficulty ratings by route-setters and climbers. The two most widely used rating systems are the V-scale and the Fontainebleau system. The V-scale, which originated in the United States, is an open-ended rating system with higher numbers indicating a higher degree of difficulty. The V1 rating indicates that a problem can be completed by a novice climber in good physical condition after several attempts. The scale begins at V0, and as of 2024, the highest V rating that has been assigned to a bouldering problem is V17. Some climbing gyms also use a VB grade to indicate beginner problems. The Fontainebleau scale follows a similar system, with each numerical grade divided into three ratings with the letters a, b, and c. For example, Fontainebleau 7A roughly corresponds with V6, while Fontainebleau 7C+ is equivalent to V10. In both systems, grades are further differentiated by appending "+" to indicate a small increase in difficulty. Despite this level of specificity, ratings of individual problems are often controversial, as ability level is not the only factor that affects how difficult a problem may be for a particular climber. Height, arm length, flexibility, and other body characteristics can also affect difficulty. == Highball bouldering == Highball bouldering is "a sub-discipline of bouldering in which climbers seek out tall, imposing lines to climb ropeless above crash pads." It may have begun in 1961 when John Gill, without top-rope rehearsal or bouldering pads (which did not exist), bouldered a steep face on a granite spire called The Thimble. In 2002 Jason Kehl completed the first highball at double-digit V-difficulty, called Evilution, a boulder in the Buttermilks of California, earning the grade of V12. Important milestone ascents in this style include: Ambrosia, V11, a boulder in Bishop, California, climbed by Kevin Jorgeson in 2015. Too Big to Flail, V10, another line in Bishop, California, climbed by Alex Honnold in 2016. The Process, V16, a boulder in Bishop, California, first climbed by Daniel Woods in 2015. == Competition bouldering == The International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) employs an indoor format (although competitions can also take place in an outdoor setting) that breaks the competition into three rounds: qualifications, semi-finals, and finals. The rounds feature different sets of four to six boulder problems, and each competitor has a fixed amount of time to attempt each problem. At the end of each round, competitors are ranked by the number of completed problems with ties settled by the total number of attempts taken to solve the problems. Some competitions only permit climbers a fixed number of attempts at each problem with a timed rest period in between. In an open-format competition, all climbers compete simultaneously, and are given a fixed amount of time to complete as many problems as possible. More points are awarded for more difficult problems, while points are deducted for multiple attempts on the same problem. In 2012, the IFSC submitted a proposal to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to include lead climbing in the 2020 Summer Olympics. The proposal was later revised to an "overall" competition, which would feature bouldering, lead climbing, and speed climbing. In 2016, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) officially approved climbing, along with four other sports, as an Olympic sport, based on their "impact on gender equality, the youth appeal of the sports and the legacy value of adding them to the Tokyo Games". == History == === Modern bouldering === Modern recreational climbing began in the late 19th century in England, southeastern Germany, northern Italy, and France. Bouldering on the rocks of Fontainbleau outside of Paris began in the late 1800s, with the first guidebook written by Maurice Martin in 1945. Bouldering as training or a recreational past-time began also in the late 1800s in England and perhaps elsewhere. Oscar Eckenstein was an early proponent. In the late 1950s, John Gill, who is frequently called "the father of modern bouldering", combined gymnastics with rock climbing, and felt that the best place to do that was on boulders or small outcrops. He developed a rating system that was closed-ended: B1 problems were as difficult as the most challenging roped routes of the time, B2 problems were more difficult, and B3 problems had been completed once. He also introduced chalk as a method of keeping the climber's hands dry, promoted a dynamic climbing style, and emphasized the importance of strength training to complement skill. His 1969 article in the Journal of the American Alpine Club entitled "The Art of Bouldering" defines modern bouldering. As Gill improved in ability and influence, his ideas became the norm. In the 1980s, two important training tools emerged. One important training tool was bouldering mats, also referred to as "crash pads", which protected against injuries from falling and enabled boulderers to climb in areas that would have been too dangerous otherwise. The second important tool was indoor climbing walls, which helped spread the sport to areas without outdoor climbing and allowed serious climbers to train year-round. As the sport grew in popularity, new bouldering areas were developed throughout Europe and the United States, and more athletes began participating in bouldering competitions. The visibility of the sport greatly increased in the early 2000s, as YouTube videos and climbing blogs helped boulderers around the world to quickly learn techniques, find hard problems, and announce newly completed projects. File:Gill_on_The_Scab_,_1963_,_The_Needles_of_the_Balck_Hills,_SD.jpg\|John Gill on the Scab in the Needles of the Black Hills, 1963 File:Christian Core on Gioia.jpg\|Christian Core on Gioia (Varazze, ITA), first boulder in history, 2008 File:Midnight Lightning yosemite.jpg\|Michael Rael Armas on Midnight Lightning, Camp 4 (Yosemite National Park, USA), one of the world's most famous bouldering problems === Notable ascents === Notable boulder climbs are chronicled by the climbing media to track progress in boulder climbing standards and levels of technical difficulty; in contrast, the hardest traditional climbing routes tend to be of lower technical difficulty due to the additional burden of having to place protection during the course of the climb, and due to the lack of any possibility of using natural protection on the most extreme climbs. As of November 2022, the world's hardest bouldering routes are Burden of Dreams by Nalle Hukkataival and Return of the Sleepwalker by Daniel Woods, both at proposed grades of . There are a number of routes with a confirmed climbing grade of , the first of which was Gioia by Christian Core in 2008 (and confirmed by Adam Ondra in 2011). As of December 2021, female climbers Josune Bereziartu, Ashima Shiraishi, and Kaddi Lehmann have repeated boulder problems at the boulder grade. On 28 July 2023, Katie Lamb became the first female climber to climb an -rated boulder by repeating Box Therapy at Rocky Mountain National Park. However, after Brooke Raboutou repeated the climb In October 2023, the boulder was ultimately downgraded to . == Equipment == Unlike other climbing sports, bouldering can be performed safely and effectively with very little equipment, an aspect which makes the discipline highly appealing, but opinions differ. While bouldering pioneer John Sherman asserted that "The only gear really needed to go bouldering is boulders," others suggest the use of climbing shoes and a chalkbag – a small pouch where ground-up chalk is kept – as the bare minimum, and more experienced boulderers typically bring multiple pairs of climbing shoes, chalk, brushes, crash pads, and a skincare kit. Climbing shoes have the most direct impact on performance. Besides protecting the climber's feet from rough surfaces, climbing shoes are designed to help the climber secure footholds. Climbing shoes typically fit much tighter than other athletic footwear and often curl the toes downwards to enable precise footwork. They are manufactured in a variety of different styles to perform in different situations. Stiffer shoes excel at securing small edges, whereas softer shoes provide greater sensitivity. The front of the shoe, called the "toe box", can be asymmetric, which performs well on overhanging rocks, or symmetric, which is better suited for vertical problems and slabs. To absorb sweat, most boulderers use gymnastics chalk on their hands, stored in a chalk bag, which can be tied around the waist (also called sport climbing chalk bags), allowing the climber to reapply chalk during the climb. There are also versions of floor chalk bags (also called bouldering chalk bags), which are usually bigger than sport climbing chalk bags and are meant to be kept on the floor while climbing; this is because boulders do not usually have so many movements as to require chalking up more than once. Different sizes of brushes are used to remove excess chalk and debris from boulders in between climbs; they are often attached to the end of a long straight object in order to reach higher holds. Crash pads, also referred to as bouldering mats, are foam cushions placed on the ground to protect climbers from injury after falling. Boulder problems are generally shorter than from ground to top. This makes the sport significantly safer than free solo climbing, which is also performed without ropes, but with no upper limit on the height of the climb. However, minor injuries are common in bouldering, particularly sprained ankles and wrists. To prevent injuries, boulderers position crash pads near the boulder to provide a softer landing, as well as one or more spotters to help redirect the climber towards the pads. Upon landing, boulderers employ falling techniques similar to those used in gymnastics: spreading the impact across the entire body to avoid bone fractures and positioning limbs to allow joints to move freely throughout the impact. File:Quechua climbing shoes.jpg\|A modern climbing shoe File:Joshue Tree National Park - Manx Boulder - 6.jpg\|Using spotters for safety File:GIOVANNI BOULDERING.jpg\|Using crash pads == Techniques == Although every type of rock climbing requires a high level of strength and technique, bouldering is the most dynamic form of the sport, requiring the highest level of power and placing considerable strain on the body. Training routines that strengthen fingers and forearms are useful in preventing injuries such as tendonitis and ruptured ligaments. However, as with other forms of climbing, bouldering technique begins with proper footwork. Leg muscles are significantly stronger than arm muscles; thus, proficient boulderers use their arms to maintain balance and body positioning as much as possible, relying on their legs to push them up the rock. Boulderers also keep their arms straight with their shoulders engaged whenever feasible, allowing their bones to support their body weight rather than their muscles. Bouldering movements are described as either "static" or "dynamic". Static movements are those that are performed slowly, with the climber's position controlled by maintaining contact on the boulder with the other three limbs. Dynamic movements use the climber's momentum to reach holds that would be difficult or impossible to secure statically, with an increased risk of falling if the movement is not performed accurately. == Environmental impact == Bouldering can damage vegetation that grows on rocks, such as moss and lichens. This can occur as a result of the climber intentionally cleaning the boulder, or unintentionally from repeated use of handholds and footholds. Vegetation on the ground surrounding the boulder can also be damaged from overuse, particularly by climbers laying down crash pads. Soil erosion can occur when boulderers trample vegetation while hiking off of established trails, or when they unearth small rocks near the boulder in an effort to make the landing zone safer in case of a fall. Other environmental concerns include littering, improperly disposed feces, and graffiti. These issues have caused some land managers to prohibit bouldering, as was the case in Tea Garden, a popular bouldering area in Rocklands, South Africa.	[ "Crack climbing", "sprained wrist", "Black Hills", "blog", "Bishop, California", "polymer", "Squamish, British Columbia", "Limestone", "John Gill (climber)", "Daniel Woods", "Alex Honnold", "arm", "lead climbing", "lichen", "Competition climbing", "Albarracín", "rock climbing", "2020 Summer Olympics", "Brooke Raboutou", "traditional climbing", "Jason Kehl", "Hueco Tanks", "Nalle Hukkataival", "Josune Bereziartu", "International Olympic Committee", "Adam Ondra", "United States", "brush", "free solo climbing", "bouldering mat", "Kaddi Lehmann", "climbing gym", "Fontainebleau rock climbing", "tendonitis", "plastic", "Leg muscles", "concrete", "graffiti", "littering", "Kevin Jorgeson", "flexibility", "Varazze", "degree of difficulty", "Soil erosion", "Rocklands, South Africa", "Oscar Eckenstein", "strength training", "YouTube", "Fontainebleau", "Italy", "Yosemite National Park", "Mount Blue Sky", "slab climbing", "The Buttermilks", "Free solo climbing", "feces", "John Sherman (climber)", "Spotting (climbing)", "Magnesium carbonate", "Climbing wall", "bone fracture", "Roccafluvione", "International Federation of Sport Climbing", "Midnight Lightning (bouldering)", "South Dakota", "Burden of Dreams (climb)", "volcanic rock", "Camp 4 (Yosemite)", "magnesium carbonate", "Indoor climbing", "Christian Core", "speed climbing", "sandstone", "Lead climbing", "Rocky Mountain National Park", "Katie Lamb", "granite", "climbing shoe", "moss", "Ashima Shiraishi", "Climbing harness", "gymnastics", "Appalachian Mountains", "mountaineering", "Grade (bouldering)", "sprained ankle", "momentum" ]
4,115	Boiling point	The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum, i.e., under a lower pressure, has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Because of this, water boils at 100°C (or with scientific precision: ) under standard pressure at sea level, but at at altitude. For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures. The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, one atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of one bar. The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.) of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure). Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid. ==Saturation temperature and pressure== A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a saturated vapor contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing). Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa (1 atm), or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa (1 bar). At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point. If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature are known, the boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, thus: T_\text{B} = \left(\frac{1}{T_0} - \frac{R\,\ln \frac{P}{P_0}}{\Delta H_\text{vap}}\right)^{-1} where: T_\text{B} is the boiling point at the pressure of interest, R is the ideal gas constant, P is the vapor pressure of the liquid, P_0 is some pressure where the corresponding T_0 is known (usually data available at 1 atm or 100 kPa (1 bar)), \Delta H_\text{vap} is the heat of vaporization of the liquid, T_0 is the boiling temperature, \ln is the natural logarithm. Saturation pressure is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased, so is saturation temperature. If the temperature in a system remains constant (an isothermal system), vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased. Similarly, a liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased. There are two conventions regarding the standard boiling point of water: The normal boiling point is commonly given as (actually following the thermodynamic definition of the Celsius scale based on the kelvin) at a pressure of 1 atm (101.325 kPa). The IUPAC-recommended standard boiling point of water at a standard pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar) is . For comparison, on top of Mount Everest, at elevation, the pressure is about and the boiling point of water is . The Celsius temperature scale was defined until 1954 by two points: 0 °C being defined by the water freezing point and 100 °C being defined by the water boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure. == Relation between the normal boiling point and the vapor pressure of liquids == The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) of the liquid. The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points. For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point (−24.2 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure. The critical point of a liquid is the highest temperature (and pressure) it will actually boil at. See also Vapour pressure of water. == Boiling point of chemical elements == The element with the lowest boiling point is helium. Both the boiling points of rhenium and tungsten exceed 5000 K at standard pressure; because it is difficult to measure extreme temperatures precisely without bias, both have been cited in the literature as having the higher boiling point. ==Boiling point as a reference property of a pure compound== As can be seen from the above plot of the logarithm of the vapor pressure vs. the temperature for any given pure chemical compound, its normal boiling point can serve as an indication of that compound's overall volatility. A given pure compound has only one normal boiling point, if any, and a compound's normal boiling point and melting point can serve as characteristic physical properties for that compound, listed in reference books. The higher a compound's normal boiling point, the less volatile that compound is overall, and conversely, the lower a compound's normal boiling point, the more volatile that compound is overall. Some compounds decompose at higher temperatures before reaching their normal boiling point, or sometimes even their melting point. For a stable compound, the boiling point ranges from its triple point to its critical point, depending on the external pressure. Beyond its triple point, a compound's normal boiling point, if any, is higher than its melting point. Beyond the critical point, a compound's liquid and vapor phases merge into one phase, which may be called a superheated gas. At any given temperature, if a compound's normal boiling point is lower, then that compound will generally exist as a gas at atmospheric external pressure. If the compound's normal boiling point is higher, then that compound can exist as a liquid or solid at that given temperature at atmospheric external pressure, and will so exist in equilibrium with its vapor (if volatile) if its vapors are contained. If a compound's vapors are not contained, then some volatile compounds can eventually evaporate away in spite of their higher boiling points. In general, compounds with ionic bonds have high normal boiling points, if they do not decompose before reaching such high temperatures. Many metals have high boiling points, but not all. Very generally—with other factors being equal—in compounds with covalently bonded molecules, as the size of the molecule (or molecular mass) increases, the normal boiling point increases. When the molecular size becomes that of a macromolecule, polymer, or otherwise very large, the compound often decomposes at high temperature before the boiling point is reached. Another factor that affects the normal boiling point of a compound is the polarity of its molecules. As the polarity of a compound's molecules increases, its normal boiling point increases, other factors being equal. Closely related is the ability of a molecule to form hydrogen bonds (in the liquid state), which makes it harder for molecules to leave the liquid state and thus increases the normal boiling point of the compound. Simple carboxylic acids dimerize by forming hydrogen bonds between molecules. A minor factor affecting boiling points is the shape of a molecule. Making the shape of a molecule more compact tends to lower the normal boiling point slightly compared to an equivalent molecule with more surface area. Most volatile compounds (anywhere near ambient temperatures) go through an intermediate liquid phase while warming up from a solid phase to eventually transform to a vapor phase. By comparison to boiling, a sublimation is a physical transformation in which a solid turns directly into vapor, which happens in a few select cases such as with carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure. For such compounds, a sublimation point is a temperature at which a solid turning directly into vapor has a vapor pressure equal to the external pressure. ==Impurities and mixtures== In the preceding section, boiling points of pure compounds were covered. Vapor pressures and boiling points of substances can be affected by the presence of dissolved impurities (solutes) or other miscible compounds, the degree of effect depending on the concentration of the impurities or other compounds. The presence of non-volatile impurities such as salts or compounds of a volatility far lower than the main component compound decreases its mole fraction and the solution's volatility, and thus raises the normal boiling point in proportion to the concentration of the solutes. This effect is called boiling point elevation. As a common example, salt water boils at a higher temperature than pure water. In other mixtures of miscible compounds (components), there may be two or more components of varying volatility, each having its own pure component boiling point at any given pressure. The presence of other volatile components in a mixture affects the vapor pressures and thus boiling points and dew points of all the components in the mixture. The dew point is a temperature at which a vapor condenses into a liquid. Furthermore, at any given temperature, the composition of the vapor is different from the composition of the liquid in most such cases. In order to illustrate these effects between the volatile components in a mixture, a boiling point diagram is commonly used. Distillation is a process of boiling and [usually] condensation which takes advantage of these differences in composition between liquid and vapor phases. == Boiling point of water with elevation == Following is a table of the change in the boiling point of water with elevation, at intervals of 500 meters over the range of human habitation [the Dead Sea at to La Rinconada, Peru at ], then of 1,000 meters over the additional range of uninhabited surface elevation [up to Mount Everest at ], along with a similar range in Imperial. == Element table ==	[ "condensation", "isopentane", "Solution (chemistry)", "hydrogen bond", "standard pressure", "metal", "aldehyde", "butane", "Boiling-point elevation", "polymer", "boiling point elevation", "vapor pressure", "heat of vaporization", "Trouton's constant", "Salt (chemistry)", "Alcohol (chemistry)", "IUPAC nomenclature", "Atmosphere (unit)", "Melting point", "Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "heat", "Sublimation (phase transition)", "Critical point (thermodynamics)", "natural logarithm", "List of gases", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Flash evaporation", "Saline water", "carbon dioxide", "alkene", "phase transition", "triple point", "critical point (thermodynamics)", "kelvin", "ketone", "La Rinconada, Peru", "sublimation point", "Superheating", "boiling", "neopentane", "system", "Purdue University", "macromolecule", "methyl chloride", "Polarity (chemistry)", "rhenium", "isothermal", "Vapour pressure of water", "helium", "Subcooling", "Bar (unit)", "Clausius–Clapeyron equation", "Volatility (chemistry)", "ether", "Mount Everest", "kilopascal", "chemical compound", "atmospheric pressure", "ionic bond", "Isobaric process", "Hagedorn temperature", "Physical property", "melting point", "molecular mass", "evaporation", "Boiling points of the elements (data page)", "vapor", "solutes", "concentration", "pentane", "Gas", "halogenoalkane", "Condensation", "liquid", "vacuum", "standard atmospheric pressure", "Triple point", "water", "mole fraction", "pressure", "dew point", "molecule", "isobutane", "Joback method", "Dead Sea", "thermal energy", "ideal gas constant", "carboxylic acid", "tungsten", "Distillation", "Standard temperature and pressure", "Ebulliometer" ]
4,116	Big Bang	The Big Bang is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of high density and temperature. Various cosmological models based on the Big Bang concept explain a broad range of phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, and large-scale structure. The uniformity of the universe, known as the horizon and flatness problems, is explained through cosmic inflation: a phase of accelerated expansion during the earliest stages. A wide range of empirical evidence strongly favors the Big Bang event, which is now essentially universally accepted. Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the universe place the Big Bang singularity at an estimated billion years ago, which is considered the age of the universe. Extrapolating this cosmic expansion backward in time using the known laws of physics, the models describe an extraordinarily hot and dense primordial universe. Physics lacks a widely accepted theory that can model the earliest conditions of the Big Bang. As the universe expanded, it cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later atoms. These primordial elements—mostly hydrogen, with some helium and lithium—then coalesced under the force of gravity aided by dark matter, forming early stars and galaxies. Measurements of the redshifts of supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, an observation attributed to a concept called dark energy. The concept of an expanding universe was scientifically originated by the physicist Alexander Friedmann in 1922 with the mathematical derivation of the Friedmann equations. The earliest empirical observation of an expanding universe is known as Hubble's law, published in work by physicist Edwin Hubble in 1929, which discerned that galaxies are moving away from Earth at a rate that accelerates proportionally with distance. Independent of Friedmann's work, and independent of Hubble's observations, physicist Georges Lemaître proposed that the universe emerged from a "primeval atom" in 1931, introducing the modern notion of the Big Bang. In 1964, the CMB was discovered, which convinced many cosmologists that the competing steady-state model of cosmic evolution was falsified, since the Big Bang models predict a uniform background radiation caused by high temperatures and densities in the distant past. There remain aspects of the observed universe that are not yet adequately explained by the Big Bang models. These include the unequal abundances of matter and antimatter known as baryon asymmetry, the detailed nature of dark matter surrounding galaxies, and the origin of dark energy. == Features of the models == === Assumptions === Big Bang cosmology models depend on three major assumptions: the universality of physical laws, the cosmological principle, and that the matter content can be modeled as a perfect fluid. The universality of physical laws is one of the underlying principles of the theory of relativity. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic—appearing the same in all directions regardless of location. A perfect fluid has no viscosity; the pressure of a perfect fluid is proportional to its density. These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but later efforts were made to test each of them. For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that the largest possible deviation of the fine-structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10−5. The key physical law behind these models, general relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the Solar System and binary stars. The cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10−5 via observations of the temperature of the CMB. At the scale of the CMB horizon, the universe has been measured to be homogeneous with an upper bound on the order of 10% inhomogeneity, as of 1995. === Expansion prediction === The cosmological principle dramatically simplifies the equations of general relativity, giving the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric to describe the geometry of the universe and, with the assumption of a perfect fluid, the Friedmann equations giving the time dependence of that geometry. The only parameter at this level of description is the mass-energy density: the geometry of the universe and its expansion is a direct consequence of its density. ===Horizons=== An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of particle horizons. Since the universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not yet had time to reach earth. This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed. Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never "catch up" to very distant objects. This defines a future horizon, which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence. The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric that describes the expansion of the universe. ===Thermalization=== Some processes in the early universe occurred too slowly, compared to the expansion rate of the universe, to reach approximate thermodynamic equilibrium. Others were fast enough to reach thermalization. The parameter usually used to find out whether a process in the very early universe has reached thermal equilibrium is the ratio between the rate of the process (usually rate of collisions between particles) and the Hubble parameter. The larger the ratio, the more time particles had to thermalize before they were too far away from each other. == Timeline == According to the Big Bang models, the universe at the beginning was very hot and very compact, and since then it has been expanding and cooling. === Singularity === Existing theories of physics cannot tell us about the moment of the Big Bang. but the meaning of this extrapolation in the context of the Big Bang is unclear. Moreover, classical gravitational theories are expected to be inadequate to describe physics under these conditions. Quantum gravity effects are expected to be dominant during the Planck epoch, when the temperature of the universe was close to the Planck scale (around 1032 K or 1028 eV). Even below the Planck scale, undiscovered physics could greatly influence the expansion history of the universe. The Standard Model of particle physics is only tested up to temperatures of order 1017K (10 TeV) in particle colliders, such as the Large Hadron Collider. Moreover, new physical phenomena decoupled from the Standard Model could have been important before the time of neutrino decoupling, when the temperature of the universe was only about 1010K (1 MeV). === Inflation and baryogenesis === The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation, given the lack of available data. In the most common models the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high energy density and huge temperatures and pressures, and was very rapidly expanding and cooling. The period up to 10−43 seconds into the expansion, the Planck epoch, was a phase in which the four fundamental forces—the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, and the gravitational force, were unified as one. In this stage, the characteristic scale length of the universe was the Planck length, , and consequently had a temperature of approximately 1032 degrees Celsius. Even the very concept of a particle breaks down in these conditions. A proper understanding of this period awaits the development of a theory of quantum gravity. The Planck epoch was succeeded by the grand unification epoch beginning at 10−43 seconds, where gravitation separated from the other forces as the universe's temperature fell. At a time around 10−36 seconds, the electroweak epoch begins when the strong nuclear force separates from the other forces, with only the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force remaining unified. Inflation stopped locally at around 10−33 to 10−32 seconds, with the observable universe's volume having increased by a factor of at least 1078. Reheating followed as the inflaton field decayed, until the universe obtained the temperatures required for the production of a quark–gluon plasma as well as all other elementary particles. Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle–antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions. === Cooling === The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing. Symmetry-breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form, with the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force separating at about 10−12 seconds. After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle accelerators. At about 10−6 seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The temperature was no longer high enough to create either new proton–antiproton or neutron–antineutron pairs. A mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 108 of the original matter particles and none of their antiparticles. A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos). A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion kelvin and the density of matter in the universe was comparable to the current density of Earth's atmosphere, neutrons combined with protons to form the universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN). === Structure formation === After the recombination epoch, the slightly denser regions of the uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today. === Cosmic acceleration === Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which appears to homogeneously permeate all of space. Observations suggest that 73% of the total energy density of the present day universe is in this form. When the universe was very young it was likely infused with dark energy, but with everything closer together, gravity predominated, braking the expansion. Eventually, after billions of years of expansion, the declining density of matter relative to the density of dark energy allowed the expansion of the universe to begin to accelerate. saying: "These theories were based on the hypothesis that all the matter in the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past." However, it did not catch on until the 1970s. Helge Kragh writes that the evidence for the claim that it was meant as a pejorative is "unconvincing", and mentions a number of indications that it was not a pejorative. but the term can also refer to a more generic early hot, dense phase. The term itself has been argued to be a misnomer because it evokes an explosion. The argument is that whereas an explosion suggests expansion into a surrounding space, the Big Bang only describes the intrinsic expansion of the contents of the universe. Another issue pointed out by Santhosh Mathew is that bang implies sound, which is not an important feature of the model. The term 'big bang' was coined with derisive intent by Fred Hoyle, and its endurance testifies to Sir Fred's creativity and wit. Indeed, the term survived an international competition in which three judges — the television science reporter Hugh Downs, the astronomer Carl Sagan, and myself — sifted through 13,099 entries from 41 countries and concluded that none was apt enough to replace it. No winner was declared, and like it or not, we are stuck with 'big bang'. ===Before the name=== Early cosmological models developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations. In 1912, Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were "island universes" outside our Milky Way. Ten years later, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the Friedmann equations from the Einstein field equations, showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the static universe model advocated by Albert Einstein at that time. In 1924, American astronomer Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Starting that same year, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured, mostly by Slipher. In 1929, Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recessional velocity—now known as Hubble's law. Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, proposed that the recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe. He inferred the relation that Hubble would later observe, given the cosmological principle. In the 1920s and 1930s, almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady-state universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by an expanding universe imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady-state theory. This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the expanding universe concept, Lemaître, was a Roman Catholic priest. Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time, viz., that matter is eternal. A beginning in time was "repugnant" to him. Lemaître, however, disagreed: During the 1930s, other ideas were proposed as non-standard cosmologies to explain Hubble's observations, including the Milne model, the oscillatory universe (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard C. Tolman) and Fritz Zwicky's tired light hypothesis. After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady-state model, whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand. In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time. The other was Lemaître's expanding universe theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who used it to develop a theory for the abundance of chemical elements in the universe. and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic background radiation. === As a named model === Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949. In 1968 and 1970, Roger Penrose, Stephen Hawking, and George F. R. Ellis published papers where they showed that mathematical singularities were an inevitable initial condition of relativistic models of the Big Bang. Then, from the 1970s to the 1990s, cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems. In 1981, Alan Guth made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang models with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called "inflation". Meanwhile, during these decades, two questions in observational cosmology that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant and the matter-density of the universe (before the discovery of dark energy, thought to be the key predictor for the eventual fate of the universe). Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology has been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP. Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating. ==Observational evidence== The Big Bang models offer a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundances of the light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large-scale structure, and Hubble's law. The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble's law (as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies), discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN). More recent evidence includes observations of galaxy formation and evolution, and the distribution of large-scale cosmic structures. These are sometimes called the "four pillars" of the Big Bang models. Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics. Of these features, dark matter is currently the subject of most active laboratory investigations. Remaining issues include the cuspy halo problem Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models. Viable, quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought. These are unsolved problems in physics. ===Hubble's law and the expansion of the universe=== Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted: the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed: An unexplained discrepancy with the determination of the Hubble constant is known as Hubble tension. Techniques based on observation of the CMB suggest a lower value of this constant compared to the quantity derived from measurements based on the cosmic distance ladder. ===Cosmic microwave background radiation=== In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation, an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band. the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent. In 1989, NASA launched COBE, which made two major advances: in 1990, high-precision spectrum measurements showed that the CMB frequency spectrum is an almost perfect blackbody with no deviations at a level of 1 part in 104, and measured a residual temperature of 2.726 K (more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2.7255 K); then in 1992, further COBE measurements discovered tiny fluctuations (anisotropies) in the CMB temperature across the sky, at a level of about one part in 105. In early 2003, the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but are consistent with the inflation theory in general. The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for 4He, and off by a factor of two for 7Li (this anomaly is known as the cosmological lithium problem); in the latter two cases, there are substantial systematic uncertainties. Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by BBN is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to "tune" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium. Indeed, there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe before star formation, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products, should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He, and in constant ratios, too. and since then, larger structures have been forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters. === Primordial gas clouds === In 2011, astronomers found what they believe to be pristine clouds of primordial gas by analyzing absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars. Before this discovery, all other astronomical objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars. Despite being sensitive to carbon, oxygen, and silicon, these three elements were not detected in these two clouds. Since the clouds of gas have no detectable levels of heavy elements, they likely formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, during BBN. ===Other lines of evidence=== The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars. It is also in agreement with age estimates based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background. The agreement of independent measurements of this age supports the Lambda-CDM (ΛCDM) model, since the model is used to relate some of the measurements to an age estimate, and all estimates turn agree. Still, some observations of objects from the relatively early universe (in particular quasar APM 08279+5255) raise concern as to whether these objects had enough time to form so early in the ΛCDM model. The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift. This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift. Observations have found this to be roughly true, but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time, making precise measurements difficult. ===Future observations=== Future gravitational-wave observatories might be able to detect primordial gravitational waves, relics of the early universe, up to less than a second after the Big Bang. ==Problems and related issues in physics== As with any theory, a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang models. Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding. Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own. For example, the horizon problem, the magnetic monopole problem, and the flatness problem are most commonly resolved with inflation theory, but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many, including some founders of the theory, say it has been disproven. What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang concept still under intense investigation by cosmologists and astrophysicists. ===Baryon asymmetry=== It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter. All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effects are not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry. ===Dark energy=== Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, cosmological models require that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed "dark energy". and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure--baryon acoustic oscillations--as a cosmic ruler. Negative pressure is believed to be a property of vacuum energy, but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos. A cosmological constant problem, sometimes called the "most embarrassing problem in physics", results from the apparent discrepancy between the measured energy density of dark energy, and the one naively predicted from Planck units. ===Dark matter=== During the 1970s and the 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter. In addition, the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter has always been controversial, it is inferred by various observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, the galaxy rotation problem, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and X-ray measurements of galaxy clusters. Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway. Additionally, there are outstanding problems associated with the currently favored cold dark matter model which include the dwarf galaxy problem and the cuspy halo problem. Alternative theories have been proposed that do not require a large amount of undetected matter, but instead modify the laws of gravity established by Newton and Einstein; yet no alternative theory has been as successful as the cold dark matter proposal in explaining all extant observations. ===Horizon problem=== The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light. In a universe of finite age this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact. The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature. A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflation theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis). During inflation, the universe undergoes exponential expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other's particle horizon. The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation. ===Magnetic monopoles=== The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. Grand unified theories (GUTs) predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that no monopoles have been found. This problem is resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable universe, in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness. The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat. Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10−43 seconds, == Misconceptions == One of the common misconceptions about the Big Bang model is that it fully explains the origin of the universe. However, the Big Bang model does not describe how energy, time, and space were caused, but rather it describes the emergence of the present universe from an ultra-dense and high-temperature initial state. It is misleading to visualize the Big Bang by comparing its size to everyday objects. When the size of the universe at Big Bang is described, it refers to the size of the observable universe, and not the entire universe. Another common misconception is that the Big Bang must be understood as the expansion of space and not in terms of the contents of space exploding apart. In fact, either description can be accurate. The expansion of space (implied by the FLRW metric) is only a mathematical convention, corresponding to a choice of coordinates on spacetime. There is no generally covariant sense in which space expands. The recession speeds associated with Hubble's law are not velocities in a relativistic sense (for example, they are not related to the spatial components of 4-velocities). Therefore, it is not remarkable that according to Hubble's law, galaxies farther than the Hubble distance recede faster than the speed of light. Such recession speeds do not correspond to faster-than-light travel. Many popular accounts attribute the cosmological redshift to the expansion of space. This can be misleading because the expansion of space is only a coordinate choice. The most natural interpretation of the cosmological redshift is that it is a Doppler shift. === Pre–Big Bang cosmology === The Big Bang explains the evolution of the universe from a starting density and temperature that is well beyond humanity's capability to replicate, so extrapolations to the most extreme conditions and earliest times are necessarily more speculative. Lemaître called this initial state the "primeval atom" while Gamow called the material "ylem". How the initial state of the universe originated is still an open question, but the Big Bang model does constrain some of its characteristics. For example, if specific laws of nature were to come to existence in a random way, inflation models show, some combinations of these are far more probable, partly explaining why our Universe is rather stable. Another possible explanation for the stability of the Universe could be a hypothetical multiverse, which assumes every possible universe to exist, and thinking species could only emerge in those stable enough. A flat universe implies a balance between gravitational potential energy and other energy forms, requiring no additional energy to be created. As such, physics may conclude that time did not exist before the Big Bang. While it is not known what could have preceded the hot dense state of the early universe or how and why it originated, or even whether such questions are sensible, speculation abounds on the subject of "cosmogony". Some speculative proposals in this regard, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are: The simplest models, in which the Big Bang was caused by quantum fluctuations. That scenario had very little chance of happening, but, according to the totalitarian principle, even the most improbable event will eventually happen. It took place instantly, in our perspective, due to the absence of perceived time before the Big Bang. Emergent Universe models, which feature a low-activity past-eternal era before the Big Bang, resembling ancient ideas of a cosmic egg and birth of the world out of primordial chaos. Models in which the whole of spacetime is finite, including the Hartle–Hawking no-boundary condition. For these cases, the Big Bang does represent the limit of time but without a singularity. In such a case, the universe is self-sufficient. Brane cosmology models, in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory; the pre-Big Bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically. In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the universe cycles from one process to the other. Eternal inflation, in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion, each end-point leading to a bubble universe, expanding from its own big bang. This is sometimes referred to as pre-big bang inflation. Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and older universe or in a multiverse. === Ultimate fate of the universe === Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density, then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch. Moreover, if protons are unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death. Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, will remain together, and they too will be subject to heat death as the universe expands and cools. Other explanations of dark energy, called phantom energy theories, suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei, and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called Big Rip. ===Religious and philosophical interpretations=== As a description of the origin of the universe, the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy. As a result, it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between science and religion. Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator, while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous.	[ "Physical cosmology", "Dark matter", "The Astronomical Journal", "Gravitational energy", "fundamental force", "magnetic monopole", "Eternal inflation", "Scalar field", "Exponential growth", "faster-than-light", "Singularity (mathematics)", "particle physics", "observable universe", "proton decay", "Sakharov conditions", "Harper Perennial", "Aristotle", "Eberly College of Science", "BOOMERanG experiment", "Quintessence (physics)", "energy density", "Scientific American", "electromagnetic force", "Hubble tension", "Lambda-CDM model", "Astronomy & Astrophysics", "supercluster", "Robert H. Dicke", "Albert Einstein", "flat universe", "Planck epoch", "Higgs mechanism", "100-inch Hooker telescope", "cosmic microwave background", "accelerating expansion of the universe", "Harvard University", "cosmological constant problem", "How the Universe Works", "Mount Wilson Observatory", "Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey", "Robert Herman", "Friedmann equations", "rest mass", "Planck scale", "isotropy", "George F. R. Ellis", "St John's College, Cambridge", "Cosmogony", "cyclic model", "baryon number", "lithium", "List of cosmic microwave background experiments", "Timothy Ferris", "Brane cosmology", "Infinity", "Planck time", "Type Ia supernova", "Protogalaxy", "Thunder's Mouth Press", "absolute zero", "vacuum energy", "Normal distribution", "Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems", "George Gamow", "Scale invariance", "Inflation (cosmology)", "National Academies Press", "general covariance", "cosmological principle", "spectroscopy", "inflaton field", "Physics Today", "stellar evolution", "Pequannock Township, New Jersey", "BICEP and Keck Array", "warm dark matter", "heat death of the universe", "Russia", "on the order of", "Hawking radiation", "curvature", "coordinate conditions", "Ralph Alpher", "quantum fluctuation", "Farrar, Straus and Giroux", "string theory", "tests of general relativity", "proton", "Spectral density", "cosmic egg", "Brilliance Audio", "quantum", "Space.com", "English people", "Characteristic length", "The New York Times", "Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics", "Wheeler–DeWitt equation", "Princeton University Press", "Hubble Space Telescope", "University of California, Los Angeles", "Hartle–Hawking state", "Hubble's law", "Stellar population", "neutron star", "International Journal of Modern Physics E", "Clarendon Press", "Particle Data Group", "far future", "BBC Radio", "Bantam Dell Publishing Group", "Spiral galaxy", "data point", "hydrogen", "helium-3", "Vesto Slipher", "Hubble Ultra-Deep Field", "University of California, Berkeley", "event horizon", "Andrei Linde", "elementary particle", "thermodynamic equilibrium", "HarperCollins", "atom", "Modern Physics Letters A", "Jonathan Cape", "cosmic distance ladder", "annihilation", "neutron", "gravitational force", "UNESCO", "Arno Allan Penzias", "Kluwer Academic Publishers", "density", "telescope", "Falsifiability", "Steady-state model", "Spectral line", "CP violation", "Arthur Eddington", "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe", "Simon & Schuster", "Scientific law", "Homogeneous space", "speed of light", "John C. Mather", "gravitational singularity", "proper length", "Eternity of the world", "Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia", "gravitational lens", "strong nuclear force", "Observational error", "Big Bang nucleosynthesis", "Isotropy", "cuspy halo problem", "gravity", "star formation", "Special relativity", "scientific law", "Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "International Journal of Modern Physics D", "gravitational wave", "Carl Sagan", "Accelerating expansion of the universe", "quantum gravity", "large-scale structure of the cosmos", "George Smoot", "Recombination (cosmology)", "gluon", "Ultimate fate of the universe", "National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine", "universe", "The Astrophysical Journal", "flatness problem", "Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement", "baryon", "Electromagnetic radiation", "Spektrum der Wissenschaft", "Expansion of the universe", "mass–energy equivalence", "temperature", "second", "Lawrence M. Krauss", "Nature Physics", "Weak-Nuclear Force", "Science (journal)", "Planck (spacecraft)", "Physical Review Letters", "University of Cambridge", "Open Court Publishing Company", "quantum mechanics", "Isotopes of lithium", "NASA", "entropy", "kilometres", "electroweak epoch", "Future plc", "observational cosmology", "Georges Lemaître", "source counts", "Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory", "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences", "Shape of the universe", "Relativistic speed", "Lowell Observatory Bulletin", "Large-scale structure of the Universe", "Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics", "hot dark matter", "General Relativity and Gravitation", "astronomer", "cosmological constant", "galaxy cluster", "antiparticle", "Americans", "Great Debate (astronomy)", "white dwarf", "chaos (cosmogony)", "Gravitational-wave observatory", "antimatter", "young star", "apparent magnitude", "Goddard Space Flight Center", "thermalization", "Physical Review", "star", "Classical and Quantum Gravity", "tired light", "BBC", "New York Academy of Sciences", "Energy density", "Sunyaev–Zeldovich effect", "expansion of the universe", "Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics", "Baryon", "multiverse", "Emergence", "Doppler effect", "Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences", "phase transition", "perfect fluid", "kelvin", "Oxford University Press", "Roger Penrose", "light element", "Richard C. Tolman", "age of the universe", "Robert Woodrow Wilson", "type Ia supernova", "thermodynamics", "Statistical physics", "Springer Science+Business Media", "brane", "physical theory", "Einstein field equations", "Homogeneity (physics)", "particle horizon", "photon", "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society", "helium", "Reviews of Modern Physics", "Roman Catholic priest", "Cyclic model", "lepton", "Spacetime curvature", "density of the universe", "dark matter", "topological defect", "time", "Richard Dawkins", "velocity dispersion", "Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics", "Cambridge University Press", "Wiley-VCH", "Future of an expanding universe", "University of California, Santa Cruz", "Quantum gravity", "Pennsylvania State University", "Planck length", "False vacuum", "grand unification epoch", "List of unsolved problems in physics", "Hugh Downs", "Planck units", "totalitarian principle", "Large Hadron Collider", "Observable universe", "C-symmetry", "pressure", "X-ray astronomy", "phantom energy", "Megaparsec", "Astrophysics", "quasar", "Fritz Zwicky", "Weidenfeld & Nicolson", "Jim Peebles", "shape of the universe", "Explicit symmetry breaking", "fine-structure constant", "Non-standard cosmology", "APM 08279+5255", "primordial fluctuations", "Science Mission Directorate", "Big Crunch", "quark", "Doppler shift", "particle accelerator", "deuterium", "general relativity", "Centre for Theoretical Cosmology", "4-velocity", "Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B", "galaxy rotation problem", "Ekpyrotic universe", "causality (physics)", "Chinese Physics C", "dark energy", "Hubble parameter", "quark–gluon plasma", "baryogenesis", "Free Press (publisher)", "BBC News", "ylem", "theory of relativity", "Science and Technology Facilities Council", "Anisotropy", "baryon acoustic oscillations", "Emergent Universe", "Physics Letters", "Popular Astronomy (US magazine)", "Zeitschrift für Physik", "Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric", "cold dark matter", "Vintage Books", "cosmogony", "Chemical element", "National Academy of Sciences", "Belgium", "Fred Hoyle", "Mercury (magazine)", "Black body", "helium-4", "Lawrence Krauss", "Nature (journal)", "classical field theory", "Moon", "neutrino decoupling", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "American Physical Society", "microwave", "neutrino", "steady-state model", "physicist", "cosmological lithium problem", "Science Channel", "galaxy formation and evolution", "Solar System", "Wiley (publisher)", "Routledge", "horizon problem", "radiometric dating", "physical cosmology", "light", "Faster-than-light", "Philosophy of Science (journal)", "atomic nucleus", "Alexander Friedmann", "uncertainty principle", "matter", "stellar nucleosynthesis", "Astronomy & Geophysics", "baryon asymmetry", "redshift", "mathematician", "recessional velocity", "List of multiple discoveries", "Pair production", "Galaxy morphological classification", "Journal of Physics G", "subatomic particle", "Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science", "Alan Guth", "Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences", "Anchor Books", "dwarf galaxy problem", "Grand Unified Theory", "World War II", "Templeton Press", "Cosmic Background Explorer", "The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series", "Imperial College Press", "binary star", "Antimatter", "Basic Books", "Relationship between religion and science", "Addison-Wesley", "Thomson scattering", "Edwin Hubble", "Helge Kragh", "Milne model", "Red Wheel/Weiser/Conari", "Allan Sandage", "Astrophysics and Space Science", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", "Alan Lightman", "Big Rip", "static universe", "WGBH-TV", "cosmic inflation", "Milky Way", "Stephen Hawking", "inflationary epoch", "standard error of estimation", "Physical Review D" ]
4,119	Bock	Bock () is a strong German beer, usually a dark lager. ==History== The style now known as Bock was first brewed in the 14th century in the Hanseatic town of Einbeck in Lower Saxony. The style was later adopted in Bavaria by Munich brewers in the 17th century. Due to their Bavarian accent, citizens of Munich pronounced "Einbeck" as "ein Bock" ("a billy goat"), and thus the beer became known as "Bock". A goat often appears on bottle labels. ==Styles== Substyles of Bock include: Maibock (May Bock), a paler, more hopped version generally made for consumption at spring festivals. Due to its lighter colour, it is also referred to as Heller Bock; from German hell (bright, light in colour). Doppelbock (Double Bock), a stronger and maltier version Eisbock (Ice Bock), a much stronger version made by partially freezing the beer and removing the ice that forms Weizenbock (Wheat Bock), a wheat beer made from 40 to 60% wheat Traditionally Bock is a sweet, relatively strong (6.3–7.6% by volume), lightly hopped lager registering between 20 and 30 International Bitterness Units (IBUs). The beer should be clear, with colour ranging from light copper to brown, and a bountiful, persistent off-white head. The aroma should be malty and toasty, possibly with hints of alcohol, but no detectable hops or fruitiness. The mouthfeel is smooth, with low to moderate carbonation and no astringency. The taste is rich and toasty, sometimes with a bit of caramel. The low-to-undetectable presence of hops provides just enough bitterness so that the sweetness is not cloying and the aftertaste is muted. ===Maibock=== The Maibock style – also known as Heller Bock or Lente Bock in the Netherlandsis a strong pale lager, lighter in colour and with more hop presence. Today, Doppelbock is still strongranging from 7% to 12% or more by volume. It is clear, with colour ranging from dark gold, for the paler version, to dark brown with ruby highlights for a darker version. It has a large, creamy, persistent head (although head retention may be impaired by alcohol in the stronger versions). The aroma is intensely malty, with some toasty notes, and possibly some alcohol presence as well; darker versions may have a chocolate-like or fruity aroma. The flavour is very rich and malty, with noticeable alcoholic strength, and little or no detectable hops (16–26 IBUs). made by partially freezing a Doppelbock and removing the water ice to concentrate the flavour and alcohol content, which ranges from 8.6% to 14.3% by volume. It is clear, with a colour ranging from deep copper to dark brown in colour, often with ruby highlights. Although it can pour with a thin off-white head, head retention is frequently impaired by the higher alcohol content. The aroma is intense, with no hop presence, but frequently can contain fruity notes, especially of prunes, raisins, and plums. ===Weizenbock=== Weizenbock is a style that replaces some of the barley in the grain bill with 40–60% wheat. It was first produced in Bavaria in 1907 by G. Schneider & Sohn and was named Aventinus after 16th-century Bavarian historian Johannes Aventinus. The style combines darker Munich malts and top-fermenting wheat beer yeast, brewed at the strength of a Doppelbock.	[ "Capital Brewery", "Eggenberg Castle, Vorchdorf", "International Bitterness Units", "Franconia Brewing Company", "Ethanol", "Abita Brewing Company", "G. Schneider & Sohn", "Weihenstephaner", "astringency", "wheat beer", "Augustiner Brau", "lager", "mouthfeel", "billy goat", "malt", "Munich", "Fractional freezing", "G. Schneider & Sohn", "Johannes Aventinus", "Bavaria", "hops", "Birra Moretti", "Samuel Adams (beer)", "Bell's brewery", "Hanseatic League", "Beer in Germany", "Einbeck", "Paulaner", "Great Lakes Brewing Company", "BrewDog", "carbonation", "Ayinger", "Food & Wine", "Tröegs Brewing Company", "Aventinus (beer)", "Kulmbach (district)", "Netherlands", "Schloss Eggenberg", "Schorschbrau", "Spaten", "wikt:-ator", "Francis of Paola", "All About Beer", "Brewers Association", "Andechser", "pale lager" ]
4,124	Bantu languages	The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: bantʊ̀) are a language family of about 600 languages that are spoken by the Bantu peoples of Central, Southern, Eastern and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages. The total number of Bantu languages is estimated at between 440 and 680 distinct languages, depending on the definition of "language" versus "dialect". Many Bantu languages borrow words from each other, and some are mutually intelligible. Some of the languages are spoken by a very small number of people, for example the Kabwa language was estimated in 2007 to be spoken by only 8500 people but was assessed to be a distinct language. The total number of Bantu speakers is estimated to be around 350 million in 2015 (roughly 30% of the population of Africa or 5% of the world population). Bantu languages are largely spoken southeast of Cameroon, and throughout Central, Southern, Eastern, and Southeast Africa. About one-sixth of Bantu speakers, and one-third of Bantu languages, are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The most widely spoken Bantu language by number of speakers is Swahili, with 16 million native speakers and 80 million L2 speakers (2015). Most native speakers of Swahili live in Tanzania, where it is a national language, while as a second language, it is taught as a mandatory subject in many schools in East Africa, and is a lingua franca of the East African Community. Other major Bantu languages include Lingala with more than 20 million speakers (Congo, DRC), followed by Zulu with 13.56 million speakers (South Africa), Xhosa at a distant third place with 8.2 million speakers (South Africa and Zimbabwe), and Shona with less than 10 million speakers (if Manyika and Ndau are included), while Sotho-Tswana languages (Sotho, Tswana and Pedi) have more than 15 million speakers (across Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, and Zambia). Zimbabwe has Kalanga, Matebele, Nambiya, and Xhosa speakers. Ethnologue separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which together have 20 million speakers. ==Name== The similarity among dispersed Bantu languages had been observed as early as the 17th century. The term Bantu as a name for the group was not coined but "noticed" or "identified" (as Bâ-ntu) by Wilhelm Bleek as the first European in 1857 or 1858, and popularized in his Comparative Grammar of 1862. He noticed the term to represent the word for "people" in loosely reconstructed Proto-Bantu, from the plural noun class prefix ba- categorizing "people", and the root *ntʊ̀- "some (entity), any" (e.g. Xhosa umntu "person", abantu "people"; Zulu umuntu "person", abantu "people"). There is no native term for the people who speak Bantu languages because they are not an ethnic group. People speaking Bantu languages refer to their languages by ethnic endonyms, which did not have an indigenous concept prior to European contact for the larger ethnolinguistic phylum named by 19th-century European linguists. Bleek's identification was inspired by the anthropological observation of groups frequently self-identifying as "people" or "the true people" (as is the case, for example, with the term Khoikhoi, but this is a kare "praise address" and not an ethnic name). The term narrow Bantu, excluding those languages classified as Bantoid by Malcolm Guthrie (1948), was introduced in the 1960s. The prefix ba- specifically refers to people. Endonymically, the term for cultural objects, including language, is formed with the ki- noun class (Nguni ísi-), as in KiSwahili (Swahili language and culture), IsiZulu (Zulu language and culture) and KiGanda (Ganda religion and culture). In the 1980s, South African linguists suggested referring to these languages as KiNtu. The word kintu exists in some places, but it means "thing", with no relation to the concept of "language". In addition, delegates at the African Languages Association of Southern Africa conference in 1984 reported that, in some places, the term Kintu has a derogatory significance. This is because kintu refers to "things" and is used as a dehumanizing term for people who have lost their dignity. In addition, Kintu is a figure in some mythologies. In the 1990s, the term Kintu was still occasionally used by South African linguists. But in contemporary decolonial South African linguistics, the term Ntu languages is used. ==Origin== The Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in Central Africa. An estimated 2,500–3,000 years ago (1000 BC to 500 BC), speakers of the Proto-Bantu language began a series of migrations eastward and southward, carrying agriculture with them. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, an area where Bantu peoples now constitute nearly the entire population. Some other sources estimate the Bantu Expansion started closer to 3000 BC. The technical term Bantu, meaning "human beings" or simply "people", was first used by Wilhelm Bleek (1827–1875), as the concept is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A common characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use words such as muntu or mutu for "human being" or in simplistic terms "person", and the plural prefix for human nouns starting with mu- (class 1) in most languages is ba- (class 2), thus giving bantu for "people". Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the grammatical structures of Bantu languages. ==Classification== The most widely used classification is an alphanumeric coding system developed by Malcolm Guthrie in his 1948 classification of the Bantu languages. It is mainly geographic. The term "narrow Bantu" was coined by the Benue–Congo Working Group to distinguish Bantu as recognized by Guthrie, from the Bantoid languages not recognized as Bantu by Guthrie. In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid languages has been called into doubt, but the term is still widely used. There is no true genealogical classification of the (Narrow) Bantu languages. Until recently most attempted classifications only considered languages that happen to fall within traditional Narrow Bantu, but there seems to be a continuum with the related languages of South Bantoid. At a broader level, the family is commonly split in two depending on the reflexes of proto-Bantu tone patterns: many Bantuists group together parts of zones A through D (the extent depending on the author) as Northwest Bantu or Forest Bantu, and the remainder as Central Bantu or Savanna Bantu. The two groups have been described as having mirror-image tone systems: where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone, and vice versa. Northwest Bantu is more divergent internally than Central Bantu, and perhaps less conservative due to contact with non-Bantu Niger–Congo languages; Central Bantu is likely the innovative line cladistically. Northwest Bantu is not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, with little evidence that it is a historically valid group. Another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 "Tervuren" proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. However, it relies on lexicostatistics, which, because of its reliance on overall similarity rather than shared innovations, may predict spurious groups of conservative languages that are not closely related. Meanwhile, Ethnologue has added languages to the Guthrie classification which Guthrie overlooked, while removing the Mbam languages (much of zone A), and shifting some languages between groups (much of zones D and E to a new zone J, for example, and part of zone L to K, and part of M to F) in an apparent effort at a semi-genetic, or at least semi-areal, classification. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few unambiguous ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson (2006) evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, but the result is not a complete portrayal of the family. The languages that share Dahl's law may also form a valid group, Northeast Bantu. The infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, not just Bantu, is hampered by insufficient data. Other computational phylogenetic analyses of Bantu include Currie et al. (2013), Grollemund et al. (2015), Rexova et al. 2006, Holden et al., 2016, and Whiteley et al. 2018. ===Glottolog classification=== Glottolog (2021) does not consider the older geographic classification by Guthrie relevant for its ongoing classification based on more recent linguistic studies, and divides Bantu into four main branches: Bantu A-B10-B20-B30, Central-Western Bantu, East Bantu and Mbam-Bube-Jarawan. ==Language structure== Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu. In Swahili, for example, Kitoto kidogo kimekisoma (for comparison, Kamwana kadoko karikuverenga in Shona language) means 'The small child has read it [a book]'. kitoto 'child' governs the adjective prefix ki- (representing the diminutive form of the word) and the verb subject prefix a-. Then comes perfect tense -me- and an object marker -ki- agreeing with implicit kitabu 'book' (from Arabic kitab). Pluralizing to 'children' gives Vitoto vidogo vimekisoma (Vana vadoko varikuverenga in Shona), and pluralizing to 'books' (vitabu) gives vitoto vidogo vimevisoma. while slurring of the final syllable (though written) is reported as common among the Tonga of Malawi. The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc.; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly a V- syllable at the start). In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible in most of the documented languages, as far as is understood. and the Makua languages. With few exceptions, such as Kiswahili and Rutooro, Bantu languages are tonal and have two to four register tones. ===Reduplication=== Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem. Example: in Swahili, piga means "strike", pigapiga means "strike repeatedly". Well-known words and names that have reduplication include: Bafana Bafana, a football team Chipolopolo, a football team Eric Djemba-Djemba, a footballer Lomana LuaLua, a footballer Repetition emphasizes the repeated word in the context that it is used. For instance, "Mwenda pole hajikwai," means "He who goes slowly doesn't trip," while, "Pole pole ndio mwendo," means "A slow but steady pace wins the race." The latter repeats "pole" to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace. As another example, "Haraka haraka" would mean "hurrying just for the sake of hurrying" (reckless hurry), as in "Njoo! Haraka haraka" [come here! Hurry, hurry]. In contrast, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the opposite meaning. It usually denotes short durations, or lower intensity of the action, and also means a few repetitions or a little bit more. Example 1: In Xitsonga and (Chi)Shona, famba means "walk" while famba-famba means "walk around". Example 2: in isiZulu and SiSwati hamba means "go", hambahamba means "go a little bit, but not much". Example 3: in both of the above languages shaya means "strike", shayashaya means "strike a few more times lightly, but not heavy strikes and not too many times". Example 4: In Shona means "scratch", Kwenyakwenya means "scratch excessively or a lot". Example 5: In Luhya cheenda means "walk", cheendacheenda means "take a walk but not far off", as in buying time before something is ready or a situation or time is right. ===Noun class=== The following is a list of nominal classes in Bantu languages: ===Syntax=== Virtually all Bantu languages have a subject–verb–object word order, with some exceptions, such as the Nen language, which has a subject–object–verb word order. ==By country== Following is an incomplete list of the principal Bantu languages of each country. Included are those languages that constitute at least 1% of the population and have at least 10% the number of speakers of the largest Bantu language in the country. Most languages are referred to in English without the class prefix (Swahili, Tswana, Ndebele), but are sometimes seen with the (language-specific) prefix (Kiswahili, Setswana, Sindebele). In a few cases prefixes are used to distinguish languages with the same root in their name, such as Tshiluba and Kiluba (both Luba), Umbundu and Kimbundu (both Mbundu). The prefixless form typically does not occur in the language itself, but is the basis for other words based on the ethnicity. So, in the country of Botswana the people are the Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and the language is Setswana; and in Uganda, centred on the kingdom of Buganda, the dominant ethnicity are the Baganda (singular Muganda), whose language is Luganda. ===Lingua franca=== Swahili (Kiswahili) (350,000; tens of millions as L2) ===Angola=== South Mbundu (Umbundu) (4 million) Central North Mbundu (Kimbundu) (3 million) North Bakongo (Kikongo) (576,800) Ovambo (Ambo) (Oshiwambo) (500,000) Luvale (Chiluvale) (500,000) Chokwe (Chichokwe) (500,000) ===Botswana=== Tswana (Setswana) (1.6 million) Kalanga (Ikalanga) (150,000) ===Burundi=== Swahili is a recognized national language Kirundi (8.5 – 10.5 million) ===Cameroon=== Beti (1.7 million: 900,000 Bulu, 600,000 Ewondo, 120,000 Fang, 60,000 Eton, 30,000 Bebele) Basaa (230,000) Duala (350,000) Manenguba languages (230,000) ===Central African Republic=== Mbati (60,000) Aka (30,000) Pande (8,870) Ngando (5,000) Ukhwejo Kako Mpiemo Bodo Kari ===Comoros=== Shingazija Shindzuani Shimwali ===Democratic Republic of the Congo=== Swahili is a recognized national language Lingala (Ngala) (2 million; 7 million with L2 speakers) Luba-Kasai (Tshiluba) (6.5 million) Kituba (4.5 million), a Bantu creole Kongo (Kikongo) (3.5 million) Luba-Katanga (Kiluba) (1.5+ million) Songe (Lusonge) (1+ million) Nande (Orundandi) (1 million) Tetela (Otetela) (800,000) Yaka (Iyaka) (700,000+) Shi (700,000) Yombe (Kiyombe) (670,000) Lele (Bashilele) (26,000) ===Equatorial Guinea=== Beti (Fang) (300,000) Bube (40,000) ===Eswatini=== Swazi (Siswati) (1 million) ===Gabon=== Baka Barama Bekwel Benga Bubi Bwisi Duma Fang (500,000) Kendell Kanin Sake Sangu Seki Sighu Simba Sira Northern Teke Western Teke Tsaangi Tsogo Vili (3,600) Vumbu Wandji Wumbvu Yangho Yasa ===India=== Sidi ===Kenya=== Swahili is the national language. English and Swahili are official languages. Gikuyu (8 million) Luhya (6.8 million) Kamba (4 million) Meru (Kimeru) (2.7 million) Gusii (2 million) Mijikenda (Giriama, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai, Kauma, Chonyi, Jibana, Digo and Duruma) Taita Embu Mbeere Pokomo Kuria Suba Swahili ===Lesotho=== Sesotho (1.8 million) Zulu (Isizulu) (300,000) Xhosa (Isixhosa) ===Madagascar=== Shimaore Shindzuani ===Malawi=== Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (7 million) Tumbuka (1 million) Yao (1 million) ===Mayotte=== Shimaore ===Mozambique=== Swahili is a recognized national language Makhuwa (4 million; 7.4 million all Makua) Tsonga (Xitsonga) (3.1 million) Shona (Ndau) (1.6 million) Lomwe (1.5 million) Sena (1.3 million) Tswa (1.2 million) Chuwabu (1.0 million) Chopi (800,000) Ronga (700,000) Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (600,000) Yao (Chiyao) (500,000) Nyungwe (Cinyungwe/Nhungue)(400,000) Tonga (400,000) Makonde (400,000) Nathembo (25,000) ===Namibia=== Ovambo (Ambo, Oshiwambo) (1,500,000) Herero (200,000) Kavango (100,000) Lozi (Silozi) ===Nigeria=== Jarawa (250,000) Mbula-Bwazza (100,000) Kulung (40,000) Bile (38,000) Lame (10,000) Mama (2,000–3,000) Shiki (1,200) Gwa Labir Dulbu ===Pakistan=== Sidi ===Republic of the Congo=== Kituba (1.2+ million) [a Bantu creole] Kongo (Kikongo) (1.0 million) Teke languages (500,000) Yombe (350,000) Suundi (120,000) Mbosi (110,000) Lingala (100,000; ? L2 speakers) ===Rwanda=== Swahili, Kinyarwanda, English, and French are official languages Kinyarwanda (Kinyarwanda) (10 – 12 million) ===Somalia=== Swahili (Mwini dialect) Chimwini Mushungulu ===South Africa=== According to the South African National Census of 2011: Zulu (Isizulu) (11,587,374 Some words from various Bantu languages have been borrowed into western languages. These include: ==Writing systems== Along with the Latin script and Arabic script orthographies, there are also some modern indigenous writing systems used for Bantu languages: The Mwangwego alphabet is an abugida created in 1979 that is sometimes used to write the Chewa language and other languages of Malawi. The Mandombe script is an abugida that is used to write the Bantu languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mainly by the Kimbanguist movement. The Isibheqe Sohlamvu or Ditema tsa Dinoko script is a featural syllabary used to write the Sintu or Southern Bantu languages.	[ "abugida", "Reduplication", "Kwanzaa", "Kele–Tsogo languages", "Kambe dialect", "Swahili people", "Mbula-Bwazza language", "Baka language", "Molefi Kete Asante", "Endonym and exonym", "Chaga languages", "Boan languages", "grammatical gender", "Bodo language (Bantu)", "Mbukushu language", "Great Lakes Bantu languages", "Proto-Bantu language", "Yaka language (Congo–Angola)", "Safari", "Ruuli language", "wikt:mambo", "Teke–Mbede languages", "Kari language", "Africa", "Teke languages", "Tswa language", "Nathembo", "Manenguba language", "Bantu expansion", "Mbugwe–Rangi languages", "Gwere language", "Ha language", "Nen language (Cameroon)", "Swazi language", "Setswana", "Tsaangi language", "Ukhwejo language", "Lunda language", "Tooro language", "Eric Djemba-Djemba", "Kauma language", "Songe language", "Ndau dialect", "computational phylogenetic", "Tsogo language", "Republic of the Congo", "Nande language", "Vumbu language", "Giriama people", "Gungu language", "Samba", "Bira language", "East Africa", "Kamba language", "Sake language", "Shona language", "Kimbundu languages", "Chewa language", "Kiembu language", "Ngando language (Central African Republic)", "Kirundi", "Ronga language", "Chopi language", "Kako language", "Suundi language", "Shimwali", "Khoikhoi", "Soga language", "Luhya language", "language", "Ovambo language", "Sidi language", "Bangi–Tetela languages", "Southern Bantu languages", "Wumbvu language", "Glottolog", "ChiShona", "Kituba language", "Bongo drum", "Japanese language", "Rukwa languages", "Sira language", "Mbam-Bube-Jarawan", "Luba-Katanga language", "Meru language", "consonant cluster", "Baganda", "Lunda languages", "Tsonga language", "language family", "Nyiha language", "geography of Somalia", "Malawi", "Ngondi–Ngiri languages", "Sawabantu languages", "loanword", "Tsogo languages", "Luguru language", "Ethnologue", "Samia language", "Nilamba language", "Makhuwa language", "Hakuna matata", "Shi language", "Duala language", "Bravanese dialect", "Kikuyu language", "Venda language", "Suba people (Kenya)", "Jenga", "Talinga language", "Luvale language", "Kande language", "Luganda", "Ditema tsa Dinoko", "Malcolm Guthrie", "Rumba", "Soko languages", "subject–object–verb", "Boma–Dzing languages", "Sighu language", "Lala-Bisa language", "Yeyi language", "Sotho language", "Candombe", "polyphyly", "Latin script", "Bushoong languages", "Kabwa language", "Dialect", "Gusii language", "Kongo language", "Yasa language", "wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Nguni/ísi-", "Benga language", "Pokomo language", "Nkore language", "Southern Bantoid languages", "Mbati language", "Indaba", "Sena language", "mass noun", "Shingazija", "Shiki language", "Manenguba languages", "Turu language", "Marimba", "Northern Teke language", "Ubuntu philosophy", "Niger–Congo languages", "Gumbo", "Mandombe script", "Bangi–Ntomba languages", "Lega–Binja languages", "Yao language", "Makaa–Njem languages", "Bwisi language", "Xhosa people", "Proto-Bantu", "wikt:Appendix:Swahili noun classes", "Sotho–Tswana languages", "Aka language", "Lingala", "Amba language (Bantu)", "Seki language", "United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs", "Zigula language", "Umbundu", "Mboshi–Buja languages", "Luyana language", "Hehe language", "Mbeere language", "Eton language", "Bomba (Ecuador)", "Luba-Kasai language", "agglutinative", "Kuria people", "synapomorphy", "Konjo language (Bantu)", "Botswana", "Nyoro language", "Syllable", "Basaa languages", "Lomana LuaLua", "Kimbanguist", "Zambia", "Bube language", "Nyamwezi language", "plural", "Nyungwe language", "Labir language", "Hungana language", "Buganda", "Meeussen's rule", "Kimbundu", "Featural writing system", "DRC", "Jan Vansina", "Mijikenda language", "Sangu language (Gabon)", "Gogo language", "Tone (linguistics)", "Mbete languages", "Tonga (Nyasa) language", "Bantoid languages", "Lingala language", "Tswana people", "Bubi language", "Mbira", "Bemba language", "Dulbu language", "List of Bantu peoples", "Bantoid", "Nsenga language", "affix", "Beti language", "Zimbabwe", "Mboshi language", "Myene language", "East Bantu", "kikongo", "Chimpanzee", "Makua languages", "Western Teke language", "root (linguistics)", "Grammar", "Sukuma language", "Jarawa language (Nigeria)", "Mamba", "Makonde language", "Kele languages", "Arabic script", "Benue–Congo languages", "South African National Census of 2011", "L2 language", "Swahili language", "Zulu language", "Tetela language", "Luban languages", "Southeast Africa", "Bekwel language", "languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Rabai dialect", "Lesotho", "Northern Ndebele language", "Basaa language", "epenthesis", "Bantu peoples", "Bati–Angba languages", "Sotho-Tswana", "Ribe dialect", "Kavango – Southwest Bantu languages", "Bena language", "Vili language", "Xhosa language", "Sabi languages", "Shona languages", "ethnic group", "Ndau language", "Chuwabu language", "conservative (language)", "Nyakyusa language", "subject–verb–object", "Dahl's law", "Bulu language", "Kintu", "Lele language (Bantu)", "Bantu A-B10-B20-B30", "Wilhelm Bleek", "Masaba language", "SIL Ethnologue", "Yangho language", "Shambala language", "Socotra Swahili language", "Swati language", "Zambia national football team", "Herero language", "Jibana people", "Simba language", "Nguni languages", "Mwangwego alphabet", "Tetela languages", "Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)", "East African Community", "Duruma dialect", "Chokwe language", "Mama language", "Southern Africa", "Gwa language", "Atlantic–Congo languages", "Northeast Bantu languages", "Simba", "Lengola language", "lingua franca", "Uganda", "Demographics of Africa", "Jumbo (disambiguation)", "Wandji language", "Shi–Havu languages", "Tumbuka language", "cladistically", "Isanzu language", "Cameroon", "Mpiemo language", "Lebonya languages", "Yaka languages", "Bushong language", "Lame language", "Pedro Dias (Jesuit)", "Kulung language (Jarawan)", "Lomwe language", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Komo–Bira languages", "Digo people", "Chokwe–Luchazi languages", "Singa language", "Sotho grammar", "Kaonde language", "Haya language", "Kalanga language", "Pedi language", "Mambwe-Lungu language", "Pende languages", "Impala", "Tswana language", "Taita language", "Lozi language", "Guthrie classification of Bantu languages", "Jilo", "Shimaore", "First language", "Kinyarwanda", "Tanzania", "Pande language", "Nyasa languages", "Kilombero languages", "Mbam languages", "Bile language", "Nyanga–Buyi languages", "Nzebi languages", "Mbole–Enya languages", "Bafia languages", "Botatwe languages", "Aushi language", "English language", "Southern Ndebele language", "Central-Western Bantu", "Kiga language", "Barama language", "Northern Sotho language", "Mboshi languages", "Fang language", "Jarawan languages", "Duma language", "South Africa", "Kongo languages", "Central Africa", "Shindzuani", "noun class", "Volta–Congo languages", "Chonyi language", "Ewondo language", "Sira languages", "Tongwe language", "Kaningi language", "lexicostatistics", "world population", "Rufiji–Ruvuma languages", "File:Niger-Congo speakers.png", "Carl Meinhof", "mutually intelligible", "Manyika dialect", "South Africa national football team", "Kavango language" ]
4,127	Bearing	Bearing(s) may refer to: Bearing (angle), a term for direction Bearing (mechanical), a component that separates moving parts and takes a load Bridge bearing, a component separating a bridge pier and deck Bearing BTS Station in Bangkok Bearings (album), by Ronnie Montrose in 2000	[ "Bearing (mechanical)", "Bering (disambiguation)", "Bearing BTS Station", "Baring (disambiguation)", "Bearings (album)", "Bridge bearing", "Posture (disambiguation)", "Bearing (angle)" ]
4,130	CIM-10 Bomarc	The Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc ("Boeing Michigan Aeronautical Research Center") (IM-99 Weapon System prior to September 1962) was a supersonic ramjet powered long-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) used during the Cold War for the air defense of North America. In addition to being the first operational long-range SAM and the first operational pulse doppler aviation radar, it was the only SAM deployed by the United States Air Force. Stored horizontally in a launcher shelter with a movable roof, the missile was erected, fired vertically using rocket boosters to high altitude, and then tipped over into a horizontal Mach 2.5 cruise powered by ramjet engines. This lofted trajectory allowed the missile to operate at a maximum range as great as . Controlled from the ground for most of its flight, when it reached the target area it was commanded to begin a dive, activating an onboard active radar homing seeker for terminal guidance. A radar proximity fuse detonated the warhead, either a large conventional explosive or the W40 nuclear warhead. The Air Force originally planned for a total of 52 sites covering most of the major cities and industrial regions in the US. The United States Army was deploying their own systems at the same time, and the two services fought constantly both in political circles and in the press. Development dragged on, and by the time it was ready for deployment in the late 1950s, the nuclear threat had moved from manned bombers to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). By this time the Army had successfully deployed the much shorter range Nike Hercules that they claimed filled any possible need through the 1960s, in spite of Air Force claims to the contrary. As testing continued, the Air Force reduced its plans to sixteen sites, and then again to eight with an additional two sites in Canada. The first US site was declared operational in 1959, but with only a single working missile. Bringing the rest of the missiles into service took years, by which time the system was obsolete. Deactivations began in 1969 and by 1972 all Bomarc sites had been shut down. A small number were used as target drones, and only a few remain on display today. ==Design and development== ===Initial studies=== During World War II, the US Army Air Force (USAAF) concluded that existing anti-aircraft guns, only marginally effective against existing generations of propeller-driven aircraft, would not be effective at all against the emerging jet-powered designs. Like the Germans and British before them, they concluded the only successful defence would be to use guided weapons. As early as 1944 the United States Army started exploring anti-aircraft missiles, examining a variety of concepts. At the time, two basic concepts appeared possible; one would use a short-range rocket that flew directly at the target from below following a course close to the line-of-sight, and the other would fly up to the target's altitude and then tip over and fly horizontally towards the target like a fighter aircraft. As both concepts seemed promising, the Army Air Force was given the task of developing the airplane-like design, while the Army Ordnance Department was given the more ballistic collision-course concept. Official requirements were published in 1945. Official requirements were published in 1945; Bell Laboratories won the Ordnance contract for a short-range line-of-sight weapon under Project Nike, while a team of players led by Boeing won the contract for a long-range design known as Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft, or GAPA. GAPA moved to the United States Air Force when that branch was formed in 1947. In 1946, the USAAF also started two early research projects into anti-missile systems in Project Thumper (MX-795) and Project Wizard (MX-794). ===Bomarc A=== Formally organized in 1946 under USAAF project MX-606, by 1950 Boeing had launched more than 100 test rockets in various configurations, all under the designator XSAM-A-1 GAPA. The tests were very promising, and Boeing received a USAF contract in 1949 to develop a production design under project MX-1599. The MX-1599 missile was to be a ramjet-powered, nuclear-armed long-range surface-to-air missile to defend the Continental United States from high-flying bombers. The Michigan Aerospace Research Center (MARC) was added to the project soon afterward, and this gave the new missile its name Bomarc (for Boeing and MARC). In 1951, the USAF decided to emphasize its point of view that missiles were nothing else than pilotless aircraft by assigning aircraft designators to its missile projects, and anti-aircraft missiles received F-for-Fighter designations. The Bomarc became the F-99. and continued to denigrate Nike in the press over the next few years, in one case showing a graphic of Washington being destroyed by nuclear bombs that Ajax failed to stop. Tests of the XF-99 test vehicles began in September 1952 and continued through early 1955. The XF-99 tested only the liquid-fueled booster rocket, which would accelerate the missile to ramjet ignition speed. In February 1955, tests of the XF-99A propulsion test vehicles began. These included live ramjets, but still had no guidance system or warhead. The designation YF-99A had been reserved for the operational test vehicles. In August 1955, the USAF discontinued the use of aircraft-like type designators for missiles, and the XF-99A and YF-99A became XIM-99A and YIM-99A, respectively. Originally the USAF had allocated the designation IM-69, but this was changed (possibly at Boeing's request to keep number 99) to IM-99 in October 1955. By this time, Ajax was widely deployed around the United States and some overseas locations, and the Army was beginning to develop its much more powerful successor, Nike Hercules. Hercules was an existential threat to BOMARC, as its much greater range and nuclear warhead filled many of the roles that BOMARC was designed for. A new round of fighting in the press broke out, capped by an article in The New York Times entitled "Air Force Calls Army Nike Unfit To Guard Nation". In October 1957, the first YIM-99A production-representative prototype flew with full guidance, and succeeded to pass the target within destructive range. In late 1957, Boeing received the production contract for the IM-99A Bomarc A, and in September 1959, the first IM-99A squadron became operational. ===United States=== The first USAF operational Bomarc squadron was the 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron (ADMS), organized on 1 January 1959 and activated on 25 March. The 46th ADMS was assigned to the New York Air Defense Sector at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey. The training program, under the 4751st Air Defense Wing used technicians acting as instructors and was established for a four-month duration. Training included missile maintenance; SAGE operations and launch procedures, including the launch of an unarmed missile at Eglin. In September 1959 the squadron assembled at their permanent station, the Bomarc site near McGuire AFB, and trained for operational readiness. The first Bomarc-A were used at McGuire on 19 September 1959 with Kincheloe AFB getting the first operational IM-99Bs. While several of the squadrons replicated earlier fighter interceptor unit numbers, they were all new organizations with no previous historical counterpart. ADC's initial plans called for some 52 Bomarc sites around the United States with 120 missiles each but as defense budgets decreased during the 1950s the number of sites dropped substantially. Ongoing development and reliability problems didn't help, nor did Congressional debate over the missile's usefulness and necessity. In June 1959, the Air Force authorized 16 Bomarc sites with 56 missiles each; the initial five would get the IM-99A with the remainder getting the IM-99B. However, in March 1960, HQ USAF cut deployment to eight sites in the United States and two in Canada. Between 2002 and 2004, 21,998 cubic yards of contaminated debris and soils were shipped to what was then known as Envirocare, located in Utah. ====Modification and deactivation==== In 1962, the US Air Force started using modified A-models as drones; following the October 1962 tri-service redesignation of aircraft and weapons systems they became CQM-10As. Otherwise the air defense missile squadrons maintained alert while making regular trips to Santa Rosa Island for training and firing practice. After the inactivation of the 4751st ADW(M) on 1 July 1962 and transfer of Hurlburt to Tactical Air Command for air commando operations the 4751st Air Defense Squadron (Missile) remained at Hurlburt and Santa Rosa Island for training purposes. In the era of the intercontinental ballistic missiles the Bomarc, designed to intercept relatively slow manned bombers, had become a useless asset. The remaining Bomarc missiles were used by all armed services as high-speed target drones for tests of other air-defense missiles. The Bomarc A and Bomarc B targets were designated as CQM-10A and CQM-10B, respectively. The Progressive Conservative government of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker initially agreed to deploy the missiles, and shortly thereafter controversially scrapped the Avro Arrow, a supersonic manned interceptor aircraft, arguing that the missile program made the Arrow unnecessary. Ultimately, the Diefenbaker government decided that the Bomarcs should not be equipped with nuclear warheads. The dispute split the Diefenbaker Cabinet, and led to the collapse of the government in 1963. He won the 1963 election, largely on the basis of this issue, and his new Liberal government proceeded to accept nuclear-armed Bomarcs, with the first being deployed on 31 December 1963. When the nuclear warheads were deployed, Pearson's wife, Maryon, resigned her honorary membership in the anti-nuclear weapons group, Voice of Women. No. 447 SAM Squadron operating out of RCAF Station La Macaza, Quebec, was activated on 15 September 1962 although warheads were not delivered until late 1963. The squadron followed the same operational procedures as No. 446, its sister squadron. With the passage of time the operational capability of the 1950s-era Bomarc system no longer met modern requirements; the Department of National Defence deemed that the Bomarc missile defense was no longer a viable system, and ordered both squadrons to be stood down in 1972. The bunkers and ancillary facilities remain at both former sites. ==Variants== XF-99 (experimental for booster research) XF-99A/XIM-99A (experimental for ramjet research) YF-99A/YIM-99A (service-test) IM-99A/CIM-10A (initial production) IM-99B/CIM-10B ("advanced") CQM-10A (target drone developed from CIM-10A) CQM-10B (target drone developed from CIM-10B) Bomarc site located at 447 SAM Squadron: 28 IM-99B, La Macaza, Quebec (La Macaza – Mont Tremblant International Airport) 1962–1972 Bomarc site located at (Approximately) United States Air Force Air (later Aerospace) Defense Command 6th Air Defense Missile Squadron, 56 IM-99A Activated on 1 February 1959 Assigned to: New York Air Defense Sector Inactivated 15 December 1964 Stationed at: Suffolk County Air Force Base Missile Annex, New York Bomarc site located 3 miles SW at 22d Air Defense Missile Squadron: 28 IM-99A/28 IM-99B Activated on 15 September 1959 Assigned to: Washington Air Defense Sector Reassigned to: 33d Air Division, 1 April 1966 Reassigned to: 20th Air Division, 19 November 1969 Inactivated: 31 October 1972 Stationed at: Langley AFB, Virginia Bomarc site located 3 miles WNW at 26th Air Defense Missile Squadron: 28 IM-99A/28 IM-99B Activated 1 March 1959 Assigned to: Boston Air Defense Sector Reassigned to: 35th Air Division, 1 April 1966 Reassigned to: 21st Air Division, 19 November 1969 Inactivated: 30 April 1972 Stationed at: Otis Air Force Base BOMARC site, Massachusetts Bomarc site located 1 mile NNW at 30th Air Defense Missile Squadron: 28 IM-99A Activated on 1 June 1959 Assigned to Bangor Air Defense Sector Inactivated: 15 December 1964 Stationed at Dow AFB, Maine Bomarc site located 4 mils NNE at 35th Air Defense Missile Squadron: 56 IM-99B Activated 1 June 1960 Assigned to Syracuse Air Defense Sector Reassigned to: Detroit Air Defense Sector, 4 September 1963 Reassigned to: 34th Air Division, 1 April 1966 Reassigned to: 35th Air Division, 15 September 1969 Inactivated: 31 December 1969 Stationed at: Niagara Falls Air Force Missile Site, New York Bomarc site located at 37th Air Defense Missile Squadron: 28 IM-99B Activated 1 March 1960 Assigned to 30th Air Division Reassigned to: Sault Sainte Marie Air Defense Sector, 1 April 1960 Reassigned to: Duluth Air Defense Sector, 1 October 1963 Reassigned to: 29th Air Division, 1 April 1966 Reassigned to: 23d Air Division, 19 November 1969 Inactivated 31 July 1972 Stationed at: Kincheloe AFB, Michigan Bomarc site located 19 miles NW at Raco 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron: 28 IM-99A/56 IM-99B Activated 1 January 1959 Assigned to New York Air Defense Sector Reassigned to: 21st Air Division, 1 April 1966 Reassigned to: 35th Air Division, 1 December 1957 Reassigned to: 21st Air Division, 19 November 1969 Inactivated 31 October 1972 Stationed at: McGuire AFB, New Jersey Bomarc site located 4 miles ESE at 74th Air Defense Missile Squadron: 28 IM-99B Activated 1 April 1960 Assigned to Duluth Air Defense Sector Reassigned to: 29th Air Division, 1 April 1966 Reassigned to: 23d Air Division, 19 November 1969 Inactivated 30 April 1972 Stationed at: Duluth International Airport, Minnesota Bomarc site located 10 miles NE at 4751st Air Defense Missile Squadron Activated 15 January 1959 Assigned to 73d Air Division (Weapons) Reassigned to: 32d Air Division, 1 October 1959 Reassigned to: Montgomery Air Defense Sector, 1 July 1962 Reassigned to: Air Defense, Tactical Air Command, 1 September 1979 Inactivated 30 September 1979 Stationed at: Eglin Auxiliary Field #9 (Hurlburt Field), Florida Bomarc site located on Santa Rosa Island at Bomarc site located at Eglin Auxiliary Field #5 (Piccolo Field) at Air Force Systems Command Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida Launch Complex 4 (LC-4) was used for Bomarc testing and development launches 2 February 1956 – 15 April 1960 (17 Launches). Vandenberg Air Force Base, California Two launch sites, BOM-1 and BOM-2 were used by the United States Navy for Bomarc launches against aerial targets. The first launch taking place on 25 August 1966. The last two launches occurred on 14 July 1982. BOM1 49 launches; BOM2 38 launches. Locations under construction but not activated. Each site was programmed for 28 IM-99B missiles: Camp Adair, Oregon Charleston AFB, South Carolina Ethan Allen AFB, Vermont Paine Field, Washington Travis AFB, California Truax Field, Wisconsin Vandenberg AFB, California Reference for BOMARC units and locations: File:6th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|6th ADMS File:22d Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|22d ADMS File:26th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|26th ADMS File:30th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|30th ADMS File:35th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|35th ADMS File:37th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|37th ADMS File:46th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|46th ADMS File:74th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png\|74th ADMS File:4751st_Air_Defense_Squadron_-_ADC_-_Emblem.png\|4751st ADMS File:Rcaf 446 squadorn BOMARC.png\|RCAF 446 Sqdn File:Rcaf 447 squadorn BOMARC.png\|RCAF 447 Squdn ==Surviving missiles== Although a number of IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarcs have been placed on public display, because of concerns about the possible environmental hazards of the thoriated magnesium structure of the airframe several have been removed from public view. Russ Sneddon, director of the Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida provided information about missing CIM-10 exhibit airframe serial 59–2016, one of the museum's original artifacts from its founding in 1975 and donated by the 4751st Air Defense Squadron at Hurlburt Field, Eglin Auxiliary Field 9, Eglin AFB. As of December 2006, the suspect missile was stored in a secure compound behind the Armaments Museum. In December 2010, the airframe was still on premises, but partly dismantled. Below is a list of museums or sites which have a Bomarc missile on display or in storage: Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. In storage. Air Force Space & Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. It is on display Hangar C. Alberta Aviation Museum, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill Air Force Base, Utah Historical Electronics Museum, Linthicum, Maryland (display of AN/DPN-53, the first airborne pulse-doppler radar, used in the Bomarc) Illinois Soldiers & Sailors Home, Quincy, Illinois Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi Museum of Aviation, Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia National Museum of Nuclear Science & History, Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque, New Mexico Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum (former Chanute Air Force Base), Rantoul, Illinois; the museum closed on 30 December 2015 Peterson Air and Space Museum, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado Strategic Air and Space Museum, Ashland, Nebraska USAF Airman Heritage Museum, Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas Vandenberg Air Force Base (Space and Missile Heritage Center), California. Bomarc not for public access. ==Impact on popular music== The Bomarc missile captured the imagination of the American and Canadian popular music industry, giving rise to a pop music group, the Bomarcs (composed mainly of servicemen stationed on a Florida radar site that tracked Bomarcs), a record label, Bomarc Records, and a moderately successful Canadian pop group, The Beau Marks.	[ "Strategic Air and Space Museum", "Eglin Air Force Base", "20th Air Division", "Dane County Regional Airport", "United States Air Force", "Florida", "Quincy, Illinois", "22d Air Defense Missile Squadron", "Travis AFB", "Prime Minister of Canada", "United States Navy", "Boston Air Defense Sector", "terminal guidance", "Cabinet of Canada", "Thiokol", "Washington (state)", "Peterson Air Force Base", "CFB North Bay", "Liberal Party of Canada", "Cold War", "Niagara Falls Air Force Missile Site", "McConnell Air Force Base", "Langley Air Force Base", "4751st Air Defense Missile Squadron", "Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher", "Nike Hercules", "Barksdale Air Force Base", "Mark 40 nuclear warhead", "30th Air Division", "Malmstrom Air Force Base", "74th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "SSM-N-9 Regulus II", "73d Air Division", "Surface-to-air missile", "Progressive Conservative Party of Canada", "Alberta", "Aviation Week & Space Technology", "Plattsburgh Air Force Base", "Bell Laboratories", "Niagara Falls BOMARC Missile Site", "Youngstown Air Reserve Station", "Aerospace Defense Command", "McGuire AFB", "Montgomery Air Defense Sector", "Grand Forks Air Force Base", "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)", "United States Army", "TNT equivalent", "solid-fuel rocket", "Minot Air Force Base", "Internet Archive", "Vandenberg Air Force Base", "Truax Field Air National Guard Base", "32d Air Division", "McGuire Air Force Base", "Stewart Air National Guard Base", "Lackland Air Force Base", "35th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "Air Force Space & Missile Museum", "intercontinental ballistic missile", "Linthicum, Maryland", "Camp Adair", "Boeing", "21st Air Division", "Langley AFB", "Air Force Armament Museum", "Semi-Automatic Ground Environment", "The Beau Marks", "Grissom Air Reserve Base", "Hill Aerospace Museum", "Seymour Johnson Air Force Base", "ramjet", "La Macaza, Quebec", "Cape Canaveral Air Force Station", "Tactical Air Command", "proximity fuse", "4751st Air Defense Missile Wing", "Paine Field", "Sault Sainte Marie Air Defense Sector", "Air Force Systems Command", "Boeing Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft", "Flight International", "Charleston AFB", "Duluth Air National Guard Base", "W40 (nuclear warhead)", "23d Air Division", "Encyclopedia Astronautica", "26th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "active radar homing", "Edmonton", "US Army Air Force", "Lockheed D-21", "Alberta Aviation Museum", "Travis Air Force Base", "34th Air Division", "Biloxi, Mississippi", "Mach number", "Kincheloe AFB", "Hurlburt Field", "Royal Canadian Air Force", "Ontario", "South Carolina", "Vandenberg AFB", "California", "hypergolic propellant", "Liquid-propellant rocket", "United States Atomic Energy Commission", "Kirtland Air Force Base", "Chanute Air Force Base", "Peterson Air and Space Museum", "446 SAM Squadron", "Rantoul, Illinois", "Ashland, Nebraska", "Ground Air Transmit Receive", "Wisconsin", "Lester B. Pearson", "Syracuse Air Defense Sector", "Holloman Air Force Base", "Lockheed A-12", "Pulse-Doppler radar", "Ottawa", "surface-to-air missile", "Super Combat Center", "Warner Robins, Georgia", "Keesler Air Force Base", "National Museum of Nuclear Science & History", "46th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "Colorado", "Eastern Range", "World War II", "The Philadelphia Inquirer", "Gulf of Mexico", "Detroit Air Defense Sector", "Dow AFB", "Envirocare", "447 SAM Squadron", "Charleston Air Force Base", "Lockheed X-7", "La Macaza – Mont Tremblant International Airport", "Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum", "John Diefenbaker", "Piccolo Field", "Air Defense Command", "Albuquerque, New Mexico", "29th Air Division", "Suffolk County Air Force Base Missile Annex", "North American Aerospace Defense Command", "policy by press release", "Portland Air National Guard Base", "Robins Air Force Base", "Popular Science", "Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow", "Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport", "ADTAC", "Bristol Bloodhound", "Santa Rosa Island (Florida)", "Canadian Forces", "Otis Air Force Base BOMARC site", "Michigan Aeronautical Research Center", "Burlington International Airport", "Williams Air Force Base", "McCoy Air Force Base", "Mag-Thor", "USAF Airman Heritage Museum", "1963 Canadian federal election", "Ethan Allen AFB", "North Bay Nugget", "Vermont", "Oregon", "Eastern Air Defense Sector", "New York Air Defense Sector", "33d Air Division", "Washington Air Defense Sector", "San Antonio, Texas", "Booster (rocketry)", "Utah", "anti-aircraft gun", "Historical Electronics Museum", "K. I. Sawyer Air Force Base", "Marquardt RJ43", "United States Army Center of Military History", "The New York Times", "Bomber", "30th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "37th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft", "Duluth Air Defense Sector", "Bangor Air Defense Sector", "Canada Aviation and Space Museum", "Blue Envoy", "6th Air Defense Missile Squadron", "35th Air Division", "Bangor Air National Guard Base", "Kincheloe Air Force Base", "fighter aircraft", "Hill Air Force Base" ]
4,132	Branco River	{{Infobox river \| name = Branco River \| name_native = \| name_other = \| name_etymology = \| image = Rio Branco sul.JPG \| image_size = 300 \| image_caption = Branco River in Boa Vista city, Roraima state, Brazil. The Macuxi Bridge, long, can be seen in the background. \| map = Negroamazonrivermap.png \| map_size = 300 \| map_caption = The Branco River is a tributary of the Rio Negro (highlighted on map) \| pushpin_map = \| pushpin_map_size = 300 \| pushpin_map_caption= \| subdivision_type1 = Country \| subdivision_name1 = \| subdivision_type2 = \| subdivision_name2 = \| subdivision_type3 = \| subdivision_name3 = \| subdivision_type4 = \| subdivision_name4 = \| subdivision_type5 = \| subdivision_name5 = \| length = to \| width_min = \| width_avg = \| width_max = \| depth_min = \| depth_avg = \| depth_max = \| discharge1_location=Confluence of Rio Negro, Roraima \| discharge1_min = \| discharge1_avg =(Period:1967-2010) (Period: 1980-2006) (Period: 1998-2022) (Period: 1998-2022) It is enriched by many streams from the Tepui highlands which separate Venezuela and Guyana from Brazil. Its two upper main tributaries are the Uraricoera and the Takutu. The latter almost links its sources with those of the Essequibo; during floods headwaters of the Branco and those of the Essequibo are connected, allowing a level of exchange in the aquatic fauna (such as fish) between the two systems. The Branco flows nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river. It is long, up to its Uraricoera confluence. It has numerous islands, and, above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of rapids. ==Discharge== Average, minimum and maximum discharge of the Branco River at near mouth. Period from 1998 to 2022. It is traditionally considered a whitewater river, although the major seasonal fluctuations in its physico-chemical characteristics makes a classification difficult and some consider it clearwater. Especially the river's upper parts at the headwaters are clear and flow through rocky country, leading to the suggestion that sediments mainly originate from the lower parts. There is a visible contrast with the waters of the Rio Negro at the confluence of the two rivers. The Rio Negro is a blackwater river with dark tea-colored acidic water (pH 3.5–4.5) that contains high levels of dissolved organic carbon. Currently in the rainy season much of the Rupununi area floods, with water draining both to the Amazon (via the Branco River) and the Essequibo River. ==Citations==	[ "Xeruini River", "Essequibo River", "talc", "Ajarani River", "Rupununi", "Guayanan Highlands moist forests", "inorganic", "Uraricoera River", "Guyana", "Whitewater river (river type)", "Royal Geographical Society", "Rio Negro (Amazon)", "Amazon basin", "Takutu River", "Roraima", "blackwater river", "dissolved organic carbon", "Mucajai River", "Caracaraí", "Tepui", "confluence", "mica", "Tributary", "Anauá River", "island", "lagoon", "Alfred Russel Wallace", "Food and Agriculture Organization", "headwaters", "pH", "Boa Vista, Roraima", "Brazil", "Clearwater river (river type)", "Venezuela", "Alexander von Humboldt", "Catrimani River", "Roraima State", "Guiana Shield", "Itapará River", "Parima Mountains", "Água Boa do Univini River", "silicate" ]
4,135	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership	As far as our server can handle it, we like to increase traffic to Wikipedia: it helps improve the quality and quantity of the content and increases the total amount of joy and other utility it has for people. This page lists ways of doing this. ---- Let's talk about how to increase traffic to Wikipedia, of both readers and writers--that is now going to become one of the main focuses of my Wikipedia work. So I want your help! How can we increase "membership" in Wikipedia--both readers and new writers? Let's brainstorm. Please, add an idea below, or help develop ideas. (Sometimes, a really great new idea is a slight variation on a just-OK old idea.) Also, if you do any work that you think someone else might inadvertently replicate, can you please write it down here somehow (as on the Encyclopedia links solicited page)? Thanks! --Larry Sanger ==Urban poster campaign== See meta:Wikimedia urban postering campaign! ==Brainstormin'== How about we do something like Spread Firefox? We could start our own publicity campaign, and if we ever get something like the NYT ad or the Firefox coins (see article) then I get the feeling wikipedia use would go WAY up! :D 203.59.117.99 08:35, 22 August 2005 (UTC) Solicit links from (mentioning Wikipedia:Wikipedia banners and logos): Websites with substantial traffic, like About.com (see Big traffic links solicited) People with lists of encyclopedias (see Encyclopedia list links solicited) People with encyclopedia-type websites (see Encyclopedia links solicited) Best-of websites and similar resources (see Best of sites links solicited) Web sites for authors, films, whatever. There's always a list of links. Add a link to the Wikipedia Stephen King page to Stephen King web sites, to the Japan page on Japan web sites, and so on. for individual articles, solicit links from: related resources (particularly if we mention them in external links) directories such as LookSmart, Open Directory Project and Yahoo! Get people to add article review requests to User:Larry Sanger/Review requests; find reviewers for those articles. Approach websites that might want free content, and help them to get their hands on Wikipedia's; this is something Bomis programmers and volunteers could work on. Maybe after we're running Magnus' PHP code? Post announcements on mailing lists. But of what sort? Obviously, we want to avoid spam. Start and continue discussions about Wikipedia articles (for this, the help of Wikipedians will be necessary) Simply announce the existence of Wikipedia, soliciting help. I think this is actually plausible. Recruit fans for specific areas of Wikipedia. For example, someone could drop by a Star Trek newsgroup and mention that our pages need work. I bet we'd have a huge Star Trek section in no time... Possible solicitation letters: /Sample solicitation /Another sample solicitation /Sample solicitation 3 /Skeptical solicitation Post announcements on newsgroups. But try to be careful to go slowly through them--make sure the post is specially-tailored to whatever group you post to. A good strategy is to pick a Wikipedia article, point out a few problems with it, and post a link to the article, inviting people to make changes. If you have posted an announcement to a newsgroup, will you please list it here: Newsgroups. If you don't know much about newsgroups, go to http://groups.google.com. Contact webmasters who have content-rich sites. Get them excited about Wikipedia, and invite them to make their content part of something great. Increase production of pages that are of interest to the search engines. Look at the Lycos 50 and the Google Zeitgeist and make sure that there are articles on all those topics. I would say that writing some simple short biographies of famous people would help. It will help when we have reliable and regularly updated stats on what is popular. One interesting thing about this is that other people may follow suit so that there is a "trend" on the site. Increase the standing of Wikipedia with Bomis. (There is a bug in the system which means that Wikipedia articles are not returned as often as they could be. We're working on this.) Work to get additional press coverage, following up on the NYT article as best we can. Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events. Write a scholarly article about "Empirical studies in social epistemology" and get it published. Write to authors of good books on subjects we need help on and invite them to write an article on Wikipedia. Schools. Speak to any teachers you know and have them set up an exercise where their students write on various topics that are untouched. Students get school credit for their work, obviously and also get excited about participating. I've told my mother (who teaches grade 4), and her students are planning to do articles about Australian mammals, some as-yet-untouched countries, etc. Promote free content: Whenever you make a post on other content sites, include a statement that your content is GFDL, public domain, or whatever... Get slashdotted once in a while. For example, submit article to Slashdot when we reach 150,000 articles, 200,000, etc... dave 15:48 18 Jul 2003 (UTC) Add an RSS feed to syndicate the content. See meta:RDF spool Would it be possible to make a subscription to an "Article of the Day" email. So someone subscribes and then every day they get a different entry in their mailbox. This is something that websters.com and dictionary.com do for "word of the day" definitions. It would probably need someone to take charge of it and select which entries go out (the random link too often goes to a stub or a disabmiguation page) I'll (user:MrWeeble) volunteer. It shouldn't be too hard to do - there's plenty of free (as in speech as well as in beer) software for this kind of thing Just tell people about Wikipedia- like one-on-one Suggest publications that came with CD or DVD to include converted static dump of Wikipedia (including viewer applications, if required) in their CD or DVD. Even better, suggest them to write an article about Wikipedia too. Allow contributors to make highlights and notes on existing pages allowing them to keep track of their learning. This will help develop user retention strengthening the sight for other potential users. (The above is just a start! Please add to the list!) ---- Moved from Wikipedia:Village pump on Tuesday, November 26th, 2002: == Wikipedia Evangelism == Hi, I've mentioned this before and thought I'd mention it again. As I'm browsing the pedia I find articles that might interest friends/coworkers. I pop them a link in a quick hello message and ask them if they confirm the accuracy of the content...the response so far has been first one of wonder, then awe, then enthusiasm! And it's been a nice way to relate to some folks I'm not often in contact with. Anyway, I searched for evangelism and came up with nada around the 'pedia. Is there a place for sharing an evangelical/ 'help us' message of wikipedia? --dgd There's some stuff at Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership. (Hint which wouldn't help here but may in general: after searching, go to the "Power search" box at the bottom of the screen and check the box for the 'Wikipedia' namespace. You'll get various about, help, documentation, etc. pages that aren't supposed to show up when you're searching for encyclopedia articles.) Also check the Meta-wikipedia where we keep general project discussion and misc stuff. --Brion 20:42 Oct 22, 2002 (UTC) How about doing what a lot of news web pages do? They have a box at the bottom, "Send this article to a friend" with some kind of java mailer to ship it off and a box for you to add a signed message. Ortolan88 I like that idea too. Especially, and I know this would require more overhead, but a way to keep my list of folks in memory so I don't have to open my email client (which may not be available esp, as I'm a student and working on diff. machines). How about mailto:root@localhost?Subject=Main%20Page&Body=Look%20at%20http%3A//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page] ? The text needs to be changed, but it takes no more work than the Edit this page link to add at the bottom. Use a form with input text or a JavaScript inputbox() to an e-mail, then add subject=&body=Look%20at%20 to the mailto. Geoffrey 23:27 Mar 21, 2003 (UTC) Add Wikipedia pages to ODP and Yahoo directories Add Wikipedia to your Yahoo profile's favorite sites Hemanshu 22:48, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC) Develop software like Google toolbar to reach Wikipedia articles and browse Wikipedia Hemanshu 23:31, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC) Wikimedia should run a Wikipedia advertisement competition. As far as I can tell, WikiPedia has no advertisements. I am on a college campus and one group I am associated with advertises for lots of free software (Firefox and OpenOffice mostly) that is useful to college students. We would definitely put up some Wikipedia posters if there were a couple simple advertisements we could print out. This should be done similarly to how the logo contests were. If the contests are run, the purpose should be to get at least four advertisements: fliers for letter/A4 paper in both black & white and color and posters for tabloid/A3 paper in both black & white and color, so that it is easy for people to print them off and put them up on bulletin boards and the like. (If advertisements are available and I cannot find them, they should be made much more obvious.) --Jamethknorth 02:25, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC) == Invitations == requesting permission to re-use somebody else's content in Wikipedia: Wikipedia:Boilerplate request for permission m:Standard email texts Use Social Networks as a way to communicate. Moved from Wikipedia:Village pump on Wednesday, June 9th, 2004: ==Invitation Letter== Last weekend, I went to a number of places where there were guided tours, and that got me thinking...it would be nice if this person could contribute their knowledge of this place to Wikipedia... I think there should be a standard letter to invite people to share their knowledge with Wikipedia, for when you come across someone who knows a lot about something. Or does a simlar thing already exist? What do you think? RealGrouchy 00:03, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) I think it's a great idea. There's some sample solicitation letters linked from Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership. — Matt 02:02, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) Okay, so obviously I checked it out. Can someone draft a copy that can be printed out and handed to people (maybe like two to a page?). If nobody does, then I'll probably make one in time. RealGrouchy 17:39, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) ==Don't lose new and existing members!== There are a lot of great ideas for bringing in new members here. But don't forget that, once they're here, we want to keep them! America Online is a great case study of how focusing too much on new members and not enough on serving existing members can actually lose overall membership. Wikipedia must be a useful, easy, and pleasurable experience for new users. The droves of contributors ensure that "useful" is not a problem, at least as far as content goes. To make it "easy", more attention needs to be paid the initial interface learning curve for newbies. Both "pleasurable" and "useful" are significantly impacted by outrageously long response times and frequent server down time, so we must be careful not to bring in new people faster than we can fix these ongoing problems. Give a person a bad taste in their mouth from their first experience with Wikipedia, and we may not see them again. (That's why I never went back to Ask Jeeves!, Encyclopædia Britannica, and many other search and reference sites after finding more reliable ones.) -- Jeff Q 17:55, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) I know what you mean. I still consider myself a 'new member', but I spend a lot of time just looking through the hordes of confusing help pages before I made my first edit (I have never used the sandbox). Luckily, I added an entry to my user page telling people that I am a new user, and asking for suggestions, and someone told me what they felt was the most important tips and links. Now, I do things with more ease, because I can look at pages I've created (esp images) and see how others have edited my work, and I can adapt to that format in new pages. However, I'm a follow-the-instructions kind of guy; we should have procedural stuff to tell people what they need to know about different things, like editing a page, and adding an image, etc. Wikipedia:Picture tutorial is a good example. - RealGrouchy 23:14, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) I think Wikipedia does a pretty good job of explaining all the pieces that one needs to do various things. The problem is perhaps more the sheer size and quantity of things one should learn to feel truly Wiki-knowledgeable. I'm always coming across useful pages by accident. I just ran into Wikipedia:Style and How-to Directory, some items of which I've read before, and some I've picked up by Wiki-osmosis, but I suspect this will give me another boost along the learning curve. I have two tips about the Sandbox I hadn't noticed mentioned anywhere: Most of the time, what you're testing is completely demonstrated in "Show preview", so you don't even need to worry about overwriting the main Sandbox — just keep your Edit window open until you're done, then Cancel or just close it. I ran across another Wikipedian (I forgot who) who had created their own Sandbox at User:/Sandbox. It's easy to create such a page, and you never have to worry about what's in the main Sandbox or that someone might overwrite it, plus you can save stuff for extended testing. I'll bet there are similar "best practices" tips scattered around, maybe even not so scattered. It's hard to know with some much to learn and find. But that's a Good Thing, mostly. -- Jeff Q 00:05, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC) There is a real need to make inforamtion about the project, especially help pages more ordered and useful. To give an example although I can find many pages which tell me that I can have a personal Sandbox there is no documentation on how to achieve this. There isn't even a forum where newbies can post a question and get an answer to their problem/request from someone more experienced, or if it exists it is not well publicised.--ChemRad 13:56, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC) ==From Wikipedia:Publicity== There are numerous ways you can help publicize Wikipedia, and thereby get more people to edit your work and make this into a real live encyclopedia. Just think--in a few years, Wikipedia is probably going to be amazing. (Feel free to add to this list.) Ask people to read and help: If you've done a lot of work in some particular area, post an announcement to a mailing list or newsgroup telling people about your work and asking them to help. If there hasn't been a lot of work in a particular area, post an announcement telling people about Wikipedia and asking them to help! Tell friends and colleagues. E-mail an announcement to them. Ask them to check your work, or to write pages on their areas of specialization, or their hobbies, or whatever. Publicize wiki pages: Submit particular wiki pages (e.g., your "baby" pages) to search engines. Link to Wikipedia from your websites. Linking to articles helps people find them and improves their ranking on search engines. Ask other people to link to Wikipedia. Publicize Wikipedia as a whole: Observe (in writing and smugly) on other wikis that Wikipedia is easily the fastest-growing wiki in the world. Add a link to Wikipedia to your e-mail or message board signature. Share your joy of using Wikipedia with your friends and other people. ==From Wikipedia talk:Publicity== === Hard to find help on how to publicise the Wikipedia === So, I got it into my head that I wanted to add a link to the Wikipedia from my blog...easier said than done! It took me quite a while to find the right graphic. That is weird. I ended up finding Wikipedia:Banners and buttons Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership But nowhwere from the Main pages or the "Community Portal" is this or an alternative page listed! An shouldn't the first one above be linked from all over the place? With instructions on how to create the links?—iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 21:35, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC) PS: before I come out sounding self-important, I wasn't looking to do the 'Pedia any favours; my blog is new and I am trying to make it a home for good wholesome thought and content. I feel the Wikipedia is an important thing to point to.—iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 21:40, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC) === I do agree!! === Hello, I do agree with Ifaqeer. The link to Wikipedia:Banners and buttons should be more accessible. Bye Java ==Targeting publicity efforts== Wikipedia is now one of the top 30 web sites on the net, period. It seems that anyone in the developed world who hasn't heard about us yet soon will, either through word of mouth or the inevitable media coverage for such an important site. Wikipedia is also currently dominating Google and other search engines, so there's really no need to solicit links anymore. At this point, I think publicity efforts would be more useful if they were targeted. For example, we would like to recruit: Experts for fields where articles are languishing Translators Editors from cultural minorities not well represented here English-speaking residents of non-English-speaking countries The amount of publicity that Wikipedia gets from media outlets is very large. Even if we could muster enough posters and volunteers to distribute them to compete with sheer volume, we have little direct control over what the media will say about us (though Jimbo has been doing a good job acting as a spokesperson, at least for those outlets who ask us for our point of view). The best way I think we can make sure that the large amounts of free publicity we are getting is good publicity, is to improve what it is people see when they visit the site. Given that most criticism recently has been about accuracy and trust and the site claiming to be more than it's not (since people assume an "encyclopedia" is professionally reviewed), an excellent first step would be to make sure anything that's in an unacceptable state is clearly marked, even if we can't fix it right away. :Category:Wikipedia maintenance catalogs the hundreds of different ways this can be done. -- Beland 21:40, 15 December 2005 (UTC) Good points. I'm doing something like this - I have started WikiProject International development and: have tried to make it useful for people new to Wikipedia have provided "Jumping off points" so that task-oriented people can get right into editing am now starting to contact organizations (e.g. these ones): to let them know about the resource to ask them to put it in their newsletters to let them know that it is easy to edit Wikipedia, that if they do want to share their expertise, that would be great to let them know that if they don't want to get into editing, they are still very welcome to post suggestions or feedback on the Wikiproject talk page to suggest that reading and working on articles in Wikipedia is a great way for students to learn, and a great way for development volunteers to prepare for a placement we can contact relevant experts to ask for suggestions on resources and feedback on articles (at the same time ensuring that they know about Wikipedia's articles in their topic area) we can post a brief notice on development-oriented discussion lists I have added a section on translating to the project page - and as I travel in Asia I will be on the lookout for keen people to help (partly through my contact with local NGO's and development professionals). -- Singkong2005 04:26, 4 April 2006 (UTC)	[ "November 26", "Wikipedia talk:WikiProject International development", "Tuesday", "LookSmart", "traffic", "meta:Wikimedia urban postering campaign", "Yahoo!", "/Skeptical solicitation", "2004", "/Another sample solicitation", "2002", "Category:Appropriate technology organizations", "RSS (protocol)", "June 9", "America Online", "wikipedia", "/Sample solicitation", "Open Directory Project", "Spread Firefox", "m:Standard email texts", "/Sample solicitation 3", "Wikipedia", "evangelism", "meta:RDF spool", "Star Trek", "JavaScript", "Wednesday", "Category:Wikipedia maintenance", "m:Main Page", "NGO" ]
4,136	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited	Links solicited (and pending): Animal Rights Encyclopedia Encyclopedia Mythica The FREE Internet Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of the Orient Cyberlaw Encyclopedia Encyclopedia of Psychology Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics Chico Instrument Encyclopedia Symbols.com Links obtained: Refdesk Jumping-off points: http://www.google.com/search?q=encyclopedia&hl=en&safe=off&start=40&sa=N Sample solicitation Another sample solicitation See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,137	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Sample solicitation	Hello! I would like to exchange links with you, if that's possible. Wikipedia and Nupedia are free, open content encyclopedias. Wikipedia now has about 10,000 articles, including many in the life sciences, and Nupedia's (peer reviewed) biology category is its most active. Wikipedia would be happy to include a link to the Encyclopedia of Life Sciences on our "Friends of Wikipedia" page. Wikipedia now receives something like 2,000 unique visitors a day, and we started in January; this e-mail is part of a drive to increase traffic, and so we expect traffic will increase greatly, particularly as we are growing by over 1,000 articles per month. (These articles, both Wikipedia's and Nupedia's, are, by the way, free for you to use as you wish, with no fee--see our open content license.) Best regards, Larry Sanger See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,138	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Another sample solicitation	I am only now starting to publicize Wikipedia, a wiki-based free (open content) encyclopedia project. We started last January and already have about 10,000 articles. Perhaps you have seen us by now--we're located at http://www.wikipedia.com . I'm the person responsible for organizing and leading Wikipedia, as well as Nupedia (which has been moving much more slowly). First things first: it would be fantastic if you would like to link to any or all of our articles. They're free, of course. I'd like to make this as easy as possible for you, if you're interested. If you have any free articles we can use, I would like to know about it! More interestingly, perhaps, for you, is the idea that you can actually use our content as part of your website. It's free. The cream of the crop can be found at http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Brilliant_prose , but there's a lot more than that. Also, the quality of Nupedia articles is guaranteed; see http://www.nupedia.com/newest.phtml . (There just isn't much there yet.) One thing we're working on is a program that will make it extremely easy to mirror Wikipedia's content. We're not done with that yet--but is that something you might be interested in? I certainly would like to hear back from you about how we might be able to support each other. I do not regard your website as a competitor in any sense at all. See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,139	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events	Article ideas (feel free to contribute--yes, you!): Press release (this is on hold for the time being) Response to , an article critical of MIT's project and name from the perspective of GNU-style "freedom", free speech versus free beer and all that good stuff. Article discussing the meaning and possibility of unbiased writing, using Wikipedia as an example. A number of websites might be interested in this, including Kuro5hin. "How is Wikipedia possible?" "Why should anybody trust what is in Wikipedia?" An interesting study in applied social epistemology: for many Wikipedia articles, we have zero information about the credentials of the people who wrote the article. Should we give the article zero credence? No. Why not? Might be good for an e-zine about computers and philosophy...I think there is one. The history of free online encyclopedia projects Why an encyclopedia? Why not just use Google? Done: Kuro5hin article reporting: RMS endorsement; 10,000 articles; NYT coverage; Tech Review coverage. (LMS plans to write this as soon as gnu.org puts up a link to Wikipedia.) submit Wikipedia articles on controversial issues to discussion sites to show off our neutral point of view (maybe a stupid idea) See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,140	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia list links solicited	Solicited and pending: Access Place Library Encyclopedia Proteus Free Online Encyclopedias Student-manual.com informationsphere See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,141	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Big traffic links solicited	OK, folks, what are some websites that get lots and lots of traffic, and which might link to us? Ideas??? Wired (no links; might take an article though) ZDNet (no links; might take an article though) About.com Slashdot articles could link to Wikipedia articles under a "Related links" section. Links to lists of popular websites: The Media Metrix list econsultant.com See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,142	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/About.com	Hey, we can probably get a lot of traffic from About.com. The way About.com works is this: they have a bunch of people working independently building guides to the Internet. They don't have to make their guides consistent with each other. They don't know if other guides are or are not accepting links from Wikipedia. In short, in principle, we could get huge numbers of links from different pages on their website. They'll love us because we're content-rich, and they like that. So, if you feel so inspired, please go to or for that matter, any page about any subject, and ask for links either to http://www.wikipedia.com/ or to the relevant part of Wikipedia. They've got a huge (no kidding--huge) number of pages on about.com that link to encyclopedias. Wikipedia should be linked from every one of them, but for that we've got to start asking! :-) But if you do this, could you please indicate, below, what guide/area you've solicited? Thanks. [http://familyinternet.about.com/cs/referencelibrary/ Marcy Zitz, Family Internet Cathy Spalding, Homework Tips Shauna Lee De Feyter, Penpals for Kids Dave Fisher, Puzzles Steve Lenhert, Nanotechnology Kevin Elliott, Web Search Gwen Schertel, Net for Beginners Rich Gray, Philosophy Theresa Husarik, Salt Lake City Write to others! See http://www.about.com ! Sample solicitation 3 See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,143	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Sample solicitation 3	I'm the main organizer of Wikipedia, a free, open content encyclopedia. Please have a look, at http://www.wikipedia.com/ . I would be delighted if you would link to it from http://kidspenpals.about.com/cs/dictionaries/ We've got 10,000 articles, growing by 2,000 per month. It's pretty amazing, really. Here is an article about it in the MIT Technology Review: http://www.techreview.com/web/heim/heim090401.asp We're also soon going to be the subject of an article in the New York Times. Thanks! Larry Sanger, Ph.D. Wikipedia chief organizer See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[]
4,144	Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Newsgroups	Newsgroups are a form of mass mailing list. Although there are many providers of access to newsgroups, one of the major and more well known sites is Google Groups Google Groups is really easy to use, I've discovered--if you don't have a newsreader set up, it's a more than adequate substitute. Groups we have posted to: soc.history.moderated soc.religion.christian.bible-study humanities.classics humanities.lit.authors.shakespeare sci.physics.relativity sci.stat.math sci.econ sci.anthropology Here are a couple of direct Google links that may be of interest: Search Google groups for all mentions of Wikipedia Search specifically for mentions of English Wikipedia See also : Building Wikipedia membership	[ "Google Groups" ]
4,146	Bus	A bus (contracted from omnibus, with variants multibus, motorbus, autobus, etc.) is a motor vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van, but fewer than the average rail transport. It is most commonly used in public transport, but is also in use for charter purposes, or through private ownership. Although the average bus carries between 30 and 100 passengers, some buses have a capacity of up to 300 passengers. The most common type is the single-deck rigid bus, with double-decker and articulated buses carrying larger loads, and midibuses and minibuses carrying smaller loads. Coaches are used for longer-distance services. Many types of buses, such as city transit buses and inter-city coaches, charge a fare. Other types, such as elementary or secondary school buses or shuttle buses within a post-secondary education campus, are free. In many jurisdictions, bus drivers require a special large vehicle licence above and beyond a regular driving license. Buses may be used for scheduled bus transport, scheduled coach transport, school transport, private hire, or tourism; promotional buses may be used for political campaigns and others are privately operated for a wide range of purposes, including rock and pop band tour vehicles. Horse-drawn buses were used from the 1820s, followed by steam buses in the 1830s, and electric trolleybuses in 1882. The first internal combustion engine buses, or motor buses, were used in 1895. The theoretical full name is in French Nantes citizens soon gave the nickname "omnibus" to the vehicle. ==History== ===Steam buses=== Regular intercity bus services by steam-powered buses were pioneered in England in the 1830s by Walter Hancock and by associates of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, among others, running reliable services over road conditions which were too hazardous for horse-drawn transportation. The first mechanically propelled omnibus appeared on the streets of London on 22 April 1833. Steam carriages were much less likely to overturn, they travelled faster than horse-drawn carriages, they were much cheaper to run, and caused much less damage to the road surface due to their wide tyres. However, the heavy road tolls imposed by the turnpike trusts discouraged steam road vehicles and left the way clear for the horse bus companies, and from 1861 onwards, harsh legislation virtually eliminated mechanically propelled vehicles from the roads of Great Britain for 30 years, the Locomotive Act 1861 imposing restrictive speed limits on "road locomotives" of in towns and cities, and in the country. ===Trolleybuses=== In parallel to the development of the bus was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires. The Siemens brothers, William in England and Ernst Werner in Germany, collaborated on the development of the trolleybus concept. Sir William first proposed the idea in an article to the Journal of the Society of Arts in 1881 as an "...arrangement by which an ordinary omnibus...would have a suspender thrown at intervals from one side of the street to the other, and two wires hanging from these suspenders; allowing contact rollers to run on these two wires, the current could be conveyed to the tram-car, and back again to the dynamo machine at the station, without the necessity of running upon rails at all." The first such vehicle, the Electromote, was made by his brother Ernst Werner von Siemens and presented to the public in 1882 in Halensee, Germany. Although this experimental vehicle fulfilled all the technical criteria of a typical trolleybus, it was dismantled in the same year after the demonstration. Max Schiemann opened a passenger-carrying trolleybus in 1901 near Dresden, in Germany. Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system. In the early days, a few other methods of current collection were used. Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain on 20 June 1911. ===Motor buses=== In Siegerland, Germany, two passenger bus lines ran briefly, but unprofitably, in 1895 using a six-passenger motor carriage developed from the 1893 Benz Viktoria. The vehicle had a maximum speed of and accommodated up to 20 passengers, in an enclosed area below and on an open-air platform above. With the success and popularity of this bus, DMG expanded production, selling more buses to companies in London and, in 1899, to Stockholm and Speyer. The Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company, which rapidly became a major manufacturer of buses in the US, was founded in Chicago in 1923 by John D. Hertz. General Motors purchased a majority stake in 1925 and changed its name to the Yellow Truck and Coach Manufacturing Company. GM purchased the balance of the shares in 1943 to form the GM Truck and Coach Division. Models expanded in the 20th century, leading to the widespread introduction of the contemporary recognizable form of full-sized buses from the 1950s. The AEC Routemaster, developed in the 1950s, was a pioneering design and remains an icon of London to this day. The innovative design used lightweight aluminium and techniques developed in aircraft production during World War II. As well as a novel weight-saving integral design, it also introduced for the first time on a bus independent front suspension, power steering, a fully automatic gearbox, and power-hydraulic braking. ==== Gallery ==== File:Erster Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg\|The first ever internal combustion omnibus, introduced in 1895 (Siegen to Netphen) File:B43OleBillatIWMLondon.jpg\|A 1911 LGOC B-type File:Daimler CC Bus (1912).jpg\|A 1912 Daimler CC Bus, one of five (English) Daimler Company buses exported to Australia ==Types== Formats include single-decker bus, double-decker bus (both usually with a rigid chassis) and articulated bus (or 'bendy-bus') the prevalence of which varies from country to country. High-capacity bi-articulated buses are also manufactured, and passenger-carrying trailers—either towed behind a rigid bus (a bus trailer) or hauled as a trailer by a truck (a trailer bus). Smaller midibuses have a lower capacity and open-top buses are typically used for leisure purposes. In many new fleets, particularly in local transit systems, a shift to low-floor buses is occurring, primarily for easier accessibility. Coaches are designed for longer-distance travel and are typically fitted with individual high-backed reclining seats, seat belts, toilets, and audio-visual entertainment systems, and can operate at higher speeds with more capacity for luggage. Coaches may be single- or double-deckers, articulated, and often include a separate luggage compartment under the passenger floor. Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Bus manufacturing may be by a single company (an integral manufacturer), or by one manufacturer's building a bus body over a chassis produced by another manufacturer. ==Design== ===Accessibility=== Transit buses used to be mainly high-floor vehicles. However, they are now increasingly of low-floor design and optionally also 'kneel' air suspension and have ramps to provide access for wheelchair users and people with baby carriages, sometimes as electrically or hydraulically extended under-floor constructs for level access. Prior to more general use of such technology, these wheelchair users could only use specialist para-transit mobility buses. Accessible vehicles also have wider entrances and interior gangways and space for wheelchairs. Interior fittings and destination displays may also be designed to be usable by the visually impaired. Coaches generally use wheelchair lifts instead of low-floor designs. In some countries, vehicles are required to have these features by disability discrimination laws. ===Configuration=== Buses were initially configured with an engine in the front and an entrance at the rear. With the transition to one-man operation, many manufacturers moved to mid- or rear-engined designs, with a single door at the front or multiple doors. The move to the low-floor design has all but eliminated the mid-engined design, although some coaches still have mid-mounted engines. Front-engined buses still persist for niche markets such as American school buses, some minibuses, and buses in less developed countries, which may be derived from truck chassis, rather than purpose-built bus designs. Most buses have two axles, while articulated buses have three. ===Guidance=== Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Guidance can be mechanical, optical, or electromagnetic. Extensions of the guided technology include the Guided Light Transit and Translohr systems, although these are more often termed 'rubber-tyred trams' as they have limited or no mobility away from their guideways. ===Liveries=== Transit buses are normally painted to identify the operator or a route, function, or to demarcate low-cost or premium service buses. Liveries may be painted onto the vehicle, applied using adhesive vinyl technologies, or using decals. Vehicles often also carry bus advertising or part or all of their visible surfaces (as mobile billboard). Campaign buses may be decorated with key campaign messages; these can be to promote an event or initiative. ===Propulsion=== The most common power source since the 1920s has been the diesel engine. Early buses, known as trolleybuses, were powered by electricity supplied from overhead lines. Nowadays, electric buses often carry their own battery, which is sometimes recharged on stops/stations to keep the size of the battery small/lightweight. Currently, interest exists in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses, and ones powered by compressed natural gas or biodiesel. Gyrobuses, which are powered by the momentum stored by a flywheel, were tried in the 1940s. ===Dimensions=== United Kingdom and European Union: Maximum Length: Single rear axle . Twin rear axle . Maximum Width: United States, Canada and Mexico: Maximum Length: None Maximum Width: ==Manufacture== Early bus manufacturing grew out of carriage coach building, and later out of automobile or truck manufacturers. Early buses were merely a bus body fitted to a truck chassis. This body+chassis approach has continued with modern specialist manufacturers, although there also exist integral designs such as the Leyland National where the two are practically inseparable. Specialist builders also exist and concentrate on building buses for special uses or modifying standard buses into specialised products. Integral designs have the advantages that they have been well-tested for strength and stability, and also are off-the-shelf. However, two incentives cause use of the chassis+body model. First, it allows the buyer and manufacturer both to shop for the best deal for their needs, rather than having to settle on one fixed design—the buyer can choose the body and the chassis separately. Second, over the lifetime of a vehicle (in constant service and heavy traffic), it will likely get minor damage now and again, and being able easily to replace a body panel or window etc. can vastly increase its service life and save the cost and inconvenience of removing it from service. As with the rest of the automotive industry, into the 20th century, bus manufacturing increasingly became globalized, with manufacturers producing buses far from their intended market to exploit labour and material cost advantages. A typical city bus costs almost US$450,000. ==Uses== ===Public transport=== Transit buses, used on public transport bus services, have utilitarian fittings designed for efficient movement of large numbers of people, and often have multiple doors. Coaches are used for longer-distance routes. High-capacity bus rapid transit services may use the bi-articulated bus or tram-style buses such as the Wright StreetCar and the Irisbus Civis. Buses and coach services often operate to a predetermined published public transport timetable defining the route and the timing, but smaller vehicles may be used on more flexible demand responsive transport services. ===Tourism=== Buses play a major part in the tourism industry. Tour buses around the world allow tourists to view local attractions or scenery. These are often open-top buses, but can also be regular buses or coaches. In local sightseeing, City Sightseeing is the largest operator of local tour buses, operating on a franchised basis all over the world. Specialist tour buses are also often owned and operated by safari parks and other theme parks or resorts. Longer-distance tours are also carried out by bus, either on a turn up and go basis or through a tour operator, and usually allow disembarkation from the bus to allow touring of sites of interest on foot. These may be day trips or longer excursions incorporating hotel stays. Tour buses often carry a tour guide, although the driver or a recorded audio commentary may also perform this function. The tour operator may be a subsidiary of a company that operates buses and coaches for other uses or an independent company that charters buses or coaches. Commuter transport operators may also use their coaches to conduct tours within the target city between the morning and evening commuter transport journey. Buses and coaches are also a common component of the wider package holiday industry, providing private airport transfers (in addition to general airport buses) and organised tours and day trips for holidaymakers on the package. Tour buses can also be hired as chartered buses by groups for sightseeing at popular holiday destinations. These private tour buses may offer specific stops, such as all the historical sights, or allow the customers to choose their own itineraries. Tour buses come with professional and informed staff and insurance, and maintain state governed safety standards. Some provide other facilities like entertainment units, luxurious reclining seats, large scenic windows, and even lavatories. Public long-distance coach networks are also often used as a low-cost method of travel by students or young people travelling the world. Some companies such as Topdeck Travel were set up specifically to use buses to drive the hippie trail or travel to places such as North Africa. In many tourist or travel destinations, a bus is part of the tourist attraction, such as the North American tourist trolleys, London's AEC Routemaster heritage routes, or the customised buses of Malta, Asia, and the Americas. Another example of tourist stops is the homes of celebrities, such as tours based near Hollywood. There are several such services between 6000 and 7000 Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles. ===Student transport=== In some countries, particularly the US and Canada, buses used to transport schoolchildren have evolved into a specific design with specified mandatory features. American states have also adopted laws regarding motorist conduct around school buses, including large fines and possibly prison for passing a stopped school bus in the process of loading or offloading children passengers. These school buses may have school bus yellow livery and crossing guards. Other countries may mandate the use of seat belts. As a minimum, many countries require a bus carrying students to display a sign, and may also adopt yellow liveries. Student transport often uses older buses cascaded from service use, retrofitted with more seats or seatbelts. Student transport may be operated by local authorities or private contractors. Schools may also own and operate their own buses for other transport needs, such as class field trips or transport to associated sports, music, or other school events. ===Private charter=== Due to the costs involved in owning, operating, and driving buses and coaches, much bus and coach use comes from the private hire of vehicles from charter bus companies, either for a day or two or on a longer contract basis, where the charter company provides the vehicles and qualified drivers. Charter bus operators may be completely independent businesses, or charter hire may be a subsidiary business of a public transport operator that might maintain a separate fleet or use surplus buses, coaches, and dual-purpose coach-seated buses. Many private taxicab companies also operate larger minibus vehicles to cater for group fares. Companies, private groups, and social clubs may hire buses or coaches as a cost-effective method of transporting a group to an event or site, such as a group meeting, racing event, or organised recreational activity such as a summer camp. Schools often hire charter bus services on a regular basis for transportation of children to and from their homes. Chartered buses are also used by education institutes for transport to conventions, exhibitions, and field trips. Entertainment or event companies may also hire temporary shuttles buses for transport at events such as festivals or conferences. Party buses are used by companies in a similar manner to limousine hire, for luxury private transport to social events or as a touring experience. Sleeper buses are used by bands or other organisations that tour between entertainment venues and require mobile rest and recreation facilities. Some couples hire preserved buses for their wedding transport, instead of the traditional car. Buses are often hired for parades or processions. Victory parades are often held for triumphant sports teams, who often tour their home town or city in an open-top bus. Sports teams may also contract out their transport to a team bus, for travel to away games, to a competition or to a final event. These buses are often specially decorated in a livery matching the team colours. Private companies often contract out private shuttle bus services, for transport of their customers or patrons, such as hotels, amusement parks, university campuses, or private airport transfer services. This shuttle usage can be as transport between locations, or to and from parking lots. High specification luxury coaches are often chartered by companies for executive or VIP transport. Charter buses may also be used in tourism and for promotion (See Tourism and Promotion sections). ===Private ownership=== Many organisations, including the police, not for profit, social or charitable groups with a regular need for group transport may find it practical or cost-effective to own and operate a bus for their own needs. These are often minibuses for practical, tax and driver licensing reasons, although they can also be full-size buses. Cadet or scout groups or other youth organizations may also own buses. Companies such as railroads, construction contractors, and agricultural firms may own buses to transport employees to and from remote job sites. Specific charities may exist to fund and operate bus transport, usually using specially modified mobility buses or otherwise accessible buses (See Accessibility section). Some use their contributions to buy vehicles and provide volunteer drivers. Airport operators make use of special airside airport buses for crew and passenger transport in the secure airside parts of an airport. Some public authorities, police forces, and military forces make use of armoured buses where there is a special need to provide increased passenger protection. The United States Secret Service acquired two in 2010 for transporting dignitaries needing special protection. Police departments make use of police buses for a variety of reasons, such as prisoner transport, officer transport, temporary detention facilities, and as command and control vehicles. Some fire departments also use a converted bus as a command post while those in cold climates might retain a bus as a heated shelter at fire scenes. Many are drawn from retired school or service buses. ===Promotion=== Buses are often used for advertising, political campaigning, public information campaigns, public relations, or promotional purposes. These may take the form of temporary charter hire of service buses, or the temporary or permanent conversion and operation of buses, usually of second-hand buses. Extreme examples include converting the bus with displays and decorations or awnings and fittings. Interiors may be fitted out for exhibition or information purposes with special equipment or audio visual devices. Bus advertising takes many forms, often as interior and exterior adverts and all-over advertising liveries. The practice often extends into the exclusive private hire and use of a bus to promote a brand or product, appearing at large public events, or touring busy streets. The bus is sometimes staffed by promotions personnel, giving out free gifts. Campaign buses are often specially decorated for a political campaign or other social awareness information campaign, designed to bring a specific message to different areas, or used to transport campaign personnel to local areas/meetings. Exhibition buses are often sent to public events such as fairs and festivals for purposes such as recruitment campaigns, for example by private companies or the armed forces. Complex urban planning proposals may be organised into a mobile exhibition bus for the purposes of public consultation. ===Goods transport=== In some sparsely populated areas, it is common to use brucks, buses with a cargo area to transport both passengers and cargo at the same time. They are especially common in the Nordic countries. ==Around the world== Historically, the types and features of buses have developed according to local needs. Buses were fitted with technology appropriate to the local climate or passenger needs, such as air conditioning in Asia, or cycle mounts on North American buses. The bus types in use around the world where there was little mass production were often sourced secondhand from other countries, such as the Malta bus, and buses in use in Africa. Other countries such as Cuba required novel solutions to import restrictions, with the creation of the "camellos" (camel bus), a specially manufactured trailer bus. After the Second World War, manufacturers in Europe and the Far East, such as Mercedes-Benz buses and Mitsubishi Fuso expanded into other continents influencing the use of buses previously served by local types. Use of buses around the world has also been influenced by colonial associations or political alliances between countries. Several of the Commonwealth nations followed the British lead and sourced buses from British manufacturers, leading to a prevalence of double-decker buses. Several Eastern Bloc countries adopted trolleybus systems, and their manufacturers such as Trolza exported trolleybuses to other friendly states. In the 1930s, Italy designed the world's only triple decker bus for the busy route between Rome and Tivoli that could carry eighty-eight passengers. It was unique not only in being a triple decker but having a separate smoking compartment on the third level. The buses to be found in countries around the world often reflect the quality of the local road network, with high-floor resilient truck-based designs prevalent in several less developed countries where buses are subject to tough operating conditions. Population density also has a major impact, where dense urbanisation such as in Japan and the far east has led to the adoption of high capacity long multi-axle buses, often double-deckers while South America and China are implementing large numbers of articulated buses for bus rapid transit schemes. ===Bus expositions=== Euro Bus Expo is a trade show, which is held biennially at the UK's National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham. As the official show of the Confederation of Passenger Transport, the UK's trade association for the bus, coach and light rail industry, the three-day event offers visitors from Europe and beyond the chance to see and experience the very latest vehicles and product and service innovations right across the industry. Busworld Kortrijk in Kortrijk, Belgium, is the leading bus trade fair in Europe. It is also held biennially. ==Use of retired buses== Most public or private buses and coaches, once they have reached the end of their service with one or more operators, are sent to the wrecking yard for breaking up for scrap and spare parts. Some buses which are not economical to keep running as service buses are often converted for use other than revenue-earning transport. Much like old cars and trucks, buses often pass through a dealership where they can be bought privately or at auction. Bus operators often find it economical to convert retired buses to use as permanent training buses for driver training, rather than taking a regular service bus out of use. Some large operators have also converted retired buses into tow bus vehicles, to act as tow trucks. With the outsourcing of maintenance staff and facilities, the increase in company health and safety regulations, and the increasing curb weights of buses, many operators now contract their towing needs to a professional vehicle recovery company. Some buses that have reached the end of their service that are still in good condition are sent for export to other countries. Some retired buses have been converted to static or mobile cafés, often using historic buses as a tourist attraction. There are also catering buses: buses converted into a mobile canteen and break room. These are commonly seen at external filming locations to feed the cast and crew, and at other large events to feed staff. Another use is as an emergency vehicle, such as high-capacity ambulance bus or mobile command centre. Some organisations adapt and operate playbuses or learning buses to provide a playground or learning environments to children who might not have access to proper play areas. An ex-London AEC Routemaster bus has been converted to a mobile theatre and catwalk fashion show. Some buses meet a destructive end by being entered in banger races or at demolition derbies. A larger number of old retired buses have also been converted into mobile holiday homes and campers. ===Bus preservation=== Rather than being scrapped or converted for other uses, sometimes retired buses are saved for preservation. This can be done by individuals, volunteer preservation groups or charitable trusts, museums, or sometimes by the operators themselves as part of a heritage fleet. These buses often need to be restored to their original condition and will have their livery and other details such as internal notices and rollsigns restored to be authentic to a specific time in the bus's history. Some buses that undergo preservation are rescued from a state of great disrepair, but others enter preservation with very little wrong with them. As with other historic vehicles, many preserved buses either in a working or static state form part of the collections of transport museums. Additionally, some buses are preserved so they can appear alongside other period vehicles in television and film. Working buses will often be exhibited at rallies and events, and they are also used as charter buses. While many preserved buses are quite old or even vintage, in some cases relatively new examples of a bus type can enter restoration. In-service examples are still in use by other operators. This often happens when a change in design or operating practice, such as the switch to one person operation or low floor technology, renders some buses redundant while still relatively new. ==Modification as railway vehicles==	[ "single-deck bus", "coach (vehicle)", "flywheel", "spa", "command center", "Dresden", "diesel engine", "awning", "Runway (fashion)", "dative", "trolleybus", "biodiesel", "London's Transport Museum", "Toll road", "Coach (bus)", "Campaign bus", "Bicycle", "Siegen", "wikt:scrapped", "Final (competition)", "Buxton", "bus manufacturing", "First World War", "Intercity bus driver", "open-top bus", "field trips", "Perth", "Turnpike road", "Transit bus", "public transport", "safari park", "racing", "Siegerland", "public relation", "service life", "fuel cell bus", "Speyer", "Mitsubishi Fuso Truck and Bus Corporation", "Toronto", "independent suspension", "single-decker bus", "ambulance bus", "training bus", "Brandenburger Tor", "vehicle recovery", "public transport bus service", "Nordic countries", "Executive officer", "high-floor", "bus advertising", "low-floor bus", "City Road", "automotive industry", "tourist attraction", "sightseeing", "rollsign", "Public transport bus service", "List of transport museums", "filming location", "AEC Routemaster", "Bus manufacturing", "School bus crossing arm", "wheelchair lift", "curb weight", "banger racing", "Cutaway bus", "police officer", "amusement park", "Hydraulic brake", "Transport in Cuba", "commercial driver's license", "armoured bus", "Category:Public service announcements", "Newington Academy for Girls", "New Road (eighteenth century north London turnpike road)", "Los Angeles", "bi-articulated bus", "passenger", "GMC (Truck)", "adjective", "demolition derbies", "General Motors", "Pendleton, Greater Manchester", "Conservation and restoration of road vehicles", "Chester", "automatic gearbox", "school bus yellow", "charter", "parade", "airport bus", "Canada", "driving license", "Leyland National", "Commons:Category:School bus signs", "wrecking yard", "Intercity bus", "wheelchair ramp", "Public light bus", "William Siemens", "steam bus", "axles", "hippie trail", "Very Important Person", "spare part", "Tour bus", "package holiday", "Sleeper bus", "trailer bus", "List of fictional buses", "Phileas (public transport)", "trolley pole", "Bus station", "clipping (morphology)", "field trip", "Thomas Tilling", "coachbuilding", "Bus spotting", "hybrid electric bus", "India", "Quaker", "Slate (magazine)", "bus rapid transit", "John D. Hertz", "United Kingdom", "Bradford", "electric bus", "Commonwealth of Nations", "playground", "Napoleon III", "audio-visual", "mobile billboard", "armed force", "The Slate Group", "summer camp", "Bicycle carrier", "Llandudno", "Stockholm", "Sports competition", "fire department", "scrap", "Transit Elevated Bus", "Coffee break", "Topdeck Travel", "Kortrijk", "Cadet", "Car dealership", "London General Omnibus Company", "Netphen", "Walter Hancock", "German Empire", "George Shillibeer", "Amusement park", "Yorkshire Stingo", "Goldsworthy Gurney", "Trolza", "heritage fleet", "Translohr", "Paddington", "demand responsive transport", "compressed natural gas", "Promotion (marketing)", "visually impaired", "Horsebus", "celebrities", "horse bus", "Pune", "convention (meeting)", "car", "Commuter", "John Greenwood (bus operator)", "Leeds", "internal combustion engine", "Victory parade", "tourist trolley", "Malta bus", "Airside (airport)", "university campus", "Daimler Company", "Locomotive Act 1861", "Manchester", "baby transport", "Bombardier Guided Light Transit", "Iveco Bus", "command post", "Ernst Werner von Siemens", "Party bus", "Dollar van", "Nantes", "van", "United States Secret Service", "London", "Western Front (World War I)", "academic conference", "Wright StreetCar", "World War II", "Ürümqi", "school bus", "excursion", "Gyrobus", "urban planning", "seat belts", "political campaign", "Disability discrimination act", "Bank of England", "Trackless train", "articulated bus", "tour operator", "public transport timetable", "Halensee", "air suspension", "customised buses", "parking lot", "overhead lines", "fair", "multi-axle bus", "Trailer (vehicle)", "not for profit", "wikt:Special:Search/biennial", "audio visual", "Hollywood, Los Angeles", "Used good", "bus driver", "motor vehicle", "Blaise Pascal", "Manchester Carriage and Tramways Company", "turnpike trusts", "health and safety", "Benz Viktoria", "shuttle bus", "Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft", "Canteen (place)", "rail transport", "Confederation of Passenger Transport", "Somers Town, London", "Sheffield", "tow truck", "midibus", "playbus", "Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company", "taxicab", "globalisation", "Scouting", "Charlottenburg", "Guided bus", "Frank Searle (businessman)", "bus lane", "Electromote", "police bus", "National Exhibition Centre", "vinyl (fabric)", "Prisoner transport vehicle", "Mercedes-Benz buses", "decal", "Police department", "tour bus service", "school transport", "Stagecoaches", "double-decker bus", "minibus", "Marylebone Road", "Road (sports)", "Charabanc", "scheduled coach transport", "City Sightseeing", "limousine", "Trade fair", "power steering", "Overhead line", "Royal Society of Arts", "London Buses heritage routes (disambiguation)", "LGOC B-type", "procession", "paratransit", "audio commentary", "Eastern Bloc", "Commercial off-the-shelf", "wheelchair" ]
4,147	Bali	Bali (English:; Balinese: ) is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller offshore islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan to the southeast. The provincial capital, Denpasar, is the most populous city in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the second-largest, after Makassar, in Eastern Indonesia. Denpasar metropolitan area is the extended metropolitan area around Denpasar. The upland town of Ubud in Greater Denpasar is considered Bali's cultural centre. The province is Indonesia's main tourist destination, with a significant rise in tourism since the 1980s, and becoming an Indonesian area of overtourism. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of the Bali economy. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in Coral Triangle, especially fish and turtles. In this area alone, over 500 reef-building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about seven times as many as in the entire Caribbean. Bali is the home of the Subak irrigation system, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, each house ruling a specific geographic area. The confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom. The royal houses, which originated before Dutch colonisation, are not recognised by the government of Indonesia. == History == === Ancient === Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from the island of Taiwan to Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 do not mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Shaivism were practised simultaneously. Mpu Sindok's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001. This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150. Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning Walidwipa. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation. Some religious and cultural traditions still practised today can be traced to this period. The Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384–86. Mass Javanese immigration to Bali occurred in the next century when the Majapahit Empire fell in 1520. === Portuguese contacts === The first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores. It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century travelled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands. Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition. In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung. === Dutch East Indies === In 1597, the Dutch merchant-explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century. Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other. The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who rather than yield to the superior Dutch force committed ritual suicide (puputan) to avoid the humiliation of surrender. In the Dutch intervention in Bali, a similar mass suicide occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung. Afterwards, the Dutch governours exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku. In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here. Their accounts of the island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature". Western tourists began to visit the island. The sensuous image of Bali was enhanced in the West by a quasi-pornographic 1932 documentary Virgins of Bali about a day in the lives of two teenage Balinese girls whom the film's narrator Deane Dickason notes in the first scene "bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies". Under the looser version of the Hays code that existed up to 1934, nudity involving "civilised" (i.e. white) women was banned, but permitted with "uncivilised" (i.e. all non-white women), a loophole that was exploited by the producers of Virgins of Bali. During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, I Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers. === Independence from the Dutch === In 1945, Bali was liberated by the British 5th infantry Division under the command of Major-General Robert Mansergh who took the Japanese surrender. Once Japanese forces had been repatriated the island was handed over to the Dutch the following year. In 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the "Republic of the United States of Indonesia" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949. The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja, was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province. === Contemporary === The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc, and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting this system. Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programmes. On 15–16 November 2022, with the 2022 G20 Bali summit, the seventeenth meeting of the Group of Twenty (G20) was held in Nusa Dua. == Geography == The island of Bali lies east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait. East to west, the island is approximately wide and spans approximately north to south; administratively it covers , or excluding offshore Nusa Penida District, which comprises three small islands off the southeast coast of Bali. Its population density was roughly in mid 2024. Bali's central mountains include several peaks over in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur. The highest is Mount Agung (), known as the "mother mountain", which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years. In late 2017 Mount Agung started erupting and large numbers of people were evacuated, temporarily closing the island's airport. Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee-producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables, and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately (see List of rivers of Bali). The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism. The largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 755,600 (in mid 2024). Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and whose urban area is home to around 150,000 people in 2024. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre. Three small islands lie to the immediate south-east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait. To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan realm and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated. === Climate === Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate all year round. Average year-round temperature stands at around with a humidity level of about 85%. Daytime temperatures at low elevations vary between , but the temperatures decrease significantly with increasing elevation. The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March. During the rainy season, there are comparatively fewer tourists seen in Bali. During the Easter and Christmas holidays, the weather is very unpredictable. Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas. == Flora and Fauna == Bali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok. An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna, which is endemic. Others include barn swallow, black-naped oriole, black racket-tailed treepie, crested serpent-eagle, crested treeswift, dollarbird, Java sparrow, lesser adjutant, long-tailed shrike, milky stork, Pacific swallow, red-rumped swallow, sacred kingfisher, sea eagle, woodswallow, savanna nightjar, stork-billed kingfisher, yellow-vented bulbul and great egret. Until the early 20th century, Bali was possibly home to several large mammals: banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger. The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937 when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s. Pleistocene and Holocene megafaunas include banteng and giant tapir (based on speculations that they might have reached up to the Wallace Line), and rhinoceros. Squirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce kopi luwak. Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining is the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction. They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The crab-eating macaque, known locally as "kera", is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three "monkey forest" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area. They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive and is the Javan langur, locally known as "lutung". They occur in a few places apart from the West Bali National Park. They are born an orange colour, though they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration by their first year. In Java, however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and a mixture of black and orange monkeys can be seen together as a family. Other rarer mammals include the Sunda leopard cat, Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel. Snakes include the king cobra and reticulated python. The water monitor can grow to at least in length and and can move quickly. The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle, giant sunfish, giant manta ray, giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish, hammerhead shark, reef shark, barracuda, and sea snakes. Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina. A team of scientists surveyed from 29 April 2011, to 11 May 2011, at 33 sea sites around Bali. They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa, and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed. The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem Regency. Among the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species. Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance, around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, Kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach. == Environment == Over-exploitation by the tourist industry has led to 200 out of 400 rivers on the island drying up. Research suggests that the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage. To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar. The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013. A 2010 Environment Ministry report on its environmental quality index gave Bali a score of 99.65, which was the highest score of Indonesia's 33 provinces. The score considers the level of total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, and chemical oxygen demand in water. Erosion at Lebih Beach has seen of land lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach. In 2017, a year when Bali received nearly 5.7 million tourists, government officials declared a "garbage emergency" in response to the covering of 3.6-mile stretch of coastline in plastic waste brought in by the tide, amid concerns that the pollution could dissuade visitors from returning. Indonesia is one of the world's worst plastic polluters, with some estimates suggesting the country is the source of around 10 per cent of the world's plastic waste. ==Government== === Politics === In the national legislature, Bali is represented by nine members, with a single electoral district covering the whole province. The Bali Regional House of Representatives, the provincial legislature, has 55 members. The province's politics has historically been dominated by the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which has won by far the most votes in every election in Bali since the first free elections in 1999. === Administrative divisions === The province is divided into eight regencies (kabupaten) and one city (kota); all the regencies were originally inaugurated on 9 August 1958, while the city of Denpasar were created from part of Badung Regency on 15 January 1992. They are tabulated below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and the 2020 census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2024 and the Human Development Index for each regency and city. The province forms one of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to the People's Representative Council. The Bali Electoral District consists of all of the 8 regencies in the province, together with the city of Denpasar, and elects 9 members to the People's Representative Council. == Economy == In the 1970s, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment. Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions. In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related. By the end of June 2011, the rate of non-performing loans of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan rates (about 5%). The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings in 2002 and 2005. The tourism industry has since recovered from these events. === Agriculture === Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer. Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture. The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes. Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of "Tri Hita Karana". According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people, and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a geographical indication. === Tourism === In 1963 the Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno and boosted tourism in Bali. Before the Bali Beach Hotel construction, there were only three significant tourist-class hotels on the island. Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali. Tourism further increased in Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970. The Buleleng regency government encouraged the tourism sector as one of the mainstays for economic progress and social welfare. The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while also significant in the other parts of the island. The prominent tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), Ubud towards the centre of the island, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran and the newer developments of Nusa Dua and Pecatu. The United States government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. The Australian government issued an advisory on Friday, 4 May 2012, with the overall level of this advisory lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'. The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012, because of one tourist who died from methanol poisoning. Australia last issued an advisory on Monday, 5 January 2015, due to new terrorist threats. An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali's real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak, and Oberoi. Most recently, high-end 5-star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the island's south side. Expensive villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, with commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic, many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active, and investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable. In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors with improved value for their currencies. Bali's tourism economy survived the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the long-term trend has been a steady increase in visitor arrivals. In 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists, which surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists. The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65%, so the island still should be able to accommodate tourists for some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels, although at the peak season some of them are fully booked. Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010. Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people. The Balinese culture and its religion are also considered the main factor of the award. One of the most prestigious events that symbolize a strong relationship between a god and its followers is Kecak dance. According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, ranking second after Santorini, Greece. In 2006, Elizabeth Gilbert's memoir Eat, Pray, Love was published, and in August 2010 it was adapted into the film Eat Pray Love. It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach in Bali. Both the book and the film fuelled a boom in tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist centre that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance and love through traditional spirituality and healing. In January 2016, after musician David Bowie died, it was revealed that in his will, Bowie asked for his ashes to be scattered in Bali, conforming to Buddhist rituals. He had visited and performed in several Southeast Asian cities early in his career, including Bangkok and Singapore. Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list while India has also emerged as a greater supply of tourists. Chinese tourists increased by 17% in 2011 from 2010 due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali. In January 2012, Chinese tourists increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% year on year. Bali authorities reported the island had 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists. Based on a Bank Indonesia survey in May 2013, 34.39 per cent of tourists are upper-middle class, spending between $1,286 and $5,592, and are dominated by Australia, India, France, China, Germany and the UK. Some Chinese tourists have increased their levels of spending from previous years. 30.26 per cent of tourists are middle class, spending between $662 and $1,285. In 2017 it was expected that Chinese tourists would outnumber Australian tourists. In January 2020, 10,000 Chinese tourists cancelled trips to Bali due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic travel restrictions, Bali welcomed 1.07 million international travelers in 2020, most of them between January and March, which is -87% compared to 2019. In the first half of 2021, they welcomed 43 international travelers. The pandemic presented a major blow on Bali's tourism-dependent economy. On 3 February 2022, Bali reopened again for the first foreign tourists after 2 years of being closed due to the pandemic. In 2022 Indonesia's Minister of Health, Budi Sadikin, stated that the tourism industry in Bali will be complemented by the medical industry. At the beginning of 2023, the governor of Bali demanded a ban on the use of motorcycles by tourists. This happened after a series of accidents. Wayan Koster proposed to cancel the violators' visas. The move sparked widespread outrage on social media. == Transportation == The Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island. Lt. Col. Wisnu Airfield is in northwest Bali. A coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching 1,750 m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar. Bali has no railway lines. There is a car ferry between Gilimanuk on the west coast of Bali to Ketapang on Java. In December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million. On 17 July 2011, the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour. The current pier is only but will eventually be extended to to accommodate international cruise ships. The harbour is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields. The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation was unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo. A memorandum of understanding was signed by two ministers, Bali's governor and Indonesian Train Company to build of railway along the coast around the island. As of July 2015, no details of these proposed railways have been released. In 2019 it was reported in Gapura Bali that Wayan Koster, governor of Bali, "is keen to improve Bali's transportation infrastructure and is considering plans to build an electric rail network across the island". On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the "Best Port Welcome 2010" award from London's "Dream World Cruise Destination" magazine. Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector. In 2013, The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry advised that 306 cruise liners were scheduled to visit Indonesia, an increase of 43 per cent compared to the previous year. In May 2011, an integrated Area Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters. It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali. On 21 December 2011, construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road, which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles. This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of the shares. PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the toll road (totally with access road). The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million). The project goes through of mangrove forest and through of beach, both within area. The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars that occupied two hectares of mangrove forest. This was compensated by the planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road. On 21 December 2011, the Dewa Ruci underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget. On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road was opened, with the Dewa Ruci Junction underpass being opened previously. To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar, and Tohpati, and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport. == Demographics == The population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 census, and 4,317,404 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2024 was 4,461,260 (comprising 2,222,440 males and 2,210,820 females). In 2021, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism estimated that there were 109,801 foreigners living on Bali, with most originating from Russia, the US, Australia, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, Italy, and the Netherlands. === Ethnic origins === A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Austroasiasic origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, and 2% of likely Melanesian origin. === Caste system === Pre-modern Bali had four castes, as Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis state, but with a "very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence". The four castes have been classified as Sudra (Shudra), Wesia (Vaishyas), Satria (Kshatriyas) and Brahmana (Brahmin). The 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that the Balinese caste system had Indian origins, but Helen Creese states that scholars such as Brumund who had visited and stayed on the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the "received understandings concerning its Indian origins". In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelt Soedra) has typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes. ===Religion=== About 87.91% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (8.10%), Christianity (3.30%), and Buddhism (0.68%) as for 2022.]] The general beliefs and practices of Agama Hindu Dharma mix ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of Pancasila. Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to pray. Indonesian school textbooks describe Hinduism as having one supreme being, Hindus offering three daily mandatory prayers, and Hinduism as having certain common beliefs that in part parallel those of Islam. Some scholars contest whether these Indonesian government recognised and assigned beliefs to reflect the traditional beliefs and practices of Hindus in Indonesia before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule. Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, which arrived through Java. Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. Historical evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India. Java legends refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 AD. Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in Indonesian islands to the 1st century; however, the versions mirror those found in the southeast Indian peninsular region (now Tamil Nadu and southern Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh). Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals. As a result, these Sino-Balinese embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism, and find a way to harmonise it with the local traditions. Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's odalan. Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese. Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards. The Roman Catholic community has a diocese, the Diocese of Denpasar that encompasses the province of Bali and West Nusa Tenggara and has its cathedral located in Denpasar. File:Pura Penataran Lempuyang Bali 492102459.jpg\|Penataran Lempuyang Temple, Gunung Lempuyang, Bali File:DenpasarSt.JosephChurch.JPG\|Saint Joseph's Church, Denpasar File:Chinese temple, Bali.jpg\|Ling Sii Miao Buddhist Temple, Denpasar File:Kuta Bali Indonesia Masjid-Agung-Ibnu-Batutah-02.jpg\|Ibnu Batutah Mosque, Kuta === Language === Balinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. The most common spoken language around the tourist areas is Indonesian, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese, but migrants from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia. The Balinese language is heavily stratified due to the Balinese caste system. Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali, as Hindu literature was mostly written in Sanskrit. English and Chinese are the next most common languages (and the primary foreign languages) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry, as well as the English-speaking community and huge Chinese-Indonesian population. Other foreign languages, such as Japanese, Korean, French, Russian or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists. == Culture == Bali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese cuisine is also distinctive, and unlike the rest of Indonesia, pork is commonly found in Balinese dishes such as Babi Guling. Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as gamelan, is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence. Famous Balinese dances include pendet, legong, baris, topeng, barong, gong kebyar, and kecak (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, and public shows. In 2018 Governor I Wayan Koster issued Bali Governor's Regulation No. 79 of 2018 which mandated that city officials wear traditional Balinese dress, such as that made of songket. This was followed by Circular No. 4 of 2021 which specified the use of Endek fabrics, and was expanded to high-ranking individuals in the private sector and other institutions. === Architecture === Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to one's orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea. Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance, and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the temple's walls and are called bali-balihan. This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience. === Dances === Tourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances that have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for non-ritual performances and an older mask that is only used for sacred performances. The Hindu New Year, Nyepi, is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged (or required) to remain in their hotels. On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of Ogoh-ogoh monsters are paraded and burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese pawukon calendrical system. Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or odalan (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of désa kala patra, which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context. === Tradition === Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied. Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including "kasepekang", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998. One unusual tradition is the naming of children in Bali. In general, Balinese people name their children depending on the order they are born, and the names are the same for both males and females. === Beauty pageant === Bali was the host of Miss World 2013 (63rd edition of the Miss World pageant). It was the first time Indonesia hosted an international beauty pageant. In 2022, Bali also co-hosted Miss Grand International 2022 along with Jakarta, West Java, and Banten. == Sports == Bali is a major world surfing destination with popular breaks dotted across the southern coastline and around the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan. As part of the Coral Triangle, Bali, including Nusa Penida, offers a wide range of dive sites with varying types of reefs, and tropical aquatic life. Bali was the host of 2008 Asian Beach Games. It was the second time Indonesia hosted an Asia-level multi-sport event, after Jakarta held the 1962 Asian Games. In 2023, Bali was the location for a major eSports event, the Dota 2 Bali Major, the third and final Major of the Dota Pro Circuit season. The event was held at the Ayana Estate and the Champa Garden, and it was the first time that a Dota Pro Circuit Major was held in Indonesia. In football, Bali is home to Bali United football club, which plays in Liga 1. The team was relocated from Samarinda, East Kalimantan to Gianyar, Bali. Harbiansyah Hanafiah, the main commissioner of Bali United explained that he changed the name and moved the home base because there was no representative from Bali in the highest football tier in Indonesia. Another reason was due to local fans in Samarinda preferring to support Pusamania Borneo F.C. rather than Persisam. == Heritage sites == In June 2012, Subak, the irrigation system for paddy fields in Jatiluwih, central Bali was listed as a Natural UNESCO World Heritage Site.	[ "Makassar", "French language", "State of East Indonesia", "oleander", "Nymphaeaceae", "Bali United F.C.", "Singapore", "red-rumped swallow", "tourism in indonesia", "List of islands of Indonesia", "Sukarno", "kopi luwak", "Southeast Asian", "Liga 1 (Indonesia)", "organic coffee", "Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Indonesia/Archive 9", "Bali Mandara Toll Road", "Kawi language", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Denpasar", "Balinese Hinduism", "João de Barros", "Pacific swallow", "Seminyak", "salak", "Imperial Japan", "8th parallel south", "Asian water monitor", "Human Development Index", "Madurese people", "Jatiluwih", "New Order (Indonesia)", "Fakfak", "Ethnic groups in Indonesia", "Miguel Covarrubias", "Bangli", "Balinese textiles", "customary law", "Culture of Indonesia", "East Kalimantan", "1962 Asian Games", "Tanah Lot", "Governor of Bali", "sacred kingfisher", "Eat, Pray, Love", "sampan", "Robert Mansergh", "bumphead parrotfish", "Balinese dance", "giant tapir", "Cities of Indonesia", "G20", "Rough Guides", "People's Representative Council", "List of Indonesian provinces by GDP", "Kintamani, Bali", "5th Infantry Division (India)", "coconut", "Indonesian Nationalist Party", "Maritime Southeast Asia", "Jembrana Regency", "Balinese caste system", "Bank Indonesia", "calendar", "black racket-tailed treepie", "Vice Governor of Bali", "giant moray", "Sanur, Bali", "The Malay Archipelago", "David Bowie", "artisan", "Royal Netherlands East Indies Army", "Government of Indonesia", "2008 Asian Beach Games", "Eastern Indonesia", "Austronesian peoples", "Lombok Strait", "Indonesian killings of 1965–66", "Religion in Indonesia", "black giant squirrel", "Klungkung", "Nusa Dua", "Uluwatu", "Russian language", "Karnataka", "Pashupata Shaivism", "Japanese language", "Pusamania Borneo F.C.", "Register (sociolinguistics)", "hawksbill turtle", "Gianyar", "chemical oxygen demand", "Santorini", "Chinese people", "Puja (Hinduism)", "The New York Times", "crested treeswift", "UNESCO World Heritage Site", "Austroasiatic Languages", "great egret", "long-tailed shrike", "bilingual", "Catholic Church in Indonesia", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Amed (Bali)", "TripAdvisor", "Vaishya", "2022 G20 Bali summit", "Ogoh-ogoh", "Ngurah Rai Airport", "Java (island)", "Ramayana", "Balinese people", "volcano", "2008 Bali gubernatorial election", "Dota 2", "78 AD", "hammerhead shark", "List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index", "Menjangan Island", "Grey reef shark", "Bangkok", "king cobra", "batik", "Colin McPhee", "quaternary glaciation", "stork-billed kingfisher", "Dota Pro Circuit", "Udayana Warmadewa", "Jakarta", "pawukon", "UNESCO", "West Nusa Tenggara", "Samarinda", "Tri Hita Karana", "2005 Bali bombings", "Biogeography", "Brahma", "Provinces of Indonesia", "Ubud Writers and Readers Festival", "USD", "legong", "Tamil Nadu", "Gianyar Regency", "Balinese language", "Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle", "Brunei", "savanna nightjar", "barracuda", "Old World monkey", "Islamist", "Woodworking", "Dewa Agung", "Travel and Leisure", "Javan langur", "List of rivers of Bali", "tourism in Indonesia", "wet-field cultivation", "bamboo", "Christianity", "Indonesian Parliament", "Sivaism", "milky stork", "Imperial Japanese Army", "Subak (irrigation)", "Anak Agung Bagus Suteja", "Indonesia", "Singaraja", "banyan", "Hindu temple", "medical tourism", "Airlangga", "isthmus", "Coral Triangle", "Denpasar metropolitan area", "yellow-crested cockatoo", "Amlapura", "Margaret Mead", "Sri Kesari Warmadewa", "German language", "Bhairawa", "mushroom", "Allen & Unwin", "cathedral", "Kaimana", "Balinese Malay", "Java", "Dutch intervention in Bali (1906)", "World Heritage Site", "crested serpent-eagle", "trilingual", "Hays code", "fern", "Nusa Penida", "yellow-vented bulbul", "baris (dance)", "Daily Sabah", "Klungkung Regency", "Eat Pray Love", "Tourism in Indonesia", "Squirrel", "Nusa Ceningan", "Transition to the New Order", "Kshatriya", "Andhra Pradesh", "Chinese Indonesian", "pendet", "biome", "Regencies of Indonesia", "Miss Grand International 2022", "Ngaben", "frangipani", "Gamelan gong kebyar", "wayang", "Bali United", "Megafauna", "Kecak", "Jimbaran", "Mount Agung", "I Nyoman Giri Prasta", "Wayan Koster", "Coffea arabica", "geographical indication", "List of G20 summits", "Tabanan Regency", "Mola mola", "West Bali National Park", "monotheistic religion", "Padangbai", "2005 Bali bombing", "Taiwan", "tamarind", "association football", "endemism", "Purchasing power parity", "Sunda pangolin", "Caribbean", "Bali Arts Festival", "Hinduism", "2002 Bali bombings", "jasmine", "Bali Strait", "Buleleng, Bali", "Lovina", "begonia", "Australasian realm", "Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)", "Oxford University Press", "rose", "topeng", "Y-chromosome", "Wallace Line", "30 September Movement", "Indonesian rupiah", "Hayam Wuruk", "Time in Indonesia", "Pancasila (politics)", "Dutch intervention in Bali (1908)", "hibiscus", "ikat", "pine", "Bedugul", "Buddhist", "tourism industry", "Manta ray", "odalan", "multi-sport event", "Ganapatya", "Badung Regency", "Mahabharata", "Elizabeth Gilbert", "bougainvillea", "Int$", "leopard", "Balinese cuisine", "Indonesian language", "woodswallow", "Francisco Serrão", "Sunda leopard cat", "coconut palms", "Gregory Bateson", "Kuta, Bali", "Mount Batur", "black-naped oriole", "2017–2019 eruptions of Mount Agung", "acacia", "List of Indonesian cities by population", "Sumatra", "Maluku Islands", "Vaishnava", "Sea eagle (bird)", "Brahmin", "Maize", "overtourism", "Tabanan", "Javanese people", "poinsettia", "Bukit Peninsula", "Ayung River", "Bali Aga", "total suspended solids", "Mangupura", "Statistics Indonesia", "diocese", "songket", "Chinese Indonesians", "shunning", "Malaysia", "Halmahera", "God", "equator", "Hinduism in Indonesia", "Lesser Sunda Islands", "Alfred Russel Wallace", "Buddhism", "Bali myna", "caste system", "non-performing loan", "ASEAN–China Free Trade Area", "1999 Indonesian legislative election", "Esports", "coral reefs", "Austronesian people", "water spinach", "Cornelis de Houtman", "Semarapura", "Walter Spies", "ASEAN", "Badung Strait", "Raja Ampat", "Lt. Col. Wisnu Airfield", "Islam", "kecak", "Balinese mythology", "Philippines", "Candidasa", "I Wayan Koster", "reticulated python", "Buleleng Regency", "dissolved oxygen", "Bali Regional House of Representatives", "PT Kereta Api", "dollarbird", "Dutch East India Company", "Australian people", "British Singapore", "crab-eating macaque", "barn swallow", "Oceania", "Dutch East Indies", "Ubud", "Legian", "traffic lights", "Pig roast", "Masceti Beach", "Indomalayan realm", "2002 Bali bombing", "Bodha", "Pacific World", "Mpu Sindok", "Lombok", "Miss World 2013", "European ethnic groups", "Shudra", "Sanskrit", "Bali Kingdom", "banteng", "barong (mythology)", "lesser adjutant", "Routledge", "Padang Padang Beach", "Bali tiger", "I Gusti Ngurah Rai", "Ngurah Rai International Airport", "paddy field", "mangosteen", "Transmigration programme", "fair trade coffee", "Pecatu", "hydrangea", "List of Indonesian provinces by GRP per capita", "Karangasem Regency", "Republic of the United States of Indonesia", "Mahendradatta", "Nusa Lembongan", "Nyepi", "Denpasar", "Nelumbo", "puputan", "black sand", "Melanesians", "Jan Gonda", "Bat", "surfing", "English language", "Tulamben", "Mohammad Hatta", "jackfruit", "Java sparrow", "sea snake", "Bali Nusra Tangi", "rhinoceros", "Will and testament", "Korean language", "Indonesian Communist Party", "kasepekang", "Bangli Regency", "Negara, Bali", "Hindu", "Borneo", "Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group", "Asian palm civet", "Balinese Kshatriya", "Sanur (Bali)", "Music of Bali", "Balinese name", "Majapahit Empire", "gamelan", "aesthetes" ]
4,149	Bulgarian language	Bulgarian (, ; , ) is an Eastern South Slavic language spoken in Southeast Europe, primarily in Bulgaria. It is the language of the Bulgarians. Along with the closely related Macedonian language (collectively forming the East South Slavic languages), it is a member of the Balkan sprachbund and South Slavic dialect continuum of the Indo-European language family. The two languages have several characteristics that set them apart from all other Slavic languages, including the elimination of case declension, the development of a suffixed definite article, and the lack of a verb infinitive. They retain and have further developed the Proto-Slavic verb system (albeit analytically). One such major development is the innovation of evidential verb forms to encode for the source of information: witnessed, inferred, or reported. It is the official language of Bulgaria, and since 2007 has been among the official languages of the European Union. It is also spoken by the Bulgarian historical communities in North Macedonia, Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, Romania, Hungary, Albania and Greece. ==History== One can divide the development of the Bulgarian language into several periods. The Prehistoric period covers the time between the Slavic migration to the eastern Balkans ( 6th century CE) and the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia in 860s. Old Church Slavonic (9th to 11th centuries) a literary norm of the early southern dialect of the Proto-Slavic language from which Bulgarian evolved, also referred to as Old Bulgarian. Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples used this norm when translating the Bible and other liturgical literature from Greek into Slavic. Middle Bulgarian (12th to 15th centuries) – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations occurred. A language of rich literary activity, it served as an official administration language of the Second Bulgarian Empire, Walachia, Moldavia (until the 19th century) and an important language in the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Selim I spoke and used it well. Modern Bulgarian dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar and syntax changes in the 18th and 19th centuries. The present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. The historical development of the Bulgarian language can be described as a transition from a highly synthetic language (Old Bulgarian) to a fusional inflecting synthetic language with some analyticity (Modern Bulgarian) with Middle Bulgarian as a midpoint in this transition. Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing. As Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, the oldest manuscripts initially referred to this language as ѧзꙑкъ словѣньскъ, "the Slavic language". In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was gradually replaced by the name ѧзꙑкъ блъгарьскъ, the "Bulgarian language". In some cases, this name was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. A most notable example of anachronism is the Service of Saint Cyril from Skopje (Скопски миней), a 13th-century Middle Bulgarian manuscript from northern Macedonia according to which St. Cyril preached with "Bulgarian" books among the Moravian Slavs. The first mention of the language as the "Bulgarian language" instead of the "Slavonic language" comes in the work of the Greek clergy of the Archbishopric of Ohrid in the 11th century, for example in the Greek hagiography of Clement of Ohrid by Theophylact of Ohrid (late 11th century). During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Slavonic case system, but preserving the rich verb system (while the development was exactly the opposite in other Slavic languages) and developing a definite article. It was influenced by its non-Slavic neighbors in the Balkan language area (mostly grammatically) and later also by Turkish, which was the official language of the Ottoman Empire, in the form of the Ottoman Turkish language, mostly lexically. The damaskin texts mark the transition from Middle Bulgarian to New Bulgarian, which was standardized in the 19th century. As a national revival occurred toward the end of the period of Ottoman rule (mostly during the 19th century), a modern Bulgarian literary language gradually emerged that drew heavily on Church Slavonic/Old Bulgarian (and to some extent on literary Russian, which had preserved many lexical items from Church Slavonic) and later reduced the number of Turkish and other Balkan loans. Today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter. Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот (turnover, rev), непонятен (incomprehensible), ядро (nucleus) and others. Many other loans from French, English and the classical languages have subsequently entered the language as well. Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, but its pronunciation is in many respects a compromise between East and West Bulgarian (see especially the phonetic sections below). Following the efforts of some figures of the National awakening of Bulgaria (most notably Neofit Rilski and Ivan Bogorov), there had been many attempts to codify a standard Bulgarian language; however, there was much argument surrounding the choice of norms. Between 1835 and 1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and "linguistic chaos" ensued. Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed, and in 1899 the Bulgarian Ministry of Education officially codified where it is used in all spheres of public life. As of 2011, it is spoken as a first language by about 6million people in the country, or about four out of every five Bulgarian citizens. There is also a significant Bulgarian diaspora abroad. One of the main historically established communities are the Bessarabian Bulgarians, whose settlement in the Bessarabia region of nowadays Moldova and Ukraine dates mostly to the early 19th century. There were Bulgarian speakers in Ukraine at the 2001 census, in Moldova as of the 2014 census (of which were habitual users of the language), and presumably a significant proportion of the 13,200 ethnic Bulgarians residing in neighbouring Transnistria in 2016. Another community abroad are the Banat Bulgarians, who migrated in the 17th century to the Banat region now split between Romania, Serbia and Hungary. They speak the Banat Bulgarian dialect, which has had its own written standard and a historically important literary tradition. There are Bulgarian speakers in neighbouring countries as well. The regional dialects of Bulgarian and Macedonian form a dialect continuum, and there is no well-defined boundary where one language ends and the other begins. Within the limits of the Republic of North Macedonia a strong separate Macedonian identity has emerged since the Second World War, even though there still are a small number of citizens who identify their language as Bulgarian. Beyond the borders of North Macedonia, the situation is more fluid, and the pockets of speakers of the related regional dialects in Albania and in Greece variously identify their language as Macedonian or as Bulgarian. In Serbia, there were speakers as of 2011, mainly concentrated in the so-called Western Outlands along the border with Bulgaria. Bulgarian is also spoken in Turkey: natively by Pomaks, and as a second language by many Bulgarian Turks who emigrated from Bulgaria, mostly during the "Big Excursion" of 1989. The language is also represented among the diaspora in Western Europe and North America, which has been steadily growing since the 1990s. Countries with significant numbers of speakers include Germany, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom ( speakers in England and Wales as of 2011), France, the United States, and Canada ( in 2011). ==Dialects== The language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the Proto-Slavic yat vowel (Ѣ). This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgaria's: Western dialects (informally called твърд говор/tvurd govor – "hard speech") the former yat is pronounced "e" in all positions. e.g. млеко (mlekò) – milk, хлеб (hleb) – bread. Eastern dialects (informally called мек говор/mek govor – "soft speech") the former yat alternates between "ya" and "e": it is pronounced "ya" if it is under stress and the next syllable does not contain a front vowel (e or i) – e.g. мляко (mlyàko), хляб (hlyab), and "e" otherwise – e.g. млекар (mlekàr) – milkman, хлебар (hlebàr) – baker. This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have "ya", or a special "open e" sound, in all positions. The literary language norm, which is generally based on the Eastern dialects, also has the Eastern alternating reflex of yat. However, it has not incorporated the general Eastern umlaut of all synchronic or even historic "ya" sounds into "e" before front vowels – e.g. поляна (polyana) vs. полени (poleni) "meadow – meadows" or even жаба (zhaba) vs. жеби (zhebi) "frog – frogs", even though it co-occurs with the yat alternation in almost all Eastern dialects that have it (except a few dialects along the yat border, e.g. in the Pleven region). More examples of the yat umlaut in the literary language are: mlyàko (milk) [n.] → mlekàr (milkman); mlèchen (milky), etc. syàdam (sit) [vb.] → sedàlka (seat); sedàlishte (seat, e.g. of government or institution, butt), etc. svyat (holy) [adj.] → svetètz (saint); svetìlishte (sanctuary), etc. (in this example, ya/e comes not from historical yat but from small yus (ѧ), which normally becomes e in Bulgarian, but the word was influenced by Russian and the yat umlaut) Until 1945, Bulgarian orthography did not reveal this alternation and used the original Old Slavic Cyrillic letter yat (Ѣ), which was commonly called двойно е (dvoyno e) at the time, to express the historical yat vowel or at least root vowels displaying the ya – e alternation. The letter was used in each occurrence of such a root, regardless of the actual pronunciation of the vowel: thus, both mlyako and mlekar were spelled with (Ѣ). Among other things, this was seen as a way to "reconcile" the Western and the Eastern dialects and maintain language unity at a time when much of Bulgaria's Western dialect area was controlled by Serbia and Greece, but there were still hopes and occasional attempts to recover it. With the 1945 orthographic reform, this letter was abolished and the present spelling was introduced, reflecting the alternation in pronunciation. This had implications for some grammatical constructions: The third person plural pronoun and its derivatives. Before 1945 the pronoun "they" was spelled тѣ (tě), and its derivatives took this as the root. After the orthographic change, the pronoun and its derivatives were given an equal share of soft and hard spellings: "they" – те (te) → "them" – тях (tyah); "their(s)" – tehen (masc.); tyahna (fem.); tyahno (neut.); tehni (plur.) adjectives received the same treatment as тѣ: "whole" – tsyal → "the whole...": tseliyat (masc.); tsyalata (fem.); tsyaloto (neut.); tselite (plur.) Sometimes, with the changes, words began to be spelled as other words with different meanings, e.g.: свѣт (svět) – "world" became свят (svyat), spelt and pronounced the same as свят – "holy". тѣ (tě) – "they" became те (te). In spite of the literary norm regarding the yat vowel, many people living in Western Bulgaria, including the capital Sofia, will fail to observe its rules. While the norm requires the realizations vidyal vs. videli (he has seen; they have seen), some natives of Western Bulgaria will preserve their local dialect pronunciation with "e" for all instances of "yat" (e.g. videl, videli). Others, attempting to adhere to the norm, will actually use the "ya" sound even in cases where the standard language has "e" (e.g. vidyal, vidyali). The latter hypercorrection is called свръхякане (svrah-yakane ≈"over-ya-ing"). Shift from to Bulgarian is the only Slavic language whose literary standard does not naturally contain the iotated e (or its variant, e after a palatalized consonant , except in non-Slavic foreign-loaned words). This sound combination is common in all modern Slavic languages (e.g. Czech medvěd "bear", Polish pięć "five", Serbo-Croatian jelen "deer", Ukrainian немає "there is not...", Macedonian пишување "writing", etc.), as well as some Western Bulgarian dialectal forms – e.g. ора̀н'е (standard Bulgarian: оране , "ploughing"), however it is not represented in standard Bulgarian speech or writing. Even where occurs in other Slavic words, in Standard Bulgarian it is usually transcribed and pronounced as pure – e.g. Boris Yeltsin is "Eltsin" (Борис Елцин), Yekaterinburg is "Ekaterinburg" (Екатеринбург) and Sarajevo is "Saraevo" (Сараево), although – because of the stress and the beginning of the word – Jelena Janković is "Yelena Yankovich" (Йелена Янкович). ==Relationship to Macedonian== Until the period immediately following the Second World War, all Bulgarian and the majority of foreign linguists referred to the South Slavic dialect continuum spanning the area of modern Bulgaria, North Macedonia and parts of Northern Greece as a group of Bulgarian dialects. In contrast, Serbian sources tended to label them "south Serbian" dialects. Some local naming conventions included bolgárski, bugárski and so forth. The codifiers of the standard Bulgarian language, however, did not wish to make any allowances for a pluricentric "Bulgaro-Macedonian" compromise. In 1870 Marin Drinov, who played a decisive role in the standardization of the Bulgarian language, rejected the proposal of Parteniy Zografski and Kuzman Shapkarev for a mixed eastern and western Bulgarian/Macedonian foundation of the standard Bulgarian language, stating in his article in the newspaper Makedoniya: "Such an artificial assembly of written language is something impossible, unattainable and never heard of." After 1944 the People's Republic of Bulgaria and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia began a policy of making Macedonia into the connecting link for the establishment of a new Balkan Federative Republic and stimulating here a development of distinct Macedonian consciousness. With the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia as part of the Yugoslav federation, the new authorities also started measures that would overcome the pro-Bulgarian feeling among parts of its population and in 1945 a separate Macedonian language was codified. After 1958, when the pressure from Moscow decreased, Sofia reverted to the view that the Macedonian language did not exist as a separate language. Nowadays, Bulgarian and Greek linguists, as well as some linguists from other countries, still consider the various Macedonian dialects as part of the broader Bulgarian pluricentric dialectal continuum. Outside Bulgaria and Greece, Macedonian is generally considered an autonomous language within the South Slavic dialect continuum. Sociolinguists agree that the question whether Macedonian is a dialect of Bulgarian or a language is a political one and cannot be resolved on a purely linguistic basis, because dialect continua do not allow for either/or judgements. ==Phonology== Bulgarian possesses a phonology similar to that of the rest of the South Slavic languages, notably lacking Serbo-Croatian's phonemic vowel length and tones and alveo-palatal affricates. There is a general dichotomy between Eastern and Western dialects, with Eastern ones featuring consonant palatalization before front vowels ( and ) and substantial vowel reduction of the low vowels , and in unstressed position, sometimes leading to neutralisation between and , and , and and . Both patterns have partial parallels in Russian, leading to partially similar sounds. In turn, the Western dialects generally do not have any allophonic palatalization and exhibit minor, if any, vowel reduction. Standard Bulgarian keeps a middle ground between the macrodialects. It allows palatalizaton only before central and back vowels and only partial reduction of and . Reduction of , consonant palatalisation before front vowels and depalatalization of palatalized consonants before central and back vowels is strongly discouraged and labelled as provincial. Bulgarian has six vowel phonemes, but at least eight distinct phones can be distinguished when reduced allophones are taken into consideration. There is currently no consensus on the number of Bulgarian consonants, with one school of thought advocating for the existence of only 22 consonant phonemes and another one claiming that there are not fewer than 39 consonant phonemes. The main bone of contention is how to treat palatalized consonants: as separate phonemes or as allophones of their respective plain counterparts. The 22-consonant model is based on a general consensus reached by all major Bulgarian linguists in the 1930s and 1940s. In turn, the 39-consonant model was launched in the beginning of the 1950s under the influence of the ideas of Russian linguist Nikolai Trubetzkoy. Despite frequent objections, the support of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences has ensured Trubetzkoy's model virtual monopoly in state-issued phonologies and grammars since the 1960s. However, its reception abroad has been lukewarm, with a number of authors either calling the model into question or outright rejecting it. Thus, the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association only lists 22 consonants in Bulgarian's consonant inventory. ==Alphabet== In 886 AD, the Bulgarian Empire introduced the Glagolitic alphabet which was devised by the Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 850s. The Glagolitic alphabet was gradually superseded in later centuries by the Cyrillic script, developed around the Preslav Literary School, Bulgaria in the late 9th century. Several Cyrillic alphabets with 28 to 44 letters were used in the beginning and the middle of the 19th century during the efforts on the codification of Modern Bulgarian until an alphabet with 32 letters, proposed by Marin Drinov, gained prominence in the 1870s. The alphabet of Marin Drinov was used until the orthographic reform of 1945, when the letters yat (uppercase Ѣ, lowercase ѣ) and big yus (uppercase Ѫ, lowercase ѫ) were removed from its alphabet, reducing the number of letters to 30. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the European Union, following the Latin and Greek scripts. ==Grammar== The parts of speech in Bulgarian are divided in ten types, which are categorized in two broad classes: mutable and immutable. The difference is that mutable parts of speech vary grammatically, whereas the immutable ones do not change, regardless of their use. The five classes of mutables are: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and verbs. Syntactically, the first four of these form the group of the noun or the nominal group. The immutables are: adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles and interjections. Verbs and adverbs form the group of the verb or the verbal group. ===Nominal morphology=== Nouns and adjectives have the categories grammatical gender, number, case (only vocative) and definiteness in Bulgarian. Adjectives and adjectival pronouns agree with nouns in number and gender. Pronouns have gender and number and retain (as in nearly all Indo-European languages) a more significant part of the case system. ====Nominal inflection==== =====Gender===== There are three grammatical genders in Bulgarian: masculine, feminine and neuter. The gender of the noun can largely be inferred from its ending: nouns ending in a consonant ("zero ending") are generally masculine (for example, 'city', 'son', 'man'; those ending in –а/–я (-a/-ya) ( 'woman', 'daughter', 'street') are normally feminine; and nouns ending in –е, –о are almost always neuter ( 'child', 'lake'), as are those rare words (usually loanwords) that end in –и, –у, and –ю ( 'tsunami', 'taboo', 'menu'). Perhaps the most significant exception from the above are the relatively numerous nouns that end in a consonant and yet are feminine: these comprise, firstly, a large group of nouns with zero ending expressing quality, degree or an abstraction, including all nouns ending on –ост/–ест -{ost/est} ( 'wisdom', 'vileness', 'loveliness', 'sickness', 'love'), and secondly, a much smaller group of irregular nouns with zero ending which define tangible objects or concepts ( 'blood', 'bone', 'evening', 'night'). There are also some commonly used words that end in a vowel and yet are masculine: 'father', 'grandfather', / 'uncle', and others. The plural forms of the nouns do not express their gender as clearly as the singular ones, but may also provide some clues to it: the ending (-i) is more likely to be used with a masculine or feminine noun ( 'facts', 'sicknesses'), while one in belongs more often to a neuter noun ( 'lakes'). Also, the plural ending occurs only in masculine nouns. =====Number===== Two numbers are distinguished in Bulgarian–singular and plural. A variety of plural suffixes is used, and the choice between them is partly determined by their ending in singular and partly influenced by gender; in addition, irregular declension and alternative plural forms are common. Words ending in (which are usually feminine) generally have the plural ending , upon dropping of the singular ending. Of nouns ending in a consonant, the feminine ones also use , whereas the masculine ones usually have for polysyllables and for monosyllables (however, exceptions are especially common in this group). Nouns ending in (most of which are neuter) mostly use the suffixes (both of which require the dropping of the singular endings) and . With cardinal numbers and related words such as ('several'), masculine nouns use a special count form in , which stems from the Proto-Slavonic dual: ('two/three chairs') versus ('these chairs'); cf. feminine ('two/three/these books') and neuter ('two/three/these beds'). However, a recently developed language norm requires that count forms should only be used with masculine nouns that do not denote persons. Thus, ('two/three students') is perceived as more correct than , while the distinction is retained in cases such as ('two/three pencils') versus ('these pencils'). =====Case===== Cases exist only in the personal and some other pronouns (as they do in many other modern Indo-European languages), with nominative, accusative, dative and vocative forms. Vestiges are present in a number of phraseological units and sayings. The major exception are vocative forms, which are still in use for masculine (with the endings -е, -о and -ю) and feminine nouns (-[ь/й]о and -е) in the singular. =====Definiteness (article)===== In modern Bulgarian, definiteness is expressed by a definite article which is postfixed to the noun, much like in the Scandinavian languages or Romanian (indefinite: , 'person'; definite: , "the person") or to the first nominal constituent of definite noun phrases (indefinite: , 'a good person'; definite: , "the good person"). There are four singular definite articles. Again, the choice between them is largely determined by the noun's ending in the singular. Nouns that end in a consonant and are masculine use –ът/–ят, when they are grammatical subjects, and –а/–я elsewhere. Nouns that end in a consonant and are feminine, as well as nouns that end in –а/–я (most of which are feminine, too) use –та. Nouns that end in –е/–о use –то. The plural definite article is –те for all nouns except for those whose plural form ends in –а/–я; these get –та instead. When postfixed to adjectives the definite articles are –ят/–я for masculine gender (again, with the longer form being reserved for grammatical subjects), –та for feminine gender, –то for neuter gender, and –те for plural. ====Adjective and numeral inflection==== Both groups agree in gender and number with the noun they are appended to. They may also take the definite article as explained above. ====Pronouns==== Pronouns may vary in gender, number, and definiteness, and are the only parts of speech that have retained case inflections. Three cases are exhibited by some groups of pronouns – nominative, accusative and dative. The distinguishable types of pronouns include the following: personal, relative, reflexive, interrogative, negative, indefinite, summative and possessive. ===Verbal morphology and grammar=== A Bulgarian verb has many distinct forms, as it varies in person, number, voice, aspect, mood, tense and in some cases gender. ====Finite verbal forms==== Finite verbal forms are simple or compound and agree with subjects in person (first, second and third) and number (singular, plural). In addition to that, past compound forms using participles vary in gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and voice (active and passive) as well as aspect (perfective/aorist and imperfective). ====Aspect==== Bulgarian verbs express lexical aspect: perfective verbs signify the completion of the action of the verb and form past perfective (aorist) forms; imperfective ones are neutral with regard to it and form past imperfective forms. Most Bulgarian verbs can be grouped in perfective-imperfective pairs (imperfective/perfective: "come", "arrive"). Perfective verbs can be usually formed from imperfective ones by suffixation or prefixation, but the resultant verb often deviates in meaning from the original. In the pair examples above, aspect is stem-specific and therefore there is no difference in meaning. In Bulgarian, there is also grammatical aspect. Three grammatical aspects are distinguishable: neutral, perfect and pluperfect. The neutral aspect comprises the three simple tenses and the future tense. The pluperfect is manifest in tenses that use double or triple auxiliary "be" participles like the past pluperfect subjunctive. Perfect constructions use a single auxiliary "be". ====Mood==== The traditional interpretation is that in addition to the four moods (наклонения ) shared by most other European languages – indicative (изявително, ) imperative (повелително ), subjunctive ( ) and conditional (условно, ) – in Bulgarian there is one more to describe a general category of unwitnessed events – the inferential (преизказно ) mood. However, most contemporary Bulgarian linguists usually exclude the subjunctive mood and the inferential mood from the list of Bulgarian moods (thus placing the number of Bulgarian moods at a total of 3: indicative, imperative and conditional) and do not consider them to be moods but view them as verbial morphosyntactic constructs or separate gramemes of the verb class. The possible existence of a few other moods has been discussed in the literature. Most Bulgarian school grammars teach the traditional view of 4 Bulgarian moods (as described above, but excluding the subjunctive and including the inferential). ====Tense==== There are three grammatically distinctive positions in time – present, past and future – which combine with aspect and mood to produce a number of formations. Normally, in grammar books these formations are viewed as separate tenses – i. e. "past imperfect" would mean that the verb is in past tense, in the imperfective aspect, and in the indicative mood (since no other mood is shown). There are more than 40 different tenses across Bulgarian's two aspects and five moods. In the indicative mood, there are three simple tenses: Present tense is a temporally unmarked simple form made up of the verbal stem and a complex suffix composed of the thematic vowel , or and the person/number ending (, , "I arrive/I am arriving"); only imperfective verbs can stand in the present indicative tense independently; Past imperfect is a simple verb form used to express an action which is contemporaneous or subordinate to other past actions; it is made up of an imperfective or a perfective verbal stem and the person/number ending ( , , 'I was arriving'); Past aorist is a simple form used to express a temporarily independent, specific past action; it is made up of a perfective or an imperfective verbal stem and the person/number ending (, , 'I arrived', , , 'I read'); In the indicative there are also the following compound tenses: Future tense is a compound form made of the particle and present tense ( , 'I will study'); negation is expressed by the construction and present tense ( , or the old-fashioned form , 'I will not study'); Past future tense is a compound form used to express an action which was to be completed in the past but was future as regards another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect of the verb ('will'), the particle ('to') and the present tense of the verb (e.g. , , 'I was going to study'); Present perfect is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past but is relevant for or related to the present; it is made up of the present tense of the verb съм ('be') and the past participle (e.g. , 'I have studied'); Past perfect is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past and is relative to another past action; it is made up of the past tense of the verb съм and the past participle (e.g. , 'I had studied'); Future perfect is a compound form used to express an action which is to take place in the future before another future action; it is made up of the future tense of the verb съм and the past participle (e.g. , 'I will have studied'); Past future perfect is a compound form used to express a past action which is future with respect to a past action which itself is prior to another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect of , the particle the present tense of the verb съм and the past participle of the verb (e.g. , , 'I would have studied'). The four perfect constructions above can vary in aspect depending on the aspect of the main-verb participle; they are in fact pairs of imperfective and perfective aspects. Verbs in forms using past participles also vary in voice and gender. There is only one simple tense in the imperative mood, the present, and there are simple forms only for the second-person singular, -и/-й (-i, -y/i), and plural, -ете/-йте (-ete, -yte), e.g. уча ('to study'): , sg., , pl.; 'to play': , . There are compound imperative forms for all persons and numbers in the present compound imperative (, ), the present perfect compound imperative (, ) and the rarely used present pluperfect compound imperative (, ). The conditional mood consists of five compound tenses, most of which are not grammatically distinguishable. The present, future and past conditional use a special past form of the stem би- (bi – "be") and the past participle (, , 'I would study'). The past future conditional and the past future perfect conditional coincide in form with the respective indicative tenses. The subjunctive mood is rarely documented as a separate verb form in Bulgarian, (being, morphologically, a sub-instance of the quasi-infinitive construction with the particle да and a normal finite verb form), but nevertheless it is used regularly. The most common form, often mistaken for the present tense, is the present subjunctive ( , 'I had better go'). The difference between the present indicative and the present subjunctive tense is that the subjunctive can be formed by both perfective and imperfective verbs. It has completely replaced the infinitive and the supine from complex expressions (see below). It is also employed to express opinion about possible future events. The past perfect subjunctive ( , 'I'd had better be gone') refers to possible events in the past, which did not take place, and the present pluperfect subjunctive ( ), which may be used about both past and future events arousing feelings of incontinence, suspicion, etc. The inferential mood has five pure tenses. Two of them are simple – past aorist inferential and past imperfect inferential – and are formed by the past participles of perfective and imperfective verbs, respectively. There are also three compound tenses – past future inferential, past future perfect inferential and past perfect inferential. All these tenses' forms are gender-specific in the singular. There are also conditional and compound-imperative crossovers. The existence of inferential forms has been attributed to Turkic influences by most Bulgarian linguists. Morphologically, they are derived from the perfect. ====Non-finite verbal forms==== Bulgarian has the following participles: Present active participle (сегашно деятелно причастие) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffixes –ащ/–ещ/–ящ (четящ, 'reading') and is used only attributively; Present passive participle (сегашно страдателно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffixes -им/аем/уем (четим, 'that can be read, readable'); Past active aorist participle (минало свършено деятелно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffix –л– to perfective stems (чел, '[have] read'); Past active imperfect participle (минало несвършено деятелно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffixes –ел/–ал/–ял to imperfective stems (четял, '[have been] reading'); Past passive aorist participle (минало свършено страдателно причастие) is formed from aorist/perfective stems with the addition of the suffixes -н/–т (прочетен, 'read'; убит', 'killed'); it is used predicatively and attributively; Past passive imperfect participle (минало несвършено страдателно причастие) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffix –н (прочитан, '[been] read'; убиван', '[been] being killed'); it is used predicatively and attributively; Adverbial participle (деепричастие) is usually formed from imperfective present stems with the suffix –(е)йки (четейки, 'while reading'), relates an action contemporaneous with and subordinate to the main verb and is originally a Western Bulgarian form. The participles are inflected by gender, number, and definiteness, and are coordinated with the subject when forming compound tenses (see tenses above). When used in an attributive role, the inflection attributes are coordinated with the noun that is being attributed. ====Reflexive verbs==== Bulgarian uses reflexive verbal forms (i.e. actions which are performed by the agent onto him- or herself) which behave in a similar way as they do in many other Indo-European languages, such as French and Spanish. The reflexive is expressed by the invariable particle se, originally a clitic form of the accusative reflexive pronoun. Thus – miya – I wash, miya se – I wash myself, miesh se – you wash yourself pitam – I ask, pitam se – I ask myself, pitash se – you ask yourself When the action is performed on others, other particles are used, just like in any normal verb, e.g. – miya te – I wash you pitash me – you ask me Sometimes, the reflexive verb form has a similar but not necessarily identical meaning to the non-reflexive verb – kazvam – I say, kazvam se – my name is () vizhdam – I see, vizhdame se – "we see ourselves" or "we meet each other" In other cases, the reflexive verb has a completely different meaning from its non-reflexive counterpart – karam – to drive, karam se – to have a row with someone gotvya – to cook, gotvya se – to get ready smeya – to dare, smeya se – to laugh Indirect actions When the action is performed on an indirect object, the particles change to si and its derivatives – kazvam si – I say to myself, kazvash si – you say to yourself, kazvam ti – I say to you peya si – I am singing to myself, pee si – she is singing to herself, pee mu – she is singing to him gotvya si – I cook for myself, gotvyat si – they cook for themselves, gotvya im – I cook for them In some cases, the particle si is ambiguous between the indirect object and the possessive meaning – miya si ratsete – I wash my hands, miya ti ratsete – I wash your hands pitam si priyatelite – I ask my friends, pitam ti priyatelite – I ask your friends iskam si topkata – I want my ball (back) The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs can lead to significant differences in meaning with minimal change, e.g. – haresvash me – you like me, haresvash mi – I like you (lit. you are pleasing to me) otivam – I am going, otivam si – I am going home The particle si is often used to indicate a more personal relationship to the action, e.g. – haresvam go – I like him, haresvam si go – no precise translation, roughly translates as "he's really close to my heart" stanahme priyateli – we became friends, stanahme si priyateli – same meaning, but sounds friendlier mislya – I am thinking (usually about something serious), mislya si – same meaning, but usually about something personal and/or trivial ===Adverbs=== The most productive way to form adverbs is to derive them from the neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective—e.g. (fast), (hard), (strange)—but adjectives ending in use the masculine singular form (i.e. ending in ), instead—e.g. (heroically), (bravely, like a man), (skillfully). The same pattern is used to form adverbs from the (adjective-like) ordinal numerals, e.g. (firstly), (secondly), (thirdly), and in some cases from (adjective-like) cardinal numerals, e.g. (twice as/double), (three times as), (five times as). The remaining adverbs are formed in ways that are no longer productive in the language. A small number are original (not derived from other words), for example: (here), (there), (inside), (outside), (very/much) etc. The rest are mostly fossilized case forms, such as: Archaic locative forms of some adjectives, e.g. (well), (badly), (too, rather), and nouns (up), (tomorrow), (in the summer), (in winter) Archaic instrumental forms of some adjectives, e.g. (quietly), (furtively), (blindly), and nouns, e.g. (during the day), (during the night), (one next to the other), (spiritually), (in figures), (with words); or verbs: (while running), (while lying), (while standing) Archaic accusative forms of some nouns: (today), (tonight), (in the morning), (in winter) Archaic genitive forms of some nouns: (tonight), (last night), (yesterday) Homonymous and etymologically identical to the feminine singular form of the corresponding adjective used with the definite article: (hard), (gropingly); the same pattern has been applied to some verbs, e.g. (while running), (while lying), (while standing) Derived from cardinal numerals by means of a non-productive suffix: (once), (twice), (thrice) Adverbs can sometimes be reduplicated to emphasize the qualitative or quantitative properties of actions, moods or relations as performed by the subject of the sentence: "" ("rather slowly"), "" ("with great difficulty"), "" ("quite", "thoroughly"). ===Other features=== ====Questions==== Questions in Bulgarian which do not use a question word (such as who? what? etc.) are formed with the particle after the verb; a subject is not necessary, as the verbal conjugation suggests who is performing the action: – 'you are coming'; – 'are you coming?' While the particle generally goes after the verb, it can go after a noun or adjective if a contrast is needed: – 'are you coming with us?'; – 'are you coming with us'? A verb is not always necessary, e.g. when presenting a choice: – 'him?'; – 'the yellow one?' Rhetorical questions can be formed by adding to a question word, thus forming a "double interrogative" – – 'Who?'; – 'I wonder who(?)' The same construction ('no') is an emphasized positive – – 'Who was there?' – – 'Nearly everyone!' (lit. 'I wonder who wasn't there') ====Significant verbs==== =====Be (Съм)===== The verb – 'to be' is also used as an auxiliary for forming the perfect, the passive and the conditional: past tense – – 'I have hit' passive – – 'I am hit' past passive – – 'I was hit' conditional – – 'I would hit' Two alternate forms of exist: – interchangeable with съм in most tenses and moods, but never in the present indicative – e.g. ('I want to be'), ('I will be here'); in the imperative, only бъда is used – ('be here'); – slightly archaic, imperfective form of бъда – e.g. ('he used to get threats'); in contemporary usage, it is mostly used in the negative to mean "ought not", e.g. ('you shouldn't smoke'). =====Will (Ще)===== The impersonal verb () is used to for forming the (positive) future tense: – 'I am going' – 'I will be going' The negative future is formed with the invariable construction (see below): – 'I will not be going' The past tense of this verb – щях is conjugated to form the past conditional ('would have' – again, with да, since it is irrealis): – 'I would have gone;' 'you would have gone' =====Have/Don't have (Имам and нямам)===== The verbs ('to have') and ('to not have'): the third person singular of these two can be used impersonally to mean 'there is/there are' or 'there isn't/aren't any,' e.g. ('there is still time' – compare Spanish hay); ('there is no one there'). The impersonal form няма is used in the negative future – (see ще above). used on its own can mean simply 'I won't' – a simple refusal to a suggestion or instruction. ====Conjunctions and particles==== =====But===== In Bulgarian, there are several conjunctions all translating into English as "but", which are all used in distinct situations. They are (), (), (), (), and () (and () – "however", identical in use to ). While there is some overlapping between their uses, in many cases they are specific. For example, is used for a choice – – "not this one, but that one" (compare Spanish ), while is often used to provide extra information or an opinion – – "I said it, but I was wrong". Meanwhile, provides contrast between two situations, and in some sentences can even be translated as "although", "while" or even "and" – – "I'm working, and he's daydreaming". Very often, different words can be used to alter the emphasis of a sentence – e.g. while and both mean "I smoke, but I shouldn't", the first sounds more like a statement of fact ("...but I mustn't"), while the second feels more like a judgement ("...but I oughtn't"). Similarly, and both mean "I don't want to, but he does", however the first emphasizes the fact that he wants to, while the second emphasizes the wanting rather than the person. is interesting in that, while it feels archaic, it is often used in poetry and frequently in children's stories, since it has quite a moral/ominous feel to it. Some common expressions use these words, and some can be used alone as interjections: () – means "you're wrong to think so". can be tagged onto a sentence to express surprise: – "he's sleeping!" – "you don't say!", "really!" =====Vocative particles===== Bulgarian has several abstract particles which are used to strengthen a statement. These have no precise translation in English. The particles are strictly informal and can even be considered rude by some people and in some situations. They are mostly used at the end of questions or instructions. () – the most common particle. It can be used to strengthen a statement or, sometimes, to indicate derision of an opinion, aided by the tone of voice. (Originally purely masculine, it can now be used towards both men and women.) – tell me (insistence); – is that so? (derisive); – you don't say!. ( – expresses urgency, sometimes pleading. – come on, get up! () (feminine only) – originally simply the feminine counterpart of , but today perceived as rude and derisive (compare the similar evolution of the vocative forms of feminine names). (, masculine), (, feminine) – similar to and , but archaic. Although informal, can sometimes be heard being used by older people. =====Modal particles===== These are "tagged" on to the beginning or end of a sentence to express the mood of the speaker in relation to the situation. They are mostly interrogative or slightly imperative in nature. There is no change in the grammatical mood when these are used (although they may be expressed through different grammatical moods in other languages). () – is a universal affirmative tag, like "isn't it"/"won't you", etc. (it is invariable, like the French ). It can be placed almost anywhere in the sentence, and does not always require a verb: – you are coming, aren't you?; – didn't they want to?; – that one, right?; it can express quite complex thoughts through simple constructions – – "I thought you weren't going to!" or "I thought there weren't any!" (depending on context – the verb presents general negation/lacking, see "nyama", above). () – expresses uncertainty (if in the middle of a clause, can be translated as "whether") – e.g. – "do you think he will come?" () – presents disbelief ~"don't tell me that..." – e.g. – "don't tell me you want to!". It can be used on its own as an interjection – () – expresses wish – – "he will come"; – "may he come". Grammatically, is entirely separate from the verb () – "to wish". () – means "let('s)" – e.g. – "let him come"; when used in the first person, it expresses extreme politeness: – "let us go" (in colloquial situations, , below, is used instead). , as an interjection, can also be used to express judgement or even schadenfreude – – "he deserves it!". =====Intentional particles===== These express intent or desire, perhaps even pleading. They can be seen as a sort of cohortative side to the language. (Since they can be used by themselves, they could even be considered as verbs in their own right.) They are also highly informal. () – "come on", "let's" e.g. – "faster!" () – "let me" – exclusively when asking someone else for something. It can even be used on its own as a request or instruction (depending on the tone used), indicating that the speaker wants to partake in or try whatever the listener is doing. – let me see; or – "let me.../give me..." () (plural ) – can be used to issue a negative instruction – e.g. – "don't come" ( + subjunctive). In some dialects, the construction ( + preterite) is used instead. As an interjection – – "don't!" (See section on imperative mood). These particles can be combined with the vocative particles for greater effect, e.g. (let me see), or even exclusively in combinations with them, with no other elements, e.g. (come on!); (I told you not to!). ====Pronouns of quality==== Bulgarian has several pronouns of quality which have no direct parallels in English – (what sort of); (this sort of); (that sort of – colloq.); (some sort of); (no sort of); (every sort of); and the relative pronoun (the sort of ... that ... ). The adjective ("the same") derives from the same radical. Example phrases include: – "what person?!"; – what sort of person is he? – "I don't know any (people like that)" (lit. "I don't know this sort of (person)") – lit. "some type of people", but the understood meaning is "a bunch of people I don't know" – "all sorts of people" – "which type do you want?"; – "I don't want any!"/"none!" An interesting phenomenon is that these can be strung along one after another in quite long constructions, e.g. An extreme, albeit colloquial, example with almost no intrinsic lexical meaning – yet which is meaningful to the Bulgarian ear – would be : "" inferred translation – "what kind of no-good person is she?" literal translation: "what kind of – is – this one here (she) – this sort of – one – some sort of – no sort of" The subject of the sentence is simply the pronoun "" (lit. "this one here"; colloq. "she"). Another interesting phenomenon that is observed in colloquial speech is the use of (neuter of ) not only as a substitute for an adjective, but also as a substitute for a verb. In that case the base form is used as the third person singular in the present indicative and all other forms are formed by analogy to other verbs in the language. Sometimes the "verb" may even acquire a derivational prefix that changes its meaning. Examples: – I did something to your hat (perhaps: I took your hat) – I did something to my glasses (perhaps: I lost my glasses) – I did something to myself (perhaps: I hurt myself) Another use of in colloquial speech is the word , which can be used as a substitution for a noun, but also, if the speaker does not remember or is not sure how to say something, they might say and then pause to think about it: – and then he [no translation] ... – I ate something of yours (perhaps: I ate your dessert). Here the word is used as a substitution for a noun. As a result of this versatility, the word can readily be used as a euphemism for taboo subjects. It is commonly used to substitute, for example, words relating to reproductive organs or sexual acts: - he [verb] his [noun] in her [noun] Similar "meaningless" expressions are extremely common in spoken Bulgarian, especially when the speaker is finding it difficult to describe or express something. ====Miscellaneous==== The commonly cited phenomenon of Bulgarian people shaking their head for "yes" and nodding for "no" is true, but the shaking and nodding are not identical to the Western gestures. The "nod" for no is actually an upward movement of the head rather than a downward one, while the shaking of the head for yes is not completely horizontal, but also has a slight "wavy" aspect to it. This makes the Bulgarian gestures for yes and no compatible with the Western ones, and allows one to use either system unambiguously. A dental click (similar to the English "tsk") also means "no" (informal), as does ъ-ъ (the only occurrence in Bulgarian of the glottal stop). The two are often said with the upward 'nod'. The head-shaking gesture used to signify "no" in Western Europe may also be used interrogatively, with the meaning of "what is it?" or "what's wrong?". Bulgarian has an extensive vocabulary covering family relationships. The biggest range of words is for uncles and aunts, e.g. chicho (your father's brother), vuicho (your mother's brother), svako (your aunt's husband); an even larger number of synonyms for these three exists in the various dialects of Bulgarian, including kaleko, lelincho, tetin, etc. The words do not only refer to the closest members of the family (such as brat – brother, but batko/bate – older brother, sestra – sister, but kaka – older sister), but extend to its furthest reaches, e.g. badzhanak from Turkish bacanak (the relationship of the husbands of two sisters to each other) and etarva (the relationships of two brothers' wives to each other). For all in-laws, there are specific names, e.g. a woman's husband's brother is her devеr and her husband's sister is her zalva. In the traditional rural extended family before 1900, there existed separate subcategories for different brothers-in-law/sisters-in-law of a woman with regard to their age relative to hers, e.g. instead of simply a dever there could be a braino (older), a draginko (younger), or an ubavenkyo (who is still a child). As with many Slavic languages, the double negative in Bulgarian is grammatically correct, while some forms of it, when used instead of a single negative form, are grammatically incorrect. The following are literal translations of grammatically correct Bulgarian sentences that utilize a double or multiple negation: "Никой никъде никога нищо не е направил." (multiple negation without the use of a compound double negative form, i.e. using a listing of several successive single negation words) – "Nobody never nowhere nothing did not do." (translated as "nobody has ever done anything, anywhere"); "Никога не съм бил там." (double negation without the use of a compound double negative form, i.e. using a listing of several successive single negation words) – I never did not go there ("[I] have never been there"); Никога никакви чувства не съм имал! – I never no feelings had not have! (I have never had any feelings!). The same applies for Macedonian. ==Syntax== Bulgarian employs clitic doubling, mostly for emphatic purposes. For example, the following constructions are common in colloquial Bulgarian: (lit. "I gave it the present to Maria.") (lit. "I gave her it the present to Maria.") The phenomenon is practically obligatory in the spoken language in the case of inversion signalling information structure (in writing, clitic doubling may be skipped in such instances, with a somewhat bookish effect): (lit. "The present [to her] it I-gave to Maria.") (lit. "To Maria to her [it] I-gave the present.") Sometimes, the doubling signals syntactic relations, thus: (lit. "Petar and Ivan them ate the wolves.") Transl.: "Petar and Ivan were eaten by the wolves". This is contrasted with: () Transl.: "Petar and Ivan ate the wolves". In this case, clitic doubling can be a colloquial alternative of the more formal or bookish passive voice, which would be constructed as follows: () Clitic doubling is also fully obligatory, both in the spoken and in the written norm, in clauses including several special expressions that use the short accusative and dative pronouns such as "" (I feel like playing), студено ми е (I am cold), and боли ме ръката (my arm hurts): (lit. "To me to me it-feels-like-sleeping, and to Ivan to him it-feels-like-playing") Transl.: "I feel like sleeping, and Ivan feels like playing." (lit. "To us to us it-is cold, and to you-plur. to you-plur. it-is warm") Transl.: "We are cold, and you are warm." (lit. Ivan him aches the throat, and me me aches the head) Transl.: Ivan has sore throat, and I have a headache. Except the above examples, clitic doubling is considered inappropriate in a formal context. ==Vocabulary== Most of the vocabulary of modern Bulgarian consists of terms inherited from Proto-Slavic and local Bulgarian innovations and formations of those through the mediation of Old and Middle Bulgarian. The native terms in Bulgarian account for 70% to 80% of the lexicon. The remaining 20% to 30% are loanwords from a number of languages, as well as derivations of such words. Bulgarian adopted also a few words of Thracian and Bulgar origin. The languages which have contributed most to Bulgarian as a way of foreign vocabulary borrowings are: Latin 26%, Italian 4%, \| titlebar = #ddd \| bars = }} == Sample text == Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Bulgarian: The romanization of the text into Latin alphabet: Bulgarian pronunciation transliterated in broad IPA: ['fsit͡ʃki 'xɔrɐ sɛ 'raʒdɐt svo'bɔdni i 'ravni po dos'tɔjnstvo i prɐ'va. 'tɛ sɐ nɐdɐ'rɛni s 'razom i 'sɤvɛst i 'slɛdvɐ dɐ sɛ ot'nasjɐt pomɛʒ'du si v 'dux nɐ 'bratstvo.] Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.	[ "case system", "Balkan sprachbund", "Bulgarians in Germany", "Proto-Slavic language", "Unicode", "dual grammatical number", "Pomaks", "conditional mood", "French language", "Makedonia (Bulgarian newspaper)", "South Slavic Languages", "inferential mood", "Polish language", "neutralization (linguistics)", "bg:Борис Елцин", "plural", "Moldavia", "front vowel", "Bulgarians in Spain", "Ottoman Empire", "Walachia", "Iotation", "autonomous language", "Moldova", "glottal stop", "Kosovo", "CLDR", "Macedonia (region)", "Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia", "grammatical gender", "Bulgaria", "Bulgarian diaspora", "bg:Екатеринбург", "Scandinavian languages", "Archbishopric of Ohrid", "Transnistria", "Ottoman Bulgaria", "Jelena Janković", "Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe", "Republic of North Macedonia", "bg:Йелена Янкович", "Moesian dialects", "dialect continuum", "Bulgarians in France", "accession of Bulgaria to the European Union", "Ottoman Turkish language", "Italian language", "Preslav Literary School", "cardinal number", "lexical aspect", "interrogative", "grameme", "Greek language", "Grammatical number", "Swadesh list of Slavic languages", "Banat Bulgarian dialect", "Southwestern Bulgarian dialects", "imperative mood", "Sofia", "Bulgarian National Revival", "dialectal continuum", "First Bulgarian Empire", "classical language", "Ivan Bogorov", "Greece", "Macedonian language", "damaskin", "perfect (grammar)", "Bulgarian grammar", "Romania", "Sarajevo", "Serbo-Croatian", "Institute for Bulgarian Language", "Bulgarian Braille", "Saints Cyril and Methodius", "Theophylact of Ohrid", "manuscript", "Bulgarian etymological dictionary", "yat", "participle", "preterite", "Agent (grammar)", "dental click", "Eastern South Slavic", "evidentiality", "grammatical aspect", "clitic doubling", "Ukraine", "demonstrative pronoun", "Serbia", "Bulgarians in Albania", "Turkish language", "Bible", "South Slavic dialect continuum", "Bulgar language", "Languages of Ukraine", "Abstand and ausbau languages", "Latin script", "Hungary", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Bulgarian Canadians", "Middle Bulgarian", "Northern Greece", "pronoun", "nominative case", "Ukrainian language", "Parteniy Zografski", "European Union", "Turkey", "palatalized consonants", "interjection", "Czech Republic", "Bulgarians in North Macedonia", "Western Outlands", "Bulgarian Turks", "Pluricentric language", "auxiliary verb", "Ashgate Publishing", "Marin Drinov", "grammatical voice", "Balkan language area", "Banat Bulgarian language", "schadenfreude", "accusative case", "Proto-Balto-Slavic language", "Selim I", "grammatical mood", "Pleven", "Diacritic", "Neofit Rilski", "Bulgarians in Romania", "North Macedonia", "International Phonetic Association", "science", "Yekaterinburg", "s:Notes on the Grammar of the Bulgarian language", "Southeast Europe", "Second Bulgarian Empire", "Balto-Slavic languages", "grammatical subject", "thematic vowel", "productivity (linguistics)", "grammatical number", "definite article", "Banat Bulgarians", "Languages of Moldova", "Elias Riggs", "PHOIBLE", "Albania", "First language", "Latin alphabet", "Cyrillic", "Big Excursion", "Bulgarians", "Czech language", "vernacular", "Bulgarian Americans", "dative case", "Bulgarian alphabet", "synthetic language", "Bulgarians in Greece", "Glagolitic alphabet", "Kuzman Shapkarev", "Macedonians (ethnic group)", "indicative mood", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "South Slavic languages", "grammatical case", "Old Bulgarian", "Old Church Slavonic", "Boris Yeltsin", "bg:Сараево", "Nikolai Trubetzkoy", "Slavic languages", "Bulgarians in Italy", "Codification (linguistics)", "Transitional Bulgarian dialects", "reflexive verb", "Greek script", "Bulgarian Academy of Sciences", "Adverbial participle", "cohortative mood", "English language", "People's Republic of Bulgaria", "Romanization of Bulgarian", "Bessarabian Bulgarians", "German language", "Standard language", "present indicative", "Romanian language", "Old Church Slavonic language", "Latin", "Konstantin Josef Jireček", "globalization", "National awakening of Bulgaria", "Cyrillic script", "Languages of Bulgaria", "hypercorrection", "infinitive", "Second World War", "Kinship terminology", "Bulgarian name", "Russian language", "Bulgarians in Hungary", "Arabic language", "grammatical category", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "İzmir", "Balkan Federative Republic", "Second language", "Balkan dialects of Bulgarian", "Bulgarians in Ukraine", "tsunami", "Bessarabia", "Indo-European language family", "Slavic language (Greece)", "subjunctive mood", "Latin language", "Rup dialects", "Linguistic purism", "Proto-Indo-European language", "consonant inventory", "Clement of Ohrid", "yus", "vocative case", "personal pronoun", "Indo-European languages", "Bulgarians in the United Kingdom", "double negative", "Bulgarians in Serbia", "East South Slavic languages", "Torlakian dialect", "Northwestern Bulgarian dialects", "irrealis", "Thracian language", "The BABEL Speech Corpus", "clitic", "Vladimir I. Georgiev" ]
4,153	Bipyramid	In geometry, a bipyramid, dipyramid, or double pyramid is a polyhedron formed by fusing two pyramids together base-to-base. The polygonal base of each pyramid must therefore be the same, and unless otherwise specified the base vertices are usually coplanar and a bipyramid is usually symmetric, meaning the two pyramids are mirror images across their common base plane. When each apex (, the off-base vertices) of the bipyramid is on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through its center, it is a right bipyramid; otherwise it is oblique. When the base is a regular polygon, the bipyramid is also called regular. == Definition and properties == A bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by fusing two pyramids which share the same polygonal base; a pyramid is in turn constructed by connecting each vertex of its base to a single new vertex (the apex) not lying in the plane of the base, for an gonal base forming triangular faces in addition to the base face. An gonal bipyramid thus has faces, edges, and vertices. More generally, a right pyramid is a pyramid where the apices are on the perpendicular line through the centroid of an arbitrary polygon or the incenter of a tangential polygon, depending on the source. Likewise, a right bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by attaching two symmetrical right bipyramid bases; bipyramids whose apices are not on this line are called oblique bipyramids. When the two pyramids are mirror images, the bipyramid is called symmetric. It is called regular if its base is a regular polygon. When the base is a regular polygon and the apices are on the perpendicular line through its center (a regular right bipyramid) then all of its faces are isosceles triangles; sometimes the name bipyramid refers specifically to symmetric regular right bipyramids, Examples of such bipyramids are the triangular bipyramid, octahedron (square bipyramid) and pentagonal bipyramid. If all their edges are equal in length, these shapes consist of equilateral triangle faces, making them deltahedra; the triangular bipyramid and the pentagonal bipyramid are Johnson solids, and the regular octahedron is a Platonic solid. The symmetric regular right bipyramids have prismatic symmetry, with dihedral symmetry group of order : they are unchanged when rotated of a turn around the axis of symmetry, reflected across any plane passing through both apices and a base vertex or both apices and the center of a base edge, or reflected across the mirror plane. Because their faces are transitive under these symmetry transformations, they are isohedral. They are the dual polyhedra of prisms and the prisms are the dual of bipyramids as well; the bipyramids vertices correspond to the faces of the prism, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other, and vice versa. The prisms share the same symmetry as the bipyramids. The regular octahedron is more symmetric still, as its base vertices and apices are indistinguishable and can be exchanged by reflections or rotations; the regular octahedron and its dual, the cube, have octahedral symmetry. The volume of a symmetric bipyramid is \frac{2}{3}Bh, where is the area of the base and the perpendicular distance from the base plane to either apex. In the case of a regular sided polygon with side length and whose altitude is , the volume of such a bipyramid is: \frac{n}{6}hs^2 \cot \frac{\pi}{n}. == Related and other types of bipyramid == === Concave bipyramids === A concave bipyramid has a concave polygon base, and one example is a concave tetragonal bipyramid or an irregular concave octahedron. A bipyramid with an arbitrary polygonal base could be considered a right bipyramid if the apices are on a line perpendicular to the base passing through the base's centroid. === Asymmetric bipyramids === An asymmetric bipyramid has apices which are not mirrored across the base plane; for a right bipyramid this only happens if each apex is a different distance from the base. The dual of an asymmetric right -gonal bipyramid is an -gonal frustum. A regular asymmetric right -gonal bipyramid has symmetry group , of order . === Scalene triangle bipyramids === An isotoxal right (symmetric) di--gonal bipyramid is a right (symmetric) -gonal bipyramid with an isotoxal flat polygon base: its basal vertices are coplanar, but alternate in two radii. All its faces are congruent scalene triangles, and it is isohedral. It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric di--gonal scalenohedron, with an isotoxal flat polygon base. An isotoxal right (symmetric) di--gonal bipyramid has two-fold rotation axes through opposite basal vertices, reflection planes through opposite apical edges, an -fold rotation axis through apices, a reflection plane through base, and an -fold rotation-reflection axis through apices, All its faces are congruent scalene triangles, and it is isohedral. It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric di--gonal bipyramid, with a regular zigzag skew polygon base. A regular right symmetric di--gonal scalenohedron has two-fold rotation axes through opposite basal mid-edges, reflection planes through opposite apical edges, an -fold rotation axis through apices, and a -fold rotation-reflection axis through apices (about which rotations-reflections globally preserve the solid), A regular right symmetric star bipyramid has congruent isosceles triangle faces, and is isohedral. A -bipyramid has Coxeter diagram . == 4-polytopes with bipyramidal cells == The dual of the rectification of each convex regular 4-polytopes is a cell-transitive 4-polytope with bipyramidal cells. In the following: is the apex vertex of the bipyramid; is an equator vertex; is the distance between adjacent vertices on the equator (equal to 1); is the apex-to-equator edge length; is the distance between the apices. The bipyramid 4-polytope will have vertices where the apices of bipyramids meet. It will have vertices where the type vertices of bipyramids meet. bipyramids meet along each type edge. bipyramids meet along each type edge. is the cosine of the dihedral angle along an edge. is the cosine of the dihedral angle along an edge. As cells must fit around an edge, \begin{align} N_\overline{EE} \arccos C_\overline{EE} &\le 2\pi, \\[4pt] N_\overline{AE} \arccos C_\overline{AE} &\le 2\pi. \end{align} ==Other dimensions== A generalized -dimensional "bipyramid" is any -polytope constructed from an -polytope base lying in a hyperplane, with every base vertex connected by an edge to two apex vertices. If the -polytope is a regular polytope and the apices are equidistant from its center along the line perpendicular to the base hyperplane, it will have identical pyramidal facets. A 2-dimensional analog of a right symmetric bipyramid is formed by joining two congruent isosceles triangles base-to-base to form a rhombus. More generally, a kite is a 2-dimensional analog of a (possibly asymmetric) right bipyramid, and any quadrilateral is a 2-dimensional analog of a general bipyramid.	[ "pentagonal bipyramid", "Johnson solid", "Rectified 120-cell", "centroid", "frustum", "hyperplane", "Facet (geometry)", "Radius", "Rectified 5-cell", "Improper rotation", "Equilateral triangle", "convex regular 4-polytope", "VRML", "center of symmetry", "base (geometry)", "Prism (geometry)", "apex (geometry)", "Isosceles triangle", "Skew polygon", "equilateral triangle", "Rectified 24-cell", "polygon", "dihedral angle", "polytope", "Pyramid (geometry)", "disphenoid", "Platonic solid", "Isohedral figure", "Rectified tesseract", "dual polyhedron", "axis of symmetry", "deltahedron", "prismatic symmetry", "4-polytope", "Rotation (mathematics)", "coplanar", "Congruence (geometry)", "mirror image", "Triangular bipyramid", "scalene triangle", "Square bipyramid", "Coxeter–Dynkin diagram", "Coxeter diagram", "square bipyramid", "concave polygon", "regular polygon", "isosceles triangle", "Rectified cubic honeycomb", "rhombus", "Isotoxal figure", "star polygon", "Rectification (geometry)", "dihedral group", "octahedral symmetry", "Dual polyhedron", "kite (geometry)", "Cambridge University Press", "octahedron", "regular octahedron", "inversion symmetry", "tangential polygon", "cube", "Trapezohedron", "vertex (geometry)", "volume", "crystallography", "Pentagrammic bipyramid", "polyhedron", "cell-transitive", "24-cell", "Pentagonal bipyramid", "incenter", "triangular bipyramid", "Rectified 600-cell", "Vertex (geometry)" ]
4,157	Brown University	Brown University is a private Ivy League research university in Providence, Rhode Island, United States. It is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the US, founded in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. One of nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, it was the first US college to codify that admission and instruction of students was to be equal regardless of the religious affiliation of students. The university is home to the oldest applied mathematics program in the country and oldest engineering program in the Ivy League. It was one of the early doctoral-granting institutions in the U.S., adding masters and doctoral studies in 1887. In 1969, it adopted its Open Curriculum after student lobbying, which eliminated mandatory general education distribution requirements. In 1971, Brown's coordinate women's institution, Pembroke College, was fully merged into the university. The university comprises the College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health and the School of Professional Studies. Its international programs are organized through the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, and it is academically affiliated with the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Rhode Island School of Design, which offers undergraduate and graduate dual degree programs. Brown's main campus is in the College Hill neighborhood of Providence. The university is surrounded by a federally listed architectural district with a concentration of Colonial-era buildings. Benefit Street has one of America's richest concentrations of 17th- and 18th-century architecture. Undergraduate admissions are among the most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 5% for the class of 2026. , 11 Nobel Prize winners, 1 Fields Medalist, 7 National Humanities Medalists, and 11 National Medal of Science laureates have been affiliated with Brown as alumni, faculty, or researchers. Alumni also include 27 Pulitzer Prize winners, 21 billionaires, 4 U.S. Secretaries of State, over 100 members of the United States Congress, 58 Rhodes Scholars, 22 MacArthur Genius Fellows, and 38 Olympic medalists. ==History== ===Foundation and charter=== In 1761, three residents of Newport, Rhode Island, drafted a petition to the colony's General Assembly: The three petitioners were Ezra Stiles, pastor of Newport's Second Congregational Church and future president of Yale University; William Ellery Jr., future signer of the United States Declaration of Independence; and Josias Lyndon, future governor of the colony. Stiles and Ellery later served as co-authors of the college's charter two years later. The editor of Stiles's papers observes, "This draft of a petition connects itself with other evidence of Dr. Stiles's project for a Collegiate Institution in Rhode Island, before the charter of what became Brown University." Isaac Backus, a historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural trustee of Brown, wrote of the October 1762 resolution taken at Philadelphia: In September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the corporation—the college's governing body—was held in Newport's Old Colony House. Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, and Thomas Eyres secretary. The charter stipulated that the board of trustees should be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists. Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the college president—"and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations." Other colleges had curricular strictures against opposing doctrines, while Brown's charter asserted, "Sectarian differences of opinions, shall not make any Part of the Public and Classical Instruction." The document additionally "recognized more broadly and fundamentally than any other [university charter] the principle of denominational cooperation." The college was founded as Rhode Island College, at the site of the First Baptist Church in Warren, Rhode Island. Manning was sworn in as the college's first president in 1765 and remained in the role until 1791. In 1766, the college authorized the Reverend Morgan Edwards to travel to Europe to "solicit Benefactions for this Institution". After the college was relocated to the city, work began on constructing its first building. A building committee, organized by the corporation, developed plans for the college's first purpose-built edifice, finalizing a design on February 9, 1770. The subsequent structure, referred to as "The College Edifice" and later as University Hall, may have been modeled on Nassau Hall, built 14 years prior at the College of New Jersey. President Manning, an active member of the building process, was educated at Princeton and might have suggested that Brown's first building resemble that of his alma mater. ====Brown family==== Nicholas Brown, John Brown, Joseph Brown, and Moses Brown were instrumental in moving the college to Providence, constructing its first building, and securing its endowment. Joseph became a professor of natural philosophy at the college; John served as its treasurer from 1775 to 1796; and Nicholas Sr's son Nicholas Brown Jr. succeeded his uncle as treasurer from 1796 to 1825. On September 8, 1803, the corporation voted, "That the donation of $5,000, if made to this College within one Year from the late Commencement, shall entitle the donor to name the College." The following year, the appeal was answered by College Treasurer Nicholas Brown Jr. In a letter dated September 6, 1804, Brown committed "a donation of Five Thousand Dollars to Rhode Island College, to remain in perpetuity as a fund for the establishment of a Professorship of Oratory and Belles Letters." In recognition of the gift, the corporation on the same day voted, "That this College be called and known in all future time by the Name of Brown University." Over the years, the benefactions of Nicholas Brown Jr., totaled nearly $160,000 and included funds for building Hope College (1821–22) and Manning Hall (1834–35). In 1904, the John Carter Brown Library was established as an independently funded research library on Brown's campus; the library's collection was founded on that of John Carter Brown, son of Nicholas Brown Jr. The Brown family was involved in various business ventures in Rhode Island, and accrued wealth both directly and indirectly from the transatlantic slave trade. The family was divided on the issue of slavery. John Brown had defended slavery, while Moses and Nicholas Brown Jr. were fervent abolitionists. In 2003, under the tenure of President Ruth Simmons, the university established a steering committee to investigate these ties of the university to slavery and recommend a strategy to address them. ==== American Revolution ==== With British vessels patrolling Narragansett Bay in the fall of 1776, the college library was moved out of Providence for safekeeping. During the subsequent American Revolutionary War, Brown's University Hall was used to house French and other revolutionary troops led by General George Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau as they waited to commence the march of 1781 that led to the Siege of Yorktown and the Battle of the Chesapeake. This has been celebrated as marking the defeat of the British and the end of the war. The building functioned as barracks and hospital from December 10, 1776, to April 20, 1780, and as a hospital for French troops from June 26, 1780, to May 27, 1782. Two of Brown's founders, William Ellery and Stephen Hopkins signed the Declaration of Independence. James Mitchell Varnum, who graduated from Brown with honors in 1769, served as one of General George Washington's Continental Army brigadier generals and later as major general in command of the entire Rhode Island militia. Varnum is noted as the founder and commander of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, widely regarded as the first Black battalion in U.S. military history. David Howell, who graduated with an A.M. in 1769, served as a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1782 to 1785. ===Presidents=== Nineteen individuals have served as presidents of the university since its founding in 1764. Since 2012, Christina Hull Paxson has served as president. Paxson had previously served as dean of Princeton University's School of Public and International Affairs and chair of Princeton's economics department. Paxson's immediate predecessor, Ruth Simmons, is noted as the first African American president of an Ivy League institution. Other presidents of note include academic, Vartan Gregorian; and philosopher and economist, Francis Wayland. === New Curriculum === In 1966, the first Group Independent Study Project (GISP) at Brown was formed, involving 80 students and 15 professors. The GISP was inspired by student-initiated experimental schools, especially San Francisco State College, and sought ways to "put students at the center of their education" and "teach students how to think rather than just teaching facts". Members of the GISP, Ira Magaziner and Elliot Maxwell published a paper of their findings titled, "Draft of a Working Paper for Education at Brown University." In 1968, university president Ray Heffner established a Special Committee on Curricular Philosophy. Composed of administrators, the committee was tasked with developing specific reforms and producing recommendations. A report, produced by the committee, was presented to the faculty, which voted the New Curriculum into existence on May 7, 1969. Its key features included: Modes of Thought courses for first-year students The introduction of interdisciplinary courses The abandonment of "general education" distribution requirements The Satisfactory/No Credit (S/NC) grading option The ABC/No Credit grading system, which eliminated pluses, minuses, and D's; a grade of "No Credit" (equivalent to F's at other institutions) would not appear on external transcripts. The Modes of Thought course was discontinued early on, but the other elements remain in place. In 2006, the reintroduction of plus/minus grading was proposed in response to concerns regarding grade inflation. The idea was rejected by the College Curriculum Council after canvassing alumni, faculty, and students, including the original authors of the Magaziner-Maxwell Report. ==="Slavery and Justice" report=== In 2003, then-university president Ruth Simmons launched a steering committee to research Brown's eighteenth-century ties to slavery. In October 2006, the committee released a report documenting its findings. Titled "Slavery and Justice", the document detailed the ways in which the university benefited both directly and indirectly from the transatlantic slave trade and the labor of enslaved people. The report also included seven recommendations for how the university should address this legacy. Brown has since completed a number of these recommendations including the establishment of its Center for the Study of Slavery and Justice, the construction of its Slavery Memorial, and the funding of a $10 million permanent endowment for Providence Public Schools. The "Slavery and Justice" report marked the first major effort by an American university to address its ties to slavery and prompted other institutions to undertake similar processes. ==Coat of arms== Brown's coat of arms was created in 1834. The prior year, president Francis Wayland had commissioned a committee to update the school's original seal to match the name the university had adopted in 1804. Central in the coat of arms is a white escutcheon divided into four sectors by a red cross. Within each sector of the coat of arms lies an open book. Above the shield is a crest consisting of the upper half of a sun in splendor among the clouds atop a red and white torse. == Campus == Brown is the largest institutional landowner in Providence, with properties on College Hill and in the Jewelry District. The university was built contemporaneously with the eighteenth and nineteenth-century precincts surrounding it, making Brown's campus tightly integrated into Providence's urban fabric. Among the noted architects who have shaped Brown's campus are McKim, Mead & White, Philip Johnson, Rafael Viñoly, Diller Scofidio + Renfro, and Robert A. M. Stern. === Main campus === Brown's main campus, comprises 235 buildings and in the East Side neighborhood of College Hill. The university's central campus sits on a block bounded by Waterman, Prospect, George, and Thayer Streets; newer buildings extend northward, eastward, and southward. Brown's core, historic campus, constructed primary between 1770 and 1926, is defined by three greens: the Front or Quiet Green, the Middle or College Green, and the Ruth J. Simmons Quadrangle (historically known as Lincoln Field). A brick and wrought-iron fence punctuated by decorative gates and arches traces the block's perimeter. This section of campus is primarily Georgian and Richardsonian Romanesque in its architectural character. A Brown superstition holds that students who walk through the central gate a second time prematurely will not graduate, although walking backward is said to cancel the hex. ===John Hay Library=== The John Hay Library is the second oldest library on campus. Opened in 1910, the library is named for John Hay (class of 1858), private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of State under William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. The construction of the building was funded in large part by Hay's friend, Andrew Carnegie, who contributed half of the $300,000 cost of construction. The John Hay Library serves as the repository of the university's archives, rare books and manuscripts, and special collections. Noteworthy among the latter are the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection (described as "the foremost American collection of material devoted to the history and iconography of soldiers and soldiering"), the Harris Collection of American Poetry and Plays (described as "the largest and most comprehensive collection of its kind in any research library"), the Lownes Collection of the History of Science (described as "one of the three most important private collections of books of science in America"), and the papers of H. P. Lovecraft. The Hay Library is home to one of the broadest collections of incunabula in the Americas, one of Brown's two Shakespeare First Folios, the manuscript of George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, and three books bound in human skin. === John Carter Brown Library === Founded in 1846, the John Carter Brown Library is generally regarded as the world's leading collection of primary historical sources relating to the exploration and colonization of the Americas. While administered and funded separately from the university, the library has been owned by Brown and located on its campus since 1904. The library contains the best preserved of the eleven surviving copies of the Bay Psalm Book—the earliest extant book printed in British North America and the most expensive printed book in the world. Other holdings include a Shakespeare First Folio and the world's largest collection of 16th-century Mexican texts. ===Haffenreffer Museum=== The exhibition galleries of the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown's teaching museum, are located in Manning Hall on the campus's main green. Its one million artifacts, available for research and educational purposes, are located at its Collections Research Center in Bristol, Rhode Island. The museum's goal is to inspire creative and critical thinking about culture by fostering an interdisciplinary understanding of the material world. It provides opportunities for faculty and students to work with collections and the public, teaching through objects and programs in classrooms and exhibitions. The museum sponsors lectures and events in all areas of anthropology and also runs an extensive program of outreach to local schools. === Annmary Brown Memorial === The Annmary Brown Memorial was constructed from 1903 to 1907 by the politician, Civil War veteran, and book collector General Rush Hawkins, as a mausoleum for his wife, Annmary Brown, a member of the Brown family. In addition to its crypt—the final repository for Brown and Hawkins—the Memorial includes works of art from Hawkins's private collection, including paintings by Angelica Kauffman, Peter Paul Rubens, Gilbert Stuart, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Benjamin West, and Eastman Johnson, among others. His collection of over 450 incunabula was relocated to the John Hay Library in 1990. Today the Memorial is home to Brown's Medieval Studies and Renaissance Studies programs. === The Walk === The Walk, a landscaped pedestrian corridor, connects the Pembroke Campus to the main campus. It runs parallel to Thayer Street and serves as a primary axis of campus, extending from Ruth Simmons Quadrangle at its southern terminus to the Meeting Street entrance to the Pembroke Campus at its northern end. The walk is bordered by departmental buildings as well as the Lindemann Performing Arts Center and Granoff Center for the Creative Arts The corridor is home to public art including sculptures by Maya Lin and Tom Friedman. ===Pembroke campus=== The Women's College in Brown University, known as Pembroke College, was founded in October 1891. Upon its 1971 merger with the College of Brown University, Pembroke's campus was absorbed into the larger Brown campus. The Pembroke campus is bordered by Meeting, Brown, Bowen, and Thayer Streets and sits three blocks north of Brown's central campus. The campus is dominated by brick architecture, largely of the Georgian and Victorian styles. The west side of the quadrangle comprises Pembroke Hall (1897), Smith-Buonanno Hall (1907), and Metcalf Hall (1919), while the east side comprises Alumnae Hall (1927) and Miller Hall (1910). The quadrangle culminates on the north with Andrews Hall (1947). East Campus, centered on Hope and Charlesfield streets, originally served as the campus of Bryant University. In 1969, as Bryant was preparing to relocate to Smithfield, Rhode Island, Brown purchased their Providence campus for $5 million. The transaction expanded the Brown campus by and 26 buildings. In 1971, Brown renamed the area East Campus. Today, the area is largely used for dormitories. Thayer Street runs through Brown's main campus. As a commercial corridor frequented by students, Thayer is comparable to Harvard Square or Berkeley's Telegraph Avenue. Wickenden Street, in the adjacent Fox Point neighborhood, is another commercial street similarly popular among students. Built in 1925, Brown Stadium—the home of the school's football team—is located approximately a mile and a half northeast of the university's central campus. Marston Boathouse, the home of Brown's crew teams, lies on the Seekonk River, to the southeast of campus. Brown's sailing teams are based out of the Ted Turner Sailing Pavilion at the Edgewood Yacht Club in adjacent Cranston. Since 2011, Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School has been located in Providence's historic Jewelry District, near the medical campus of Brown's teaching hospitals, Rhode Island Hospital and the Women and Infants Hospital of Rhode Island. Other university facilities, including molecular medicine labs and administrative offices, are likewise located in the area. Brown's School of Public Health occupies a landmark modernist building along the Providence River. Other Brown properties include the Mount Hope Grant in Bristol, Rhode Island, an important Native American site noted as a location of King Philip's War. Brown's Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Collection Research Center, particularly strong in Native American items, is located in the Mount Hope Grant. === Sustainability === Brown has committed to "minimize its energy use, reduce negative environmental impacts, and promote environmental stewardship." Since 2010, the university has required all new buildings meet LEED silver standards. Between 2007 and 2018, Brown reduced its greenhouse emissions by 27 percent; the majority of this reduction is attributable to the university's Thermal Efficiency Project which converted its central heating plant from a steam-powered system to a hot water-powered system. In 2020, Brown announced it had sold 90 percent of its fossil fuel investments as part of a broader divestment from direct investments and managed funds that focus on fossil fuels. In 2021, the university adopted the goal of reducing quantifiable campus emissions by 75 percent by 2025 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2040. Brown is a member of the Ivy Plus Sustainability Consortium, through which it has committed to best-practice sharing and the ongoing exchange of campus sustainability solutions along with other member institutions. According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Brown would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (104) with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (25). ==Academics== ===The College=== Founded in 1764, The College is Brown's oldest school. About 7,200 undergraduate students are enrolled in the college , and 81 concentrations are offered. For the graduating class of 2020, the most popular concentrations were Computer Science, Economics, Biology, History, Applied Mathematics, International Relations, and Political Science. A quarter of Brown undergraduates complete more than one concentration before graduating. If the existing programs do not align with their intended curricular interests, undergraduates may design and pursue independent concentrations. Around 35 percent of undergraduates pursue graduate or professional study immediately, 60 percent within 5 years, and 80 percent within 10 years. For the Class of 2009, 56 percent of all undergraduate alumni have since earned graduate degrees. Among undergraduate alumni who go on to receive graduate degrees, the most common degrees earned are J.D. (16%), M.D. (14%), M.A. (14%), M.Sc. (14%), and Ph.D. (11%). The most common institutions from which undergraduate alumni earn graduate degrees are Brown University, Columbia University, and Harvard University. The highest fields of employment for undergraduate alumni ten years after graduation are education and higher education (15%), medicine (9%), business and finance (9%), law (8%), and computing and technology (7%). The two institutions partner to provide various student-life services and the two student bodies compose a synergy in the College Hill cultural scene. ==== Dual Degree Program ==== After several years of discussion between the two institutions and several students pursuing dual degrees unofficially, Brown and RISD formally established a five-year dual degree program in 2007, with the first class matriculating in the fall of 2008. The Brown\|RISD Dual Degree Program, among the most selective in the country, offered admission to 20 of the 725 applicants for the class entering in autumn 2020, for an acceptance rate of 2.7%. The program combines the complementary strengths of the two institutions, integrating studio art and design at RISD with Brown's academic offerings. Students are admitted to the Dual Degree Program for a course lasting five years and culminating in both the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) or Bachelor of Science (Sc.B.) degree from Brown and the Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.) degree from RISD. Prospective students must apply to the two schools separately and be accepted by separate admissions committees. Their application must then be approved by a third Brown\|RISD joint committee. Admitted students spend the first year in residence at RISD completing its first-year Experimental and Foundation Studies curriculum while taking up to three Brown classes. Students spend their second year in residence at Brown, during which students take mainly Brown courses while starting on their RISD major requirements. In the third, fourth, and fifth years, students can elect to live at either school or off-campus, and course distribution is determined by the requirements of each student's unique combination of Brown concentration and RISD major. Program participants are noted for their creative and original approach to cross-disciplinary opportunities, combining, for example, industrial design with engineering, or anatomical illustration with human biology, or philosophy with sculpture, or architecture with urban studies. An annual "BRDD Exhibition" is a well-publicized and heavily attended event, drawing interest and attendees from the broader world of industry, design, the media, and the fine arts. ==== MADE Program ==== In 2020, the two schools announced the establishment of a new joint Master of Arts in Design Engineering program. Abbreviated as MADE, the program intends to combine RISD's programs in industrial design with Brown's programs in engineering. The program is administered through Brown's School of Engineering and RISD's Architecture and Design Division. ===Theatre and playwriting=== Brown's theatre and playwriting programs are among the best-regarded in the country. Six Brown graduates have received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; Alfred Uhry '58, Lynn Nottage '86, Ayad Akhtar '93, Nilo Cruz '94, Quiara Alegría Hudes '04, and Jackie Sibblies Drury MFA '04. In American Theater magazine's 2009 ranking of the most-produced American plays, Brown graduates occupied four of the top five places—Peter Nachtrieb '97, Rachel Sheinkin '89, Sarah Ruhl '97, and Stephen Karam '02. The undergraduate concentration encompasses programs in theatre history, performance theory, playwriting, dramaturgy, acting, directing, dance, speech, and technical production. Applications for doctoral and master's degree programs are made through the University Graduate School. Master's degrees in acting and directing are pursued in conjunction with the Brown/Trinity Rep MFA program, which partners with the Trinity Repertory Company, a local regional theatre. ===Writing programs=== Writing at Brown—fiction, non-fiction, poetry, playwriting, screenwriting, electronic writing, mixed media, and the undergraduate writing proficiency requirement—is catered for by various centers and degree programs, and a faculty that has long included nationally and internationally known authors. The undergraduate concentration in literary arts offers courses in fiction, poetry, screenwriting, literary hypermedia, and translation. Graduate programs include the fiction and poetry MFA writing programs in the literary arts department and the MFA playwriting program in the theatre arts and performance studies department. The non-fiction writing program is offered in the English department. Screenwriting and cinema narrativity courses are offered in the departments of literary arts and modern culture and media. The undergraduate writing proficiency requirement is supported by the Writing Center. ====Author prizewinners==== Alumni authors take their degrees across the spectrum of degree concentrations, but a gauge of the strength of writing at Brown is the number of major national writing prizes won. To note only winners since the year 2000: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction-winners Jeffrey Eugenides '82 (2003), Marilynne Robinson '66 (2005), and Andrew Sean Greer '92 (2018); British Orange Prize-winners Marilynne Robinson '66 (2009) and Madeline Miller '00 (2012); Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winners Nilo Cruz '94 (2003), Lynn Nottage '86 (twice, 2009, 2017), Quiara Alegría Hudes '04 (2012), Ayad Akhtar '93 (2013), and Jackie Sibblies Drury MFA '04 (2019); Pulitzer Prize for Biography-winners David Kertzer '69 (2015) and Benjamin Moser '98 (2020); Pulitzer Prize for Journalism-winners James Risen '77 (2006), Gareth Cook '91 (2005), Tony Horwitz '80 (1995), Usha Lee McFarling '89 (2007), David Rohde '90 (1996), Kathryn Schulz '96 (2016), and Alissa J. Rubin '80 (2016); Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction-winner James Forman Jr. '88 (2018); Pulitzer Prize for History-winner Marcia Chatelain PhD '08 (2021); Pulitzer Prize for Criticism-winner Salamishah Tillet MAT '97 (2022); and Pulitzer Prize for Poetry-winner Peter Balakian PhD '80 (2016) ===Computer science=== Brown began offering computer science courses through the departments of Economics and Applied Mathematics in 1956 when it acquired an IBM machine. Brown added an IBM 650 in January 1958, the only one of its type between Hartford and Boston. In 1960, Brown opened its first dedicated computer building, the Brown University Computing Laboratory. The facility, designed by Philip Johnson, received an IBM 7070 computer the following year. The first undergraduate Computer Science degrees were awarded in 1974. Brown granted computer sciences full Departmental status in 1979. In 2009, IBM and Brown announced the installation of a supercomputer (by teraflops standards), the most powerful in the southeastern New England region. In the 1960s, Andries van Dam, along with Ted Nelson and Bob Wallace invented The Hypertext Editing Systems, HES and FRESS while at Brown. Nelson coined the word hypertext while Van Dam's students helped originate XML, XSLT, and related Web standards. Among the school's computer science alumni are principal architect of the Classic Mac OS, Andy Hertzfeld; principal architect of the Intel 80386 and Intel 80486 microprocessors, John Crawford; former CEO of Apple, John Sculley; and digital effects programmer Masi Oka. Other alumni include former CS department head at MIT, John Guttag; software-defined networking pioneer Scott Shenker; Workday founder, Aneel Bhusri; MongoDB founder Eliot Horowitz; Figma founders Dylan Field and Evan Wallace (the latter of whom also created esbuild); OpenSea founder Devin Finzer; and Edward D. Lazowska, professor and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Chair emeritus at the University of Washington. Between 2012 and 2018, the number of concentrators in CS tripled. In 2017, computer science overtook economics as the school's most popular undergraduate concentration. === Applied mathematics === Brown's program in applied mathematics was established in 1941 making it the oldest such program in the United States. The division is highly ranked and regarded nationally. Among the 67 recipients of the Timoshenko Medal, 22 have been affiliated with Brown's applied mathematics division as faculty, researchers, or students. === The Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World === Established in 2004, the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World is Brown's interdisciplinary research center for archeology and ancient studies. The institute pursues fieldwork, excavations, regional surveys, and academic study of the archaeology and art of the ancient Mediterranean, Egypt, and Western Asia from the Levant to the Caucasus. The institute has a very active fieldwork profile, with faculty-led excavations and regional surveys presently in Petra (Jordan), Abydos (Egypt), Turkey, Sudan, Italy, Mexico, Guatemala, Montserrat, and Providence. The Joukowsky Institute's faculty includes cross-appointments from the departments of Egyptology, Assyriology, Classics, Anthropology, and History of Art and Architecture. Faculty research and publication areas include Greek and Roman art and architecture, landscape archaeology, urban and religious architecture of the Levant, Roman provincial studies, the Aegean Bronze Age, and the archaeology of the Caucasus. The institute offers visiting teaching appointments and postdoctoral fellowships which have, in recent years, included Near Eastern Archaeology and Art, Classical Archaeology and Art, Islamic Archaeology and Art, and Archaeology and Media Studies. Egyptology and Assyriology Facing the Joukowsky Institute, across the Front Green, is the Department of Egyptology and Assyriology, formed in 2006 by the merger of Brown's departments of Egyptology and History of Mathematics. It is one of only a handful of such departments in the United States. The curricular focus is on three principal areas: Egyptology, Assyriology, and the history of the ancient exact sciences (astronomy, astrology, and mathematics). Many courses in the department are open to all Brown undergraduates without prerequisites and include archaeology, languages, history, and Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions, literature, and science. Students concentrating in the department choose a track of either Egyptology or Assyriology. Graduate-level study comprises three tracks to the doctoral degree: Egyptology, Assyriology, or the History of the Exact Sciences in Antiquity. === The Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs === The Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown's center for the study of global Issues and public affairs, is one of the leading institutes of its type in the country. The institute occupies facilities designed by Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly and Japanese architect Toshiko Mori. The institute was initially endowed by Thomas Watson Jr. (Class of 1937), former Ambassador to the Soviet Union and longtime president of IBM. Institute faculty and faculty emeritus include Italian prime minister and European Commission president Romano Prodi, Brazilian president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Chilean president Ricardo Lagos Escobar, Mexican novelist and statesman Carlos Fuentes, Brazilian statesman and United Nations commission head Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, Indian foreign minister and ambassador to the United States Nirupama Rao, American diplomat and Dayton Peace Accords author Richard Holbrooke (Class of 1962), and Sergei Khrushchev, editor of the papers of his father Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union. The institute's curricular interest is organized into the principal themes of development, security, and governance—with further focuses on globalization, economic uncertainty, security threats, environmental degradation, and poverty. Six Brown undergraduate concentrations are hosted by the Watson Institute: Development Studies, International and Public Affairs, International Relations, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Middle East Studies, Public Policy, and South Asian Studies. Graduate programs offered at the Watson Institute include the Graduate Program in Development (Ph.D.) and the Master of Public Affairs (M.P.A) Program. The institute also offers postdoctoral, professional development, and global outreach programming. In support of these programs, the institute houses various centers, including the Brazil Initiative, Brown-India Initiative, China Initiative, Middle East Studies Center, The Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and the Taubman Center for Public Policy. In recent years, the most internationally cited product of the Watson Institute has been its Costs of War Project, first released in 2011 and continuously updated since. The project comprises a team of economists, anthropologists, political scientists, legal experts, and physicians, and seeks to calculate the economic costs, human casualties, and impact on civil liberties of the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan since 2001. ===The School of Engineering=== Established in 1847, Brown's engineering program is the oldest in the Ivy League and the third oldest civilian engineering program in the country. In 1916, Brown's departments of electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering were merged into a single Division of Engineering. In 2010 the division was elevated to a School of Engineering. Engineering at Brown is especially interdisciplinary. The school is organized without the traditional departments or boundaries found at most schools and follows a model of connectivity between disciplines—including biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, computer science, the humanities, and the social sciences. The school practices an innovative clustering of faculties in which engineers team with non-engineers to bring a convergence of ideas. Student teams have launched two CubeSats with the support of the School of Engineering. Brown Space Engineering developed EQUiSat a 1U satellite, and another interdisciplinary team developed SBUDNIC a 3U satellite. ===IE Brown Executive MBA Dual Degree Program=== Since 2009, Brown has developed an Executive MBA program in conjunction with one of the leading Business Schools in Europe, IE Business School in Madrid. This relationship has since strengthened resulting in both institutions offering a dual degree program. In this partnership, Brown provides its traditional coursework while IE provides most of the business-related subjects making a differentiated alternative program to other Ivy League's EMBAs. The cohort typically consists of 25–30 EMBA candidates from some 20 countries. Classes are held in Providence, Madrid, Cape Town and Online. ===The Pembroke Center=== The Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women was established at Brown in 1981 by Joan Wallach Scott as an interdisciplinary research center on gender. The center is named for Pembroke College, Brown's former women's college, and is affiliated with Brown's Sarah Doyle Women's Center. The Pembroke Center supports Brown's undergraduate concentration in Gender and Sexuality Studies, post-doctoral research fellowships, the annual Pembroke Seminar, and other academic programs. It also manages various collections, archives, and resources, including the Elizabeth Weed Feminist Theory Papers and the Christine Dunlap Farnham Archive. ===The Graduate School=== Brown introduced graduate courses in the 1870s and granted its first advanced degrees in 1888. The university established a Graduate Department in 1903 and a full Graduate School in 1927. With an enrollment of approximately 2,600 students, the school currently offers 33 and 51 master's and doctoral programs, respectively. The school additionally offers a number of fifth-year master's programs. Overall, admission to the Graduate School is most competitive with an acceptance rate averaging at approximately 9 percent in recent years. === Carney Institute for Brain Science === The Robert J. & Nancy D. Carney Institute for Brain Science is Brown's cross-departmental neuroscience research institute. The institute's core focus areas include brain-computer interfaces and computational neuroscience; additional areas of focus include research into mechanisms of cell death with the interest of developing therapies for neurodegenerative diseases. The Carney Institute was founded by John Donoghue in 2009 as the Brown Institute for Brain Science and renamed in 2018 in recognition of a $100 million gift. The donation, one of the largest in the university's history, established the institute as one of the best-endowed university neuroscience programs in the country. ===Alpert Medical School=== Established in 1811, Brown's Alpert Medical School is the fourth oldest medical school in the Ivy League. In January 2007, entrepreneur and philanthropist Warren Alpert donated $100 million to the school. In recognition of the gift, the school's name was changed to the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University. In 2020, U.S. News & World Report ranked Brown's medical school the 9th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.8%. U.S. News ranks the school 38th for research and 35th for primary care. Brown's medical school is known especially for its eight-year Program in Liberal Medical Education (PLME), an eight-year combined baccalaureate-M.D. medical program. Inaugurated in 1984, the program is one of the most selective and renowned programs of its type in the country, offering admission to only 2% of applicants in 2021. Since 1976, the Early Identification Program (EIP) has encouraged Rhode Island residents to pursue careers in medicine by recruiting sophomores from Providence College, Rhode Island College, the University of Rhode Island, and Tougaloo College. In 2004, the school once again began to accept applications from premedical students at other colleges and universities via AMCAS like most other medical schools. The medical school also offers M.D./PhD, M.D./M.P.H. and M.D./M.P.P. dual degree programs. === School of Public Health === Brown's School of Public Health grew out of the Alpert Medical School's Department of Community Health and was officially founded in 2013 as an independent school. The school issues undergraduate (A.B., Sc.B.), graduate (M.P.H., Sc.M., A.M.), doctoral (Ph.D.), and dual-degrees (M.P.H./M.P.A., M.D./M.P.H.). ===Online programs=== The Brown University School of Professional Studies currently offers blended learning Executive master's degrees in Healthcare Leadership, Cyber Security, and Science and Technology Leadership. The master's degrees are designed to help students who have a job and life outside of academia to progress in their respective fields. The students meet in Providence every 6–7 weeks for a weekly seminar each trimester. The university has also invested in MOOC development starting in 2013, when two courses, Archeology's Dirty Little Secrets and The Fiction of Relationship, both of which received thousands of students. However, after a year of courses, the university broke its contract with Coursera and revamped its online persona and MOOC development department. By 2017, the university released new courses on edx, two of which were The Ethics of Memory and Artful Medicine: Art's Power to Enrich Patient Care. In January 2018, Brown published its first "game-ified" course called Fantastic Places, Unhuman Humans: Exploring Humanity Through Literature, which featured out-of-platform games to help learners understand materials, as well as a story-line that immerses users into a fictional world to help characters along their journey. ==Admissions and financial aid== === Undergraduate === Undergraduate admission to Brown University is considered "most selective" by U.S. News & World Report. For the undergraduate class of 2026, Brown received 50,649 applications—the largest applicant pool in the university's history and a 9% increase from the prior year. Of these applicants, 2,560 were admitted for an acceptance rate of 5.0%, the lowest in the university's history. In 2021, the university reported a yield rate of 69%. For the academic year 2019–20 the university received 2,030 transfer applications, of which 5.8% were accepted. Brown's admissions policy is currently stipulated need-blind for all domestic first-year applicants, but will be extended to international first-year applicants starting with the Class of 2029. In 2017, Brown announced that loans would be eliminated from all undergraduate financial aid awards starting in 2018–2019, as part of a new $30 million campaign called the Brown Promise. In 2016–17, the university awarded need-based scholarships worth $120.5 million. The average need-based award for the class of 2020 was $47,940. === Graduate === In 2017, the Graduate School accepted 11% of 9,215 applicants. In 2021, Brown received a record 948 applications for roughly 90 spots in its Master of Public Health Degree. In 2020, U.S. News ranked Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School the 9th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.8 percent. ==Rankings== ===Campus safety=== In 2014, Brown tied with the University of Connecticut for the highest number of reported rapes in the nation, with its "total of reports of rape" on their main campus standing at 43. However, such rankings have been criticized for failing to account for how different campus environments can encourage or discourage individuals from reporting sexual assault cases, thereby affecting the number of reported rapes. ===Spring weekend=== Established in 1950, Spring Weekend is an annual spring music festival for students. Historical performers at the festival have included Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Ray Charles, Bob Dylan, Janis Joplin, Bruce Springsteen, and U2. More recent headliners include Kendrick Lamar, Young Thug, Daniel Caesar, Anderson .Paak, Mitski, Aminé, and Mac DeMarco. Since 1960, Spring Weekend has been organized by the student-run Brown Concert Agency. === Residential and Greek societies === Approximately 12 percent of Brown students participate in Greek Life. The university recognizes thirteen active Greek organizations. Since the early 1950s, all Greek organizations on campus have been located in Wriston Quadrangle. === Societies and clubs === The earliest societies at Brown were devoted to oration and debate. The Pronouncing Society is mentioned in the diary of Solomon Drowne, class of 1773, who was voted its president in 1771. Older societies generally aligned with Federalists while younger societies generally leaned Republican. The 2023 LGBTQ+ self-identification level was an increase, up from 14% LGBT identification in 2010. The center houses various programs for students to share their knowledge and engage in discussion. Programs include the Third World Transition Program, the Minority Peer Counselor Program, the Heritage Series, and other student-led initiatives. Additionally, the BCSC hopes to foster community among the students it serves by providing spaces for students to meet and study. The Sarah Doyle Women's Center aims to provide a space for members of the Brown community to examine and explore issues surrounding gender. The center was named after one of the first women to attend Brown, Sarah Doyle. The center emphasizes intersectionality in its conversations on gender, encouraging people to see gender as present and relevant in various aspects of life. The center hosts programs and workshops in order to facilitate dialogue and provide resources for students, faculty, and staff. Other centers include the LGBTQ Center, the Undocumented, First-Generation College and Low-Income Student (U-FLi) Center, and the Curricular Resource Center. === Activism === ====1968 Black Student Walkout==== On December 5, 1968, several Black women from Pembroke College initiated a walkout in protest of an atmosphere at the colleges described by Black students as a "stifling, frustrating, [and] degrading place for Black students" after feeling the colleges were non-responsive to their concerns. In total, 65 Black students participated in the walkout. Their principal demand was to increase Black student enrollment to 11% of the student populace, in an attempt to match that of the proportion in the US. This ultimately resulted in a 300% increase in Black enrollment the following year, but some demands have yet to be met. ====Divestment from South Africa==== In the mid-1980s, under student pressure, the university divested from certain companies involved in South Africa. Some students were still unsatisfied with partial divestment and began a fast in Manning Chapel and the university disenrolled them. In April 1987, "dozens" of students interrupted a university corporation meeting, leading to 20 being put on probation. ====Protest of speech by NYPD Commissioner Ray Kelly==== In 2013, students and Providence community members protested and disrupted a speech by then-NYPD Commissioner Raymond Kelly. The incident was cited by Greg Lukianoff, president of the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, as a high-profile example of a form of student protest questioning conceptions of free speech. The incident was also the subject of a short critical documentary in 2016 by Brown alumnus Rob Montz. ==== Israel-Gaza protests ==== In early November 2023, twenty students of Jewish background staged a sit in at University hall, resulting in their arrests. The students were protesting the Gaza war and calling for a ceasefire, as well as for the university to divest from companies that "facilitate the 'Israeli military occupation' in Gaza." In early December 2023, forty-one more students held a sit-in with similar demands, resulting in more arrests by the university. Nineteen students participated in an eight-day hunger strike preceding a corporation meeting in early February 2024 with the demand to present their case to corporation members. ==Athletics== Brown is a member of the Ivy League athletic conference, which is categorized as a Division I (top-level) conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The Brown Bears has one of the largest university sports programs in the United States, sponsoring 32 varsity intercollegiate teams. Brown's athletic program is one of the U.S. News & World Report top 20—the "College Sports Honor Roll"—based on breadth of the program and athletes' graduation rates. Brown's newest varsity team is women's rugby, promoted from club-sport status in 2014. Brown women's rowing has won 7 national titles between 1999 and 2011. Brown men's rowing perennially finishes in the top 5 in the nation, most recently winning silver, bronze, and silver in the national championship races of 2012, 2013, and 2014. The men's and women's crews have also won championship trophies at the Henley Royal Regatta and the Henley Women's Regatta. Brown's men's soccer is consistently ranked in the top 20 and has won 18 Ivy League titles overall; recent soccer graduates play professionally in Major League Soccer and overseas. Brown football, under its most successful coach historically, Phil Estes, won Ivy League championships in 1999, 2005, and 2008. high-profile alumni of the football program include former Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien; former Penn State football coach Joe Paterno, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman, and Pollard Award namesake Fritz Pollard. Brown women's gymnastics won the Ivy League tournament in 2013 and 2014. The Brown women's sailing team has won 5 national championships, most recently in 2019 while the coed sailing team won 2 national championships in 1942 and 1948. Both teams are consistency ranked in the top 10 in the nation. The first intercollegiate ice hockey game in America was played between Brown and Harvard on January 19, 1898. The first university rowing regatta larger than a dual-meet was held between Brown, Harvard, and Yale at Lake Quinsigamond in Massachusetts on July 26, 1859. ==Notable people== === Alumni === Alumni in politics and government include U.S. Secretary of State John Hay (1852), U.S. Secretary of State and U.S. Attorney General Richard Olney (1856), Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes (1881), Governor of Wyoming Territory and Nebraska Governor John Milton Thayer (1841), Rhode Island Governor Augustus Bourn (1855), Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal '92, U.S. Senator Maggie Hassan '80 of New Hampshire, Delaware Governor Jack Markell '82, Rhode Island Representative David Cicilline '83, Minnesota Representative Dean Phillips '91, 2020 Presidential candidate and entrepreneur Andrew Yang '96, DNC Chair Tom Perez '83, diplomat Richard Holbrooke '62, and career United States diplomat W. Stuart Symington '74. Prominent alumni in business and finance include philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1897), managing director of McKinsey & Company and "father of modern management consulting" Marvin Bower '25, former Chair of the Federal Reserve and current U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Janet Yellen '67, World Bank President Jim Yong Kim '82, Bank of America CEO Brian Moynihan '81, CNN founder Ted Turner '60, IBM chairman and CEO Thomas Watson Jr. '37, co-founder of Starwood Capital Group Barry Sternlicht '82, Apple Inc. CEO John Sculley '61, Blackberry Ltd. CEO John S. Chen '78, Facebook CFO David Ebersman '91, and Uber CEO Dara Khosrowshahi '91. Companies founded by Brown alumni include CNN,The Wall Street Journal, Searchlight Pictures, Netgear, W Hotels, Workday, Warby Parker, Casper, Figma, ZipRecruiter, and Cards Against Humanity. Alumni in the arts and media include actors Emma Watson '14, John Krasinski '01, Daveed Diggs '04, Julie Bowen '91, Tracee Ellis Ross '94, and Jessica Capshaw '98; NPR program host Ira Glass '82; singer-composer Mary Chapin Carpenter '81; humorist and Marx Brothers screenwriter S. J. Perelman '25; novelists Nathanael West '24, Jeffrey Eugenides '83, Edwidge Danticat (MFA '93), and Marilynne Robinson '66; and composer and synthesizer pioneer Wendy Carlos '62, journalist James Risen '77; political pundit Mara Liasson; MSNBC hosts Alex Wagner '99 and Chris Hayes '01; New York Times publisher A. G. Sulzberger '03, and magazine editor John F. Kennedy Jr. '83. Important figures in the history of education include the father of American public school education Horace Mann (1819), civil libertarian and Amherst College president Alexander Meiklejohn, first president of the University of South Carolina Jonathan Maxcy (1787), Bates College founder Oren B. Cheney (1836), University of Michigan president (1871–1909) James Burrill Angell (1849), University of California president (1899–1919) Benjamin Ide Wheeler (1875), and Morehouse College's first African-American president John Hope (1894). Alumni in the computer sciences and industry include architect of Intel 386, 486, and Pentium microprocessors John H. Crawford '75, inventor of the first silicon transistor Gordon Kidd Teal '31, MongoDB founder Eliot Horowitz '03, Figma founder Dylan Field, and Macintosh developer Andy Hertzfeld '75. Other notable alumni include "Lafayette of the Greek Revolution" and its historian Samuel Gridley Howe (1821), NASA head during first seven Apollo missions Thomas O. Paine '42, sportscaster Chris Berman '77, Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien '92, 2018 Miss America Cara Mund '16, Penn State football coach Joe Paterno '50, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman '91, distinguished professor of law Cortney Lollar '97, Former SEC Commissioner Annette Nazareth ‘78, Olympic and world champion triathlete Joanna Zeiger, royals and nobles such as Prince Rahim Aga Khan, Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Princess Leila Pahlavi of Iran '92, Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark, Prince Nikita Romanov, Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark, Prince Jaime of Bourbon-Parma, Duke of San Jaime and Count of Bardi, Prince Ra'ad bin Zeid, Lady Gabriella Windsor, Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg, Countess Cosima von Bülow Pavoncelli, and her half-brother Prince Alexander-Georg von Auersperg. Nobel Laureate alumni include humanitarian Jerry White '87 (Peace, 1997), biologist Craig Mello '82 (Physiology or Medicine, 2006), economist Guido Imbens (AM '89, PhD '91; Economic Sciences, 2021), and economist Douglas Diamond '75 (Economic Sciences, 2022). File:Southworth and Hawes - Horace Mann (Zeno Fotografie) (cropped).jpg\|Horace Mann, class of 1819, regarded as the father of American public education File:John Hay, bw photo portrait, 1897.jpg\|John Hay, class of 1858, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and U.S. Secretary of State File:Charles Evans Hughes cph.3b15401.jpg\|Charles Evans Hughes, class of 1881, Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State File:John D. Rockefeller Jr. cph.3a03736 (cropped).jpg\|John D. Rockefeller Jr., class of 1897, philanthropist and developer of Rockefeller Center File:ThomasJWatsonJr.jpg\|Thomas J. Watson Jr., class of 1937, president and CEO of IBM and 16th U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union File:Lois Lowry author 2014 (cropped).jpg\|Lois Lowry, class of 1958, Newbery Medal-winning author of The Giver and Number the Stars File:Ted Turner.jpg\|Ted Turner, class of 1960, founder of CNN, TBS, and WCW and philanthropist File:John Sculley 2006 (closeup).jpg\|John Sculley, class of 1961, former CEO of Apple Inc. and president of PepsiCo File:Janet Yellen official Federal Reserve portrait.jpg\|Janet Yellen, class of 1967, the first woman to serve as Chair of the Federal Reserve and U.S. Secretary of the Treasury File:Andre Leon Talley at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival (cropped).jpg\|André Leon Talley, class of 1972, former editor-at-large and creative director of Vogue File:Brian Moynihan FT CNBC Nightcap.jpg\|Brian Moynihan, class of 1981, chairman and CEO of Bank of America File:Ira Glass at the 73rd Annual Peabody Awards ii (cropped).jpg\|Ira Glass, class of 1982, radio personality and host of This American Life File:Jim Yong Kim 2015.jpg\|Jim Yong Kim, class of 1982, 12th Pres. of the World Bank, 17th Pres. of Dartmouth File:John Kennedy Jr 1997 (cropped).jpg\|John F. Kennedy Jr., class of 1983, lawyer, journalist, and magazine publisher File:Laura Linney 2016 (cropped).jpg\|Laura Linney, class of 1986, actress, recipient of 4 Emmy Awards and 3 time Oscar nominee File:DavisGuggenheimJI1 (cropped).jpg\|Davis Guggenheim, class of 1986, Oscar-winning documentary filmmaker File:Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Jason Winer, Horace Newcomb and Julie Bowen, May 2010 (1) (cropped).jpg\|Julie Bowen, class of 1991, actress, six time Emmy Award nominee File:Conférence de Dara Khosrowshahi, CEO d’UBER à l'Ecole polytechnique en date du 24052018 (28529262558) (cropped, close up).jpg\|Dara Khosrowshahi, class of 1991, CEO of Uber, former CEO of Expedia Group File:TraceeEllisRossbyErikMelvin (1).jpg\|Tracee Ellis Ross, class of 1994, actress, model, comedienne, and television host File:Andrew Yang by Gage Skidmore.jpg\|Andrew Yang, class of 1996, businessman and U.S. presidential candidate File:MSNBC host Chris Hayes (8024131849) (cropped, closeup).jpg\|Chris Hayes, class of 2001, political commentator and host of All In with Chris Hayes File:John Krasinski and Josh Wood (cropped).jpg\|John Krasinski, class of 2001, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter File:Knight Foundation, A.G. Sulzberger 3 (cropped closeup).jpg\|A. G. Sulzberger, class of 2003, publisher of The New York Times === Faculty === Among Brown's past and present faculty are seven Nobel Laureates: Lars Onsager (Chemistry, 1968), Leon Cooper (Physics, 1972), George Snell (Physiology or Medicine, 1980), George Stigler (Economic Sciences, 1982), Henry David Abraham (Peace, 1985), Vernon L. Smith (Economic Sciences, 2002), and J. Michael Kosterlitz (Physics, 2016). Notable past and present faculty include biologists Anne Fausto-Sterling (Ph.D. 1970) and Kenneth R. Miller (Sc.B. 1970); computer scientists Robert Sedgewick and Andries van Dam; economists Hyman Minsky, Glenn Loury, George Stigler, Mark Blyth, and Emily Oster; historians Gordon S. Wood and Joan Wallach Scott; mathematicians David Gale, David Mumford, Mary Cartwright, and Solomon Lefschetz; physicists Sylvester James Gates and Gerald Guralnik. Faculty in literature include Chinua Achebe, Ama Ata Aidoo, Julio Ortega, and Carlos Fuentes. Among Brown's faculty and fellows in political science, and public affairs are the former prime minister of Italy and former EU chief, Romano Prodi; former president of Brazil, Fernando Cardoso; former president of Chile, Ricardo Lagos; and son of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, Sergei Khrushchev. Other faculty include philosopher Martha Nussbaum, author Ibram X. Kendi, and public health doctor Ashish Jha. ===In popular culture=== Mentions of Brown in fiction and popular culture include the following. Family Guy character Brian Griffin is a Brown alumnus. The O.C.s main character Seth Cohen is denied acceptance to Brown while his girlfriend Summer Roberts is accepted.	[ "George Washington", "John D. Rockefeller Jr.", "Congress of the Confederation", "Narragansett Bay", "Sarah Doyle", "Mary Chapin Carpenter", "Craig Mello", "European colonization of the Americas", "Davis Guggenheim", "Madrid", "Pulitzer Prize for Poetry", "Sarah Ruhl", "Jessica Capshaw", "Joanna Scott", "Intel 80386", "Libertarianism", "Renaissance studies", "Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence", "Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs", "Wendy Carlos", "carbon neutrality", "Barry Sternlicht", "Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design", "Greek Revival architecture", "Joanna Zeiger", "Moses Brown", "IE Business School", "John Krasinski", "Montserrat", "University of Washington", "Petra", "Akash Ambani", "MOOC", "Paul Kazarian", "Strait Talk", "Bryant University", "National Science Foundation", "Philadelphia", "Alex Wagner", "Lars Onsager", "Caucasus", "EdX", "Donald Kagan", "Victorian architecture", "Ashish Jha", "Harvard Medical School", "Andries van Dam", "Edwidge Danticat", "William Ellery", "Chad Brown (minister)", "University of South Carolina", "Baptists", "Harvard University", "United States Congress", "Fulbright Program", "Philip Johnson", "Aneel Bhusri", "İpek Kıraç", "Andrew Yang", "Henry David Abraham", "Economic diversity", "Huajian Gao", "Curriculum", "Dean Phillips", "S. J. Perelman", "Christina Paxson", "Ayad Akhtar", "Joseph Brown (astronomer)", "Morehouse College", "Pulitzer Prize for Drama", "NCAA Division I", "Columbia University", "Production Workshop", "Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography", "James Risen", "brigadier general", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Higher education accreditation in the United States", "Robert McMeeking", "president of Brazil", "Gaza war", "Edmund Morgan (historian)", "Vartan Gregorian", "Diller Scofidio + Renfro", "W Hotels", "John Milton Thayer", "Georgian architecture", "List of presidents of Yale University", "Emmy Award", "United States Secretary of State", "Nicholas Brown Sr.", "Protest of Ray Kelly at Brown University", "The Brown Noser", "Chia-Chiao Lin", "Academy Awards", "College Hill, Providence, Rhode Island", "Richard Olney", "Salamishah Tillet", "Coat of arms of Brown University", "University Hall (Brown University)", "Mac DeMarco", "African-American", "Newbery Medal", "Raymond Kelly", "Gordon Kidd Teal", "United States Attorney General", "W. Stuart Symington (diplomat)", "Fox Point, Providence, Rhode Island", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Mary Cartwright", "Ancient Mesopotamian religion", "World Championship Wrestling", "Brown University Rowing", "Edward D. Lazowska", "Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction", "College of Brown University", "Young Thug", "Albert E. Green", "List of Brown University faculty", "Meehan Auditorium", "Comte de Rochambeau", "FRESS", "Brown International Organization", "Lindemann Performing Arts Center", "East Side, Providence, Rhode Island", "Washington Monthly", "Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education", "Prince Alexander-Georg von Auersperg", "Old Colony House", "Venetian Gothic architecture", "Albany Congress", "Guido Imbens", "John Crawford (engineer)", "Chair of the Federal Reserve", "Ivy League", "Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons", "Chinese Students and Scholars Association", "Yale University", "James Manning (minister)", "Telegraph Avenue", "Douglas Diamond", "Tony Horwitz", "All In with Chris Hayes", "Clarke Street Meeting House", "Nobel Prize in Chemistry", "Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences", "Anderson .Paak", "John Carter Brown Library", "Continental Army", "Master of Public Policy", "Jabberwocks", "Brian Moynihan", "Jonathan M. Nelson", "Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein", "List of colonial colleges", "The New York Times", "Alan Needleman", "John W. Heisman", "The Giver", "Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)", "New England Intercollegiate Sailing Association", "John Guttag", "Andy Hertzfeld", "Rhode Island Hospital", "University of Rhode Island", "Church of England", "Searchlight Pictures", "Gilbert Stuart", "Figma (software)", "John Hope (educator)", "List of Brown University alumni", "David Cicilline", "John H. Crawford", "Hillel Poritsky", "List of governors of Wyoming", "List of governors of Delaware", "Devin Finzer", "OpenSea", "Hyman Minsky", "Premier of the Soviet Union", "Pembroke College in Brown University", "William Seeley (neurologist)", "Nathanael West", "Program in Liberal Medical Education", "Richard Holbrooke", "need-blind", "Atlantic slave trade", "Glenn Creamer", "Nilo Cruz", "Societas Domi Pacificae", "Princeton University", "Harvard Square", "Benjamin Ide Wheeler", "Morgan Edwards", "Chris Hayes", "Number the Stars", "Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World", "U.S. News & World Report", "The Brown Spectator", "Brian Griffin", "Brown Journal of World Affairs", "Iraq War", "Ivy Film Festival", "Open Curriculum (Brown University)", "United States Secretary of the Treasury", "Perry and Marty Granoff Center for the Creative Arts", "Cortney Lollar", "Steven Millhauser", "1st Rhode Island Regiment", "Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro", "environmental degradation", "Soviet Union", "Uber", "Smithfield, Rhode Island", "John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "Ray Heffner", "Pulitzer Prize for Fiction", "Rhode Island College", "Bank of America", "Escutcheon (heraldry)", "Hispanic and Latino Americans", "John C. Bonifaz", "Richardsonian Romanesque", "William McKinley", "Prince Rahim Aga Khan", "United States Declaration of Independence", "Lois Lowry", "James Burrill Angell", "National Humanities Medal", "James Mitchell Varnum", "Collegiate Water Polo Association", "Dylan Field", "Joe Paterno", "List of governors of Louisiana", "ECAC Hockey", "AMCAS", "Princeton School of Public and International Affairs", "Erastus H. Lee", "CNN", "Michael Dickinson (biologist)", "Ricardo Lagos", "Workday, Inc.", "Stephen Hopkins (politician)", "Rensselaer Institute", "Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark", "Gareth Cook", "National Medal of Science", "Andrew Sean Greer", "computational neuroscience", "David Mumford", "John Donoghue (neuroscientist)", "College of William & Mary", "Hypertext Editing System", "Nobel Peace Prize", "PepsiCo", "Royal family", "Andrew Carnegie", "Alfred Uhry", "Dizzy Gillespie", "Assyriology", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Family Guy", "David Winton Bell Gallery", "Stephen Karam", "Brain–computer interface", "Leon Cooper", "Charles Edwin Wilbour", "Hardwood", "fossil fuels", "Multiracial Americans", "Christina Hull Paxson", "Brown Debating Union", "College Hill Historic District (Providence, Rhode Island)", "Horace Mann", "Pulitzer Prize", "Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection", "Marilynne Robinson", "sun in splendor", "Masi Oka", "George F. Carrier", "Benjamin West", "Foreign national", "H. P. Lovecraft", "Eastman Johnson", "Fields Medal", "Janis Joplin", "CubeSat", "Bob Wallace (computer scientist)", "University of Connecticut", "The O.C.", "Facebook", "Providence College", "British Isles naming dispute", "Bob Dylan", "Cape Town", "Students for Sensible Drug Policy", "Kenneth R. Miller", "Mount Hope (Rhode Island)", "WBRU", "American Revolutionary War", "David S. Rohde", "Tom Perez", "Rockefeller Center", "Mark Blyth", "Julie Bowen", "John Hay", "List of Brown University statues", "NASA", "Rhodes Scholarship", "Chung Yong-jin", "molecular medicine", "Gerald Guralnik", "Master of Public Health", "Continental Congress", "Sarah Doyle Women's Center", "Ella Fitzgerald", "Medieval studies", "Eliot Horowitz", "Eli Sternberg", "John S. Chen", "Jeffrey Eugenides", "Ama Ata Aidoo", "Starla and Sons", "Ray Charles", "nobility", "Toshiko Mori", "Sylvester James Gates", "the Reverend", "Solomon Drowne", "McKinsey & Company", "Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression", "Ronald Rivlin", "David Gale", "Angelica Kauffman", "Congregationalism in the United States", "The Brown Jug", "Siege of Yorktown", "Brown University Alma Mater", "Casper Sleep", "Daveed Diggs", "Jennifer Richeson", "Private university", "potential natural vegetation", "Marine Biological Laboratory", "BlackBerry Limited", "IBM", "Daniel C. Drucker", "Jerry White (activist)", "gender", "The Brown Daily Herald", "New England Commission of Higher Education", "aerospace engineering", "Prince Nikita Romanov", "Ares J. Rosakis", "New Haven, Connecticut", "Roberta Anamaria Civita", "David Kertzer", "The Brown Derbies", "varsity team", "Seth Cohen", "Brown Student/Community Radio", "Kirk Scharfenberg", "Fraternities and sororities", "Robert A. M. Stern", "Bruce Springsteen", "Anthropodermic bibliopegy", "Daniel Caesar", "Lucy Blake", "Republican Party (United States)", "Cosima von Bülow Pavoncelli", "Classical archaeology", "Nirupama Rao", "Brown University Orchestra", "Rush Hawkins", "Madeline Miller", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Prime Minister of Italy", "ultimate (sport)", "Jack Markell", "Gordon S. Wood", "Intel 80486", "Sidney Frank", "Bristol, Rhode Island", "Donald Antrim", "American Revolution", "Francis Wayland", "Warby Parker", "Warren Alpert", "Brown University School of Public Health", "colonial colleges", "Maya Lin", "Washington-Rochambeau Revolutionary Route", "Ted Turner", "David Lobell", "Consortium on Financing Higher Education", "European Commission", "Tom Friedman (artist)", "James R. Rice", "Cara Mund", "social justice", "Anne Fausto-Sterling", "MSNBC", "Dartmouth Medical School", "Ruth Simmons", "torse", "IBM 7070", "Slavery Memorial (Brown University)", "Alexander Meiklejohn", "blended learning", "East Greenwich, Rhode Island", "Krista Tippett", "William Prager", "SBUDNIC", "Josiah S. Carberry", "Brown Bears", "Vernon L. Smith", "Dayton Agreement", "Thayer Street", "Alpert Medical School", "Egyptology", "Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa", "Prince Jaime, Count of Bardi", "Glenn Loury", "Rodney J. Clifton", "esbuild", "Richard Benson (photographer)", "King Philip's War", "Tracee Ellis Ross", "Forbes", "NCAA Division I FCS", "Peter Paul Rubens", "Thomas J. Watson Jr.", "Warren, Rhode Island", "National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities", "Giovanni Battista Tiepolo", "Heisman Trophy", "Laura Linney", "Bay Psalm Book", "Providence Public School District", "Affluence in the United States", "MongoDB Inc.", "Seekonk River", "Jackie Sibblies Drury", "John Brown (Rhode Island politician)", "Netgear", "Natalie Zemon Davis", "Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges", "natural philosophy", "Romano Prodi", "Usha Lee McFarling", "Nineteen Eighty-Four", "Lynn Nottage", "Presbyterianism", "This American Life", "The Wall Street Journal", "Incunable", "John Sculley", "Morton Gurtin", "Greek War of Independence", "Coursera", "Ben Lerner", "Chris Berman", "Jewelry District (Providence)", "Timoshenko Medal", "Greg Lukianoff", "John Carter Brown", "Rhode Island General Assembly", "Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg", "Lauren Redniss", "John Hay Library", "Governor of Rhode Island", "alma mater", "Bill O'Brien (American football)", "MongoDB", "List of governors of Nebraska", "XSLT", "greenhouse gas emissions", "Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology", "Wickenden Street", "Maggie Hassan", "Janet Yellen", "Brown University School of Engineering", "Abydos, Egypt", "Democratic National Committee", "Apollo program", "Dara Khosrowshahi", "Martha Nussbaum", "EQUiSat", "First Folio", "Brown Political Review", "Pennsylvania State University", "Oak", "Sergei Khrushchev", "Kendrick Lamar", "Chief Justice of the United States", "Rhode Island militia", "McKim, Mead & White", "George Orwell", "Charles Evans Hughes", "TBS (American TV channel)", "Emily Oster", "The College Hill Independent", "Rhode Island School of Design", "Richard Foreman", "hypertext", "National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program", "Emma Watson", "president of Chile", "Declaration of independence", "Gender studies", "Ira Magaziner", "United States Department of Education", "Pentium", "Nicholas Brown Jr.", "Solomon Lefschetz", "Quiara Alegría Hudes", "Casualties of the Iraq War", "African Americans", "Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges", "Mara Liasson", "Classic Mac OS", "Providence Plantations", "David Rohde", "Universities Research Association", "Rhode Island", "A. W. Kuchler", "Fernando Cardoso", "Ted Nelson", "Scott Shenker", "Critical Review (Brown University)", "African American", "Neurodegeneration", "David Ebersman", "Bernard Budiansky", "Chinua Achebe", "Abraham Lincoln", "Josias Lyndon", "Nawal M. Nour", "Development studies", "André Leon Talley", "Abolitionism in the United States", "Pell grant", "fossil fuel", "Orlando Bravo", "Joan Wallach Scott", "Henley Women's Regatta", "Annette Nazareth", "First Baptist Church in America", "Brown University Computing Laboratory", "Alissa J. Rubin", "2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries", "Marx Brothers", "George Davis Snell", "L. Ben Freund", "XML", "Marvin Bower", "Samuel Gridley Howe", "People of color", "United States Senate", "Yale University Press", "National Historic Landmark", "Oren B. Cheney", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "American middle class", "Prince Ra'ad bin Zeid", "research institute", "Graduate School of Brown University", "Starwood Capital Group", "American lower class", "A. G. Sulzberger", "higher education", "Subra Suresh", "National Collegiate Athletic Association", "ZipRecruiter", "interdisciplinary", "Thomas O. Paine", "James Forman Jr.", "Brown University Band", "Expedia Group", "Mitski", "management consulting", "Henley Royal Regatta", "Trinity Repertory Company", "Wilbur Edwin \"Ed\" Bosarge", "Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island", "Ira Glass", "Nobel Prize in Physics", "Vogue (magazine)", "University of Pennsylvania", "President of the World Bank Group", "Theatre Communications Group", "Cards Against Humanity", "Greg Asbed", "European Union", "Orange Prize", "Non-Hispanic whites", "Bobby Jindal", "Health administration", "Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician)", "Carlos Fuentes", "Nassau Hall", "Fernando Henrique Cardoso", "Ambassador to the Soviet Union", "Transatlantic Slave Trade", "Phil Estes", "George W. Potter", "Aminé", "Yale College", "Nobel Prize", "Religious Society of Friends", "Nobel Laureates", "J. Michael Kosterlitz", "Jackie Robinson", "Union College", "research university", "Ezra Stiles", "Newport, Rhode Island", "David Howell (jurist)", "Major League Soccer", "Benjamin Moser", "Viggo Tvergaard", "Association of American Universities", "List of presidents of Dartmouth College", "Regional theater in the United States", "Joan D. Hedrick", "Kenneth L. Johnson", "George Stigler", "Summer Roberts", "MacArthur Fellows Program", "Federalist Party", "Thomas Penn", "Levant", "intersectionality", "Battle of the Chesapeake", "Maurice Anthony Biot", "Cranston, Rhode Island", "Providence River", "Ibram X. Kendi", "Peter Balakian", "University of Michigan", "Amherst College", "Rafael Viñoly", "Providence, Rhode Island", "Apple Inc.", "Augustus O. Bourn", "University of California", "NIH grant", "Kelly Benoit-Bird", "Monica Muñoz Martinez", "Edgewood Yacht Club", "Sebastian Ruth", "Latin", "Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark (born 1983)", "Kathryn Schulz", "San Francisco State University", "religious affiliation", "Rina Foygel Barber", "Jonathan Maxcy", "major general", "John F. Kennedy Jr.", "Jim Yong Kim", "Lady Gabriella Windsor", "Francis J. Doyle III", "Benjamin Franklin", "Intercollegiate Rowing Association", "Groton, Connecticut", "Bates College", "Asian Americans", "Marcia Chatelain", "Martin Bernheimer", "cell death", "Brown Center for Students of Color", "Leila Pahlavi", "Lake Quinsigamond", "IBM 650", "Houston Texans", "Fritz Pollard", "Tougaloo College", "applied mathematics", "Brown Stadium" ]
4,158	Bill Atkinson	William D. Atkinson Marching ants, the double-click, Menu bar, the selection lasso, MacPaint (FatBits), HyperCard, Atkinson dithering, and the app PhotoCard. == Education== He received his undergraduate degree from the University of California, San Diego, where Apple Macintosh developer Jef Raskin was one of his professors. Atkinson continued his studies as a graduate student in neurochemistry at the University of Washington. == Apple == Raskin invited Atkinson to visit him at Apple Computer; Steve Jobs persuaded him to join the company immediately as employee No. 51, and Atkinson never finished his PhD. Atkinson was the principal designer and developer of the graphical user interface (GUI) of the Apple Lisa and, later, one of the first thirty members of the original Apple Macintosh development team, In 2007, Atkinson began working as an outside developer with Numenta, a startup working on computer intelligence. On his work there Atkinson said, "what Numenta is doing is more fundamentally important to society than the personal computer and the rise of the Internet." ==Photography== Currently, Atkinson works as a nature photographer, focusing on close-up photographs of stones that have been cut and polished. His 2004 book Within the Stone features a collection of his close-up photographs. The detailed images he creates are made possible by the accuracy and creative control of the digital printing process that he helped create. == In popular culture == Actor Nelson Franklin portrayed him in the 2013 film Jobs.	[ "computer programmer", "Marching ants", "Steve Jobs", "Jef Raskin", "Nelson Franklin", "MacPaint", "Atkinson dithering", "University of California, San Diego", "Byte (magazine)", "Apple Lisa", "Jobs (film)", "user interface", "midpoint circle algorithm", "EFF Pioneer Award", "HyperCard", "programmer", "Macintosh 128K", "University of Washington", "QuickDraw", "Menu bar", "graphical user interface", "double-click", "Apple Inc.", "General Magic", "Nature photography", "Lasso tool", "computer engineer", "hypermedia" ]
4,160	Battle of Lostwithiel	The Battle of Lostwithiel took place over a 13-day period from 21 August to 2 September 1644, around the town of Lostwithiel and along the River Fowey valley in Cornwall during the First English Civil War. A Royalist army led by Charles I of England defeated a Parliamentarian force commanded by the Earl of Essex. Although Essex and most of the cavalry escaped, between 5,000 and 6,000 Parliamentarian infantry were forced to surrender. Since the Royalists were unable to feed so many, they were given a pass back to their own territory, arriving in Southampton a month later having lost nearly half their number to disease and desertion. Considered one of the worst defeats suffered by Parliament over the course of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, it secured South West England for the Royalists until early 1646. ==Background== During April and May 1644, Parliamentarian commanders Sir William Waller and the Earl of Essex combined their armies and carried out a campaign against King Charles and the Royalist garrisons surrounding Oxford. Trusting Waller to deal with the King in Oxfordshire, Essex divided the Parliamentarian army on 6 June and headed southwest to relieve the Royalist siege of Lyme in Dorset. Lyme had been under siege by King Charles' nephew, Prince Maurice, and the Royalists for nearly two months. South-West England at that time was largely under the control of the Royalists. The town of Lyme, however, was a Parliamentarian stronghold and served as an important seaport for the Parliamentarian fleet of the Earl of Warwick. As Essex approached Lyme in mid-June Prince Maurice ended the siege and took his troops west to Exeter. Essex then proceeded further southwest toward Cornwall with the intent to relieve the siege of Plymouth. Plymouth was the only other significant Parliamentarian stronghold in the South-West and it was under siege by Richard Grenville and Cornish Royalists. Essex had been told by Lord Robartes, a wealthy politician and merchant from Cornwall, that the Parliamentarians would gain considerable military support if he moved against Grenville and freed Plymouth. Given Lord Robartes' advice, Essex advanced toward Plymouth. His action caused Grenville to end the siege. Essex then advanced further west, believing that he could take full control of the South-West from the Royalists. Meanwhile, in Oxfordshire, King Charles battled with the Parliamentarians and defeated Sir William Waller at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge on 29 June. On 12 July after a Royalist council of war recommended that Essex be dealt with before he could be reinforced, King Charles and his Oxford army departed Evesham. King Charles accepted the council's advice, not solely because it was good strategy, but more so because his Queen was in Exeter, where she had recently given birth to the Princess Henrietta and had been denied safe conduct to Bath by Essex. ==Trapped in Cornwall== On 26 July, King Charles arrived in Exeter and joined his Oxford army with the Royalist forces commanded by Prince Maurice. On that same day, Essex and his Parliamentary force entered Cornwall. One week later, as Essex bivouacked with his army at Bodmin, he learned that King Charles had defeated Waller; brought his Oxford army to the South-West; and joined forces with Prince Maurice. Essex had also seen that he was not getting the military support from the people of Cornwall as Lord Robartes asserted. At that time, Essex understood that he and his army were trapped in Cornwall and his only salvation would be reinforcements or an escape through the port of Fowey by means of the Parliamentarian fleet. Essex immediately marched his troops five miles south to the small town of Lostwithiel arriving on 2 August. He immediately deployed his men in a defensive arc with detachments on the high ground to the north at Restormel Castle and the high ground to the east at Beacon Hill. Essex also sent a small contingent of foot south to secure the port of Fowey aiming to eventually evacuate his infantry by sea. At Essex's disposal was a force of 6,500 foot and 3,000 horse. Aided through intelligence provided by the people of Cornwall , King Charles followed westward, slowly and deliberately cutting off the potential escape routes that Essex might attempt to utilize. On 6 August King Charles communicated with Essex, calling for him to surrender. Stalling for several days, Essex considered the offer but ultimately refused. On 11 August, Grenville and the Cornish Royalists entered Bodmin forcing out Essex's rear-guard cavalry. Grenville then proceeded south across Respryn Bridge to meet and join forces with King Charles and Prince Maurice. It is estimated that the Royalist forces at that time were composed of 12,000 foot and 7,000 horse. Over the next two days the Royalists deployed detachments along the east side of the River Fowey to prevent a Parliamentarian escape across country. Finally the Royalists sent 200 foot with artillery south to garrison the fort at Polruan, effectively blocking the entrance to the harbour of Fowey. At about that time, Essex learned that reinforcements under the command of Sir John Middleton were turned back by the Royalists at Bridgwater in Somerset. ==First battle - 21–30 August 1644== At 07:00 hours on 21 August, King Charles launched his first attack on Essex and the Parliamentarians at Lostwithiel. From the north, Grenville and the Cornish Royalists attacked Restormel Castle and easily dislodged the Parliamentarians who fell back quickly. From the east, King Charles and the Oxford army captured Beacon Hill with little resistance from the Parliamentarians. Prince Maurice and his force occupied Druid Hill. Casualties were fairly low and by nightfall the fighting ended and the Royalists held the high ground on the north and east sides of Lostwithiel. For the next couple of days the two opposing forces exchanged fire only in a number of small skirmishes. On 24 August, King Charles further tightened the noose encircling the Parliamentarians when he sent Lord Goring and Sir Thomas Bassett to secure the town of St Blazey and the area to the southwest of Lostwithiel. This reduced the foraging area for the Parliamentarians and access to the coves and inlets in the vicinity of the port of Par. Essex and the Parliamentarians were now totally surrounded and boxed into a two-mile by five-mile area spanning from Lostwithiel in the north to the port of Fowey in the south. Knowing that he would not be able to fight his way out, Essex made his final plans for an escape. Since a sea evacuation of his cavalry would not be possible, Essex ordered his cavalry commander William Balfour to attempt a breakout to Plymouth. For the infantry, Essex planned to retreat south and meet Lord Warwick and the Parliamentarian fleet at Fowey. At 03:00 hours on 31 August, Balfour and 2,000 members of his cavalry executed the first step of Essex's plan when they successfully crossed the River Fowey and escaped intact without engaging the Royalist defenders. ==Second battle - 31 August - 2 September 1644== Early on the morning on 31 August, the Parliamentarians ransacked and looted Lostwithiel and began their withdrawal south. At 07:00 hours, the Royalists observed the actions of the Parliamentarians and immediately proceeded to attack. Grenville attacked from the north. King Charles and Prince Maurice crossed the River Fowey, joined up with Grenville, and entered Lostwithiel. Together the Royalists engaged the Parliamentarian rear-guards and quickly took possession of the town. The Royalist also sent detachments down along the east side of the River Fowey to protect against any further breakouts and to capture the town of Polruan. The Royalists then began to pursue Essex and the Parliamentarian infantry down the river valley. At the outset the Royalist pushed the Parliamentarians nearly three miles south through the hedged fields, hills and valleys. At the narrow pass near St. Veep, Philip Skippon, Essex's commander of the infantry, counter-attacked the Royalists and pushed them back several fields attempting to give Essex time to set up a line of defense further south. At 11:00 hours, the Royalist cavalry mounted a charge and won back the territory lost. There was a lull in the battle at 12:00 hours as King Charles waited for his full army to come up and reform. The fighting resumed and continued through the afternoon as the Parliamentarians tried to disengage and continue south. At 16:00 hours, the Parliamentarians tried again to counter-attack with their remaining cavalry only to be driven back by King Charles' Life Guard. About a mile north of Castle Dore, the Parliamentarians right flank began to give way. At 18:00 hours when the Parliamentarians were pushed back to Castle Dore they made their last attempt to rally only to be pushed back and surrounded. About that time the fighting ended with the Royalists satisfied in their accomplishments of the day. Exhausted and discouraged, the Parliamentarians hunkered down for the night. Later that evening under the darkness of night, Essex and his command staff stole away to the seashore where they used a fishing boat to flee to Plymouth, leaving Skippon in command. Early on 1 September, Skippon met with his officers to inform them about Essex's escape and to discuss alternatives. It was decided that they would approach King Charles and seek terms. Concerned that Parliamentarian reinforcements might be on their way, the King quickly agreed on 2 September to generous terms. The battle was over. Six thousand Parliamentarians were taken as prisoners. Their weapons were taken away and they were marched to Southampton. They suffered the wrath of the Cornish people in route and as many as 3,000 died of exposure and disease along the way. Those that survived the journey were, however, eventually set free. Total casualties associated with the battle were extremely high especially when considering those who died on the march back to Southampton. To those numbers as many as 700 Parliamentarians are estimated to have been killed or wounded during the fighting in Cornwall along with an estimated 500 Royalists. ==Aftermath== The Battle of Lostwithiel was a great victory for King Charles and the greatest loss that the Parliamentarians would suffer in the First English Civil War. For King Charles the victory secured the South-West for the remainder of the war and mitigated criticism for a while against the Royalist war effort. For the Parliamentarians, the defeat resulted in recriminations with Middleton ultimately being blamed for his failure to break through with reinforcements. The Parliamentarian failure at Lostwithiel along with the failure to defeat King Charles at the Second Battle of Newbury ultimately led Parliament to adopt the Self-denying Ordinance and led to the implementation of the New Model Army.	[ "Cornwall", "St Blazey", "Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "John Robartes, 1st Earl of Radnor", "Evesham", "William Balfour (general)", "George Goring, Lord Goring", "Roundhead", "Self-denying Ordinance", "St. Veep", "Lyme Regis", "Polruan", "Fowey", "New Model Army", "Southampton", "South West England", "Battle of Cropredy Bridge", "Charles I of England", "Sir Richard Grenville, 1st Baronet", "Second Battle of Newbury", "Philip Skippon", "Bodmin", "Maurice of the Palatinate", "Cavalier", "Restormel Castle", "Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick", "Bath, Somerset", "River Fowey", "Lostwithiel", "Castle Dore", "Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex", "William Waller", "Bridgwater", "siege of Plymouth", "First English Civil War", "Henrietta Maria of France", "Henrietta of England", "Patrick Ruthven, 1st Earl of Forth", "Battle of Braddock Down", "Cornwall in the English Civil War" ]
4,162	Beeb	Beeb or BEEB may refer to: BBC, the British Broadcasting Corporation, sometimes called "the Beeb" or "Auntie Beeb" BEEB, a BBC children's magazine published in 1985 BBC Micro, a home computer built for the BBC by Acorn Computers Ltd., nicknamed "The Beeb" BBC Online, the BBC's Internet operations, containing many properties titled with variations on "Beeb" Beeb Birtles (born 1948), Dutch-Australian musician	[ "BBC (disambiguation)", "Beebe (disambiguation)", "BBC Online", "Beeb Birtles", "Justin Bieber", "BEEB", "Bebe (disambiguation)", "BBC", "BBC Micro" ]
4,163	Bertrand Russell	Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, and public intellectual. He had influence on mathematics, logic, set theory, and various areas of analytic philosophy. He was one of the early 20th century's prominent logicians}} Together with his former teacher A. N. Whitehead, Russell wrote Principia Mathematica, a milestone in the development of classical logic and a major attempt to reduce the whole of mathematics to logic (see logicism). Russell's article "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy". Russell was a pacifist who championed anti-imperialism and chaired the India League. and initially supported appeasement against Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany, before changing his view in 1943, describing war as a necessary "lesser of two evils". In the wake of World War II, he welcomed American global hegemony in preference to either Soviet hegemony or no (or ineffective) world leadership, even if it were to come at the cost of using their nuclear weapons. He would later criticise Stalinist totalitarianism, condemn the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War, and become an outspoken proponent of nuclear disarmament. In 1950, Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought". He was also the recipient of the De Morgan Medal (1932), Sylvester Medal (1934), Kalinga Prize (1957), and Jerusalem Prize (1963). ==Biography== ===Early life and background=== Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born at Ravenscroft, a country house in Trellech, Monmouthshire, on 18 May 1872, into an influential and liberal family of the British aristocracy. His parents were Viscount and Viscountess Amberley. Lord Amberley consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the biologist Douglas Spalding. Both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous. Lord Amberley, a deist, asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russell's secular godfather. Mill died the year after Russell's birth, but his writings later influenced Russell's life. Russell's paternal grandfather, Lord John Russell, later 1st Earl Russell (1792–1878), had twice been Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in the 1840s and 1860s. A member of Parliament since the early 1810s, he met with Napoleon Bonaparte in Elba. The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power and the peerage with the rise of the Tudor dynasty (see: Duke of Bedford). They established themselves as one of the leading Whig families and participated in political events from the dissolution of the monasteries in 1536–1540 to the Glorious Revolution in 1688–1689 and the Great Reform Act in 1832. Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley. one of the campaigners for education of women. ===Childhood and adolescence=== Russell had two siblings: brother Frank (seven years older), and sister Rachel (four years older). In June 1874, Russell's mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachel's death. In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis after a long period of depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of Victorian paternal grandparents, who lived at Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park. His grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kind old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot), was the central family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth. became his motto. The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality; Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings. Russell's adolescence was lonely and he contemplated suicide. He remarked in his autobiography that his interests in "nature and books and (later) mathematics saved me from complete despondency;" only his wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide. He was educated at home by a series of tutors. When Russell was eleven years old, his brother Frank introduced him to the work of Euclid, which he described in his autobiography as "one of the great events of my life, as dazzling as first love". During these formative years, he also discovered the works of Percy Bysshe Shelley. Russell wrote: "I spent all my spare time reading him, and learning him by heart, knowing no one to whom I could speak of what I thought or felt, I used to reflect how wonderful it would have been to know Shelley, and to wonder whether I should meet any live human being with whom I should feel so much sympathy." Russell claimed that beginning at age 15, he spent considerable time thinking about the validity of Christian religious dogma, which he found unconvincing. At this age, he came to the conclusion that there is no free will and, two years later, that there is no life after death. Finally, at the age of 18, after reading Mill's Autobiography, he abandoned the "First Cause" argument and became an atheist. He travelled to the continent in 1890 with an American friend, Edward FitzGerald, and with FitzGerald's family he visited the Paris Exhibition of 1889 and climbed the Eiffel Tower soon after it was completed. ===Education=== Russell won a scholarship to read for the Mathematical Tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, and began his studies there in 1890, taking as coach Robert Rumsey Webb. He became acquainted with the younger George Edward Moore and came under the influence of Alfred North Whitehead, who recommended him to the Cambridge Apostles. He distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating as seventh Wrangler in the former in 1893 and becoming a Fellow in the latter in 1895. ===Early career=== Russell began his published work in 1896 with German Social Democracy, a study in politics that was an early indication of his interest in political and social theory. In 1896 he taught German social democracy at the London School of Economics. He was a member of the Coefficients dining club of social reformers set up in 1902 by the Fabian campaigners Sidney and Beatrice Webb. He now started a study of the foundations of mathematics at Trinity. In 1897, he wrote An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry (submitted at the Fellowship Examination of Trinity College) which discussed the Cayley–Klein metrics used for non-Euclidean geometry. He attended the first International Congress of Philosophy in Paris in 1900 where he met Giuseppe Peano and Alessandro Padoa. The Italians had responded to Georg Cantor, making a science of set theory; they gave Russell their literature including the Formulario mathematico. Russell was impressed by the precision of Peano's arguments at the Congress, read the literature upon returning to England, and came upon Russell's paradox. In 1903 he published The Principles of Mathematics, a work on the foundations of mathematics. It advanced a thesis of logicism, that mathematics and logic are one and the same. At the age of 29, in February 1901, Russell underwent what he called a "sort of mystic illumination", after witnessing Whitehead's wife's suffering in an angina attack. "I found myself filled with semi-mystical feelings about beauty and with a desire almost as profound as that of the Buddha to find some philosophy which should make human life endurable", Russell would later recall. "At the end of those five minutes, I had become a completely different person." In 1905, he wrote the essay "On Denoting", which was published in the philosophical journal Mind. Russell was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1908. In 1910, he became a lecturer at the University of Cambridge, Trinity College, where he had studied. He was considered for a fellowship, which would give him a vote in the college government and protect him from being fired for his opinions, but was passed over because he was "anti-clerical", because he was agnostic. He was approached by the Austrian engineering student Ludwig Wittgenstein, who started undergraduate study with him. Russell viewed Wittgenstein as a successor who would continue his work on logic. He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his bouts of despair. This was a drain on Russell's energy, but Russell continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in 1922. Russell delivered his lectures on logical atomism, his version of these ideas, in 1918, before the end of World War I. Wittgenstein was, at that time, serving in the Austrian Army and subsequently spent nine months in an Italian prisoner of war camp at the end of the conflict. ===First World War=== During World War I, Russell was one of the few people to engage in active pacifist activities. In 1916, due to his absence of allegiance to the war effort, he was dismissed from Trinity College following his conviction under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914. He later described this, in Free Thought and Official Propaganda, as an illegitimate means the state used to violate freedom of expression. Russell championed the case of Eric Chappelow, a poet jailed and abused as a conscientious objector. Russell played a part in the Leeds Convention in June 1917, a historic event which saw well over a thousand "anti-war socialists" gather; many being delegates from the Independent Labour Party and the Socialist Party, united in their pacifist beliefs and advocating a peace settlement. The international press reported that Russell appeared with a number of Labour Members of Parliament (MPs), including Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden, as well as former Liberal MP and anti-conscription campaigner, Professor Arnold Lupton. After the event, Russell told Lady Ottoline Morrell that, "to my surprise, when I got up to speak, I was given the greatest ovation that was possible to give anybody". His conviction in 1916 resulted in Russell being fined £100 (), which he refused to pay in the hope that he would be sent to prison, but his books were sold at auction to raise the money. The books were bought by friends; he later treasured his copy of the King James Bible that was stamped "Confiscated by Cambridge Police". A later conviction for publicly lecturing against inviting the United States to enter the war on the United Kingdom's side resulted in six months' imprisonment in Brixton Prison (see Bertrand Russell's political views) in 1918 (he was prosecuted under the Defence of the Realm Act) He later said of his imprisonment: While he was reading Strachey's Eminent Victorians chapter about Gordon he laughed out loud in his cell prompting the warder to intervene and reminding him that "prison was a place of punishment". Russell was reinstated to Trinity in 1919, resigned in 1920, was Tarner Lecturer in 1926 and became a Fellow again in 1944 until 1949. In 1924, Russell again gained press attention when attending a "banquet" in the House of Commons with well-known campaigners, including Arnold Lupton, who had been an MP and had also endured imprisonment for "passive resistance to military or naval service". ===G. H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy=== In 1941, G. H. Hardy wrote a 61-page pamphlet titled Bertrand Russell and Trinity (published later as a book by Cambridge University Press with a foreword by C. D. Broad) in which he gave an authoritative account of Russell's 1916 dismissal from Trinity College, explaining that a reconciliation between the college and Russell had later taken place and gave details about Russell's personal life. Hardy writes that Russell's dismissal had created a scandal since the vast majority of the Fellows of the College opposed the decision. The ensuing pressure from the Fellows induced the Council to reinstate Russell. In January 1920, it was announced that Russell had accepted the reinstatement offer from Trinity and would begin lecturing in October. In July 1920, Russell applied for a one-year leave of absence; this was approved. He spent the year giving lectures in China and Japan. In January 1921, it was announced by Trinity that Russell had resigned and his resignation had been accepted. This resignation, Hardy explains, was voluntary and was not the result of another altercation. The reason for the resignation, according to Hardy, was that Russell was going through a tumultuous time in his personal life with a divorce and subsequent remarriage. Russell contemplated asking Trinity for another one-year leave of absence but decided against it since this would have been an "unusual application" and the situation had the potential to snowball into another controversy. Although Russell did the right thing, in Hardy's opinion, the reputation of the College suffered with Russell's resignation since the 'world of learning' knew about Russell's altercation with Trinity but not that the rift had healed. In 1925, Russell was asked by the Council of Trinity College to give the Tarner Lectures on the Philosophy of the Sciences; these would later be the basis for one of Russell's best-received books according to Hardy: The Analysis of Matter, published in 1927. In the preface to the Trinity pamphlet, Hardy wrote: ===Between the wars=== In August 1920, Russell travelled to Soviet Russia as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the Russian Revolution. He wrote a four-part series of articles, titled "Soviet Russia—1920", for the magazine The Nation. He met Vladimir Lenin and had an hour-long conversation with him. In his autobiography, he mentions that he found Lenin disappointing, sensing an "impish cruelty" in him and comparing him to "an opinionated professor". He cruised down the Volga on a steamship. His experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for the revolution. He subsequently wrote a book, The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, about his experiences on this trip, taken with a group of 24 others from the UK, all of whom came home thinking well of the Soviet regime, despite Russell's attempts to change their minds. For example, he told them that he had heard shots fired in the middle of the night and was sure that these were clandestine executions, but the others maintained that it was only cars backfiring. Russell's lover Dora Black, a British author, feminist and socialist campaigner, visited Soviet Russia independently at the same time; in contrast to his reaction, she was enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution. Other scholars present in China at the time included John Dewey When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora took on the role of spurning the local press by handing out notices reading "Mr. Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists". Apparently they found this harsh and reacted resentfully. Russell supported his family during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of physics, ethics, and education to the layman. From 1922 to 1927 the Russells divided their time between London and Cornwall, spending summers in Porthcurno. In the 1922 and 1923 general elections Russell stood as a Labour Party candidate in the Chelsea constituency, but only on the basis that he knew he was unlikely to be elected in such a safe Conservative seat, and he was unsuccessful on both occasions. After the birth of his two children, he became interested in education, especially early childhood education. He was not satisfied with the old traditional education and thought that progressive education also had some flaws; as a result, together with Dora, Russell founded the experimental Beacon Hill School in 1927. The school was run from a succession of different locations, including its original premises at the Russells' residence, Telegraph House, near Harting, West Sussex. During this time, he published On Education, Especially in Early Childhood. On 8 July 1930, Dora gave birth to her third child Harriet Ruth. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943. In 1927 Russell met Barry Fox (later Barry Stevens), who became a known Gestalt therapist and writer in later years. They developed an intense relationship, and in Fox's words: "...for three years we were very close." Fox sent her daughter Judith to Beacon Hill School. From 1927 to 1932 Russell wrote 34 letters to Fox. Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in 1931, Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell. Russell's marriage to Dora grew tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American journalist, Griffin Barry. Russell chaired the India League from 1932 to 1939. ===Second World War=== Russell's political views changed over time, mostly about war. He opposed rearmament against Nazi Germany. In 1937, he wrote in a personal letter: "If the Germans succeed in sending an invading army to England we should do best to treat them as visitors, give them quarters and invite the commander and chief to dine with the prime minister." In 1940, he changed his appeasement view that avoiding a full-scale world war was more important than defeating Hitler. He concluded that Adolf Hitler taking over all of Europe would be a permanent threat to democracy. In 1943, he adopted a stance toward large-scale warfare called "relative political pacifism": "War was always a great evil, but in some particularly extreme circumstances, it may be the lesser of two evils." Before World War II, Russell taught at the University of Chicago, later moving on to Los Angeles to lecture at the UCLA Department of Philosophy. He was appointed professor at the City College of New York (CCNY) in 1940, but after a public outcry the appointment was annulled by a court judgment that pronounced him "morally unfit" to teach at the college because of his opinions, especially those relating to sexual morality, detailed in Marriage and Morals (1929). The matter was taken to the New York Supreme Court by Jean Kay who was afraid that her daughter would be harmed by the appointment, though her daughter was not a student at CCNY. Many intellectuals, led by John Dewey, protested at his treatment. Albert Einstein's oft-quoted aphorism that "great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds" originated in his open letter, dated 19 March 1940, to Morris Raphael Cohen, a professor emeritus at CCNY, supporting Russell's appointment. Dewey and Horace M. Kallen edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in The Bertrand Russell Case. Russell soon joined the Barnes Foundation, lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy; these lectures formed the basis of A History of Western Philosophy. His relationship with the eccentric Albert C. Barnes soon soured, and he returned to the UK in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College. ===Later life=== Russell participated in many broadcasts over the BBC, particularly The Brains Trust and for the Third Programme, on various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time Russell was known outside academic circles, frequently the subject or author of magazine and newspaper articles, and was called upon to offer opinions on a variety of subjects, even mundane ones. En route to one of his lectures in Trondheim, Russell was one of 24 survivors (out of 43 passengers) of an aeroplane crash in Hommelvik in October 1948. He said he owed his life to smoking since the people who drowned were in the non-smoking part of the plane. A History of Western Philosophy (1945) became a best-seller and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life. In 1942, Russell argued in favour of a moderate socialism, capable of overcoming its metaphysical principles. In an inquiry on dialectical materialism, launched by the Austrian artist and philosopher Wolfgang Paalen in his journal DYN, Russell said: "I think the metaphysics of both Hegel and Marx plain nonsense—Marx's claim to be 'science' is no more justified than Mary Baker Eddy's. This does not mean that I am opposed to socialism." In 1943, Russell expressed support for Zionism: "I have come gradually to see that, in a dangerous and largely hostile world, it is essential to Jews to have some country which is theirs, some region where they are not suspected aliens, some state which embodies what is distinctive in their culture". In a speech in 1948, Russell said that if the USSR's aggression continued, it would be morally worse to go to war after the USSR possessed an atomic bomb than before it possessed one, because if the USSR had no bomb the West's victory would come more swiftly and with fewer casualties than if there were atomic bombs on both sides. At that time, only the United States possessed an atomic bomb, and the USSR was pursuing an aggressive policy towards the countries in Eastern Europe which were being absorbed into the Soviet Union's sphere of influence. Many understood Russell's comments to mean that Russell approved of a first strike in a war with the USSR, including Nigel Lawson, who was present when Russell spoke of such matters. Others, including Griffin, who obtained a transcript of the speech, have argued that he was explaining the usefulness of America's atomic arsenal in deterring the USSR from continuing its domination of Eastern Europe. In September 1949, one week after the USSR tested its first A-bomb, but before this became known, Russell wrote that the USSR would be unable to develop nuclear weapons because following Stalin's purges only science based on Marxist principles would be practised in the Soviet Union. After it became known that the USSR had carried out its nuclear bomb tests, Russell declared his position advocating the total abolition of atomic weapons.—what was to become an annual series of lectures, still broadcast by the BBC. His series of six broadcasts, titled Authority and the Individual, explored themes such as the role of individual initiative in the development of a community and the role of state control in a progressive society. Russell continued to write about philosophy. He wrote a foreword to Words and Things by Ernest Gellner, which was highly critical of the later thought of Ludwig Wittgenstein and of ordinary language philosophy. Gilbert Ryle refused to have the book reviewed in the philosophical journal Mind, which caused Russell to respond via The Times. The result was a month-long correspondence in The Times between the supporters and detractors of ordinary language philosophy, which was ended when the paper published an editorial critical of both sides but agreeing with the opponents of ordinary language philosophy. In the King's Birthday Honours of 9 June 1949, Russell was awarded the Order of Merit, and the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Russell merely smiled, but afterwards claimed that the reply "That's right, just like your brother" immediately came to mind. In 1950, Russell attended the inaugural conference for the Congress for Cultural Freedom, a CIA-funded anti-communist organisation committed to the deployment of culture as a weapon during the Cold War. Russell was one of the known patrons of the Congress until he resigned in 1956. In 1952, Russell was divorced by Spence, with whom he had been very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by Spence, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and 1968 (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, Edith Finch, soon after the divorce, on 15 December 1952. They had known each other since 1925, and Edith had taught English at Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, sharing a house for 20 years with Russell's old friend Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their marriage was a happy, close, and loving one. Russell's eldest son John suffered from mental illness, which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and his former wife Dora. In 1962 Russell played a public role in the Cuban Missile Crisis: in an exchange of telegrams with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev assured him that the Soviet government would not be reckless. Russell sent this telegram to President Kennedy: According to historian Peter Knight, after JFK's assassination, Russell, "prompted by the emerging work of the lawyer Mark Lane in the US ... rallied support from other noteworthy and left-leaning compatriots to form a Who Killed Kennedy Committee in June 1964, members of which included Michael Foot MP, Caroline Benn, the publisher Victor Gollancz, the writers John Arden and J. B. Priestley, and the Oxford history professor Hugh Trevor-Roper." Russell published a highly critical article in The Minority of One weeks before the Warren Commission Report was published, setting forth 16 Questions on the Assassination. Russell equated the Oswald case with the Dreyfus affair of late 19th-century France, in which the state convicted an innocent man. Russell also criticised the American press for failing to heed any voices critical of the official version. ===Political causes=== Bertrand Russell was opposed to war from a young age; his opposition to World War I was used as grounds for his dismissal from Trinity College at Cambridge. This incident fused two of his controversial causes, as he had failed to be granted fellow status which would have protected him from firing, because he was not willing to either pretend to be a devout Christian, or at least avoid admitting he was agnostic. He later described the resolution of these issues as essential to freedom of thought and expression, citing the incident in Free Thought and Official Propaganda, where he explained that the expression of any idea, even the most obviously "bad", must be protected not only from direct State intervention but also economic leveraging and other means of being silenced: Russell spent the 1950s and 1960s engaged in political causes primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the Vietnam War. The 1955 Russell–Einstein Manifesto was a document calling for nuclear disarmament and was signed by eleven of the most prominent nuclear physicists and intellectuals of the time. In October 1960 "The Committee of 100" was formed with a declaration by Russell and Michael Scott, entitled "Act or Perish", which called for a "movement of nonviolent resistance to nuclear war and weapons of mass destruction". In September 1961, at the age of 89, Russell was jailed for seven days in Brixton Prison for a "breach of the peace" after taking part in an anti-nuclear demonstration in London. The magistrate offered to exempt him from jail if he pledged himself to "good behaviour", to which Russell replied: "No, I won't." From 1966 to 1967, Russell worked with Jean-Paul Sartre and many other intellectual figures to form the Russell Vietnam War Crimes Tribunal to investigate the conduct of the United States in Vietnam. He wrote many letters to world leaders during this period. Early in his life, Russell supported eugenicist policies. In 1894, he proposed that the state issue certificates of health to prospective parents and withhold public benefits from those considered unfit. In 1929, he wrote that people deemed "mentally defective" and "feebleminded" should be sexually sterilised because they "are apt to have enormous numbers of illegitimate children, all, as a rule, wholly useless to the community." Russell was also an advocate of population control: On 20 November 1948, in a public speech at Westminster School, addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers by suggesting that a preemptive nuclear strike on the Soviet Union was justified. Russell argued that war between the United States and the Soviet Union seemed inevitable, so it would be a humanitarian gesture to get it over with quickly and have the United States in the dominant position. Currently, Russell argued, humanity could survive such a war, whereas a full nuclear war after both sides had manufactured large stockpiles of more destructive weapons was likely to result in the extinction of the human race. Russell later relented from this stance, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers. In 1956, before and during the Suez Crisis, Russell expressed his opposition to European imperialism in the Middle East. He viewed the crisis as another reminder of the pressing need for an effective mechanism for international governance, and to restrict national sovereignty in places such as the Suez Canal area "where general interest is involved". At the same time the Suez Crisis was taking place, the world was also captivated by the Hungarian Revolution and the subsequent crushing of the revolt by intervening Soviet forces. Russell attracted criticism for speaking out fervently against the Suez war while ignoring Soviet repression in Hungary, to which he responded that he did not criticise the Soviets "because there was no need. Most of the so-called Western World was fulminating". Although he later feigned a lack of concern, at the time he was disgusted by the brutal Soviet response, and on 16 November 1956, he expressed approval for a declaration of support for Hungarian scholars which Michael Polanyi had cabled to the Soviet embassy in London twelve days previously, shortly after Soviet troops had entered Budapest. In November 1957 Russell wrote an article addressing US President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, urging a summit to consider "the conditions of co-existence". Khrushchev responded that peace could be served by such a meeting. In January 1958 Russell elaborated his views in The Observer, proposing a cessation of all nuclear weapons production, with the UK taking the first step by unilaterally suspending its own nuclear weapons program if necessary, and with Germany "freed from all alien armed forces and pledged to neutrality in any conflict between East and West". US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles replied for Eisenhower. The exchange of letters was published as The Vital Letters of Russell, Khrushchev, and Dulles. Russell was asked by The New Republic, a liberal American magazine, to elaborate his views on world peace. He urged that all nuclear weapons testing and flights by planes armed with nuclear weapons be halted immediately, and negotiations be opened for the destruction of all hydrogen bombs, with the number of conventional nuclear devices limited to ensure a balance of power. He proposed that Germany be reunified and accept the Oder-Neisse line as its border, and that a neutral zone be established in Central Europe, consisting at the minimum of Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, with each of these countries being free of foreign troops and influence, and prohibited from forming alliances with countries outside the zone. In the Middle East, Russell suggested that the West avoid opposing Arab nationalism, and proposed the creation of a United Nations peacekeeping force to guard Israel's frontiers to ensure that Israel was prevented from committing aggression and protected from it. He also suggested Western recognition of the People's Republic of China, and that it be admitted to the UN with a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. In 1964, he was one of eleven world figures who issued an appeal to Israel and the Arab countries to accept an arms embargo and international supervision of nuclear plants and rocket weaponry. In October 1965, he tore up his Labour Party card because he suspected Harold Wilson's Labour government was going to send troops to support the United States in Vietnam. Russell published his three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968, and 1969. He made a cameo appearance playing himself in the anti-war Hindi film Aman, by Mohan Kumar, which was released in India in 1967. This was Russell's only appearance in a feature film. On 23 November 1969, he wrote to The Times newspaper saying that the preparation for show trials in Czechoslovakia was "highly alarming". The same month, he appealed to Secretary General U Thant of the United Nations to support an international war crimes commission to investigate alleged torture and genocide by the United States in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. The following month, he protested to Alexei Kosygin over the expulsion of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn from the Soviet Union of Writers. On 31 January 1970, Russell issued a statement condemning "Israel's aggression in the Middle East", and in particular, Israeli bombing raids being carried out deep in Egyptian territory as part of the War of Attrition, which he compared to German bombing raids in the Battle of Britain and the US bombing of Vietnam. He called for an Israeli withdrawal to the pre-Six-Day War borders, stating "The aggression committed by Israel must be condemned, not only because no state has the right to annexe foreign territory, but because every expansion is an experiment to discover how much more aggression the world will tolerate." This was Russell's final political statement or act. It was read out at the International Conference of Parliamentarians in Cairo on 3 February 1970, the day after his death. Russell died of influenza, just after 8 pm on 2 February 1970 at his home in Penrhyndeudraeth, aged 97. His body was cremated in Colwyn Bay on 5 February 1970 with five people present. In accordance with his will, there was no religious ceremony but one minute's silence; his ashes were later scattered over the Welsh mountains. Later in 1970, on 23 October, his will was published showing he had left an estate valued at £69,423 (equivalent to £ million in ). In 1980, a memorial to Russell was commissioned by a committee including the philosopher A. J. Ayer. It consists of a bust of Russell in Red Lion Square in London sculpted by Marcelle Quinton. Lady Katharine Jane Tait, Russell's daughter, founded the Bertrand Russell Society in 1974 to preserve and understand his work. It publishes the Bertrand Russell Society Bulletin, holds meetings and awards prizes for scholarship, including the Bertrand Russell Society Award. She also authored several essays about her father; as well as a book, My Father, Bertrand Russell, which was published in 1975. All members receive Russell: The Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies. For the sesquicentennial of his birth, in May 2022, McMaster University's Bertrand Russell Archive, the university's largest and most heavily used research collection, organised both a physical and virtual exhibition on Russell's anti-nuclear stance in the post-war era, Scientists for Peace: the Russell-Einstein Manifesto and the Pugwash Conference, which included the earliest version of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto. The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation held a commemoration at Conway Hall in Red Lion Square, London, on 18 May, the anniversary of his birth. For its part, on the same day, La Estrella de Panamá published a biographical sketch by Francisco Díaz Montilla, who commented that "[if he] had to characterize Russell's work in one sentence [he] would say: criticism and rejection of dogmatism." Bangladesh's first leader, Mujibur Rahman, named his youngest son Sheikh Russel in honour of Bertrand Russell. ====Marriages and issue==== In 1889, Russell at 17 years of age, met the family of Alys Pearsall Smith, an American Quaker five years older, who was a graduate of Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia. She asked him if he loved her and he cruelly replied that he did not. Russell also disliked Alys's mother, finding her controlling and cruel. A lengthy period of separation began in 1911 with Russell's affair with Lady Ottoline Morrell, and he and Alys finally divorced in 1921 to enable Russell to remarry. During his years of separation from Alys, Russell had affairs (often simultaneous) with a number of women, including Morrell and the actress Lady Constance Malleson. Some have suggested that at this point he had an affair with Vivienne Haigh-Wood, the English governess and writer, and first wife of T. S. Eliot. In 1921, his second marriage was to Dora Winifred Black MBE (died 1986), daughter of Sir Frederick Black. Dora was six months pregnant when the couple returned to England. This was dissolved in 1935, having produced two children: John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell (1921–1987) Lady Katharine Jane Russell (1923–2021), who married Rev. Charles Tait in 1948 and had issue Russell's third marriage was to Patricia Helen Spence (died 2004) in 1936, with the marriage producing one child: Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell (1937–2004). 5th Earl Russell, who became a historian and one of the leading figures in the Liberal Democrat party. ==Titles, awards and honours== Upon his brother's death in 1931, Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell of Kingston Russell, and the subsidiary title of Viscount Amberley of Amberley and of Ardsalla. He held both titles, and the accompanying seat in the House of Lords, until his death in 1970. ===Honours and awards=== ===Scholastic=== ==Views== ===Philosophy=== Russell is credited with being one of the founders of analytic philosophy. He was impressed by Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), and wrote on major areas of philosophy except aesthetics. He was prolific in the fields of metaphysics, logic and the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of language, ethics and epistemology. When Brand Blanshard asked Russell why he did not write on aesthetics, Russell replied that he did not know anything about it, though he hastened to add "but that is not a very good excuse, for my friends tell me it has not deterred me from writing on other subjects". On ethics, Russell wrote that he was a utilitarian in his youth, yet he later distanced himself from this view. For the advancement of science and protection of liberty of expression, Russell advocated The Will to Doubt, the recognition that all human knowledge is at most a best guess, that one should always remember: For most of his adult life, Russell maintained religion to be little more than superstition and, despite any positive effects, largely harmful to people. He believed that religion and the religious outlook serve to impede knowledge and foster fear and dependency, and to be responsible for much of our world's wars, oppression, and misery. He was a member of the advisory council of the British Humanist Association and the president of Cardiff Humanists until his death. ===Society=== Political and social activism occupied much of Russell's time for most of his life. Russell remained politically active almost to the end of his life, writing to and exhorting world leaders and lending his name to various causes. He was a prominent campaigner against Western intervention into the Vietnam War in the 1960s, writing essays and books, attending demonstrations, and even organising the Russell Tribunal in 1966 alongside other prominent philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, which fed into his 1967 book War Crimes in Vietnam. Russell argued for a "scientific society", where war would be abolished, population growth would be limited, and prosperity would be shared. He suggested the establishment of a "single supreme world government" able to enforce peace, claiming that "the only thing that will redeem mankind is co-operation". He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth. Russell also expressed support for guild socialism, and commented positively on several socialist thinkers and activists. According to Jean Bricmont and Normand Baillargeon, "Russell was both a liberal and a socialist, a combination that was perfectly comprehensible in his time, but which has become almost unthinkable today. He was a liberal in that he opposed concentrations of power in all its manifestations, military, governmental, or religious, as well as the superstitious or nationalist ideas that usually serve as its justification. But he was also a socialist, even as an extension of his liberalism, because he was equally opposed to the concentrations of power stemming from the private ownership of the major means of production, which therefore needed to be put under social control (which does not mean state control)." Russell was an active supporter of the Homosexual Law Reform Society, being one of the signatories of A. E. Dyson's 1958 letter to The Times calling for a change in the law regarding male homosexual practices, which were partly legalised in 1967, when Russell was still alive. He expressed sympathy and support for the Palestinian people and was critical of Israel's actions. He wrote in 1960 that, "I think it was a mistake to establish a Jewish State in Palestine, but it would be a still greater mistake to try to get rid of it now that it exists." In his final written document, read aloud in Cairo three days after his death on 31 January 1970, he condemned Israel as an aggressive imperialist power, which "wishes to consolidate with the least difficulty what it has already taken by violence. Every new conquest becomes the new basis of the proposed negotiation from strength, which ignores the injustice of the previous aggression." In regards to the Palestinian people and refugees, he wrote that, "No people anywhere in the world would accept being expelled en masse from their own country; how can anyone require the people of Palestine to accept a punishment which nobody else would tolerate? A permanent just settlement of the refugees in their homeland is an essential ingredient of any genuine settlement in the Middle East." Russell advocated for a universal basic income. In his 1918 book Roads to Freedom, Russell wrote that "Anarchism has the advantage as regards liberty, Socialism as regards the inducement to work. Can we not find a method of combining these two advantages? It seems to me that we can. [...] Stated in more familiar terms, the plan we are advocating amounts essentially to this: that a certain small income, sufficient for necessaries, should be secured to all, whether they work or not, and that a larger income – as much larger as might be warranted by the total amount of commodities produced – should be given to those who are willing to engage in some work which the community recognizes as useful...When education is finished, no one should be compelled to work, and those who choose not to work should receive a bare livelihood and be left completely free." In "Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday" ("Postscript" in his Autobiography), Russell wrote: "I have lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social. Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times. Social: to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them. These things I believe, and the world, for all its horrors, has left me unshaken". ===Freedom of opinion and expression=== Russell supported freedom of opinion and was an opponent of both censorship and indoctrination. In 1928, he wrote: "The fundamental argument for freedom of opinion is the doubtfulness of all our belief... when the State intervenes to ensure the indoctrination of some doctrine, it does so because there is no conclusive evidence in favour of that doctrine ... It is clear that thought is not free if the profession of certain opinions make it impossible to make a living". In 1957, he wrote: "'Free thought' means thinking freely ... to be worthy of the name freethinker he must be free of two things: the force of tradition and the tyranny of his own passions." ===Education=== Russell has presented ideas on the possible means of control of education in case of scientific dictatorship governments, of the kind of this excerpt taken from Chapter II "General Effects of Scientific Technique" of "The Impact of Science on society": He pushed his visionary scenarios even further into details, in Chapter III "Scientific Technique in an Oligarchy" of the same book, stating as an example: ==Selected works== Below are selected Russell's works in English, sorted by year of first publication: 1896. German Social Democracy. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1897. An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1900. A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1903. The Principles of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press 1903. A Free man's worship, and other essays. 1905. On Denoting, Mind, Vol. 14. . Basil Blackwell 1910. Philosophical Essays. London: Longmans, Green 1910–1913. Principia Mathematica. (with Alfred North Whitehead). 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1912. The Problems of Philosophy. London: Williams and Norgate 1914. Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy. Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing. 1916. Principles of Social Reconstruction. London, George Allen and Unwin 1916. Why Men Fight. New York: The Century Co 1916. The Policy of the Entente, 1904–1914: a reply to Professor Gilbert Murray. Manchester: The National Labour Press 1916. Justice in War-time. Chicago: Open Court 1917. Political Ideals. New York: The Century Co. 1918. Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays. London: George Allen & Unwin 1918. Proposed Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism. London: George Allen & Unwin 1919. Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin. ( for Routledge paperback) 1920. The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism. London: George Allen & Unwin 1921. The Analysis of Mind. London: George Allen & Unwin 1922. The Problem of China. London: George Allen & Unwin 1922. Free Thought and Official Propaganda, delivered at South Place Institute London: Watts 1927. Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell. New York: Modern Library 1928. Sceptical Essays. London: George Allen & Unwin 1929. Marriage and Morals. London: George Allen & Unwin 1930. The Conquest of Happiness. London: George Allen & Unwin 1931. The Scientific Outlook, London: George Allen & Unwin 1932. Education and the Social Order, London: George Allen & Unwin 1934. Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914. London: George Allen & Unwin 1935. In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays. London: George Allen & Unwin 1935. Religion and Science. London: Thornton Butterworth 1936. Which Way to Peace?. London: Jonathan Cape 1937. The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley, with Patricia Russell, 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press; reprinted (1966) as The Amberley Papers. Bertrand Russell's Family Background, 2 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin 1938. Power: A New Social Analysis. London: George Allen & Unwin 1940. An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1945. The Bomb and Civilisation. Published in the Glasgow Forward on 18 August 1945 1946. A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day New York: Simon and Schuster 1948. Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits. London: George Allen & Unwin 1949. Authority and the Individual. London: George Allen & Unwin 1950. . London: George Allen & Unwin 1951. New Hopes for a Changing World. London: George Allen & Unwin 1952. The Impact of Science on Society. London: George Allen & Unwin 1953. Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories. London: George Allen & Unwin 1954. Human Society in Ethics and Politics. London: George Allen & Unwin 1954. Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories. London: George Allen & Unwin 1956. Portraits from Memory and Other Essays. London: George Allen & Unwin 1956. Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950, edited by Robert C. Marsh. London: George Allen & Unwin 1957. Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects, edited by Paul Edwards. London: George Allen & Unwin 1958. Understanding History and Other Essays. New York: Philosophical Library 1958. The Will to Doubt. New York: Philosophical Library 1959. Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare. London: George Allen & Unwin 1959. My Philosophical Development. London: George Allen & Unwin 1959. Wisdom of the West: A Historical Survey of Western Philosophy in Its Social and Political Setting, edited by Paul Foulkes. London: Macdonald 1960. Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind, Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company 1961. The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell, edited by R. E. Egner and L. E. Denonn. London: George Allen & Unwin 1961. Fact and Fiction. London: George Allen & Unwin 1961. Has Man a Future? London: George Allen & Unwin 1963. Essays in Skepticism. New York: Philosophical Library 1963. Unarmed Victory. London: George Allen & Unwin 1965. Legitimacy Versus Industrialism, 1814–1848. London: George Allen & Unwin (first published as Parts I and II of Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914, 1934) 1965. On the Philosophy of Science, edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr. Indianapolis: The Bobbs–Merrill Company 1966. The ABC of Relativity. London: George Allen & Unwin 1967. Russell's Peace Appeals, edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka. Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books 1967. War Crimes in Vietnam. London: George Allen & Unwin 1951–1969. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin. Vol. 2, 1956 Additionally, he wrote many pamphlets, introductions, and letters to the editor. One pamphlet titled, I Appeal unto Caesar': The Case of the Conscientious Objectors, ghostwritten for Margaret Hobhouse, the mother of imprisoned peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, allegedly helped secure the release from prison of hundreds of conscientious objectors. His works can be found in anthologies and collections, including The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, which McMaster University began publishing in 1983. By March 2017 this collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works included 18 volumes, and several more are in progress. A bibliography in three additional volumes catalogues his publications. The Russell Archives held by McMaster's William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections possess over 40,000 of his letters.	[ "physics", "bronchitis", "Defence of the Realm Act", "eugenics", "Suez Crisis", "Why Men Fight (book)", "Spokesman Books", "logical holism", "International Congress of Philosophy", "Ronald W. Clark", "private ownership", "UN Security Council", "Earl Russell", "New Left", "Paris Exhibition of 1889", "Alfred North Whitehead", "Gottfried Leibniz", "John Lewis (philosopher)", "Victor Gollancz", "John Freeman (British politician)", "Philadelphia", "Elba", "Coefficients (dining club)", "Patricia Russell", "Michael Foot", "anti-imperialism", "Albert Einstein", "Committee of 100 (United Kingdom)", "Philosophical logic", "nuclear plant", "Cairo", "Tensor product of graphs", "Angina pectoris", "Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society", "Failure of reference", "Singleton (mathematics)", "List of premature obituaries", "opposition to World War I", "Power: A New Social Analysis", "Naive set theory", "William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections", "Aristotelian Society", "Metamathematics", "City College of New York", "Ivor Grattan-Guinness", "Tudor dynasty", "Brand Blanshard", "Imperialism", "Oder-Neisse line", "Jean Bricmont", "iarchive:bertrandrussell00ayer/page/n9/mode/2up", "Felix Pirani", "non-Euclidean geometry", "Great Reform Act", "The Bertrand Russell Case", "Mathematics", "Knowledge by acquaintance", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Trinity College, Cambridge", "Suez Canal", "Monmouthshire (historic)", "cameo appearance", "Quantification (logic)", "George Edward Moore", "Black Death", "Adolf Hitler", "universal basic income", "Karl Marx", "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy", "Wimbledon (UK Parliament constituency)", "Analytic philosophy", "hydrogen bombs", "Berry paradox", "John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell", "My Philosophical Development", "Raphael Demos", "progressive education", "Self-refuting idea", "Human", "Constitution for the Federation of Earth", "atomic proposition", "Dogma", "Court of Chancery", "Russell Tribunal", "London School of Economics", "foundations of mathematics", "aesthetics", "public intellectual", "University of California at Los Angeles", "Douglas Spalding", "Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell", "Red Lion Square", "Sidney Webb", "John Russell, 1st Earl Russell", "Westminster School", "Morris Raphael Cohen", "Cuban Missile Crisis", "Russell–Einstein Manifesto", "History of the Republic of China", "John Arden", "Labour Party (UK)", "Napoleon Bonaparte", "Frege–Russell view", "John F. Kennedy", "John Stuart Mill", "War of Attrition", "birth control", "La Estrella de Panamá", "HM Prison Brixton", "The New York Times", "George Santayana", "Congress for Cultural Freedom", "Fellow", "archive.org", "knowledge by description", "University of California, Los Angeles", "John Foster Dulles", "Darwinism", "Presbyterian", "Existential fallacy", "logic", "Percy Bysshe Shelley", "Type theory", "Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club", "Monmouthshire", "British Humanist Association", "Sheikh Russel", "set theory", "peerage", "Warren Commission", "Neutral monism", "deist", "nuclear disarmament", "Paradoxes of set theory", "University of Chicago", "Defence of the Realm Act 1914", "Israel", "Western philosophy", "1922 United Kingdom general election", "arms embargo", "Russell's paradox", "Birthday Honours", "Soviet Union", "Arab world", "Ray Perkins, Jr.", "Ved Mehta", "early childhood education", "Lucy Donnelly", "Socialism", "Direct reference theory", "Eminent Victorians", "Arnold Lupton", "Russian Revolution of 1917", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "World War I", "Glorious Revolution", "Russell's teapot", "List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union", "Alessandro Padoa", "Trellech", "20th-century philosophy", "Anarchism", "Hungarian Revolution of 1956", "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "G. E. Moore", "totalitarianism", "Katharine Tait", "Wolfgang Paalen", "The Problems of Philosophy", "Paul Arthur Schilpp", "Lytton Strachey", "world constitution", "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus", "Edith Finch Russell", "British Whig Party", "Life (magazine)", "extinction", "Russellian change", "sexual morality", "Alexius Meinong", "G. H. Hardy", "DYN (magazine)", "pneumonia", "Double negation", "Hugh Trevor-Roper", "Round square copula", "Logical atomism", "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel", "superstition", "God in Christianity", "McMaster University", "coherence theory of truth", "Dover Books", "Philosophy", "A. N. Whitehead", "freedom of thought", "Descriptivist theory of names", "Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley", "Irving Copi", "In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays", "feminist", "Zionism", "Stalinism", "Jean Kay", "Relation (philosophy)", "appeasement", "1923 United Kingdom general election", "logicism", "Hereditary peer", "Longman", "socialism", "BBC Home Service", "UCLA Department of Philosophy", "Lionel Rogosin", "Mind (journal)", "influenza", "Barnes Foundation", "Jerusalem Prize", "University of Cambridge", "Soviet Union of Writers", "V. K. Krishna Menon", "Cayley–Klein metric", "conscientious objector", "Connective (logic)", "Epistemology", "Russell-style universes", "Chelsea (UK Parliament constituency)", "Albert C. Barnes", "Volga", "Gottlob Frege", "The Brains Trust", "Arab nationalism", "Palestinian refugees", "Canadian Broadcasting Corporation", "Bertrand Russell's views on philosophy", "A. E. Dyson", "Celia Green", "Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley", "Philosophical Investigations", "Battle of Britain", "A. C. Grayling", "Vietnam War", "Beatrice Webb", "The Principles of Mathematics", "On Denoting", "Alan Wood (author)", "Rabindranath Tagore", "The Times", "Mathematical Tripos", "New York Supreme Court", "Edward FitzGerald (mountaineer)", "Why I Am Not a Christian", "A. J. Ayer", "traditional education", "Liberalism", "List of pioneers in computer science", "The Will to Doubt", "Russellian propositions", "USSR", "Lady Constance Malleson", "Cold War", "Fabian Society", "Definite description", "population control", "Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell", "Rupert Crawshay-Williams", "Principia Mathematica", "Nazi Germany", "Abstract object theory", "Beijing", "BBC", "J. B. Priestley", "Penrhyndeudraeth", "nuclear weapon", "means of production", "Propositional analysis", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "education of women", "Spanish Inquisition", "Automated theorem proving", "Chicken (game)", "Barry Stevens (therapist)", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "social justice", "Lee Harvey Oswald", "diphtheria", "Dora Russell", "hegemony", "Ray Monk", "1907 Wimbledon by-election", "First Cause", "phobia", "Home Rule", "London School of Economics and Political Science", "Propositional formula", "T. S. Eliot", "Philip Snowden", "Eric Chappelow", "Ramsay MacDonald", "King James Version", "Dreyfus affair", "Nobel Prize in Literature", "Michael Polanyi", "Lady Ottoline Morrell", "Order of Merit", "utilitarian", "Charles George Gordon", "Barber paradox", "Aman (film)", "Alys Pearsall Smith", "Kalinga Prize", "causality", "C. D. Broad", "Vladimir Lenin", "Cleddon Hall", "Information Research Department", "Cambridge University Press", "Robert Rumsey Webb", "Colwyn Bay", "M. S. Arnoni", "Mark Lane (author)", "Type system", "Sylvester Medal", "Propositional calculus", "Conway Hall", "1950 Nobel Prize in Literature", "Edward VIII of the United Kingdom", "Ernest Gellner", "Cambridge Apostles", "guild socialism", "Homosexual Law Reform Society", "Bertrand Russell's political views", "ordinary language philosophy", "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "Simone de Beauvoir", "Hindi", "Lords Temporal", "John Russell, 4th Earl Russell", "British undergraduate degree classification", "Nuclear weapon", "dissolution of the monasteries", "California Institute of Technology", "CIA", "World Constituent Assembly", "free will", "Caroline Moorehead", "Today (BBC Radio 4)", "John F. Kennedy assassination", "nuclear warfare", "Independent Liberal", "Order of Merit (Commonwealth)", "India League", "doctrine of internal relations", "Good Times, Wonderful Times", "Trondheim", "Epistemic structural realism", "Logical form", "Cornwall", "prisoner of war", "Liberal Democrats (UK)", "atheism", "British philosophy", "classical logic", "Harold Wilson", "history of philosophy", "Giuseppe Peano", "genocidal", "Porthcurno", "Walter Pitts", "Gestalt therapy", "Joseph Conrad", "List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1908", "Katharine Russell, Viscountess Amberley", "sphere of influence", "Harting", "ramified type theory", "Euclid", "Budapest", "Criticism of Jesus", "Palestinians", "Middle East", "October Revolution", "Major depressive disorder", "sesquicentennial", "The Royal Society", "John Dewey", "Six-Day War", "Victorian morality", "Duke of Bedford", "Formulario mathematico", "The Right Honourable", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "British Idealism", "Peano–Russell notation", "Nature (journal)", "Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)", "Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation", "Jean-Paul Sartre", "Bryn Mawr College", "Richmond Park", "James Ward (psychologist)", "Pre-emptive nuclear strike", "McMaster University's", "Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell", "Pacifism", "Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn", "Independent Labour Party", "Unity of the proposition", "Nigel Lawson", "British idealism", "Bachelor of Arts", "South Vietnam", "metaphysics", "Horace M. Kallen", "Lady Katharine Tait", "Religious Society of Friends", "List of peace activists", "Mathematical logic", "Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society", "logical atomism", "Automated reasoning", "Caroline Benn", "Ludwig Wittgenstein", "Free Thought and Official Propaganda", "Mathematical beauty", "Al Seckel", "Mary Baker Eddy", "Frances Russell, Countess Russell", "The New Republic", "Georg Cantor", "Logicomix", "s:Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays", "University of Oxford", "Member of the House of Lords", "A History of Western Philosophy", "Twelve Olympians", "Mujibur Rahman", "Michael Scott (priest)", "Gilbert Ryle", "mental illness", "Reith Lectures", "atheist", "World War II", "Predicativism", "Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers", "Kingston Russell", "John Russell, Viscount Amberley", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Czechoslovakia", "U Thant", "analytic philosophy", "BBC Third Programme", "Russell's conjugation", "Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park", "Russell–Myhill paradox", "Wrangler (University of Cambridge)", "Stephen Hobhouse", "The Observer", "De Morgan Medal", "Bukken Bruse disaster", "Mohan Kumar (director)", "dialectical materialism", "Meaning (philosophy of language)", "The Nation", "British aristocracy", "Alexei Kosygin", "Marriage and Morals", "Patricia Russell (nee Spence)", "George VI", "Peking", "Axiom of reducibility", "Liberal Party (UK)", "Theory of descriptions", "Eiffel Tower", "Vivienne Haigh-Wood", "Buddha", "mathematics" ]
4,165	Boeing 767	\| 4,905 cu ft (138.9 m3) \|- ! \| colspan=2 \| 22 LD2s \| colspan=2 \| 30 LD2s \| 38 LD2s \|- ! Length \| colspan=2 \| 159 ft 2 in (48.51 m) \| colspan=2 \| 180 ft 3 in (54.94 m) \| 201 ft 4 in (61.37 m) \|- ! Wingspan \| 3,130 sq ft2 (290.7 m2) \|- ! Fuselage \| colspan=5 \| Exterior: 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) height, 16 ft 6 in (5.03 m) width; \| 315,000 lb (142.9 t) \| 395,000 lb (179.2 t) \| 350,000 lb (158.8 t) \| 412,000 lb (186.9 t) \| 450,000 lb (204.1 t) \|- ! Max. payload \| \| 6,590 nmi(12,200 km; ) \| \| 5,980 nmi(11,070 km; ) \| 5,625 nmi(10,415 km; ) \|- ! Cruise speed \| colspan=5 \| Long range-Maximum: at altitude of \|- ! Ceiling \| colspan=5 \| \|- ! Takeoff \| \| 8,150 ft (2,480 m) \| \| 8,700 ft (2,650 m) \| 10,800 ft (3,290 m) \|- ! Engines (×2) \| JT9D / PW4000 / CF6 \| colspan=2 \| JT9D / PW4000 / CF6 / RB211 \| PW4000 / CF6 / RB211 \| CF6 / PW4000 \|- ! Thrust (×2) \| \| \| \| \| \|}	[ "Airbus A300", "Boeing Defense, Space & Security", "diversion airport", "Kenya Airways", "Airbus", "United Airlines Flight 175", "Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport", "Hydraulics", "Britannia Airways", "Kevlar", "spatial disorientation", "active electronically scanned array", "airline hub", "Israel Aerospace Industries", "maiden flight", "United States Air Force", "Washington, D.C.", "cupola", "United Airlines", "Spirit of Delta", "nautical mile", "September 11 attacks", "landing gear", "Trinity Bay (Texas)", "Gimli, Manitoba", "International Civil Aviation Organization", "Nova Scotia", "tailstrike", "UPS Airlines", "lift (force)", "Hollywood International Airport", "Poland", "Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker", "fastener", "tailplane", "trijet", "refueling boom", "Autoland", "spoke–hub distribution paradigm", "economy class", "Italian Air Force", "Airbus A310", "EgyptAir Flight 990", "Boeing E-767", "Frankfurt Airport", "BBC News", "payload", "Kawasaki Heavy Industries", "CNBC", "RB211", "DHL Aviation", "Boeing New Midsize Airplane", "spoiler (aeronautics)", "Range (aeronautics)", "electric motor", "Operating empty weight", "WP:WikiProject Aircraft/page content", "Kansai International Airport", "Bangkok", "Water landing", "chief financial officer", "turbofan", "Boeing Commercial Airplanes", "Cathode-ray tube", "General Electric CF6", "hardpoint", "Maximum takeoff weight", "United States Army", "Transcontinental flight", "Rolls-Royce RB211", "TWA Flight 800", "Boeing E-3 Sentry", "nacelle", "head-up display", "Mauritius", "Boeing 707", "controlled flight into terrain", "Lauda Air Flight 004", "Thrust reversal", "Gimli Glider", "pallet", "composite material", "General Electric GEnx", "Aircraft maintenance checks", "Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer", "ETOPS", "Spar (aviation)", "winglet", "George Bush Intercontinental Airport", "aerodynamic", "Pratt & Whitney JT9D", "Cruise (flight)", "Japan Self-Defense Forces", "Rolls-Royce Trent", "airframe", "Electronic flight instrument system", "McDonnell Douglas DC-10", "Boeing Sonic Cruiser", "intercontinental ballistic missile", "Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS", "Gimhae International Airport", "raked wingtips", "Boeing 757", "narrow-body aircraft", "American Airlines", "seniority", "Douglas DC-8", "Point-to-point transit", "Strategic Air Command", "hull loss", "Delta Flight Museum", "STOL", "lift-induced drag", "KC-X", "Northrop Grumman E-10", "corrosion", "National Transportation Safety Board", "SIGINT", "Unit load device", "aluminium alloy", "World Trade Center (1973–2001)", "supercritical airfoil", "All Nippon Airways", "Boeing KC-46", "Airbus A310-300", "Aircraft hijacking", "John F. Kennedy International Airport", "Boeing Everett Factory", "flight engineer", "Cantilever wing", "Indian Ocean", "cargo aircraft", "Lauda Air", "garment bag", "Brazilian Air Force", "robot", "Comoro Islands", "Computer stereo vision", "Mainline (flight)", "ram air turbine", "CF6", "Northrop Grumman E-10 MC2A", "T-tail", "ST Aerospace", "Aeritalia", "glass cockpit", "Australian Transport", "List of jet airliners", "Airborne Early Warning and Control", "computer-aided design", "overwing exit", "evacuation slide", "Ethiopian Airlines", "Collapse of the World Trade Center", "Payload (air and space craft)", "auxiliary power unit", "Mach number", "Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961", "Boeing Rotorcraft Systems", "Supercritical airfoil", "Spirit AeroSystems", "Fuji Heavy Industries", "Boeing KC-767", "wing aspect ratio", "international waters", "Airbus A300-600", "Amazon Air", "Dennis Muilenburg", "Ceiling (aeronautics)", "business class", "El Al", "MTOW", "Galley (kitchen)", "Boeing RC-135", "GE CF6", "electronic flight instrument system", "Boeing 747", "Airborne early warning and control", "unit load device", "Airbus A330", "Taguatinga, Federal District", "FedEx Express", "Aviation accidents and incidents", "avionics", "Addis Ababa Bole International Airport", "Federal Aviation Administration", "Air Mauritius", "737NG", "Trans World Airlines", "tricycle landing gear", "EADS", "Pratt & Whitney PW4000", "refrigeration", "Air China Flight 129", "American Airlines Flight 383 (2016)", "Instrument landing system", "American Airlines Flight 11", "Transatlantic flight", "chief executive officer", "Wingtip device", "Airliner", "Boeing 777", "operating cost", "leading edge", "Boeing KC-46 Pegasus", "Nantucket", "Transbrasil", "Competition between Airbus and Boeing", "aircraft registration", "leading edge slat", "Warsaw Chopin Airport", "Continental Airlines", "Colombian Air Force", "Airbus A330-200", "Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)", "Plug door", "circuit breaker", "Jet engine", "Boeing 787 Dreamliner", "electromechanics", "radar", "Boeing Yellowstone Project", "aerodynamic drag", "Air Canada", "wide-body airliner", "Lockheed L-1011 TriStar", "Uncontained engine failure", "flight management system", "LOT Polish Airlines Flight 16", "empennage", "Mount Rainier", "Mitsubishi Heavy Industries", "fuel efficiency", "gross weight", "twinjet", "Delta Air Lines", "Aviation Partners Inc.", "direct flight", "N767BA", "Dispatch (logistics)", "aileron", "Reliability engineering", "HighBeam", "low wing", "KC-46", "aerial refueling", "conflict of interest", "Flightglobal", "Engine Alliance", "WP:WikiProject Aircraft", "Re-engine", "Flap (aircraft)", "pilot error", "WP:Air/PC", "2001 shoe bomb attempt", "Dynamic Airways Flight 405", "type rating", "British Airways", "Wide-body aircraft", "wind tunnel", "Mojave Air and Space Port", "trailing edge", "Japan Airlines", "transatlantic flight", "Ansett Australia", "Warsaw, Poland", "List of civil aircraft", "Fleet commonality", "Philip M. Condit", "high-bypass turbofan", "earnings", "China Airlines", "Atlas Air Flight 3591", "Rockwell Collins", "Cargo aircraft", "Aircraft fairing" ]
4,166	Bill Walsh	William Ernest Walsh (November 30, 1931 – July 30, 2007) was an American professional and college football coach. He served as head coach of the San Francisco 49ers and the Stanford Cardinal, during which time he popularized the West Coast offense. After retiring from the 49ers, Walsh worked as a sports broadcaster for several years and then returned as head coach at Stanford for three seasons. Walsh went 102–63–1 (wins-losses-ties) with the 49ers, winning 10 of his 14 postseason games along with six division titles, three NFC Championship titles, and three Super Bowls. He was named NFL Coach of the Year in 1981 and 1984. In 1993, he was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He is widely considered amongst the greatest coaches in NFL history. ==Early life== Walsh was born in Fremont, California. He attended Hayward High School in Hayward in the San Francisco Bay Area, where he played running back. Walsh played quarterback at the College of San Mateo for two seasons. (Both John Madden and Walsh played and coached at the College of San Mateo early in their careers.) After playing at the College of San Mateo, Walsh transferred to San José State University, where he played tight end and defensive end. He also participated in intercollegiate boxing, winning the golden glove. Walsh graduated from San Jose State with a bachelor's degree in physical education in 1955. After two years in the U.S. Army participating on their boxing team, Walsh built a championship team at Washington High School in Fremont before becoming an assistant coach at Cal, Stanford and then the Oakland Raiders in 1966. ==College coaching career== He served under Bob Bronzan as a graduate assistant coach on the Spartans football coaching staff and graduated with a master's degree in physical education from San Jose State in 1959. His master's thesis was entitled Flank Formation Football -- Stress: Defense. Thesis 796.W228f. Following graduation, Walsh coached the football and swim teams at Washington High School in Fremont, California. While there he interviewed for an assistant coaching position with the new head coach of the University of California, Berkeley California Golden Bears football team, Marv Levy. "I was very impressed, individually, by his knowledge, by his intelligence, by his personality, and hired him," Levy said. Levy and Walsh, two future NFL Hall of Famers, would never produce a winning season for the Golden Bears. Leaving Berkeley, Walsh did a stint at Stanford University as an assistant coach of its Cardinal football team before beginning his pro coaching career. ==Professional coaching career== ===Early years=== Walsh began his pro coaching career in 1966 as an assistant with the AFL's Oakland Raiders. There he was versed in the downfield-oriented "vertical" passing offense favored by Al Davis, an acolyte of Sid Gillman. Walsh left the Raiders the next year to become the head coach and general manager of the San Jose Apaches of the Continental Football League (CFL). He led the Apaches to second place in the Pacific Division, but the team ceased all football operations prior to the start of the 1968 CFL season. In 1968, Walsh joined the staff of head coach Paul Brown of the AFL expansion Cincinnati Bengals, where he coached wide receivers from 1968 to 1970. It was there that Walsh developed the philosophy now known as the "West Coast offense". Cincinnati's new quarterback, Virgil Carter, was known for his great mobility and accuracy but lacked a strong arm necessary to throw deep passes. To suit his strengths, Walsh suggested a modification of the downfield based "vertical passing scheme" he had learned during his time with the Raiders with one featuring a "horizontal" approach that relied on quick, short throws, often spreading the ball across the entire width of the field. In 1971 Walsh was given the additional responsibility of coaching the quarterbacks, and Carter went on to lead the league in pass completion percentage. Ken Anderson eventually replaced Carter as starting quarterback, and, together with star wide receiver Isaac Curtis, produced a consistent, effective offensive attack. When Brown retired as head coach following the 1975 season and appointed Bill "Tiger" Johnson as his successor, Walsh resigned and served as an assistant coach in 1976 for the San Diego Chargers under head coach Tommy Prothro. In a 2006 interview, Walsh claimed that during his tenure with the Bengals, Brown "worked against my candidacy" to be a head coach anywhere in the league. "All the way through I had opportunities, and I never knew about them", Walsh said. "And then when I left him, he called whoever he thought was necessary to keep me out of the NFL." Walsh also claimed that Brown kept talking him down any time Brown was called by NFL teams considering hiring Walsh as a head coach. In 1977, Walsh was hired by Stanford University as the head coach of its Cardinal football team, where he stayed for two seasons. He was quite successful, with his teams posting a 9–3 record in 1977 with a win in the Sun Bowl, and going 8–4 in 1978 with a win in the Bluebonnet Bowl. His notable players at Stanford included quarterbacks Guy Benjamin, Steve Dils, wide receivers James Lofton and Ken Margerum, linebacker Gordy Ceresino, and running back Darrin Nelson. Walsh was the Pac-8 Conference Coach of the Year in 1977. ===49ers head coach=== On January 9, 1979, Walsh resigned as head coach at Stanford, and San Francisco 49ers team owner Edward J. DeBartolo, Jr. fired head coach Fred O'Connor and general manager Joe Thomas following a 2–14 in 1978 season. Walsh was appointed head coach of the 49ers the next day. The 49ers went 2-14 again in 1979. Hidden behind that record were organizational changes made by Walsh that set the team on a better course, including selecting Notre Dame quarterback Joe Montana in the third round of the 1979 NFL draft. In 1980, starting quarterback Steve DeBerg got the 49ers off to a 3–0 start, but after a week 6 blowout loss to the Dallas Cowboys by a score of 59–14, Walsh gave Montana a chance to start. On December 7 vs. the New Orleans Saints, the second-year player brought the 49ers back from a 35–7 halftime deficit to a 38–35 overtime win. In spite of this switch, the team struggled to a 6–10 finish – a record that belied a championship team in the making. ====1981 championship==== In 1981, Walsh's efforts as head coach led the team to a 13–3 regular season. The 13 wins were a franchise record at the time, and were three more than they had won in the previous three seasons combined. Key victories were two wins each over the Los Angeles Rams and the Dallas Cowboys. The Rams were only two seasons removed from a Super Bowl appearance, and had dominated the series with the 49ers since 1967, winning 23, losing 3 and tying 1. San Francisco's two wins over the Rams in 1981 marked the shift of dominance in favor of the 49ers that lasted until 1998 with 30 wins (including 17 consecutively) against only 6 defeats. The 49ers blew out the Cowboys in week 6 of the regular season. On Monday Night Football that week, the win was not included in the halftime highlights. Walsh felt that this was because the Cowboys were scheduled to play the Rams the next week in a Sunday night game and that showing the highlights of the 49ers' win would potentially hurt the game's ratings. However, Walsh used this as a motivating factor for his team, who felt they were disrespected. The 49ers faced the Cowboys again in the NFC title game. The contest was very close, and in the fourth quarter Walsh called a series of running plays as the 49ers marched down the field against the Cowboys' prevent defense, which had been expecting the 49ers to mainly pass. The 49ers came from behind to win the game on Joe Montana's pass completion to Dwight Clark for a touchdown, a play that came to be known simply as The Catch, propelling Walsh to his first appearance in a Super Bowl. Walsh would later write that the 49ers' two wins over the Rams showed a shift of power in their division, while the wins over the Cowboys showed a shift of power in the conference. Two weeks later, on January 24, 1982, San Francisco faced the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XVI, winning 26–21 for the team's first NFL championship. Only a year removed from back-to-back two-win seasons, the 49ers had risen from the cellar to the top of the NFL in just two seasons. What came to be known as the West Coast offense developed by Walsh had proven a winner. In all, Walsh served as 49ers head coach for 10 years, winning three Super Bowl championships, in the 1981, 1984, and 1988 seasons, and establishing a new NFL record. Walsh had a disciplined approach to game-planning, famously scripting the first 10–15 offensive plays before the start of each game. His innovative play calling and design earned him the nickname "The Genius". In the ten-year span under Walsh, San Francisco scored 3,714 points (24.4 per game), the most of any team in the league. In addition to Joe Montana, Walsh drafted Ronnie Lott, Charles Haley, and Jerry Rice, each one going on to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. He also traded a 2nd and 4th round pick in the 1987 draft for Steve Young, who took over from Montana, led the team to Super Bowl success, and was enshrined in Canton after his playing career. Walsh's success at every level of football, especially with the 49ers, earned him his own ticket to Canton in 1993. On January 22, 1989, Walsh coached his final game with the 49ers, the memorable Super Bowl XXIII in which San Francisco beat Cincinnati 20–16. Walsh resigned as the 49ers head coach after the game. Walsh admitted years later that he immediately regretted the decision saying that he left too soon. ===Coaching tree=== ====Upline==== Walsh's upline coaching tree included working as assistant for American Football League great and Hall of Fame head coach Al Davis and NFL legend and Hall of Famer Paul Brown, and, through Davis, AFL great and Hall of Fame head coach Sid Gillman of the then AFL Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers. ====Downline==== Tree updated through December 9, 2015. Many Walsh assistants went on to become head coaches,. including George Seifert, Mike Holmgren, Ray Rhodes, and Dennis Green. Seifert succeeded Walsh as 49ers head coach, and guided San Francisco to victories in Super Bowl XXIV and Super Bowl XXIX. Holmgren won a Super Bowl with the Green Bay Packers, and made 3 Super Bowl appearances as a head coach: 2 with the Packers, and another with the Seattle Seahawks. These coaches in turn have their own disciples who have used Walsh's West Coast system, such as former Denver Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan and former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak. Mike Shanahan was an offensive coordinator under George Seifert and went on to win Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXIII during his time as head coach of the Denver Broncos. Kubiak was first a quarterback coach with the 49ers, and then offensive coordinator for Shanahan with the Broncos. In 2015, he became the Broncos' head coach and led Denver to victory in Super Bowl 50. Dennis Green trained Tony Dungy, who won a Super Bowl with the Indianapolis Colts, and Brian Billick with his brother-in law and linebackers coach Mike Smith. Billick won a Super Bowl as head coach of the Baltimore Ravens. Mike Holmgren trained many of his assistants to become head coaches, including Jon Gruden and Andy Reid. Gruden won a Super Bowl with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Reid served as head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles from 1999 to 2012, and guided the Eagles to multiple winning seasons and numerous playoff appearances, including 1 Super Bowl appearance. Ever since 2013, Reid has served as head coach of the Kansas City Chiefs. He was finally able to win a Super Bowl, when his Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl LIV, and two consecutive when his Chiefs defeated the Eagles in Super Bowl LVII and the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl LVIII. In addition to this, Marc Trestman, former head coach of the Chicago Bears, served as offensive coordinator under Seifert in the 90's. Gruden himself would train Mike Tomlin, who led the Pittsburgh Steelers to their sixth Super Bowl championship, and Jim Harbaugh, whose 49ers would face his brother, John Harbaugh, whom Reid himself trained, and the Baltimore Ravens at Super Bowl XLVII, which marked the Ravens' second World Championship. Bill Walsh was viewed as a strong advocate for African-American head coaches in the NFL and NCAA. Thus, the impact of Walsh also changed the NFL into an equal opportunity for African-American coaches. Along with Ray Rhodes and Dennis Green, Tyrone Willingham became the head coach at Stanford, then later Notre Dame and Washington. One of Mike Shanahan's assistants, Karl Dorrell, went on to be the head coach at UCLA. Walsh directly helped propel Dennis Green into the NFL head coaching ranks by offering to take on the head coaching job at Stanford. ===Later years=== After leaving the coaching ranks immediately following his team's victory in Super Bowl XXIII, Walsh went to work as a broadcaster for NBC, teaming with Dick Enberg to form the lead broadcasting team, replacing Merlin Olsen. During his time with NBC, rumors began to surface that Walsh would coach again in the NFL. There were at least two known instances. First, according to a February 2015 article by Mike Florio of NBC Sports, after a 5–11 season in 1989, the Patriots fired Raymond Berry and unsuccessfully attempted to lure Walsh to Foxborough to become head coach and general manager. When that failed, New England promoted defensive coordinator Rod Rust; the team split its first two games and then lost 14 straight in 1990. Second, late in the 1990 season, Walsh was rumored to become Tampa Bay's next head coach and general manager after the team fired Ray Perkins and promoted Richard Williamson on an interim basis. Part of the speculation was fueled by the fact that Walsh's contract with NBC, which ran for 1989 and 1990, would soon be up for renewal, to say nothing of the pressure Hugh Culverhouse faced to increase fan support and to fill the seats at Tampa Stadium. However, less than a week after Super Bowl XXV, Walsh not only declined Tampa Bay's offer, but he and NBC agreed on a contract extension. Walsh would continue in his role with NBC for 1991. Meanwhile, after unsuccessfully courting then-recently fired Eagles coach Buddy Ryan or Giants then-defensive coordinator Bill Belichick to man the sidelines for Tampa Bay in 1991, the Bucs stuck with Williamson. Under Williamson's leadership, Tampa Bay won only three games in 1991. On January 15, 1992, Walsh agreed to return to Stanford to serve as their head coach with a five year contract with an annual salary of $350,000 to replace Dennis Green; he immediately named Terry Shea as offensive coordinator. That year, he led the Cardinal to a 10–3 record and a Pacific-10 Conference co-championship; it was the first conference championship for the program since 1971. Stanford finished the season with a victory over Penn State in the Blockbuster Bowl on January 1, 1993, and a #9 ranking in the final AP Poll. In November 1994, after consecutive losing seasons, Walsh left Stanford and retired from coaching. In 1996, Walsh returned to the 49ers as an administrative aide. Walsh was the vice president and general manager for the 49ers from 1999 to 2001 and was a special consultant to the team for three years afterwards. In 2004, Walsh was appointed as special assistant to the athletic director at Stanford. In 2005, after then-athletic director Ted Leland stepped down, Walsh was named interim athletic director. He also acted as a consultant for his alma mater San Jose State University in their search for an athletic director and Head Football Coach in 2005. Walsh was also the author of three books, a motivational speaker, and taught classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business. Walsh was a board member for the Lott IMPACT Trophy, which is named after Pro Football Hall of Fame defensive back Ronnie Lott, and is awarded annually to college football's Defensive IMPACT Player of the Year. Walsh served as a keynote speaker at the award's banquet. ==Awards and honors== 1989 – Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement 1993 – Pro Football Hall of Fame 1998 – San Jose State Hall of Fame and the SJSU Tower Award, the highest award given by SJSU ==Personal life== Bill married his college sweetheart Geri, and had 3 children; Steve, Craig and Elizabeth. ==Death== Bill Walsh died of leukemia on July 30, 2007, at his home in Woodside, California. Additionally, the regular San Jose State versus Stanford football game was renamed the "Bill Walsh Legacy Game". Super Bowl XLII was also dedicated to Walsh's memory; at the end of the player introduction ceremonies, his son, Craig, accompanied by Ronnie Lott, Jerry Rice and Steve Young, performed the ceremonial coin toss with New York Giants captain Michael Strahan, playing his final career NFL game, calling the toss on behalf of his Giants co-captains and the New England Patriots' captains. ==Head coaching record== ===College=== ===NFL=== ==Books== Bill Walsh and Glenn Dickey, Building a Champion: On Football and the Making of the 49ers. St Martin's Press, 1990. (). Bill Walsh, Brian Billick and James A. Peterson, Finding the Winning Edge. Sports Publishing, 1998. (). Bill Walsh with Steve Jamison and Craig Walsh, The Score Takes Care of Itself: My Philosophy of Leadership. Penguin Group Publishing, 2009 ().	[ "University of California, Los Angeles", "Super Bowl XXXII", "Indianapolis Colts", "Stanford University", "1988 San Francisco 49ers season", "Stanford Cardinal football", "Super Bowl XIV", "1979 NFL season", "1978 NCAA Division I-A football season", "Continental Football League", "Super Bowl LVIII", "wide receiver", "1985 San Francisco 49ers season", "Penn State Nittany Lions football", "1985 New York Giants season", "coaching tree", "defensive end", "1966 AFL season", "Jerry Rice", "Paul Brown", "Super Bowl XLIII", "1983–84 NFL playoffs", "Merlin Olsen", "1975 NFL season", "Virgil Carter", "1981 Los Angeles Rams season", "NFL Coach of the Year Award", "1981 San Francisco 49ers season", "Mike Shanahan", "Steve Young", "Chicago Bears", "1979 San Francisco 49ers season", "Bill \"Tiger\" Johnson", "New York Giants", "1980 San Francisco 49ers season", "Fremont, California", "Bob Trumpy", "Profootballtalk.com", "1981–82 NFL playoffs", "Super Bowl XIX", "Baltimore Ravens", "George Seifert", "Super Bowl 50", "Pittsburgh Steelers", "Los Angeles Times", "University of California, Berkeley", "Monday Night Football", "Pacific-10 Conference", "Amos Alonzo Stagg Award", "Super Bowl LVII", "1977 NCAA Division I football season", "United States Army", "Marv Levy", "Tony Dungy", "Buddy Ryan", "Bill Walsh College Football", "1989 New England Patriots season", "1981 NFL season", "1962 NCAA University Division football season", "Darrin Nelson", "San Diego Chargers", "Washington High School (Fremont, California)", "Guy Benjamin", "Los Angeles", "Al Davis", "Richard Williamson (American football)", "physical education", "Denver Broncos", "1982 San Francisco 49ers season", "1987 Minnesota Vikings season", "1991 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season", "Bill Walsh College Football '95", "1993 NCAA Division I-A football season", "Oakland Raiders", "NFC Championship Game", "New England Patriots", "1994 NCAA Division I-A football season", "San Jose Apaches", "Mike Florio", "Super Bowl XVI", "Sid Gillman", "Super Bowl XXV", "1987–88 NFL playoffs", "Woodside, California", "2001 San Francisco 49ers season", "Lott Trophy", "Hugh Culverhouse", "San Francisco 49ers Hall of Fame", "Super Bowl XXXVII", "Terry Shea", "American Academy of Achievement", "1986 New York Giants season", "Tampa Stadium", "1993 Blockbuster Bowl", "boxing", "Bill Belichick", "Dick Enberg", "Steve Young (American football)", "1980 New Orleans Saints season", "John Madden", "Steve DeBerg", "Mike Smith (American football coach)", "Super Bowl XXXV", "1963 NCAA University Division football season", "Joe Montana", "1968 AFL season", "Cincinnati Bengals", "California Golden Bears football", "1978 Stanford Cardinals football team", "1976 NFL season", "NFL on NBC", "Tommy Prothro", "Ray Perkins", "Hayward, California", "Andy Reid", "Isaac Curtis", "Candlestick Park", "1977 Sun Bowl (December)", "101 Awards", "Gordy Ceresino", "1984 NFL season", "1983 Washington Redskins season", "American football", "American Football League", "Jim Harbaugh", "1985 NFL season", "AP Poll", "bachelor's degree", "1990 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season", "Hayward High School (California)", "1986 San Francisco 49ers season", "Pac-12 Conference", "1982 NFL season", "thesis", "Super Bowl XXIV", "Green Bay Packers", "NFL 1980s All-Decade Team", "The Score Takes Care of Itself: My Philosophy of Leadership", "San José State Spartans", "Stanford Graduate School of Business", "1978 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team", "1981 Cincinnati Bengals season", "Mike Holmgren", "John Harbaugh", "Super Bowl XLI", "San Francisco 49ers", "1992 Stanford Cardinal football team", "1977 Stanford Cardinals football team", "1987 NFL season", "1980 Dallas Cowboys season", "ESPN", "AP NFL Coach of the Year Award", "Joe Thomas (American football executive)", "Marc Trestman", "University of Notre Dame", "1994 Stanford Cardinal football team", "Raymond Berry", "offensive coordinator", "1985–86 NFL playoffs", "Rod Rust", "1993 Stanford Cardinal football team", "1978 San Francisco 49ers season", "Vallejo, California", "tight end", "Charles Haley", "1990 New England Patriots season", "1986 NFL season", "Kansas City Chiefs", "Super Bowl XXXIII", "Associated Press", "Philadelphia Eagles", "Super Bowl XXIII", "1986–87 NFL playoffs", "Super Bowl XXXI", "Super Bowls", "Penguin Group", "1983 NFL season", "1984 San Francisco 49ers season", "Tampa Bay Buccaneers", "San Jose State University", "1960 college football season", "Edward J. DeBartolo, Jr.", "Super Bowl LIV", "Super Bowl XLVII", "1978 Bluebonnet Bowl", "1980 NFL season", "Fred O'Connor", "1981 Dallas Cowboys season", "1978 Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl", "master's degree", "Dennis Green", "College of San Mateo", "1988 NFL season", "Gary Kubiak", "1983 San Francisco 49ers season", "1987 San Francisco 49ers season", "Karl Dorrell", "coin toss", "1992 NCAA Division I-A football season", "Jon Gruden", "1965 NCAA University Division football season", "Super Bowl XXIX", "Bill Walsh Legacy Game", "Ken Anderson (quarterback)", "quarterback", "San Francisco Bay Area", "NFL 100th Anniversary All-Time Team", "Mike Tomlin", "1999 San Francisco 49ers season", "Brian Billick", "San Jose State Spartans football", "Academy of Achievement", "San José State University", "The Catch (American football)", "James Lofton", "West Coast offense", "Tyrone Willingham", "Super Bowl XLII", "Ken Margerum", "Houston Texans", "Seattle Seahawks", "Steve Dils", "Pro Football Hall of Fame", "Ronnie Lott", "1987 NFL draft", "Michael Strahan", "San Jose Mercury News", "NFL", "List of Super Bowl champions", "Ray Rhodes", "1979 NFL draft" ]
4,168	Utility knife	A utility knife is any type of knife used for general manual work purposes. Such knives were originally fixed-blade knives with durable cutting edges suitable for rough work such as cutting cordage, cutting/scraping hides, butchering animals, cleaning fish scales, reshaping timber, and other tasks. Craft knives are small utility knives used as precision-oriented tools for finer, more delicate tasks such as carving and papercutting. Today, the term "utility knife" also includes small folding-, retractable- and/or replaceable-blade knives suited for use in the general workplace or in the construction industry. The latter type is sometimes generically called a Stanley knife, after a prominent brand designed by the American tool manufacturing company Stanley Black & Decker. There is also a utility knife for kitchen use, which is sized between a chef's knife and paring knife. ==History== The fixed-blade utility knife was developed some 500,000 years ago, when human ancestors began to make stone knives. This name is a generic trademark named after Stanley Works, a manufacturer of such knives. In Israel and Switzerland, these knives are known as Japanese knives. In Brazil they are known as estiletes or cortadores Olfa (the latter, being another genericised trademark). In Portugal, Panama and Canada they are also known as X-Acto (yet another genericised trademark ). In India, Russia, the Philippines, France, Iraq, Italy, Egypt, and Germany, they are simply called cutter. In the Flemish region of Belgium it is called cuttermes(je) (cutter knife). In general Spanish, they are known as cortaplumas (penknife, when it comes to folding blades); in Spain, Mexico, and Costa Rica, they are colloquially known as cutters; in Argentina and Uruguay the segmented fixed-blade knives are known as "Trinchetas". In Turkey, they are known as maket bıçağı (which literally translates as model knife). Other names for the tool are box cutter or boxcutter, blade knife, carpet knife, pen knife, stationery knife, sheetrock knife, or drywall knife. ==Design== Utility knives may use fixed, folding, or retractable or replaceable blades, and come in a wide variety of lengths and styles suited to the particular set of tasks they are designed to perform. Thus, an outdoors utility knife suited for camping or hunting might use a broad fixed blade, while a utility knife designed for the construction industry might feature a replaceable utility blade for cutting packaging, cutting shingles, marking cut lines, or scraping paint. ===Fixed blade utility knife=== Large fixed-blade utility knives are most often employed in an outdoors context, such as fishing, camping, or hunting. Outdoor utility knives typically feature sturdy blades from in length, with edge geometry designed to resist chipping and breakage. The term "utility knife" may also refer to small fixed-blade knives used for crafts, model-making and other artisanal projects. These small knives feature light-duty blades best suited for cutting thin, lightweight materials. The small, thin blade and specialized handle permit cuts requiring a high degree of precision and control. ===Retractable utility knife=== Construction utility knives, typically made from die-cast metal or robust molded plastic, have retractable and replaceable blades. The user of the knife can adjust the distance that the blade extends from the handle. For example, cutting the tape that seals a package without damaging the contents requires the blade to be extended slightly, while cutting the cardboard box requires the blade to be extended further forward. A utility blade that has become dull can be reversed or replaced with a new one. Spare or used utility blades can be stored in the handle of some utility knife models and can be accessed by removing a bolt and opening the handle. There are also models of utility knives equipped with a quick-change feature that allows blades to be replaced without additional tools. Retractable utility knives are commonly used in construction, crafting, utility and warehouse work. ==== Utility knife blades ==== It is the material to be cut that determines which type of utility blade is required to be installed in the utility knife. In standard knives can be installed different forms of blades, varying and expanding the functionality of the knife. So the standard and universal option for craft and construction work is considered a trapezoidal blade, which is suitable for drywall, cardboard, cutting flooring covering materials, and more. There are also specialized blades for cutting roofing felt, linoleum, carpeting, foam, insulation and other building materials. Standard blade types include: Trapezoidal blade: the sturdy blade is sharpened on both sides and has 2 pointed and sharp tips, so it can be turned over and reused. The most common replacement blade, suitable for universal use. Hook blade: a trapezoid-shaped blade that has hooks instead of pointed tips. Hook utility blades are suitable for cutting with a pulling motion such materials as roofing felt, linoleum, carpeting. Concave blade: similar to a hook blade, but has a more elongated hook on only one side. Suitable for cutting out details and forming shapes. ==== Snap-off utility knife ==== Another type of utility knife is a snap-off utility knife that contains a long, segmented blade that slides out from it. As the endmost edge becomes dull, it can be broken off the remaining blade, exposing the next section, which is sharp and ready for use. The snapping is best accomplished with a blade snapper that is often built-in, or a pair of pliers, and the break occurs at the score lines, where the metal is thinnest. When all of the individual segments are used, the knife may be thrown away, or, more often, refilled with a replacement blade. This design was introduced by Japanese manufacturer OLFA in 1956 as the world's first snap-off blade and was inspired from analyzing the sharp cutting edge produced when glass is broken and how pieces of a chocolate bar break into segments. The sharp cutting edge on these knives is not on the edge where the blade is snapped off; rather one long edge of the whole blade is sharpened, and there are scored diagonal breakoff lines at intervals down the blade. Thus each snapped-off piece is roughly a parallelogram, with each long edge being a breaking edge, and one or both of the short ends being a sharpened edge. ==== Box cutter knife ==== Another utility knife often used for cutting open boxes consists of a simple sleeve around a rectangular handle into which single-edge utility blades can be inserted. The sleeve slides up and down on the handle, holding the blade in place during use and covering the blade when not in use. The blade holder may either retract or fold into the handle, much like a folding-blade pocketknife. The blade holder is designed to expose just enough edge to cut through one layer of corrugated fibreboard, to minimize chances of damaging contents of cardboard boxes. File:Safety cutter and simple box cutter blades extended.jpg\|A modern safety cutter at top, with blunted tip blade and cutting guide/tape hook. At bottom, an older style simple plastic box cutter using standard straight edged blades. File:Cutter olfa.jpg\|OLFA segmented blade or "snap-off blade" utility knife File:BoxCutter.jpg\|Inexpensive stamped steel and aluminum box cutter with disposable blade == Use as weapon == Most utility knives are not well suited to use as offensive weapons, with the exception of some outdoor-type utility knives employing longer blades. However, even small blade type utility knives may sometimes find use as slashing weapons, particularly when used opportunistically due to their ubiquity. The 9/11 Commission report stated passengers in cell phone calls reported knives or "box-cutters" were used as weapons (also Mace or a bomb) in hijacking airplanes in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States, though the exact design of the knives used is unknown. Two of the hijackers were known to have purchased Leatherman knives, which feature a slip-joint blade, which were not prohibited on U.S. flights at the time. Those knives were not found in the possessions the two hijackers left behind. Similar cutters, including paper cutters, have also been known to be used as a lethal weapon. Small work-type utility knives have also been used to commit robbery and other crimes. In June 2004, a Japanese student was slashed to death with a segmented-type utility knife. In the United Kingdom, the law was changed (effective 1 October 2007) to raise the age limit for purchasing knives, including utility knives, from 16 to 18, and to make it illegal to carry a utility knife in public without a good reason.	[ "folding knife", "fish scale", "carving", "foam", "crime of opportunity", "9/11 Commission", "Stanley Black & Decker", "butchering", "Hook", "Danish language", "September 11 attacks", "Buck Knives", "multi-tool", "genericised trademark", "slip joint", "navaja", "Fitted carpet", "Building insulation material", "New Zealand English", "chef's knife", "molding (process)", "paring knife", "Bituminous waterproofing", "die casting", "tool", "Everyday carry", "Olfa", "linoleum", "crime pattern theory", "factory", "Australian English", "retractable knife", "X-Acto", "Trapezoid", "CNN", "corrugated fibreboard", "OLFA", "drywall", "Dutch language", "Automatic box-opening technology", "papercutting", "Opinel", "construction industry", "knife", "Kitchen knife", "Austrian German", "hide (skin)", "Flooring", "Cardboard box", "paper cutters", "British English", "rigging", "Sasebo slashing", "blade", "manual work", "Leatherman", "cardboard", "generic trademark", "Swiss Army Knife", "Stanley Works" ]
4,169	Bronze	Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloids (such as arsenic or silicon). These additions produce a range of alloys some of which are harder than copper alone or have other useful properties, such as strength, ductility, or machinability. The archaeological period during which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BCE (~3500 BCE), and to the early 2nd millennium BCE in China; elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, which started about 1300 BCE and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BCE, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it is in modern times. Because historical artworks were often made of bronzes and brasses (alloys of copper and zinc) of different metallic compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized term "copper alloy" instead of the names of individual alloys. This is done (at least in part) to prevent database searches from failing merely because of errors or disagreements in the naming of historic copper alloys. ==Etymology== The word bronze (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French (1511), itself borrowed from Italian (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as ) from either: , back-formation from Byzantine Greek (, 11th century), perhaps from (, ), reputed for its bronze; or originally: in its earliest form from Old Persian , (, , modern ) and () , from which also came Georgian (), Turkish from "bir" (one) "birinç" (primary), and Armenian (), also meaning . ==History== The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than had previously been possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made out of copper and arsenic or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of those metals, forming arsenic bronze. The earliest known arsenic-copper-alloy artifacts come from a Yahya Culture (Period V 3800-3400 BCE) site, at Tal-i-Iblis on the Iranian plateau, and were smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite. The earliest tin-copper-alloy artifact has been dated to , in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik (Serbia), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-copper ore, stannite. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and the resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike those of arsenic, metallic tin and the fumes from tin refining are not toxic. Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE. Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade with other regions. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a major influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall, which were traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. ===Transition to iron=== Though bronze, whose Vickers hardness is 60–258, is generally harder than wrought iron, with a hardness of 30–80, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population migrations of around 1200–1100 BCE reduced the shipment of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices. As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality. As later cultures advanced from hand-wrought iron to machine-forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths also learned how to make steel, which is stronger and harder than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. ==Composition== There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is about 88% copper and 12% tin. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and the 12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is sometimes described as bronze and sometimes as brass. During the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were primarily cast from classic bronze while helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze. Modern commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead, 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications. Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity, and may have been used by the ancient Greeks in ship construction. has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance. Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell metal, arsenical bronze, speculum metal, bismuth bronze, and cymbal alloys. ==Properties== Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze conducts heat and electricity better than most steels. Copper-base alloys are generally more costly than steels but less so than nickel-base alloys. Bronzes are typically ductile alloys and are considerably less brittle than cast iron. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), the resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and the resistance to corrosion by seawater of several bronze alloys. The melting point of bronze is about but varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components. Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties. Bronze typically oxidizes only superficially; once a copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion. This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic period. If copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called "bronze disease" will eventually destroy it completely. ==Uses== Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of the ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bronze. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs. Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing, where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak. Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts. Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make the proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways. The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of Brastil, a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy. ===Architectural bronze=== The Seagram Building on New York City's Park Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed by Mies van der Rohe." The Seagram Building was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze. The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York. "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties. The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BCE) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method. Bronze statues were regarded as the highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art, though survivals are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval periods. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive. In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana (Chausa hoard) and Gupta periods (Brahma from Mirpur-Khas, Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha) and later periods (Hansi Hoard) have been found. Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities of Hinduism. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai. In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of the Kingdom of Benin; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology; in east Asia, Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty—more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary. File:Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg\|The Dancing Girl, an Harappan artwork; 2400–1900 BCE; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi, India) File:商青銅鼎-Ritual Tripod Cauldron (Ding) MET DP164965.jpg\|Ritual tripod cauldron (ding); ; bronze: height with handles: 25.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Kushite Pharaoh MET DT8840.jpg\|Ancient Egyptian statuette of a Kushite pharaoh; 713–664 BCE; bronze, precious-metal leaf; height: 7.6 cm, width: 3.2 cm, depth: 3.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Bronze tripod base for a thymiaterion (incense burner) MET DP21045.jpg\|Etruscan tripod base for a thymiaterion (incense burner); 475-450 BCE; bronze; height: 11 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:God of Cape Artemision 01.JPG\|The Artemision Bronze; 460-450 BCE; bronze; height: 2.1 m; National Archaeological Museum (Athens) File:Egypt, Greco-Roman Period, probably Ptolemaic Dynasty - Statuette of Isis and Horus - 1940.613 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif\|Ancient Egyptian statuette of Isis and Horus; 305–30 BCE; solid cast of bronze; 4.8 × 10.3 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US) Bronze statue of Eros sleeping MET DP123903.jpg\|Ancient Greek statue of Eros sleeping; 3rd–2nd century BCE; bronze; 41.9 × 35.6 × 85.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Buddha Offering Protection MET DP-15581-036.jpg\|Gupta sculpture of Buddha offering protection; late 6th–early 7th century; copper alloy; height: 47 cm, width: 15.6 cm, diameter: 14.3 cm; from India (probably Bihar); Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama Garuda.jpg\|Krishna with his consorts Rukmini and Satyabhama and his mount Garuda, Tamil Nadu, India, late 11th–12th century File:NatarajaMET.JPG\|Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City File:Caldron MET cdi49-69-6s3.jpg\|French or South Netherlandish Medieval caldron; 13th or 14th century; bronze and wrought iron; height: 37.5 cm, diameter: 34.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Pair of firedogs (chenets) MET DP170900.jpg\|Pair of French Rococo firedogs (chenets); ; gilt bronze; dimensions of the first: 52.7 x 48.3 x 26.7 cm, of the second: 45.1 x 49.1 x 24.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Mantel clock (pendule de chiminée) MET DT6546.jpg\|French Neoclassical mantel clock (pendule de cheminée); 1757–1760; gilded and patinated bronze, oak veneered with ebony, white enamel with black numerals, and other materials; 48.3 × 69.9 × 27.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Pair of firedogs MET DT8904.jpg\|Pair of French Chinoiserie firedogs; 1760–1770; gilt bronze; height (each): 41.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Pair of vases MET DP170824.jpg\|Pair of Chinese vases with French Rococo mounts; the vases: early 18th century, the mounts: 1760–70; hard-paste porcelain with gilt-bronze mounts; 32.4 x 16.5 x 12.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Mantel clock ("Pendule Uranie") MET DP346441.jpg\|French Neoclassical mantel clock ("Pendule Uranie"); 1764–1770; case: patinated bronze and gilded bronze, Dial: white enamel, movement: brass and steel; 71.1 × 52.1 × 26.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Pair of mounted vases (vase à monter) MET DP102639.jpg\|Pair of mounted vases (vase à monter); 1765–70; soft-paste porcelain and French gilt bronze; 28.9 x 17.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Winter MET DP162240.jpg\|Winter; by Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1787; bronze; 143.5 x 39.1 x 50.5 cm, height of the pedestal: 86.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Statue at Rockefeller Centre.jpg\|upright=1.2\| Prometheus, Paul Manship's classic gilded bronze sculpture, 1934, Rockefeller Center, New York City File:New York City, May 2014 - 033.JPG\|Atlas by Lee Lawrie, bronze sculpture, 1937, Rockefeller Center, New York City ===Lamps=== Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass or "Tiffany glass," and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps. ===Fountains and doors=== The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in the world was by the Roman Bronze Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952. The material used for the fountain, known as statuary bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color. This was made for the Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain in Federal Triangle in Washington, DC. Another example of the massive, ornate design projects of bronze, and attributed to General Bronze/Roman Bronze Works were the massive bronze doors to the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC. ===Mirrors=== Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries. Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BCE), and China from at least . In Europe, the Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BCE, and Greek and Roman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale in Kerala, India. ===Musical instruments=== Bronze is the preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal, which is typically about 23% tin. Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability and timbre. Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As the tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops. Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass, piano, harpsichord, and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel. Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around the world, notably bells, singing bowls, gongs, cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples include Tibetan singing bowls, temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan, and other bronze musical instruments. The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BCE, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet. Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BCE. Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content). Bell bronze/B20 is used to make the tone rings of many professional model banjos. The tone ring is a heavy (usually ) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register. ===Coins and medals=== Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc. As with coins, bronze has been used in the manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and "bronze medals" are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in part arose from the trio of gold, silver and bronze to represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology: the Golden Age, when men lived among the gods; the Silver age, where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age, the era of heroes. It was first adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals. Bronze is the normal material for the related form of the plaquette, normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief, for a collectors' market. Bronze is also associated with eighth wedding anniversaries. ==Biblical references== There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be the Hebrew word used for copper and any of its alloys. However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze. In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and 'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'. Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It was mentioned in the account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and helmet, as in the battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10).	[ "Rukmini", "Golden Age", "brittle", "Athens", "Cornwall", "double bass", "Assyria", "Shang dynasty", "Zhou dynasty", "Moses", "French Empire mantel clock", "favrile glass", "algodonite", "building material", "Armenian language", "turbine", "Mediterranean", "Chinese bronze inscriptions", "Benin Empire", "medal", "autokrator", "Arsenic poisoning", "bismuth bronze", "stainless steel", "machinability", "iron", "Kushana", "Ancient Greece", "Ages of Man", "chloride", "Chinese ritual bronzes", "timbre", "National Museum, New Delhi", "Bell founding", "arsenic bronze", "electric motor", "phosphorus", "wrench", "New York City", "Artifact (archaeology)", "Garden City, New York", "Iron Age", "stannite", "singing bowls", "nickel", "Aluminium Bronze", "Bronzing", "Tibet", "saxophone", "tin", "zinc", "manganese", "hammer", "alloy", "copper carbonate", "Ancient Greek art", "weapon", "Tiffany lamp", "United States Supreme Court Building", "silicon", "extrusion", "Chausa hoard", "arsenical bronze", "Louis C. Tiffany", "Yoruba art", "aluminium bronze", "Jean-Antoine Houdon", "Mesopotamia", "wrought iron", "trip hammer", "Gupta", "1904 Summer Olympics", "Hinduism", "Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)", "Serbia", "Medieval Latin", "Susa", "Turkish language", "armor", "store of value", "Brindisi", "bronze disease", "Metropolitan Museum of Art", "Bronze Age", "corrosion", "Passivation (chemistry)", "Ludwig Mies van der Rohe", "electrical conductivity", "Brahma from Mirpur-Khas", "Tamil Nadu", "Chinese ritual bronze", "harpsichord", "piano", "Chola", "Park Avenue", "idiophones", "India", "Bronze and brass ornamental work", "guitar", "Ore", "Romanesque art", "relief", "ultimate tensile strength", "Oilite", "Cleveland", "Swamimalai", "beryllium copper", "List of copper alloys", "Phoenicia", "Selective leaching", "arsenic", "High culture", "Horus", "Ohio", "Sennacherib", "Ding (vessel)", "Rococo", "Old Testament", "seawater", "Tiffany glass", "Middle Kingdom of Egypt", "Chola dynasty", "banjo", "lead", "Paul Manship", "New Delhi", "gilding", "Atlas (statue)", "Roman Bronze Works", "Spring and Autumn period", "Tin poisoning", "Cleveland Museum of Art", "General Bronze Corporation", "nylon", "bell metal", "Silicon bronze", "Ancient Egyptian art", "Nataraja", "String instrument", "steel", "Indus Valley civilisation", "Eurasia", "cymbal", "ductility", "Byzantine Greek", "Mundigak", "Iranian plateau", "Toughness", "Lost-wax casting", "Etruscan civilization", "oak", "David and Goliath", "bronze wool", "Persian language", "Pločnik (archaeological site)", "Vickers hardness test", "melting point", "bronze sculpture", "domeykite", "Kerala", "Pisanello", "silver", "Silver age", "Late Bronze Age collapse", "Chinoiserie", "Federal Triangle", "copper", "Vinča culture", "plaquette", "topaz", "Artemision Bronze", "friction", "aluminium", "Garuda", "UNS C69100", "electrical connector", "Hansi", "cannon", "Plain bearing", "St Keverne", "Bihar", "Bearing (mechanical)", "gold", "Middle French", "Sultanganj Buddha", "Javanese people", "antimony", "Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège", "Hebrew language", "National Museum of China", "Chalcolithic", "Kingdom of Kush", "Georgian language", "Rockefeller Center", "Chemical property", "metalloids", "Isis", "gongs", "three-age system", "tool", "Tin", "History of Africa", "Tin sources and trade in ancient times", "Gloucester Candlestick", "Engineering tolerance", "pharaoh", "Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain", "James Peniston", "bronze medal", "mallet", "steel wool", "Late Antique", "B20 (bronze)", "Art object", "east Asia", "Ancient Egypt", "Lee Lawrie", "National Archaeological Museum, Athens", "Gupta Empire", "Greek Heroic Age", "Finery forge", "Satyabhama", "basileus", "Eros", "Neoclassicism", "Prometheus (Manship)", "brass", "Ormolu", "Seagram Building", "Tepe Sialk", "Greek mythology", "Ancient Rome", "musical instrument", "cymbal alloys", "aluminum", "Krishna", "solid solution", "speculum metal", "Spring (device)", "statuary", "millennium", "Luristan", "phosphor bronze", "Benin Bronzes", "bell (instrument)", "Chennai", "gamelan", "Etruscans", "Solomon's Temple" ]
4,170	Benelux	The Benelux Union (; ; ; ) or Benelux is a politico-economic union, alliance and formal international intergovernmental cooperation of three neighbouring states in Western Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The name is a portmanteau formed from joining the first few letters of each country's name and was first used to name the customs agreement that initiated the union (signed in 1944). It is now used more generally to refer to the geographic, economic, and cultural grouping of the three countries. The Benelux is an economically dynamic and densely populated region, with 5.6% of the European population (29.55 million residents) and 7.9% of the joint EU GDP (€36,000/resident) on 1.7% of the whole surface of the EU. In 2015, 37% of the total number of EU cross-border workers worked in the Benelux; 35,000 Belgian citizens work in Luxembourg, while 37,000 Belgian citizens cross the border to work in the Netherlands each day. In addition, 12,000 Dutch and close to a thousand Luxembourg residents work in Belgium. The main institutions of the Union are the Committee of Ministers, the Council of the Union, the General Secretariat, the Interparliamentary Consultative Council and the Benelux Court of Justice while the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property covers the same land but is not part of the Benelux Union. The Benelux General Secretariat is located in Brussels. It is the central platform of the Benelux Union cooperation. It handles the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the Council of Benelux Union and the sundry committees and working parties. The General Secretariat provides day-to-day support for the Benelux cooperation on the substantive, procedural, diplomatic and logistical levels. The Secretary-General is Frans Weekers from the Netherlands and there are two deputies: Deputy Secretary-General Michel-Etienne Tilemans from Belgium and Deputy Secretary-General Jean-Claude Meyer from Luxembourg. The presidency of the Benelux is held in turn by the three countries for a period of one year. Luxembourg holds the presidency for 2025. About 80 percent of the Benelux population speaks Dutch, about 20 percent speaks French and one percent Luxembourgish as their native language. A small minority under one percent are native German speakers. == History == In 1944, exiled representatives of the three countries signed the London Customs Convention, the treaty that established the Benelux Customs Union. Ratified in 1947, the treaty was in force from 1948 until it was superseded by the Benelux Economic Union. The initial form of economic cooperation expanded steadily over time, leading to the signing of the treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union (Benelux Economische Unie, Union Économique Benelux) on 3 February 1958 in The Hague, which came into force on 1 November 1960. Initially, the purpose of cooperation among the three partners was to put an end to customs barriers at their borders and ensure free movement of persons, capital, services, and goods between the three countries. This treaty was the first example of international economic integration in Europe since the Second World War. The three countries therefore foreshadowed and provided the model for future European integration, such as the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Community–European Union (EC–EU). The three partners also launched the Schengen process, which came into operation in 1985. Benelux cooperation has been constantly adapted and now goes much further than mere economic cooperation, extending to new and topical policy areas connected with security, sustainable development, and the economy. In 1965, the treaty establishing a Benelux Court of Justice was signed. It entered into force in 1974. The court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three states, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of common legal rules. This international judicial institution is located in Luxembourg. === Renewal of the agreement === The 1958 Treaty between the Benelux countries establishing the Benelux Economic Union was limited to a period of 50 years. During the following years, and even more so after the creation of the European Union, the Benelux cooperation focused on developing other fields of activity within a constantly changing international context. At the end of the 50 years, the governments of the three Benelux countries decided to renew the agreement, taking into account the new aspects of the Benelux-cooperation – such as security – and the new federal government structure of Belgium. The original establishing treaty, set to expire in 2010, was replaced by a new legal framework (called the Treaty revising the Treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union), which was signed on 17 June 2008. The new treaty has no set time limit and the name of the Benelux Economic Union changed to Benelux Union to reflect the broad scope on the union. The main objectives of the treaty are the continuation and enlargement of the cooperation between the three member states within a larger European context. The renewed treaty explicitly foresees the possibility that the Benelux countries will cooperate with other European member states or with regional cooperation structures. The new Benelux cooperation focuses on three main topics: internal market and economic union, sustainability, justice and internal affairs. The number of structures in the renewed Treaty has been reduced and thus simplified. === Some benefits of the Benelux cooperation === Security and Emergency services Thanks to the Benelux Police Treaty (2023), police forces can operate across borders, strengthening the fight against crime. Ambulances and fire services can operate across borders, ensuring faster response times in emergencies. Recognition of diplomas Higher education diplomas are automatically recognized within the Benelux, making it easier to work and study in another Benelux country. This prevents extra administrative costs and time loss. Economy and transport The removal of administrative barriers, such as with digital freight documents, makes cross-border transport more efficient and cost-effective for businesses. Sustainability The Benelux countries cooperate on energy transition and the circular economy, contributing to a sustainable and future-proof region. The Benelux Union also serves as a testing ground for European cooperation. Initiatives such as diploma recognition and cross-border truck inspections set an example for further European harmonization. == Benelux pilot projects 2025 == === Activities since 2008=== Benelux seeks region-to-region cooperation, be it with France and Germany (North Rhine-Westphalia) or beyond with the Baltic States, the Nordic Council, the Visegrad countries, or even further. In 2018, a renewed political declaration was adopted between Benelux and North Rhine-Westphalia to give cooperation a further impetus. The Benelux is particularly active in the field of intellectual property. The three countries established a Benelux Trademarks Office and a Benelux Designs Office, both situated in The Hague. In 2005, they concluded a treaty establishing the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property, which replaced both offices upon its entry into force on 1 September 2006. This organisation is the official body for the registration of trademarks and designs in the Benelux. In addition, it offers the possibility to formally record the existence of ideas, concepts, designs, prototypes and the like. Some examples of recent Benelux initiatives include: automatic level recognition of diplomas and degrees within the Benelux for bachelor's and master's programs in 2015, and for all other degrees in 2018; common road inspections in 2014; and a Benelux pilot with digital consignment notes (e-CMR) in 2017; a new Benelux Treaty on Police Cooperation in 2018, providing for direct access to each other's police databases and population registers within the limits of national legislation, and allowing some police forces to cross borders in some situations. The Benelux is also committed to working together on adaptation to climate change. A joint political declaration in July 2020 called on the European Commission to prioritise cycling in European climate policy and Sustainable Transport strategies, to co-finance the construction of cycling infrastructure, and to provide funds to stimulate cycling policy. On 5 June 2018, the Benelux Treaty celebrated its 60 years of existence. In 2018, a Benelux Youth Parliament was created. In addition to cooperation based on a Treaty, there is also political cooperation in the Benelux context, including summits of the Benelux government leaders. In 2019 a Benelux summit was held in Luxembourg. In 2020, a Benelux summit was held – online, due to the COVID-19 pandemic – under Dutch Presidency on 7 October between the prime ministers. As of 1 January 2017, a new arrangement for NATO Air Policing started for the airspace of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg (Benelux). The Belgian Air Component and the Royal Netherlands Air Force will take four-month turns to ensure that Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) fighter jets are available at all times to be launched under NATO control. ===Cooperation with other geopolitical regions=== The Benelux countries also work together in the so-called Pentalateral Energy Forum, a regional cooperation group formed of five members—the Benelux states, France, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Formed on 6 June 2007, the ministers for energy from the various countries represent a total of 200 million residents and 40% of the European electricity network. In 2017 the members of the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly, three members of the Nordic Council (Sweden, Denmark and Finland), and all the other countries EU member states, sought to increase cooperation in the Digital Single Market, as well as discussing social matters, the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, immigration and defence cooperation. Foreign relations in the wake of Russia's annexation of Crimea and the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum were also on the agenda. Since 2008 the Benelux Union works together with the German Land (state) North Rhine-Westphalia. In 2018 Benelux Union signed a declaration with France to strengthen cross-border cooperation. == Politics == ===Benelux institutions=== Under the 2008 treaty there are five Benelux institutions: the Benelux Committee of Ministers, the Benelux Council, the Benelux Parliament, the Benelux Court of Justice, the Benelux Secretariat General. Beside these five institutions, the Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property is also an independent organisation. Benelux Committee of Ministers: The Committee of Ministers is the supreme decision-making body of the Benelux. It includes at least one representative at ministerial level from the three countries. Its composition varies according to its agenda. The ministers determine the orientations and priorities of Benelux cooperation. The presidency of the Committee rotates between the three countries on an annual basis. Benelux Council: The council is composed of senior officials from the relevant ministries. Its composition varies according to its agenda. The council's main task is to prepare the dossiers for the ministers. Benelux InterParliamentary Consultative Council: The Benelux Parliament (officially referred to as an "Interparliamentary Consultative Council") was created in 1955. This parliamentary assembly is composed of 49 members from the respective national parliaments (21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourg parliament). Its members inform and advise their respective governments on all Benelux matters. On 20 January 2015, the governments of the three countries, including, as far as Belgium is concerned, the community and regional governments, signed in Brussels the Treaty of the Benelux Interparliamentary Assembly. This treaty entered into force on 1 August 2019. This superseded the 1955 Convention on the Consultative Interparliamentary Council for the Benelux. The official name has been largely obsolete in daily practice for a number of years: both internally in the Benelux and in external references, the name Benelux Parliament has been used de facto for a number of years now. Benelux Court of Justice: The Benelux Court of Justice is an international court. Its mission is to promote uniformity in the application of Benelux legislation. When faced with difficulty interpreting a common Benelux legal rule, national courts must seek an interpretive ruling from the Benelux Court, which subsequently renders a binding decision. The members of the Court are appointed from among the judges of the 'Cour de cassation' of Belgium, the 'Hoge Raad of the Netherlands' and the 'Cour de cassation' of Luxembourg. Benelux General Secretariat: The General Secretariat, which is based in Brussels, forms the cooperation platform of the Benelux Union. It acts as the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the council and various commissions and working groups. The General Secretariat has years of expertise in the area of Benelux cooperation and is familiar with the policy agreements and differences between the three countries. Building on what already been achieved, the General Secretariat puts its knowledge, network and experience at the service of partners and stakeholders who endorse its mission. It initiates, supports and monitors cooperation results in the areas of economy, sustainability and security. The Secretary General of the Benelux is Frans Weekers (NL), the Deputy Secretary General is Michel-Etienne Tilemans (BE) and Jean-Claude Meyer (LU) Benelux works together on the basis of an annual plan embedded in a four-year joint work programme. === Benelux legal instruments === The Benelux Union involves intergovernmental cooperation. The Treaty establishing the Benelux Union explicitly provides that the Benelux Committee of Ministers can resort to four legal instruments (art. 6, paragraph 2, under a), f), g) and h)): 1. Decisions Decisions are legally binding regulations for implementing the Treaty establishing the Benelux Union or other Benelux treaties. Their legally binding force concerns the Benelux states (and their sub-state entities), which have to implement them. However, they have no direct effect towards individual citizens or companies (notwithstanding any indirect protection of their rights based on such decisions as a source of international law). Only national provisions implementing a decision can directly create rights and obligations for citizens or companies. 2. Agreements The Committee of Ministers can draw up agreements, which are then submitted to the Benelux states (and/or their sub-state entities) for signature and subsequent parliamentary ratification. These agreements can deal with any subject matter, also in policy areas that are not yet covered by cooperation in the framework of the Benelux Union. These are in fact traditional treaties, with the same direct legally binding force towards both authorities and citizens or companies. The negotiations do however take place in the established context of the Benelux working groups and institutions, rather than on an ad hoc basis. 3. Recommendations Recommendations are non-binding orientations, adopted at ministerial level, which underpin the functioning of the Benelux Union. These (policy) orientations may not be legally binding, but given their adoption at the highest political level and their legal basis vested directly in the Treaty, they do entail a strong moral obligation for any authority concerned in the Benelux countries. 4. Directives Directives of the Committee of Ministers are mere inter-institutional instructions towards the Benelux Council and/or the Secretariat-General, for which they are binding. This instrument has so far only been used occasionally, basically in order to organize certain activities within a Benelux working group or to give them impetus. All four instruments require the unanimous approval of the members of the Committee of Ministers (and, in the case of agreements, subsequent signature and ratification at national level). ==Characteristics== ===Countries===	[ "blend word", "Population", "Turkish constitutional referendum, 2017", "consignment notes", "Pierre Werner", "France", "French language", "Piet de Jong", "Frisian languages", "Schengen Area", "cycling infrastructure", "Western Europe", "Polish–Czechoslovak confederation", "Differdange", "Haarlem", "federal government", "Gaston Eyskens", "Papiamentu", "Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg", "Netherlands", "GDP", "United Kingdom of the Netherlands", "International parliament", "Christianity in Belgium", "Islam in the Netherlands", "Charleroi", "parliamentary constitutional monarchy", "Germany", "Belgium", "Purchasing power parity", "climate change adaptation", "Digital Single Market", "North Rhine-Westphalia", "Ministry of General Affairs", "Dudelange", "Islam in Belgium", "Benelux Parliament", "Baltic States", "Low Countries", "The Hague", "European Community", "Political union", "Philippe of Belgium", "Inner Six", "USD", "intellectual property", "Großherzogtum Luxemburg", "Amsterdam", "Kingdom of Belgium", "Esch-sur-Alzette", "Dutch language", "European Union", "Service (economics)", "Proposed United Kingdom Confederation", "European Coal and Steel Community", "Christianity in Luxembourg", "Königreich Belgien", "Christianity in the Netherlands", "Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union", "Luxembourgish", "Utrecht", "Grand Duchy of Luxembourg", "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden", "Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg", "Ettelbruck", "Benelux Office for Intellectual Property", "London Customs Convention", "Yves Leterme", "Baltic Assembly", "Ruud Lubbers", "Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands", "Federalism", "Euro", "Statistics Netherlands", "Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Dick Schoof", "Pentalateral Energy Forum", "Brussels", "Luxembourg City", "Jean-Claude Juncker", "Mark Rutte", "international judicial institution", "Admiral Benelux", "Central European Time", "economic union", "Switzerland", "World War II", "Grand-Duché de Luxembourg", "Irreligion in Luxembourg", "Royaume de Belgique", "English language", "goods", "Wilfried Martens", "Supreme Court of the Netherlands", "The Economist", "German language", "annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation", "International Monetary Fund", "Luc Frieden", "Immigration to Europe", "Koninkrijk België", "Irreligion in Belgium", "Member state of the European Union", "Prime Minister of Luxembourg", "Bart de Wever", "Prime Minister of Belgium", "head of government", "European Economic Community", "Prime Minister of the Netherlands", "EU Med Group", "Papiamento", "Rotterdam", "Central European Summer Time", "Nordic Council", "Liège", "Irreligion in the Netherlands", "Austria", "Antwerp", "Court of Cassation (Belgium)", "Visegrád Group", "head of state", "Capital (economics)", "Luxembourg", "Ghent", "CMR Convention", "constitutional monarchy" ]
4,171	Boston Herald	The Boston Herald is an American daily newspaper whose primary market is Boston, Massachusetts, and its surrounding area. It was founded in 1846 and is one of the oldest daily newspapers in the United States. It has been awarded eight Pulitzer Prizes in its history, including four for editorial writing and three for photography before it was converted to tabloid format in 1981. The Herald was named one of the "10 Newspapers That 'Do It Right' in 2012 by Editor & Publisher. In December 2017, the Herald filed for bankruptcy. On February 14, 2018, Digital First Media successfully bid $11.9 million to purchase the company in a bankruptcy auction; the acquisition was completed on March 19, 2018. As of August 2018, the paper had approximately 110 total employees, compared to about 225 before the sale. ==History== The Herald history traces back through two lineages, the Daily Advertiser and the old Boston Herald, and two media moguls, William Randolph Hearst and Rupert Murdoch. ===Founding=== The original Boston Herald was founded in 1846 by a group of Boston printers jointly under the name of John A. French & Company. The paper was published as a single two-sided sheet, selling for one cent. Its first editor, William O. Eaton, just 22 years old, said "The Herald will be independent in politics and religion; liberal, industrious, enterprising, critically concerned with literacy and dramatic matters, and diligent in its mission to report and analyze the news, local and global." In 1847, the Boston Herald absorbed the Boston American Eagle. ===The Boston Herald and Boston Journal=== In October 1917, John H. Higgins, the publisher and treasurer of the Boston Herald bought out its next door neighbor The Boston Journal and created The Boston Herald and Boston Journal ===The American Traveler=== Even earlier than the Herald, the weekly American Traveler was founded in 1825 as a bulletin for stagecoach listings. ===The Boston Evening Traveller=== The Boston Evening Traveler was founded in 1845. The Boston Evening Traveler was the successor to the weekly American Traveler and the semi-weekly Boston Traveler. In 1912, the Herald acquired the Traveler, continuing to publish both under their own names. For many years, the newspaper was controlled by many of the investors in United Shoe Machinery Corporation. After a newspaper strike in 1967, Herald-Traveler Corp. suspended the afternoon Traveler and absorbed the evening edition into the Herald to create the Boston Herald Traveler. ===The Boston Daily Advertiser=== The Boston Daily Advertiser was established in 1813 in Boston by Nathan Hale. The paper grew to prominence throughout the 19th century, taking over other Boston area papers. In 1832 The Advertiser took over control of The Boston Patriot, and then in 1840 it took over and absorbed The Boston Gazette. The paper was purchased by William Randolph Hearst in 1917. In 1920 the Advertiser was merged with The Boston Record, initially the combined newspaper was called the Boston Advertiser however when the combined newspaper became an illustrated tabloid in 1921 it was renamed The Boston American. Hearst Corp. continued using the name Advertiser for its Sunday paper until the early 1970s. ===The Boston Record=== On September 3, 1884, The Boston Evening Record was started by the Boston Advertiser as a campaign newspaper. The Record was so popular that it was made a permanent publication. but Hearst faced steep declines in circulation and advertising. The company announced it would close the Herald American—making Boston a one-newspaper town—on December 3, 1982. When the deadline came, Australian-born media baron Rupert Murdoch was negotiating to buy the paper and save it. He closed on the deal after 31 hours of talks with Hearst and newspaper unions—and five hours after Hearst had sent out notices to newsroom employees telling them they were terminated. The newspaper announced its own survival the next day with a full-page headline: "You Bet We're Alive!" ===The Boston Herald=== Murdoch changed the paper's name back to the Boston Herald. The Herald continued to grow, expanding its coverage and increasing its circulation until 2001, when nearly all newspapers fell victim to declining circulations and revenue. ===Independent ownership=== In February 1994, Murdoch's News Corporation was forced to sell the paper, in order that its subsidiary Fox Television Stations could legally consummate its purchase of Fox affiliate WFXT (Channel 25) because Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy included language in an appropriations bill barring one company from owning a newspaper and television station in the same market. Patrick J. Purcell, who was the publisher of the Boston Herald and a former News Corporation executive, purchased the Herald and established it as an independent newspaper. Several years later, Purcell would give the Herald a suburban presence it never had by purchasing the money-losing Community Newspaper Company from Fidelity Investments. Although the companies merged under the banner of Herald Media, Inc., the suburban papers maintained their distinct editorial and marketing identity. After years of operating profits at Community Newspaper and losses at the Herald, Purcell in 2006 sold the suburban chain to newspaper conglomerate Liberty Group Publishing of Illinois, which soon after changed its name to GateHouse Media. The deal, which also saw GateHouse acquiring The Patriot Ledger and The Enterprise respectively in south suburban Quincy and Brockton, netted $225 million for Purcell, who vowed to use the funds to clear the Herald's debt and reinvest in the Paper. ===Boston Herald Radio=== On August 5, 2013, the Herald launched an internet radio station named Boston Herald Radio, which includes shows hosted by much of the Herald staff. The station's morning lineup is simulcast on 830 AM WCRN from 10 am Eastern time to 12 noon Eastern time. ===Bankruptcy=== In December 2017, the Herald announced plans to sell itself to GateHouse Media after filing for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The deal was scheduled to be completed by February 2018, with the new company streamlining and having layoffs in coming months. However, in early January 2018, another potential buyer, Revolution Capital Group of Los Angeles, filed a bid with the federal bankruptcy court; the Herald reported in a press release that "the court requires BHI [Boston Herald, Inc.] to hold an auction to allow all potential buyers an opportunity to submit competing offers." === Digital First Media acquisition === In February 2018, acquisition of the Herald by Digital First Media for almost $12 million was approved by the bankruptcy court judge in Delaware. The new owner, DFM, said they would be keeping 175 of the approximately 240 employees the Herald had when it sought bankruptcy protection in December 2017. The acquisition was completed on March 19, 2018. with competitor The Boston Globe, moving printing from Taunton, Massachusetts, to Rhode Island and its "dehumanizing cost-cutting efforts" in personnel. In June, some design and advertising layoffs were expected, with work moving to a sister paper, The Denver Post. The "consolidation" took effect in August, with nine jobs eliminated. In late August 2018, it was announced that the Herald would move its offices from Boston's Seaport District to Braintree, Massachusetts, in late November or early December. On October 27, 2020, the Boston Herald endorsed Donald Trump for the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election. In July 2024, the newspaper laid off three employees. It is not publicly known how many people still work at the Boston Herald, but the newsroom in 2020 consisted of 24 employees. A few years prior, the paper employed 240 people. ==Awards== 1924. Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, Frank W. Buxton, "Who Made Coolidge?" 1927. Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, Frank Cushing, "Boy Gunman and Hostage" 1949. Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, Stanley Forman, for Fire Escape Collapse, a dramatic shot of a young woman and child falling as the fire escape to which they had fled during an apartment house fire collapsed on July 22, 1975 1977. Pulitzer Prizes for Spot News Photography, staff photographers, for photographic coverage of The Blizzard of 1978 2006. Society of American Business Editors and Writers (SABEW) Award as "Business winners" for "overall excellence" coverage 2006. Society of American Business Editors and Writers (SABEW) Award as "Business winners" for "Breaking News" coverage of the takeover of the Boston-based Gillette Company by Procter & Gamble Steve Buckley was a longtime sports columnist. Gerry Callahan is a sports columnist and a longtime former talk show host for WEEI until he was let go for poor ratings. Howie Carr writes about local politics, and is a radio talk show host and frequent TV commentator. Bill Cunningham (sports writer) (1895–1961), highest paid sportswriter of his time George Frazier's Sweet and Lowdown column debuted on January 27, 1942, and may have been the first jazz column in a big-city American newspaper. Besides jazz, Frazier's column covered books, sports, the media, night life, popular and classical culture, and other topics. Peter Gelzinis is a longtime metro columnist, as is Joe Fitzgerald, who was formerly a sports columnist. Michael Graham is an op-ed columnist for the Boston Herald. George Edward Kimball was a sports columnist best known for his coverage of boxing. Olivia Vanni writes the Heralds Inside Track and covers celebrity news. Peter Lucas was a longtime political columnist and reporter Bob McGovern was the Heralds legal columnist and also worked as a reporter. Kevin Mannix - sports journalist, Patriots Beat reporter, columnist. Leo Monahan – sports journalist who wrote for the Daily Record, the Record American and the Herald American Joe Sciacca is the paper's editor-in-chief. Sciacca is a former political reporter and columnist.	[ "GateHouse Media", "George Frazier (journalist)", "Washington, D.C.", "William O. Eaton", "CBS", "Hearst Corporation", "Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography", "The Boston Post", "Ted Kennedy", "John C. Doerfer", "daily newspaper", "WCVB-TV", "Republican Party (United States)", "File:Boy Gunman and Hostage.jpg", "Taunton, Massachusetts", "Howie Carr", "Procter & Gamble", "Donald Trump", "Community Newspaper Company", "WFXT-TV", "Boston busing crisis", "Boston Daily Advertiser", "Tabloid (newspaper format)", "Donald Murray (writer)", "Massachusetts", "The Boston Globe", "United States", "The Soiling of Old Glory", "Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing", "Ted Landsmark", "Peter Gelzinis", "Boston Evening Transcript", "WCRN", "Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code", "Detroit News", "Nathan Hale (journalist)", "Murphy v. Boston Herald, Inc., et al.", "The Denver Post", "Ron Borges", "Stanley Forman", "Patrick J. Purcell", "Boston.com", "Seaport District", "Warren T. Brookes", "Braintree, Massachusetts", "American Broadcasting Company", "Boston", "Life (magazine)", "Daily newspaper", "2020 United States presidential election", "photography", "Federal Communications Commission", "Fire Escape Collapse", "Fidelity Investments", "Lillian A. Lewis", "Leo Monahan (sportswriter)", "Brockton, Massachusetts", "Frank W. Buxton", "The Boston Journal", "broadsheet", "Digital First Media", "William Randolph Hearst", "Society of American Business Editors and Writers", "Gerry Callahan", "Gillette (brand)", "News Corporation (1980–2013)", "Fox Television Stations", "The Enterprise (Brockton)", "Pulitzer Prize", "The Boston News-Letter", "George Edward Kimball", "bankruptcy", "WEEI (AM)", "s:We Submit", "Associated Press", "1978 Northeastern United States blizzard", "Pulitzer Prize for Photography", "Frances Sweeney", "Joe Sciacca", "F. Lauriston Bullard", "United Shoe Machinery Corporation", "Boston Business Journal", "The Patriot Ledger", "Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "Michael Graham (radio personality)", "Boston Gazette", "Steve Buckley (journalist)", "WHDH-TV (defunct)", "Bill Cunningham (sports writer)", "Rupert Murdoch", "stagecoach", "flag of the United States", "USA Today", "Rhode Island", "The New York Times", "Boston Magazine", "Conservatism in the United States", "s:Who Made Coolidge?", "Editor & Publisher", "Quincy, Massachusetts", "African American" ]
4,173	Babe Ruth	George Herman "Babe" Ruth (February 6, 1895 – August 16, 1948) was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball (MLB) spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935. Nicknamed "the Bambino" and "the Sultan of Swat", he began his MLB career as a star left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the New York Yankees. Ruth is regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered by many to be the greatest baseball player of all time. In 1936, Ruth was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its "first five" inaugural members. At age seven, Ruth was sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory where he was mentored by Brother Matthias Boutlier of the Xaverian Brothers, the school's disciplinarian and a capable baseball player. In 1914, Ruth was signed to play Minor League baseball for the Baltimore Orioles but was soon sold to the Red Sox. By 1916, he had built a reputation as an outstanding pitcher who sometimes hit long home runs, a feat unusual for any player in the dead-ball era. Although Ruth twice won 23 games in a season as a pitcher and was a member of three World Series championship teams with the Red Sox, he wanted to play every day and was allowed to convert to an outfielder. With regular playing time, he broke the MLB single-season home run record in 1919 with 29. After that season, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees amid controversy. The trade fueled Boston's subsequent 86-year championship drought and popularized the "Curse of the Bambino" superstition. In his 15 years with the Yankees, Ruth helped the team win seven American League (AL) pennants and four World Series championships. His big swing led to escalating home run totals that not only drew fans to the ballpark and boosted the sport's popularity but also helped usher in baseball's live-ball era, which evolved from a low-scoring game of strategy to a sport where the home run was a major factor. As part of the Yankees' vaunted "Murderers' Row" lineup of 1927, Ruth hit 60 home runs, which extended his own MLB single-season record by a single home run. Ruth's last season with the Yankees was 1934, and he retired after a short stint with the Boston Braves the following year. In his career, he led the AL in home runs twelve times. During Ruth's career, he was the target of intense press and public attention for his baseball exploits and off-field penchants for drinking and womanizing. After his retirement as a player, he was denied the opportunity to manage a major league club, most likely because of poor behavior during parts of his playing career. In his final years, Ruth made many public appearances, especially in support of American efforts in World War II. In 1946, he became ill with nasopharyngeal cancer and died from the disease two years later. Ruth remains a major figure in American culture. ==Early life== George Herman Ruth Jr. was born on February 6, 1895, at 216 Emory Street in the Pigtown section of Baltimore, in a house which belonged to his maternal grandfather Pius Schamberger, a German immigrant and trade unionist. Ruth's parents, Katherine (née Schamberger) and George Herman Ruth Sr., were both of German ancestry. According to the 1880 census, his parents were both born in Maryland. His paternal grandparents were from Prussia and Hanover, Germany. Ruth Sr. worked a series of jobs that included lightning rod salesman and streetcar operator. The elder Ruth then became a counterman in a family-owned combination grocery and saloon business on Frederick Street. Only one of young Ruth's seven siblings, his younger sister Mamie, survived infancy. Many details of Ruth's childhood are unknown, including the date of his parents' marriage. As a child, Ruth spoke German. When Ruth was a toddler, the family moved to 339 South Woodyear Street, not far from the rail yards; by the time he was six years old, his father had a saloon with an upstairs apartment at 426 West Camden Street. Details are equally scanty about why Ruth was sent at the age of seven to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory and orphanage. As an adult, Ruth admitted that as a youth he ran the streets, rarely attended school, and drank beer when his father was not looking. Some accounts say that following a violent incident at his father's saloon, the city authorities decided that this environment was unsuitable for a small child. Ruth entered St. Mary's on June 13, 1902. He was recorded as "incorrigible" and spent much of the next 12 years there. Although St. Mary's boys received an education, students were also expected to learn work skills and help operate the school, particularly once the boys turned 12. Ruth became a shirtmaker and was also proficient as a carpenter. He would adjust his own shirt collars, rather than having a tailor do so, even during his well-paid baseball career. The boys, aged 5 to 21, did most of the work around the facility, from cooking to shoemaking, and renovated St. Mary's in 1912. The food was simple, and the Xaverian Brothers who ran the school insisted on strict discipline; corporal punishment was common. Ruth's nickname there was "Niggerlips", as he had large facial features and was darker than most boys at the all-white reformatory. Ruth was sometimes allowed to rejoin his family or was placed at St. James's Home, a supervised residence with work in the community, but he was always returned to St. Mary's. He was rarely visited by his family; his mother died when he was 12 and, by some accounts, he was permitted to leave St. Mary's only to attend the funeral. How Ruth came to play baseball there is uncertain: according to one account, his placement at St. Mary's was due in part to repeatedly breaking Baltimore's windows with long hits while playing street ball; by another, he was told to join a team on his first day at St. Mary's by the school's athletic director, Brother Herman, becoming a catcher even though left-handers rarely play that position. During his time there he also played third base and shortstop, again unusual for a left-hander, and was forced to wear mitts and gloves made for right-handers. He was encouraged in his pursuits by the school's Prefect of Discipline, Brother Matthias Boutlier, a native of Nova Scotia. A large man, Brother Matthias was greatly respected by the boys both for his strength and for his fairness. For the rest of his life, Ruth would praise Brother Matthias, and his running and hitting styles closely resembled his teacher's. Ruth stated, "I think I was born as a hitter the first day I ever saw him hit a baseball." The older man became a mentor and role model to Ruth; biographer Robert W. Creamer commented on the closeness between the two: {{blockquote\| Ruth revered Brother Matthias... which is remarkable, considering that Matthias was in charge of making boys behave and that Ruth was one of the great natural misbehavers of all time.... George Ruth caught Brother Matthias' attention early, and the calm, considerable attention the big man gave the young hellraiser from the waterfront struck a spark of response in the boy's soul... [that may have] blunted a few of the more savage teeth in the gross man whom I have heard at least a half-dozen of his baseball contemporaries describe with admiring awe and wonder as "an animal." He was generous to St. Mary's as he became famous and rich, donating money and his presence at fundraisers, and spending $5,000 to buy Brother Matthias a Cadillac in 1926—subsequently replacing it when it was destroyed in an accident. Nevertheless, his biographer Leigh Montville suggests that many of the off-the-field excesses of Ruth's career were driven by the deprivations of his time at St. Mary's. Most of the boys at St. Mary's played baseball in organized leagues at different levels of proficiency. Ruth later estimated that he played 200 games a year as he steadily climbed the ladder of success. Although he played all positions at one time or another, he gained stardom as a pitcher. According to Brother Matthias, Ruth was standing to one side laughing at the bumbling pitching efforts of fellow students, and Matthias told him to go in and see if he could do better. Ruth had become the best pitcher at St. Mary's, and when he was 18 in 1913, he was allowed to leave the premises to play weekend games on teams that were drawn from the community. He was mentioned in several newspaper articles, for both his pitching prowess and ability to hit long home runs. ==Professional baseball== ===Minor leagues: Baltimore Orioles=== In early 1914, Ruth signed a professional baseball contract with Jack Dunn, who owned and managed the minor-league Baltimore Orioles, an International League team. The circumstances of Ruth's signing are not known with certainty. By some accounts, Dunn was urged to attend a game between an all-star team from St. Mary's and one from another Xaverian facility, Mount St. Mary's College. Some versions have Ruth running away before the eagerly awaited game, to be punished, and then returning to pitch St. Mary's team to victory as Dunn watched. Others have Washington Senators pitcher Joe Engel, a Mount St. Mary's graduate, pitching in an alumni game after watching a preliminary contest between the college's freshmen and a team from St. Mary's, including Ruth. Engel watched Ruth play, then told Dunn about him at a chance meeting in Washington. Ruth, in his autobiography, stated only that he worked out for Dunn for a half hour, and was signed. According to biographer Kal Wagenheim, there were legal difficulties to be straightened out as Ruth was supposed to remain at the school until he turned 21, though SportsCentury stated in a documentary that Ruth had already been discharged from St. Mary's when he turned 19, and earned a monthly salary of $100. The rookie ballplayer was the subject of various pranks by veteran players, who were probably also the source of his famous nickname. There are various accounts of how Ruth came to be called "Babe", but most center on his being referred to as "Dunnie's babe" (or some variant). SportsCentury reported that his nickname was gained because he was the new "darling" or "project" of Dunn, not only because of Ruth's raw talent, but also because of his lack of knowledge of the proper etiquette of eating out in a restaurant, being in a hotel, or being on a train. "Babe" was, at that time, a common nickname in baseball, with perhaps the most famous to that point being Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher and 1909 World Series hero Babe Adams, who appeared younger than his actual age. Ruth made his first appearance as a professional ballplayer in an inter-squad game on March 7, 1914. He played shortstop and pitched the last two innings of a 15–9 victory. In his second at-bat, Ruth hit a long home run to right field; the blast was locally reported to be longer than a legendary shot hit by Jim Thorpe in Fayetteville. Ruth made his first appearance against a team in organized baseball in an exhibition game versus the major-league Philadelphia Phillies. Ruth pitched the middle three innings and gave up two runs in the fourth, but then settled down and pitched a scoreless fifth and sixth innings. In a game against the Phillies the following afternoon, Ruth entered during the sixth inning and did not allow a run the rest of the way. The Orioles scored seven runs in the bottom of the eighth inning to overcome a 6–0 deficit, and Ruth was the winning pitcher. Once the regular season began, Ruth was a star pitcher who was also dangerous at the plate. The team performed well, yet received almost no attention from the Baltimore press. A third major league, the Federal League, had begun play, and the local franchise, the Baltimore Terrapins, restored that city to the major leagues for the first time since 1902. Few fans visited Oriole Park, where Ruth and his teammates labored in relative obscurity. Ruth may have been offered a bonus and a larger salary to jump to the Terrapins; when rumors to that effect swept Baltimore, giving Ruth the most publicity he had experienced to date, a Terrapins official denied it, stating it was their policy not to sign players under contract to Dunn. The competition from the Terrapins caused Dunn to sustain large losses. Although by late June the Orioles were in first place, having won over two-thirds of their games, the paid attendance dropped as low as 150. Dunn explored a possible move by the Orioles to Richmond, Virginia, as well as the sale of a minority interest in the club. These possibilities fell through, leaving Dunn with little choice other than to sell his best players to major league teams to raise money. He offered Ruth to the reigning World Series champions, Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, but Mack had his own financial problems. The Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants expressed interest in Ruth, but Dunn sold his contract, along with those of pitchers Ernie Shore and Ben Egan, to the Boston Red Sox of the American League (AL) on July 4. The sale price was announced as $25,000 but other reports lower the amount to half that, or possibly $8,500 plus the cancellation of a $3,000 loan. Ruth remained with the Orioles for several days while the Red Sox completed a road trip, and reported to the team in Boston on July 11. ===Boston Red Sox (1914–1919)=== ====Developing star==== On July 11, 1914, Ruth arrived in Boston with Egan and Shore. Ruth later told the story of how that morning he had met Helen Woodford, who would become his first wife. She was a 16-year-old waitress at Landers Coffee Shop, and Ruth related that she served him when he had breakfast there. Other stories, though, suggested that the meeting occurred on another day, and perhaps under other circumstances. Regardless of when he began to court his first wife, he won his first game as a pitcher for the Red Sox that afternoon, 4–3, over the Cleveland Naps. His catcher was Bill Carrigan, who was also the Red Sox manager. Shore was given a start by Carrigan the next day; he won that and his second start and thereafter was pitched regularly. Ruth lost his second start, and was thereafter little used. Ruth was not much noticed by the fans, as Bostonians watched the Red Sox's crosstown rivals, the Braves, begin a legendary comeback that would take them from last place on the Fourth of July to the 1914 World Series championship. Egan was traded to Cleveland after two weeks on the Boston roster. During his time with the Red Sox, he kept an eye on the inexperienced Ruth, much as Dunn had in Baltimore. When he was traded, no one took his place as supervisor. Ruth's new teammates considered him brash and would have preferred him as a rookie to remain quiet and inconspicuous. When Ruth insisted on taking batting practice despite being both a rookie who did not play regularly and a pitcher, he arrived to find his bats sawed in half. His teammates nicknamed him "the Big Baboon", a name the swarthy Ruth, who had disliked the nickname "Niggerlips" at St. Mary's, detested. Ruth had received a raise on promotion to the major leagues and quickly acquired tastes for fine food, liquor, and women, among other temptations. Manager Carrigan allowed Ruth to pitch two exhibition games in mid-August. Although Ruth won both against minor-league competition, he was not restored to the pitching rotation. It is uncertain why Carrigan did not give Ruth additional opportunities to pitch. There are legends—filmed for the screen in The Babe Ruth Story (1948)—that the young pitcher had a habit of signaling his intent to throw a curveball by sticking out his tongue slightly, and that he was easy to hit until this changed. Creamer pointed out that it is common for inexperienced pitchers to display such habits, and the need to break Ruth of his would not constitute a reason to not use him at all. The biographer suggested that Carrigan was unwilling to use Ruth because of the rookie's poor behavior. On July 30, 1914, Boston owner Joseph Lannin had purchased the minor-league Providence Grays, members of the International League. The Providence team had been owned by several people associated with the Detroit Tigers, including star hitter Ty Cobb, and as part of the transaction, a Providence pitcher was sent to the Tigers. To soothe Providence fans upset at losing a star, Lannin announced that the Red Sox would soon send a replacement to the Grays. This was intended to be Ruth, but his departure for Providence was delayed when Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann claimed him by waiver. After Lannin wrote to Herrmann explaining that the Red Sox wanted Ruth in Providence so he could develop as a player, and would not release him to a major league club, Herrmann allowed Ruth to be sent to the minors. Carrigan later stated that Ruth was not sent down to Providence to make him a better player, but to help the Grays win the International League pennant (league championship). Ruth joined the Grays on August 18, 1914. After Dunn's deals, the Baltimore Orioles managed to hold on to first place until August 15, after which they continued to fade, leaving the pennant race between Providence and Rochester. Ruth was deeply impressed by Providence manager "Wild Bill" Donovan, previously a star pitcher with a 25–4 win–loss record for Detroit in 1907; in later years, he credited Donovan with teaching him much about pitching. Ruth was often called upon to pitch, in one stretch starting (and winning) four games in eight days. On September 5 at Maple Leaf Park in Toronto, Ruth pitched a one-hit 9–0 victory, and hit his first professional home run, his only one as a minor leaguer, off Ellis Johnson. Recalled to Boston after Providence finished the season in first place, he pitched and won a game for the Red Sox against the New York Yankees on October 2, getting his first major league hit, a double. Ruth finished the season with a record of 2–1 as a major leaguer and 23–8 in the International League (for Baltimore and Providence). Once the season concluded, Ruth married Helen in Ellicott City, Maryland. Creamer speculated that they did not marry in Baltimore, where the newlyweds boarded with George Ruth Sr., to avoid possible interference from those at St. Mary's—both bride and groom were not yet of age and Ruth remained on parole from that institution until his 21st birthday. In March 1915, Ruth reported to Hot Springs, Arkansas, for his first major league spring training. Despite a relatively successful first season, he was not slated to start regularly for the Red Sox, who already had two "superb" left-handed pitchers, according to Creamer: the established stars Dutch Leonard, who had broken the record for the lowest earned run average (ERA) in a single season; and Ray Collins, a 20-game winner in both 1913 and 1914. Ruth was ineffective in his first start, taking the loss in the third game of the season. Injuries and ineffective pitching by other Boston pitchers gave Ruth another chance, and after some good relief appearances, Carrigan allowed Ruth another start, and he won a rain-shortened seven inning game. Ten days later, the manager had him start against the New York Yankees at the Polo Grounds. Ruth took a 3–2 lead into the ninth, but lost the game 4–3 in 13 innings. Ruth, hitting ninth as was customary for pitchers, hit a massive home run into the upper deck in right field off of Jack Warhop. At the time, home runs were rare in baseball, and Ruth's majestic shot awed the crowd. The winning pitcher, Warhop, would in August 1915 conclude a major league career of eight seasons, undistinguished but for being the first major league pitcher to give up a home run to Babe Ruth. Carrigan was sufficiently impressed by Ruth's pitching to give him a spot in the starting rotation. Ruth finished the 1915 season 18–8 as a pitcher; as a hitter, he batted .315 and had four home runs. The Red Sox won the AL pennant, but with the pitching staff healthy, Ruth was not called upon to pitch in the 1915 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies. Boston won in five games. Ruth was used as a pinch hitter in Game Five, but grounded out against Phillies ace Grover Cleveland Alexander. Despite his success as a pitcher, Ruth was acquiring a reputation for long home runs; at Sportsman's Park against the St. Louis Browns, a Ruth hit soared over Grand Avenue, breaking the window of a Chevrolet dealership. In 1916, attention focused on Ruth's pitching as he engaged in repeated pitching duels with Washington Senators' ace Walter Johnson. The two met five times during the season with Ruth winning four and Johnson one (Ruth had a no decision in Johnson's victory). Two of Ruth's victories were by the score of 1–0, one in a 13-inning game. Of the 1–0 shutout decided without extra innings, AL president Ban Johnson stated, "That was one of the best ball games I have ever seen." For the season, Ruth went 23–12, with a 1.75 ERA and nine shutouts, both of which led the league. Ruth's nine shutouts in 1916 set a league record for left-handers that would remain unmatched until Ron Guidry tied it in 1978. The Red Sox won the pennant and World Series again, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins (as the Dodgers were then known) in five games. Ruth started and won Game 2, 2–1, in 14 innings. Until another game of that length was played in 2005, this was the longest World Series game, and Ruth's pitching performance is still the longest postseason complete game victory. Carrigan retired as player and manager after 1916, returning to his native Maine to be a businessman. Ruth, who played under four managers who are in the National Baseball Hall of Fame, always maintained that Carrigan, who is not enshrined there, was the best skipper he ever played for. There were other changes in the Red Sox organization that offseason, as Lannin sold the team to a three-man group headed by New York theatrical promoter Harry Frazee. Jack Barry was hired by Frazee as manager. ====Emergence as a hitter==== Ruth pitched a league-leading 35 complete games and went 24–13 with a 2.01 ERA and six shutouts in 1917, but the Sox finished in second place in the league, nine games behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings. On June 23 at Washington, when home plate umpire 'Brick' Owens called the first four pitches as balls, Ruth was ejected from the game and threw a punch at him, and was later suspended for ten days and fined $100. Ernie Shore was called in to relieve Ruth, and was allowed eight warm-up pitches. The runner who had reached base on the walk was caught stealing, and Shore retired all 26 batters he faced to win the game. Shore's feat was listed as a perfect game for many years. In 1991, Major League Baseball's (MLB) Committee on Statistical Accuracy amended it to be listed as a combined no-hitter. In 1917, Ruth was used little as a batter, other than for his plate appearances while pitching, and hit .325 with two home runs. The United States' entry into World War I occurred at the start of the season and overshadowed baseball. Conscription was introduced in September 1917, and most baseball players in the big leagues were of draft age. This included Barry, who was a player-manager, and who joined the Naval Reserve in an attempt to avoid the draft, only to be called up after the 1917 season. Frazee hired International League President Ed Barrow as Red Sox manager. Barrow had spent the previous 30 years in a variety of baseball jobs, though he never played the game professionally. With the major leagues shorthanded because of the war, Barrow had many holes in the Red Sox lineup to fill. In early May, Barrow gave in; Ruth promptly hit home runs in four consecutive games (one an exhibition), the last off of Walter Johnson. For the first time in his career (disregarding pinch-hitting appearances), Ruth was assigned a place in the batting order higher than ninth. On July 8, in a scoreless game, with a runner on first base Ruth hit a ball out of the ballpark to drive in the game-winning run; this was recorded as a triple, since the rules at that time considered the game over once the winning run scored. In 1968 the Special Baseball Records Committee unanimously ruled this, along with 36 other hits, a home run, but in part due to the perceived importance of preserving Ruth's home run total at 714, in 1969 the committee reversed this decision. In 1918, the Red Sox won their third pennant in four years and faced the Chicago Cubs in the World Series, which began on September 5, the earliest date in history. The season had been shortened because the government had ruled that baseball players who were eligible for the military would have to be inducted or work in critical war industries, such as armaments plants. Ruth pitched and won Game One for the Red Sox, a 1–0 shutout. Before Game Four, Ruth injured his left hand in a fight but pitched anyway. He gave up seven hits and six walks, but was helped by outstanding fielding behind him and by his own batting efforts, as a fourth-inning triple by Ruth gave his team a 2–0 lead. The Cubs tied the game in the eighth inning, but the Red Sox scored to take a 3–2 lead again in the bottom of that inning. After Ruth gave up a hit and a walk to start the ninth inning, he was relieved on the mound by Joe Bush. To keep Ruth and his bat in the game, he was sent to play left field. Bush retired the side to give Ruth his second win of the Series, and the third and last World Series pitching victory of his career, against no defeats, in three pitching appearances. Ruth's effort gave his team a three-games-to-one lead, and two days later the Red Sox won their third Series in four years, four-games-to-two. Before allowing the Cubs to score in Game Four, Ruth pitched consecutive scoreless innings, a record for the World Series that stood for more than 40 years until 1961, broken by Whitey Ford. Ruth was prouder of that record than he was of any of his batting feats. With the World Series over, Ruth gained exemption from the war draft by accepting a nominal position with a Pennsylvania steel mill. Many industrial establishments took pride in their baseball teams and sought to hire major leaguers. The end of the war in November set Ruth free to play baseball without such contrivances. During the 1919 season, Ruth was used as a pitcher in only 17 of his 130 games Two home runs by Ruth on July 5, and one in each of two consecutive games a week later, raised his season total to 11, tying his career best from 1918. The first record to fall was the AL single-season mark of 16, set by Ralph "Socks" Seybold in 1902. Ruth matched that on July 29, then pulled ahead toward the major league record of 25, set by Buck Freeman in 1899. By the time Ruth reached this in early September, writers had discovered that Ned Williamson of the 1884 Chicago White Stockings had hit 27—though in a ballpark where the distance to right field was only . On September 20, "Babe Ruth Day" at Fenway Park, Ruth won the game with a home run in the bottom of the ninth inning, tying Williamson. He broke the record four days later against the Yankees at the Polo Grounds, and hit one more against the Senators to finish with 29. The home run at Washington made Ruth the first major league player to hit a home run at all eight ballparks in his league. In spite of Ruth's hitting heroics, the Red Sox finished sixth, games behind the league champion White Sox. In his six seasons with Boston, he won 89 games and recorded a 2.19 ERA. He had a four-year stretch where he was second in the AL in wins and ERA behind Walter Johnson, and Ruth had a winning record against Johnson in head-to-head matchups. The 1919 season saw record-breaking attendance, and Ruth's home runs for Boston made him a national sensation. In March 1919 Ruth was reported as having accepted a three-year contract for a total of $27,000, after protracted negotiations. Nevertheless, on December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Ruth's contract to the New York Yankees. Not all the circumstances concerning the sale are known, but brewer and former congressman Jacob Ruppert, the New York team's principal owner, reportedly asked Yankee manager Miller Huggins what the team needed to be successful. "Get Ruth from Boston", Huggins supposedly replied, noting that Frazee was perennially in need of money to finance his theatrical productions. An often-told story is that Frazee needed money, and sold Ruth to finance the musical No, No, Nanette; that play did not open until 1925, by which time Frazee had sold the Red Sox, There were also other financial pressures on Frazee, despite his team's success. Ruth, fully aware of baseball's popularity and his role in it, wanted to renegotiate his contract, signed before the 1919 season for $10,000 per year through 1921. He demanded that his salary be doubled, or he would sit out the season and cash in on his popularity through other ventures. Ruth's salary demands were causing other players to ask for more money. Additionally, Frazee still owed Lannin as much as $125,000 from the purchase of the club. Although Ruppert and his co-owner, Colonel Tillinghast Huston, were both wealthy, and had aggressively purchased and traded for players in 1918 and 1919 to build a winning team, Ruppert faced losses in his brewing interests as Prohibition was implemented, and if their team left the Polo Grounds, where the Yankees were the tenants of the New York Giants, building a stadium in New York would be expensive. Nevertheless, when Frazee, who moved in the same social circles as Huston, hinted to the colonel that Ruth was available for the right price, the Yankees owners quickly pursued the purchase. Frazee sold the rights to Babe Ruth for $100,000, the largest sum ever paid for a baseball player. The deal also involved a $350,000 loan from Ruppert to Frazee, secured by a mortgage on Fenway Park. Once it was agreed, Frazee informed Barrow, who, stunned, told the owner that he was getting the worse end of the bargain. Cynics have suggested that Barrow may have played a larger role in the Ruth sale, as less than a year after, he became the Yankee general manager, and in the following years made a number of purchases of Red Sox players from Frazee. The $100,000 price included $25,000 in cash, and notes for the same amount due November 1 in 1920, 1921, and 1922; Ruppert and Huston assisted Frazee in selling the notes to banks for immediate cash. The New York Times suggested that "The short right field wall at the Polo Grounds should prove an easy target for Ruth next season and, playing seventy-seven games at home, it would not be surprising if Ruth surpassed his home run record of twenty-nine circuit clouts next Summer." According to Reisler, "The Yankees had pulled off the sports steal of the century." The Red Sox, winners of five of the first 16 World Series, those played between 1903 and 1919, would not win another pennant until 1946, or another World Series until 2004, a drought attributed in baseball superstition to Frazee's sale of Ruth and sometimes dubbed the "Curse of the Bambino". Conversely, the Yankees had not won the AL championship prior to their acquisition of Ruth. They won seven AL pennants and four World Series with him, and lead baseball with 40 pennants and 27 World Series titles in their history. ===New York Yankees (1920–1934)=== ====Initial success (1920–1923)==== When Ruth signed with the Yankees, his transition from a pitcher to a power-hitting outfielder was complete. His fifteen-season Yankee career consisted of over 2,000 games, and Ruth broke many batting records while making only five widely scattered appearances on the mound, winning all of them. Both situations began to change on May 1, when Ruth hit a tape measure home run that sent the ball completely out of the Polo Grounds, a feat believed to have been previously accomplished only by Shoeless Joe Jackson. The Yankees won, 6–0, taking three out of four from the Red Sox. Ruth hit his second home run on May 2, and by the end of the month had set a major league record for home runs in a month with 11, and promptly broke it with 13 in June. Fans responded with record attendance figures. On May 16, Ruth and the Yankees drew 38,600 to the Polo Grounds, a record for the ballpark, and 15,000 fans were turned away. Large crowds jammed stadiums to see Ruth play when the Yankees were on the road. The home runs kept on coming. Ruth tied his own record of 29 on July 15 and broke it with home runs in both games of a doubleheader four days later. By the end of July, he had 37, but his pace slackened somewhat after that. Nevertheless, on September 4, he both tied and broke the organized baseball record for home runs in a season, snapping Perry Werden's 1895 mark of 44 in the minor Western League. The Yankees played well as a team, battling for the league lead early in the summer, but slumped in August in the AL pennant battle with Chicago and Cleveland. The pennant and the World Series were won by Cleveland, who surged ahead after the Black Sox Scandal broke on September 28 and led to the suspension of many of Chicago's top players, including Shoeless Joe Jackson. The Yankees finished third, but drew 1.2 million fans to the Polo Grounds, the first time a team had drawn a seven-figure attendance. The rest of the league sold 600,000 more tickets, many fans there to see Ruth, who led the league with 54 home runs, 158 runs, and 137 runs batted in (RBIs). In 1920 and afterwards, Ruth was aided in his power hitting by the fact that A.J. Reach Company—the maker of baseballs used in the major leagues—was using a more efficient machine to wind the yarn found within the baseball. The new baseballs went into play in 1920 and ushered the start of the live-ball era; the number of home runs across the major leagues increased by 184 over the previous year. Baseball statistician Bill James pointed out that while Ruth was likely aided by the change in the baseball, there were other factors at work, including the gradual abolition of the spitball (accelerated after the death of Ray Chapman, struck by a pitched ball thrown by Mays in August 1920) and the more frequent use of new baseballs (also a response to Chapman's death). Nevertheless, James theorized that Ruth's 1920 explosion might have happened in 1919, had a full season of 154 games been played rather than 140, had Ruth refrained from pitching 133 innings that season, and if he were playing at any other home field but Fenway Park, where he hit only 9 of 29 home runs. Yankees business manager Harry Sparrow had died early in the 1920 season. Ruppert and Huston hired Barrow to replace him. The two men quickly made a deal with Frazee for New York to acquire some of the players who would be mainstays of the early Yankee pennant-winning teams, including catcher Wally Schang and pitcher Waite Hoyt. The 21-year-old Hoyt became close to Ruth: In the offseason, Ruth spent some time in Havana, Cuba, where he was said to have lost $35,000 () betting on horse races. Ruth hit home runs early and often in the 1921 season, during which he broke Roger Connor's mark for home runs in a career, 138. Each of the almost 600 home runs Ruth hit in his career after that extended his own record. After a slow start, the Yankees were soon locked in a tight pennant race with Cleveland, winners of the 1920 World Series. On September 15, Ruth hit his 55th home run, breaking his year-old single-season record. In late September, the Yankees visited Cleveland and won three out of four games, giving them the upper hand in the race, and clinched their first pennant a few days later. Ruth finished the regular season with 59 home runs, batting .378 and with a slugging percentage of .846. Ruth's 177 runs scored, 119 extra-base hits, and 457 total bases set modern-era records that still stand . The Yankees had high expectations when they met the New York Giants in the 1921 World Series, every game of which was played in the Polo Grounds. The Yankees won the first two games with Ruth in the lineup. However, Ruth badly scraped his elbow during Game 2 when he slid into third base (he had walked and stolen both second and third bases). After the game, he was told by the team physician not to play the rest of the series. Despite this advice, he did play in the next three games, and pinch-hit in Game Eight of the best-of-nine series, but the Yankees lost, five games to three. Ruth hit .316, drove in five runs and hit his first World Series home run. After the Series, Ruth and teammates Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy participated in a barnstorming tour in the Northeast. A rule then in force prohibited World Series participants from playing in exhibition games during the offseason, the purpose being to prevent Series participants from replicating the Series and undermining its value. Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis suspended the trio until May 20, 1922, and fined them their 1921 World Series checks. In August 1922, the rule was changed to allow limited barnstorming for World Series participants, with Landis's permission required. On March 4, 1922, Ruth signed a new contract for three years at $52,000 a year (). This was more than two times the largest sum ever paid to a ballplayer up to that point and it represented 40% of the team's player payroll. Despite his suspension, Ruth was named the Yankees' new on-field captain prior to the 1922 season. During the suspension, he worked out with the team in the morning and played exhibition games with the Yankees on their off days. He and Meusel returned on May 20 to a sellout crowd at the Polo Grounds, but Ruth batted 0-for-4 and was booed. On May 25, he was thrown out of the game for throwing dust in umpire George Hildebrand's face, then climbed into the stands to confront a heckler. Ban Johnson ordered him fined, suspended, and stripped of position as team captain. In his shortened season, Ruth appeared in 110 games, batted .315, with 35 home runs, and drove in 99 runs, After the season, Ruth was a guest at an Elks Club banquet, set up by Ruth's agent with Yankee team support. There, each speaker, concluding with future New York mayor Jimmy Walker, censured him for his poor behavior. An emotional Ruth promised reform, and, to the surprise of many, followed through. When he reported to spring training, he was in his best shape as a Yankee, weighing only . The Yankees' status as tenants of the Giants at the Polo Grounds had become increasingly uneasy, and in 1922, Giants owner Charles Stoneham said the Yankees' lease, expiring after that season, would not be renewed. Ruppert and Huston had long contemplated a new stadium, and had taken an option on property at 161st Street and River Avenue in the Bronx. Yankee Stadium was completed in time for the home opener on April 18, 1923, at which Ruth hit the first home run in what was quickly dubbed "the House that Ruth Built". The ballpark was designed with Ruth in mind: although the venue's left-field fence was further from home plate than at the Polo Grounds, Yankee Stadium's right-field fence was closer, making home runs easier to hit for left-handed batters. To spare Ruth's eyes, right field—his defensive position—was not pointed into the afternoon sun, as was traditional; left fielder Meusel soon developed headaches from squinting toward home plate.]] In 1924, the Yankees were favored to become the first team to win four consecutive pennants. Plagued by injuries, they found themselves in a battle with the Senators. Although the Yankees won 18 of 22 at one point in September, the Senators beat out the Yankees by two games. Ruth hit .378, winning his only AL batting title, with a league-leading 46 home runs. Ruth did not look like an athlete; he was described as "toothpicks attached to a piano", with a big upper body but thin wrists and legs. Ruth had kept up his efforts to stay in shape in 1923 and 1924, but by early 1925 weighed nearly . His annual visit to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where he exercised and took saunas early in the year, did him no good as he spent much of the time carousing in the resort town. He became ill while there, and relapsed during spring training. Ruth collapsed in Asheville, North Carolina, as the team journeyed north. He was put on a train for New York, where he was briefly hospitalized. A rumor circulated that he had died, prompting British newspapers to print a premature obituary. In New York, Ruth collapsed again and was found unconscious in his hotel bathroom. He was taken to a hospital where he had multiple convulsions. After sportswriter W. O. McGeehan wrote that Ruth's illness was due to binging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game, it became known as "the bellyache heard 'round the world". However, the exact cause of his ailment has never been confirmed and remains a mystery. Glenn Stout, in his history of the Yankees, writes that the Ruth legend is "still one of the most sheltered in sports"; he suggests that alcohol was at the root of Ruth's illness, pointing to the fact that Ruth remained six weeks at St. Vincent's Hospital but was allowed to leave, under supervision, for workouts with the team for part of that time. He concludes that the hospitalization was behavior-related. Playing just 98 games, Ruth had his worst season as a Yankee; he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs. The Yankees finished next to last in the AL with a 69–85 record, their last season with a losing record until 1965. ====Murderers' Row (1926–1928)==== Ruth spent part of the offseason of 1925–26 working out at Artie McGovern's gym, where he got back into shape. Barrow and Huggins had rebuilt the team and surrounded the veteran core with good young players like Tony Lazzeri and Lou Gehrig, but the Yankees were not expected to win the pennant. Ruth returned to his normal production during 1926, when he batted .372 with 47 home runs and 146 RBIs. Although the Yankees won the opener in New York, St. Louis took Games Two and Three. In Game Four, Ruth hit three home runs—the first time this had been done in a World Series game—to lead the Yankees to victory. In the fifth game, Ruth caught a ball as he crashed into the fence. The play was described by baseball writers as a defensive gem. New York took that game, but Grover Cleveland Alexander won Game Six for St. Louis to tie the Series at three games each, then got very drunk. He was nevertheless inserted into Game Seven in the seventh inning and shut down the Yankees to win the game, 3–2, and win the Series. Ruth had hit his fourth home run of the Series earlier in the game and was the only Yankee to reach base off Alexander; he walked in the ninth inning before being thrown out to end the game when he attempted to steal second base. Although Ruth's attempt to steal second is often deemed a baserunning blunder, Creamer pointed out that the Yankees' chances of tying the game would have been greatly improved with a runner in scoring position. The 1926 World Series was also known for Ruth's promise to Johnny Sylvester, a hospitalized 11-year-old boy. Ruth promised the child that he would hit a home run on his behalf. Sylvester had been injured in a fall from a horse, and a friend of Sylvester's father gave the boy two autographed baseballs signed by Yankees and Cardinals. The friend relayed a promise from Ruth (who did not know the boy) that he would hit a home run for him. After the Series, Ruth visited the boy in the hospital. When the matter became public, the press greatly inflated it, and by some accounts, Ruth allegedly saved the boy's life by visiting him, emotionally promising to hit a home run, and doing so. Ruth's 1926 salary of $52,000 was far more than any other baseball player, but he made at least twice as much in other income, including $100,000 from 12 weeks of vaudeville. The 1927 New York Yankees team is considered one of the greatest squads to ever take the field. Known as Murderers' Row because of the power of its lineup, the team clinched first place on Labor Day, won a then-AL-record 110 games and took the AL pennant by 19 games. There was no suspense in the pennant race, and the nation turned its attention to Ruth's pursuit of his own single-season home run record of 59 round trippers. Ruth was not alone in this chase. Teammate Lou Gehrig proved to be a slugger who was capable of challenging Ruth for his home run crown; he tied Ruth with 24 home runs late in June. Through July and August, the dynamic duo was never separated by more than two home runs. Gehrig took the lead, 45–44, in the first game of a doubleheader at Fenway Park early in September; Ruth responded with two blasts of his own to take the lead, as it proved permanently—Gehrig finished with 47. Even so, as of September 6, Ruth was still several games off his 1921 pace, and going into the final series against the Senators, had only 57. He hit two in the first game of the series, including one off of Paul Hopkins, facing his first major league batter, to tie the record. The following day, September 30, he broke it with his 60th homer, in the eighth inning off Tom Zachary to break a 2–2 tie. "Sixty! Let's see some son of a bitch try to top that one", Ruth exulted after the game. In addition to his career-high 60 home runs, Ruth batted .356, drove in 164 runs and slugged .772. According to Appel, "The 1927 New York Yankees. Even today, the words inspire awe... all baseball success is measured against the '27 team." The following season started off well for the Yankees, who led the league in the early going. But the Yankees were plagued by injuries, erratic pitching and inconsistent play. The Philadelphia Athletics, rebuilding after some lean years, erased the Yankees' big lead and even took over first place briefly in early September. The Yankees, however, regained first place when they beat the Athletics three out of four games in a pivotal series at Yankee Stadium later that month, and clinched the pennant in the final weekend of the season. Ruth's play in 1928 mirrored his team's performance. He got off to a hot start and on August 1, he had 42 home runs. This put him ahead of his 60 home run pace from the previous season. He then slumped for the latter part of the season, and he hit just twelve home runs in the last two months. Ruth's batting average also fell to .323, well below his career average. Nevertheless, he ended the season with 54 home runs. The Yankees swept the favored Cardinals in four games in the World Series, with Ruth batting .625 and hitting three home runs in Game Four, including one off Alexander. ===="Called shot" and final Yankee years (1929–1934)==== Before the 1929 season, Ruppert (who had bought out Huston in 1923) announced that the Yankees would wear uniform numbers to allow fans at cavernous Yankee Stadium to easily identify the players. The Cardinals and Indians had each experimented with uniform numbers; the Yankees were the first to use them on both home and away uniforms. Ruth batted third and was given number 3. According to a long-standing baseball legend, the Yankees adopted their now-iconic pinstriped uniforms in hopes of making Ruth look slimmer. In truth, though, they had been wearing pinstripes since 1915. Although the Yankees started well, the Athletics soon proved they were the better team in 1929, splitting two series with the Yankees in the first month of the season, then taking advantage of a Yankee losing streak in mid-May to gain first place. Although Ruth performed well, the Yankees were not able to catch the Athletics—Connie Mack had built another great team. Tragedy struck the Yankees late in the year as manager Huggins died at 51 of erysipelas, a bacterial skin infection, on September 25, only ten days after he had last directed the team. Despite their past differences, Ruth praised Huggins and described him as a "great guy". The Yankees finished second, 18 games behind the Athletics. Ruth had politicked for the job of player-manager, but Ruppert and Barrow never seriously considered him for the position. Stout deemed this the first hint Ruth would have no future with the Yankees once he retired as a player. Shawkey, a former Yankees player and teammate of Ruth, would prove unable to command Ruth's respect. On January 7, 1930, salary negotiations between the Yankees and Ruth quickly broke down. Having just concluded a three-year contract at an annual salary of $70,000, Ruth promptly rejected both the Yankees' initial proposal of $70,000 for one year and their 'final' offer of two years at seventy-five—the latter figure equaling the annual salary of then US President Herbert Hoover; instead, Ruth demanded at least $85,000 and three years. When asked why he thought he was "worth more than the President of the United States," Ruth responded: "Say, if I hadn't been sick last summer, I'd have broken hell out of that home run record! Besides, the President gets a four-year contract. I'm only asking for three." Ruth's salary was more than 2.4 times greater than the next-highest salary that season, a record margin . In 1930, Ruth hit .359 with 49 home runs (his best in his years after 1928) and 153 RBIs, and pitched his first game in nine years, a complete game victory. McCarthy was a disciplinarian, but chose not to interfere with Ruth, who did not seek conflict with the manager. The team improved in 1931, but was no match for the Athletics, who won 107 games, games in front of the Yankees. Ruth, for his part, hit .373, with 46 home runs and 163 RBIs. He had 31 doubles, his most since 1924. The Yankees faced the Cubs, McCarthy's former team, in the 1932 World Series. There was bad blood between the two teams as the Yankees resented the Cubs only awarding half a World Series share to Mark Koenig, a former Yankee. The games at Yankee Stadium had not been sellouts; both were won by the home team, with Ruth collecting two singles, but scoring four runs as he was walked four times by the Cubs pitchers. In Chicago, Ruth was resentful at the hostile crowds that met the Yankees' train and jeered them at the hotel. The crowd for Game Three included New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate for president, who sat with Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak. Many in the crowd threw lemons at Ruth, a sign of derision, and others (as well as the Cubs themselves) shouted abuse at Ruth and other Yankees. They were briefly silenced when Ruth hit a three-run home run off Charlie Root in the first inning, but soon revived, and the Cubs tied the score at 4–4 in the fourth inning, partly due to Ruth's fielding error in the outfield. When Ruth came to the plate in the top of the fifth, the Chicago crowd and players, led by pitcher Guy Bush, were screaming insults at Ruth. With the count at two balls and one strike, Ruth gestured, possibly in the direction of center field, and after the next pitch (a strike), may have pointed there with one hand. Ruth hit the fifth pitch over the center field fence; estimates were that it traveled nearly . Whether or not Ruth intended to indicate where he planned to (and did) hit the ball (Charlie Devens, who, in 1999, was interviewed as Ruth's surviving teammate in that game, did not think so), the incident has gone down in legend as Babe Ruth's called shot. The Yankees won Game Three, and the following day clinched the Series with another victory. During that game, Bush hit Ruth on the arm with a pitch, causing words to be exchanged and provoking a game-winning Yankee rally. Ruth remained productive in 1933. He batted .301, with 34 home runs, 103 RBIs, and a league-leading 114 walks, During the final game of the 1933 season, as a publicity stunt organized by his team, Ruth was called upon and pitched a complete game victory against the Red Sox, his final appearance as a pitcher. Despite unremarkable pitching numbers, Ruth had a 5–0 record in five games for the Yankees, raising his career totals to 94–46. He accepted a pay cut to $35,000 from Ruppert, but he was still the highest-paid player in the major leagues. He could still handle a bat, recording a .288 batting average with 22 home runs, However, Reisler described these statistics as "merely mortal" by Ruth's previous standards. Ruth was selected to the AL All-Star team for the second consecutive year, even though he was in the twilight of his career. During the game, New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell struck out Ruth and four other future Hall-of-Famers consecutively. The Yankees finished second again, seven games behind the Tigers. ===Boston Braves (1935)=== By this time, Ruth knew he was nearly finished as a player. He desired to remain in baseball as a manager. He was often spoken of as a possible candidate as managerial jobs opened up, but in 1932, when he was mentioned as a contender for the Red Sox position, Ruth stated that he was not yet ready to leave the field. There were rumors that Ruth was a likely candidate each time when the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, and Detroit Tigers were looking for a manager, but nothing came of them. Just before the 1934 season, Ruppert offered to make Ruth the manager of the Yankees' top minor-league team, the Newark Bears, but he was talked out of it by his wife, Claire, and his business manager, Christy Walsh. Early in the 1934 season, Ruth made no secret of his desire to manage the Yankees. However, that job was never a serious possibility. Ruppert always supported McCarthy, who would remain in his position for another 12 seasons. The relationship between Ruth and McCarthy had been lukewarm at best, and Ruth's open campaigning to replace him further chilled their interpersonal relations. When the time came, Ruppert wanted Ruth to leave the team without drama or hard feelings. Also during the offseason, Ruppert had been sounding out the other clubs in hopes of finding one that would be willing to take Ruth as a manager and/or a player. However, the only serious offer came from Athletics owner-manager Connie Mack, who gave some thought to stepping down as manager in favor of Ruth. However, Mack later dropped the idea, saying that Ruth's wife would be running the team in a month if Ruth ever took over. While the barnstorming tour was underway, Ruppert began negotiating with Boston Braves owner Judge Emil Fuchs, who wanted Ruth as a gate attraction. The Braves had enjoyed modest recent success, finishing fourth in the National League in both 1933 and 1934, but the team drew poorly at the box office. Unable to afford the rent at Braves Field, Fuchs had considered holding dog races there when the Braves were not at home, only to be turned down by Landis. After a series of phone calls, letters, and meetings, the Yankees traded Ruth to the Braves on February 26, 1935. Ruppert had stated that he would not release Ruth to go to another team as a full-time player. For this reason, it was announced that Ruth would become a team vice president and would be consulted on all club transactions, in addition to playing. He was also made assistant manager to Braves skipper Bill McKechnie. In a long letter to Ruth a few days before the press conference, Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the Braves' profits, with the possibility of becoming co-owner of the team. Fuchs also raised the possibility of Ruth succeeding McKechnie as manager, perhaps as early as 1936. Ruppert called the deal "the greatest opportunity Ruth ever had". There was considerable attention as Ruth reported for spring training. He did not hit his first home run of the spring until after the team had left Florida, and was beginning the road north in Savannah. He hit two in an exhibition game against the Bears. Amid much press attention, Ruth played his first home game in Boston in over 16 years. Before an opening-day crowd of over 25,000, including five of New England's six state governors, Ruth accounted for all the Braves' runs in a 4–2 win over the New York Giants, hitting a two-run home run, singling to drive in a third run and later in the inning scoring the fourth. Although age and weight had slowed him, he made a running catch in left field that sportswriters deemed the defensive highlight of the game. Ruth had two hits in the second game of the season, but it quickly went downhill both for him and the Braves from there. The season soon settled down to a routine of Ruth performing poorly on the few occasions he even played at all. As April passed into May, Ruth's physical deterioration became even more pronounced. While he remained productive at the plate early on, he could do little else. His conditioning had become so poor that he could barely trot around the bases. He made so many errors that three Braves pitchers told McKechnie they would not take the mound if he was in the lineup. Before long, Ruth stopped hitting as well. He grew increasingly annoyed that McKechnie ignored most of his advice. McKechnie later said that Ruth's presence made enforcing discipline nearly impossible. Ruth soon realized that Fuchs had deceived him, and had no intention of making him manager or giving him any significant off-field duties. He later said his only duties as vice president consisted of making public appearances and autographing tickets. Ruth also found out that far from giving him a share of the profits, Fuchs wanted him to invest some of his money in the team in a last-ditch effort to improve its balance sheet. As it turned out, Fuchs and Ruppert had both known all along that Ruth's non-playing positions were meaningless. By the end of the first month of the season, Ruth concluded he was finished even as a part-time player. As early as May 12, he asked Fuchs to let him retire. Ruth played in the third game of the Pittsburgh series on May 25, 1935, and added one more tale to his playing legend. Ruth went 4-for-4, including three home runs, though the Braves lost the game 11–7. The last two were off Ruth's old Cubs nemesis, Guy Bush. The final home run, both of the game and of Ruth's career, sailed out of the park over the right field upper deck–the first time anyone had hit a fair ball completely out of Forbes Field. Ruth was urged to make this his last game, but he had given his word to Fuchs to stay on through Memorial Day and played in Cincinnati and Philadelphia. The first game of the doubleheader in Philadelphia—the Braves lost both—would be his final major league appearance. Ruth retired on June 2 after an argument with Fuchs. He finished 1935 with a .181 average—easily his worst as a full-time position player—and the final six of his 714 home runs. The Braves, 10–27 when Ruth left, finished 38–115, at .248 the worst winning percentage in modern National League history. Insolvent like his team, Fuchs gave up control of the Braves before the end of the season; the National League took over the franchise at the end of the year. ==Retirement== Although Fuchs had given Ruth his unconditional release, no major league team expressed an interest in hiring him in any capacity. Ruth still hoped to be hired as a manager if he could not play anymore, but only one managerial position, Cleveland, became available between Ruth's retirement and the end of the 1937 season. Asked if he had considered Ruth for the job, Indians owner Alva Bradley replied negatively. Ruth played much golf and in a few exhibition baseball games, where he demonstrated a continuing ability to draw large crowds. This appeal contributed to the Dodgers hiring him as first base coach in 1938. When Ruth was hired, Brooklyn general manager Larry MacPhail made it clear that Ruth would not be considered for the manager's job if, as expected, Burleigh Grimes retired at the end of the season. Although much was said about what Ruth could teach the younger players, in practice, his duties were to appear on the field in uniform and encourage base runners—he was not called upon to relay signs. In August, shortly before the baseball rosters expanded, Ruth sought an opportunity to return as an active player in a pinch hitting role. Ruth often took batting practice before games and felt that he could take on the limited role. Grimes denied his request, citing Ruth's poor vision in his right eye, his inability to run the bases, and the risk of an injury to Ruth. Ruth got along well with everyone except team captain Leo Durocher, who was hired as Grimes' replacement at season's end. Ruth then left his job as a first base coach and would never again work in any capacity in the game of baseball. On July 4, 1939, Ruth spoke on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium as members of the 1927 Yankees and a sellout crowd turned out to honor the first baseman, who was forced into premature retirement by ALS, which would kill him two years later. The next week, Ruth went to Cooperstown, New York, for the formal opening of the Baseball Hall of Fame. Three years earlier, he was one of the first five players elected to the hall. As radio broadcasts of baseball games became popular, Ruth sought a job in that field, arguing that his celebrity and knowledge of baseball would assure large audiences, but he received no offers. During World War II, he made many personal appearances to advance the war effort, including his last appearance as a player at Yankee Stadium, in a 1943 exhibition for the Army-Navy Relief Fund. He hit a long fly ball off Walter Johnson; the blast left the field, curving foul, but Ruth circled the bases anyway. In 1946, he made a final effort to gain a job in baseball when he contacted new Yankees boss MacPhail, but he was sent a rejection letter. In 1999, Ruth's granddaughter, Linda Tosetti, and his daughter, Julia Ruth Stevens, said that Babe's inability to land a managerial role with the Yankees caused him to feel hurt and slump into a severe depression. In retirement, he became one of the first celebrity golfers participating in charity tournaments, including one where he was pitted against Ty Cobb. ==Personal life== Ruth met Helen Woodford, by some accounts, in a coffee shop in Boston, where she was a waitress. They married as teenagers on October 17, 1914. Although Ruth later claimed to have been married in Elkton, Maryland, records show that they were married at St. Paul's Catholic Church in Ellicott City. They adopted a daughter, Dorothy, in 1921. Ruth and Helen separated around 1925 reportedly because of Ruth's repeated infidelities and neglect. They appeared in public as a couple for the last time during the 1926 World Series. Helen died in January 1929 at age 31 in a fire in a house in Watertown, Massachusetts owned by Edward Kinder, a dentist with whom she had been living as "Mrs. Kinder". In her book, My Dad, the Babe, Dorothy claimed that she was Ruth's biological child by a mistress named Juanita Jennings. In 1980, Juanita, who was at the time very ill, admitted this to Dorothy and Dorothy's sister, Julia. It was the second and final marriage for both parties. Claire, unlike Helen, was well-travelled and educated, and put structure into Ruth's life, like Miller Huggins did for him on the field. Although Ruth was married throughout most of his baseball career, when team co-owner Tillinghast 'Cap' Huston asked him to tone down his lifestyle, Ruth replied, "I'll promise to go easier on drinking and to get to bed earlier, but not for you, fifty thousand dollars, or two-hundred and fifty thousand dollars will I give up women. They're too much fun." A detective that the Yankees hired to follow him one night in Chicago reported that Ruth had been with six women. Ping Bodie said that he was not Ruth's roommate while traveling; "I room with his suitcase". Before the start of the 1922 season, Ruth had signed a three-year contract at $52,000 per year with an option to renew for two additional years. His performance during the 1922 season had been disappointing, attributed in part to his drinking and late-night hours. After the end of the 1922 season, he was asked to sign a contract addendum with a morals clause. Ruth and Ruppert signed it on November 11, 1922. It called for Ruth to abstain entirely from the use of intoxicating liquors, and to not stay up later than 1:00 a.m. during the training and playing season without permission of the manager. Ruth was also enjoined from any action or misbehavior that would compromise his ability to play baseball. Ruth was a self described Democrat. In 1928, Ruth campaigned for Democratic U.S. presidential nominee Al Smith. ==Cancer and death (1946–1948)== As early as the war years, doctors had cautioned Ruth to take better care of his health, and he grudgingly followed their advice, limiting his drinking and not going on a proposed trip to support the troops in the South Pacific. In 1946, Ruth began experiencing severe pain over his left eye and had difficulty swallowing. In November 1946, Ruth entered French Hospital in New York for tests, which revealed that he had an inoperable malignant tumor at the base of his skull and in his neck. The malady was a lesion known as nasopharyngeal carcinoma, or lymphoepithelioma. A physician who reviewed Ruth's autopsy in 1998 concluded that Ruth's lifelong use of tobacco "probably played a part" in his cancer. His name and fame gave him access to experimental treatments, and he was one of the first cancer patients to receive both drugs and radiation treatment simultaneously. Having lost , he was discharged from the hospital in February and went to Florida to recuperate. He returned to New York and Yankee Stadium after the season started. The new commissioner, Happy Chandler (Judge Landis had died in 1944), proclaimed April 27, 1947, Babe Ruth Day around the major leagues, with the most significant observance to be at Yankee Stadium. A number of teammates and others spoke in honor of Ruth, who briefly addressed the crowd of almost 60,000. By then, his voice was a soft whisper with a very low, raspy tone. The improvement was only a temporary remission, and by late 1947, Ruth was unable to help with the writing of his autobiography, The Babe Ruth Story, which was almost entirely ghostwritten. In and out of the hospital in Manhattan, he left for Florida in February 1948, doing what activities he could. After six weeks he returned to New York to appear at a book-signing party. He also traveled to California to witness the filming of the movie based on the book. On June 5, 1948, a "gaunt and hollowed-out" Ruth visited Yale University to donate a manuscript of The Babe Ruth Story to its library. At Yale, he met with future president George H. W. Bush, who was the captain of the Yale baseball team. On June 13, Ruth visited Yankee Stadium for the final time in his life, appearing at the 25th-anniversary celebrations of "The House that Ruth Built". By this time he had lost much weight and had difficulty walking. Introduced along with his surviving teammates from 1923, Ruth used a bat as a cane. Nat Fein's photo of Ruth taken from behind, standing near home plate and facing "Ruthville" (right field) became one of baseball's most famous and widely circulated photographs, and won the Pulitzer Prize. Ruth made one final trip on behalf of American Legion Baseball. He then entered Memorial Hospital, where he would die. He was never told he had cancer; however, before his death, he surmised it. He was able to leave the hospital for a few short trips, including a final visit to Baltimore. On July 26, 1948, Ruth left the hospital to attend the premiere of the film The Babe Ruth Story. Shortly thereafter, he returned to the hospital for the final time. He was barely able to speak. Ruth's condition gradually grew worse, and only a few visitors were permitted to see him, one of whom was National League president and future Commissioner of Baseball Ford C. Frick. "Ruth was so thin it was unbelievable. He had been such a big man and his arms were just skinny little bones, and his face was so haggard", Frick said years later. Thousands of New Yorkers, including many children, stood vigil outside the hospital during Ruth's final days. On August 16, 1948, at 8:01 p.m., Ruth died in his sleep at the age of 53. His funeral service took place over three days. His open casket was placed on display in the rotunda of Yankee Stadium, where it remained for two days; 77,000 people filed past to pay him tribute. His Requiem Mass was celebrated by Francis Cardinal Spellman at St. Patrick's Cathedral; a crowd estimated at 75,000 waited outside. Ruth is buried with his second wife, Claire, on a hillside in Section 25 at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, New York. ==Memorial and museum== On April 19, 1949, the Yankees unveiled a granite monument in Ruth's honor in center field of Yankee Stadium. The monument was located in the field of play next to a flagpole and similar tributes to Huggins and Gehrig until the stadium was remodeled from 1974 to 1975, which resulted in the outfield fences moving inward and enclosing the monuments from the playing field. This area was known thereafter as Monument Park. Yankee Stadium, "the House that Ruth Built", was replaced after the 2008 season with a new Yankee Stadium across the street from the old one; Monument Park was subsequently moved to the new venue behind the center field fence. Ruth's uniform number 3 has been retired by the Yankees, and he is one of five Yankees players or managers to have a granite monument within the stadium. In 1974, Ruth's birthplace in Baltimore was renovated and opened to the public as the Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum. The museum houses a collection of artifacts from Ruth's life, including some rare baseball cards and the earliest known signature of Ruth, from when he was still pitching in the schoolyard. Ruth's widow, Claire, his two daughters, Dorothy and Julia, and his sister, Mamie, helped select and install exhibits for the museum. ==Impact== Ruth was the first baseball star to be the subject of overwhelming public adulation. Baseball had been known for star players such as Ty Cobb and "Shoeless Joe" Jackson, but both men had uneasy relations with fans. In Cobb's case, the incidents were sometimes marked by violence. Ruth's biographers agreed that he benefited from the timing of his ascension to "Home Run King". The country had been hit hard by both the war and the 1918 flu pandemic and longed for something to help put these traumas behind it. Ruth also resonated in a country which felt, in the aftermath of the war, that it took second place to no one. Montville argued that Ruth was a larger-than-life figure who was capable of unprecedented athletic feats in the nation's largest city. Ruth became an icon of the social changes that marked the early 1920s. In his history of the Yankees, Glenn Stout writes that "Ruth was New York incarnate—uncouth and raw, flamboyant and flashy, oversized, out of scale, and absolutely unstoppable". During his lifetime, Ruth became a symbol of the United States. During World War II, Japanese soldiers yelled in English, "To hell with Babe Ruth", to anger American soldiers. Ruth replied that he hoped "every Jap that mention[ed] my name gets shot". Creamer recorded that "Babe Ruth transcended sport and moved far beyond the artificial limits of baselines and outfield fences and sports pages". Wagenheim stated, "He appealed to a deeply rooted American yearning for the definitive climax: clean, quick, unarguable." According to Glenn Stout, "Ruth's home runs were [an] exalted, uplifting experience that meant more to fans than any runs they were responsible for. A Babe Ruth home run was an event unto itself, one that meant anything was possible." According to sportswriter W. A. Phelon, after the 1920 season, Ruth's breakout performance that season and the response in excitement and attendance, "settled, for all time to come, that the American public is nuttier over the Home Run than the Clever Fielding or the Hitless Pitching. Viva el Home Run and two times viva Babe Ruth, exponent of the home run, and overshadowing star." Bill James states, "When the owners discovered that the fans liked to see home runs, and when the foundations of the games were simultaneously imperiled by disgrace [in the Black Sox Scandal], then there was no turning back." While a few, such as McGraw and Cobb, decried the passing of the old-style play, teams quickly began to seek and develop sluggers. According to sportswriter Grantland Rice, only two sports figures of the 1920s approached Ruth in popularity—boxer Jack Dempsey and racehorse Man o' War. One of the factors that contributed to Ruth's broad appeal was the uncertainty about his family and early life. Ruth appeared to exemplify the American success story, that even an uneducated, unsophisticated youth, without any family wealth or connections, can do something better than anyone else in the world. Montville writes that "the fog [surrounding his childhood] will make him forever accessible, universal. He will be the patron saint of American possibility." Similarly, the fact that Ruth played in the pre-television era, when a relatively small portion of his fans had the opportunity to see him play, allowed his legend to grow through word of mouth and the hyperbole of sports reporters. Reisler states that recent sluggers who surpassed Ruth's 60-home run mark, such as Mark McGwire and Barry Bonds, generated much less excitement than when Ruth repeatedly broke the single-season home run record in the 1920s. Ruth dominated a relatively small sports world, while Americans of the present era have many sports available to watch. ==Legacy== Creamer describes Ruth as "a unique figure in the social history of the United States". A dominant figure in a field, whether within or outside sports, is often referred to as "the Babe Ruth" of that field. He was the first athlete to make more money from endorsements and other off-the-field activities than from his sport. In 2006, Montville stated that more books have been written about Ruth than any other member of the Baseball Hall of Fame. At least five of these books (including Creamer's and Wagenheim's) were written in 1973 and 1974 to capitalize on the increase in public interest in Ruth as Hank Aaron approached his career home run mark, which he broke on April 8, 1974. Montville suggested that Ruth is probably even more popular today than he was then. The long ball era that Ruth started continues in baseball: owners build ballparks to encourage home runs. In various surveys and rankings, Ruth has been named the greatest baseball player of all time. In 1998, The Sporting News ranked him number one on the list of "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players". In 1999, baseball fans named Ruth to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. He was named baseball's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball in 1969. The Associated Press reported in 1993 that Muhammad Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athlete in America. In 1999, the Associated Press named Ruth the greatest athlete of the 20th century, while an ESPN poll that same year ranked him as the second-greatest North American athlete of the century, behind Michael Jordan. In 1983, the United States Postal Service honored Ruth with a twenty-cent stamp. In 2022, The Sporting News named Ruth on their "New York Mount Rushmore of Sports". Several of the most expensive items of sports memorabilia and baseball memorabilia ever sold at auction are associated with Ruth. The jersey Ruth wore when hitting his "called shot" home run in the 1932 World Series sold in 2024 for a record $24 million. A Ruth's 1920 Yankees jersey that sold for $4.4 million in 2012 (equivalent to $ million in ) was, for several years, one of the most expensive piece of sports memorabilia ever sold. The bat with which he hit the first home run at Yankee Stadium is in The Guinness Book of World Records as the most expensive baseball bat sold at auction, having fetched $1.265 million on December 2, 2004 (equivalent to $ million in ). Other bats used by Ruth sold for $1.6 million in 2022 and $1.85 million in 2023. A hat of Ruth's from the 1934 season set a record for a baseball cap when David Wells sold it at auction for $537 thousand in 2012. In 2017, Charlie Sheen sold Ruth's 1927 World Series ring for $2 million, a record for a championship ring. One lasting legacy of the craze over Ruth may be the Baby Ruth candy bar. The original company to market the confectionery, the Curtis Candy Company, maintained that the bar was named after Ruth Cleveland, daughter of former president Grover Cleveland. She died in 1904 and the bar was first marketed in 1921, at the height of the craze over Ruth. He later sought to market candy bearing his name; he was refused a trademark because of the Baby Ruth bar. The Ruth estate licensed his likeness for use in an advertising campaign for Baby Ruth in 1995. In 2005, Baby Ruth became the official candy bar of Major League Baseball. In 2018, Ruth was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Donald Trump; his grandson Tom Stevens accepted the award on his behalf. Montville describes the continuing relevance of Babe Ruth in American culture:	[ "Yankee Stadium (1923)", "AL MVP", "Presidential Medal of Freedom", "Federal League", "chemotherapy", "Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum", "baseball bat", "Saint Paul Catholic Church (Ellicott City, Maryland)", "Ed Barrow", "Charlie Root", "Forbes Field", "Yale Bulldogs baseball", "List of American League pennant winners", "Babe Ruth Bows Out", "Guinness World Records", "ABC News (United States)", "Billy Martin", "Pittsburgh Post-Gazette", "Babe Ruth League", "Brooklyn Dodgers", "Lou Gehrig", "Sportsman's Park", "Paul Hopkins (baseball)", "French Hospital (Manhattan)", "Tris Speaker", "Guy Bush", "Roger Peckinpaugh", "Bill Donovan", "SportsCentury", "Newark Bears (International League)", "Adultery", "List of premature obituaries", "Major League Baseball All-Time Team", "List of Major League Baseball batting champions", "relief pitcher", "Happy Chandler", "Xaverian Brothers", "Murderers' Row", "Ty Cobb", "plate appearance", "1922 New York Yankees season", "Commissioner of Baseball", "The Guinness Book of World Records", "H. L. Mencken", "List of Major League Baseball retired numbers", "Hawthorne, New York", "1914 Boston Braves season", "Babe Adams", "at bat", "Helen Woodford Ruth", "lightning rod", "World Series", "Joseph Lannin", "Chicago Cubs", "spring training", "Tilly Walker", "baseball cap", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Asheville, North Carolina", "Michael Jordan", "Sports Illustrated", "Cooperstown, New York", "Christy Walsh (sports agent)", "exhibition game", "1926 World Series", "Memorial Day", "earned run average", "1934 Major League Baseball All-Star Game", "Bill Hallahan", "National League (baseball)", "Emil Fuchs (baseball)", "Pigtown, Baltimore", "1920 World Series", "Claire Merritt Hodgson", "Detroit Tigers", "Associated Press", "Rye Golf Club", "1914 World Series", "Lyn Lary", "Doubleday (publisher)", "1918 flu pandemic", "The Washington Post", "Wally Schang", "Yale University", "Pitcher", "runs batted in", "Batting order (baseball)", "Buck Freeman", "hit (baseball)", "Paul Waner", "Baby Ruth", "Shutouts in baseball", "organized baseball", "Joe Vila", "1921 World Series", "New York Yankees", "Major League Baseball postseason", "The New York Times", "Polo Grounds", "Babe Ruth Home Run Award", "Mark McGwire", "Count (baseball)", "Waivers (baseball)", "List of Major League Baseball runs batted in records", "List of Major League Baseball home run records", "Society for American Baseball Research", "dead-ball era", "American League", "Ben Egan", "Roger Maris", "St. Patrick's Cathedral (New York)", "Elkton, Maryland", "Muhammad Ali", "Bobby Valentine", "The Boston Post", "Starting pitcher", "Curse of the Bambino", "right fielder", "Cardinal Gibbons School (Baltimore, Maryland)", "Bill James", "Oriole Park", "outfielder", "New York City", "HarperCollins", "Perry Werden", "Johnny Sylvester", "Babe's Dream", "Dorothy Ruth Pirone", "List of most valuable celebrity memorabilia", "Mickey Cochrane", "caught stealing", "Black Sox Scandal", "Ban Johnson", "Cleveland Indians", "nasopharyngeal cancer", "World War I", "Monument Park (Yankee Stadium)", "The Boston Globe", "Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame", "CNN", "Bob Shawkey", "Simon & Schuster", "streetcar", "Artie McGovern", "Walter Johnson", "1933 Major League Baseball All-Star Game", "Kenesaw Mountain Landis", "championship ring", "Hot Springs, Arkansas", "Outfielder", "Boston", "ESPN.com", "Life (magazine)", "Mount St. Mary's University", "St. Louis Browns", "Baseball in the United States", "Brick Owens", "The Sporting News", "United States Postal Service", "ESPN", "Batting average (baseball)", "Baseball Commissioner", "Nat Fein", "Carl Hubbell", "Braves Field", "Pulitzer Prize", "Ruth Cleveland", "James M. Cox", "Babe Ruth's called shot", "List of Major League Baseball progressive single-season home run leaders", "Major League Baseball All-Century Team", "German language", "first baseman", "Grover Cleveland", "Pulitzer Prize for Photography", "Whitey Ford", "lost film", "Claire Merritt Ruth", "Waite Hoyt", "Bob Meusel", "Jack Warhop", "List of New York Yankees team captains", "Strikeout", "1915 World Series", "Philadelphia Phillies", "No, No, Nanette", "Larry MacPhail", "Bill Carrigan", "George H. W. Bush", "Jack Barry (baseball)", "Boston Red Sox", "The Atlantic", "Miller Huggins", "1909 World Series", "pitcher", "Honus Wagner", "shortstop", "Roger Connor", "Robert W. Creamer", "McGraw-Hill", "Francis Spellman", "Richmond, Virginia", "Cy Williams", "Fayetteville, North Carolina", "hit and run (baseball)", "Earned run average", "Watertown, Massachusetts", "Scoreless innings streak", "curveball", "The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs", "Ping Bodie", "Charlie Sheen", "home run", "Helen Woodford", "Chevrolet", "David Wells", "no-hitter", "Babe Ruth Award", "List of career achievements by Babe Ruth", "Home run", "Ellicott City, Maryland", "Philadelphia Athletics", "Thomson Reuters", "Baltimore", "Bill McKechnie", "W. O. McGeehan", "Hit (baseball)", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "List of Major League Baseball progressive career home runs leaders", "Donald Trump", "Knights of Columbus", "Prohibition in the United States", "Baltimore Terrapins", "Baseball Hall of Fame", "Requiem Mass", "Hank Aaron", "List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Run (baseball)", "Fourth of July", "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis", "Tom Zachary", "stickball", "German Americans", "Alan Fairfax", "double (baseball)", "The Pride of the Yankees", "barnstorm (athletics)", "Barry Bonds", "Perfect game (baseball)", "1930 World Series", "Alva Bradley", "center fielder", "live-ball era", "World Series champion", "Ellis Johnson (baseball)", "Ned Williamson", "Bullet Joe Bush", "Garry Herrmann", "John McGraw", "The New Yorker", "pennant (sports)", "Shoeless Joe Jackson", "1918 World Series", "International League", "Major League Baseball All-Star Game", "Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center", "List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders", "The Babe Ruth Story", "Charles Stoneham", "games behind", "Mark Koenig", "Baseball Reference", "Frank Navin", "Western League (original)", "DHL Hometown Heroes", "Bill Piercy", "St. Vincent's Hospital (Manhattan)", "Major League Baseball", "1932 World Series", "stolen base", "Cleveland Naps", "Time (magazine)", "The Big Fella", "1922 World Series", "Joe McCarthy (baseball manager)", "Socks Seybold", "Babe Comes Home", "Man o' War", "Grantland Rice", "Reform school", "Jim Thorpe", "Jacob Ruppert", "1936 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting", "Ernie Shore", "bunt (baseball)", "1916 World Series", "ground rules", "celebrity", "USA Today", "inning", "Harry Hooper", "Burleigh Grimes", "Hanover", "Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1936", "Willie Mitchell (baseball)", "inside baseball (strategy)", "nasopharyngeal carcinoma", "Strikeouts", "Joe Engel", "base on balls", "Catholic Church", "Baltimore Orioles (minor league)", "Pittsburgh Pirates", "pinch hitter", "Yankee Stadium", "Jimmy Walker", "Minor League Baseball", "Nova Scotia", "George Hildebrand", "National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum", "Harry Frazee", "Rochester Red Wings", "United States Naval Reserve", "First National Pictures", "cricket", "complete game", "Ray Chapman", "Jack Dunn (baseball)", "slugging percentage", "catcher", "Cincinnati Reds", "sports memorabilia", "Chicago White Sox", "Leo Durocher", "folic acid", "Tony Lazzeri", "Maple Leaf Park", "Grover Cleveland Alexander", "Havana", "Elks Club", "cancer", "vaudeville", "Boston Braves", "American Legion Baseball", "Julia Ruth Stevens", "Ray Collins (baseball)", "Culture of the United States", "the Bronx", "Comiskey Park", "1927 World Series", "outfield", "Gate of Heaven Cemetery (Hawthorne, New York)", "Herbert Hoover", "Christy Mathewson", "Bob Groom", "George Stigler", "List of Major League Baseball annual ERA leaders", "Ford C. Frick", "Warren G. Harding", "erysipelas", "Win–loss record (pitching)", "Connie Mack", "Jack Dempsey", "St. Louis Cardinals", "Chicago White Stockings (1870–89)", "List of Major League Baseball no-hitters", "third base", "1923 World Series", "Washington Senators (1901–60)", "Basic Books", "Run batted in", "Providence Grays (minor league)", "Prussia", "List of newspapers in Oklahoma", "Clark Griffith", "spitball", "Dutch Leonard (left-handed pitcher)", "silent film", "Anton Cermak", "Charlie Devens", "Ground out (baseball)", "1928 World Series", "New York Giants (NL)", "Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston", "Everett Scott", "Ron Guidry", "morals clause", "Al Smith" ]
4,177	Barge	A barge is typically a flat-bottomed vessel which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion. Original use was on inland waterways, while modern use is on both inland and marine water environments. The first modern barges were pulled by tugs, but on inland waterways, most are pushed by pusher boats, or other vessels. The term barge has a rich history, and therefore there are many types of barges. == History of the barge == === Etymology === Barge is attested from 1300, from Old French barge, from Vulgar Latin barga. The word originally could refer to any small boat; the modern meaning arose around 1480. Bark "small ship" is attested from 1420, from Old French barque, from Vulgar Latin barca (400 AD). A more precise meaning (see Barque)) arose in the 17th century and often takes the French spelling for disambiguation. Both are probably derived from the Latin barica, from Greek baris "Egyptian boat", from Coptic bari "small boat", hieroglyphic Egyptian D58-G29-M17-M17-D21-P1 and similar ba-y-r for "basket-shaped boat". By extension, the term "embark" literally means to board the kind of boat called a "barque". === British river barges === ==== 18th century ==== In Great Britain, a merchant barge was originally a flat bottomed merchant vessel for use on navigable rivers. Most of these barges had sails. For traffic on the River Severn, the barge was described thus: "The lesser sort are called barges and frigates, being from forty to sixty feet in length, having a single mast and square sail, and carrying from twenty to forty tons burthen." The larger vessels were called trows. On the River Irwell, there was reference to barges passing below Barton Aqueduct with their mast and sails standing. Early barges on the Thames were called west country barges. ==== 19th century ==== In the United Kingdom, the word barge had many meanings by the 1890s, and these varied locally. On the Mersey, a barge was called a 'Flat', on the Thames a Lighter or barge, and on the Humber a 'Keel'. A Lighter had neither mast nor rigging. A keel did have a single mast with sails. Barge and lighter were used indiscriminately. A local distinction was that any flat that was not propelled by steam was a barge, although it might be a sailing flat. The term Dumb barge was probably taken into use to end the confusion. The term Dumb barge surfaced in the early nineteenth century. It first denoted the use of a barge as a mooring platform in a fixed place. As it went up and down with the tides, it made a very convenient mooring place for steam vessels. Within a few decades, the term dumb barge evolved and came to mean: 'a vessel propelled by oars only'. By the 1890s, Dumb barge was still used only on the Thames. By 1880, barges on British rivers and canals were often towed by steam tugboats. On the Thames, many dumb barges still relied on their poles, oars and the tide. Others dumb barges made use of about 50 tugboats to tow them to their destinations. While many coal barges were towed, many dumb barges that handled single parcels were not. ==== The Thames barge and Dutch barge today ==== On the British river system and larger waterways, the Thames sailing barge, and Dutch barge and unspecified other styles of barge, are still known as barges. The term Dutch barge is nowadays often used to refer to an accommodation ship, but originally refers to the slightly larger Dutch version of the Thames sailing barge. === British canals: narrowboats and widebeams === During the Industrial Revolution, a substantial network of canals was developed in Great Britain from 1750 onward. Whilst the largest of these could accommodate ocean-going vessels, e.g the later Manchester Ship Canal, a complex network of smaller canals was also developed. These smaller canals had locks, bridges and tunnels that were at minimum only wide at the waterline. On wider sections, standard barges and other vessels could trade, but full access to the network necessitated the parallel development of the narrowboat, which usually had a beam a couple of inches less to allow for clearance, e.g. . It was soon realized that the narrow locks were too limiting, and later locks were therefore doubled in width to . This led to the development of the widebeam canal boat. The narrowboat (one word) definition in the Oxford English Dictionary is: The narrowboats were initially also known as barges, and the new canals were constructed with an adjacent towpath along which draft horses walked, towing the barges. These types of canal craft are so specific that on the British canal system the term 'barge' is no longer used to describe narrowboats and widebeams. Narrowboats and widebeams are still seen on canals, mostly for leisure cruising, and now engine-powered. === Crew and pole === The people who moved barges were known as lightermen. Poles are used on barges to fend off other nearby vessels or a wharf. These are often called 'pike poles'. The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying "I wouldn't touch that [subject/thing] with a barge pole." === The 19th century American barge === In the United States a barge was not a sailing vessel by the end of the 19th century. Indeed, barges were often created by cutting down (razeeing) sailing vessels. In New York this was an accepted meaning of the term barge. The somewhat smaller scow was built as such, but the scow also had its sailing counterpart the sailing scow. == The modern barge == === The iron barge === The innovation that led to the modern barge was the use of iron barges towed by a steam tugboat. These were first used to transport grain and other bulk products. From about 1840 to 1870 the towed iron barge was quickly introduced on the Rhine, Danube, Don, Dniester, and rivers in Egypt, India and Australia. Many of these barges were built in Great Britain. Nowadays 'barge' generally refers to a dumb barge. In Europe, a Dumb barge is: An inland waterway transport freight vessel designed to be towed which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion. In America, a barge is generally pushed. === Modern use === Barges are used today for transporting low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods that way is very low and for larger project cargo, such as offshore wind turbine blades. Barges are also used for very heavy or bulky items; a typical American barge measures , and can carry up to about of cargo. According to the study, transporting cargo by barge produces 43% less greenhouse gas emissions than rail and more than 800% less than trucks. Environmentalists claim that in areas where barges, tugboats and towboats idle may produce more emissions like in the locks and dams of the Mississippi River. Self-propelled barges may be used for traveling downstream or upstream in placid waters; they are operated as an unpowered barge, with the assistance of a tugboat, when traveling upstream in faster waters. Canal barges are usually made for the particular canal in which they will operate. Unpowered vessels—barges—may be used for other purposes, such as large accommodation vessels, towed to where they are needed and stationed there as long as necessary. An example is the Bibby Stockholm. ==Types== ("accommodation barge") Ferrocement or or Spitz barge Severn In the United States, "deck barge" may refer to flat deck barges, work flats, fuel flats or flats. Smaller flats are used in shipyards to permit workers to access vessels in drydocks. ==Gallery== File:PénicheRecyclageFerrailles2008Deûle2.jpg\|A self propelled barge carrying recycling material on Deûle channel in Lambersart, France File:Barge with cars.jpg\|Self-propelled car barge on the River Danube File:Péniches sur le Canal du Midi.jpg\|Barges near Toulouse, France File:Andromeda (ship, 1958) Hannover Mittellandkanal 2006 by-RaBoe.jpg\|Self-propelled barge Andromeda in canal at Hanover, Germany File:Messina Karden Bug.jpg\|Tank barge on the River Moselle, Germany File:CrushedStoneBarge.jpg\|Self-propelled barge carrying bulk crushed stone File:IjmuidenBarge.jpg\|Self-propelled barge in the port of IJmuiden, Netherlands File:Pegasus barge being moved by Freedom Star and towboat American 2.jpg\|Deck barge carrying the Space Shuttle external tank for STS-119 under tow to Port Canaveral, Florida, United States File:Yangzhou-Modern-Grand-Canal-boats-3351.JPG\|Self-propelled barges on the Grand Canal of China near Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China File:CoalbargePittsburgh.JPG\|Coal barges passing Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on the Ohio River File:Suphannahongsa-docked.jpg\|Royal Barge Suphannahong docked at Wat Arun pier, one of the Thai royal barges featured in the royal barge ceremony File:Donna York.jpg\|Towboat Donna York pushing barges of coal up the Ohio River at Louisville, Kentucky, United States File:Ilia Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Volga Boatmen (1870-1873).jpg\|Barge Haulers on the Volga (1870–73), by Ilya Repin File:Kapal tongkang.jpg\|Tongkang or car barge, landed on Ketapang Port, Banyuwangi, Indonesia File:Slipway at portland.JPG\|Slipway at Portland Harbour, Dorset, England, holding a split dump barge (on right) File:Barge on Mosel by Kues (1).jpg\|Barge on the river Mosel in Germany File:Water Barge YW-59.jpg\|US Navy Water Type B ship Barge, YW-59, launched August 29, 1941 File:YFN-958-Covered Lighter Barge-Non-Self-Propelled.jpg\|YFN-958 a covered lighter barge, non-self-propelled. Built by Mare Island Navy Shipyard in 1944. File:Concrete Barge - Erie Canal - Lock 13 - 3.jpg\|Ferrocement Barge, US-102, in the Erie Canal File:Ww2 concrete barge, National Waterway Museum.jpg\|WW2 concrete barge at the National Waterways Museum, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire, UK File:Sun Shining Into a Barge.jpg\|Sun shining into the empty asphalt barge Endeavour while under repair in Muskegon, Michigan File:Pelican Barge, Darling Harbor, Sydney, NSW, AU.jpg\|A barge decorated to look like a pelican carrying a jumbotron display, Sydney File:AWB Rajawali Natuna.jpg\|Accommodation Work Barge File:Prem Tinsulanonda International School barge in Bangkok.jpg\|A restored teak barge used for educational programmes on the Chao Phraya river in Bangkok	[ "Manchester Ship Canal", "Fairport, New York", "Texas A&M University", "waterline", "pier", "Tub boat", "France", "tug", "Pascagoula, Mississippi", "Dutch barge", "Florida", "Cracking (chemistry)", "hieroglyphic", "razee", "draft horse", "ballast", "Kentucky", "Heinz Field", "jumbotron", "Float (nautical)", "Toulouse", "Lighter (barge)", "widebeam", "Greek language", "New York City", "scow", "River Mersey", "Container on barge", "Industrial Revolution", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Ilya Repin", "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "Hurricane Katrina", "Dniester", "Bibby Stockholm", "Germany", "Wat Arun", "Towboat", "Erie Canal", "Sydney", "towpath", "Royal Barge Procession", "flat-bottomed boat", "Dorset", "Ohio River", "Oxford University Press", "River Moselle", "Ross Barlow", "Grand Canal of China", "Muskegon, Michigan", "Port Canaveral", "River Irwell", "Thames sailing barge", "Car float", "Coptic language", "Lambersart", "Google Books", "England", "River Severn", "Bitumen", "IJmuiden", "Hughes Mining Barge", "River Thames", "National Waterways Museum", "Barque", "Moselle", "Shallop", "Pusher (boat)", "Brooklyn", "Tulsa Port of Catoosa", "ocean", "Chao Phraya River", "lightermen", "London", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Thailand", "Canals of the United Kingdom", "Old French", "Portland Harbour", "Latin", "Yangzhou", "River Danube", "American Waterways Operators", "Burlak", "Oklahoma", "narrowboat", "accommodation vessel", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", "canal craft", "Humber", "Dory (boat)", "Vulgar Latin", "hopper barge", "Type B ship", "UK", "Chain boat", "Ferrocement", "Jiangsu", "Hanover", "Slipway", "Mobro 4000", "Space Shuttle", "Louisville, Kentucky", "pelican" ]
4,178	Bill Schelter	William Frederick Schelter (1947 – July 30, 2001) was a professor of mathematics at The University of Texas at Austin and a Lisp developer and programmer. Schelter is credited with the development of the GNU Common Lisp (GCL) implementation of Common Lisp and the GPL'd version of the computer algebra system Macsyma called Maxima. Schelter authored Austin Kyoto Common Lisp (AKCL) under contract with IBM. AKCL formed the foundation for Axiom, another computer algebra system. AKCL eventually became GNU Common Lisp. He is also credited with the first port of the GNU C compiler to the Intel 386 architecture, used in the original implementation of the Linux kernel. Schelter obtained his Ph.D. at McGill University in 1972. His mathematical specialties were noncommutative ring theory and computational algebra and its applications, including automated theorem proving in geometry. In the summer of 2001, age 54, he died suddenly of a heart attack while traveling in Russia.	[ "Macsyma", "IBM", "Axiom (computer algebra system)", "symbolic computation", "noncommutative ring", "University of Texas at Austin", "Maxima (software)", "Linux kernel", "software developer", "computer algebra system", "GNU C compiler", "Doctor of Philosophy", "Common Lisp", "programmer", "McGill University", "Austin Kyoto Common Lisp", "myocardial infarction", "automated theorem proving", "GPL", "IA-32", "GNU Common Lisp", "Computer scientist", "Lisp programming language", "Mathematics", "mathematics", "Russia" ]
4,179	British English	British English (abbreviations: BrE, en-GB, and BE) is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United Kingdom, especially Great Britain. More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in England, or, more broadly, to the collective dialects of English throughout the United Kingdom taken as a single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English, Welsh English, and Northern Irish English. Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English acknowledges that British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions [with] the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity". Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in the United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, north-east England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire, whereas the adjective little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English. The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to the spoken language. Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as is the case for English used by European Union institutions. In China, both British English and American English are taught. The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around the world and operates in over 100 countries. == History == ===Origins=== English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic—the insular variety of Continental Celtic, which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages (Welsh, Cornish, Cumbric) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages, influence on English was notably limited. However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g. swine (like the Germanic ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French ) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans. Another example is the Anglo-Saxon meaning cow, and the French meaning beef. Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary. == Dialects == Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England (which is itself broadly grouped into Southern English, West Country, East and West Midlands English and Northern English), Northern Irish English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language), and Scottish English (not to be confused with the Scots language or Scottish Gaelic). Each group includes a range of dialects, some markedly different from others. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though. === Research === Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects. The team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC, in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout the country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio".}} === English regional === Most people in Britain speak with a regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called "the King's English", "Oxford English" and "BBC English"), that is essentially region-less. It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period. although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated. Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. Immigrants to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country and particularly to London. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. Notably Multicultural London English, a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London. Since the mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian. It is the last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath or grass (i.e. or ). Conversely crass or plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby, north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by the West Scottish accent. == Features == Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect. === T-stopping === Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, has become commonly realised as a glottal stop when it is in the intervocalic position, in a process called T-glottalisation. National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, not being heard as "no" and bottle of water being heard as "bole of waer". It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as later, while often has all but regained . Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p, as in paer and k as in baer. This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people. The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment: A football team can be treated likewise: This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century. For example, Jane Austen, a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of Pride and Prejudice, published in 1813: However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used. === Negatives === Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives. Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence. While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows the idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb. == Standard British English == Standard English in the United Kingdom, as in other English-speaking nations, is widely enforced in schools and by social norms for formal contexts but not by any singular authority; for instance, there is no institution equivalent to the with French or the Royal Spanish Academy with Spanish. Standard British English differs notably in certain vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features from standard American English and certain other standard English varieties around the world. British and American spelling also differ in minor ways. The accent, or pronunciation system, of standard British English, based in southeastern England, has been known for over a century as Received Pronunciation (RP). However, due to language evolution and changing social trends, some linguists argue that RP is losing prestige or has been replaced by another accent, one that the linguist Geoff Lindsey for instance calls Standard Southern British English. Other scholars suggest that more regionally-oriented standard accents are emerging in England. Outside of England, namely in Scotland and Northern Ireland, RP exerts very little influence, particularly in the 21st century. RP, while long established as the standard English accent around the globe due to the spread of the British Empire, is distinct from the standard English pronunciation in some parts of the world; most prominently, RP notably contrasts with standard North American accents. As of the 21st century, dictionaries such as the Oxford English Dictionary, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, the Chambers Dictionary, and the Collins Dictionary record actual usage rather than attempting to prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other varieties of English, and neologisms are frequent. ===History of standardisation=== For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of a lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence. By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers. Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press. The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules, and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style. Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English, the Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house. == Relationship with Commonwealth English == British English is the basis of, and very similar to, Commonwealth English. Commonwealth English is English as spoken and written in the Commonwealth countries, though often with some local variation. This includes English spoken in Australia, Malta, New Zealand, Nigeria, and South Africa. It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia, and in parts of Africa. Canadian English is based on British English, but has more influence from American English, often grouped together due to their close proximity. British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings.	[ "English language in Northern England", "South African English", "Early Modern English", "Oxford spelling", "Canadian English", "North American English", "French language", "Tom McArthur (linguist)", "Modern English", "loanword", "The Times", "intrusive R", "Roman army", "glottal stop", "Variety (linguistics)", "Leicestershire", "Australian English", "East Midlands English", "Académie Française", "American English", "South Asian English", "English language in England", "Arts and Humanities Research Council", "BBC News", "Ulster English", "The Independent", "rhyming slang", "Anglic language", "sociolect", "Lists of English words of Celtic origin", "The Chicago Manual of Style", "Montserrat Creole", "internal migration", "Falkland Islands English", "British Library", "BBC Online", "Jane Austen", "Hart's Rules", "Northamptonshire", "Common Brittonic", "BBC", "Rhoticity in English", "Multicultural London English", "List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom", "Hiberno-English", "British Council", "Proto-Germanic", "dialect", "Nigerian English", "English alphabet", "Royal Spanish Academy", "New Zealand English", "Received Pronunciation", "British Sign Language", "Grammatical conjugation", "English-language spelling reform", "Spoken language", "Latin script", "West Country English", "Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language", "Oxford University Press", "Geordie", "Kettering", "Leeds University", "Prestige (sociolinguistics)", "Unified English Braille", "Bermudian English", "Proto-West Germanic", "Newfoundland English", "survey of English Dialects", "United Kingdom", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Continental Celtic", "Languages of Malta", "Proto-Indo-European", "England", "Welsh English", "West Germanic languages", "Scots language", "Cornish language", "Great Britain", "Anglo-Frisian languages", "Cockney", "grammatical number", "Pride and Prejudice (novel)", "collective noun", "mixed language", "Late West Saxon", "British Isles", "Welsh language", "Cayman Islands English", "English language in Southern England", "The Complete Plain Words", "Proto-English", "Chambers Dictionary", "University of Oxford", "Working class", "Sir Ernest Gowers", "Ingvaeonic languages", "language change", "The Guardian", "University of Leeds", "Cumbric", "London", "Brittonicisms in English", "United Nations", "Oxford Dictionaries (website)", "Cambridge University Press", "neologisms", "Scouser", "Linguistic prescription", "English in the Commonwealth of Nations", "Channel Island English", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Old English", "English language", "Anguillan Creole", "vocabulary", "Scandinavia", "Modern English Usage", "European English", "List of dialects of the English language", "Northern Irish English", "Latin", "British people", "American and British English spelling differences", "Collins Dictionary", "Dialect levelling in Britain", "Anglo-Saxon", "Anglo-Norman language", "Usage (language)", "Romance languages", "Manx English", "T-glottalisation", "Inner London Education Authority", "West Midlands English", "Comparison of American and British English", "Corby", "Standard English", "Southeast Asia", "Scottish Gaelic", "East Anglia", "English and Welsh", "Old Norman", "Black Country", "Normans", "Eric Partridge", "Yorkshire dialect", "countries of the United Kingdom", "Scottish English", "Germanic peoples", "British Empire", "Regional accents of English", "Multiculturalism", "Newcastle upon Tyne", "Independent.co.uk", "Comparison of General American and Received Pronunciation", "double negatives", "East Midlands", "Irish English", "Middle English", "Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English", "Estuary English", "Gibraltarian English", "Geoff Lindsey", "Germanic languages" ]
4,181	Battle	A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force commitment. An engagement with only limited commitment between the forces and without decisive results is sometimes called a skirmish. The word "battle" can also be used infrequently to refer to an entire operational campaign, although this usage greatly diverges from its conventional or customary meaning. Generally, the word "battle" is used for such campaigns if referring to a protracted combat encounter in which either one or both of the combatants had the same methods, resources, and strategic objectives throughout the encounter. Some prominent examples of this would be the Battle of the Atlantic, Battle of Britain, and the Battle of France, all in World War II. Wars and military campaigns are guided by military strategy, whereas battles take place on a level of planning and execution known as operational mobility. German strategist Carl von Clausewitz stated that "the employment of battles ... to achieve the object of war" was the essence of strategy. == Etymology == Battle is a loanword from the Old French , first attested in 1297, from Late Latin , meaning "exercise of soldiers and gladiators in fighting and fencing", from Late Latin (taken from Germanic) "beat", from which the English word battery is also derived via Middle English . == Characteristics == The defining characteristic of the fight as a concept in military science has changed with the variations in the organisation, employment and technology of military forces. The English military historian John Keegan suggested an ideal definition of battle as "something which happens between two armies leading to the moral then physical disintegration of one or the other of them" but the origins and outcomes of battles can rarely be summarized so neatly. Battle in the 20th and 21st centuries is defined as the combat between large components of the forces in a military campaign, used to achieve military objectives. Where the duration of the battle is longer than a week, it is often for reasons of planning called an operation. Battles can be planned, encountered or forced by one side when the other is unable to withdraw from combat. A battle always has as its purpose the reaching of a mission goal by use of military force. A victory in the battle is achieved when one of the opposing sides forces the other to abandon its mission and surrender its forces, routs the other (i.e., forces it to retreat or renders it militarily ineffective for further combat operations) or annihilates the latter, resulting in their deaths or capture. A battle may end in a Pyrrhic victory, which ultimately favors the defeated party. If no resolution is reached in a battle, it can result in a stalemate. A conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision by a direct battle using conventional warfare often becomes an insurgency. Until the 19th century the majority of battles were of short duration, many lasting a part of a day. (The Battle of Preston (1648), the Battle of Nations (1813) and the Battle of Gettysburg (1863) were exceptional in lasting three days.) This was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying armies in the field or conducting night operations. The means of prolonging a battle was typically with siege warfare. Improvements in transport and the sudden evolving of trench warfare, with its siege-like nature during the First World War in the 20th century, lengthened the duration of battles to days and weeks. during the Winter War]] The use of the term "battle" in military history has led to its misuse when referring to almost any scale of combat, notably by strategic forces involving hundreds of thousands of troops that may be engaged in either one battle at a time (Battle of Leipzig) or operations (Battle of Wuhan). The space a battle occupies depends on the range of the weapons of the combatants. A "battle" in this broader sense may be of long duration and take place over a large area, as in the case of the Battle of Britain or the Battle of the Atlantic. Until the advent of artillery and aircraft, battles were fought with the two sides within sight, if not reach, of each other. The depth of the battlefield has also increased in modern warfare with inclusion of the supporting units in the rear areas; supply, artillery, medical personnel etc. often outnumber the front-line combat troops. Battles are made up of a multitude of individual combats, skirmishes and small engagements and the combatants will usually only experience a small part of the battle. To the infantryman, there may be little to distinguish between combat as part of a minor raid or a big offensive, nor is it likely that he anticipates the future course of the battle; few of the British infantry who went over the top on the first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, would have anticipated that the battle would last five months. Some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a crushing defeat to the French at the Battle of Waterloo fully expected to have to fight again the next day (at the Battle of Wavre). ==Battlespace== Battlespace is a unified strategic concept to integrate and combine armed forces for the military theatre of operations, including air, information, land, sea and space. It includes the environment, factors and conditions that must be understood to apply combat power, protect the force or complete the mission, comprising enemy and friendly armed forces; facilities; weather; terrain; and the electromagnetic spectrum. == Factors == Battles are decided by various factors, the number and quality of combatants and equipment, the skill of commanders and terrain are among the most prominent. Weapons and armour can be decisive; on many occasions armies have achieved victory through more advanced weapons than those of their opponents. An extreme example was in the Battle of Omdurman, in which a large army of Sudanese Mahdists armed in a traditional manner were destroyed by an Anglo-Egyptian force equipped with Maxim machine guns and artillery. On some occasions, simple weapons employed in an unorthodox fashion have proven advantageous; Swiss pikemen gained many victories through their ability to transform a traditionally defensive weapon into an offensive one. Zulus in the early 19th century were victorious in battles against their rivals in part because they adopted a new kind of spear, the iklwa. Forces with inferior weapons have still emerged victorious at times, for example in the Wars of Scottish Independence. Disciplined troops are often of greater importance; at the Battle of Alesia, the Romans were greatly outnumbered but won because of superior training. Battles can also be determined by terrain. Capturing high ground has been the main tactic in innumerable battles. An army that holds the high ground forces the enemy to climb and thus wear themselves down. Areas of jungle and forest, with dense vegetation act as force-multipliers, of benefit to inferior armies. Terrain may have lost importance in modern warfare, due to the advent of aircraft, though the terrain is still vital for camouflage, especially for guerrilla warfare. Generals and commanders also play an important role, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Khalid ibn Walid, Subutai and Napoleon Bonaparte were all skilled generals and their armies were extremely successful at times. An army that can trust the commands of their leaders with conviction in its success invariably has a higher morale than an army that doubts its every move. The British in the naval Battle of Trafalgar owed its success to the reputation of Admiral Lord Nelson. == Types == Battles can be fought on land, at sea, and in the air. Naval battles have occurred since before the 5th century BC. Air battles have been far less common, due to their late conception, the most prominent being the Battle of Britain in 1940. Since the Second World War, land or sea battles have come to rely on air support. During the Battle of Midway, five aircraft carriers were sunk without either fleet coming into direct contact. A pitched battle is an encounter where opposing sides agree on the time and place of combat. A battle of encounter (or encounter battle) is a meeting engagement where the opposing sides collide in the field without either having prepared their attack or defence. A battle of attrition aims to inflict losses on an enemy that are less sustainable compared to one's own losses. These need not be greater numerical losses – if one side is much more numerous than the other then pursuing a strategy based on attrition can work even if casualties on both sides are about equal. Many battles of the Western Front in the First World War were intentionally (Verdun) or unintentionally (Somme) attrition battles. A battle of breakthrough aims to pierce the enemy's defences, thereby exposing the vulnerable flanks which can be turned. A battle of encirclement—the of the German battle of manoeuvre ()—surrounds the enemy in a pocket. A battle of envelopment involves an attack on one or both flanks; the classic example being the double envelopment of the Battle of Cannae. A battle of annihilation is one in which the defeated party is destroyed in the field, such as the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile. Battles are usually hybrids of different types listed above. A decisive battle is one with political effects, determining the course of the war such as the Battle of Smolensk or bringing hostilities to an end, such as the Battle of Hastings or the Battle of Hattin. A decisive battle can change the balance of power or boundaries between countries. The concept of the decisive battle became popular with the publication in 1851 of Edward Creasy's The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. British military historians J.F.C. Fuller (The Decisive Battles of the Western World) and B.H. Liddell Hart (Decisive Wars of History), among many others, have written books in the style of Creasy's work. === Land === There is an obvious difference in the way battles have been fought. Early battles were probably fought between rival hunting bands as unorganized crowds. During the Battle of Megiddo, the first reliably documented battle in the fifteenth century BC, both armies were organised and disciplined; during the many wars of the Roman Empire, barbarians continued to use mob tactics. As the Age of Enlightenment dawned, armies began to fight in highly disciplined lines. Each would follow the orders from their officers and fight as a unit instead of individuals. Armies were divided into regiments, battalions, companies and platoons. These armies would march, line up and fire in divisions. Native Americans, on the other hand, did not fight in lines, using guerrilla tactics. American colonists and European forces continued using disciplined lines into the American Civil War. A new style arose from the 1850s to the First World War, known as trench warfare, which also led to tactical radio. Chemical warfare also began in 1915. By the Second World War, the use of the smaller divisions, platoons and companies became much more important as precise operations became vital. Instead of the trench stalemate of 1915–1917, in the Second World War, battles developed where small groups encountered other platoons. As a result, elite squads became much more recognized and distinguishable. Maneuver warfare also returned with an astonishing pace with the advent of the tank, replacing the cannon of the Enlightenment Age. Artillery has since gradually replaced the use of frontal troops. Modern battles resemble those of the Second World War, along with indirect combat through the use of aircraft and missiles which has come to constitute a large portion of wars in place of battles, where battles are now mostly reserved for capturing cities. === Naval === One significant difference of modern naval battles, as opposed to earlier forms of combat is the use of marines, which introduced amphibious warfare. Today, a marine is actually an infantry regiment that sometimes fights solely on land and is no longer tied to the navy. A good example of an ancient naval battle is the Battle of Salamis. Most ancient naval battles were fought by fast ships using the battering ram to sink opposing fleets or steer close enough for boarding in hand-to-hand combat. Troops were often used to storm enemy ships as used by Romans and pirates. This tactic was usually used by civilizations that could not beat the enemy with ranged weaponry. Another invention in the late Middle Ages was the use of Greek fire by the Byzantines, which was used to set enemy fleets on fire. Empty demolition ships utilized the tactic to crash into opposing ships and set it afire with an explosion. After the invention of cannons, naval warfare became useful as support units for land warfare. During the 19th century, the development of mines led to a new type of naval warfare. The ironclad, first used in the American Civil War, resistant to cannons, soon made the wooden ship obsolete. The invention of military submarines, during World War I, brought naval warfare to both above and below the surface. With the development of military aircraft during World War II, battles were fought in the sky as well as below the ocean. Aircraft carriers have since become the central unit in naval warfare, acting as a mobile base for lethal aircraft. === Aerial === Although the use of aircraft has for the most part always been used as a supplement to land or naval engagements, since their first major military use in World War I aircraft have increasingly taken on larger roles in warfare. During World War I, the primary use was for reconnaissance, and small-scale bombardment. Aircraft began becoming much more prominent in the Spanish Civil War and especially World War II. Aircraft design began specializing, primarily into two types: bombers, which carried explosive payloads to bomb land targets or ships; and fighter-interceptors, which were used to either intercept incoming aircraft or to escort and protect bombers (engagements between fighter aircraft were known as dog fights). Some of the more notable aerial battles in this period include the Battle of Britain and the Battle of Midway. Another important use of aircraft came with the development of the helicopter, which first became heavily used during the Vietnam War, and still continues to be widely used today to transport and augment ground forces. Today, direct engagements between aircraft are rare – the most modern fighter-interceptors carry much more extensive bombing payloads, and are used to bomb precision land targets, rather than to fight other aircraft. Anti-aircraft batteries are used much more extensively to defend against incoming aircraft than interceptors. Despite this, aircraft today are much more extensively used as the primary tools for both army and navy, as evidenced by the prominent use of helicopters to transport and support troops, the use of aerial bombardment as the "first strike" in many engagements, and the replacement of the battleship with the aircraft carrier as the center of most modern navies. == Naming == Battles are usually named after some feature of the battlefield geography, such as a town, forest or river, commonly prefixed "Battle of...". Occasionally battles are named after the date on which they took place, such as The Glorious First of June. In the Middle Ages it was considered important to settle on a suitable name for a battle which could be used by the chroniclers. After Henry V of England defeated a French army on October 25, 1415, he met with the senior French herald and they agreed to name the battle after the nearby castle and so it was called the Battle of Agincourt. In other cases, the sides adopted different names for the same battle, such as the Battle of Gallipoli which is known in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale. During the American Civil War, the Union tended to name the battles after the nearest watercourse, such as the Battle of Wilsons Creek and the Battle of Stones River, whereas the Confederates favoured the nearby towns, as in the Battles of Chancellorsville and Murfreesboro. Occasionally both names for the same battle entered the popular culture, such as the First Battle of Bull Run and the Second Battle of Bull Run, which are also referred to as the First and Second Battles of Manassas. Sometimes in desert warfare, there is no nearby town name to use; map coordinates gave the name to the Battle of 73 Easting in the First Gulf War. Some place names have become synonymous with battles, such as the Passchendaele, Pearl Harbor, the Alamo, Thermopylae and Waterloo. Military operations, many of which result in battle, are given codenames, which are not necessarily meaningful or indicative of the type or the location of the battle. Operation Market Garden and Operation Rolling Thunder are examples of battles known by their military codenames. When a battleground is the site of more than one battle in the same conflict, the instances are distinguished by ordinal number, such as the First and Second Battles of Bull Run. An extreme case are the twelve Battles of the Isonzo—First to Twelfth—between Italy and Austria-Hungary during the First World War. Some battles are named for the convenience of military historians so that periods of combat can be neatly distinguished from one another. Following the First World War, the British Battles Nomenclature Committee was formed to decide on standard names for all battles and subsidiary actions. To the soldiers who did the fighting, the distinction was usually academic; a soldier fighting at Beaumont Hamel on November 13, 1916, was probably unaware he was taking part in what the committee named the Battle of the Ancre. Many combats are too small to be battles; terms such as "action", "affair", "skirmish", "firefight", "raid", or "offensive patrol" are used to describe small military encounters. These combats often take place within the time and space of a battle and while they may have an objective, they are not necessarily "decisive". Sometimes the soldiers are unable to immediately gauge the significance of the combat; in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo, some British officers were in doubt as to whether the day's events merited the title of "battle" or would be called an "action". == Effects == Battles affect the individuals who take part, as well as the political actors. Personal effects of battle range from mild psychological issues to permanent and crippling injuries. Some battle-survivors have nightmares about the conditions they encountered or abnormal reactions to certain sights or sounds and some experience flashbacks. Physical effects of battle can include scars, amputations, lesions, loss of bodily functions, blindness, paralysis and death. Battles affect politics; a decisive battle can cause the losing side to surrender, while a Pyrrhic victory such as the Battle of Asculum can cause the winning side to reconsider its goals. Battles in civil wars have often decided the fate of monarchs or political factions. Famous examples include the Wars of the Roses, as well as the Jacobite risings. Battles affect the commitment of one side or the other to the continuance of a war, for example the Battle of Inchon and the Battle of Huế during the Tet Offensive.	[ "Battle of annihilation", "Battle of Trafalgar", "Withdrawal (military)", "first day on the Somme", "codename", "meeting engagement", "combat operation", "Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom", "loanword", "Winter War", "Hannibal", "Battle of Hastings", "Battle of Agincourt", "military unit", "Battle of Gallipoli", "envelopment", "First World War", "B.H. Liddell Hart", "Company (military unit)", "ordinal number", "Battle of Wuhan", "politics", "Ansar (Sudan)", "war", "operational mobility", "Battle of Nations", "Denis Martens the Younger", "night combat", "conventional warfare", "Operation Rolling Thunder", "Battle of Inchon", "ancient Rome", "pitched battle", "encirclement", "John Keegan", "battle of attrition", "kleine Schriften", "armed forces", "Naval battle", "herald", "Battle of Wavre", "battlefield", "Battle of Midway", "Greek fire", "Subutai", "French Army", "No-win situation", "Khalid ibn Walid", "mission goal", "modern warfare", "Military strategy", "commanders", "Beaumont Hamel", "weapon", "Battle of Omdurman", "Battle of Hattin", "Tour of duty", "Battle of the Alamo", "military campaign", "Gulf War", "insurgency", "Flanking maneuver", "civil war", "surrender (military)", "World War I", "artillery", "strategy", "Lord Nelson", "Battle of Leipzig", "Late Latin", "military objective", "Roman Empire", "military historian", "political", "trench warfare", "Zulus", "Battle of Huế", "Tet Offensive", "Battle of Çanakkale", "sea", "Flashback (psychology)", "double envelopment", "military strategy", "piracy", "submarine", "battering ram", "ironclad", "Napoleon I of France", "electromagnetic spectrum", "Battle of the Somme (1916)", "bewegungskrieg", "castle", "Battle of Passchendaele", "Battle of Alesia", "barbarians", "military science", "engagement (military)", "geography", "space", "First Battle of Bull Run", "breakthrough (military)", "dog fights", "transport", "military", "guerrilla warfare", "Operations (military staff)", "military engagement", "marine (military)", "Second Battle of Bull Run", "Battle of Salamis", "chronicler", "First Anglo-Dutch War", "Chemical warfare", "Spanish Civil War", "Battle of Gettysburg", "Age of Enlightenment", "skirmish", "Battle of France", "Maxim machine gun", "Austria-Hungary", "Western Front (World War I)", "battle of annihilation", "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World", "Battle of Waterloo", "World War II", "mob tactics", "Attack on Pearl Harbor", "Battles of the Isonzo", "Henry V of England", "radio", "battalion", "Old French", "Swiss pikemen", "decisive battle", "The Glorious First of June", "Wars of the Roses", "platoon", "Prussia", "information", "Military tactics", "Maneuver warfare", "doi:10.1177/0022343320913305", "siege warfare", "Theater (warfare)", "Battle of Cannae", "Edward Shepherd Creasy", "Battle of Verdun", "Jacobite risings", "Pyrrhic victory", "Battle of 73 Easting", "regiment", "Native Americans in the United States", "army", "Battle of the Nile", "Wars of Scottish Independence", "Battle of Thermopylae", "Pocket (military)", "Battle of Preston (1648)", "Battle of Smolensk (1941)", "tank", "Battle of the Ancre", "Pitched battle", "infantry", "J.F.C. Fuller", "Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo", "iklwa", "War", "Julius Caesar", "Army", "aircraft carrier", "Skirmisher", "Operation Market Garden", "combat", "aircraft", "American Civil War", "helicopter", "First Battle of the Isonzo", "rout", "Atmosphere of Earth", "Earth", "synonymous", "Battle of Asculum", "Battle of the Atlantic", "Aircraft carriers", "Military operation", "Carl von Clausewitz", "Middle English", "combat fatigue", "Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC)", "warfare", "Battle of Britain", "Middle Ages", "List of battles" ]
4,182	Berry Berenson	Berinthia "Berry" Berenson-Perkins ( Berenson; April 14, 1948 – September 11, 2001) was an American actress, model and photographer. She was the widow of actor Anthony Perkins. She died in the September 11 attacks, being a passenger on American Airlines Flight 11. ==Early life== Berry Berenson was born in Murray Hill, Manhattan, New York City. Her mother was born Maria-Luisa Yvonne Radha de Wendt de Kerlor, better known as Gogo Schiaparelli, a socialite of Italian, Swiss, & French ancestry. Her father, Robert Lawrence Berenson, was an American career diplomat turned shipping executive. He was of Russian-Jewish and Polish-Jewish descent, and his family's original surname was Valvrojenski. Berenson's maternal grandmother was the Italian-born fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli, and her maternal grandfather was Wilhelm de Wendt de Kerlor, a Theosophist and psychic medium. Her elder sister, Marisa Berenson, became a well-known model and actress. She also was a great-grandniece of Giovanni Schiaparelli, an Italian astronomer who believed he had discovered canals on Mars, and a second cousin, once removed, of art expert Bernard Berenson (1865–1959), and his sister Senda Berenson (1868–1954), an athlete and educator who was one of the first two women elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame. ==Career== Following a brief modeling career in the late 1960s, Berenson became a freelance photographer. In 1972, Berenson's fiancé Richard Bernstein was hired as the cover artist for Andy Warhol's Interview magazine. Berenson would recruit models for the cover and photograph them, and Bernstein illustrated the images. By 1973, her photographs had been published in Life, Glamour, Vogue and Newsweek. Berenson studied acting at New York's The American Place Theatre with Wynn Handman along with Richard Gere, Philip Anglim, Penelope Milford, Robert Ozn, Ingrid Boulting and her sister Marisa. As an actress, Berenson starred opposite her husband Anthony Perkins in the 1978 Alan Rudolph film Remember My Name. She also appeared with Jeff Bridges in the 1979 film Winter Kills, and with Malcolm McDowell in Cat People (1982). ==Personal life== Berenson was engaged to artist Richard Bernstein. In 1972, Berenson had an affair with actor Anthony Perkins and they married on August 9, 1973, in Wellfleet, Massachusetts while she was three months pregnant. Although Perkins was gay, they remained married until Perkins died from AIDS-related complications on September 12, 1992. == Death == Berenson died on September 11, 2001, a day before the ninth anniversary of Perkins’ death, as she was returning home to Los Angeles from a vacation on Cape Cod. She and the other passengers and crew aboard American Airlines Flight 11 died when the plane was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks on the US. At the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, Berenson's name is inscribed on Panel N-76 at the North Pool.	[ "Wellfleet, Massachusetts", "Interview (magazine)", "Robert Ozn", "AIDS", "List of tenants in 1 World Trade Center (1971–2001)", "Murray Hill, Manhattan", "Glamour (magazine)", "Remember My Name (film)", "September 11 attacks", "Philip Anglim", "Wynn Handman", "psychic medium", "Richard Gere", "The New Yorker", "The American Place Theatre", "Marisa Berenson", "Martian canals", "Senda Berenson Abbott", "Penelope Milford", "Elvis Perkins", "Vogue (magazine)", "Polish Jews", "Anthony Perkins", "Elsa Schiaparelli", "National September 11 Memorial & Museum", "National 9/11 Memorial", "Andy Warhol", "Giovanni Schiaparelli", "Cat People (1982 film)", "Oz Perkins", "Malcolm McDowell", "Judy Klemesrud", "New York (state)", "World Trade Center (1973-2001)", "The New York Times", "Ingrid Boulting", "New York City", "Alan Rudolph", "Los Angeles Times", "American Airlines Flight 11", "Bernard Berenson", "Cape Cod", "Theosophy (Blavatskian)", "Winter Kills (film)", "Newsweek", "Richard Bernstein (artist)", "Jeff Bridges", "Basketball Hall of Fame", "Life (magazine)", "Russian Jews" ]
4,183	Botany	Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially their anatomy, taxonomy, and ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field. "Plant" and "botany" may be defined more narrowly to include only land plants and their study, which is also known as phytology. Nowadays, phytologists or botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants, including some 391,000 species of vascular plants (of which approximately 369,000 are flowering plants) and approximately 20,000 bryophytes. Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – plants that were edible, poisonous, and possibly medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species. In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st-century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity. ==Etymology== The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek word ' () meaning "pasture", "herbs" "grass", or "fodder"; ' is in turn derived from (Greek: ), "to feed" or "to graze". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. == History == === Early botany === Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their possible medicinal properties. The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BCE, Ancient Egypt, in archaic Avestan writings, and in works from China purportedly from before 221 BCE. Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the "Father of Botany". His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages, almost seventeen centuries later. Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is , a five-volume encyclopedia about preliminary herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides. was widely read for more than 1,500 years. Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī's (828–896) the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassal's The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner. In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities. The Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location. These gardens continued the practical value of earlier "physic gardens", often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for suspected medicinal uses. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject. Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621. German physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) was one of "the three German fathers of botany", along with theologian Otto Brunfels (1489–1534) and physician Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus). Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification. Physician Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565) and herbalist John Gerard (1545 – ) published herbals covering the supposed medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells (a term he coined) in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue. === Early modern botany === During the 18th century, systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys, where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups (e.g. family, genus and species) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters. The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys. By the 18th century, new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide. In 1753, Carl Linnaeus published his Species Plantarum, a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature. This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus. For the purposes of identification, Linnaeus's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs. The 24th group, Cryptogamia, included all plants with concealed reproductive parts, mosses, liverworts, ferns, algae and fungi. Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus. Adanson (1763), de Jussieu (1789), and Candolle (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed. The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later Bentham & Hooker system, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach. Darwin's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity. In the 19th century botany was a socially acceptable hobby for upper-class women. These women would collect and paint flowers and plants from around the world with scientific accuracy. The paintings were used to record many species that could not be transported or maintained in other environments. Marianne North illustrated over 900 species in extreme detail with watercolor and oil paintings. Her work and many other women's botany work was the beginning of popularizing botany to a wider audience. Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first "modern" textbook, Matthias Schleiden's , published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany. Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co-founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831. In 1855, Adolf Fick formulated Fick's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems. === Late modern botany === Building upon the gene-chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), August Weismann (1834–1914) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes. No other cells can pass on inherited characters. The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany. Her books Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century. The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements. Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants. Particularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures. These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere. Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher, Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research. The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals. Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones. The synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides. 20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics, the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis. The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait, or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed. These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield. Modern morphology recognises a continuum between the major morphological categories of root, stem (caulome), leaf (phyllome) and trichome. Furthermore, it emphasises structural dynamics. Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants. Modern molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters, relying on DNA sequences as data. Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants, answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species. The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research. == Branches of botany == Botany is divided along several axes. Some subfields of botany relate to particular groups of organisms. Divisions related to the broader historical sense of botany include bacteriology, mycology (or fungology), and phycology – respectively, the study of bacteria, fungi, and algae – with lichenology as a subfield of mycology. The narrower sense of botany as the study of embryophytes (land plants) is called phytology. Bryology is the study of mosses (and in the broader sense also liverworts and hornworts). Pteridology (or filicology) is the study of ferns and allied plants. A number of other taxa of ranks varying from family to subgenus have terms for their study, including agrostology (or graminology) for the study of grasses, synantherology for the study of composites, and batology for the study of brambles. Study can also be divided by guild rather than clade or grade. For example, dendrology is the study of woody plants. Many divisions of biology have botanical subfields. These are commonly denoted by prefixing the word plant (e.g. plant taxonomy, plant ecology, plant anatomy, plant morphology, plant systematics), or prefixing or substituting the prefix phyto- (e.g. phytochemistry, phytogeography). The study of fossil plants is called palaeobotany. Other fields are denoted by adding or substituting the word botany (e.g. systematic botany). Phytosociology is a subfield of plant ecology that classifies and studies communities of plants. The intersection of fields from the above pair of categories gives rise to fields such as bryogeography, the study of the distribution of mosses. Different parts of plants also give rise to their own subfields, including xylology, carpology (or fructology), and palynology, these being the study of wood, fruit and pollen/spores respectively. Botany also overlaps on the one hand with agriculture, horticulture and silviculture, and on the other hand with medicine and pharmacology, giving rise to fields such as agronomy, horticultural botany, phytopathology, and phytopharmacology. == Scope and importance == The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, biochemicals, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil. Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals. Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities. At each of these levels, a botanist may be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), phylogeny and evolution, structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life. The strictest definition of "plant" includes only the "land plants" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis. They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases. The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in bacteriology), fungi (mycology) – including lichen-forming fungi (lichenology), non-chlorophyte algae (phycology), and viruses (virology). However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi (including lichens) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses. Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants. Cyanobacteria, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria, changing the ancient oxygen-free, reducing, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years. Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life's basic ingredients: energy, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water, and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management, conservation, human food security, biologically invasive organisms, carbon sequestration, climate change, and sustainability. === Human nutrition === Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the first trophic level. The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as hemp, teff, maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as hemp, flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics. Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through plant breeding, making their work important to humanity's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations. Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany. Some of the earliest plant-people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants. This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists. == Plant biochemistry == Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants. Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism. Others make specialised materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies, and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds. Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as "algae" have unique organelles known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors. Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue-green pigment chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a (as well as its plant and green algal-specific cousin chlorophyll b) absorbs light in the blue-violet and orange/red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms. The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy-rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that generates molecular oxygen (O2) as a by-product. The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that is used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy. Their energy is used in the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3-carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesised. Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast. Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae, while inulin, a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae. Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose (common table sugar) for export to the rest of the plant. Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids. The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things, such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out. Plants synthesise a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose, pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed. Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibres that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood. Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record. It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common carbon fixation pathway. These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants. === Medicine and materials === Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism. Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock. Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies. Many medicinal and recreational drugs, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (active ingredient in cannabis), caffeine, morphine and nicotine come directly from plants. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products. For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy. Popular stimulants come from plants, such as caffeine from coffee, tea and chocolate, and nicotine from tobacco. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate-rich plant products such as barley (beer), rice (sake) and grapes (wine). Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years. This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery. Plants can synthesise coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine, yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green, indoxyl, source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist's pigments gamboge and rose madder. Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products. Charcoal, a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood, has a long history as a metal-smelting fuel, as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder. Cellulose, the world's most abundant organic polymer, can be converted into energy, fuels, materials and chemical feedstock. Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton. Sugarcane, rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels, important alternatives to fossil fuels, such as biodiesel. Sweetgrass was used by Native Americans to ward off bugs like mosquitoes. These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin. == Plant ecology == Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats – the environments where they complete their life cycles. Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras, their biodiversity, genetic diversity and fitness, the adaptation of plants to their environment, and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species. Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists. This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time. at the start of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." An important adaptive benefit of outcrossing is that it allows the masking of deleterious mutations in the genome of progeny. This beneficial effect is also known as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Once outcrossing is established, subsequent switching to inbreeding becomes disadvantageous since it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, commonly referred to as inbreeding depression. Unlike in higher animals, where parthenogenesis is rare, asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms. The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example. Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats, where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare, plantlets or bulbs, may develop instead of flowers, replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent. This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants. Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent. Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid, with paired chromosomes, but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis. This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism, or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid (endopolyploidy), or during gamete formation. An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species. Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally, but may be unable to cross-breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers. These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area, may be sufficiently successful to form a new species. Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals. Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid, while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid. The commercial banana is an example of a sterile, seedless triploid hybrid. Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed. As in other eukaryotes, the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non-Mendelian. Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants. === Molecular genetics === A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana, a weedy species in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA, forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants. Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in 2000. The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally. Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast. Ideally, these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced, small stature and short generation times. Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in plants. The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, while not an embryophyte itself, contains a green-pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants, making it useful for study. A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions. Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology. Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a soil rhizosphere bacterium, can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus-inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer, causing a callus infection called crown gall disease. Schell and Van Montagu (1977) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species. Today, genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops. === Epigenetics === Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism's genes to behave (or "express themselves") differently. One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not. Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed. Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code. Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell's life. Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells. Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells. A single fertilised egg cell, the zygote, gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma, xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tubes, guard cells of the epidermis, etc. as it continues to divide. The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others. Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate. Epigenetic changes can lead to paramutations, which do not follow the Mendelian heritage rules. These epigenetic marks are carried from one generation to the next, with one allele inducing a change on the other. == Plant evolution == The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical, structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria, (commonly but incorrectly known as "blue-green algae") and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident. The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others. There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition, biochemistry, pigmentation, chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves. The algal division Charophyta, sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta, is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants. The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina. Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem. They include mosses, liverworts and hornworts. Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian. Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day. By the end of the Devonian period, several groups, including the lycopods, sphenophylls and progymnosperms, had independently evolved "megaspory" – their spores were of two distinct sizes, larger megaspores and smaller microspores. Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory. Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers (integuments). The young sporophyte develops within the seed, which on germination splits to release it. The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage. Following the evolution of the seed habit, seed plants diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce "naked seeds" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary. Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms. == Plant physiology == Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life. Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism. The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life. Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis. Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues. Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis. Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales. Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes. Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream. Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur. Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. In vascular plants, these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem. Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes. === Plant hormones === Plants are not passive, but respond to external signals such as light, touch, and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus, as appropriate. Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of Mimosa pudica, the insect traps of Venus flytrap and bladderworts, and the pollinia of orchids. The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century. Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity, and concluded "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements". About the same time, the role of auxins (from the Greek , to grow) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went. The first known auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which promotes cell growth, was only isolated from plants about 50 years later. This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity. The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA, followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification. Cytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division (especially cytokinesis). The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine. Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts. The gibberelins, such as gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway. They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering. Abscisic acid (ABA) occurs in all land plants except liverworts, and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids. It inhibits cell division, promotes seed maturation, and dormancy, and promotes stomatal closure. It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission. Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine. It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission, and it, or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene, are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton, pineapples and other climacteric crops. Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack. In addition to being the primary energy source for plants, light functions as a signalling device, providing information to the plant, such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day. This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as photomorphogenesis. Phytochromes are the photoreceptors in a plant that are sensitive to light. == Plant anatomy and morphology == Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues, whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form. All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei. The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts. Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts). Uniquely, streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division. The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses, ferns and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems. The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures. The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll. Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis. The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts. The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system. Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots. Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots. Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants. In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it. In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with plants in Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia, or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant. In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots. Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures, but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti, food as in potato tubers, or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering. Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis. Large, flat, flexible, green leaves are called foliage leaves. Gymnosperms, such as conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes are seed-producing plants with open seeds. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds. Woody plants, such as azaleas and oaks, undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues: wood (secondary xylem) and bark (secondary phloem and cork). All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants. Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means. Although reference to major morphological categories such as root, stem, leaf, and trichome are useful, one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results. Furthermore, structures can be seen as processes, that is, process combinations. == Systematic botany == Systematic botany is part of systematic biology, which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships, particularly as determined by their evolutionary history. It involves, or is related to, biological classification, scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics. Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics. While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so. The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress. Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukaryota and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is: Kingdom; Phylum (or Division); Class; Order; Family; Genus (plural genera); Species. The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism. For example, the tiger lily is Lilium columbianum. Lilium is the genus, and columbianum the specific epithet. The combination is the name of the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase. Additionally, the entire term is ordinarily italicised (or underlined when italics are not available). The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny. Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies. The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships. As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves. They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus. However, both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles (highly specialised pad-like structures) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related. Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently. Some euphorbias have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related. The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (homoplasies) or those left over from ancestors (plesiomorphies) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (apomorphies). Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor. The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms: tree-like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent. From the 1990s onwards, the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics, which uses molecular characters, particularly DNA sequences, rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles. The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to. Clive Stace describes this as having "direct access to the genetic basis of evolution." As a simple example, prior to the use of genetic evidence, fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals. Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. In 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, many questions, such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms, have now been answered. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants. Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa. Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed. == Symbols == A few symbols are in current use in botany. A number of others are obsolete; for example, Linnaeus used planetary symbols (Mars) for biennial plants, (Jupiter) for herbaceous perennials and (Saturn) for woody perennials, based on the planets' orbital periods of 2, 12 and 30 years; and Willd used (Saturn) for neuter in addition to (Mercury) for hermaphroditic. The following symbols are still used: ♀ female ♂ male ⚥ hermaphrodite/bisexual ⚲ vegetative (asexual) reproduction ◊ sex unknown ☉ annual ⚇ biennial ♾ perennial ☠ poisonous 🛈 further information × crossbred hybrid + grafted hybrid	[ "University", "plant taxonomy", "chromosome number", "phytochemistry", "dispersal vector", "single access key", "cell plate", "Herbivore", "Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)", "bat", "cytokinesis", "Sucrose", "Ordovician", "taxonomy (biology)", "sugar beet", "batology", "Carl Linnaeus", "mitosis", "binomial nomenclature", "rose madder", "Dendrology", "Cactus", "Bentham & Hooker system", "Aristotle", "protist", "lichen", "rhizobia", "genetic modification", "Pulse (legume)", "Phototroph", "phosphorus", "angiosperms", "mycology", "primary production", "Redox", "phenology", "Michel Adanson", "pectin", "trophic level", "Cyanobacteria", "systematics", "Augustin Pyramus de Candolle", "plant hormone", "Hermaphrodite", "Plant stem", "forestry", "alkaloid", "molecular diffusion", "Raunkiær plant life-form", "biodiversity", "Marchantiophyta", "introduced species", "carbon dioxide", "ant", "cereals", "Cork cambium", "Phylogenetics", "Ginkgo", "ecosystems", "drug discovery", "Auxin", "taxon", "mosquitoes", "Rudolf Virchow", "hemp", "hornworts", "auxin", "phycology", "hornwort", "phytol", "protein", "opiate", "mycorrhiza", "Devonian", "Butanol fuel", "Abiotic component", "Frits Went", "C3 carbon fixation", "particle board", "vegetable oil", "hemicellulose", "crassulacean acid metabolism", "Mentha aquatica", "endopolyploidy", "bladderwort", "Chlamydomonas reinhardtii", "Angiosperm Phylogeny Group", "geography", "jasmonate", "monoecious", "Plant reproductive morphology", "oxygen", "grasses", "Cellulose", "Arthur Tansley", "Lincoln green", "Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati", "Branches of botany", "Cell potency", "Conrad von Gesner", "plastid", "Bryology", "rhizosphere", "Charophyta", "stem cells", "transpiration", "agriculture", "Pteridophyte", "callus (cell biology)", "Xylem vessel element", "agrostology", "fermentation (food)", "phylogenetics", "fodder", "coumarin", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "spectroscopy", "physic garden", "evolutionary grade", "plant community", "conium", "phytohormone", "phenotype", "transposon", "rubisco", "hexaploid", "tundra", "abscission", "sympatric speciation", "plant morphology", "Diffusion", "electron microscopy", "Chlorophyta", "bramble", "Frederic Clements", "nicotine", "Asteraceae", "Brassicaceae", "cell membrane", "plant tissue culture", "plant nutrition", "fatty acids", "zygote", "natural rubber", "Native Americans in the United States", "autopolyploid", "embryo", "endangered species", "coniine", "Trentepohliales", "2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid", "essential oil", "indigo", "Jasminum grandiflorum", "biofuel", "mevalonate pathway", "glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate", "ground tissue", "horticulture", "sustainability", "palynology", "Self-incompatibility in plants", "Adenosine triphosphate", "proxy (climate)", "Sporopollenin", "Isatis tinctoria", "cellular differentiation", "Angiosperms", "water cycle", "peppermint", "molecular biology", "Mendelian inheritance", "Ultraviolet", "optical microscope", "botanical garden", "calcium", "Botanical name", "streptophyte", "staple foods", "polymer", "paramutation", "Community (ecology)", "oil", "parenchyma", "Charcoal", "albedo", "List of botanists", "stimulant", "Polyphyly", "spatial scale", "metabolism", "Ancient Greece", "algae", "common wheat", "cutin", "secondary cell walls", "epigenetics", "enzyme", "dendrology", "Ulisse Aldrovandi", "Plant", "plant breeding", "Lycopodiophyta", "willow", "ploidy", "hypoxia (environmental)", "Surface runoff", "Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)", "Spinach", "biology", "Orto botanico di Padova", "alpine climate", "Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle", "Robert Hooke", "food chain", "Silurian", "Photoreceptor protein", "photomorphogenesis", "nutmeg", "Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests", "Empirical evidence", "Medicinal plants", "vascular plant", "xylem", "DNA", "Avestan language", "scientist", "haploid", "community (ecology)", "nitrocellulose", "International Botanical Congress", "gametophyte", "Sterility (physiology)", "Durum", "red alga", "Eukaryota", "Ancient Greek", "Bark (botany)", "staple food", "gymnosperm", "signal transduction", "herbicide", "Gottlieb Haberlandt", "medication", "Ti plasmid", "Phytosociology", "mitochondria", "cell theory", "pharmacopoeia", "epidermis (botany)", "asexual reproduction", "potassium", "Pereskia", "analgesics", "indole-3-acetic acid", "genome", "phytopharmacology", "habitat", "Punnett square", "triploid", "Sphenophyllales", "chloroplast", "gamete", "August Weismann", "visible spectrum", "bioreactors", "erosion", "flowering plant", "List of domesticated plants", "vacuole", "Mendelian", "C4 plants", "cyanobacteria", "Katherine Esau", "pollen", "cycad", "pluripotent", "mace (spice)", "Matthias Jakob Schleiden", "trichome", "chromatin remodeling", "herb", "sporophyte", "Phytochrome", "Model organism", "Biennial plant", "model organism", "layering", "live cell imaging", "Indonesia", "azalea", "Nabatean Agriculture", "endosymbiotic", "cell wall", "global warming", "euphorbia", "habitat destruction", "Papaver somniferum", "morphogenesis", "purine", "phloem", "spore", "Ozone depletion", "carnivorous plant", "Barbara McClintock", "phytopathology", "Chloroplast", "C4 carbon fixation", "sexual reproduction", "effects of climate change", "Shoot (botany)", "Plant reproduction", "stigma (botany)", "ecosystem", "sporangium", "Hieronymus Bock", "teff", "plant pathology", "Frederick Campion Steward", "resource management", "xyloglucan", "magnesium", "adventitious", "plant physiology", "vessel element", "Ibn Wahshiyya", "Genus", "Kingdom (biology)", "starch", "fern", "cell growth", "Taxonomy (biology)", "genomics", "vegetative reproduction", "Fungus", "Plant physiology", "carpology", "Gnetophyta", "phytogeography", "amyloplasts", "Glossary of botanical terms", "paleoethnobotany", "NADPH", "Medicago italica", "plant defence against herbivory", "taxonomic order", "palaeobotany", "Palaeozoic", "electron microscope", "hybrid (biology)", "elaioplast", "Middle Ages", "cactus", "molecular genetics", "Charles Darwin", "List of flowers", "alternation of generations", "diploid", "Charophyceae", "climacteric (botany)", "heliotropism", "virology", "Conservation (ethic)", "pollinate", "Mass flow (life sciences)", "root hairs", "Venus flytrap", "monocots", "De materia medica", "Grazing", "Echinocactus", "molecular oxygen", "List of botany journals", "nitrogen", "nucleic acid sequence", "plant ecology", "food security", "pineapple", "cell division", "Micrographia", "Greek language", "Character (biology)", "areoles", "Biotic components", "Arabidopsis thaliana", "Cladistics", "adaptation", "guild (ecology)", "Heritability", "fossil plants", "List of systems of plant taxonomy", "Peppermint", "cotton", "organelle", "cryptogams", "Pinophyta", "chlorophyll b", "plant cuticle", "dicots", "zoophily", "Polymath", "smelting", "barley", "capsaicin", "climate change", "flora", "Bt corn", "amino acids", "sister clade", "Evolution of plants", "fungi", "bulbs", "Theophrastus", "Poaceae", "spinach", "plant cell", "environmental management", "Ibn Bassal", "scientific community", "Candollean system", "hybridization event", "Linnaean taxonomy", "diterpene", "Class (biology)", "synantherology", "Epigenetics", "gibberelins", "Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia", "Embryophyta", "Valerius Cordus", "plant anatomy", "pharming (genetics)", "cellophane", "activated carbon", "mosses", "gene expression", "resin", "Crassulacean acid metabolism", "Mimosa pudica", "great oxygenation event", "anthocyanin", "tropical rainforest", "tetrahydrocannabinol", "transgene", "Cell (biology)", "angiosperm", "soy", "seed dispersal", "Ground tissue", "climate", "Phytochemistry", "liverworts", "organic chemistry", "Pedanius Dioscorides", "carbon cycle", "Sinorhizobium meliloti", "rope", "DNA methylation", "molecular phylogenetics", "Herbalism", "sucrose", "Leonhart Fuchs", "Reseda luteola", "cell (biology)", "Calvin cycle", "cloning", "reproductively isolated", "Mentha spicata", "fructose", "Biological life cycle", "apomorphies", "germinate", "electrophoresis", "ecological succession", "heterozygous", "seed", "tubers", "John Gerard", "single celled", "pyrolysis", "Clive A. Stace", "stomatal", "evolution", "embryophytes", "rapeseed", "peas", "oak", "List of botanists by author abbreviation", "Monastery", "genetic engineering", "Cellular respiration", "gnetophyta", "Nif gene", "Frank Yates", "mycologists", "Plant ecology", "gas exchange", "metabolomics", "Callus (cell biology)", "plant reproductive morphology", "parasitic plant", "Plant pathology", "natural science", "gamboge", "salicylic acid", "Brachypodium distachyon", "DNA sequences", "Center of origin", "micropropagation", "Green fluorescent protein", "Fitness (biology)", "Gymnosperm", "horizontal gene transfer", "genetically modified crops", "homoplasies", "Spermatophyte", "green alga", "Eukaryote", "liverwort", "Streptophytina", "Statistics", "reporter gene", "osmosis", "red wine", "Antoine Laurent de Jussieu", "horticultural botany", "DNA sequence", "monophyletic", "sake", "Adolf Fick", "evolutionary history of plants", "bryophyte", "secondary metabolism", "Taxon", "Leaf", "plant identification", "moss", "Carbon fixation", "Islamic Golden Age", "Phylum", "mutualism (biology)", "gibberelic acid", "land plants", "Gregor Mendel", "Lilium columbianum", "opium poppy", "indoxyl", "methyl cellulose", "pasture", "silencer (DNA)", "proton gradient", "Cyanidioschyzon merolae", "Neolithic founder crops", "carbohydrate", "rayon", "Ethnobotany", "allopolyploid", "Stolons", "photosynthesis", "inulin", "totipotent", "plant propagation", "nitrogen fixation", "Eugenius Warming", "Plant taxonomy", "biodiesel", "methionine", "clade", "systematic botany", "Physcomitrella patens", "fossil fuel", "polysaccharide", "common descent", "American Chemical Society", "Glossary of plant morphology", "ester", "cladogram", "light-independent reactions", "DNA barcoding", "Lumber", "Tissue (biology)", "maize", "plants", "cork (material)", "Cannabis (drug)", "Species Plantarum", "Biopharmaceutics", "convergent evolution", "Pteridospermatophyta", "base pairs", "Otto Brunfels", "Agrobacterium tumefaciens", "conifer", "Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī", "stolons", "Phylogenetic nomenclature", "gunpowder", "biochemistry", "parthenogenesis", "megaspore", "active transport", "strawberry", "proteomics", "phycologists", "biomes", "ovary", "papyrus", "List of botanical gardens", "physiology", "myrmecophyte", "Derivative (chemistry)", "adenine", "cell elongation", "epicuticular wax", "Timeline of British botany", "linen", "Henry Chandler Cowles", "Oryza sativa", "honey bee", "agronomy", "Holdridge life zones", "ferns", "cellular respiration", "Rothamsted Research", "Acetyl-CoA carboxylase", "aspirin", "eudicot", "spermatophyte", "Embryophyte", "geotropism", "flax", "chlorophyll a", "carotenoid", "edaphic", "Family (biology)", "photorespiration", "root", "Cytokinin", "phylogeny", "primary metabolism", "species", "morphine", "carbon sequestration", "endosymbiotic theory", "Famennian", "Palynology", "Ronald Fisher", "tracheid", "Lycopodiopsida", "germination", "phototropism", "Taraxacum officinale", "Ibn al-Baitar", "bacteriology", "zeatin", "caffeine", "Fiber", "tuber", "chromatography", "Outline of botany", "Christen C. Raunkiær", "banana", "systemic acquired resistance", "evaporation", "lichenology", "Zea mays", "cell line", "Gynoecium", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Pharmaceutical industry", "genus", "aroma compounds", "Species", "soybeans", "anaerobic organism", "Fabaceae", "plesiomorphies", "tetraploid", "phragmoplast", "Sugarcane", "progymnosperm", "Perennial plant", "transpiration stream", "University of Oxford Botanic Garden", "Order (biology)", "Pteridology", "Plant anatomy", "herbalism", "integument", "Heterotroph", "plant systematics", "geologic timescale", "apomixis", "Plant morphology", "sulfur", "vegetative propagation", "Theodor Schwann", "arctic", "diamorphine", "Paleobotany", "recreational drugs", "charcoal", "seed plants", "lignin", "Ancient Egypt", "Abscisic acid", "Ethylene", "glucose", "opium", "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants", "climax vegetation", "On the Origin of Species", "Domain (biology)", "Plant breeding", "eukaryote", "historical climatology", "cell nucleus", "ethephon", "embryophyte", "Marianne North", "cellulose", "Kenneth V. Thimann", "Secondary metabolism", "biogeography", "Fick's laws of diffusion", "guard cell", "Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov" ]
4,184	Bacillus thuringiensis	Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, flour mills and grain-storage facilities. It has also been observed to parasitize moths such as Cadra calidella—in laboratory experiments working with C. calidella, many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite. During sporulation, many Bt strains produce crystal proteins (proteinaceous inclusions), called delta endotoxins, that have insecticidal action. This has led to their use as insecticides, and more recently to genetically modified crops using Bt genes, such as Bt corn. Many crystal-producing Bt strains, though, do not have insecticidal properties. The subspecies israelensis is commonly used for control of mosquitoes and of fungus gnats. As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture. Other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the cry protein, and therefore are not affected by Bt. ==Taxonomy and discovery== In 1902, B. thuringiensis was first discovered in silkworms by Japanese sericultural engineer . He named it B. sotto, using the Japanese word , here referring to bacillary paralysis. In 1911, German microbiologist Ernst Berliner rediscovered it when he isolated it as the cause of a disease called in flour moth caterpillars in Thuringia (hence the specific name thuringiensis, "Thuringian"). B. sotto would later be reassigned as B. thuringiensis var. sotto. In 1976, Robert A. Zakharyan reported the presence of a plasmid in a strain of B. thuringiensis and suggested the plasmid's involvement in endospore and crystal formation. B. thuringiensis is closely related to B. cereus, a soil bacterium, and B. anthracis, the cause of anthrax; the three organisms differ mainly in their plasmids. Like other members of the genus, all three are capable of producing endospores. or as six species in a Bacillus cereus sensu lato: B. weihenstephanensis, B. mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. cereus, B. thuringiensis, and B. anthracis. Within this grouping B.t. is more closely related to B.ce. It is more distantly related to B.w., B.m., B.p., and B.cy. ===Subspecies=== There are several dozen recognized subspecies of B. thuringiensis. Subspecies commonly used as insecticides include B. thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki (Btk), subspecies israelensis (Bti) and (Bta). Some Bti lineages are clonal. Cry toxins have specific activities against insect species of the orders Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles) and Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies), as well as against nematodes. A specific example of B. thuringiensis use against beetles is the fight against Colorado Potato Beetles in potato crops. Thus, B. thuringiensis serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops. When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with proteases found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal. The insect stops eating and starves to death; live Bt bacteria may also colonize the insect, which can contribute to death. Death occurs within a few hours or weeks. The midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae may be required for B. thuringiensis insecticidal activity. A B. thuringiensis small RNA called BtsR1 can silence the Cry5Ba toxin expression when outside the host by binding to the RBS site of the Cry5Ba toxin transcript to avoid nematode behavioral defenses. The silencing results in an increase of the bacteria ingestion by C. elegans. The expression of BtsR1 is then reduced after ingestion, resulting in Cry5Ba toxin production and host death. In 1996 another class of insecticidal proteins in Bt was discovered: the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip; ). Vip proteins do not share sequence homology with Cry proteins, in general do not compete for the same receptors, and some kill different insects than do Cry proteins. The proteins of parasporin group are defined as B. thuringiensis and related bacterial parasporal proteins that are not hemolytic, but capable of preferentially killing cancer cells. As of January 2013, parasporins comprise six subfamilies: PS1 to PS6. ==Use of spores and proteins in pest control== Spores and crystalline insecticidal proteins produced by B. thuringiensis have been used to control insect pests since the 1920s and are often applied as liquid sprays. They are now used as specific insecticides under trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects, and are used in organic farming; and a 2012 European regulatory peer review of five approved strains found, while data exist to support some claims of low toxicity to humans and the environment, the data are insufficient to justify many of these claims. New strains of Bt are developed and introduced over time as insects develop resistance to Bt, or the desire occurs to force mutations to modify organism characteristics, or to use homologous recombinant genetic engineering to improve crystal size and increase pesticidal activity, or broaden the host range of Bt and obtain more effective formulations. Each new strain is given a unique number and registered with the U.S. EPA and allowances may be given for genetic modification depending on "its parental strains, the proposed pesticide use pattern, and the manner and extent to which the organism has been genetically modified". Formulations of Bt that are approved for organic farming in the US are listed at the website of the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) and several university extension websites offer advice on how to use Bt spore or protein preparations in organic farming. The Bt tobacco was never commercialized; tobacco plants are used to test genetic modifications since they are easy to manipulate genetically and are not part of the food supply. ===Usage=== In 1995, were approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, making it the first human-modified pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the US, though many plants produce pesticides naturally, including tobacco, coffee plants, cocoa, cotton and black walnut. This was the 'New Leaf' potato, and it was removed from the market in 2001 due to lack of interest. In 1996, was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae. The Bt genes engineered into crops and approved for release include, singly and stacked: Cry1A.105, CryIAb, CryIF, Cry2Ab, Cry3Bb1, Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1, mCry3A, and VIP, and the engineered crops include corn and cotton. Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010. In India, by 2014, more than seven million cotton farmers, occupying twenty-six million acres, had adopted . Monsanto developed a and the glyphosate-resistance gene for the Brazilian market, which completed the Brazilian regulatory process in 2010. - specifically Populus hybrids - have been developed. They do suffer lesser leaf damage from insect herbivory. The results have not been entirely positive however: The intended result - better timber yield - was not achieved, with no growth advantage despite that reduction in herbivore damage; one of their major pests still preys upon the transgenic trees; and besides that, their leaf litter decomposes differently due to the transgenic toxins, resulting in alterations to the aquatic insect populations nearby. ===Safety studies=== The use of Bt toxins as plant-incorporated protectants prompted the need for extensive evaluation of their safety for use in foods and potential unintended impacts on the environment. ====Dietary risk assessment==== Concerns over the safety of consumption of genetically modified plant materials that contain Cry proteins have been addressed in extensive dietary risk assessment studies. As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture. While the target pests are exposed to the toxins primarily through leaf and stalk material, Cry proteins are also expressed in other parts of the plant, including trace amounts in maize kernels which are ultimately consumed by both humans and animals. However, other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the cry protein, and therefore are not affected by Bt. Research on other known toxic proteins suggests that , further suggesting that Bt toxins are not toxic to mammals. The results of toxicology studies are further strengthened by the lack of observed toxicity from decades of use of B. thuringiensis and its crystalline proteins as an insecticidal spray. =====Allergenicity studies===== Introduction of a new protein raised concerns regarding the potential for allergic responses in sensitive individuals. Bioinformatic analysis of known allergens has indicated there is no concern of allergic reactions as a result of consumption of Bt toxins. Additionally, skin prick testing using purified Bt protein resulted in no detectable production of toxin-specific IgE antibodies, even in atopic patients. =====Digestibility studies===== Studies have been conducted to evaluate the fate of Bt toxins that are ingested in foods. Bt toxin proteins have been shown to digest within minutes of exposure to simulated gastric fluids. The instability of the proteins in digestive fluids is an additional indication that Cry proteins are unlikely to be allergenic, since most known food allergens resist degradation and are ultimately absorbed in the small intestine. =====Persistence in environment===== Concerns over possible environmental impact from accumulation of Bt toxins from plant tissues, pollen dispersal, and direct secretion from roots have been investigated. Bt toxins may persist in soil for over 200 days, with half-lives between 1.6 and 22 days. Much of the toxin is initially degraded rapidly by microorganisms in the environment, while some is adsorbed by organic matter and persists longer. Some studies, in contrast, claim that the toxins do not persist in the soil. Bt toxins are less likely to accumulate in bodies of water, but pollen shed or soil runoff may deposit them in an aquatic ecosystem. Fish species are not susceptible to Bt toxins if exposed. =====Impact on non-target organisms===== The toxic nature of Bt proteins has an adverse impact on many major crop pests, but some ecological risk assessments has been conducted to ensure safety of beneficial non-target organisms that may come into contact with the toxins. Toxicity for the monarch butterfly, has been shown to not reach dangerous levels. Most soil-dwelling organisms, potentially exposed to Bt toxins through root exudates, are probably not impacted by the growth of Bt crops. ===Insect resistance=== Multiple insects have developed a resistance to B. thuringiensis. In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found the pink bollworm had become resistant to the first-generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India - that generation expresses one Bt gene, Cry1Ac. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto anywhere in the world. Monsanto responded by introducing a second-generation cotton with multiple Bt proteins, which was rapidly adopted. Additionally, resistance to Bt was documented in field population of diamondback moth in Hawaii, the continental US, and Asia. Studies in the cabbage looper have suggested that a mutation in the membrane transporter ABCC2 can confer resistance to Bt Cry1Ac. ===Secondary pests=== Several studies have documented surges in "sucking pests" (which are not affected by Bt toxins) within a few years of adoption of Bt cotton. In China, the main problem has been with mirids, which have in some cases "completely eroded all benefits from Bt cotton cultivation". The increase in sucking pests depended on local temperature and rainfall conditions and increased in half the villages studied. The increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. Another study in five provinces in China found the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars is significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere, consistent with the hypothesis suggested by recent studies that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as aphids, spider mites, and lygus bugs. Similar problems have been reported in India, with both mealy bugs and aphids although a survey of small Indian farms between 2002 and 2008 concluded Bt cotton adoption has led to higher yields and lower pesticide use, decreasing over time. ===Controversies=== The controversies surrounding Bt use are among the many genetically modified food controversies more widely. ====Lepidopteran toxicity==== The most publicised problem associated with Bt crops is the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the monarch butterfly. The paper produced a public uproar and demonstrations against Bt maize; however by 2001 several follow-up studies coordinated by the USDA had asserted that "the most common types of Bt maize pollen are not toxic to monarch larvae in concentrations the insects would encounter in the fields." Similarly, B. thuringiensis has been widely used for controlling Spodoptera littoralis larvae growth due to their detrimental pest activities in Africa and Southern Europe. However, S. littoralis showed resistance to many strains of B. thuriginesis and were only effectively controlled by a few strains. ====Wild maize genetic mixing==== A study published in Nature in 2001 reported Bt-containing maize genes were found in maize in its center of origin, Oaxaca, Mexico. Another Nature paper published in 2002 claimed that the previous paper's conclusion was the result of an artifact caused by an inverse polymerase chain reaction and that "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper." A significant controversy happened over the paper and Natures unprecedented notice. A subsequent large-scale study in 2005 failed to find any evidence of genetic mixing in Oaxaca. A 2007 study found the "transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers' fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities." Mexico imports a substantial amount of maize from the U.S., and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, many potential routes are available for transgenic maize to enter into food and feed webs. One study found small-scale (about 1%) introduction of transgenic sequences in sampled fields in Mexico; it did not find evidence for or against this introduced genetic material being inherited by the next generation of plants. That study was immediately criticized, with the reviewer writing, "Genetically, any given plant should be either non-transgenic or transgenic, therefore for leaf tissue of a single transgenic plant, a GMO level close to 100% is expected. In their study, the authors chose to classify leaf samples as transgenic despite GMO levels of about 0.1%. We contend that results such as these are incorrectly interpreted as positive and are more likely to be indicative of contamination in the laboratory." ====Colony collapse disorder==== As of 2007, a new phenomenon called colony collapse disorder (CCD) began affecting bee hives all over North America. Initial speculation on possible causes included new parasites, pesticide use, and the use of Bt transgenic crops. The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium found no evidence that pollen from Bt crops is adversely affecting bees. According to the USDA, "Genetically modified (GM) crops, most commonly Bt corn, have been offered up as the cause of CCD. But there is no correlation between where GM crops are planted and the pattern of CCD incidents. Also, GM crops have been widely planted since the late 1990s, but CCD did not appear until 2006. In addition, CCD has been reported in countries that do not allow GM crops to be planted, such as Switzerland. German researchers have noted in one study a possible correlation between exposure to Bt pollen and compromised immunity to Nosema." The actual cause of CCD was unknown in 2007, and scientists believe it may have multiple exacerbating causes. ==Beta-exotoxins== Some isolates of B. thuringiensis produce a class of insecticidal small molecules called beta-exotoxin, the common name for which is thuringiensin. A consensus document produced by the OECD says: "Beta-exotoxins are known to be toxic to humans and almost all other forms of life and its presence is prohibited in B. thuringiensis microbial products". Thuringiensins are nucleoside analogues. They inhibit RNA polymerase activity, a process common to all forms of life, in rats and bacteria alike. ==Other hosts== This bacterium is an opportunistic pathogen of animals other than insects, causing necrosis, pulmonary infection, and/or food poisoning. It is unknown how common this is, because these infections are always taken to be B. cereus infections and are rarely tested for the Cry and Cyt proteins that are the only factor distinguishing B. thuringiensis from B. cereus.	[ "Western corn rootworm", "pollinator", "genetically modified maize", "allergen", "Diamondback moth", "Annual Reviews (publisher)", "caterpillar", "Bacillus mycoides", "leaf litter", "butterfly", "half-life", "timber", "Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis", "Populus", "enteropathogen", "coevolution", "Anthrax disease", "necrosis", "genetically modified food controversies", "Oaxaca", "Cry3Bb1", "adsorbed", "Genetically modified food", "endospore", "Natural Resources Canada", "wildlife", "Nosema (microsporidian)", "moth", "Ernst Berliner", "Hymenoptera", "opportunistic pathogen", "Schlaffsucht", "Plant Genetic Systems", "Bt cotton", "proteinaceous", "cotton", "mealy bugs", "larva", "Gujarat", "biological pesticide", "BC5034", "wasp", "Caenorhabditis elegans", "Colorado potato beetle", "organic farming", "Ephestia kuehniella", "bee", "silkworm", "inverse polymerase chain reaction", "ant", "Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki", "Cadra calidella", "soil runoff", "Bioinformatics", "Thuringia", "Theobroma cacao", "Allergy", "Organic Materials Review Institute", "Diptera", "specific name (zoology)", "Environmental Protection Agency", "Parasporal body", "Nature Research", "strain (biology)", "pesticide", "Bacillus weihenstephanensis", "mosquito", "Bacillus cereus", "nematode", "Spodoptera littoralis", "Immunoglobulin E", "exotoxin", "glyphosate", "pXO2-like plasmid", "beneficial insect", "gram-positive bacteria", "aquatic insect", "Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium", "methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein", "pulmonary infection", "Bacillus anthracis", "Lepidoptera", "Delta endotoxin", "plasmid", "The New Yorker", "mirids", "operon", "Bacillus pseudomycoides", "pXO1-like plasmid", "pBT9727", "insecticide", "epithelial", "plcR", "genetic engineering", "RNA polymerase", "herbivory", "Bacilus thuringiensis var. kurstaki ATCC 33679", "tobacco", "food poisoning", "Coleoptera", "quorum sensing", "small RNA", "cabbage looper", "monarch butterfly", "Atopy", "Pesticide resistance", "Sterile insect technique", "heptapeptide", "Small intestine", "Cyt protein", "Bayer CropScience", "nucleoside analogue", "bacterium", "N-acyl-L-amino-acid amidohydrolase", "proteases", "fungus gnat", "Insecticide", "Endospore", "aspen", "Gastric acid", "Bacillus cytotoxicus", "Cry1Ac", "genetically modified crops", "diamondback moth", "BC3663", "Spiegel Online", "Bacilus thuringiensis var. kurstaki HD73", "Genetically modified maize", "intron", "toxin", "No-observed-adverse-effect level", "crystal protein", "PBS", "delta endotoxin", "pathogenicity island", "pink bollworm", "Honey bee", "colony collapse disorder", "eukaryote", "lesser cornstalk borer", "virulence factors", "coffee plant", "black walnut", "enterotoxin", "BC3664", "Artifact (error)", "Biological insecticides", "transcription regulator", "Prokaryote", "sawfly", "efflux pump", "Monsanto" ]
4,185	Bacteriophage	A bacteriophage (), also known informally as a phage (), is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea. The term is derived . Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have structures that are either simple or elaborate. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes (e.g. MS2) and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere. Bacteriophages are ubiquitous viruses, found wherever bacteria exist. It is estimated there are more than 1031 bacteriophages on the planet, more than every other organism on Earth, including bacteria, combined. Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in the water column of the world's oceans, and the second largest component of biomass after prokaryotes, where up to 9x108 virions per millilitre have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by bacteriophages. Bacteriophages were used from the 1920s as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France and Brazil. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Bacteriophages are known to interact with the immune system both indirectly via bacterial expression of phage-encoded proteins and directly by influencing innate immunity and bacterial clearance. == Classification == Bacteriophages occur abundantly in the biosphere, with different genomes and lifestyles. Phages are classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) according to morphology and nucleic acid. It has been suggested that members of Picobirnaviridae infect bacteria, but not mammals. There are also many unassigned genera of the class Leviviricetes: Chimpavirus, Hohglivirus, Mahrahvirus, Meihzavirus, Nicedsevirus, Sculuvirus, Skrubnovirus, Tetipavirus and Winunavirus containing linear ssRNA genomes and the unassigned genus Lilyvirus of the order Caudovirales containing a linear dsDNA genome. == History == In 1896, Ernest Hanbury Hankin reported that something in the waters of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers in India had a marked antibacterial action against cholera and it could pass through a very fine porcelain filter. In 1915, British bacteriologist Frederick Twort, superintendent of the Brown Institution of London, discovered a small agent that infected and killed bacteria. He believed the agent must be one of the following: a stage in the life cycle of the bacteria an enzyme produced by the bacteria themselves, or a virus that grew on and destroyed the bacteria Twort's research was interrupted by the onset of World War I, as well as a shortage of funding and the discoveries of antibiotics. Independently, French-Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Hérelle, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, announced on 3 September 1917 that he had discovered "an invisible, antagonistic microbe of the dysentery bacillus". For d'Hérelle, there was no question as to the nature of his discovery: "In a flash I had understood: what caused my clear spots was in fact an invisible microbe... a virus parasitic on bacteria." D'Hérelle called the virus a bacteriophage, a bacterium-eater (from the Greek , meaning "to devour"). He also recorded a dramatic account of a man suffering from dysentery who was restored to good health by the bacteriophages. It was d'Hérelle who conducted much research into bacteriophages and introduced the concept of phage therapy. In 1919, in Paris, France, d'Hérelle conducted the first clinical application of a bacteriophage, with the first reported use in the United States being in 1922. === Nobel prizes awarded for phage research === In 1969, Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, and Salvador Luria were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries of the replication of viruses and their genetic structure. Specifically the work of Hershey, as contributor to the Hershey–Chase experiment in 1952, provided convincing evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material of life. Delbrück and Luria carried out the Luria–Delbrück experiment which demonstrated statistically that mutations in bacteria occur randomly and thus follow Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles. ==Uses== === Phage therapy === Phages were discovered to be antibacterial agents and were used in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia (pioneered there by Giorgi Eliava with help from the co-discoverer of bacteriophages, Félix d'Hérelle) during the 1920s and 1930s for treating bacterial infections. D'Herelle "quickly learned that bacteriophages are found wherever bacteria thrive: in sewers, in rivers that catch waste runoff from pipes, and in the stools of convalescent patients." They had widespread use, including treatment of soldiers in the Red Army. However, they were abandoned for general use in the West for several reasons: Antibiotics were discovered and marketed widely. They were easier to make, store, and prescribe. Medical trials of phages were carried out, but a basic lack of understanding of phages raised questions about the validity of these trials. Publication of research in the Soviet Union was mainly in the Russian or Georgian languages and for many years was not followed internationally. The Soviet technology was widely discouraged and in some cases illegal due to the red scare. The use of phages has continued since the end of the Cold War in Russia, Georgia, and elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe. The first regulated, randomized, double-blind clinical trial was reported in the Journal of Wound Care in June 2009, which evaluated the safety and efficacy of a bacteriophage cocktail to treat infected venous ulcers of the leg in human patients. The FDA approved the study as a Phase I clinical trial. The study's results demonstrated the safety of therapeutic application of bacteriophages, but did not show efficacy. The authors explained that the use of certain chemicals that are part of standard wound care (e.g. lactoferrin or silver) may have interfered with bacteriophage viability. The study concludes that bacteriophage preparations were safe and effective for treatment of chronic ear infections in humans. Additionally, there have been numerous animal and other experimental clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of bacteriophages for various diseases, such as infected burns and wounds, and cystic fibrosis-associated lung infections, among others. Meanwhile, bacteriophage researchers have been developing engineered viruses to overcome antibiotic resistance, and engineering the phage genes responsible for coding enzymes that degrade the biofilm matrix, phage structural proteins, and the enzymes responsible for lysis of the bacterial cell wall. Therapeutic efficacy of a phage cocktail was evaluated in a mouse model with nasal infection of multi-drug-resistant (MDR) A. baumannii. Mice treated with the phage cocktail showed a 2.3-fold higher survival rate compared to those untreated at seven days post-infection. In 2017, a 68-year-old diabetic patient with necrotizing pancreatitis complicated by a pseudocyst infected with MDR A. baumannii strains was being treated with a cocktail of Azithromycin, Rifampicin, and Colistin for 4 months without results and overall rapidly declining health. Because discussion had begun of the clinical futility of further treatment, an Emergency Investigational New Drug (eIND) was filed as a last effort to at the very least gain valuable medical data from the situation, and approved, so he was subjected to phage therapy using a percutaneously (PC) injected cocktail containing nine different phages that had been identified as effective against the primary infection strain by rapid isolation and testing techniques (a process which took under a day). This proved effective for a very brief period, although the patient remained unresponsive and his health continued to worsen; soon isolates of a strain of A. baumannii were being collected from drainage of the cyst that showed resistance to this cocktail, and a second cocktail which was tested to be effective against this new strain was added, this time by intravenous (IV) injection as it had become clear that the infection was more pervasive than originally thought. === Other === ====Food industry==== Phages have increasingly been used to safen food products and to forestall spoilage bacteria. Since 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have approved several bacteriophage products. LMP-102 (Intralytix) was approved for treating ready-to-eat (RTE) poultry and meat products. In that same year, the FDA approved LISTEX (developed and produced by Micreos) using bacteriophages on cheese to kill Listeria monocytogenes bacteria, in order to give them generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status. In July 2007, the same bacteriophage were approved for use on all food products. In 2011 USDA confirmed that LISTEX is a clean label processing aid and is included in USDA. Research in the field of food safety is continuing to see if lytic phages are a viable option to control other food-borne pathogens in various food products. ====Water indicators==== Bacteriophages, including those specific to Escherichia coli, have been employed as indicators of fecal contamination in water sources. Due to their shared structural and biological characteristics, coliphages can serve as proxies for viral fecal contamination and the presence of pathogenic viruses such as rotavirus, norovirus, and HAV. Research conducted on wastewater treatment systems has revealed significant disparities in the behavior of coliphages compared to fecal coliforms, demonstrating a distinct correlation with the recovery of pathogenic viruses at the treatment's conclusion. Establishing a secure discharge threshold, studies have determined that discharges below 3000 PFU/100 mL are considered safe in terms of limiting the release of pathogenic viruses. ====Diagnostics==== In 2011, the FDA cleared the first bacteriophage-based product for in vitro diagnostic use. The KeyPath MRSA/MSSA Blood Culture Test uses a cocktail of bacteriophage to detect Staphylococcus aureus in positive blood cultures and determine methicillin resistance or susceptibility. The test returns results in about five hours, compared to two to three days for standard microbial identification and susceptibility test methods. It was the first accelerated antibiotic-susceptibility test approved by the FDA. ====Counteracting bioweapons and toxins==== Government agencies in the West have for several years been looking to Georgia and the former Soviet Union for help with exploiting phages for counteracting bioweapons and toxins, such as anthrax and botulism. Developments are continuing among research groups in the U.S. Other uses include spray application in horticulture for protecting plants and vegetable produce from decay and the spread of bacterial disease. Other applications for bacteriophages are as biocides for environmental surfaces, e.g., in hospitals, and as preventative treatments for catheters and medical devices before use in clinical settings. The technology for phages to be applied to dry surfaces, e.g., uniforms, curtains, or even sutures for surgery now exists. Clinical trials reported in Clinical Otolaryngology ====Phage display==== Phage display is a different use of phages involving a library of phages with a variable peptide linked to a surface protein. Each phage genome encodes the variant of the protein displayed on its surface (hence the name), providing a link between the peptide variant and its encoding gene. Variant phages from the library may be selected through their binding affinity to an immobilized molecule (e.g., botulism toxin) to neutralize it. The bound, selected phages can be multiplied by reinfecting a susceptible bacterial strain, thus allowing them to retrieve the peptides encoded in them for further study. ====Antimicrobial drug discovery==== Phage proteins often have antimicrobial activity and may serve as leads for peptidomimetics, i.e. drugs that mimic peptides. Phage-ligand technology makes use of phage proteins for various applications, such as binding of bacteria and bacterial components (e.g. endotoxin) and lysis of bacteria. ====Basic research==== Bacteriophages are important model organisms for studying principles of evolution and ecology. ==Detriments== ===Dairy industry=== Bacteriophages present in the environment can cause cheese to not ferment. In order to avoid this, mixed-strain starter cultures and culture rotation regimes can be used. Genetic engineering of culture microbes – especially Lactococcus lactis and Streptococcus thermophilus – have been studied for genetic analysis and modification to improve phage resistance. This has especially focused on plasmid and recombinant chromosomal modifications. == Replication == The life cycle of bacteriophages tends to be either a lytic cycle or a lysogenic cycle. In addition, some phages display pseudolysogenic behaviors. With lytic phages such as the T4 phage, bacterial cells are broken open (lysed) and destroyed after immediate replication of the virion. As soon as the cell is destroyed, the phage progeny can find new hosts to infect. In contrast, the lysogenic cycle does not result in immediate lysing of the host cell. Those phages able to undergo lysogeny are known as temperate phages. Their viral genome will integrate with host DNA and replicate along with it, relatively harmlessly, or may even become established as a plasmid. The virus remains dormant until host conditions deteriorate, perhaps due to depletion of nutrients, then, the endogenous phages (known as prophages) become active. At this point they initiate the reproductive cycle, resulting in lysis of the host cell. As the lysogenic cycle allows the host cell to continue to survive and reproduce, the virus is replicated in all offspring of the cell. An example of a bacteriophage known to follow the lysogenic cycle and the lytic cycle is the phage lambda of E. coli. Sometimes prophages may provide benefits to the host bacterium while they are dormant by adding new functions to the bacterial genome, in a phenomenon called lysogenic conversion. Examples are the conversion of harmless strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae or Vibrio cholerae by bacteriophages to highly virulent ones that cause diphtheria or cholera, respectively. Strategies to combat certain bacterial infections by targeting these toxin-encoding prophages have been proposed. === Attachment and penetration === Bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall of polysaccharides, which are important virulence factors protecting bacterial cells against both immune host defenses and antibiotics. Host growth conditions also influence the ability of the phage to attach and invade them. As phage virions do not move independently, they must rely on random encounters with the correct receptors when in solution, such as blood, lymphatic circulation, irrigation, soil water, etc. Myovirus bacteriophages use a hypodermic syringe-like motion to inject their genetic material into the cell. After contacting the appropriate receptor, the tail fibers flex to bring the base plate closer to the surface of the cell. This is known as reversible binding. Once attached completely, irreversible binding is initiated and the tail contracts, possibly with the help of ATP present in the tail, The injection is accomplished through a sort of bending motion in the shaft by going to the side, contracting closer to the cell and pushing back up. Podoviruses lack an elongated tail sheath like that of a myovirus, so instead, they use their small, tooth-like tail fibers enzymatically to degrade a portion of the cell membrane before inserting their genetic material. === Synthesis of proteins and nucleic acid === Within minutes, bacterial ribosomes start translating viral mRNA into protein. For RNA-based phages, RNA replicase is synthesized early in the process. Proteins modify the bacterial RNA polymerase so it preferentially transcribes viral mRNA. The host's normal synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids is disrupted, and it is forced to manufacture viral products instead. These products go on to become part of new virions within the cell, helper proteins that contribute to the assemblage of new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis. In 1972, Walter Fiers (University of Ghent, Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a gene and in 1976, of the viral genome of bacteriophage MS2. Some dsDNA bacteriophages encode ribosomal proteins, which are thought to modulate protein translation during phage infection. === Virion assembly === In the case of the T4 phage, the construction of new virus particles involves the assistance of helper proteins that act catalytically during phage morphogenesis. The base plates are assembled first, with the tails being built upon them afterward. The head capsids, constructed separately, will spontaneously assemble with the tails. During assembly of the phage T4 virion, the morphogenetic proteins encoded by the phage genes interact with each other in a characteristic sequence. Maintaining an appropriate balance in the amounts of each of these proteins produced during viral infection appears to be critical for normal phage T4 morphogenesis. The DNA is packed efficiently within the heads. The whole process takes about 15 minutes. Early studies of bactioriophage T4 (1962-1964) provided an opportunity to gain understanding of virtually all of the genes that are essential for growth of the bacteriophage under laboratory conditions. These studies were made possible by the availability of two classes of conditional lethal mutants. One class of such mutants was referred to as amber mutants. Studies of these two classes of mutants led to considerable insight into the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, repair and recombination, and on how viruses are assembled from protein and nucleic acid components (molecular morphogenesis). === Release of virions === Phages may be released via cell lysis, by extrusion, or, in a few cases, by budding. Lysis, by tailed phages, is achieved by an enzyme called endolysin, which attacks and breaks down the cell wall peptidoglycan. An altogether different phage type, the filamentous phage, makes the host cell continually secrete new virus particles. Released virions are described as free, and, unless defective, are capable of infecting a new bacterium. Budding is associated with certain Mycoplasma phages. In contrast to virion release, phages displaying a lysogenic cycle do not kill the host and instead become long-term residents as prophages. === Communication === Research in 2017 revealed that the bacteriophage Φ3T makes a short viral protein that signals other bacteriophages to lie dormant instead of killing the host bacterium. Arbitrium is the name given to this protein by the researchers who discovered it. == Genome structure == Given the millions of different phages in the environment, phage genomes come in a variety of forms and sizes. RNA phages such as MS2 have the smallest genomes, with only a few kilobases. However, some DNA phages such as T4 may have large genomes with hundreds of genes; the size and shape of the capsid varies along with the size of the genome. The largest bacteriophage genomes reach a size of 735 kb.Bacteriophage genomes can be highly mosaic, i.e. the genome of many phage species appear to be composed of numerous individual modules. These modules may be found in other phage species in different arrangements. Mycobacteriophages, bacteriophages with mycobacterial hosts, have provided excellent examples of this mosaicism. In these mycobacteriophages, genetic assortment may be the result of repeated instances of site-specific recombination and illegitimate recombination (the result of phage genome acquisition of bacterial host genetic sequences). Evolutionary mechanisms shaping the genomes of bacterial viruses vary between different families and depend upon the type of the nucleic acid, characteristics of the virion structure, as well as the mode of the viral life cycle. Some marine roseobacter phages, also known as roseophages, contain deoxyuridine (dU) instead of deoxythymidine (dT) in their genomic DNA. There is some evidence that this unusual component is a mechanism to evade bacterial defense mechanisms such as restriction endonucleases and CRISPR/Cas systems which evolved to recognize and cleave sequences within invading phages, thereby inactivating them. Other phages have long been known to use unusual nucleotides. In 1963, Takahashi and Marmur identified a Bacillus phage that has dU substituting dT in its genome, and in 1977, Kirnos et al. identified a cyanophage containing 2-aminoadenine (Z) instead of adenine (A). == Systems biology == The field of systems biology investigates the complex networks of interactions within an organism, usually using computational tools and modeling. For example, a phage genome that enters into a bacterial host cell may express hundreds of phage proteins which will affect the expression of numerous host genes or the host's metabolism. All of these complex interactions can be described and simulated in computer models. Several attempts have been made to map protein–protein interactions among phage and their host. For instance, bacteriophage lambda was found to interact with its host, E. coli, by dozens of interactions. Again, the significance of many of these interactions remains unclear, but these studies suggest that there most likely are several key interactions and many indirect interactions whose role remains uncharacterized. == Host resistance == Bacteriophages are a major threat to bacteria and prokaryotes have evolved numerous mechanisms to block infection or to block the replication of bacteriophages within host cells. The CRISPR system is one such mechanism as are retrons and the anti-toxin system encoded by them. The Thoeris defense system is known to deploy a unique strategy for bacterial antiphage resistance via NAD+ degradation. == Bacteriophage–host symbiosis == Temperate phages are bacteriophages that integrate their genetic material into the host as extrachromosomal episomes or as a prophage during a lysogenic cycle. Some temperate phages can confer fitness advantages to their host in numerous ways, including giving antibiotic resistance through the transfer or introduction of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), protecting hosts from phagocytosis, protecting hosts from secondary infection through superinfection exclusion, enhancing host pathogenicity, or enhancing bacterial metabolism or growth. Bacteriophage–host symbiosis may benefit bacteria by providing selective advantages while passively replicating the phage genome. == In the environment == Metagenomics has allowed the in-water detection of bacteriophages that was not possible previously. Also, bacteriophages have been used in hydrological tracing and modelling in river systems, especially where surface water and groundwater interactions occur. The use of phages is preferred to the more conventional dye marker because they are significantly less absorbed when passing through ground waters and they are readily detected at very low concentrations. Non-polluted water may contain approximately 2×108 bacteriophages per ml. Bacteriophages are thought to contribute extensively to horizontal gene transfer in natural environments, principally via transduction, but also via transformation. Metagenomics-based studies also have revealed that viromes from a variety of environments harbor antibiotic-resistance genes, including those that could confer multidrug resistance. Recent findings have mapped the complex and intertwined arsenal of anti-phage defense tools in environmental bacteria. == In humans == Although phages do not infect humans, there are countless phage particles in the human body, given the extensive human microbiome. One's phage population has been called the human phageome, including the "healthy gut phageome" (HGP) and the "diseased human phageome" (DHP). The active phageome of a healthy human (i.e., actively replicating as opposed to nonreplicating, integrated prophage) has been estimated to comprise dozens to thousands of different viruses. There is evidence that bacteriophages and bacteria interact in the human gut microbiome both antagonistically and beneficially. == Commonly studied bacteriophages == Among the countless phages, only a few have been studied in detail, including some historically important phage that were discovered in the early days of microbial genetics. These, especially the T-phage, helped to discover important principles of gene structure and function. 186 phage λ phage Φ6 phage Φ29 phage ΦX174 Bacteriophage φCb5 G4 phage M13 phage MS2 phage (23–28 nm in size) N4 phage P1 phage P2 phage P4 phage R17 phage T2 phage T4 phage (169 kbp genome, 200 nm long) T7 phage T12 phage == Bacteriophage databases and resources == Phagesdb Phagescope	[ "Lipothrixviridae", "flagella", "peptidoglycan", "prokaryote", "Annual Reviews (publisher)", "temperate phage", "Simuloviridae", "systems biology", "Chaseviridae", "Vinavirales", "Thaspiviridae", "red scare", "phage lambda", "Viriome", "Autolykiviridae", "Hachette Books", "Solspiviridae", "crAssphage", "site-specific recombination", "lysogenic cycle", "Bacteriophage P2", "Ligamenvirales", "Alphafusellovirus", "recombinant DNA", "Biological network", "French-Canadian", "protein–protein interaction", "peptidomimetic", "RNA", "polysaccharide", "hypodermic syringe", "Genetic engineering", "Petitvirales", "Red Army", "Phage-ligand technology", "ribosome", "Restriction enzyme", "Ackermannviridae", "Listeria monocytogenes", "Bacillus phage phi29", "Cold War", "gene", "Skrubnovirus", "metabolism", "deoxyuridine", "Frederick Twort", "Pseudomonas phage Φ6", "Portogloboviridae", "anthrax", "Sphaerolipoviridae", "cytoplasm", "Herelleviridae", "Bacteriophage Qβ", "Caudovirales", "Salvador Luria", "University of Ghent", "Finnlakeviridae", "Cystoviridae", "Myoviridae", "enzyme", "Lambda phage", "Hershey–Chase experiment", "cystic fibrosis", "RNA replicase", "Lautamovirales", "methicillin", "Blumeviridae", "Clavaviridae", "Natural selection", "botulism", "cholera", "T4 phage", "Soviet Union", "dysentery", "Наука и жизнь", "transduction (genetics)", "generally recognized as safe", "genetic recombination", "Tristromaviridae", "Luria–Delbrück experiment", "Ganges", "Rountreeviridae", "Guenliviridae", "Metagenomics", "primates", "RNA viruses", "Tetipavirus", "T12 phage", "multi-drug-resistant", "Steitzviridae", "Belgium", "Plasmaviridae", "Bacillus", "R17 phage", "Winunavirus", "cyanophage", "microbiologist", "virome", "phageome", "phage therapy", "transformation (genetics)", "Virophage", "biosphere", "Mu phage", "DNA", "bacteriologist", "World War I", "United States", "Inoviridae", "clinical trial", "morphology (biology)", "antibiotics", "Enterobacteria phage P22", "Rudiviridae", "retron", "spoilage bacteria", "otitis", "Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide", "Escherichia virus T4", "Escherichia virus 186", "Bacteriophage φCb5", "Mycoplasma", "Max Delbrück", "diphtheria", "Félix d'Hérelle", "Phage ecology", "Flavobacterium virus FLiP", "antibiotic", "Primavirales", "lactoferrin", "Streptococcus thermophilus", "Antibiotic", "protein", "P1 phage", "multidrug resistance", "Alfred Hershey", "India", "teichoic acid", "genome", "Bacteriophage MS2", "Drexlerviridae", "Matshushitaviridae", "Ernest Hanbury Hankin", "Springer Science+Business Media", "United Kingdom", "dye", "marine bacteria", "Turriviridae", "Yamuna", "Spiraviridae", "Thymidine", "bacteriophage MS2", "Paulinoviridae", "Bicaudaviridae", "Enterobacteria phage N15", "Leviviricetes", "Meihzavirus", "microbial mats", "Duinviridae", "Belfryvirales", "Siphoviridae", "Atkinsviridae", "Timlovirales", "Picobirnaviridae", "filamentous phage", "Lactococcus lactis", "Pasteur Institute", "N4 phage", "endogenous", "endolysin", "T2 phage", "Pseudomonas virus phi6", "Transduction (genetics)", "pneumonia", "P4 phage", "Corticoviridae", "ecology", "phage resistance", "M13 bacteriophage", "sensing of phage-triggered ion cascades", "Soviet", "prophage", "stop codon", "Biological life cycle", "plasmid", "DNA repair", "capsid", "human microbiome", "Crohn's disease", "lytic cycle", "nanometre", "biofilms", "Schitoviridae", "A. baumannii", "Bacterivore", "Plectroviridae", "Enterobacteria phage T4", "Demerecviridae", "mycobacteria", "groundwater", "antimicrobial resistance", "Phage monographs", "Durnavirales", "Gut microbiota", "Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 1", "evolution", "lysogenic conversion", "Mahrahvirus", "CRISPR", "PhagesDB", "Nicedsevirus", "Polyphage", "Salasmaviridae", "Kalamavirales", "Microviridae", "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine", "Clinical Otolaryngology", "Corynebacterium diphtheriae", "lipopolysaccharide", "RNA polymerase", "ulcerative colitis", "Base pair", "virus", "International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses", "archaea", "morphogenesis", "Mosaic (genetics)", "Escherichia coli", "Roseophage", "Tubulavirales", "endotoxin", "DNA viruses", "illegitimate recombination", "Pseudoalteromonas virus PM2", "Staphylococcus aureus", "Ampullaviridae", "Halspiviridae", "hydrology", "Norzivirales", "Lamarckism", "Vibrio cholerae", "Sculuvirus", "Phi X 174", "Walter Fiers", "CrAssphage", "HK97", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Macrophage", "Globuloviridae", "Phagemid", "horizontal gene transfer", "Fuselloviridae", "Fiersviridae", "Georgian language", "Bacteriophage T5", "Arbitrium", "Micreos (company)", "United States Food and Drug Administration", "Georgia (country)", "T3 phage", "Russian language", "United States Department of Agriculture", "temperature-sensitive mutant", "Φ29 phage", "Phage display", "lethal allele", "Hohglivirus", "MS2 phage", "Guttaviridae", "Viral envelope", "Enterobacteria phage P2", "DNA replication", "T7 phage", "Zobellviridae", "Lilyvirus", "lysogenic", "roseobacter", "genes", "Chimpavirus", "Adenosine triphosphate", "Podoviridae", "Autographiviridae", "Capsid", "Paris", "Mycobacteriophage", "Halopanivirales", "Acidianus filamentous virus 1", "lysis", "Temperateness (virology)", "Tectiviridae", "Giorgi Eliava", "model organisms", "M13 phage", "Haloruvirales", "river", "Mindivirales", "bacteria", "Pleolipoviridae", "G4 phage" ]
4,187	Bactericide	A bactericide or bacteriocide, sometimes abbreviated Bcidal, is a substance which kills bacteria. Bactericides are disinfectants, antiseptics, or antibiotics. However, material surfaces can also have bactericidal properties based solely on their physical surface structure, as for example biomaterials like insect wings. ==Disinfectants== The most used disinfectants are those applying active chlorine (i.e., hypochlorites, chloramines, dichloroisocyanurate and trichloroisocyanurate, wet chlorine, chlorine dioxide, etc.), active oxygen (peroxides, such as peracetic acid, potassium persulfate, sodium perborate, sodium percarbonate, and urea perhydrate), iodine (povidone-iodine, Lugol's solution, iodine tincture, iodinated nonionic surfactants), concentrated alcohols (mainly ethanol, 1-propanol, called also n-propanol and 2-propanol, called isopropanol and mixtures thereof; further, 2-phenoxyethanol and 1- and 2-phenoxypropanols are used), phenolic substances (such as phenol (also called "carbolic acid"), cresols such as thymol, halogenated (chlorinated, brominated) phenols, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan, trichlorophenol, tribromophenol, pentachlorophenol, salts and isomers thereof), cationic surfactants, such as some quaternary ammonium cations (such as benzalkonium chloride, cetyl trimethylammonium bromide or chloride, didecyldimethylammonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, benzethonium chloride) and others, non-quaternary compounds, such as chlorhexidine, glucoprotamine, octenidine dihydrochloride etc.), strong oxidizers, such as ozone and permanganate solutions; heavy metals and their salts, such as colloidal silver, silver nitrate, mercury chloride, phenylmercury salts, copper sulfate, copper oxide-chloride etc. Heavy metals and their salts are the most toxic and environment-hazardous bactericides and therefore their use is strongly discouraged or prohibited strong acids (phosphoric, nitric, sulfuric, amidosulfuric, toluenesulfonic acids), pH < 1, and alkalis (sodium, potassium, calcium hydroxides), such as of pH > 13, particularly under elevated temperature (above 60 °C), kills bacteria. ==Antiseptics== As antiseptics (i.e., germicide agents that can be used on human or animal body, skin, mucosae, wounds and the like), few of the above-mentioned disinfectants can be used, under proper conditions (mainly concentration, pH, temperature and toxicity toward humans and animals). Among them, some important are properly diluted chlorine preparations (f.e. Dakin's solution, 0.5% sodium or potassium hypochlorite solution, pH-adjusted to pH 7–8, or 0.5–1% solution of sodium benzenesulfochloramide (chloramine B)), some iodine preparations, such as iodopovidone in various galenics (ointment, solutions, wound plasters), in the past also Lugol's solution, peroxides such as urea perhydrate solutions and pH-buffered 0.1 – 0.25% peracetic acid solutions, alcohols with or without antiseptic additives, used mainly for skin antisepsis, weak organic acids such as sorbic acid, benzoic acid, lactic acid and salicylic acid some phenolic compounds, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan and Dibromol, and cationic surfactants, such as 0.05–0.5% benzalkonium, 0.5–4% chlorhexidine, 0.1–2% octenidine solutions. Others are generally not applicable as safe antiseptics, either because of their corrosive or toxic nature. ==Antibiotics== Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria; bacteriostatic antibiotics slow their growth or reproduction. Bactericidal antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis: the beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins (cephems), monobactams, and carbapenems) and vancomycin. Also bactericidal are daptomycin, fluoroquinolones, metronidazole, nitrofurantoin, co-trimoxazole, telithromycin. Aminoglycosidic antibiotics are usually considered bactericidal, although they may be bacteriostatic with some organisms. As of 2004, the distinction between bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents appeared to be clear according to the basic/clinical definition, but this only applies under strict laboratory conditions and it is important to distinguish microbiological and clinical definitions. The distinction is more arbitrary when agents are categorized in clinical situations. The supposed superiority of bactericidal agents over bacteriostatic agents is of little relevance when treating the vast majority of infections with gram-positive bacteria, particularly in patients with uncomplicated infections and noncompromised immune systems. Bacteriostatic agents have been effectively used for treatment that are considered to require bactericidal activity. Furthermore, some broad classes of antibacterial agents considered bacteriostatic can exhibit bactericidal activity against some bacteria on the basis of in vitro determination of MBC/MIC values. At high concentrations, bacteriostatic agents are often bactericidal against some susceptible organisms. The ultimate guide to treatment of any infection must be clinical outcome. ==Surfaces== Material surfaces can exhibit bactericidal properties because of their crystallographic surface structure. Somewhere in the mid-2000s it was shown that metallic nanoparticles can kill bacteria. The effect of a silver nanoparticle for example depends on its size with a preferential diameter of about 1–10 nm to interact with bacteria. In 2013, cicada wings were found to have a selective anti-gram-negative bactericidal effect based on their physical surface structure. Mechanical deformation of the more or less rigid nanopillars found on the wing releases energy, striking and killing bacteria within minutes, hence called a mechano-bactericidal effect. In 2020 researchers combined cationic polymer adsorption and femtosecond laser surface structuring to generate a bactericidal effect against both gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and gram-negative Escherichia coli bacteria on borosilicate glass surfaces, providing a practical platform for the study of the bacteria-surface interaction.	[ "carbapenem", "hexachlorophene", "cephem", "Virucide", "chlorhexidine", "2-phenoxyethanol", "lactic acid", "peroxide", "chloramine", "toxic", "permanganate", "penicillin", "metronidazole", "Alcohol (chemistry)", "isopropanol", "cetyl trimethylammonium bromide", "copper oxide-chloride", "quaternary ammonium cation", "silver nitrate", "bacteria", "antiseptic", "glucoprotamine", "nanopillar", "sorbic acid", "didecyldimethylammonium chloride", "benzethonium chloride", "Buffer solution", "2-phenoxypropanol", "oxidizer", "penam", "pentachlorophenol", "beta-lactam antibiotics", "silver nanoparticle", "chlorine", "organic acids", "antibiotic", "ozone", "triclosan", "Microbicide", "daptomycin", "cresol", "tribromophenol", "Mercury(II) chloride", "phenols", "gram-positive bacteria", "cetylpyridinium chloride", "List of antibiotics", "iodine", "borosilicate glass", "Lugol's solution", "oxygen", "Aminoglycoside", "peracetic acid", "trichloroisocyanurate", "alkali", "2-propanol", "telithromycin", "octenidine", "disinfectant", "fluoroquinolone", "bacteriostatic", "thymol", "phenol", "silver", "Escherichia coli", "vancomycin", "sodium perborate", "benzalkonium chloride", "Staphylococcus aureus", "nanoparticle", "heavy metals", "Galenic formulation", "nitrofurantoin", "n-propanol", "sodium percarbonate", "benzoic acid", "salicylic acid", "Dakin's Solution", "cephalosporin", "acid", "cicada", "hypochlorite", "chlorine dioxide", "1-propanol", "trichlorophenol", "ethanol", "iodophor", "co-trimoxazole", "alcohols", "urea perhydrate", "potassium persulfate", "organomercury", "copper sulfate", "cationic surfactants", "monobactam", "sodium dichloroisocyanurate", "povidone-iodine", "corrosive" ]
4,188	Brion Gysin	Brion Gysin (19 January 1916 – 13 July 1986) was a British-Canadian painter, writer, sound poet, performance artist and inventor of experimental devices. He is best known for his use of the cut-up technique, alongside his close friend, the novelist William S. Burroughs. With the engineer Ian Sommerville he also invented the Dreamachine, a flicker device designed as an art object to be viewed with the eyes closed. It was in painting and drawing, however, that Gysin devoted his greatest efforts, creating calligraphic works inspired by cursive Japanese "grass" script and Arabic script. Burroughs later stated that "Brion Gysin was the only man I ever respected." ==Biography== ===Early years=== John Clifford Brian Gysin was born at the Canadian military hospital in Taplow, Buckinghamshire, England. His mother, Stella Margaret Martin, was a Canadian from Deseronto, Ontario. His father, Leonard Gysin, a captain with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, was killed in action eight months after his son's birth. Stella returned to Canada and settled in Edmonton, Alberta where her son became "the only Catholic day-boy at an Anglican boarding school". Leaving that school at the age of fifteen, Gysin was sent next to Downside School in Stratton-on-the-Fosse, near Bath in England, a prestigious school for boys run by Benedictine monks. Despite attending both Anglican and Roman Catholic schools, Gysin was already an atheist when he left St Joseph's. ===Surrealism=== In 1934, he moved to Paris to study La Civilisation Française, an open course given at the Sorbonne where he made literary and artistic contacts through Marie Berthe Aurenche, Max Ernst's second wife. He joined the Surrealist Group and began associating with Valentine Hugo, Leonor Fini, Salvador Dalí, Picasso and Dora Maar. A year later, he had his first exhibition at the Galérie Quatre Chemins in Paris with Ernst, Picasso, Hans Arp, Hans Bellmer, Victor Brauner, Giorgio de Chirico, Dalí, Marcel Duchamp, René Magritte, Man Ray and Yves Tanguy. On the day of the preview, however, he was expelled from the Surrealist Group by André Breton, who ordered the poet Paul Éluard to take down his pictures. Gysin was 19 years old. His biographer, John Geiger, suggests the arbitrary expulsion "had the effect of a curse. Years later, he blamed other failures on the Breton incident. It gave rise to conspiracy theories about the powerful interests who seek control of the art world. He gave various explanations for the expulsion, the more elaborate involving 'insubordination' or lèse majesté towards Breton". ===Morocco and the Beat Hotel=== In 1954 in Tangier, Gysin opened a restaurant called The 1001 Nights, with his friend Mohamed Hamri, who was the cook. Gysin hired the Master Musicians of Jajouka from the village of Jajouka to perform alongside entertainment that included acrobats, a dancing boy and fire eaters. The musicians performed there for an international clientele that included William S. Burroughs. Gysin lost the business in 1958, and the restaurant closed permanently. That same year, Gysin returned to Paris, taking lodgings in a flophouse located at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur that would become famous as the Beat Hotel. Working on a drawing, he discovered a Dada technique by accident: William Burroughs and I first went into techniques of writing, together, back in room No. 15 of the Beat Hotel during the cold Paris spring of 1958... Burroughs was more intent on Scotch-taping his photos together into one great continuum on the wall, where scenes faded and slipped into one another, than occupied with editing the monster manuscript... Naked Lunch appeared and Burroughs disappeared. He kicked his habit with Apomorphine and flew off to London to see Dr Dent, who had first turned him on to the cure. While cutting a mount for a drawing in room No. 15, I sliced through a pile of newspapers with my Stanley blade and thought of what I had said to Burroughs some six months earlier about the necessity for turning painters' techniques directly into writing. I picked up the raw words and began to piece together texts that later appeared as "First Cut-Ups" in Minutes to Go (Two Cities, Paris 1960). When Burroughs returned from London in September 1959, Gysin not only shared his discovery with his friend but the new techniques he had developed for it. Burroughs then put the techniques to use while completing Naked Lunch and the experiment dramatically changed the landscape of American literature. Gysin helped Burroughs with the editing of several of his novels including Interzone, and wrote a script for a film version of Naked Lunch, which was never produced. The pair collaborated on a large manuscript for Grove Press titled The Third Mind, but it was determined that it would be impractical to publish it as originally envisioned. The book later published under that title incorporates little of this material. Interviewed for The Guardian in 1997, Burroughs explained that Gysin was "the only man that I've ever respected in my life. I've admired people, I've liked them, but he's the only man I've ever respected." In 1969, Gysin completed his finest novel, The Process, a work judged by critic Robert Palmer as "a classic of 20th century modernism". A consummate innovator, Gysin altered the cut-up technique to produce what he called permutation poems in which a single phrase was repeated several times with the words rearranged in a different order with each reiteration. An example of this is "I don't dig work, man / Man, work I don't dig." Many of these permutations were derived using a random sequence generator in an early computer program written by Ian Sommerville. Commissioned by the BBC in 1960 to produce material for broadcast, Gysin's results included "Pistol Poem", which was created by recording a gun firing at different distances and then splicing the sounds. That year, the piece was subsequently used as a theme for the Paris performance of Le Domaine Poetique, a showcase for experimental works by people like Gysin, François Dufrêne, Bernard Heidsieck, and Henri Chopin. With Sommerville, he built the Dreamachine in 1961. Described as "the first art object to be seen with the eyes closed", the flicker device uses alpha waves in the 8–16 Hz range to produce a change of consciousness in receptive viewers. ===Later years=== In April 1974, while sitting at a social engagement, Gysin had a very noticeable rectal bleeding. In May he wrote to Burroughs complaining he was not feeling well. A short time later he was diagnosed with colon cancer and began to receive cobalt treatment. Between December 1974 and April 1975, Gysin had to undergo several surgeries, among them a very traumatic colostomy, that drove him to extreme depression and to a suicide attempt. Later, in Fire: Words by Day – Images by Night (1975), a crudely lucid text, he would describe the horrendous ordeal he went through. In 1985 Gysin was made an American Commander of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. He'd begun to work extensively with noted jazz soprano saxophonist Steve Lacy. They recorded an album in 1986 with French musician Ramuntcho Matta, featuring Gysin singing/rapping his own texts, with performances by Lacy, Don Cherry, Elli Medeiros, Lizzy Mercier Descloux and more. The album was reissued on CD in 1993 by Crammed Discs, under the title Self-Portrait Jumping. ==Death== On 13 July 1986 Brion Gysin died of lung cancer. Anne Cumming arranged his funeral and for his ashes to be scattered at the Caves of Hercules in Morocco. An obituary by Robert Palmer published in The New York Times described him as a man who "threw off the sort of ideas that ordinary artists would parlay into a lifetime career, great clumps of ideas, as casually as a locomotive throws off sparks". Later that year a heavily edited version of his novel, The Last Museum, was published posthumously by Faber & Faber (London) and by Grove Press (New York). As a joke, Gysin had contributed a recipe for marijuana fudge to a cookbook by Alice B. Toklas; it was included for publication, becoming famous under the name Alice B. Toklas brownies. ==Burroughs on the Gysin cut-up== In a 1966 interview by Conrad Knickerbocker for The Paris Review, William S. Burroughs explained that Brion Gysin was, to his knowledge, "the first to create cut-ups": A friend, Brion Gysin, an American poet and painter, who has lived in Europe for thirty years, was, as far as I know, the first to create cut-ups. His cut-up poem, Minutes to Go, was broadcast by the BBC and later published in a pamphlet. I was in Paris in the summer of 1960; this was after the publication there of Naked Lunch. I became interested in the possibilities of this technique, and I began experimenting myself. Of course, when you think of it, The Waste Land was the first great cut-up collage, and Tristan Tzara had done a bit along the same lines. Dos Passos used the same idea in 'The Camera Eye' sequences in USA. I felt I had been working toward the same goal; thus it was a major revelation to me when I actually saw it being done. ==Influence== According to José Férez Kuri, author of Brion Gysin: Tuning in to the Multimedia Age (2003) and co-curator of a major retrospective of the artist's work at The Edmonton Art Gallery in 1998, Gysin's wide range of "radical ideas would become a source of inspiration for artists of the Beat Generation, as well as for their successors (among them David Bowie, Mick Jagger, Keith Haring, and Laurie Anderson)". Other artists include Genesis P-Orridge, John Zorn (as displayed on the 2013's Dreamachines album) and Brian Jones. ==Selected bibliography== Gysin is the subject of John Geiger's biography, Nothing Is True Everything Is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin, and features in Chapel of Extreme Experience: A Short History of Stroboscopic Light and the Dream Machine, also by Geiger. Man From Nowhere: Storming the Citadels of Enlightenment with William Burroughs and Brion Gysin, a biographical study of Burroughs and Gysin with a collection of homages to Gysin, was authored by Joe Ambrose, Frank Rynne, and Terry Wilson with contributions by Marianne Faithfull, John Cale, William S. Burroughs, John Giorno, Stanley Booth, Bill Laswell, Mohamed Hamri, Keith Haring and Paul Bowles. A monograph on Gysin was published in 2003 by Thames and Hudson. ===Works=== Prose To Master, A Long Goodnight: The History of Slavery in Canada (1946) Minutes to Go (1960) The Exterminator (1960) The Process (1969) Brion Gysin Let The Mice In (1973) The Third Mind (1978), with William S. Burroughs Here To Go: Planet R-101 (first published 1982) Stories (1984) The Last Museum (1985) Living with Islam (2010) His Name Was Master (Interviews) (2018) Radio Pistol Poem (1960) Permutations (1960) I Am (1960) No Poets (1962) Junk is No Good Baby (1962) Cinema Scenario to Naked Lunch (1973) Music Songs (hat ART, 181) with Steve Lacy Junk (1985) Self-Portrait Jumping (with Ramuntcho Matta, Don Cherry, Steve Lacy) (1993) Painting Les deux faux interlocuteurs, Gradiva Rediviva Zoe Bertgang, and Signe dans le paysage (Surrealist ink drawings, 1935) Sahara Sand (1958) The Songs of Marrakech (1959) Unit II pink, Unit III yellow, Unit IV orange, Unit V blue (1961) Francis in the Beat Hotel (1962) For a Stained-Glass Window in Rheims (1963) Roller Poem (1971) Calligraffiti of Fire (1986)	[ "Dreamachine", "John Zorn", "Fulbright Fellow", "Tangier", "Crammed Discs", "Postmodern", "University of Paris", "André Breton", "The Third Mind", "Giorgio de Chirico", "McFarland & Company", "Beat Generation", "Stanley Booth", "Faber & Faber", "Downside School", "Buckinghamshire", "Leonor Fini", "Steve Lacy (saxophonist)", "Joseph Nechvatal", "Dada", "Marianne Faithfull", "Raj Chandarlapaty", "Bill Laswell", "Asemic writing", "Jefferson, North Carolina", "Robert Palmer (American writer)", "jazz", "rue Gît-le-Cœur", "cut-up technique", "BBC", "François Dufrêne", "Master Musicians of Jajouka", "The Process (novel)", "Songs (Steve Lacy and Brion Gysin album)", "Naked Lunch", "Victor Brauner", "Caves of Hercules", "Brian Jones Presents the Pipes of Pan at Joujouka", "U.S.A. trilogy", "Ian Sommerville (technician)", "Salvador Dalí", "Marcel Duchamp", "colostomy", "Genesis P-Orridge", "calligraphic", "Alice B. Toklas", "Valentine Hugo", "John Cale", "sound poet", "Interzone (book)", "Bernard Heidsieck", "Mohamed Hamri", "Ordre des Arts et des Lettres", "Yves Tanguy", "Alice B. Toklas brownie", "Josiah Henson", "Hertz", "John Giorno", "Laurie Anderson", "Dreamachines", "Edmonton", "Arabic script", "colon cancer", "Stanley knife", "Anne Cumming", "I.B. Tauris", "The Overlook Press", "Japanese calligraphy", "The Waste Land", "Apomorphine", "Hans Bellmer", "Max Ernst", "Picasso", "Keith Haring", "Frank Rynne", "The Guardian", "Bath, Somerset", "Lizzy Mercier Descloux", "William S. Burroughs", "Stratton-on-the-Fosse", "American literature", "Rue Gît-le-Cœur", "David Bowie", "Hans Arp", "Beat Hotel", "Paul Éluard", "Paul Bowles", "Grove Press", "cannabis (drug)", "Dora Maar", "Brian Jones", "Canadian Expeditionary Force", "Deseronto, Ontario", "Mick Jagger", "Henri Chopin", "Le Domaine Poetique", "Dos Passos", "Don Cherry (jazz)", "European Beat Studies Network", "René Magritte", "The New York Times", "Archivo de Indias", "Taplow", "Elli Medeiros", "The Paris Review", "alpha waves", "Man Ray" ]

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.