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4,906	Beta sheet	The beta sheet (β-sheet, also β-pleated sheet) is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure. Beta sheets consist of beta strands (β-strands) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet. A β-strand is a stretch of polypeptide chain typically 3 to 10 amino acids long with backbone in an extended conformation. The supramolecular association of β-sheets has been implicated in the formation of the fibrils and protein aggregates observed in amyloidosis, Alzheimer's disease and other proteinopathies. ==History== The first β-sheet structure was proposed by William Astbury in the 1930s. He proposed the idea of hydrogen bonding between the peptide bonds of parallel or antiparallel extended β-strands. However, Astbury did not have the necessary data on the bond geometry of the amino acids in order to build accurate models, especially since he did not then know that the peptide bond was planar. A refined version was proposed by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1951. Their model incorporated the planarity of the peptide bond which they previously explained as resulting from keto-enol tautomerization. ==Structure and orientation== ===Geometry=== The majority of β-strands are arranged adjacent to other strands and form an extensive hydrogen bond network with their neighbors in which the N−H groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the C=O groups in the backbone of the adjacent strands. In the fully extended β-strand, successive side chains point straight up and straight down in an alternating pattern. Adjacent β-strands in a β-sheet are aligned so that their Cα atoms are adjacent and their side chains point in the same direction. The "pleated" appearance of β-strands arises from tetrahedral chemical bonding at the Cα atom; for example, if a side chain points straight up, then the bonds to the C′ must point slightly downwards, since its bond angle is approximately 109.5°. The pleating causes the distance between C and C to be approximately , rather than the expected from two fully extended trans peptides. The "sideways" distance between adjacent Cα atoms in hydrogen-bonded β-strands is roughly . However, β-strands are rarely perfectly extended; rather, they exhibit a twist. The energetically preferred dihedral angles near (φ, ψ) = (–135°, 135°) (broadly, the upper left region of the Ramachandran plot) diverge significantly from the fully extended conformation (φ, ψ) = (–180°, 180°). The twist is often associated with alternating fluctuations in the dihedral angles to prevent the individual β-strands in a larger sheet from splaying apart. A good example of a strongly twisted β-hairpin can be seen in the protein BPTI. The side chains point outwards from the folds of the pleats, roughly perpendicularly to the plane of the sheet; successive amino acid residues point outwards on alternating faces of the sheet. ===Hydrogen bonding patterns=== Because peptide chains have a directionality conferred by their N-terminus and C-terminus, β-strands too can be said to be directional. They are usually represented in protein topology diagrams by an arrow pointing toward the C-terminus. Adjacent β-strands can form hydrogen bonds in antiparallel, parallel, or mixed arrangements. In an antiparallel arrangement, the successive β-strands alternate directions so that the N-terminus of one strand is adjacent to the C-terminus of the next. This is the arrangement that produces the strongest inter-strand stability because it allows the inter-strand hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amines to be planar, which is their preferred orientation. The peptide backbone dihedral angles (φ, ψ) are about (–140°, 135°) in antiparallel sheets. In this case, if two atoms C and C are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they form two mutual backbone hydrogen bonds to each other's flanking peptide groups; this is known as a close pair of hydrogen bonds. In a parallel arrangement, all of the N-termini of successive strands are oriented in the same direction; this orientation may be slightly less stable because it introduces nonplanarity in the inter-strand hydrogen bonding pattern. The dihedral angles (φ, ψ) are about (–120°, 115°) in parallel sheets. It is rare to find less than five interacting parallel strands in a motif, suggesting that a smaller number of strands may be unstable, however it is also fundamentally more difficult for parallel β-sheets to form because strands with N and C termini aligned necessarily must be very distant in sequence . There is also evidence that parallel β-sheet may be more stable since small amyloidogenic sequences appear to generally aggregate into β-sheet fibrils composed of primarily parallel β-sheet strands, where one would expect anti-parallel fibrils if anti-parallel were more stable. In parallel β-sheet structure, if two atoms C and C are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they do not hydrogen bond to each other; rather, one residue forms hydrogen bonds to the residues that flank the other (but not vice versa). For example, residue i may form hydrogen bonds to residues j − 1 and j + 1; this is known as a wide pair of hydrogen bonds. By contrast, residue j may hydrogen-bond to different residues altogether, or to none at all. The hydrogen bond arrangement in parallel beta sheet resembles that in an amide ring motif with 11 atoms. Finally, an individual strand may exhibit a mixed bonding pattern, with a parallel strand on one side and an antiparallel strand on the other. Such arrangements are less common than a random distribution of orientations would suggest, suggesting that this pattern is less stable than the anti-parallel arrangement, however bioinformatic analysis always struggles with extracting structural thermodynamics since there are always numerous other structural features present in whole proteins. Also proteins are inherently constrained by folding kinetics as well as folding thermodynamics, so one must always be careful in concluding stability from bioinformatic analysis. The hydrogen bonding of β-strands need not be perfect, but can exhibit localized disruptions known as β-bulges. The hydrogen bonds lie roughly in the plane of the sheet, with the peptide carbonyl groups pointing in alternating directions with successive residues; for comparison, successive carbonyls point in the same direction in the alpha helix. ===Amino acid propensities=== Large aromatic residues (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan) and β-branched amino acids (threonine, valine, isoleucine) are favored to be found in β-strands in the middle of β-sheets. Different types of residues (such as proline) are likely to be found in the edge strands in β-sheets, presumably to avoid the "edge-to-edge" association between proteins that might lead to aggregation and amyloid formation. ==Common structural motifs== === β-hairpin motif === A very simple structural motif involving β-sheets is the β-hairpin, in which two antiparallel strands are linked by a short loop of two to five residues, of which one is frequently a glycine or a proline, both of which can assume the dihedral-angle conformations required for a tight turn or a β-bulge loop. Individual strands can also be linked in more elaborate ways with longer loops that may contain α-helices. ===Greek key motif=== The Greek key motif consists of four adjacent antiparallel strands and their linking loops. It consists of three antiparallel strands connected by hairpins, while the fourth is adjacent to the first and linked to the third by a longer loop. This type of structure forms easily during the protein folding process. It was named after a pattern common to Greek ornamental artwork (see meander). ===β-α-β motif=== Due to the chirality of their component amino acids, all strands exhibit right-handed twist evident in most higher-order β-sheet structures. In particular, the linking loop between two parallel strands almost always has a right-handed crossover chirality, which is strongly favored by the inherent twist of the sheet. This linking loop frequently contains a helical region, in which case it is called a β-α-β motif. A closely related motif called a β-α-β-α motif forms the basic component of the most commonly observed protein tertiary structure, the TIM barrel. ===β-meander motif=== A simple supersecondary protein topology composed of two or more consecutive antiparallel β-strands linked together by hairpin loops. This motif is common in β-sheets and can be found in several structural architectures including β-barrels and β-propellers. The vast majority of β-meander regions in proteins are found packed against other motifs or sections of the polypeptide chain, forming portions of the hydrophobic core that canonically drives formation of the folded structure. However, several notable exceptions include the Outer Surface Protein A (OspA) variants which contain single-layer β-sheets in the absence of a traditional hydrophobic core. These β-rich proteins feature an extended single-layer β-meander β-sheets that are primarily stabilized via inter-β-strand interactions and hydrophobic interactions present in the turn regions connecting individual strands. ===Psi-loop motif=== The psi-loop (Ψ-loop) motif consists of two antiparallel strands with one strand in between that is connected to both by hydrogen bonds. There are four possible strand topologies for single Ψ-loops. This motif is rare as the process resulting in its formation seems unlikely to occur during protein folding. The Ψ-loop was first identified in the aspartic protease family. All-β domains may form β-barrels, β-sandwiches, β-prisms, β-propellers, and β-helices. ==Structural topology== The topology of a β-sheet describes the order of hydrogen-bonded β-strands along the backbone. For example, the flavodoxin fold has a five-stranded, parallel β-sheet with topology 21345; thus, the edge strands are β-strand 2 and β-strand 5 along the backbone. Spelled out explicitly, β-strand 2 is H-bonded to β-strand 1, which is H-bonded to β-strand 3, which is H-bonded to β-strand 4, which is H-bonded to β-strand 5, the other edge strand. In the same system, the Greek key motif described above has a 4123 topology. The secondary structure of a β-sheet can be described roughly by giving the number of strands, their topology, and whether their hydrogen bonds are parallel or antiparallel. β-sheets can be open, meaning that they have two edge strands (as in the flavodoxin fold or the immunoglobulin fold) or they can be closed β-barrels (such as the TIM barrel). β-Barrels are often described by their stagger or shear. Some open β-sheets are very curved and fold over on themselves (as in the SH3 domain) or form horseshoe shapes (as in the ribonuclease inhibitor). Open β-sheets can assemble face-to-face (such as the β-propeller domain or immunoglobulin fold) or edge-to-edge, forming one big β-sheet. ==Dynamic features== β-pleated sheet structures are made from extended β-strand polypeptide chains, with strands linked to their neighbours by hydrogen bonds. Due to this extended backbone conformation, β-sheets resist stretching. β-sheets in proteins may carry out low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed with the quasi-continuum model. ==Parallel β-helices== A β-helix is formed from repeating structural units consisting of two or three short β-strands linked by short loops. These units "stack" atop one another in a helical fashion so that successive repetitions of the same strand hydrogen-bond with each other in a parallel orientation. See the β-helix article for further information. In lefthanded β-helices, the strands themselves are quite straight and untwisted; the resulting helical surfaces are nearly flat, forming a regular triangular prism shape, as shown for the 1QRE archaeal carbonic anhydrase at right. Other examples are the lipid A synthesis enzyme LpxA and insect antifreeze proteins with a regular array of Thr sidechains on one face that mimic the structure of ice. Righthanded β-helices, typified by the pectate lyase enzyme shown at left or P22 phage tailspike protein, have a less regular cross-section, longer and indented on one of the sides; of the three linker loops, one is consistently just two residues long and the others are variable, often elaborated to form a binding or active site. A two-sided β-helix (right-handed) is found in some bacterial metalloproteases; its two loops are each six residues long and bind stabilizing calcium ions to maintain the integrity of the structure, using the backbone and the Asp side chain oxygens of a GGXGXD sequence motif. This fold is called a β-roll in the SCOP classification. ==In pathology== Some proteins that are disordered or helical as monomers, such as amyloid β (see amyloid plaque) can form β-sheet-rich oligomeric structures associated with pathological states. The amyloid β protein's oligomeric form is implicated as a cause of Alzheimer's. Its structure has yet to be determined in full, but recent data suggest that it may resemble an unusual two-strand β-helix. The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a β-sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic), which can be useful if the sheet is to form a boundary between polar/watery and nonpolar/greasy environments.	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4,910	Beryl	Beryl ( ) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Be3Al2Si6O18. Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Naturally occurring hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several meters in size, but terminated crystals are relatively rare. Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are green, blue, yellow, pink, and red (the rarest). It is an ore source of beryllium. ==Etymology== The word beryl – – is borrowed, via and , from Ancient Greek βήρυλλος bḗryllos, which referred to various blue-green stones,{{efn\| Compare veruḷiya and veḷuriya to the pseudo-Sanskritization वैडूर्य vaiḍūrya, meaning either "cat's eye" (gem), generic "jewel", or "lapis lazuli" (gem). The folk etymology explains the gem name as meaning "[brought] from [the city of] Vidūra". The term was later adopted for the mineral beryl more exclusively. When the first eyeglasses were constructed in 13th-century Italy, the lenses were made of beryl (or of rock crystal) as glass could not be made clear enough. Consequently, glasses were named Brille in German (bril in Dutch and briller in Danish). ==Deposits== Beryl is a common mineral, and it is widely distributed in nature. It is found most commonly in granitic pegmatites, but also occurs in mica schists, such as those of the Ural Mountains, and in limestone in Colombia. It is less common in ordinary granite and is only infrequently found in nepheline syenite. Beryl is often associated with tin and tungsten ore bodies formed as high-temperature hydrothermal veins. In granitic pegmatites, beryl is found in association with quartz, potassium feldspar, albite, muscovite, biotite, and tourmaline. Beryl is sometimes found in metasomatic contacts of igneous intrusions with gneiss, schist, or carbonate rocks. Common beryl, mined as beryllium ore, is found in small deposits in many countries, but the main producers are Russia, Brazil, and the United States. == Crystal habit and structure == Beryl belongs to the hexagonal crystal system. Normally beryl forms hexagonal columns but can also occur in massive habits. As a cyclosilicate beryl incorporates rings of silicate tetrahedra of that are arranged in columns along the axis and as parallel layers perpendicular to the axis, forming channels along the axis. == Human health impact == Beryl is a beryllium compound that is a known carcinogen with acute toxic effects leading to pneumonitis when inhaled. Care must thus be used when mining, handling, and refining these gems. ==Varieties== ===Aquamarine and maxixe=== Aquamarine (from , "sea water") is a blue or cyan variety of beryl. It occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl. The gem-gravel placer deposits of Sri Lanka contain aquamarine. Green-yellow beryl, such as that occurring in Brazil, is sometimes called chrysolite aquamarine. The deep blue version of aquamarine is called maxixe (pronounced mah-she-she). Its color results from a radiation-induced color center. The pale blue color of aquamarine is attributed to Fe2+. Fe3+ ions produce golden-yellow color, and when both Fe2+ and Fe3+ are present, the color is a darker blue as in maxixe. Decoloration of maxixe by light or heat thus may be due to the charge transfer between Fe3+ and Fe2+. In the United States, aquamarines can be found at the summit of Mount Antero in the Sawatch Range in central Colorado, and in the New England and North Carolina pegmatites. Aquamarines are also present in the state of Wyoming, aquamarine has been discovered in the Big Horn Mountains, near Powder River Pass. Another location within the United States is the Sawtooth Range near Stanley, Idaho, although the minerals are within a wilderness area which prevents collecting. In Brazil, there are mines in the states of Minas Gerais, The mines of Colombia, Skardu Pakistan, Madagascar, Russia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Kenya also produce aquamarine. === Emerald === Emerald is green beryl, colored by around 2% chromium and sometimes vanadium. Most emeralds are highly included, so their brittleness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor. The modern English word "emerald" comes via Middle English emeraude, imported from modern French via Old French ésmeraude and Medieval Latin , from Latin , from Greek smaragdos meaning 'green gem'. Emeralds in antiquity were mined by the Egyptians and in what is now Austria, as well as Swat in contemporary Pakistan. A rare type of emerald known as a trapiche emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia. A trapiche emerald exhibits a "star" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern. It is named for the trapiche, a grinding wheel used to process sugarcane in the region. Colombian emeralds are generally the most prized due to their transparency and fire. Some of the rarest emeralds come from the two main emerald belts in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes: Muzo and Coscuez west of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, and Chivor and Somondoco to the east. Fine emeralds are also found in other countries, such as Zambia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Russia. In the US, emeralds can be found in Hiddenite, North Carolina. In 1998, emeralds were discovered in Yukon. Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, it has provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and flux-growth synthetics have been produced. The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham. The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., which has been on the market since 1964. Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds which become coated on both sides. Growth occurs at the rate of per month, a typical seven-month growth run producing emerald crystals of 7 mm of thickness. The green color of emeralds is widely attributed to presence of Cr3+ ions. ===Golden beryl and heliodor=== Golden beryl can range in colors from pale yellow to a brilliant gold. Unlike emerald, golden beryl generally has very few flaws. The term "golden beryl" is sometimes synonymous with heliodor (from Greek hēlios – ἥλιος "sun" + dōron – δῶρον "gift") but golden beryl refers to pure yellow or golden yellow shades, while heliodor refers to the greenish-yellow shades. The golden yellow color is attributed to Fe3+ ions. ===Goshenite=== Colorless beryl is called goshenite. The name originates from Goshen, Massachusetts, where it was originally discovered. In the past, goshenite was used for manufacturing eyeglasses and lenses owing to its transparency. Nowadays, it is most commonly used for gemstone purposes. The gem value of goshenite is relatively low. However, goshenite can be colored yellow, green, pink, blue and in intermediate colors by irradiating it with high-energy particles. The resulting color depends on the content of Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Fe, and Co impurities. Red "bixbite" beryl formerly was marketed as "red" or "scarlet emerald", but these terms involving "Emerald" terminology are now prohibited in the US. Red beryl is very rare and has only been reported from a handful of North American locations: Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County, Utah; Paramount Canyon, Round Mountain, Juab County, Utah; and Sierra County, New Mexico, although this locality does not often produce gem-grade stones. Red beryl has been known to be confused with pezzottaite, a caesium analog of beryl, found in Madagascar and, more recently, Afghanistan; cut gems of the two varieties can be distinguished by their difference in refractive index, and the rough crystals easily by their differing crystal systems (pezzottaite trigonal, red beryl hexagonal). Synthetic red beryl is also produced. Like emerald and unlike most other varieties of beryl, the red ones are usually highly included. While gem beryls are ordinarily found in pegmatites and certain metamorphic stones, red beryl occurs in topaz-bearing rhyolites. It is formed by crystallizing under low pressure and high temperature from a pneumatolytic phase along fractures or within near-surface miarolitic cavities of the rhyolite. Associated minerals include bixbyite, quartz, orthoclase, topaz, spessartine, pseudobrookite and hematite.	[ "Malawi", "nepheline syenite", "New England", "Kenya", "Washington, D.C.", "Vidura", "Zambia", "emerald", "biotite", "hematite", "Silicate minerals", "Mount Antero", "crystal", "Sawtooth Range (Idaho)", "caesium", "Namibia", "Ångström", "Hexagonal crystal system", "pegmatites", "inclusion (mineral)", "National Museum of Natural History", "wikt:वैडूर्य", "Brazil", "muscovite", "Color center (crystallography)", "Albany, Maine", "Afghanistan", "Hoshen", "tin", "silicon", "Aquamarine (gem)", "Dravidian languages", "Sri Lanka", "Type locality (geology)", "spessartine", "pseudobrookite", "limestone", "Andes", "trapiche", "Cymophane", "Medieval Latin", "double terminated crystal", "Stanley, Idaho", "Wah Wah Mountains", "morganite (gem)", "Sierra County, New Mexico", "Merriam-Webster", "Prakrit", "Maynard Bixby", "orthoclase", "albite", "Ancient Greek", "Juab County, Utah", "Zimbabwe", "Powder River Pass", "sugarcane", "mineral", "Sanskrit", "pezzottaite", "India", "H-M symbol", "Placer mining", "Yukon", "Vitreous lustre", "Refractive index", "Wyoming", "sea water", "pegmatite", "Quartz", "potassium feldspar", "schist", "lapis lazuli", "vanadium", "Semitic languages", "uranium", "Urals", "Colombian emeralds", "miarolitic cavities", "Rio Grande do Norte", "metasomatic", "Tanzania", "chromium", "mica", "Hiddenite, North Carolina", "gneiss", "gemstone", "Beaver County, Utah", "chemical formula", "aquamarine (gem)", "quartz", "refractive index", "Conchoidal", "topaz", "beryllium", "bixbyite", "aluminium", "Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)", "Sawatch Range", "Hexagonal crystal family", "birefringence", "Black Range", "List of emeralds by size", "Crystal habit", "Russia", "Old French", "Madagascar", "Latin", "Swat (Pakistan)", "folk etymology", "incentive", "Minas Gerais", "Cyclosilicate", "Karnataka", "tourmaline", "Big Horn Mountains", "carbonate rock", "World Jewellery Confederation", "Belur, Karnataka", "Colombia", "Ancient Egypt", "Utah", "Espírito Santo", "Austria", "granite", "Bumpus Quarry", "Altiplano Cundiboyacense", "Goshen, Massachusetts", "cyan", "Gemstone", "rhyolite", "Glasses", "trapiche emerald", "tungsten", "Bahia", "Middle English", "Fillmore, Utah", "Pakistan" ]
4,911	Basel	Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle, is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the River Rhine (at the transition from the High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's third-most-populous city (after Zurich and Geneva), with 177,595 inhabitants within the city municipality limits. The official language of Basel is Swiss Standard German and the main spoken language is the local Basel German dialect. Basel is commonly considered to be the cultural capital of Switzerland and the city is famous for its many museums, including the Kunstmuseum, which is the first collection of art accessible to the public in the world (1661) and the largest museum of art in Switzerland, the Fondation Beyeler (located in Riehen), the Museum Tinguely and the Museum of Contemporary Art, which is the first public museum of contemporary art in Europe. Forty museums are spread throughout the city-canton, making Basel one of the largest cultural centres in relation to its size and population in Europe. It is the hometown of the Art Basel, world's most prestigious and influential international art fair, showcasing modern and contemporary works from leading galleries and attracting top collectors, artists, and enthusiasts globally. The University of Basel, Switzerland's oldest university (founded in 1460), and the city's centuries-long commitment to humanism, have made Basel a safe haven at times of political unrest in other parts of Europe for such notable people as Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Holbein family, Friedrich Nietzsche, Carl Jung, and in the 20th century also Hermann Hesse and Karl Jaspers. Basel was the seat of a Prince-Bishopric starting in the 11th century, and joined the Swiss Confederacy in 1501. The city has been a commercial hub and an important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in the 20th century. In 1897, Basel was chosen by Theodor Herzl as the location for the first World Zionist Congress, and altogether the congress was held there ten times over a time span of 50 years, more than in any other location. The city is also home to the world headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements. The name of the city is internationally known through institutions like the Basel Accords, Art Basel and FC Basel. Basel is Switzerland's main centre for the pharmaceutical industry, hosting both Novartis and Roche. In 1938, the world-renowned chemist Albert Hofmann discovered LSD in Basel, where he spent most of his life. Other influential and renowned figures such as Roger Federer, Paracelsus, Matthäus Merian, Michel von Tell or Stephan Remmler are closely associated with the city or were born there. In 1734, the so-called 'Basel Problem' was solved in the city, which is regarded as one of the most important achievements in mathematics. Basel was ranked the tenth most liveable city in the world by Mercer in 2019. == Name == The name of Basel is first recorded as Basilia in the 3rd century (237/8), at the time referring to the Roman castle. This name is mostly interpreted as deriving from the personal name Basilius, from a toponym villa Basilia ("estate of Basilius") or similar. Another suggestion derives it from a name Basilia attested in northern France as a development of basilica, the term for a public or church building (as in Bazeilles), but all of these names reference early church buildings of the 4th or 5th century and cannot be adduced for the 3rd-century attestation of Basilia. By popular etymology, or simple assonance, the basilisk becomes closely associated with the city, used as heraldic supporter from 1448, represented on coins minted by the city, and frequently found in ornaments. The Middle French form was adopted into English, but this form has fallen gradually out of use although it continues to be used in some sections of British English including the BBC. Currently, the spelling Basel is most often used, to match the official German spelling. In French was still in use in the 18th century, but was gradually replaced by the modern French spelling . In Icelandic, the city is recorded as in the 12th-century itinerary Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan. == History == === Early history === There are traces of a settlement at the nearby Rhine knee from the early La Tène period (5th century BC). In the 2nd century BC, there was a village of the Raurici at the site of Basel-Gasfabrik (to the northwest of the Old City, and likely identical with the town of Arialbinnum that was mentioned on the Tabula Peutingeriana). The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul. In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some from Basel as the regional administrative centre, while a castrum (fortified camp) was built on the site of the Celtic oppidum. In AD 83, the area was incorporated into the Roman province of Germania Superior. The Roman Senator Munatius Plancus is known as the traditional founder of Basel since the Renaissance. Roman control over the area deteriorated in the 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum formed by Diocletian. Basilia is first named by the Ammianus Marcellinus in his Res Gestae Basel at this time was part of the Archdiocese of Besançon. A separate bishopric of Basel, replacing the ancient bishopric of Augusta Raurica, was established in the 8th century. Under bishop Haito (r. 806–823), the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle (replaced by a Romanesque structure consecrated in 1019). At the partition of the Carolingian Empire through the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Basel was first given to West Francia and became its German exclave. In 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel (known locally as the Münster) began under Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor. In the 11th to 12th century, Basel gradually acquired the characteristics of a medieval city. The main market place is first mentioned in 1091. The first city walls were constructed around 1100 (with improvements made in the mid-13th and in the late 14th century). A city council of nobles and burghers is recorded for 1185, and the first mayor, Heinrich Steinlin of Murbach, for 1253. The first bridge across the Rhine was built in 1225 under bishop Heinrich von Thun (at the location of the modern Middle Bridge), and from this time the settlement of Kleinbasel gradually formed around the bridgehead on the far river bank. The bridge was largely funded by Basel's Jewish community who had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river "between Lake Constance and the sea". The first city guild were the furriers, established in 1226. A total of about fifteen guilds were established in the course of the 13th century, reflecting the increasing economic prosperity of the city. This staff (known as Baselstab) became a symbol representing the Basel diocese, depicted in bishops' seals of the late medieval period. It is represented in a heraldic context in the early 14th century, not yet as a heraldic charge but as a kind of heraldic achievement flanked by the heraldic shields of the bishop. The staff is also represented in the bishops's seals of the period. The use of the Baselstab in black as the coat of arms of the city was introduced in 1385. From this time, the Baselstab in red represented the bishop, and the same charge in black represented the city. The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is In Silber ein schwarzer Baselstab (Argent, a staff of Basel sable). In 1400, Basel was able to purchase the towns of Liestal, Homburg and Waldenburg with its surrounding territory. In 1412 (or earlier), the well-known Gasthof zum Goldenen Sternen was established. Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th century Council of Basel (1431–1449), including the 1439 election of antipope Felix V. In 1459, Pope Pius II endowed the University of Basel, where such notables as Erasmus of Rotterdam and Paracelsus later taught. At the same time the new craft of printing was introduced to Basel by apprentices of Johann Gutenberg. In 1461, the land around Farnsburg became a part of Basel. In 1495, Basel was incorporated into the Upper Rhenish Imperial Circle; the Bishop of Basel was added to the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes of the Imperial Diet. In 1500 the construction of the Basel Münster was finished. === As a member state in the Swiss Confederacy === The city had remained neutral through the Swabian War of 1499 despite being plundered by soldiers on both sides. The Treaty of Basel ended the war and granted the Swiss confederates exemptions from the emperor Maximillian's taxes and jurisdictions, separating Switzerland de facto from the Holy Roman Empire. On 9 June 1501, Basel joined the Swiss Confederation as its eleventh canton. It was the only canton that was asked to join, not the other way round. Basel had a strategic location, good relations with Strasbourg and Mulhouse, and control of the corn imports from Alsace, whereas the Swiss lands were becoming overpopulated and had few resources. A provision of the Charter accepting Basel required that in conflicts among the other cantons it was to stay neutral and offer its services for mediation. In 1503, the new bishop Christoph von Utenheim refused to give Basel a new constitution; whereupon, to show its power, the city began to build a new city hall. In 1544, Johann von Brugge, a rich Dutch Protestant refugee, was given citizenship and lived respectably until his death in 1556, then buried with honors. His body was exhumed and burnt at the stake in 1559 after it was discovered that he was the Anabaptist David Joris. There are indications Joachim Meyer, author of the influential 16th-century martial arts text Kunst des Fechten ("The Art of Fencing"), came from Basel. In 1661 the Amerbaschsches Kabinett, a vast collection of exotic artifacts, coins, medals and books was purchased by Basel. It was to become to the first public museum of art. Its collection became the core of the later Basel Museum of Art. The Bernoulli family, which included important 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians such as Jakob Bernoulli, Johann Bernoulli and Daniel Bernoulli, were from Basel. The 18th-century mathematician Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and studied under Johann Bernoulli. === Modern history === In 1792, the Republic of Rauracia, a revolutionary French client republic, was created. It lasted until 1793. After three years of political agitation and a short civil war in 1833 the disadvantaged countryside seceded from the Canton of Basel, forming the half canton of Basel-Landschaft. Between 1861 and 1878 the city walls were slighted. On 3 July 1874, Switzerland's first zoo, the Zoo Basel, opened its doors in the south of the city towards Binningen. In 1897 the first World Zionist Congress was held in Basel. Altogether the World Zionist Congress was held in Basel ten times, more than in any other city in the world. On 16 November 1938, the psychedelic drug LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at Sandoz Laboratories in Basel. In 1967, the population of Basel voted in favor of buying three works of art by painter Pablo Picasso which were at risk of being sold and taken out of the local museum of art, due to a financial crisis on the part of the owner's family. Therefore, Basel became the first city in the world where the population of a political community democratically decided to acquire works of art for a public institution. Pablo Picasso was so moved by the gesture that he subsequently gifted the city with an additional three paintings. === Basel as a historical, international meeting place === Basel has often been the site of peace negotiations and other international meetings. The Treaty of Basel (1499) ended the Swabian War. Two years later Basel joined the Swiss Confederation. The Peace of Basel in 1795 between the French Republic and Prussia and Spain ended the First Coalition against France during the French Revolutionary Wars. In more recent times, the World Zionist Organization held its first congress in Basel from 29 August through 31 August 1897. Because of the Balkan Wars, the (Socialist) Second International held an extraordinary congress at Basel in 1912. In 1989, the Basel Convention was opened for signature with the aim of preventing the export of hazardous waste from wealthy to developing nations for disposal. == Geography and climate == === Location === Basel is located in Northwestern Switzerland and is commonly considered to be the capital of that region. It is close to the point where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, and Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. , the Swiss Basel agglomeration was the third-largest in Switzerland, with a population of 541,000 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland (municipal count as of 2018). The metropolitan area, called the Trinational Eurodistrict of Basel (TEB), consists of 62 suburban communes including municipalities in neighboring countries, and counted 829,000 inhabitants in 2007. === Topography === Basel has an area, , of . Of this area, or 4.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 3.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 86.4% is settled (buildings or roads), or 6.1% is either rivers or lakes. Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 10.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 40.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 24.0%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 2.7% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 8.9%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 2.5% is used for growing crops and 1.3% is pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. with cool to cold, overcast winters and warm to hot, humid summers. The city averages 118.2 days of rain or snow annually and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is May during which time Basel receives an average of of rain. The month with the most days of precipitation is also May, with an average of 11.7 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.4 days. == Politics == The city of Basel functions as the capital of the Swiss half-canton of Basel-Stadt. === Canton === The canton Basel-Stadt consists of three municipalities: Riehen, Bettingen, and the city Basel itself. The political structure and agencies of the city and the canton are identical. === City === ==== Quarters ==== The city itself has 19 quarters: Grossbasel (Greater Basel): 1 Altstadt Grossbasel 2 Vorstädte 3 Am Ring 4 Breite 5 St. Alban 6 Gundeldingen 7 Bruderholz 8 Bachletten 9 Gotthelf 10 Iselin 11 St. Johann Kleinbasel (Lesser Basel): 12 Altstadt Kleinbasel 13 Clara 14 Wettstein 15 Hirzbrunnen 16 Rosental 17 Matthäus 18 Klybeck 19 Kleinhüningen === Government === The city's and canton's executive, the Executive Council (Regierungsrat), consists of seven members for a mandate period of 4 years. They are elected by any inhabitant valid to vote on the same day as the parliament, but by means of a system of Majorz, and operates as a collegiate authority. The president () is elected as such by a public election, while the heads of the other departments are appointed by the collegiate. The current president is Beat Jans. The executive body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall () on the central Marktplatz. The building was built in 1504–14. , Basel's Executive Council is made up of three representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party) including the president, two LDP (Liberal-Demokratische Partei of Basel), and one member each of Green Liberals (glp), and CVP (Christian Democratic Party). The last election was held on 25 October and 29 November 2020 and four new members have been elected. \|\| SP \|\| President's Office (Präsidialdepartement (PD), 2021) \|\| 2020 \|- \|Tanja Soland\|\| SP \|\| Finance (Finanzdepartement (FD))\|\| 2019 \|- \| Stephanie Eymann\|\| LDP \|\| Justice and Security (Justiz- und Sicherheitsdepartement (JSD), 2021) \|\| 2020 \|- \| Kaspar Sutter\|\| SP \|\| Economics, Social Services, and Environment (Departement für Wirtschaft, Soziales und Umwelt (WSU), 2021) \|\| 2020 \|- \| Conradin Cramer \|\| LDP \|\| Education (Erziehungsdepartement (ED), 2017) \|\| 2016 \|- \| Esther Keller\|\| glp \|\| Construction and Transportation (Bau- und Verkehrsdepartement (BVD), 2021) \|\| 2020 \|- \| Lukas Engelberger\|\| CVP \|\| Health (Gesundheitsdepartement (GD), June 2014) \|\| June 2014 \|} Barbara Schüpbach-Guggenbühlis is State Chronicler (Staatsschreiberin) since 2009, and Marco Greiner is Head of Communication (Regierungssprecher) and Vice State Chronicler (Vizestaatsschreiber) since 2007 for the Executive Council. === Parliament === The city's and canton's parliament, the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt (Grosser Rat), consists of 100 seats, with members (called in German: Grossrat/Grossrätin) elected every 4 years. The sessions of the Grand Council are public. Unlike the members of the Executive Council, the members of the Grand Council are not politicians by profession, but they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Basel allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the parliament. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Proporz. The legislative body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (Rathaus). The last election was held on 25 October 2020 for the mandate period (Legislatur) of 2021–2025. , the Grand Council consist of 30 (−5) members of the Social Democratic Party (SP), 18 (+5) Grün-Alternatives Bündnis (GAB) (a collaboration of the Green Party (GPS), its junior party, and Basels starke Alternative (BastA!)), 14 (−1) Liberal-Demokratische Partei (LDP), 11 (−4) members of the Swiss People's Party (SVP), 8 (+5) Green Liberal Party (glp), 7 (−3) The Liberals (FDP), 7 (-) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP), 3 (+2) Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and one each representative of the Aktive Bettingen (AB) and Volks-Aktion gegen zuviele Ausländer und Asylanten in unserer Heimat (VA). The left parties missed an absolute majority by two seats. === Federal elections === ==== National Council ==== In the 2019 federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 34% (−1) of the votes. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (GPS) (19.4%, +7.3), the LPS (14.5%, +3.6) and the FDP (5.8, −3.5), which are chained together at 20.3%, (+0.1), the SVP (11.3%, -5.5), and the Green Liberal Party (GLP) (5%, +0.6), CVP (4.1%, -1.9). In the federal election, a total of 44,628 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.4%. On 18 October 2015, in the federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 35% of the votes. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (20.2%), the SVP (16.8%), and the Green Party (GPS) (12.2%), each with one seat. In the federal election, a total of 57,304 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.4%. ==== Council of States ==== On 20 October 2019, in the federal election Eva Herzog, member of the Social Democratic Party (SP), was elected for the first time as a State Councillor () in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Town and successor of Anita Fetz in the national Council of States () with an absolute majority of 37'210 votes. On 18 October 2015, in the federal election State Councillor () Anita Fetz, member of the Social Democratic Party (SP), was re-elected in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Town in the national Council of States () with an absolute majority of 35'842 votes. She has been a member of it since 2003. === International relations === ==== Twin towns, sister cities and partner regions ==== Basel has two sister cities and a twinning among two states: US state of Massachusetts, since 2002 == Demographics == The canton of Basel (slightly more than the city itself) has a population () of 201,971, of whom 36.9% are resident foreign nationals. Over the 10 years of 1999–2009 the population has changed at a rate of −0.3%. It has changed at a rate of 3.2% due to migration and at a rate of −3% due to births and deaths. Of the population in the municipality 58,560 or about 35.2% were born in Basel and lived there in 2000. There were 1,396 or 0.8% who were born in the same canton, while 44,874 or 26.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 53,774 or 32.3% were born outside of Switzerland. , there were 70,502 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 70,517 married individuals, 12,435 widows or widowers, and 13,104 individuals who are divorced. the average number of residents per living room was 0.59 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.58 per room. About 10.5% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement). there were 96,640 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 35,958. There were 11,957 single room apartments and 9,702 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 84,675 apartments (87.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 7,916 apartments (8.2%) were seasonally occupied and 4,049 apartments (4.2%) were empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.74%.) ! Population density (people/km2) \|- \| Altstadt Grossbasel (historic city) \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 37.63 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,044 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Vorstädte (historical suburbs) \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 89.66 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 4,638\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Am Ring \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 90.98 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 10,512\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Breite \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|68.39 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 8,655\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| St. Alban \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 294.46 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 10,681\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Gundeldingen \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|123.19 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 18,621\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Bruderholz \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|259.61 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 9,006\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Bachletten \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|151.39 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 13,330\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Gotthelf \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|46.62 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 6,784\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Iselin \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|109.82 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 16,181\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| St. Johann \|\| style="text-align:right;"\|223.90 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 18,560\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Altstadt Kleinbasel (historic city) \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 24.21 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,276\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Clara \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 23.66 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 4,043\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Wettstein \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 75.44 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 5,386\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Hirzbrunnen \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 305.32 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 8,676\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Rosental \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 64.33 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 5,180\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Mattäus \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 59.14 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 16,056\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Klybeck \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 91.19 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 7,234\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Kleinhüningen \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 136.11 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,772\|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| City of Basel \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 2275.05 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Bettingen \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 222.69 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \| Riehen \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 1086.10 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|- \|Canton of Basel-Stadt \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| 3583.84 \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|\| style="text-align:right;"\| \|} === Transport === Basel's airport, EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, is set up for airfreight; heavy goods reach the city and the heart of continental Europe from the North Sea by ship along the Rhine. ==== Port ==== Basel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine and connect to ocean-going ships at the port of Rotterdam. ==== Air transport ==== EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is operated jointly by two countries, France and Switzerland, although the airport is located completely on French soil. The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent sectors, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; prior to Schengen there was an immigration inspection point at the middle of the airport so that people could "emigrate" to the other side of the airport. ==== Railways ==== Basel has long held an important place as a rail hub. Three railway stations—those of the Swiss, French and German networks—lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel SBB) and French (Bâle SNCF) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities). Basel Badischer Bahnhof is on the opposite side of the city. Basel's local rail services are supplied by the Basel Regional S-Bahn. The largest goods railway complex of the country is located just outside the city, spanning the municipalities of Muttenz and Pratteln. The new highspeed ICE railway line from Karlsruhe to Basel was completed in 2008 while phase I of the TGV Rhin-Rhône line, opened in December 2011, has reduced travel time from Basel to Paris to about 3 hours. ==== Roads ==== Basel is located on the A3 motorway. Within the city limits, five bridges connect Greater and Lesser Basel (downstream): Schwarzwaldbrücke (built 1972) Wettsteinbrücke (current structure built 1998, original bridge built 1879) Mittlere Rheinbrücke (current structure built 1905, original bridge built 1225 as the first bridge to cross the Rhine) Johanniterbrücke (built 1967) Dreirosenbrücke (built 2004, original bridge built 1935) ==== Ferries ==== A somewhat anachronistic yet still widely used system of reaction ferry boats links the two shores. There are four ferries, each situated approximately midway between two bridges. Each is attached by a cable to a block that rides along another cable spanning the river at a height of . To cross the river, the ferryman orients the boat around 45° from the current so that the current pushes the boat across the river. This form of transportation is therefore completely hydraulically driven, requiring no outside energy source. Home/Aktuell – Fähri Verein Basel ==== Public transport ==== Basel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs, including a large tram network. Today, Basel has the largest tramway in terms of kilometers of rail tracks in Switzerland. Historically, only Geneva had a larger one at some point. It has numerous road and rail crossings between Switzerland and the other two countries. With Switzerland joining the Schengen Area on 12 December 2008, immigration checks were no longer carried out at the crossings. However, Switzerland did not join the European Union Customs Union (though it did join the EU Single Market) and customs checks are still conducted at or near the crossings. France-Switzerland (from east to west) Road crossings (with French road name continuation) Kohlenstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Huningue). This crossing replaces the former crossing Hüningerstrasse further east. Elsässerstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Saint-Louis) Autobahn A3 (A35 autoroute, Saint-Louis), crossing Mulhouse, Colmar and Strasbourg. EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg – pedestrian walkway between the French and Swiss sections on Level 3 (departures) of airport. Burgfelderstrasse (Rue du 1er Mars, Saint Louis) Railway crossing Basel SBB railway station Germany-Switzerland (clockwise, from north to south) Road crossings (with German road name continuation) Hiltalingerstrasse (Zollstraße, Weil am Rhein). Tram 8 goes along this road to Weil am Rhein. The extension opened in 2014; it used to end before the border. Autobahn A2 (Autobahn A5, Weil am Rhein) Freiburgerstrasse (Baslerstraße, Weil am Rhein) Weilstrasse, Riehen (Haupstraße, Weil am Rhein) Lörracherstrasse, Riehen (Baslerstraße, Stetten, Lörrach) Inzlingerstrasse, Riehen (Riehenstraße, Inzlingen) Grenzacherstrasse (Hörnle, Grenzach-Wyhlen) Railway crossing Between Basel SBB and Basel Badischer Bahnhof – Basel Badischer Bahnhof, and all other railway property and stations on the right bank of the Rhine belong to DB and are classed as German customs territory. Immigration and customs checks are conducted at the platform exit tunnel for passengers leaving trains here. Additionally there are many footpaths and cycle tracks crossing the border between Basel and Germany. === Health === As the biggest town in the Northwest of Switzerland numerous public and private health centres are located in Basel. Among others the Universitätsspital Basel and the Universitätskinderspital Basel. Private health centres include the Bethesda Spital and the Merian Iselin Klinik. Additionally the Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute is located in Basel too. === Energy === Basel is at the forefront of a national vision to more than halve energy use in Switzerland by 2050. To research, develop and commercialise the technologies and techniques required for the country to become a 2000 Watt society, a number of projects have been set up since 2001 in the Basel metropolitan area. These include demonstration buildings constructed to Minergie or Passivhaus standards, electricity generation from renewable energy sources, and vehicles using natural gas, hydrogen and biogas. A building construction law was passed in 2002 also which stated that all new flat roofs must be greened leading to Basel becoming the world's leading green roof city. This was driven by an energy saving programme. A hot dry rock geothermal energy project was cancelled in 2009 since it caused induced seismicity in Basel. == Economy == The city of Basel, located in the north west of Switzerland, is one of the most dynamic economic regions of Switzerland. , Basel had an unemployment rate of 3.7%. , 19.3% of the working population was employed in the secondary sector and 80.6% was employed in the tertiary sector. There were 82,449 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 46.2% of the workforce. the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 130,988. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 13, of which 10 were in agriculture and 4 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 33,171 of which 24,848 or (74.9%) were in manufacturing, 10 were in mining and 7,313 (22.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 97,804. In the tertiary sector; 12,880 or 13.2% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 11,959 or 12.2% were in the movement and storage of goods, 6,120 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,186 or 4.3% were in the information industry, 10,752 or 11.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 13,695 or 14.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 6,983 or 7.1% were in education and 16,060 or 16.4% were in health care. , there were 121,842 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,263 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 6.3 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 23.9% of the workforce coming into Basel are coming from outside Switzerland, while 1.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 49.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 18.7% used a private car. Syngenta, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Clariant, Hoffmann-La Roche, The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) is located within the city and is the central banker's bank. According to the BIS, "The choice of Switzerland for the seat of the BIS was a compromise by those countries that established the BIS: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. When consensus could not be reached on locating the Bank in London, Brussels or Amsterdam, the choice fell on Switzerland. An independent, neutral country, Switzerland offered the BIS less exposure to undue influence from any of the major powers. Within Switzerland, Basel was chosen largely because of its location, with excellent railway connections in all directions, especially important at a time when most international travel was by train." Created in May 1930, the BIS is owned by its member central banks. No agent of the Swiss public authorities may enter the premises without the express consent of the bank. The bank exercises supervision and police power over its premises. The BIS enjoys immunity from criminal and administrative jurisdiction. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision usually meets at the BIS premises in Basel. It produces recommendations such as the Basel Accords (Basel I, Basel II and Basel III), based on consensus among its members which are central banks and banking supervisors. Basel also hosts the headquarters of the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation, which is active in the field of sustainable infrastructure (financing). === Air === Swiss International Air Lines, the national airline of Switzerland, is headquartered on the grounds of EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin, France, near Basel. Prior to the formation of Swiss International Air Lines, the regional airline Crossair was headquartered near Basel. === Media === Basler Zeitung ("BaZ") and bz Basel are the local newspapers. The local TV station is called Telebasel. The German-speaking Swiss Radio and Television SRF company, part of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation SRG SSR, holds offices in Basel as well. The academic publishers Birkhäuser, Karger and MDPI are based in Basel. === Trade fairs === Important trade shows include Art Basel, the world's most important fair for modern and contemporary art, Baselworld (watches and jewelry, now discontinued), Swissbau (construction and real estate) and Igeho (hotels, catering, take-away, care). The Swiss Sample Fair ("Schweizer Mustermesse") was the largest and oldest consumer fair in Switzerland. It was held from 2007 to 2019 and took place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine. == Education == Besides Humanism the city of Basel has also been well known for its achievements in the field of mathematics. Among others, the mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Bernoulli family have done research and been teaching at the local institutions for centuries. In 1910 the Swiss Mathematical Society was founded in the city and in the mid-twentieth century the Russian mathematician Alexander Ostrowski taught at the local university. In 2000 about 57,864 or (34.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 27,603 or (16.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ). Of the 27,603 who completed tertiary schooling, 44.4% were Swiss men, 31.1% were Swiss women, 13.9% were non-Swiss men and 10.6% were non-Swiss women. In 2007, the ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich) established the Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE) in Basel. The creation of the D-BSSE was driven by a Swiss-wide research initiative SystemsX, and was jointly supported by funding from the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Government, the Swiss University Conference (SUC) and private industry. Basel also hosts several academies of the Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz\|Fachhochschule NW (FHNW): the FHNW Academy of Art and Design, FHNW Academy of Music, and the FHNW School of Business. Basel is renowned for various scientific societies, such as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2005. === Volksschule === In 2005 16,939 pupils and students attended the Volksschule (the obligatory school time, including Kindergarten (127), primary schools (Primarschule, 25), and lower secondary schools (Sekundarschule, 10), of which 94% visited public schools and 39.5% were foreign nationals. In 2010 already 51.1% of all pupils spoke another language than German as their first language. In 2009 3.1% of the pupils visited special classes for pupils with particular needs. The average amount of study in primary school in Basel is 816 teaching hours per year. === Upper secondary school === In 2010 65% of the youth finished their upper secondary education with a vocational training and education, 18% finished their upper secondary education with a Federal Matura at one of the five gymnasiums, 5% completed a Fachmaturität at the FMS, 5% completed a Berufsmaturität synchronously to their vocational training, and 7% other kind of upper secondary maturity. 14.1% of all students at public gymnasiums were foreign nationals. The Maturity quota in 2010 was on a record high at 28.8% (32.8 female, 24.9% male). === International schools === As a city with a percentage of foreigners of more than thirty-five per cent and as one of the most important centres in the chemical and pharmaceutical field in the world, Basel counts several international schools including: Academia International School, École Française de Bâle, Freies Gymnasium Basel (private), Gymnasium am Münsterplatz (public), Schweizerisch-italienische Primarschule Sandro Pertini, International School Basel, BLIS Baselland International School. and SIS Swiss International School. === Libraries === Basel is home to at least 65 libraries. Some of the largest include; the Universitätsbibliothek Basel (main university library), the special libraries of the University of Basel, the Allgemein Bibliotheken der Gesellschaft für Gutes und Gemeinnütziges (GGG) Basel, the Library of the Pädagogische Hochschule, the Library of the Hochschule für Soziale Arbeit and the Library of the Hochschule für Wirtschaft. There was a combined total () of 8,443,643 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,722,802 items were loaned out. == Culture == === Main sights === The red sandstone Münster, one of the foremost late-Romanesque/early Gothic buildings in the Upper Rhine, was badly damaged in the great earthquake of 1356, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th century, extensively reconstructed in the mid-19th century and further restored in the late 20th century. A memorial to Erasmus lies inside the Münster. The City Hall from the 16th century is located on the Market Square and is decorated with fine murals on the outer walls and on the walls of the inner court. Basel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects. These include the Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, composed of buildings by architects such as Zaha Hadid (fire station), Frank Gehry (Design Museum), Álvaro Siza Vieira (factory building), and Tadao Ando (conference centre). Basel also features buildings by Mario Botta (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements) and Herzog & de Meuron (whose architectural practice is in Basel, and who are best known as the architects of Tate Modern in London and the Bird's Nest in Beijing, the Olympia stadium, which was designed for use throughout the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics). The city received the Wakker Prize in 1996. ==== Heritage sites ==== Basel features a great number of heritage sites of national significance. These include the entire Old Town of Basel as well as the following buildings and collections: Churches and monasteries :Old Catholic Prediger Kirche (church), Bischofshof with Collegiate church at Rittergasse 1, Domhof at Münsterplatz 10–12, former Carthusian House of St Margarethental, Catholic Church of St Antonius, Lohnhof (former Augustinians Collegiate Church), Mission 21, Archive of the Evangelisches Missionswerk Basel, Münster of Basel (cathedral), Reformed Elisabethenkirche (church), Reformed Johanneskirche (church), Reformed Leonhardskirche (church, former Augustinians Abbey), Reformed Martinskirche (church), Reformed Pauluskirche (church), Reformed Peterskirche (church), Reformed St. Albankirche (church) with cloister and cemetery, Reformed Theodorskirche (church), Synagoge at Eulerstrasse 2 Secular buildings: Badischer Bahnhof (German Baden's railway station) with fountain, Bank for International Settlements, Blaues Haus (Reichensteinerhof) at Rheinsprung 16, Bruderholzschule (school house) at Fritz-Hauser-Strasse 20, Brunschwiler Haus at Hebelstrasse 15, Bahnhof Basel SBB (Swiss railway station), Bürgerspital (hospital), Café Spitz (Merianflügel), Coop Schweiz company's central archive, Depot of the Archäologischen Bodenforschung des Kanton Basel-Stadt, former Gallizian Paper Mill and Swiss Museum of Paper, former Klingental-Kaserne (casern) with Klingentaler Kirche (church), Fasnachtsbrunnen (fountain), Feuerschützenhaus (guild house of the riflemen) at Schützenmattstrasse 56, Fischmarktbrunnen (fountain), Geltenzunft at Marktplatz 13, Gymnasium am Kohlenberg (St Leonhard) (school), Hauptpost (main post office), Haus zum Raben at Aeschenvorstadt 15, Hohenfirstenhof at Rittergasse 19, Holsteinerhof at Hebelstrasse 30, Markgräflerhof a former palace of the margraves of Baden-Durlach, Mittlere Rhein Brücke (Central Rhine Bridge), Stadtcasino (music hall) at Steinenberg 14, Ramsteinerhof at Rittergasse 7 and 9, Rathaus (town hall), Rundhof building of the Schweizerischen Mustermesse, Safranzunft at Gerbergasse 11, Sandgrube at Riehenstrasse 154, Schlösschen (Manor house) Gundeldingen, Schönes Haus and Schöner Hof at Nadelberg 6, Wasgenring school house, Seidenhof with painting of Rudolf von Habsburg, Spalenhof at Spalenberg 12, Spiesshof at Heuberg 7, city walls, Townhouse (former post office) at Stadthausgasse 13 / Totengässlein 6, Weisses Haus at Martinsgasse 3, Wildt'sches Haus at Petersplatz 13, Haus zum Neuen Singer at Speiserstrasse 98, Wolfgottesacker at Münchensteinerstrasse 99, Zerkindenhof at Nadelberg 10. Archaeological sites: The Celtic Settlement at Gasfabrik, Münsterhügel and Altstadt (historical city, late La Tène and medieval settlement). Museums, archives and collections: Basel calls itself the Cultural Capital of Switzerland. Among others, there is the Anatomical Museum of the University Basel, Berri-Villen and Museum of Ancient Art Basel and Ludwig Collection, Former Franciscan Barefoot Order Church and Basel Historical Museum, Company Archive of Novartis, Haus zum Kirschgarten which is part of the Basel Historical Museum, Historic Archive Roche and Industrial Complex Hoffmann-La Roche, Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel, Karl Barth-Archive, Kleines Klingental (Lower Klingen Valley) with Museum Klingental, Art Museum of Basel, hosting the world's oldest art collection accessible to the public, Natural History Museum of Basel and the Museum of Cultures Basel, Museum of Modern Art Basel with the E. Hoffmann collection, Museum Jean Tinguely Basel, Music Museum, Pharmacy Historical Museum of the University of Basel, Poster Collection of the School for Design (Schule für Gestaltung), Swiss Business Archives, Sculpture Hall, Sports Museum of Switzerland, Archives of the Canton of Basel-Stadt, UBS AG Corporate Archives, University Library with manuscripts and music collection, Zoological Garden (Zoologischer Garten). presents a busy schedule of plays in addition to being home to the city's opera and ballet companies. Basel is home to the largest orchestra in Switzerland, the Sinfonieorchester Basel. It is also the home of the Basel Sinfonietta and the Kammerorchester Basel, which recorded the complete symphonies of Ludwig van Beethoven for the Sony label, led by its music director Giovanni Antonini. The Schola Cantorum and the Basler Kammerorchester were both founded by the conductor Paul Sacher, who went on to commission works by many leading composers. The Paul Sacher Foundation, opened in 1986, houses a major collection of manuscripts, including the entire Igor Stravinsky archive. The baroque orchestras La Cetra and Capriccio Basel are also based in Basel. In May 2004, the fifth European Festival of Youth Choirs (Europäisches Jugendchorfestival, or EJCF) opened; this Basel tradition started in 1992. Host of the festival is the local Basel Boys Choir. In 1997, Basel contended to become the "European Capital of Culture", though the honor went to Thessaloniki. In 2025, Basel will host the Eurovision Song Contest at St. Jakobshalle, becoming the third Swiss city to host the competition after Lugano in 1956 and Lausanne in 1989. === Museums === The Basel museums cover a broad and diverse spectrum of collections with a marked concentration in the fine arts. They house numerous holdings of international significance. The over three dozen institutions yield an extraordinarily high density of museums compared to other cities of similar size and draw over one million visitors annually. Constituting an essential component of Basel culture and cultural policy, the museums are the result of closely interwoven private and public collecting activities and promotion of arts and culture going back to the 16th century. The public museum collection was first created back in 1661 and represents the oldest public collection in continuous existence in Europe. Since the late 1980s, various private collections have been made accessible to the public in new purpose-built structures that have been recognized as acclaimed examples of avant-garde museum architecture. Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig Ancient cultures of the Mediterranean museum Augusta Raurica Roman open-air museum Basel Paper Mill () Beyeler Foundation (Foundation Beyeler) Botanical Garden Basel Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel () Dollhouse Museum () a museum housing the largest teddy bear collection in Europe. Foundation Fernet Branca () in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin near Basel. Modern art collection. Historical Museum Basel () Kunsthalle Basel Modern and contemporary art museum Kunstmuseum Basel Upper Rhenish and Flemish paintings, drawings from 1400 to 1600 and 19th- to 21st-century art Monteverdi Automuseum Museum of Cultures Basel () Large collections on European and non-European cultural life Museum of Contemporary Art Art from the 1960s up to the present Music Museum () of the Basel Historic Museum Natural History Museum of Basel () Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel Schaulager Modern and contemporary art museum Swiss Architecture Museum () Tinguely Museum Life and work of the major Swiss iron sculptor Jean Tinguely Jewish Museum of Switzerland === Events === The city of Basel is a centre for numerous fairs and events all year round. One of the most important fairs for contemporary art worldwide is the Art Basel which was founded in 1970 by Ernst Beyeler and takes place in June each year. Baselworld, the watch and jewellery show (Uhren- und Schmuckmesse) one of the biggest fairs of its kind in Europe is held every year as well, and attracts a great number of tourists and dealers to the city. Live marketing company and fair organizer MCH Group has its head office in Basel. The carnival of the city of Basel (Basler Fasnacht) is a major cultural event in the year. The carnival is the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at exactly four o'clock in the morning (Morgestraich) on a winter Monday. The Fasnacht asserts Basel's Protestant history by commencing the revelry five days after Ash Wednesday and continuing exactly 72 hours. Almost all study and work in the old city cease. Dozens of fife and drum clubs parade in medieval guild tradition with fantastical masks and illuminated lanterns. Basel Tattoo, founded in 2006 by the local Top Secret Drum Corps, has grown to be the world's second largest military tattoo in terms of performers and budget after the Edinburgh Military Tattoo. The Basel Tattoo annual parade, with an estimated 125,000 visitors, is considered the largest event in Basel. The event is now sponsored by the Swiss Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport (DDPS), making it the official military tattoo of Switzerland. The city will host the Eurovision Song Contest 2025 at the St. Jakobshalle arena. === Cuisine === There are a number of culinary specialties originating in Basel, including Basler Läckerli cookies and Mässmogge candies. Being located in the meeting place between Switzerland, France and Germany the culinary landscape as a whole is very varied and diverse, making it a city with a great number of restaurants of all sorts. === Zoo === Zoo Basel is, with over 1.7 million visitors per year, the most visited tourist attraction in Basel and the second most visited tourist attraction in Switzerland. Established in 1874, Zoo Basel is the oldest zoo in Switzerland and, by number of animals, the largest. Through its history, Zoo Basel has had several breeding successes, such as the first worldwide Indian rhinoceros birth and Greater flamingo hatch in a zoo. These and other achievements led Forbes Travel to rank Zoo Basel as one of the fifteen best zoos in the world in 2008. Despite its international fame, Basel's population remains attached to Zoo Basel, which is entirely surrounded by the city of Basel. Evidence of this is the millions of donations money each year, as well as Zoo Basel's unofficial name: locals lovingly call "their" zoo "Zolli" by which is it known throughout Basel and most of Switzerland. === Sport === Amongst its major sports venues, Basel features a large football stadium that has been awarded four stars by UEFA, a modern ice hockey arena, and a sports hall. The football club FC Basel is successful and in recognition of this the city was one of the Swiss venues for the 2008 European Championships, along with Geneva, Zürich and Bern. The championships were jointly hosted by Switzerland and Austria. BSC Old Boys and Concordia Basel are the other football teams in Basel. Among the most popular sports in Switzerland is ice hockey. Basel is home to EHC Basel, who play in the MySports League, the third tier of the Swiss ice hockey league system. They play their home games in the 6,700-seater St. Jakob Arena. The team previously played in the National League and the Swiss League, but filed for bankruptcy after the 2013–14 Swiss League season. Basketball has a very small but faithful fan base. The top division, called the SBL, is a semi-professional league and has one team from the Basel region, the "Birstal Starwings". One player from Switzerland is currently active in the NBA, Clint Capela. As in most European countries, but unlike the U.S., Switzerland has a club-based rather than a school-based competition system. The Starwings Basel are the only first division basketball team in German-speaking Switzerland. A large indoor tennis event takes place in Basel every October. Some of the best ATP-professionals play every year at the Swiss Indoors, previously including Switzerland's biggest sporting hero Roger Federer, a Basel native who describes the city as "one of the most beautiful cities in the world". In July 2022, the women's water polo players of the WSV Basel secured their 11th national championship title. Basel GAA, a Gaelic games club, is also located in Basel. Basel Dragons AFC have been playing Australian Football in the AFL Switzerland league since 2019. The annual Basel Rhine Swim draws several thousand visitors to the city to swim in or float on the Rhine. The headquarters of the IHF (International Handball Federation) is located in Basel. == Notable people == Notable people who were born or grew up in Basel: Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624), botanist and anatomist Matthäus Merian the Elder (1593–1650), engraver Johannes Buxtorf II (1599–1664), Protestant Christian Hebraist Johannes Jakob Buxtorf (1645–1705), professor of Hebrew Jacob Bernoulli (1654–1705), mathematician Johann Bernoulli (1667–1748), mathematician Johann Jakob Wettstein (1693–1754), theologian and New Testament critic Maximilian Ulysses Browne (1705–1757), Austrian field marshal Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), mathematician, physicist and astronomer Johann Peter Hebel (1760–1826), German short story writer, poet and Lutheran theologian Johann Jakob Herzog (1805–1882), Swiss-German Protestant theologian Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897), historian of art and culture Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901), symbolist painter Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895), physician and biologist, the first scientist to isolate nucleic acid Karl Barth (1886–1968), Swiss Reformed theologian, best known for his involvement with the Confessing Church and Christian resistance to Hitler Richard J. Baer (1892–1940), physicist Véronique Filozof (1904-1977), painter Clara Thalmann (1908–1987), journalist, athlete, and militiawoman Harry Goldschmidt (1910–1986), musicologist Rudy Burckhardt (1914–1999), American filmmaker and photographer Avraham Yaakov Finkel (1926–2016), author Arthur Cohn (born 1927), film producer and multiple Academy Award winner Marion Wiesel (born Mary Renate Erster; 1931–2025), Austrian-American Holocaust survivor, humanitarian, and translator Christa de Carouge (1936–2018), fashion designer Peter Zumthor (born 1943), architect Margrith von Felten (born 1944), politician and lawyer Heidi Köpfer (born 1954), choreographer, dancer and video artist Carlo Strenger (1958–2019), Swiss-Israeli psychologist, philosopher, existential psychoanalyst, and public intellectual Christina Surer (born 1974), racing driver Antoine Konrad (born 1975), DJ and record producer, known as DJ Antoine Martina Gmür (born 1979), visual artist Roger Federer (born 1981), professional tennis player Granit Xhaka (born 1992), professional footballer with 100 caps with Switzerland Fina Girard (born 2001), politician and youth climate activist == Picture gallery == File:St. Albantor.jpg\|St. Alban Gate File:Rathaus (2122646923).jpg\|Rathaus, Basel's Town Hall File:RFHS-3033.jpg\|Protestant Cathedral File:11-11-24-basel-by-ralfr-035.jpg\|University of Basel (est. in 1460) and Martinskirche File:Basel 2006 840.JPG\|Gemsberg File:Basel, Barfüsserplatz IMG 1501 2022-05-15 09.05.jpg\|Barfüsserplatz File:R0014737A.jpg\|Münsterplatz File:Basel, de Basler Münster KGS1597 met de Wettsteinbrükce op de voorgrond IMG 1537 2022-05-15 10.17.jpg\|Wettsteinbrücke File:BIZ Basel.jpg\|Global seat of the Bank for International Settlements File:Haus zum Kirschgarten 2008-03-30.jpg\|Haus zum Kirschgarten File:Basel - Spalentor.jpg\|Spalentor File:Basel (9486189627) (3).jpg\|People swimming in the Rhine File:Freie Strasse (Basel, Schweiz), August 2023.png\|Freie Strasse File:St. Jakobs-Denkmal von Ferdinand Schlöth (1818–1891). Schlacht von 1844 bei St. Jakob an der Birs (1).jpg\|Helvetia statue File:Häuserzeile, Lange Gasse (Basel, Schweiz).png\|Townhouses (early 21st century) File:Villa, Gellertstrasse 25.jpg\|Urban mansion (early 20th century)	[ "Katja Christ", "Flemish painting", "Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland", "Basler Läckerli", "The New Cambridge Modern History", "2000-watt society", "breach of the peace", "Johann Gutenberg", "Mercer (consulting firm)", "martial arts", "Matura", "Clint Capela", "reaction ferry", "Aristocracy", "Museums in Basel", "World Zionist Congress", "Bazeilles", "University Hospital of Basel", "Jura Mountains", "Davidoff Swiss Indoors", "Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland", "Christian Hebraist", "Ammianus Marcellinus", "Clariant", "Zoo Basel", "Majorz", "Actelion", "DJ Antoine", "Avraham Yaakov Finkel", "Roman Catholic", "Riehen", "East Francia", "Art Basel", "Reinach, Basel-Country", "Schengen Agreement", "Johannes Oecolampadius", "Augustinians", "Elisabethenkirche, Basel", "North Sea", "Allschwil", "French Revolutionary Wars", "Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland", "Duchy of Alemannia", "Rötteln Castle", "Geneva", "solidus (coin)", "2013-14 National League B season", "Martina Gmür", "Jacob Burckhardt", "ETH Zurich", "World Zionist Organization", "FDP.The Liberals", "Swiss Architecture Museum", "St. Jakob-Park", "Arthur Cohn", "Basler Messeturm", "Twin towns and sister cities", "port of Rotterdam", "Minergie", "oppidum", "Rauracian Republic", "Weil am Rhein", "Swiss Reformed Church", "Amerbach Cabinet", "collegiate authority", "Romansh language", "Basel GAA", "Harry Goldschmidt", "Roman Gaul", "Association of Tennis Professionals", "Grenzach-Wyhlen", "Education in Switzerland", "EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg", "hydrogen economy", "Museum of Contemporary Art (Basel)", "Granit Xhaka", "Margraviate of Baden", "Basel Minster", "Renaissance", "Black Death", "Mustafa Atici", "Pharmaceutical industry in Switzerland", "Beijing National Stadium", "Basel oppidum", "Renzo Piano", "SNCF", "Binningen, Switzerland", "metropolitan area", "Hermann Hesse", "EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg", "furriers", "Lugano", "Crossair", "John Calvin", "full-time equivalent", "Moutier-Grandval Abbey", "mayor", "St. Jakob Arena", "Swiss Plateau", "Calvinism", "German-speaking Switzerland", "Rhine knee", "Richard J. Baer", "Frank Gehry", "Swiss League", "Johannes Buxtorf II", "AFL Switzerland", "Swiss Standard German", "Tadao Ando", "A3 motorway (Switzerland)", "Giovanni Antonini", "UEFA Euro 2008", "Jacob Bernoulli", "De humani corporis fabrica", "Francia", "Thessaloniki", "Grand Council of Basel-Stadt", "Roche Tower", "Karger Publishers", "Indian rhinoceros", "crozier", "population growth rate", "Andreas Vesalius", "Daniel Bernoulli", "renewable energy", "Balkan Wars", "Beyeler Foundation", "The New York Times", "Jewish Musem of Switzerland", "Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)", "Basel Münster", "BLIS Baselland International School", "Roman Catholic Church", "Homburg, Switzerland", "Alsace", "Basel massacre", "List of museums", "Swiss Broadcasting Corporation", "Precipitation (meteorology)", "FC Basel", "Holy Roman Empire", "Swabian League of Cities", "Joachim Meyer", "Kammerorchester Basel", "Johannes Jakob Buxtorf", "Deutsche Bundesbahn", "French client republic", "Mustermesse Basel", "Roche Tower 2", "Carolingian Empire", "Swiss franc", "Vitra Design Museum", "Roche", "Lake Constance", "biogas", "Lausanne", "Schweizerisch-italienische Primarschule Sandro Pertini", "Raurici", "Treaty of Meerssen", "Global spread of the printing press", "Eva Herzog", "Véronique Filozof", "coat of arms of Basel", "SIS Swiss International School", "Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel", "Treaty of Basel (1499)", "Bottmingen", "UBS AG", "Basel Accord", "Green Party of Switzerland", "Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation", "tremissis", "Basel German", "Christina Surer", "Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig", "Heinrich von Thun", "LSD", "Roman Senate", "Theater Basel", "Crusade of 1267", "Ash Wednesday", "Kunstmuseum Basel", "Collegiate church", "A35 autoroute", "Green Liberal Party of Switzerland", "developing country", "Fondation Beyeler", "Toyama Prefecture", "collection (museum)", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Baden", "Deutsche Bahn", "Basels starke Alternative", "Swiss Basketball League", "guild", "Johann Jakob Herzog", "Zürich", "Augusta Raurica", "Fachhochschule", "induced seismicity in Basel", "Marion Wiesel", "Colmar", "Karl Barth", "Museum of Cultures Basel", "Lörrach", "Schwabe publishing house", "Eurovision Song Contest 2025", "continental Europe", "Basel-Stadt", "Maximilian Ulysses Browne", "Basilea Pharmaceutica", "Álvaro Siza Vieira", "Arnold Böcklin", "West Francia", "Basel problem", "heraldic supporter", "Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport", "Gundeldingen", "Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Sony", "Celtic nations", "antipope Felix V", "Top Secret Drum Corps", "National Council (Switzerland)", "Council of States (Switzerland)", "Vitra (furniture)", "carnival", "Basel Convention", "Switzerland", "Mittelschule", "Greater flamingo", "Pope Pius II", "Johannes Petri (printer)", "Basel Tattoo", "East Germany", "Diocletian", "Roman villa", "Humanism", "Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel", "Gaspard Bauhin", "Swiss International Air Lines", "Muttenz", "Porrentruy", "Christoph von Utenheim", "Carl Jung", "Leopold III, Duke of Austria", "Australian rules football", "Baselland Transport", "Natural History Museum of Basel", "Jews in Switzerland", "Art in America", "Tanja Soland", "Swiss art", "Tabula Peutingeriana", "rent-to-own", "Paul Sacher", "Music Museum (Basel)", "hazardous waste", "Austria", "Orthodoxy", "Pablo Picasso", "overcast", "Basel Regional S-Bahn", "Carlo Strenger", "Peace of Basel", "Anita Fetz", "Zaha Hadid", "Carnival of Basel", "Basel SBB railway station", "Council of Basel", "humanism", "Opernwelt", "Matthäus Merian the Elder", "Münchenstein", "Baselworld", "Basel Committee on Banking Supervision", "Bern", "Köppen climate classification", "Basel Rhine Swim", "1. Liga (ice hockey)", "Concordia Basel", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Besançon", "Desiderius Erasmus", "Igor Stravinsky", "1967 Basel Picasso paintings purchase referendum", "FDP Basel", "Old Catholic Church", "Second International", "Gallic War", "Persecution of Jews during the Black Death", "chemical industry", "Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen", "Swiss military", "BBC", "association football", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Basel", "Clara Thalmann", "Swiss Inventory of Cultural Property of National and Regional Significance", "Christoph Eymann", "Swiss People's Party", "Leonhard Euler", "Massachusetts", "Social Democratic Party of Switzerland", "Albert Hofmann", "Waldenburg, Switzerland", "Johann Jakob Wettstein", "World Gymnaestrada", "Schola Cantorum Basiliensis", "Fina Girard", "Basel Trams", "Basler Zeitung", "Basel Town Hall", "EHC Basel", "banking supervisor", "Zurich", "Basel Paper Mill", "Herzog & de Meuron", "avant-garde", "Tinguely Museum", "Forbes", "Dollhouse Museum", "International School Basel", "Proportional representation", "Theodor Herzl", "Roger Federer", "Swabian War", "State Councillor (Switzerland)", "Franciscan", "Tertiary sector of the economy", "International Handball Federation", "Liberal-Demokratische Partei of Basel", "museum architecture", "Birkhäuser", "Fachmatura", "city", "Liestal", "2019 Swiss federal election", "Michel von Tell", "Kleine Schriften", "printing press", "Roman province", "Germania Superior", "Provincia Maxima Sequanorum", "Middle French", "Hoffmann–La Roche", "Carthusian", "Erasmus of Rotterdam", "UBS", "Basel Badischer Bahnhof", "Battle of Solicinium", "Basel Accords", "Upper Rhine", "Upper Rhenish Circle", "Schaulager", "Stephan Remmler", "ice hockey", "Rotterdam", "Gaelic games", "Haito", "French First Republic", "Old Swiss Confederacy", "Buddhism", "Mario Botta", "Lukas Engelberger", "Trinational Eurodistrict of Basel", "Atheism", "Canton of Basel", "University of Basel", "Strasbourg", "Basel Historical Museum", "Treaty of Verdun", "List of cities in Switzerland", "Friedrich Miescher", "2015 Swiss federal election", "Jakob Bernoulli", "Franks", "Liberal Party of Switzerland", "Bernoulli family", "Lucius Munatius Plancus", "Heidi Köpfer", "Enhanced geothermal systems", "Bettingen", "Basel III", "Basel Boys Choir", "Schengen Area", "Novartis", "Federal Statistical Office (Switzerland)", "Basel Dragons AFC", "Intercity Express", "military tattoo", "Switzerland national football team", "Freie Strasse", "Kaspar Sutter", "Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo", "Karl Jaspers", "Mortgage loan", "Esther Keller", "Friedrich Nietzsche", "La Tène period", "Gasthof zum Goldenen Sternen", "LGV Rhin-Rhône", "Institutes of the Christian Religion", "Hans Holbein the Younger", "Shanghai", "National League (ice hockey)", "Kunsthalle Basel", "Cantons of Switzerland", "Alexander Ostrowski", "Magyar invasion", "Ciba Specialty Chemicals", "Passive house", "Johann Peter Hebel", "Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe", "20 Minuten", "imperial ban", "Basel Sinfonietta", "Hégenheim", "Starwings Basel", "Basel-Landschaft", "Germanus of Granfelden", "New Testament", "Lexikon der schweizerischen Gemeindenamen", "oceanic climate", "Battle of Sempach", "MDPI", "Sandoz", "High Rhine", "Syngenta", "UEFA", "Mässmogge", "Museum Tinguely", "Abidjan", "Johann Froben", "bishopric of Basel", "St. Jakobshalle", "Johann Bernoulli", "House of Habsburg", "Birsfelden", "light rail", "Karlsruhe–Basel high-speed railway", "Prince-Bishopric of Basel", "Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute", "blazon", "Helvetia", "Basel II Accord", "Slighting", "voter turnout", "Wakker Prize", "Peter Zumthor", "David Joris", "Confessing Church", "Rudolph III of Burgundy", "Inzlingen", "Sutsilvan", "Secondary sector of the economy", "Miami Beach", "Alemanni", "European Union Customs Union", "Sibel Arslan", "Upper Burgundy", "Seat of local government", "Middle Bridge, Basel", "Farnsburg Castle", "Protestant Reformation", "Rudy Burckhardt", "Daig (Switzerland)", "Berlin", "basilisk", "British English", "Seoul", "Swisscom-Sendeturm St. Chrischona", "Jean Tinguely", "Pharmaceutical industry", "La Tène culture", "Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin", "central bank", "Northwestern Switzerland", "Holocaust survivor", "MCH Group", "Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan", "BSC Old Boys", "1356 Basel earthquake", "Ludwig van Beethoven", "Chemical industry", "Beat Jans", "Conradin Cramer", "Markgräflerhof", "Tate Modern", "Christa de Carouge", "First Coalition", "European Capital of Culture", "castra", "List of universities in Switzerland", "Schweizerische Bundesbahnen", "Basel I", "Paracelsus", "Bundesautobahn 5", "Bank for International Settlements", "Stephanie Eymann", "Tadeusz Reichstein", "Mulhouse", "Margrith von Felten", "Rhine", "EU Single Market", "Adalbero II of Metz", "Sinfonieorchester Basel", "Huningue", "Vienna" ]
4,913	Black Russian	The Black Russian is a cocktail of vodka and coffee liqueur. It contains 50 ml vodka and 20 ml coffee liqueur, per IBA specified ingredients. The drink is made by pouring the vodka and coffee liqueur over ice cubes or cracked ice in an old-fashioned glass and stirring. The Black Russian is often garnished with a lemon slice and a Luxardo maraschino cherry on a stick. == History == The Black Russian cocktail first appeared in 1949 and is ascribed to Gustave Tops, a Belgian barman, who created it at the Hotel Metropole in Brussels in honor of Perle Mesta, then United States Ambassador to Luxembourg. The cocktail owes its name to the use of vodka, a typical Russian spirit, and the blackness of the coffee liqueur. ==Variations== Dirty Black Russian, Tall Black Russian, Australian Black Russian or Colorado Bulldog: served in a highball glass and topped up with cola. Black Magic: served with a dash of lemon juice and a lemon twist to garnish. Irish Russian or Smooth Black Russian: served with a head of Guinness. Brown Russian: served in a highball glass and topped with ginger ale. Belarusian or white Russian: served with milk or cream. Mind Eraser: topped up with sparkling water. Paralyzer: Made with cola and milk in addition to vodka and coffee liqueur. ==Cultural impact== The cocktail is mentioned by the Italian judicial and criminal witness Alberto Biggiogero during testimony in the trial concerning the death of Giuseppe Uva, a case covered by the television program Un giorno in pretura. In the film The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear, the protagonist Frank Drebin (played by Leslie Nielsen) orders the famous drink in one scene.	[ "Guinness", "milk", "Belgians", "lemon", "Bartender", "United States Ambassador to Luxembourg", "coffee liqueur", "cocktail", "Hotel Metropole, Brussels", "Perle Mesta", "highball", "ice cube", "vodka", "Brussels", "White Russian (cocktail)", "cola", "List of cocktails", "old-fashioned glass", "List of liqueurs", "The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear", "IBA Official Cocktail", "highball glass", "ginger ale", "cream", "Vodka", "lemon twist" ]
4,914	BRP	BRP can mean: Basic Role-Playing game system Bathroom privileges Biometric Residence permit, a type of card in lieu of visa which allows a non-British citizen to work & reside in the UK. Blue Ridge Parkway Bombo Radyo Philippines, Philippine radio network Brief reactive psychosis BRINP2-related peptide, a peptide that helps people to lose weight British Racing Partnership, former British motor racing team BRP Inc., Canadian company Bronx River Parkway in New York Brotherhood of Russian Truth (Bratstvo Russkoy Pravdy), former Russian emigrant organization Barko/Bapor ng Republika ng Pilipinas (ship/steamship of the Republic of the Philippines), Philippine Coast Guard, Philippine Navy, and other government-owned ship name prefix "B.R.P.", song by Victor Jara on album El derecho de vivir en paz Brioche-purl stitch, in brioche knitting Birpara, a town in West Bengal, India	[ "El derecho de vivir en paz", "Bathroom privileges", "Basic Role-Playing", "Philippine Coast Guard", "Birpara", "British Racing Partnership", "Bombo Radyo Philippines", "BRINP2-related peptide", "BRP Inc.", "Bronx River Parkway", "Brotherhood of Russian Truth", "Residence permit", "Brief reactive psychosis", "Blue Ridge Parkway", "brioche knitting", "Philippine Navy" ]
4,915	Bunnies & Burrows	Bunnies & Burrows (B&B) is a role-playing game (RPG) inspired by the 1972 novel Watership Down. Published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, the game is centered on intelligent rabbits. It introduced several innovations to role-playing game design, being the first game to encourage players to have non-humanoid roles, and the first to have detailed martial arts and skill systems. Fantasy Games Unlimited published a similar second edition in 1982. Frog God Games published a revised third edition in 2019 from the original authors. The game was also modified and published by Steve Jackson Games as an official GURPS supplement in 1992. As rabbits, player characters are faced with dangers mirroring those in the real world. The only true "monsters" in the game are humans, but there are many predators and natural hazards. The characters' position in the food chain promotes an emphasis on role-playing and problem solving over combat. ==History== Originally published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, only two years after the first role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons was published; and the players were given the opportunity to take on the role of rabbits. It was the first role-playing game to allow for animal characters, and the first to have rules for martial arts. It detailed how to combine the world of Bunnies & Burrows with other fantasy worlds. This was followed by the mini-adventure "The Jackrabbits' Lair", written by Daniel J. Maxfield, in Pegasus, a magazine published by Judges Guild. A second edition of Bunnies & Burrows was printed in 1982 by Fantasy Games Unlimited, although the continuing popularity of the first edition is evidenced by how it was still being actively played in 2008. During a rise of "retro" games in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Steve Jackson Games entered negotiations with Dennis Sustare and Scott Robinson, the current owners of the Bunnies & Burrows copyright, to publish an official GURPS supplement. In 1988, O'Sullivan wrote an unofficial conversion of Bunnies & Burrows to GURPS while the negotiations continued. under their "Rules for Free Fan-Supplements and Articles". In 2019, Frog God Games released a 3rd edition of the game after a successful Kickstarter campaign. ==Gameplay== {{Blockquote\| The original game was very innovative for its time (less than two years after the first published RPG). Not only could you play non-humanoids for the first time, but it was the first role-playing game to have detailed martial arts rules, the first attempt at a skill system, and the first RPG to appeal as widely to women as to men. In addition, it was also the first role-playing game to have detailed martial arts rules (renamed "Bun Fu" in GURPS Bunnies & Burrows) and the first attempt at a skill system. Players of Bunnies & Burrows take the role of rabbits as their player characters. Interaction with many different animal species is part of normal gameplay. Humans, whose thought processes and motivations are completely alien, are the only monster to be encountered. Bunnies & Burrows has the advantage of offering players an intuitive grasp of relative dangers and appropriate actions not possible in game worlds that are substantially fictional. For example, a player is told their character is confronted with a fox. There is an immediate intuition on the amount of peril a rabbit is facing. Since player characters are substantially weaker than many of the dangers they face, the game is one of the first to encourage problem solving and outwitting obstacles, rather than out-fighting them. He concluded that "B & B is probably worth the retail price [...] at least to a FRP fan. The writing style is intelligent, lucid, and occasionally witty; the rules are workable [...] the art, as I think I pointed out, is so bad it's great; and the whole idea is appealing." James Davis Nicoll in 2020 for Black Gate said "In most games, the PCs are functionally apex predators. Not so in B. Dennis Sustare and Scott Robinson's Watership Down-inspired Bunnies and Burrows, in which you play a rabbit, a tasty, tasty rabbit. Filled with legitimately innovative game mechanics, it provided a combat system the rabbits were very ill-advised to use, as well as a skill system hampered only by the fact the rabbits were, well, as smart as rabbits. Human NPCs fill the Cosmic Horror niche: enigmatic, powerful, and deadly." In his 2023 book Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, "B&B is the first game to push beyond the fantasy battle boundaries established by Dungeons & Dragons. This step [helped] the hobby arrive at the sort of indie games that focus on collaborative storytelling and lightweight, intuitive rules." ==Other reviews== Fantastic Science Fiction v27 n10 The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games ==Publications== ===Books=== Bunnies & Burrows (1976), Fantasy Games Unlimited Bunnies & Burrows (Second edition) (1982), Fantasy Games Unlimited Bunnies & Burrows (Third edition) (2019), Frog God Games ===Articles=== Different Worlds Present the World of Druid's Valley: A Bunnies & Burrows Campaign (B. Dennis Sustare, 1979). Different Worlds, Chaosium The Jackrabbits' Lair (Daniel J. Maxfield). Pegasus, Judges Guild	[ "player characters", "food chain", "Dungeons & Dragons", "List of GURPS books", "Pegasus (game magazine)", "Adventure (role-playing games)", "martial arts", "role-playing game system", "Metagaming Concepts", "En Garde!", "Kickstarter", "1976 in games", "RPGnet", "humanoid", "The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games", "GURPS Bunnies & Burrows", "Risus", "The Space Gamer", "David M. Ewalt", "Steve Jackson Games", "Richard Adams", "Chaosium", "statistic (role-playing games)", "Black Gate (magazine)", "Different Worlds", "Watership Down", "fox", "Role-playing game", "rabbit", "percentile dice", "Fantastic Science Fiction", "Steve Jackson (American game designer)", "Player (game)", "fantasy world", "role-playing game", "Fictional universe", "Editions of Dungeons & Dragons", "Judges Guild", "Human", "Steffan O'Sullivan", "player character", "rabbits", "character class", "monster", "GURPS", "Fantasy Games Unlimited" ]
4,916	Bundaberg Rum	Bundaberg Rum, colloquially known as Bundy, is a dark rum owned by Diageo. It is produced in Bundaberg East, Queensland, Australia, by the Bundaberg Distilling Company. In 2010, the Bundaberg Distilling Company was inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame. ==History== Bundaberg Rum originated because the local sugar mills had a problem with what to do with the waste molasses after the sugar was extracted. Molasses was heavy and difficult to transport, and the costs of converting it to stock feed were rarely worth the effort. Sugar men first began to think of the profits that could be made from distilling. The key meeting was held at the Royal Hotel on 1 August 1885. W. M. C. Hickson served as the chairman, and other notables in attendance included all the big sugar mill owners of that time: W. G. Farquhar, F. L. Nott, T. Austin, J. Gale, S. McDougall, T. Penny, S. H. Bravo and A. H. Young. All became the first directors of the company, which started with a capital of £5,000 converted into $9,725.18. The Bundaberg Distilling Company began its operations in 1888, and Bundaberg rum was first produced in 1889. Production ceased from 1907 to 1914, and from 1936 to 1939, after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby Burnett River. Many fish were killed due to the liquor runoff into the river. Christsen Pty Ltd operated their own Bundaberg Rum bottling plant in Bourbong Street, Bundaberg, at the rear of their large grocery and hardware business in the centre of town. The spirit was sold at UP and OP strength from their business. In 1961, the company introduced the polar bear as its unusual choice of mascot, to imply that the rum could ward off the coldest chill. In 2000, the Bundaberg Rum company and the distillery were sold to British company Diageo. In 2014, a decision by Diageo to relocate the bottling operations of Bundaberg Rum to the western Sydney suburb of Huntingwood resulted in job losses in Bundaberg. The decision drew criticism from various levels of Queensland politics. The Premier, Campbell Newman, said it was a disappointing move, particularly for a region that had suffered devastating floods in recent years. Bundaberg mayor, Mal Forman, was also disappointed and concerned about the tourism impact. A Diageo spokeswoman later clarified the situation, saying some premium products, such as the Master Distillers Collection, would continue to be bottled in Bundaberg. "This was not a decision we have taken lightly, however it is a necessary one to ensure the longer term sustainability of the distillery. We remain absolutely committed to Bundaberg and the distillery and will continue to invest and focus on our core business of distilling, maturing and blending great quality rum in Bundaberg as we have done for the last 125 years." In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Bundaberg Rum Distillery was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "location". The State Library of Queensland holds correspondence and financial records from the Bundaberg Distilling Co. Ltd. Records for years 1907 to 1946. ==Variant flavours== Bundaberg Rum UP 37% Bundaberg Rum Original 100 Proof 50% Bundaberg Rum Overproof 57.7% Bundaberg Red 37% Bundaberg Red 100 Proof 50% Bundaberg Five 37% Bundaberg Select Vat Aged 6 Years 37% Bundaberg Mutiny Spiced Rum 37% Master Distillers' Collection Small Batch 40% Master Distillers' Collection Small Batch – Vintage Barrel 40% Master Distillers Collection 280 40% Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2004 – Black Glass 40% Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2004 – Clear Glass 40% Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2005 – Clear Glass 40% Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2014 40% Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2015 40% Bundaberg Tropics – Pineapple & Coconut 23.5% Bundaberg Royal Liqueur 20% Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Banana and Toffee 20% Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Coffee and Chocolate 20% Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Salted Caramel 20% Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Vanilla Spiced 20% Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Xmas Puding with Brandy 20% Bundaberg Royal Rum Ball 20% Bundy Wings Heritage Label Original 37% ==Sponsorship== Bundaberg Rum is a major sponsor of the Australian Wallabies rugby union team and also sponsors the Bundaberg Rum Rugby Series. Bundaberg is also a sponsor of the NSW Waratahs. Bundaberg Rum sponsored the rugby league ANZAC Test till 2009. Bundaberg Rum signed a 5-year deal with the NRL to be the official dark rum of the NRL. They are also the naming-rights sponsor of NRL Friday Night Football. From 2009 until 2011, Bundaberg Rum sponsored V8 Supercar team Walkinshaw Racing. ==Recognition== Bundaberg Rum has been distinguished with numerous awards. In 2011, Bundaberg Rum's Master Distillers' Collective rum was launched, with the first three releases, the 10 Year Old, Port Barrel and Golden Reserve, winning awards in the global stage. ==Advertising== Bundaberg Rum has also been criticised for targeting its advertising towards young people and boys, through television commercials during NRL broadcasts, and other promotions. A series of advertisements featuring the Bundaberg Rum bear, a polar bear known as Bundy R. Bear, were produced by advertising agency Leo Burnett to align the product 'with a larrikin approach to Australian mateship'. The Bundaberg Rum bear first appeared in 1961. It was designed to soften rum's aggressive image and broaden its appeal from the traditional older male drinker to a more sociable audience. The advertisements have been cited as a favourite among Australia's youth.	[ "distillation", "Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame", "alcohol proof", "Leo Burnett Worldwide", "Alcohol advertising", "rum", "Beenleigh Rum", "molasses", "Queensland", "Campbell Newman", "Bundaberg East", "2011 Clipsal 500 Adelaide", "State Library of Queensland", "Huntingwood, New South Wales", "Fabian Coulthard", "Queensland Government", "Australia national rugby union team", "pound sterling", "Q150", "Bundy R. Bear", "Australia's big things", "Alcohol by volume", "Holden Commodore VE", "Burnett River", "polar bear", "Bundaberg Rum", "List of rum producers", "ANZAC Test", "New South Wales Waratahs", "1936 Bundaberg distillery fire", "Q150 Icons", "V8 Supercar", "National Rugby League", "Walkinshaw Racing", "Bundaberg Brewed Drinks", "Diageo", "Premier of Queensland", "rugby union" ]
4,917	Ben Nevis	Ben Nevis ( ; , ) is the highest mountain in Scotland, the United Kingdom, and the British Isles. Ben Nevis stands at the western end of the Grampian Mountains in the Highland region of Lochaber, close to the town of Fort William. The mountain is a popular destination, attracting an estimated 150,000 visitors a year, The mountain has hosted a foot race since 1898. The cliffs of the north face are among the highest in Scotland, providing classic scrambles and rock climbs of all difficulties for climbers and mountaineers. They are also the principal locations in Scotland for ice climbing. The cliffs of the north face can be viewed from the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut, a private alpine hut. The summit is The summit is a stony plateau (a felsenmeer). It features a number of monuments and the ruins of an observatory which was continuously staffed between 1883 and 1904. The meteorological data collected during this period is still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather. C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber after a period spent working at the observatory. Ben Nevis is the namesake for a distillery at its base, a packet ship, a mountain in Svalbard, a mountain in Hong Kong, and a cartoon character. == Etymology == The name comes from the Gaelic , meaning "mountain of the Nevis" (referring to the river that skirts the base of the mountain). W. F. H. Nicolaisen, however, favoured a derivation from the Indo-European root *nebh-, which is connected with water and clouds, giving a meaning of "the moist one" or "the misty one". As with many Scottish mountains, Ben Nevis is often referred to locally simply as "the Ben". == Geography == Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbours to the northeast, , to which it is linked by the Arête, and . All four are Munros. The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise in about above the River Nevis flowing down Glen Nevis – the longest and steepest hill slope in Britain – with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side. To the north, by contrast, cliffs drop some to (). In addition to the main summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary "tops" listed in Munro's Tables, both of which are called ("red hill"). The higher of these, at , is to the northwest, and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the Fort William area. The other () juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain's southwestern side. A lower hill, (), is further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch, . The tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis's broad western flank. === Summit === The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony plateau of about . The summit is an example of a felsenmeer, a surface covered by rocks that are not exposed by mass wasting. The highest point is marked with a large, solidly built cairn atop which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point. The summit is the highest ground in any direction for before the Scandinavian Mountains in western Norway are reached. The Peace Memorial, on the summit, is a cairn which was erected on V J Day, 15 August 1945, by the Young Men's Class of Vicar Street Methodist Church, Dudley, led by Bert Bissell, "to the glory of God and in memory of the fallen of all races". They carried the materials, including a 2cwt memorial stone, to the summit. The inscription declares it to be "Britain's highest war memorial". A second plaque was added in 1965, brought by helicopter: "A tribute to the fallen of all nations from the youth associated with the World Federation of United Nations Associations and the International Student Movement of the United Nations." It is variously known as the Ben Nevis War Memorial, Ben Nevis Peace Memorial, or The Fort William-Dudley Memorial and Peace Cairn A 2006 proposal to move the cairn to the foot of the Ben, was opposed by people in both Fort William and Dudley. The view from the UK's highest point is extensive. Under ideal conditions, it can extend to over , including such mountains as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and to Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. In 2016, the height of Ben Nevis was officially remeasured to be 1344.527m by Ordnance Survey. The height of Ben Nevis will therefore be shown on new Ordnance Survey maps as instead of the now obsolete value of . The average winter temperature was around , In an average year the summit sees 261 gales, in Inverness and in London. Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer. Snow can be found on the mountain for approximately 7 months out of the year. == Geology == Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met a cataclysmic end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago. Evidence near the summit shows light-coloured granite (which had cooled in subterranean chambers several kilometres beneath the surface) lies among dark basaltic lavas (that form only on the surface). The two lying side by side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera (2nd millennium BC) or Krakatoa (1883). The mountain is now all that remains of the imploded inner dome of the volcano. Its form has been extensively shaped by glaciation. Research has shown igneous rock from the Devonian period (around 400 million years ago) intrudes into the surrounding metamorphic schists; the intrusions take the form of a series of concentric ring dikes. The innermost of these, known as the Inner Granite, constitutes the southern bulk of the mountain above , and also the neighbouring ridge of ; forms part of the Outer Granite, which is redder in colour. The summit dome itself, together with the steep northern cliffs, is composed of andesite and basaltic lavas. == History == The first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on 17 August 1771 by James Robertson, an Edinburgh botanist, who was in the region to collect botanical specimens. Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams, who provided the first account of the mountain's geological structure. John Keats climbed the mountain in 1818, comparing the ascent to "mounting ten St. Pauls without the convenience of a staircase". The following year William MacGillivray, who was later to become a distinguished naturalist, reached the summit only to find "fragments of earthen and glass ware, chicken bones, corks, and bits of paper". It was not until 1847 that Ben Nevis was confirmed by the Ordnance Survey as the highest mountain in Britain and Ireland, ahead of its rival Ben Macdui. A meteorological observatory on the summit was first proposed by the Scottish Meteorological Society (SMS) in the late-1870s, at a time when similar observatories were being built around the world to study the weather at high altitude. The building was staffed full-time until 1904, when it was closed due to inadequate funding. The twenty years worth of readings still provide the most comprehensive set of data on mountain weather in Great Britain. The ruins of the observatory can still be seen on the summit. An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather. The first path to the summit was built at the same time as the observatory and was designed to allow ponies to carry up supplies, with a maximum gradient of one in five. A statue of Alexander and the car was unveiled in Fort William in 2018. In 2000, the Ben Nevis Estate, comprising all of the south side of the mountain including the summit, was bought by the Scottish conservation charity the John Muir Trust. On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain. The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier. ==Outdoor recreation== === Hiking and climbing === Ben Nevis is a popular hiking destination, with 150,000 people a year visiting the peak. The 1883 Pony Track to the summit (also known as the Ben Path, the Mountain Path or the Tourist Route) remains the simplest and most popular route of ascent. It begins at Achintee on the east side of Glen Nevis about from Fort William town centre, at around above sea level. Bridges from the Visitor Centre and the youth hostel now allow access from the west side of Glen Nevis. The path climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe (colloquially known as the 'Halfway Lochan') at 570 m, then ascends the remaining up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig-zags. A route popular with experienced hillwalkers starts at Torlundy, a few miles north-east of Fort William on the A82 road, and follows the path alongside the . It can also be reached from Glen Nevis by following the Pony Track as far as , then descending slightly to the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (known as the CIC Hut), a private mountain hut above sea level, owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club In common with other approaches on this side of the mountain, it has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face, which are hidden from the Pony Track. (It was not climbed from bottom to top in entirety for another two years). The Scottish Mountaineering Club's Charles Inglis Clark hut was built below the north face in Coire Leis in 1929. Because of its remote location, it is said to be the only genuine alpine hut in Britain. the closest ridge to the summit, is "technically the hardest of the Nevis ridges in summer and winter". Between the Tower and Observatory Ridges are the Tower and Gardyloo Gullies; the latter takes its name from the cry of (French for "watch out for the water") formerly used in Scottish cities as a warning when householders threw their waste out of a tenement window into the street. The gully's top wall was the refuse pit for the summit observatory. Many seminal lines were recorded before the First World War by pioneering Scottish climbers like J. N. Collie, Willie Naismith, Harold Raeburn, and William and Jane Inglis Clark. Other classic routes were put up by G. Graham Macphee, Dr James H. B. Bell and others between the Wars; these include Bell's "Long Climb", at reputedly the longest sustained climb on the British mainland. In summer 1943 conscientious objector Brian Kellett made a phenomenal seventy-four repeat climbs and seventeen first ascents including fourteen solos, The north face is also one of Scotland's foremost venues for winter mountaineering and ice climbing and holds snow until quite late in the year; in a good year, routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring. Most of the possible rock routes are also suitable as winter climbs, including the four main ridges; Tower Ridge, for example, is grade IV on the Scottish winter grade, having been upgraded in 2009 by the Scottish Mountaineering Club after requests by the local Mountain Rescue Team, there being numerous benightments and incidents every winter season. In February 1960 James R. Marshall and Robin Clark Smith recorded six major new ice routes in only eight days including Orion Direct (V,5 400m); this winter version of Bell's Long Climb was "the climax of a magnificent week's climbing by Smith and Marshall, and the highpoint of the step-cutting era". The following years saw several improvements on Swan's record, but the first competitive race was held on 3 June 1898 under Scottish Amateur Athletic Association rules. Ten competitors ran the course, which started at the Lochiel Arms Hotel in Banavie and was thus longer than the route from Fort William; the winner was 21-year-old Hugh Kennedy, a gamekeeper at Tor Castle, who finished (coincidentally with Swan's original run) in 2 hours 41 minutes. It starts and finishes at the Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William, and is long with of ascent. Due to the seriousness of the mountain environment, entry is restricted to those who have completed three hill races, and runners must carry waterproofs, a hat, gloves and a whistle; anyone who has not reached the summit after two hours is turned back. As of 2018, the record for the men's race has stood unbroken since 1984, when Kenny Stuart of Keswick Athletic Club won with a time of 1:25:34. The record for the women's race of 1:43:01 was set in 2018 by Victoria Wilkinson. In 2018 Jöttnar pro team member Tim Howell BASE jumped off Ben Nevis which was covered by BBC Scotland. On 6 May 2019, a team of highliners completed a crossing above the Gardyloo Gully, a new altitude record for the UK. Also in May 2019, a team of 12, led by Dundee artist Douglas Roulston carried a tall statue of the DC Thomson character Oor Wullie to the top of the mountain. The statue, which had been painted by Roulston with a 360-degree scene of the view from the summit was later sold at the Oor Wullie Big Bucket Trail charity auction to raise money for a number of Scottish children's charities. Ben Nevis is one of the three mountains climbed in the National Three Peaks Challenge, where participants aim to climb Ben Nevis, Scafell Pike and Snowdon, often within 24 hours and using motor transport between them. The total height climbed is and the distance walked , with about of driving. It has been estimated that some 30,000 people attempt the challenge each year, often as part of organised groups, and the impact on the local areas has been criticised. Various records have been set for the challenge, including James Forrest's fastest self-supported completion in 16 days, 13 hours, 59 mins in 2021 and Imogen Boddy's fastest female completion on foot, with support, in 6 days 5 hours 43 mins, in 2024. In 2022 the Nevis Landscape Trust introduced a registration system for charity events on Ben Nevis. === Safety === Ben Nevis's popularity, climate and complex topography contribute to a high number of mountain rescue incidents. In 1999 there were 41 rescues and four fatalities on the mountain. Two avalanches occurred on Ben Nevis in 2009 and 2016, causing the deaths of two people on each occasion. In another two avalanches that occurred in 1970 and 2019, three people died on each occasion. A climber died in an avalanche on the north face of the mountain in 2022. ==== Navigation ==== Some incidents arise over difficulties in navigating to or from the summit, In the late 1990s, Lochaber Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau to assist walkers attempting the descent in foggy conditions. These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers, sparking controversy in mountaineering circles on the ethics of such additions. Critics argued that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man-made intrusion into the natural landscape, which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers' sense of responsibility for their own safety. Subsequently, the John Muir Trust cleared a number of smaller informal cairns in 2016 which had been erected by visitors, which were seen as dangerous as they could confuse walkers using them for navigation. ==In popular culture== The Ben Nevis Distillery is a single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain, near Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William. Founded in 1825 by John McDonald (known as "Long John"), it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland, and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William. The water used to make the whisky comes from the , the stream that flows from Ben Nevis's northern corrie. "Ben Nevis" 80/‒ organic ale is, by contrast, brewed in Bridge of Allan near Stirling. Ben Nevis was the name of a White Star Line packet ship which in 1854 carried the group of immigrants who were to become the Wends of Texas. At least another eight vessels have carried the name since then. A mountain in Svalbard is also named Ben Nevis, after the Scottish peak. It is high and is south of the head of Raudfjorden, Albert I Land, in the northwestern part of the island of Spitsbergen. Hung Fa Chai, a hill in Northeast New Territories of Hong Kong was given the name Ben Nevis by British surveyors in 1901. Wee Ben Nevis was a character appearing in The Beano comic for a few years from 1974, drawn by Vic Neill, in a feature described by Auberon Waugh as having "strong undertones of Scottish Nationalism by its untrue suggestion that Scotsmen have superhuman strength despite their diminutive stature".	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H. B. Bell" ]
4,918	Bipolar I disorder	Bipolar I disorder (BD-I; pronounced "type one bipolar disorder") is a type of bipolar spectrum disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, with or without mixed or psychotic features. Most people also, at other times, have one or more depressive episodes. Typically, these manic episodes can last at least 7 days for most of each day to the extent that the individual may need medical attention, while the depressive episodes last at least 2 weeks. It is a type of bipolar disorder and conforms to the classic concept of manic-depressive illness, which can include psychosis during mood episodes. ==Diagnosis== The essential feature of bipolar I disorder is a clinical course characterized by the occurrence of one or more manic episodes or mixed episodes. Often, individuals have had one or more major depressive episodes. One episode of mania is sufficient to make the diagnosis of bipolar disorder; the person may or may not have a history of major depressive disorder. Diagnosis for bipolar II disorder does not include a full manic episode; instead, it requires the occurrence of both a hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode. Bipolar I disorder often coexists with other disorders including PTSD, substance use disorders, and a variety of mood disorders. Studies suggest that psychiatric comorbidities correlate with further impairment of day-to-day life. Up to 40% of people with bipolar disorder also present with PTSD, with higher rates occurring in women and individuals with bipolar I disorder. ===Medical assessment=== Regular medical assessments are performed to rule-out secondary causes of mania and depression. Drug screening includes recreational drugs, particularly synthetic cannabinoids, and exposure to toxins. ===Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV-TR)=== ===Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5)=== In May 2013, American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). There are several proposed revisions to occur in the diagnostic criteria of Bipolar I Disorder and its subtypes. For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40 (most recent episode hypomanic) and 296.4x (most recent episode manic), the proposed revision includes the following specifiers: with psychotic features, with mixed features, with catatonic features, with rapid cycling, with anxiety (mild to severe), with suicide risk severity, with seasonal pattern, and with postpartum onset. Bipolar I Disorder 296.5x (most recent episode depressed) will include all of the above specifiers plus the following: with melancholic features and with atypical features. There have also been proposed revisions to criterion B of the diagnostic criteria for a Hypomanic Episode, which is used to diagnose For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40, Most Recent Episode Hypomanic. Criterion B lists "inflated self-esteem, flight of ideas, distractibility, and decreased need for sleep" as symptoms of a Hypomanic Episode. This has been confusing in the field of child psychiatry because these symptoms closely overlap with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Lithium is the mainstay in the management of bipolar disorder but it has a narrow therapeutic range and typically requires monitoring Anticonvulsants, such as valproate, carbamazepine, or lamotrigine Atypical antipsychotics, such as quetiapine, risperidone, olanzapine, or aripiprazole Electroconvulsive therapy, a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect Antidepressant-induced mania occurs in 20–40% of people with bipolar disorder. Mood stabilizers, especially lithium, may protect against this effect, but some research contradicts this. A frequent problem in these individuals is non-adherence to pharmacological treatment; long-acting injectable antipsychotics may contribute to solving this issue in some patients. A review of validated treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder by international bodies was published in 2020. ==Prognosis== Bipolar I usually has a poor prognosis, which is associated with substance abuse, psychotic features, depressive symptoms, and inter-episode depression. A manic episode can be so severe that it requires hospitalization. An estimated 63% of all BP-I related mania results in hospitalization. The natural course of BP-I, if left untreated, leads to episodes becoming more frequent or severe over time. But with proper treatment, individuals with BP-I can lead a healthy lifestyle. ===Education=== Psychosocial interventions can be used for managing acute depressive episodes and for maintenance treatment to aid in relapse prevention. Information on the condition, importance of regular sleep patterns, routines and eating habits and the importance of compliance with medication as prescribed. Behavior modification through counseling can have positive influence to help reduce the effects of risky behavior during the manic phase. Additionally, the lifetime prevalence for bipolar I disorder is estimated to be 1%.	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4,921	Bacardi	Bacardi Limited ( , , ) is the largest privately held, family-owned spirits company in the world. Originally known for its Bacardí brand of white rum, it now has a portfolio of more than 200 brands and labels. Founded in Cuba in 1862 by the Spanish businessman Facundo Bacardí Massó, Bacardi Limited has been family-owned for seven generations, and employs more than 8,000 people with sales in approximately 170 countries. Bacardi Limited is the group of companies as a whole and includes Bacardi International Limited. Bacardi Limited is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda, and has a board of directors led by the original founder's great-great-grandson, Facundo L. Bacardí, the board's chairman. The company’s Cathedral of Rum in Puerto Rico, the largest rum distillery in the world, produces 85% of Bacardi rum worldwide, while the remaining 15% originates from distilleries in Mexico and India. ==History== ===Early history=== Facundo Bacardí Massó, a Spanish wine merchant, was born in Sitges, Catalonia, Spain, on October 16, 1814, and immigrated to Santiago, Cuba, in 1830. At the time, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, and rarely sold in upmarket taverns or purchased by the growing emerging middle class on the island. Facundo began attempting to "tame" rum by isolating a proprietary strain of yeast harvested from local sugar cane still used in Bacardí production today. This yeast gives Bacardí rum its flavour profile. After experimenting with several techniques for close to ten years, Facundo pioneered charcoal rum filtration, which removed impurities from his rum. Facundo then created two separate distillates that he could blend together, balancing a variety of flavors: Aguardiente (a robust, flavorful distillate) and Redestillado (a refined, delicate distillate). Once Facundo achieved the perfect balance of flavors by marrying the two distillates together, he purposefully aged the rum in white oak barrels to develop subtle flavors and characteristics while mellowing out those that were unwanted. The final product was the first clear, light-bodied, and mixable "white" rum in the world. Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavour as local sales began to grow, Facundo and his brother José purchased a Santiago de Cuba distillery on October 16, 1862, which housed a still made of copper and cast iron. In the rafters of this building lived fruit bats – the inspiration for the Bacardi bat logo. It was the idea of Doña Amalia, Facundo's wife, to adopt the bat to the rum bottle when she recognized its symbolism of family unity, good health, and good fortune to her husband's homeland of Spain. This logo was pragmatic considering the high illiteracy rate in the 19th century, enabling customers to easily identify the product. The 1880s and 1890s were turbulent times for Cuba and the company. Emilio Bacardí, Don Facundo's eldest son, known for his forward thinking in both his professional and personal life and a passionate advocate for Cuban Independence was imprisoned twice for having fought in the rebel army against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence. Emilio's brothers, Facundo and José, and their brother-in-law Enrique 'Henri' Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war. With Don Facundo's passing in 1886, Doña Amalia sought refuge by exile in Kingston, Jamaica. At the end of the Cuban War of Independence during the US occupation of Cuba, "The Original Cuba Libre" and the Daiquiri cocktails were both created, with the then Cuban based Bacardí rum. In 1899, Emilio Bacardí became the first democratically elected mayor of Santiago, appointed US General Leonard Wood. During his time in public office, Emilio established schools and hospitals, completed municipal projects such as the famous Padre Pico Street and the Bacardi Dam, financed the creation of parks, and decorated the city of Santiago with monuments and sculptures. In Santiago, his brother Facundo M. Bacardí continued to manage the company along with Schueg, who began the company's international expansion by opening bottling plants in Barcelona (1910) and New York City (1916).In 1922, the family completed the expansion and renovation of the original distillery in Santiago, increasing the site's rum production capacity. In 1930 Schueg oversaw the construction and opening of Edificio Bacardí in Havana, regarded as one of the finest Art Deco buildings in Latin America, as the third generation of the Bacardí family entered the business. In 1927, Bacardi ventured outside the realm of spirits for the first time, with the introduction of an authentic Cuban Malt beer: Hatuey beer. Bacardi's success in transitioning into an international brand and company was due mostly to Schueg, who branded Cuba as "The home of rum", and Bacardí as "The king of rums and the rum of Kings". Expansion began overseas, first to Mexico in 1931, where architects Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe and Felix Candela designed office buildings and a bottling plant in Mexico City during the 1950s. The building complex was added to the tentative list of UNESCO's World Heritage Site list on 20 November 2001. In 1936, Bacardi began producing rum on U.S. territory in Puerto Rico after Prohibition which enabled the company to sell rum tariff-free in the United States. The company later expanded to the United States in 1944 with the opening of Bacardi Imports, Inc. in Manhattan, New York City. During World War II, the company was led by Schueg's son-in-law, José "Pepin" Bosch. Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City and became Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in 1949. ===Cuban Revolution=== During the Cuban Revolution in 1959, the Bacardí family (and hence the company) supported and aided the rebels. However, after the triumph of the revolutionaries, and turn to communism, the family maintained a fierce opposition to Fidel Castro's policies in Cuba in the 1960s. In his book, Bacardi and the Long Fight for Cuba, Tom Gjelten describes how the Bacardí family and the company left Cuba in exile after the Cuban government confiscated the company's Cuban assets without compensation on 14 October 1960, particularly nationalizing and banning all private property on the island as well as all bank accounts. However, due to concerns over the previous Cuban leader, Fulgencio Batista, the company had started foreign branches a few years before the revolution; the company moved the ownership of its trademarks, assets and proprietary formulas out of the country to the Bahamas prior to the revolution and already produced Bacardí rum at other distillery sites in Puerto Rico and Mexico. This helped the company survive after the Cuban government confiscated all Bacardí assets without compensation. In 1965, over 100 years after the company was established in Cuba, Bacardi established new roots and found a new home with global headquarters in Hamilton, Bermuda. In February 2019, Bacardi's CEO, Mahesh Madhavan, stated that Bacardí's global headquarters would remain in Bermuda for the next "500 years" and that "Bermuda is our home now." In 1999, Otto Reich, a lobbyist in Washington on behalf of Bacardí, drafted section 211 of the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Appropriations Act, FY1999, a bill that became known as the Bacardi Act. Section 211 denied trademark protection to products of Cuban businesses expropriated after the Cuban revolution, a provision sought by Bacardí. The act was aimed primarily at the Havana Club brand in the US. The brand was created by the José Arechabala S.A. and nationalised without compensation in the Cuban revolution, the Arechabala family left Cuba and stopped producing rum. They, therefore, allowed the US trademark registration for "Havana Club" to lapse in 1973. Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the US in 1976. This new law was drafted to invalidate the trademark registration. Section 211 has been challenged unsuccessfully by the Cuban government and the European Union in US courts. It was ruled illegal by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 and 2002. The US Congress has yet to re-examine the matter. The Cuban government assigned the brand to Pernod Ricard in 1993. Bacardi rekindled the story of the Arechabala family and Havana Club in the United States when it launched the AMPARO Experience in 2018, an immersive play experience based in Miami, the city with the highest population of Cuban exiles. AMPARO "is the story of the family's entire history being erased and their heritage 'stolen'" according to playwright Vanessa Garcia. === Bacardi in the United States === In 1964, Bacardi opened new US offices in Miami, Florida. Exiled Cuban architect Enrique Gutierrez created a hurricane-proof building using a system of steel cables and pulleys that allowed the building to move slightly in the event of a strong shock. The steel cables are anchored into the bedrock and extend through marble-covered shafts up to the top floor, where they are led over large pulleys. Outside, on both sides of the eight-story building, more than 28,000 tiles painted and fired by Brazilian artist Francisco Brennand, depicting abstract blue flowers, were placed on the walls according to the artist's exact specifications. In 1973, the company commissioned the square building in the plaza. Architect Ignacio Carrera-Justiz used cantilevered construction, a style invented by Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright observed how well trees with taproots withstood hurricane-force winds. The building, raised off the ground around a central core, features four massive walls made of sections of inch-thick hammered glass mural tapestries designed and manufactured in France. The striking design of the annex, affectionately known as the 'Jewel Box' building, came from a painting by German artist Johannes M. Dietz. In 2006, Bacardi USA leased a 15-story headquarters complex in Coral Gables, Florida. At the time, Bacardi had employees in seven buildings across Miami-Dade County. Bacardi vacated its former headquarters buildings on Biscayne Boulevard in Midtown Miami. The building currently serves as the headquarters of the National YoungArts Foundation. Miami citizens began a campaign to label the buildings as "historic". The Bacardi Buildings Complex has been a locally protected historic resource since Oct. 6, 2009, when it was designated by unanimous decision by the Historic and Environmental Preservation Board. In 2007 Chad Oppenheim, the head of Oppenheim Architecture + Design, described the Bacardi buildings as "elegant, with a Modernist [look combined with] a local flavour". In April 2009, University of Miami professor of architecture Allan Schulman said "Miami's brand is its identity as a tropical city. The Bacardi buildings are exactly the sort that resonate with our consciousness of what Miami is about." The American headquarters is in Coral Gables, Florida. ===Bacardi and Cuba today=== Bacardi drinks are not easily found in Cuba today. The main brand of rum in Cuba is Havana Club, produced by a company that was confiscated and nationalized by the government following the revolution. Bacardi later bought the brand from the original owners, the Arechabala family. In partnership with the French company Pernod Ricard, the Cuban government sells its Havana Club products internationally, except in the United States and its territories. Bacardi created the Real Havana Club rum based on the original recipe from the Arechabala family, manufactures it in Puerto Rico, and sells it in the United States. Bacardi continues to fight in the courts, attempting to legalize their Havana Club trademark outside the United States. === Acquisitions === Bacardi Limited has made numerous acquisitions to diversify away from the eponymous Bacardí rum brand. In 1993, Bacardi merged with Martini & Rossi, the Italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines, creating the Bacardi-Martini group. Other associated brands include the Real Havana Club, Drambuie Scotch whisky liqueur, DiSaronno Amaretto, Eristoff vodka, Cazadores Tequila, B&B and Bénédictine liqueurs. In 1998, Bacardi company acquired John Dewar & Sons, Ltd and Bombay Sapphire from Diageo for $2 billion. In 2004, Bacardi purchased Grey Goose, a French-made vodka, from Sidney Frank for $2 billion. In 2006 Bacardi purchased New Zealand vodka brand 42 Below. In 2018, Bacardi purchased tequila manufacturer Patrón Spirits Company for $5.1 billion. In 2023, Bacardi acquired the super-premium mezcal brand, Ilegal Mezcal. In December 2023, Bacardi took majority control of Irish whiskey producer Teeling. == Brands == Bacardi beverage brands include: Beer: Hatuey Cachaça: Leblon Cognac: Baron Otard, D'ussé Gin: Bombay Sapphire, Bosford Rose, Oxley Liqueur: Bénédictine, Cedlila, Get, Martini Spirito, Patrón Citrónge, St-Germain Mezcal: Illegal Rum: Bacardí, Banks, Castillo, Facundo, Havana Club (USA only), Pyrat, Santa Teresa, Single Cane Estate Sparkling wine: Martini Alta Langa, Martini Asti, Martini Grandi Augur, Martini Magici Istanti, Martini Prosecco, Martini Riserva di Montellera. Martini Rosé Tequila: Camino Real, Cazadores, Corzo, Patrón Vermouth: Martini, Noilly Prat Vodka: Eristoff, Grey Goose, Russian Prince, Ultimat Vodka, 42 Below American whiskey: Angel's Envy, Stillhouse Irish whiskey: Teeling Scotch whisky: Single malt Scotch whisky: Aberfeldy, Aultmore, Craigellachie, Deveron, Royal Brackla Blended Scotch whisky: Dewar's, William Lawson's ==Main brand== Bacardi Superior Bacardi 8 Bacardi Gran Reserva Bacardi Dark Rum Bacardi White Rum Bacardi Spiced Rum Bacardi Gold Rum Bacardi 151 Bacardi Gold Bacardi Mojito Bacardi Breezers Bacardi Apple Bacardi Lemon Bacardi Carta Blanca ==Awards== Bacardí rums have been entered for a number of international spirit ratings awards. Several Bacardí spirits have performed notably well. In 2020, Bacardí Superior, Bacardí Gold, Bacardí Black, Bacardí Añejo Cuatro were each awarded a gold medal by the International Quality Institute Monde Selection. In addition, both Bacardí Reserva Ocho and Bacardí Gran Reserva Diez were awarded the top honor of Grand Gold quality award. ==Hemingway connection== Ernest Hemingway lived in Cuba from 1939 until shortly after the Cuban Revolution. He lived at Finca Vigía, in the small town of San Francisco de Paula, located very close to Bacardi's Modelo Brewery for Hatuey Beer in Cotorro, Havana. In 1954, Compañía Ron Bacardi S.A. threw Hemingway a party when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature – soon after the publication of his novel The Old Man and the Sea (1952) – in which he honored the company by mentioning its Hatuey beer. Hemingway also mentioned Bacardí and Hatuey in his novels To Have and Have Not (1937) and For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940). Guillermo Cabrera Infante wrote an account of the festivities for the periodical Ciclón, titled "El Viejo y la Marca" ("The Old Man and the Brand", a play on "El Viejo y el Mar", the book's Spanish title). In his account he described how "on one side there was a wooden stage with two streamers – Hatuey beer and Bacardi rum – on each end and a Cuban flag in the middle. Next to the stage was a bar, at which people crowded, ordering daiquiris and beer, all free." A sign at the event read "Bacardi rum welcomes the author of The Old Man and the Sea". In his article "The Old Man and the Daiquiri", Wayne Curtis writes about how Hemingway's "home bar also held a bottle of Bacardí rum". Hemingway wrote in Islands in the Stream, "...this frozen daiquirí, so well beaten as it is, looks like the sea where the wave falls away from the bow of a ship when she is doing thirty knots." == Mishaps == === Death of Day Davis === On August 16, 2012 temporary worker Lawrence Daquan "Day" Davis was crushed to death when a faulty palletizer he was cleaning was activated. It was his first day on the job at the Jacksonville, Florida Bacardi Bottling facility. An Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) investigation found 12 safety violations, and Bacardi was fined $192,000, but reached an agreement where it paid $110,000. === Russian invasion of Ukraine === In March 2022, after Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Bacardi announced that it would halt all exports to Russia and freeze investment and advertising programs. From June 2022 through June 2023, the company imported $169 million worth of products and tripled its profits, When this gained international media attention, the pledge disappeared from their company website. On August 10, 2023, Ukrainian authorities added Bacardi to their list of International Sponsors of War.	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4,922	Black and Tans	The Black and Tans () were constables recruited into the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) as reinforcements during the Irish War of Independence. Recruitment began in Great Britain in January 1920, and about 10,000 men enlisted during the conflict. The majority were unemployed former British soldiers from England, Scotland and Wales who had fought in the First World War. Some sources count Irish recruits to the RIC from 1920 as "Black and Tans." At the time, "Black and Tans" was sometimes used for both groups. Another force, the Ulster Special Constabulary (commonly called the "B-Specials"), was founded in 1920 to reinforce the RIC in Northern Ireland. The British administration in Ireland promoted the idea of bolstering the RIC with British recruits. They were to help the overstretched RIC maintain control and suppress the Irish Republican Army (IRA), although they were less well trained in ordinary police methods. The nickname "Black and Tans" arose from the colours of the improvised uniforms they initially wore, a mixture of dark green RIC (which appeared black) and khaki British Army. They served in all parts of Ireland, but most were sent to southern and western regions where fighting was heaviest. By 1921, for example the Black and Tans made up almost half of the RIC in County Tipperary. ==Name== The nickname "Black and Tans" arose from the improvised uniforms they initially wore. Due to a shortage of RIC uniforms, the new recruits were issued with a mixture of dark RIC tunics and caps, and khaki army trousers. Christopher O'Sullivan wrote in the Limerick Echo on 25 March 1920 that, meeting a group of recruits on a train at Limerick Junction, the attire of one reminded him of the Scarteen Hunt, whose "Black and Tans" nickname derived from the colours of its Kerry Beagles. Ennis comedian Mike Nono elaborated the joke in Limerick's Theatre Royal, and the nickname soon took hold, persisting even after the men received full RIC uniforms. However, historians agree that they were not a separate reserve force but "recruits to the regular RIC" and "enlisted as regular constabulary". Canadian historian D. M. Leeson and Irish historian Seán William Gannon have not found the name in any historical documents. ===Definition=== As "Black and Tans" was not the official name of any RIC formation, there is some disagreement over which RIC men it should apply to. Some historians, such as David Leeson, Tom Toomey and Jim Herlihy, define "Black and Tans" as only those RIC recruits from Britain during the War of Independence. Leeson argues that British-recruited police received less training, which took place at Gormanston Camp rather than the RIC depot in Phoenix Park. ==Foundation== The early 20th century in Ireland was dominated by Irish nationalists' pursuit of Home Rule from the United Kingdom. The issue of Home Rule was shelved with the outbreak of World War I, and in 1916 Irish republicans staged the Easter Rising against British rule in an attempt to establish an independent republic. Growing support amongst the Irish populace for the republican Sinn Féin party saw it win a majority of Irish seats in the 1918 general election. On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin followed through on its manifesto and founded an independent Irish parliament (Dáil Éireann), which then declared an independent Irish Republic. The Dáil called on the public to boycott the RIC, while the Irish Republican Army (IRA) began attacking police barracks and ambushing police patrols. In September 1919 David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, outlawed the Dáil and augmented the British Army presence in Ireland. After the First World War, there were many unemployed ex-servicemen in Britain. British Unionist leader Walter Long had suggested recruiting these men into the RIC in a May 1919 letter to John French, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The idea was promoted by French as well as by Frederick Shaw, Commander of the British Army in Ireland. The RIC's Inspector General, Joseph Byrne, was against it. He resisted the militarisation of the police and believed ex-soldiers could not be controlled by police discipline. In December 1919, Byrne was replaced by his deputy T. J. Smith, an Orangeman. On 27 December, Smith issued an order authorising recruitment in Britain. ===Recruits=== About 10,000 were recruited between January 1920 and the end of the conflict. About 100 were recruited each month from January to June 1920. The recruitment rate rose from July, when the RIC was given a large pay raise. The RIC began losing men at a high rate in the summer of 1920, due to the IRA campaign. On an average week, about 100 men resigned or retired while only 76 recruits enlisted to replace them. More police were needed, but enough replacements could not be found in Ireland; on average, the RIC recruited only seven Irishmen per week. The intake of British recruits steadily rose and then surged from late September, following the widely publicised Sack of Balbriggan. The vast majority of Black and Tans were unemployed First World War veterans in their twenties, most of whom joined for economic reasons. According to historian David Leeson, "The typical Black and Tan was in his early twenties and relatively short in stature. He was an unmarried Protestant from London or the Home Counties who had fought in the British Army [...] He was a working-class man with few skills". According to Jim Herlihy, author of The Royal Irish Constabulary – A Short History and Genealogical Guide, 10,936 Black and Tans were recruited; the vast majority were born in Britain, while 883 (8%) were "Irish-born". By 1921, Black and Tans made up nearly half of all RIC constables in County Tipperary, for example. They also undertook guard, escort and crowd control duties. While some Irish constables got along well with the Black and Tans, "it seems that many Irish police did not like their new British colleagues" and saw them as "rough". Differing discipline, dialect and ignorance of "local knowledge" contributed to an estrangement between the Black and Tans and the greater police force which at times rose to violent infighting. from Forfar in Scotland, was the first Black and Tan to die in the conflict. He was killed during an IRA attack on the RIC barracks in Rathmore, County Kerry, on 11 July 1920. The Black and Tans soon gained a reputation for brutality. In the summer of 1920, Black and Tans began responding to IRA attacks by carrying out arbitrary reprisals against civilians, especially republicans. This usually involved the burning of homes, businesses, meeting halls and farms. Some buildings were also attacked with gunfire and grenades, and businesses were looted. Reprisals on property "were often accompanied by beatings and killings". Many villages suffered mass reprisals, including the Sack of Balbriggan (20 September), Kilkee (26 September), Trim (27 September), Tubbercurry (30 September) and Granard (31 October). Following the Rineen ambush (22 September) in which six RIC men were killed, police burned many houses in the surrounding villages of Milltown Malbay, Lahinch and Ennistymon, and killed five civilians. In early November, Black and Tans "besieged" Tralee in revenge for the IRA abduction and killing of two local RIC men. They closed all the businesses in the town, let no food in for a week and shot dead three local civilians. On 14 November, Black and Tans were suspected of abducting and murdering a Roman Catholic priest, Father Michael Griffin, in Galway. His body was found in a bog in Barna a week later. From October 1920 to July 1921, the Galway region was "remarkable in many ways", most notably the level of police brutality towards suspected IRA members, which was far above the norm in the rest of Ireland. In December 1920, the government officially approved certain reprisals against property. There were an estimated 150 official reprisals over the next six months. Taken together with an increased emphasis on discipline in the RIC, this helped to curb the atrocities the Black and Tans committed for the remainder of the war, if only because reprisals were now directed from above rather than being the result of a spontaneous desire for revenge. Many of the activities popularly attributed to the Black and Tans may have been committed by the Auxiliary Division or 'old' RIC constables. For instance, Tomás Mac Curtain, the Mayor of Cork, was killed in his home on the night of 19 March 1920, when few Black and Tans were stationed in the city. The coroner's inquest found that Mac Curtain had been murdered by unknown members of the RIC, and named District Inspector Oswald Swanzy as the responsible officer. The RIC transferred Swanzy from Cork to Lisburn, County Antrim for his own safety, but he was killed by the IRA on 22 August 1920. The Burning of Cork city on 11 December 1920 was carried out by K Company of the Auxiliary Division, in reprisal for an IRA ambush at Dillon's Cross. The shooting dead by Crown forces of 13 civilians at Croke Park on Bloody Sunday, in retaliation for the killing of British intelligence officers was carried out by a mixed force of military, Auxiliaries and RIC, though it is not clear who initiated the shooting. In the aftermath, "The army blamed the Auxiliaries and the Auxiliaries blamed the regular police". ===Reaction=== The actions of the Black and Tans alienated public opinion in both Ireland and Great Britain. Their violent tactics encouraged the Irish public to increase their covert support of the IRA, while the British public pressed for a move towards a peaceful resolution. In January 1921, the British Labour Commission produced a report on the situation in Ireland which was highly critical of the government's security policy. It said the government, in forming the Black and Tans, had "liberated forces which it is not at present able to dominate". Sir John Simon MP, another future Foreign Secretary, was also horrified at the tactics being used. Lionel Curtis, writing in the imperialist journal The Round Table, wrote: "If the British Commonwealth can only be preserved by such means, it would become a negation of the principle for which it has stood". The King, senior Anglican bishops, MPs from the Liberal and Labour parties, Oswald Mosley, Jan Smuts, the Trades Union Congress and parts of the press were increasingly critical of the actions of the Black and Tans. Mahatma Gandhi said of the British peace offer: "It is not fear of losing more lives that has compelled a reluctant offer from England but it is the shame of any further imposition of agony upon a people that loves liberty above everything else". ==Disbandment== More than a third left the service before they were disbanded along with the rest of the RIC in 1922, an extremely high wastage rate, and well over half received government pensions. Over 500 members of the RIC died in the conflict and more than 600 were wounded. Some sources have stated that 525 police were killed in the conflict, including 152 Black and Tans and 44 Auxiliaries. and 12 members of the Dublin Metropolitan Police. Many Black and Tans were left unemployed after the RIC was disbanded and about 3,000 were in need of financial assistance after their employment in Ireland was terminated. About 250 Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, among over 1,300 former RIC personnel, joined the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Another 700 joined the Palestine Police Force which was led by former British Chief of Police in Ireland, Henry Hugh Tudor. Others were resettled in Canada or elsewhere by the RIC Resettlement branch. ==Legacy== Due to the enduring historical memory of the Black and Tans' violence, historian David Leeson describes them as "the most notorious police in the history of the British Isles". In 2020, Justice Minister Charlie Flanagan proposed a commemoration ceremony for those who had served in the Royal Irish Constabulary. This resulted in widespread criticism due to the Black and Tans being members of the RIC; many officials announced that they would not appear and refused to participate. Flanagan decided to cancel the ceremony due to the controversy.	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4,924	Bunsen burner	A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a kind of ambient air gas burner used as laboratory equipment; it produces a single open gas flame, and is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane, a mixture or, as Bunsen himself used, coal gas. Combustion temperature achieved depends in part on the adiabatic flame temperature of the chosen fuel mixture. == History == In 1852, the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building. The city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory. The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for lighting, but also as fuel for burners for laboratory operations. For any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature of its flame, and minimize its luminosity (which represented lost heating energy). Bunsen sought to improve existing laboratory burner lamps as regards economy, simplicity, and flame temperature, and adapt them to coal-gas fuel. While the building was under construction in late 1854, Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the university's mechanic, Peter Desaga, and asked him to construct a prototype. Similar principles had been used in an earlier burner design by Michael Faraday, and in a device patented in 1856 by gas engineer R. W. Elsner. The Bunsen/Desaga design generated a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion. Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame issuing at the top. When the building opened early in 1855, Desaga had made 50 burners for Bunsen's students. Two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in laboratories around the world. ==Operation== The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas (which is principally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both. The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter. The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in a stoichiometric amount and thus a complete and hotter reaction. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel, similar in function to the choke in a carburettor. If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result. If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top. This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter yellow, which is often called the "safety flame" or "luminous flame". The yellow flame is luminous due to small soot particles in the flame, which are heated to incandescence. The yellow flame is considered "dirty" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating. When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame, it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds. The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the flame. However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen. Generally, the burner is placed underneath a laboratory tripod, which supports a beaker or other container. The burner will often be placed on a suitable heatproof mat to protect the laboratory bench surface. A Bunsen burner is also used in microbiology laboratories to sterilise pieces of equipment and to produce an updraft that forces airborne contaminants away from the working area. ==Variants== Other burners based on the same principle exist. The most important alternatives to the Bunsen burner are: Teclu burner – The lower part of its tube is conical, with a round screw nut below its base. The gap, set by the distance between the nut and the end of the tube, regulates the influx of the air in a way similar to the open slots of the Bunsen burner. The Teclu burner provides better mixing of air and fuel and can achieve higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner. Meker burner – The lower part of its tube has more openings with larger total cross-section, admitting more air and facilitating better mixing of air and gas. The tube is wider and its top is covered with a wire grid. The grid separates the flame into an array of smaller flames with a common external envelope, and also prevents flashback to the bottom of the tube, which is a risk at high air-to-fuel ratios and limits the maximum rate of air intake in a conventional Bunsen burner. Flame temperatures of up to are achievable if properly used. The flame also burns without noise, unlike the Bunsen or Teclu burners. Tirrill burner – The base of the burner has a needle valve which allows the regulation of gas intake directly from the burner, rather than from the gas source. Maximum temperature of flame can reach 1560 °C.	[ "propane", "Tripod (laboratory)", "Alcohol burner", "Michael Faraday", "luminous flame", "Classic Kit, Chemistry World", "gas", "flame", "combustion", "natural gas", "methane", "Robert Wilhelm Bunsen", "stoichiometric", "heatproof mat", "Oxy-fuel welding and cutting", "gas burner", "Meker-Fisher burner", "butane", "incandescence", "J. Prakt. Chem.", "coal-gas", "Combustion", "Peter Desaga", "Journal of Chemical Education", "spark lighter", "liquefied petroleum gas", "University of Nottingham", "University of Heidelberg", "nitrogen", "Heating mantle", "soot", "Sterilization (microbiology)", "luminosity", "Teclu burner", "match", "needle valve", "laboratory equipment", "Beaker (glassware)", "The Periodic Table of Videos", "Tirrill burner", "coal gas", "microbiology", "Robert Bunsen", "Venturi effect", "carburettor", "Hot plate", "Heating", "adiabatic flame temperature", "Choke valve", "Royal Society of Chemistry" ]
4,925	Blue whale	The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal and a baleen whale. Reaching a maximum confirmed length of and weighing up to , it is the largest animal known ever to have existed.{{efn\|The extinct whale species Perucetus colossus (described in 2023) has been suggested as a potential contender of the blue whale in size, however, this was later disputed in 2024. One of the first published descriptions of a blue whale comes from Robert Sibbald's Phalainologia Nova, after Sibbald found a stranded whale in the estuary of the Firth of Forth, Scotland, in 1692. The name "blue whale" was derived from the Norwegian blåhval, coined by Svend Foyn shortly after he had perfected the harpoon gun. The Norwegian scientist G. O. Sars adopted it as the common name in 1874. Blue whales were referred to as "Sibbald's rorqual", after Robert Sibbald, who first described the species. This tinge is due to a coating of huge numbers of diatoms. The earliest discovered anatomically modern blue whale is a partial skull fossil from southern Italy identified as B. cf. musculus, dating to the Early Pleistocene, roughly 1.5–1.25 million years ago. The Australian pygmy blue whale diverged during the Last Glacial Maximum. Their more recent divergence has resulted in the subspecies having a relatively low genetic diversity, and New Zealand blue whales have an even lower genetic diversity. Whole genome sequencing suggests that blue whales are most closely related to sei whales with gray whales as a sister group. This study also found significant gene flow between minke whales and the ancestors of the blue and sei whale. Blue whales also displayed high genetic diversity. The earliest description of a possible hybrid between a blue whale and a fin whale was a anomalous female whale with the features of both the blue and the fin whales taken in the North Pacific. A whale captured off northwestern Spain in 1984, was found to have been the product of a blue whale mother and a fin whale father. Two live blue-fin whale hybrids have since been documented in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada), and in the Azores (Portugal). DNA tests done in Iceland on a blue whale killed in July 2018 by the Icelandic whaling company Hvalur hf, found that the whale was the offspring of a male fin whale and female blue whale; however, the results are pending independent testing and verification of the samples. Because the International Whaling Commission classified blue whales as a "Protection Stock", trading their meat is illegal, and the kill is an infraction that must be reported. Blue-fin hybrids have been detected from genetic analysis of whale meat samples taken from Japanese markets. Blue-fin whale hybrids are capable of being fertile. Molecular tests on a pregnant female whale caught off Iceland in 1986 found that it had a blue whale mother and a fin whale father, while its fetus was sired by a blue whale. In 2024, a genome analysis of North Atlantic blue whales found evidence that approximately 3.5% of the blue whales' genome was derived from hybridization with fin whales. Gene flow was found to be unidirectional from fin whales to blue whales. Comparison with Antarctic blue whales showed that this hybridization began after the separation of the northern and southern populations. Despite their smaller size, fin whales have similar cruising and sprinting speeds to blue whales, which would allow fin males to complete courtship chases with blue females. There is a reference to a humpback–blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific, attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole. ===Subspecies and stocks=== At least four subspecies of blue whale are traditionally recognized, some of which are divided into population stocks or "management units". They have a worldwide distribution, but are mostly absent from the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean, Okhotsk, and Bering Sea. Chilean blue whales might overlap in the Eastern Tropical Pacific with Antarctica blue whales and Eastern North Pacific blue whales. Chilean blue whales are genetically differentiated from Antarctica blue whales such that interbreeding is unlikely. However, the genetic distinction is less between them and the Eastern North Pacific blue whale, hence there might be gene flow between the Southern and Northern Hemispheres. A 2019 study by Luis Pastene, Jorge Acevedo and Trevor Branch provided new morphometric data from a survey of 60 Chilean blue whales, hoping to address the debate about the possible distinction of this population from others in the Southern Hemisphere. Data from this study, based on whales collected in the 1965/1966 whaling season, shows that both the maximum and mean body length of Chilean blue whales lies between these values in pygmy and Antarctic blue whales. Data also indicates a potential difference in snout-eye measurements between the three, and a significant difference in fluke-anus length between the Chilean population and pygmy blue whales. This further confirms Chilean blue whales as a separate population, and implies that they do not fall under the same subspecies as the pygmy blue whale (B. m. brevicauda). A 2024 genomic study of the global blue whale population found support for the subspecific status of Antarctic and Indo-western Pacific blue whales but not eastern Pacific blue whales. The study found "...divergence between the eastern North and eastern South Pacific, and among the eastern Indian Ocean, the western South Pacific and the northern Indian Ocean." and "no divergence within the Antarctic". ==Description== The blue whale is a slender-bodied cetacean with a broad U-shaped head; thin, elongated flippers; a small sickle-shaped dorsal fin located close to the tail, and a large tail stock at the root of the wide and thin flukes. The upper jaw is lined with 70–395 black baleen plates. The throat region has 60–88 grooves which allows the skin to expand during feeding. It has two blowholes that can squirt up in the air. The mottling patterns near the dorsal fin vary between individuals. The underbelly has lighter pigmentation and can appear yellowish due to diatoms in the water, The male blue whale has the largest penis in the animal kingdom, at around long and wide. === Size === The blue whale is the largest animal known ever to have existed. Some studies have estimated that certain shastasaurid ichthyosaurs and the ancient whale Perucetus could have rivalled the blue whale in size, with Perucetus also being heavier than the blue whale with a mean weight of . These estimates are based on fragmentary remains, and the proposed size for the latter has been disputed in 2024. Other studies estimate that on land, large sauropods like Bruhathkayosaurus (mean weight: 110–170 tons) and Maraapunisaurus (mean weight: 80–120 tons) would have easily rivalled the blue whale, with the former even exceeding the blue whale based on its most liberal estimations (240 tons), although these estimates are based on even more fragmentary specimens that had disintegrated by the time those estimates were made. The International Whaling Commission (IWC) whaling database reports 88 individuals longer than , including one of . The Discovery Committee reported lengths up to . The longest scientifically measured individual blue whale was from rostrum tip to tail notch. Female blue whales are larger than males. Hydrodynamic models suggest a blue whale could not exceed because of metabolic and energy constraints. The average length of sexually mature female blue whales is for Eastern North Pacific blue whales, for central and western North Pacific blue whales, for North Atlantic blue whales, for Antarctic blue whales, for Chilean blue whales, and for pygmy blue whales. In the Northern Hemisphere, males weigh an average and females . Eastern North Pacific blue whale males average and females . Antarctic males average and females . Pygmy blue whale males average to . The weight of the heart of a stranded North Atlantic blue whale was , the largest known in any animal. The record-holder blue whale was recorded at , with estimates of up to . In 2024, Motani and Pyenson calculated the body mass of blue whales at different lengths, compiling records of their sizes from previous academic literatures and using regression analyses and volumetric analyses. A long individual was estimated to weigh approximately , while a long individual was estimated to weigh approximately . Considering that the largest blue whale was indeed long, they estimated that a blue whale of such length would have weighed approximately . === Life span === Blue whales live around 80–90 years or more. The oldest blue whale found was determined, using this method, to be 110 years old. The maximum age of a pygmy blue whale determined this way is 73 years. In addition, female blue whales develop scars or corpora albicantia on their ovaries every time they ovulate. In a female pygmy blue whale, one corpus albicans is formed on average every 2.6 years. The animals appear to use memory to locate the best feeding areas. There is evidence of alternative strategies, such as year-round residency, and partial (where only some individuals migrate) or age/sex-based migration. Some whales have been recorded feeding in breeding grounds. Blue whale typically swim at but may swim faster at during encounters with boats, predators or other individuals. Their massive size limits their ability to breach. The greatest dive depth reported from tagged blue whales was . however, the longest dive measured was 15.2 minutes. A blue whale's heart rate can drop to 2 beats per minute (bpm) at deep depths, but upon surfacing, can rise to 37 bpm, which is close to its peak heart rate. ===Diet and feeding=== The blue whale's diet consists almost exclusively of krill. They squeeze the water out through their baleen plates with pressure from the throat pouch and tongue, and swallow the remaining krill. Blue whales have been recorded making 180° rolls during lunge-feeding, possibly allowing them to search the prey field and find the densest patches. While pursuing krill patches, blue whales maximize their calorie intake by increasing the number of lunges while selecting the thickest patches. This provides them enough energy for everyday activities while storing additional energy necessary for migration and reproduction. Due to their size, blue whales have larger energetic demands than most animals resulting in their need for this specific feeding habit. Blue whales have to engulf densities greater than 100 krill/m3 to maintain the cost of lunge feeding. They can consume from one mouthful of krill, which can provide up to 240 times more energy than used in a single lunge. On average, an blue whale eats each day. In California, they feed mostly on Thysanoessa spinifera, but also less commonly on North pacific krill (Euphausia pacifica). Research of the Eastern North Pacific population shows that when diving to feed on krill, the whales reach an average depth of 201 meters, with dives lasting 9.8 minutes on average. Different whale species select different feeding spaces and times as well as different prey species. In the Southern Ocean, baleen whales appear to feed on Antarctic krill of different sizes, which may lessen competition between them. Blue whale feeding habits may differ due to situational disturbances, like environmental shifts or human interference. This can cause a change in diet due to stress response. Due to these changing situations, there was a study performed on blue whales measuring cortisol levels and comparing them with the levels of stressed individuals, it gave a closer look to the reasoning behind their diet and behavioral changes. ===Reproduction and birth=== The age of sexual maturity for blue whales is thought to be 5–15 years. In the Northern Hemisphere, the length at which they reach maturity is for females and for males. In the Southern Hemisphere, the length of maturity is and for females and males respectively. Male pygmy blue whales average at sexual maturity. Female pygmy blue whales are in length Since corpora are added every ~2.5 years after sexual maturity, physical maturity is assumed to occur at 35 years. Little is known about mating behavior, or breeding and birthing areas. A male blue whale typically trails a female and will fight off potential rivals. The species mates from fall to winter. amounting to 60% of their overall body weight throughout summer foraging periods. Gestation may last 10–12 months with calves being long and weighing at birth. The first video of a calf thought to be nursing was filmed in New Zealand in 2016. Calves may be weaned when they reach 6–8 months old at a length of . ===Vocalizations=== Blue whales produce some of the loudest and lowest frequency vocalizations in the animal kingdom, The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz. Blue whale songs vary between populations. Vocalizations produced by the Eastern North Pacific population have been well studied. This population produces pulsed calls ("A") and tonal calls ("B"), upswept tones that precede type B calls ("C") and separate downswept tones ("D"). A and B calls are often produced in repeated co-occurring sequences and sung only by males, suggesting a reproductive function. D calls may have multiple functions. They are produced by both sexes during social interactions while feeding. and by males when competing for mates. A blue whale call recorded off Madagascar, a two-unit phrase, consists of 5–7 pulses with a center frequency of 35.1 ± 0.7 Hz lasting 4.4 ± 0.5 seconds proceeding a 35 ± 0 Hz tone that is 10.9 ± 1.1 seconds long. There is evidence that some blue whale songs have temporally declined in tonal frequency. The vocalization of blue whales in the Eastern North Pacific decreased in tonal frequency by 31% from the early 1960s to the early 21st century. Off southeastern Australia, 3.7% of blue whales photographed had rake marks and 42.1% of photographed pygmy blue whales off Western Australia had rake marks. Documented predation by orcas has been rare. A blue whale mother and calf were first observed being chased at high speeds by orcas off southeastern Australia. The first documented attack occurred in 1977 off southwestern Baja California, Mexico, but the injured whale escaped after five hours. Four more blue whales were documented as being chased by a group of orcas between 1982 and 2003. The first documented predation event by orcas occurred in September 2003, when a group of orcas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific was encountered feeding on a recently killed blue whale calf. In March 2014, a commercial whale watch boat operator recorded an incident involving a group of orcas harassing a blue whale in Monterey Bay. The blue whale defended itself by slapping its tail. A similar incident was recorded by a drone in Monterey Bay in May 2017. The first direct observations of orca predation occurred off the south coast of Western Australia, two in 2019 and one more in 2021. The first victim was estimated to be . In Antarctic waters, blue whales accumulate diatoms of the species Cocconeis ceticola and the genera Navicola, which are normally removed when the whales enter warmer waters. Other external parasites include barnacles such as Coronula diadema, Coronula reginae, and Cryptolepas rhachianecti, which latch on their skin deep enough to leave behind a pit if removed. Whale lice species make their home in cracks of the skin and are relatively harmless. The copepod species Pennella balaenopterae digs in and attaches itself to the blubber to feed on. Intestinal parasites include the trematode genera Ogmogaster and Lecithodesmus; the tapeworm genera Priapocephalus, Phyllobotrium, Tetrabothrius, Diphyllobotrium, and Diplogonoporus; and the thorny-headed worm genus Bolbosoma. In the North Atlantic, blue whales also contain the protozoans Entamoeba, Giardia and Balantidium. ==Conservation== The global blue whale population is estimated to be 5,000–15,000 mature individuals and 10,000–25,000 total as of 2018. By comparison, there were at least 140,000 mature whales in 1926. There are an estimated total of 1,000–3,000 whales in the North Atlantic, 3,000–5,000 in the North Pacific, and 5,000–8,000 in the Antarctic. There are possibly 1,000–3,000 whales in the eastern South Pacific while the pygmy blue whale may number 2,000–5,000 individuals. The protected status of North Atlantic blue whales was not recognized by Iceland until 1960. In the United States, the species is protected under the Endangered Species Act. and the IUCN Red List. and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Although, for some populations, there is not enough information on current abundance trends (e.g., pygmy blue whales), others are critically endangered (e.g., Antarctic blue whales). ===Threats=== In 2017, DNA evidence was used to identify whale bones at Icelandic archaeological sites. Of the 124 bones analyzed more than 50% were from blue whales and some dated as far back as 900 CE. This, and other evidence, suggests that Icelanders were hunting whales as early as the 9th century, just as the settlement of Iceland began. Thus Icelanders would have been among the earliest known humans to hunt the blue whale. Blue whales were initially difficult to hunt because of their size and speed. Blue whale whaling peaked between 1930 and 1931 with 30,000 animals taken. Harvesting of the species was particularly high in the Antarctic, with 350,000–360,000 whales taken in the first half of the 20th century. In addition, 11,000 North Atlantic whales (mostly around Iceland) and 9,500 North Pacific whales were killed during the same period. However, the Soviet Union continued to illegally hunt blue whales and other species up until the 1970s. Ship strikes are a significant mortality factor for blue whales, especially off the U.S. West Coast. A total of 17 blue whales were killed or suspected to have been killed by ships between 1998 and 2019 off the U.S. West Coast. Lethal ship strikes are also a problem in Sri Lankan waters, where their habitat intersects with one of the world's most active shipping routes. Here, strikes caused the deaths of eleven blue whales in 2010 and 2012, and at least two in 2014. Ship-strike mortality claimed the lives of two blue whales off southern Chile in the 2010s. Possible measures for reducing future ship strikes include better predictive models of whale distribution, changes in shipping lanes, vessel speed reductions, and seasonal and dynamic management of shipping lanes. Few cases of blue whale entanglement in commercial fishing gear have been documented. The first report in the U.S. occurred off California in 2015, reportedly some type of deep-water trap/pot fishery. Three more entanglement cases were reported in 2016. In Sri Lanka, a blue whale was documented with a net wrapped through its mouth, along the sides of its body, and wound around its tail. Increasing man-made underwater noise impacts blue whales. They may be exposed to noise from commercial shipping and seismic surveys as a part of oil and gas exploration. Blue whales in the Southern California Bight decreased calling in the presence of mid-frequency active (MFA) sonar. Exposure to simulated MFA sonar was found to interrupt blue whale deep-dive feeding, but no changes in behavior were observed in individuals feeding at shallower depths. The responses also depended on the animal's behavioral state, its (horizontal) distance from the sound source and the availability of prey. The potential impacts of pollutants on blue whales is unknown. However, because blue whales feed low on the food chain, there is a lesser chance for bioaccumulation of organic chemical contaminants. Analysis of the earwax of a male blue whale killed by a collision with a ship off the coast of California showed contaminants like pesticides, flame retardants, and mercury. Reconstructed persistent organic pollutant (POP) profiles suggested that a substantial maternal transfer occurred during gestation and/or lactation. Male blue whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, were found to have higher concentrations of PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), metabolites, and several other organochlorine compounds relative to females, reflecting maternal transfer of these persistent contaminants from females into young.	[ "Anthropogenic hazard", "corpora albicantia", "PLOS ONE", "New England", "Voyageur Press", "Pierre-Joseph van Beneden", "Navicola", "interbreeding", "thorny-headed worm", "Endangered Species Act", "critically endangered", "Last Glacial Maximum", "Science Advances", "flipper (anatomy)", "List of whale vocalizations", "William Henry Flower", "Wilhelm Lilljeborg", "Carl Linnaeus", "krill", "Environmental impact of shipping", "Calabrian (stage)", "Mediterranean", "Maraapunisaurus", "Arctic Ocean", "sei whale", "frequency", "settlement of Iceland", "Balantidium", "gray whale", "United Nations Environment Programme", "Costa Rica Thermal Dome", "Mammal Review", "marine pollution", "Prince Edward Islands", "Lecithodesmus", "Academic Press", "Gulf of St. Lawrence", "Firth of Forth", "Tetrabothrius", "humpback whale", "trematode", "Amirante Islands", "Scientific American", "International Whaling Commission", "Cetacean surfacing behaviour", "Soviet Union", "Bolbosoma", "interbreed", "blowhole (anatomy)", "food chain", "dorsal fin", "Phyllobotrium", "Crozet Islands", "G. O. Sars", "The Society for Marine Mammalogy", "Australian Zoologist", "South Pacific Ocean", "whale vocalization", "climate change", "Reports of the International Whaling Commission", "earwax", "Noise pollution", "Cosmopolitan species", "The Quarterly Review of Biology", "Blue whale penis", "Polygyny in animals", "Coronula reginae", "Tasman Sea", "The American Naturalist", "Ecology and Evolution", "Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans", "DNA", "Biology Letters", "Animal migration", "rorquals", "Gulf of Alaska", "phylogenetic tree", "fluke (tail)", "weaned", "predation", "Amphipoda", "International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling", "U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service", "Thysanoessa spinifera", "Crozet Island", "Georg Ossian Sars", "orca", "Chile", "McGill University", "Herman Melville", "Aleutian Islands", "Nyctiphanes australis", "Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada", "Diphyllobotrium", "St. Martin's Press", "gene flow", "Discovery Reports", "William Scoresby", "Harper (publisher)", "Lau Basin", "Cryptolepas rhachianecti", "baleen whale", "Environmental effects of shipping", "Shastasauridae", "IUCN Red List", "Marine Mammal Science", "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora", "Balaenoptera", "Baja California, Mexico", "Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution", "filter feeder", "marine mammal", "ichthyosaur", "Science of the Total Environment", "PeerJ", "North Island", "Perucetus", "tapeworm", "Ogg", "Euphausia pacifica", "Marine Mammal Protection Act", "Largest and heaviest animals", "Azores", "Edward Drinker Cope", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "barnacle", "Endangered species (IUCN status)", "Perth Canyon", "Pleistocene", "Gulf of California", "Bering Sea", "West Indies", "Frequency modulation", "Journal of the Acoustical Society of America", "J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer", "Minke whale", "Hybrid (biology)", "Pennella balaenopterae", "Great Australian Bight", "Bass Strait", "Giardia", "List of largest mammals", "fundamental frequency", "Italy", "Animal Welfare Institute", "copepod", "Hvalur hf.", "Antarctica", "Alaska Current", "Conservation Genetics", "Whaling in Chile", "pygmy blue whale", "diatoms", "Knopf", "Atlantic", "10th edition of Systema Naturae", "Norwegian Sea", "Miocene", "Sauropoda", "Balaenopteridae", "fin whale", "whaling", "Whale and Dolphin Conservation", "cephalopod", "Svend Foyn", "Southern Ocean", "Royal Society Open Science", "Ogmogaster", "Conservation Biology (journal)", "Iceland", "Discovery Committee", "Antarctic krill", "John Edward Gray", "The Journal of Experimental Biology", "Bruhathkayosaurus", "Journal of Heredity", "subspecies", "Kamchatka Peninsula", "Sea of Okhotsk", "Animal communication", "dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane", "baleen", "Southern California Bight", "sister group", "List of cetaceans", "Australia", "Mozambique Channel", "Marine Ecology Progress Series", "Priapocephalus", "Maternal transfer in aquatic mammals", "center frequency", "University of Wisconsin", "Endangered species", "Whale lice", "Systema Naturae", "Coronula diadema", "Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography", "Eastern Tropical Pacific", "South Taranaki Bight", "Monterey Bay", "sonar", "persistent organic pollutant", "Whole genome sequencing", "Live Science", "U.S. West Coast", "Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals", "Pacific", "International Union for Conservation of Nature", "Low frequency", "National Geographic", "Diplogonoporus", "Entamoeba", "metabolites", "Seychelles", "Pygmy blue whale", "Orca", "Gestation", "pollutants", "Moby-Dick", "Cocconeis", "Largest organisms", "Robert Sibbald", "Sergestidae", "diatom", "bioaccumulation", "Scyphozoa", "Molecular Ecology" ]
4,927	Bolsheviks	The Bolsheviks (, ; from большинство, , 'majority'), led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party, formally established in 1912, seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party, and ultimately the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Its ideology, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles, became known as Bolshevism. The origin of the RSDLP split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split in two. The political philosophy of the Bolsheviks was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism. Lenin was also more willing to use illegal means such as robbery to fund the party's activities. Influenced by the experience of World War I, by 1917 he had concluded that the chain of world capitalism could "break at its weakest link" in Russia before it had reached the level of the advanced countries, contrary to theorists such as Georgi Plekhanov. Lenin had also come to view poorer peasants as potential allies of the relatively small Russian proletariat. After the February Revolution of 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for "no support for the Provisional Government" and "all power to the soviets". During the summer of 1917, which saw events including the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution that overthrew the government. The Bolsheviks initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Under Joseph Stalin's leadership, Bolshevism became linked to his policies of "socialism in one country", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control. ==History of the split== ===Vladimir Lenin's ideology in What Is to Be Done?=== Lenin's political pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks. In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called "artisanal work" towards a more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely. The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual "withering away of the state". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society. This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as "Economists", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause. ===Second Party Congress=== At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone "who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations." Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy. The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable. Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in What Is To Be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod. Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs" while Lenin supporters became known as "hards". Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia. Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy. Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre. ===Etymology of Bolshevik and Menshevik=== The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as hard (Lenin supporters) and soft (Martov supporters). In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as Bolsheviks, from the Russian bolshinstvo, 'majority'. Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as Mensheviks, from menshinstvo, 'minority'. However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions. Starting in 1907, English-language articles sometimes used the term Maximalist for "Bolshevik" and Minimalist for "Menshevik", which proved to be confusing as there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917. The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922. ===Demographics of the two factions=== The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members. ===Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05)=== Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described "non-factional social democrat" until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party. All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized. The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917. ===Mensheviks (1906–07)=== As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm. When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority. However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other. ===Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)=== Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on Zarya, Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as "recallists" (Russian: otzovists). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists" and was generally allied with the recallists. With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary. However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909. ===Final attempt at party unity (1910)=== With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try. One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting. Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda, a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations. ===Forming a separate party (1912)=== The factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters. Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I. Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913. One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions. Bolshevik figures such as Anatoly Lunacharsky, Moisei Uritsky and Dmitry Manuilsky considered that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky's, not to Lenin's plan. In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion. In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion. ==Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name "Bolshevik"== Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party India: Bolshevik Party of India India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik) Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei South Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey) ==Derogatory usage of "Bolshevik"== Bolo was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as Bolshies. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "commie", "Red", or "pinko" in the United States during the same period. The term Bolshie later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.	[ "4th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party", "Soviet power", "Joseph Stalin", "philosophical idealism", "Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)", "Allies of World War I", "Lev Kamenev", "Russians", "Materialism and Empirio-criticism", "Alexei Rykov", "Alfred A. Knopf", "Red Army", "Russian peasants", "Russian Empire", "Avel Yenukidze", "revolution", "Socialist Revolutionary Party", "Cold War", "utopia", "Social democracy", "recallists", "Kornilov affair", "October Revolution", "Russian Civil War", "Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists", "Yale University Press", "Trotskyism", "Nikolai Bukharin", "Soviet Union", "Economism", "Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "vanguardism", "Nikolai Valentinov", "Left Socialist-Revolutionaries", "Georgi Plekhanov", "Leninism", "3rd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party", "Rabochaya Molva", "professional revolutionaries", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "Old Bolshevik", "Leon Trotsky", "World War I", "Maximilien Robespierre", "Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma", "Dmitry Manuilsky", "Bolshevik Samasamaja Party", "Okhrana", "5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party", "Leonid Serebryakov", "Imperial Russian Army", "What Is to Be Done?", "Prague Party Conference", "Yevgeni Preobrazhensky", "Grigory Zinoviev", "Moisei Uritsky", "Marxism–Leninism", "Trade unions in the United Kingdom", "democratic centralism", "General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia", "Capri Party School", "Proletary", "de facto", "gentry", "Russian SFSR", "Russian Revolution", "Stockholm", "Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)", "Mikhail Kalinin", "socialist mode of production", "German Empire", "Joseph Goebbels", "Matvei Muranov", "ultimatists", "Bolshevik Communist Party", "proletariat", "Marxist Theory", "withering away of the state", "Intelligentsia", "Moscow Soviet", "Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks)", "Collectivization in the Soviet Union", "19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Tsarist autocracy", "1905 Russian Revolution", "Mikhail Lashevich", "Adolf Hitler", "Comintern", "Class conflict", "Bolshevik Nuclei", "Vpered", "Roman Malinovsky", "Vera Zasulich", "Empiriocriticism", "February Revolution", "Brussels", "socialism in one country", "Vladimir Lenin", "recrimination", "Bolsheviks Party of South Africa", "Victor Nogin", "Alexander Bogdanov", "London", "Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party", "Folkets hus", "Russian Provisional Government", "Mensheviks", "commie", "Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "List of Nazi Party leaders and officials", "British Left", "Bertrand Russell", "Pavel Axelrod", "History of the Jews in Russia", "Duma", "Mikhail Tomsky", "socialism", "Soviet (council)", "Saint Petersburg Soviet", "Bolshevism", "Norra Bantorget", "White movement", "Ernst Mach", "Russian language", "pinko", "industrial workers", "Iskra", "July Days", "Burkinabé Bolshevik Party", "Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)", "classless society", "North Russian Expeditionary Force", "Marxism", "Julius Martov", "Jacobin (magazine)", "Pravda", "Nationalization", "Mikhail Pokrovsky", "April Theses", "Russian Social Democratic Labour Party", "Bolshevik Centre", "Faction (political)", "proletarian revolution", "Third Duma", "Bolshevik Party of India", "Anatoly Lunacharsky", "2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party" ]
4,928	Battle of Świecino	The Battle of Świecino (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the Battle of Żarnowiec or in German Die Schlacht bei Schwetz, took place on September 17, 1462, during the Thirteen Years' War. The Polish forces, commanded by Piotr Dunin and consisting of some 2,000 mercenaries and Poles, decisively defeated the 2,700-man army of the Teutonic Knights, commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Commander of the Order Kaspar Nostitz (Nostyc). Auxiliary forces sent by Duke Eric II of Pomerania, temporary ally of the Teutonic Knights, did not enter the battle. ==Polish forces== The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk). This army included 1,000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1,000 of infantry. 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by the Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk). ==Teutonic forces== Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostitz, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy, and Stara Kiszewa. This army totalled 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons, and up to 1,300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works. ==Battle== The battle started in the evening. Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor). The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice)) also created a tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeatRaveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry. At the end of the battle, reinforcements of Eric II of Pomerania appeared, however, seeing the defeat of the Teutonic Knights, the Pomeranian prince did not attack, while the Poles attacked, forcing his troops to flee. ==Casualties== The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1,000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church. The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk. Piotr Dunin was wounded twice. ==Aftermath== The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order. As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe. The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.	[ "Casimir IV of Poland", "Commander (order)", "Kaspar Nostitz", "Piotr Dunin", "Prussian Confederation", "Starogard Gdański", "Fritz Raweneck", "Krokowa", "Chojnice", "Gniew", "Kaspar Nostyc", "Skarszewy", "Maciej Hagen", "Tabor (formation)", "Crown of the Kingdom of Poland", "Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)", "Eric II of Pomerania", "Nowe", "tabor (formation)", "Teutonic Order", "Teutonic Knights", "Gdańsk", "Stanisław Herbst", "Żarnowiec", "Stara Kiszewa", "Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)", "Paweł Jasieński", "Świecino" ]
4,930	Barney Bubbles	Barney Bubbles (born Colin Fulcher; 30 July 1942 – 14 November 1983) was an English graphic artist whose work encompassed graphic design and music video direction. Bubbles, who also sketched and painted privately, is best known for his distinctive contribution to the design practices associated with the British independent music scene of the 1970s and 1980s. His record sleeves, laden with symbols and riddles, were his most recognisable output. ==Early life== Fulcher was born in Tranmere Road, Whitton, Middlesex (now Greater London), in July 1942. He attended Isleworth Grammar School. In 1958 he embarked on a retail display course for a National Diploma in Design (NDD) at the art school of Twickenham College of Technology. During his five years at the college Fulcher received a multi-disciplinary education that included training in cardboard design, display and packaging, skills that would be utilised later in his record sleeve work. ==Career== ===Michael Tucker + Associates=== After leaving college in 1963, Fulcher worked as an assistant at the design company Michael Tucker + Associates in London. Its clients included Pirelli. In a rare interview in November 1981 in The Face, Bubbles described Tucker's discipline as "very Swiss; very hard; unjustified, very grey; and he taught me everything about typography." Tucker's studio produced the posters for Hugh Hudson's Pirelli-sponsored film The Tortoise & The Hare (1967), for which Fulcher designed the poster lettering on a freelance basis. Bubbles' son, Aten Skinner, who is also an artists and graphic designer, was born in 1972. ===Hawkwind (and other 1970s rock)=== While he was working at Friends, Bubbles formed an association with Hawkwind and became responsible for a run of their album sleeves, including In Search of Space, Doremi Fasol Latido and Space Ritual. Bubbles engaged in many aspects of the group's visual identity, titling releases and designing posters, adverts, stage decoration and performance plans, some of which were adorned with mystical and mock-Teutonic insignia. In 1972 Bubbles produced the triple LP package Glastonbury Fayre. This comprised a six-panel fold-out card sleeve, two poster inserts, a booklet and a cut-out and build miniature pyramid, housed in a clear vinyl bag (with two sleeve variations and three label variations). From 1973 onwards, Bubbles increasingly avoided credits for his artwork, typically working anonymously or occasionally adopting alternative pseudonyms. During this period he designed album sleeves and additional material for such acts as the Sutherland Brothers, Kevin Coyne, Edgar Broughton Band, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, Quiver, the Kursaal Flyers and Michael Moorcock and the Deep Fix. In 1976, his design relationship with Hawkwind came to an end. It was rekindled once, in 1978, for the Hawklords spin-off, but otherwise continued only with design commissions for projects involving the band's saxophonist Nik Turner. ===Stiff, Radar and F Beat (and other punk and new wave)=== Barney Bubbles joined Stiff Records as designer and art director early in 1977. With the label's co-founder Jake Riviera he generated a body of creative work that helped to secure Stiff's reputation as an exciting new independent label. Bubbles created sleeves for bands including the Damned, Elvis Costello, Ian Dury and Wreckless Eric. Often these were accompanied by quirky logos such as the face logo for Blockhead, advertisements and promotional items. The marketing of Elvis Costello's My Aim Is True included advertisements in three UK music papers from which a poster of Costello could be constructed, and the first 1,000 pressings contained an insert headed Help Us Hype Elvis, which, if completed and returned to Stiff, ensured that a friend would receive a free copy. When Riviera left Stiff in late 1977, Bubbles joined him at his new label Radar Records and later at Riviera's F-Beat Records. At these labels, Bubbles created more designs for Elvis Costello, as well as other artists such as Nick Lowe, Carlene Carter, Blanket of Secrecy and Clive Langer & The Boxes. Bubbles also maintained his freelance output, producing designs for Peter Jenner (Ian Dury and Billy Bragg's manager), and others. He created a prodigious output by working for such bands, musicians and performers as Peter Hammill, Vivian Stanshall, Generation X, Big Star, Johnny Moped, Whirlwind, Billy Bragg, Clover, the Sinceros, Roger Chapman, Phillip Goodhand-Tait, Dr. Feelgood, Inner City Unit and the Psychedelic Furs. As a result, his work appeared on releases by labels such as Aura, Chiswick, Utility, Go! Discs, Epic, Charisma, CBS, Line Records, United Artists and Riddle Records. His signature style emerged as one that was colourful, playful, loaded with geometry, art-history and music-history references, jokes, cryptograms and symbols. The overriding appetite was for going against the grain of accepted design standards. His work is simultaneously complex in meaning and simple in its delivery. Examples include: Elvis Costello: This Year's Model, which was designed to have a deliberate miscropping so that the entire design was off-register and a sticker that read 'Free Album With This Single'; The Damned: Damned Damned Damned, a limited number of which were deliberately printed with a photo of Eddie and the Hot Rods on the back of the cover, rather than the Damned playing at the Roxy Club, and with an erratum sticker apologising for this "mistake", and on the front of the LP, on top of the original shrinkwrap, a red food-fight sticker saying 'Damned Damned', thus completing the LP's title when read underneath the band's name; Elvis Costello: Armed Forces, with an extended back panel consisting of folding flaps, postcards carrying the instruction DON'T JOIN (advice against joining the armed forces), and a message that these postcards had been die-cut from the rest of the sleeve; Nick Lowe: Labour of Lust, with its innovative "Hamer & sickle" logo, fashioning Lowe's Hamer-brand bass guitar into a playful version of the actual Hammer and sickle, the symbol of proletarian solidarity first adopted during the Russian Revolution (Bubbles's original mockup is shown on the gatefold sleeve of the 2011 Yep Roc reissue of the album); Ian Dury and the Blockheads: Do It Yourself, which was released in at least 30 known sleeve variations, all of which were old designs supplied by Crown Wallpaper. ===Music promo videos=== Barney Bubbles directed several videos, including the Specials' "Ghost Town", Squeeze's "Is That Love" and "Tempted", Elvis Costello's "Clubland" and "New Lace Sleeves", and Fun Boy Three's "The Lunatics (Have Taken Over the Asylum)". Two promos for the punk act Johnny Moped, "Incendiary Device" and "Darling Let's Have Another Baby", were never commercially released to broadcasters. "A good video can sell a record which might not do so well," Bubbles told Smash Hits magazine in 1982. "The record companies know that. I think Chrysalis would agree that The Specials' 'Ghost Town' video helped sales a good deal. This year I intend to make videos which are really inexpensive but really inventive. It can be done, you know." ===NME=== In 1979, riding on the reputation of his work for Stiff, Bubbles was engaged by the UK music newspaper New Musical Express to spearhead an overhaul of its decades-old brand. Bubbles' redesign incorporated elements of Pop art and 1920s Soviet poster art into a "sleek, forward-looking" graphic format. His restyling included a fresh logo with "clean, stencilled, military-style lettering", which heralded the title's change from New Musical Express to NME. ===Other work=== In 1979, Derek Boshier curated an exhibition entitled Lives at the Hayward Gallery, London, and he commissioned Bubbles to design the catalogue and poster. Together with the photographer Chris Gabrin, Bubbles also exhibited a video and mixed-media installation in the exhibition. In the early 1980s, Bubbles created furniture designs, some of which were featured in The Face, November 1981. In 1982, Bubbles conceived the album Ersatz, working primarily with Nik Turner and other musicians from Inner City Unit. The LP was released under the name of The Imperial Pompadours. Bubbles painted privately, increasingly in the early 1980s. ==Death== Fulcher, who suffered from manic depression, committed suicide in London on 14 November 1983 by gassing himself, trapping the fumes in a plastic bag he placed over his head, at the age of 41. He had considerable personal and financial worries, and had fallen out of fashion in the early 1980s. His designs for record sleeves were being rejected by musicians and record companies, and he was being investigated by the Inland Revenue for unpaid taxes dating back several years. He was also displaying increasingly erratic behaviour, alarming close friends by lacerating his face with razor blades and making threats to kill himself. ==Monograph/biography== Reasons To Be Cheerful: The Life & Work of Barney Bubbles, a hybrid monograph-biography by Paul Gorman containing 400-plus images of artworks by Bubbles and contributions from British designers Peter Saville and Malcolm Garrett along with Billy Bragg was published in November 2008 by independent British imprint Adelita. The book was welcomed as a long-overdue recognition of Bubbles' achievements and selected by British music magazine Mojo as its Book Of The Year. A revised and updated second edition of Reasons To Be Cheerful, with an additional contribution by US graphic artist Art Chantry, was published by Adelita in October 2010. The third edition of the monograph, retitled The Wild World of Barney Bubbles: Graphic Design and the Art of Music, with a new cover and updated sections including previously unpublished designs and an essay by American graphic designer Clarita Hinojosa, was published by Thames & Hudson in June 2022 in the UK and in July 2022 in the US. A companion limited edition box-set, A Box of Bubbles, containing the monograph with a different jacket and reproductions of the designer's artworks for Ian Dury, Hawkwind and the Glastonbury Fayre triple-LP package, was published by specialist imprint Volume in September 2022. ==Influence and legacy== Barney Bubbles is widely acknowledged as a pioneer and exemplar of design for music. 'To say that Bubbles' work was influential would be an understatement. He took the world by storm with his momentous contribution,' wrote Creative Boom's Aya Angelos in 2022. According to Peter Saville, 'The work of Barney Bubbles expresses post-modern principles: that there is the past, the present and the possible; that culture and the history of culture are a fluid palette of semiotic expression and everything is available to articulate a point of view.' The first exhibition dedicated to Bubbles' work was held at London gallery Artomatic in 2001, Paul Gorman and Caz Facey curated an exhibition about Bubbles' practice entitled Process: The Working Practices of Barney Bubbles at London gallery Chelsea Space in October 2010. In January 2012, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a documentary, In Search of Barney Bubbles, written, produced and presented by Mark Hodkinson. In summer 2012 Gorman curated The Past The Present & The Possible, which presented 250 examples of Bubbles' finished artworks as part of the exhibition White Noise at the 23rd International Poster & Graphic Design Festival in Chaumont, France. Under the heading Génération Bubbles!, the cover and a 10-page feature in the July 2012 issue of French design magazine Étapes were dedicated to the exhibition and Bubbles' influence over contemporary design practice. In 2017 Gorman curated "Optics & Semantics", an exhibition which included furniture designed by Bubbles, at central London's Rob Tufnell Gallery as well as a show featuring finished artworks including record sleeves, posters and ephemera at casualwear brand Fred Perry's outlet in Covent Garden. In 2020 an archive of Bubbles work was acquired for public collections under the UK's cultural gifts and acceptance in lieu (AiL) schemes and allocated to Liverpool John Moores University. ==General and group exhibitions== Designs by Barney Bubbles have been prominently featured in many exhibitions, including Destroy: Punk Graphic Design in Britain, held at London's Southbank Centre in 1998, Communicate: British Independent Graphic Design since the Sixties, staged at the Barbican Centre in 2004, Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die: Punk Graphics 1976 - 1986 at Cranbrook Art Museum in Michigan in 2017 and the Museum of Art & Design in New York in 2019 Bubbles works are in the permanent collections of The Museum of Modern Art in New York and London's Victoria and Albert Museum, which gave prominence to a selection in its 2011 show Postmodernism: Style & Subversion 1970–1990 and the following year's British Design 1948–2012. ==Barney Bubbles Estate== Representing family members, the Barney Bubbles Estate controls the intellectual copyrights in hundreds of original designs by Bubbles and has worked with others to ensure that the designer's legacy is protected. Projects include a capsule collection of shirts bearing Bubbles designs with Fred Perry in 2017, Elvis Costello and Universal Music's 2020 box-set reissue of Costello's 1979 album Armed Forces, the 12-inch vinyl rerelease of "Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick" for Record Store Day 2021 with the Ian Dury Estate and music group BMG and a collaboration of four T-shirts with New York streetwear label Noah in 2022. Examples of rare and hitherto unseen work from Bubbles' vast archive is posted regularly on the Estate's Instagram account, and the Estate also has an online shop marketing original designs on apparel and other media.	[ "Red Dirt (band)", "Damned Damned Damned", "Covent Garden", "Sutherland Brothers", "Clover (band)", "CBS", "Roger Chapman", "mystical", "Jake Riviera", "Elvis Costello", "John Coulthart", "Gracious!", "the Specials", "riddle", "Chiswick", "Fun Boy Three", "Friends (magazine)", "Dr. Feelgood (band)", "Inner City Unit", "Ghost Town (The Specials song)", "Liverpool John Moores University", "In Search of Space", "Middlesex", "Greater London", "Electric Cinema, Notting Hill", "Record Store Day", "Habitat (retailer)", "Vivian Stanshall", "BTEC Extended Diploma", "Richmond upon Thames College", "Line Records", "Inland Revenue", "Hawkwind", "the Roundhouse", "Space Ritual", "Do It Yourself (Ian Dury & the Blockheads album)", "Music for Pleasure (The Damned album)", "Strongbow cider", "Radar Records", "Crown Wallpaper", "the Sinceros", "This Year's Model", "The Lunatics (Have Taken Over the Asylum)", "Quiver (Rock band)", "Is That Love", "Reasons to Be Cheerful (book)", "Portobello Road", "deed poll", "Mark Hodkinson", "symbol", "Generation X (band)", "Labour of Lust", "Johnny Moped", "Wreckless Eric", "Derek Boshier", "graphic design", "Cranbrook Art Museum", "Malcolm Garrett", "Ian Dury", "Complex Networks", "Peter Saville (graphic designer)", "Arts Lab", "Clubland (song)", "In Blissful Company", "Armed Forces (album)", "Cressida (progressive rock band)", "monograph", "Tempted (Squeeze song)", "Étapes", "Hawklords", "The Museum of Modern Art", "Hayward Gallery", "Russian Revolution", "Paul Gorman", "Utility", "My Aim Is True", "Stiff Records", "New Lace Sleeves", "Kevin Coyne", "New Musical Express", "Blanket of Secrecy", "Chris Gabrin", "Barbican Centre", "British rock music", "Middle Earth", "Isleworth and Syon School", "C'est C Bon", "The Damned (band)", "Southbank Centre", "Carlene Carter", "Hammer and sickle", "Jonathon Green", "Charisma Records", "Pirelli", "Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers", "Quintessence (English band)", "Doremi Fasol Latido", "Brinsley Schwarz", "Brian Griffin (photographer)", "Epic Records", "Peter Hammill", "Pacific Design Center", "TheGuardian.com", "United Artists Records", "manic depression", "logo", "Nik Turner", "Glastonbury Fayre (album)", "insignia", "Clive Langer", "Whitton, London", "Riddle Records", "Oz (magazine)", "Fred Perry", "Hugh Hudson", "Noah", "Thames & Hudson", "The Face (magazine)", "F-Beat Records", "Art Chantry", "Teuton", "Billy Bragg", "Islington", "Whirlwind", "Instagram", "Nick Lowe", "Go! Discs", "Ian Dury and the Blockheads", "Kursaal Flyers", "the Psychedelic Furs", "Squeeze (band)", "Peter Jenner", "Edgar Broughton Band", "The Gun (band)", "Pop art", "Phillip Goodhand-Tait", "Smash Hits", "NME", "graphic artist", "Hit Me with Your Rhythm Stick", "Victoria and Albert Museum", "Mojo (magazine)", "Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick", "Big Star", "Michael Moorcock", "Universal Music", "Vertigo Records" ]
4,933	Blackridge, Pennsylvania	Blackridge is a community in eastern Allegheny County and is a suburb of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. This community consists of approximately 650 private homes built from 1920 to 1949. Blackridge Estates was and remains one of the area's largest residential communities. Blackridge lies in the municipalities of Wilkinsburg, Penn Hills and Churchill. It maintains a Civic Association and a private park and swim club for residents. Blackridge is defined as the territory bounded on the West by Graham Boulevard, on the South by William Penn Highway, on the East by Beulah Road and the Churchill Country Club property, from the Churchill Country Club property along Orlando Place to Atkinson Place, Atkinson Place to Pine Way, and Pine Way to Graham Boulevard, and includes the properties fronting on both sides of said portions of Country Club Drive, Orlando Place, Atkinson Place and Pine Way. The Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark "1939 House" (Good Housekeeping house) is located in Blackridge at 2363 Sebring Place in the Wilkinsburg section of the neighborhood.	[ "List of Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmarks", "Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation", "Churchill, Pennsylvania", "Penn Hills, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", "Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania", "Allegheny County, Pennsylvania", "Good Housekeeping", "Pittsburgh" ]
4,934	Basic English	Basic English (a backronym for British American Scientific International and Commercial English) is a controlled language based on standard English, but with a greatly simplified vocabulary and grammar. It was created by the linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language. It was presented in Ogden's 1930 book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar. The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards of Harvard University and Charles Kay Ogden of the University of Cambridge in England. The design of Basic English drew heavily on the semiotic theory put forward by Ogden and Richards in their 1923 book The Meaning of Meaning. Ogden's Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in World War II as a means for world peace. He was convinced that the world needed to gradually eradicate minority languages and use as much as possible only one: English, in either a simple or complete form. Although Basic English was not built into a program, similar simplifications have been devised for various international uses. Richards promoted its use in schools in China. It has influenced the creation of Voice of America's Learning English for news broadcasting, and Simplified Technical English, another English-based controlled language designed to write technical manuals. What survives of Ogden's Basic English is the basic 850-word list used as the beginner's vocabulary of the English language taught worldwide, especially in Asia. == Design principles == Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasing. Most notably, Ogden allowed only 18 verbs, which he called "operators". His "General Introduction" says, "There are no 'verbs' in Basic English", with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification. == Word lists == Ogden's word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs). The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Basic English word list. This core is theoretically enough for everyday life. However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150-word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business), along with a 50-word list from a more specialised subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000-word vocabulary for everyday work and life. Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student should already be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 200 "international" words. Therefore, a first-level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1200 words. A realistic general core vocabulary could contain around 2000 words (the core 850 words, plus 200 international words, and 1000 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science). It is enough for a "standard" English level. This 2000 word vocabulary represents "what any learner should know". At this level students could start to move on their own. Ogden's Basic English 2000 word list and Voice of America's Special English 1500 word list serve as dictionaries for the Simple English Wikipedia. == Rules == Basic English includes a simple grammar for modifying or combining its 850 words to talk about additional meanings (morphological derivation or inflection). The grammar is based on English, but simplified. Plural nouns are formed by adding -s or related forms, as in drinks, boxes, or countries. Nouns are formed with the endings -er (as in prisoner) or -ing (building). Adjectives are formed with the endings -ing (boiling) or -ed (mixed). Adverbs can be formed by adding -ly (for example tightly) to words that Basic English calls "qualities" (adjectives that describe objects). The words more and most are used for comparison (for example more complex), but -er and -est may appear in common use (cheaper). Negatives can be formed with un- (unwise). The word do is used in questions, as it is in English (Do you have some?). Both pronouns and what Basic English calls "operators" (a set of ten verbs) use the different forms they have in English (for example I go to him, He goes to me). Compound words can be formed by combining two nouns (e.g. soapbox) or a noun and a preposition, which Basic English calls "directives" (sunup). International words, words that are the same or similar in English and other European languages (e.g. radio), use the English form. English forms are also used for numbers, dates, money, or measurements. Any technical terms or special vocabulary needed for a task should be written in inverted commas and then be explained in the text using words from the Basic English vocabulary (for example the 'vocabulary' is the list of words). == Criticism == Like all international auxiliary languages (or IALs), Basic English may be criticised as inevitably based on personal preferences, and is thus, paradoxically, inherently divisive. Moreover, like all natural-language-based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community. As a teaching aid for English as a second language, Basic English has been criticised for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints. In 1944, readability expert Rudolf Flesch published an article in Harper's Magazine, "How Basic is Basic English?" in which he said, "It's not basic, and it's not English." The essence of his complaint is that the vocabulary is too restricted, and, as a result, the text ends up being awkward and more difficult than necessary. He also argues that the words in the Basic vocabulary were arbitrarily selected, and notes that there had been no empirical studies showing that it made language simpler. In his 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Claude Shannon contrasted the limited vocabulary of Basic English with James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, a work noted for a wide vocabulary. Shannon notes that the lack of vocabulary in Basic English leads to a very high level of redundancy, whereas Joyce's large vocabulary "is alleged to achieve a compression of semantic content". == Literary references == In the novel The Shape of Things to Come, published in 1933, H. G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite that after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a totalitarian world government. In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language. From 1942 to 1944, George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945, he became critical of universal languages. Basic English later inspired his use of Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four. Evelyn Waugh criticized his own 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited, which he had previously called his magnum opus, in the preface of the 1959 reprint: "It [World War II] was a bleak period of present privation and threatening disaster—the period of soya beans and Basic English—and in consequence the book is infused with a kind of gluttony, for food and wine, for the splendours of the recent past, and for rhetorical and ornamental language that now, with a full stomach, I find distasteful." In his story "Gulf", science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein used a constructed language called Speedtalk, in which every Basic English word is replaced with a single phoneme, as an appropriate means of communication for a race of genius supermen. ==Samples== The Lord's Prayer has been often used for an impressionistic language comparison:	[ "North Point Press", "Evelyn Waugh", "H. G. Wells", "Robert A. Hall, Jr.", "Modern English", "lingua franca", "international auxiliary language", "English as a second or foreign language", "Simple English Wikipedia", "Français fondamental", "soya beans", "Academic word list", "controlled language", "San Francisco", "Finnegans Wake", "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", "Redundancy (linguistics)", "The Shape of Things to Come", "New General Service List", "phoneme", "verb", "grammar", "morphological derivation", "Paraphrase", "wikt:Appendix:1000 basic English words", "world government", "E-Prime", "English alphabet", "Latin script", "Unified English Braille", "inflection", "Charles Kay Ogden", "totalitarianism", "universal language", "Globish (Nerrière)", "Voice of America", "Learning English (version of English)", "Swadesh list", "University College London", "simple:Wikipedia:VOA Special English Word Book", "wikt:Appendix:Basic English word list", "Harper's Magazine", "Seaspeak", "Simplified Technical English", "readability", "Controlled vocabulary", "backronym", "it:Vocabolario corrente", "Claude Shannon", "Ivor Richards", "Bible in Basic English", "Minority language", "NRSV", "Brideshead Revisited", "Nineteen Eighty-Four", "Plain language", "Newspeak", "Allies of World War II", "Speedtalk", "English language", "vocabulary", "Robert A. Heinlein", "The Meaning of Meaning", "James Joyce", "Plain English", "word roots", "Lord's Prayer", "simple:Wikipedia:Basic English combined wordlist", "controlled natural language", "George Orwell", "Time (magazine)", "Rudolf Flesch", "Standard Marine Communication Phrases", "Readability", "constructed language", "International English", "Gulf (novella)" ]
4,937	BND	BND may refer to: ==Organisations== Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany Federal Intelligence Service (disambiguation) Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, USA Belleville News-Democrat, a newspaper in Belleville, Illinois, USA Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party VID (company) (), a Russian TV company Business & Decision (stock ticker: BND), a consulting company Banco Nacional de Desarrollo, the national development bank, for banking in Nicaragua National Digital Library () of Moldova; part of the National Library of Moldova ==By codename== Brunei dollar, currency of the Sultanate of Brunei, by ISO 4217 code Banda language (Maluku) (ISO 639 language code: bnd), found in Indonesia Brandon railway station (National Rail station code: BND), Suffolk, England, UK Bandar Abbas International Airport (IATA airport code BND; ICAO airport code: OIKB), Bandar Abbas, Hormozgan Province, Iran ==Other uses== Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom "BND", a song on the album No Doubt by No Doubt Bnd, short for "Bend"; a Street suffix as used in the US	[ "Federal Intelligence Service (disambiguation)", "Bank of North Dakota", "Bund (disambiguation)", "National Library of Moldova", "Bend (disambiguation)", "Banda language (Maluku)", "Street suffix", "Federal Intelligence Service (Germany)", "Buy Nothing Day", "No Doubt (No Doubt album)", "Business & Decision", "Brunei dollar", "Brandon railway station", "Bond (disambiguation)", "Bind (disambiguation)", "Bandar Abbas International Airport", "banking in Nicaragua", "Belleville News-Democrat", "Bound (disambiguation)", "Band (disambiguation)", "Bulgarian New Democracy", "VID (company)", "BTEC National Diploma" ]
4,940	Brass instrument	A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips. The term labrosone, from Latin elements meaning "lip" and "sound", is also used for the group, since instruments employing this "lip reed" method of sound production can be made from other materials like wood or animal horn, particularly early or traditional instruments such as the cornett, alphorn or shofar. There are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. Slides, valves, crooks (though they are rarely used today), or keys are used to change vibratory length of tubing, thus changing the available harmonic series, while the player's embouchure, lip tension and air flow serve to select the specific harmonic produced from the available series. The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent and the didgeridoo, while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the saxophone. == Families == Modern brass instruments generally come in one of two families: Valved brass instruments use a set of valves (typically three or four but as many as seven or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing, or crooks, into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone: the trumpet, horn (also called French horn), euphonium, and tuba, as well as the cornet, flugelhorn, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, sousaphone, and the mellophone. As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves; the latter are the norm for the horn (except in France) and are also common on the tuba. Slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the trombone family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in jazz. The trombone family's ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family. There are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are sometimes used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are occasionally used for their intonation or tone color. Natural brass instruments only play notes in the instrument's harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn. The trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, which let players use a single instrument in more than one key. Natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a woodwind instrument. These included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments. === Bore taper and diameter === Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and the diameter of the bore with respect to its length. ==== Cylindrical vs. conical bore ==== While all modern valved and slide brass instruments consist in part of conical and in part of cylindrical tubing, they are divided as follows: Cylindrical bore brass instruments are those in which approximately constant diameter tubing predominates. Cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, and all trombones are cylindrical bore. In particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this. Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates. Conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The "British brass band" group of instruments fall into this category. This includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, horn, euphonium and tuba. Some conical bore brass instruments are more conical than others. For example, the flugelhorn differs from the cornet by having a higher percentage of its tubing length conical than does the cornet, in addition to possessing a wider bore than the cornet. In the 1910s and 1920s, the E. A. Couturier company built brass band instruments utilizing a patent for a continuous conical bore without cylindrical portions even for the valves or tuning slide. ==== Whole-tube vs. half-tube ==== The resonances of a brass instrument resemble a harmonic series, with the exception of the lowest resonance, which is significantly lower than the fundamental frequency of the series that the other resonances are overtones of. Depending on the instrument and the skill of the player, the missing fundamental of the series can still be played as a pedal tone, which relies mainly on vibration at the overtone frequencies to produce the fundamental pitch. The bore diameter in relation to length determines whether the fundamental tone or the first overtone is the lowest partial practically available to the player in terms of playability and musicality, dividing brass instruments into whole-tube and half-tube instruments. These terms stem from a comparison to organ pipes, which produce the same pitch as the fundamental pedal tone of a brass instrument of equal length. Whole-tube instruments have larger bores in relation to tubing length, and can play the fundamental tone with ease and precision. The tuba and euphonium are examples of whole-tube brass instruments. Half-tube instruments have smaller bores in relation to tubing length and cannot easily or accurately play the fundamental tone. The second partial (first overtone) is the lowest note of each tubing length practical to play on half-tube instruments. The trumpet and horn are examples of half-tube brass instruments. === Other brass instruments === The instruments in this list fall for various reasons outside the scope of much of the discussion above regarding families of brass instruments. Alphorn (wood) Conch (shell) Didgeridoo (wood, Australia) Natural horn (no valves or slides—except tuning crooks in some cases) Jazzophone Keyed bugle (keyed brass) Keyed trumpet (keyed brass) Serpent (keyed brass) Ophicleide (keyed brass) Shofar (animal horn) Vladimirskiy rozhok (wood, Russia) Vuvuzela (simple short horn, origins disputed but achieved fame or notoriety through many plastic examples in the 2010 World Cup) Lur == Valves== Valves are used to change the length of tubing of a brass instrument allowing the player to reach the notes of various harmonic series. Each valve pressed diverts the air stream through additional tubing, individually or in conjunction with other valves. This lengthens the vibrating air column thus lowering the fundamental tone and associated harmonic series produced by the instrument. Designs exist, although rare, in which this behaviour is reversed, i.e., pressing a valve removes a length of tubing rather than adding one. One modern example of such an ascending valve is the Yamaha YSL-350C trombone, (this is entirely separate from the slight deficiencies between Western music's dominant equal (even) temperament system and the just (not equal) temperament of the harmonic series itself). Since each lengthening of the tubing has an inversely proportional effect on pitch (Pitch of brass instruments), while pitch perception is logarithmic, there is no way for a simple, uncompensated addition of length to be correct in every combination when compared with the pitches of the open tubing and the other valves. ====Absolute tube length==== For example, given a length of tubing equaling 100 units of length when open, one may obtain the following tuning discrepancies: Playing notes using valves (notably 1st + 3rd and 1st + 2nd + 3rd) requires compensation to adjust the tuning appropriately, either by the player's lip-and-breath control, via mechanical assistance of some sort, or, in the case of horns, by the position of the stopping hand in the bell. 'T' stands for trigger on a trombone. ====Relative tube length==== Traditionally the valves lower the pitch of the instrument by adding extra lengths of tubing based on a just tuning: 1st valve: of main tube, making an interval of 9:8, a pythagorean major second 2nd valve: of main tube, making an interval of 16:15, a just minor second 3rd valve: of main tube, making an interval of 6:5, a just minor third Combining the valves and the harmonics of the instrument leads to the following ratios and comparisons to 12-tone equal tuning and to a common five-limit tuning in C: === Tuning compensation === The additional tubing for each valve usually features a short tuning slide of its own for fine adjustment of the valve's tuning, except when it is too short to make this practicable. For the first and third valves this is often designed to be adjusted as the instrument is played, to account for the deficiencies in the valve system. In most trumpets and cornets, the compensation must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the third or fourth finger, and the first valve slide with the left hand thumb (see Trigger or throw below). This is used to lower the pitch of the 1–3 and 1–2–3 valve combinations. On the trumpet and cornet, these valve combinations correspond to low D, low C, low G, and low F, so chromatically, to stay in tune, one must use this method. In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, piccolo trumpets, etc. that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used to compensate for the sharpness of the valve combinations 1–3 and 1–2–3 (4 replaces 1–3, 2–4 replaces 1–2–3). All three normal valves may be used in addition to the fourth to increase the instrument's range downwards by a perfect fourth, although with increasingly severe intonation problems. When four-valved models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play. This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental. Manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches to compensate for the tuning difficulties, whose respective merits are subject to debate: ==== Compensation system ==== In the Compensation system, each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount. This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire. The compensating system was applied to horns to serve a different purpose. It was used to allow a double horn in F and B to ease playing difficulties in the high register. In contrast to the system in use in tubas and euphoniums, the default 'side' of the horn is the longer F horn, with secondary lengths of tubing coming into play when the first, second or third valves are pressed; pressing the thumb valve takes these secondary valve slides and the extra length of main tubing out of play to produce a shorter B horn. A later "full double" design has completely separate valve section tubing for the two sides, and is considered superior, although rather heavier in weight. ==== Additional valves ==== Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore preferred adding more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, many professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being common on CC- and BB-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas. Compensating double horns can also suffer from the stuffiness resulting from the air being passed through the valve section twice, but as this really only affects the longer F side, a compensating double can be very useful for a 1st or 3rd horn player, who uses the F side less. ==== Additional sets of slides on each valve ==== Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. Some euphoniums and tubas were built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments except horns, where it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration. ==== Trigger or throw ==== Some valved brass instruments provide triggers or throws that manually lengthen (or, less commonly, shorten) the main tuning slide, a valve slide, or the main tubing. These mechanisms alter the pitch of notes that are naturally sharp in a specific register of the instrument, or shift the instrument to another playing range. Triggers and throws permit speedy adjustment while playing. Trigger is used in two senses: A trigger can be a mechanical lever that lengthens a slide when pressed in a contrary direction. Triggers are sprung in such a way that they return the slide to its original position when released. The term "trigger" also describes a device engaging a valve to lengthen the main tubing, e.g. lowering the key of certain trombones from B to F. A throw is a simple metal grip for the player's finger or thumb, attached to a valve slide. The general term "throw" can describe a u-hook, a saddle (u-shaped grips), or a ring (ring-shape grip) in which a player's finger or thumb rests. A player extends a finger or thumb to lengthen a slide, and retracts the finger to return the slide to its original position. ====Examples of instruments that use triggers or throws==== =====Trumpet or cornet===== Triggers or throws are sometimes found on the first valve slide. They are operated by the player's thumb and are used to adjust a large range of notes using the first valve, most notably the player's written top line F, the A above directly above that, and the B above that. Other notes that require the first valve slide, but are not as problematic without it include the first line E, the F above that, the A above that, and the third line B. Triggers or throws are often found on the third valve slide. They are operated by the player's fourth finger, and are used to adjust the lower D and C. Trumpets typically use throws, whilst cornets may have a throw or trigger. =====Trombone===== Trombone triggers are primarily but not exclusively installed on the F-trigger, bass, and contrabass trombones to alter the length of tubing, thus making certain ranges and pitches more accessible. =====Euphoniums===== A euphonium occasionally has a trigger on valves other than 2 (especially 3), although many professional quality euphoniums, and indeed other brass band instruments, have a trigger for the main tuning slide. === Mechanism === The two major types of valve mechanisms are rotary valves and piston valves. The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century. The Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stölzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However many professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 20th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments except for the orchestral horn and the tuba. See also the article Brass Instrument Valves. ==Sound production in brass instruments== Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air vibrates. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure). Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable mouthpiece. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece. One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a brass instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands. ==Manufacture== ===Metal=== Traditionally the instruments are normally made of brass, polished and then lacquered to prevent corrosion. Some higher quality and higher cost instruments use gold or silver plating to prevent corrosion. Alternatives to brass include other alloys containing significant amounts of copper or silver. These alloys are biostatic due to the oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of molds, fungi or bacteria. Brass instruments constructed from stainless steel or aluminium have good sound quality but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play. Most higher quality instruments are designed to prevent or reduce galvanic corrosion between any steel in the valves and springs, and the brass of the tubing. This may take the form of desiccant design, to keep the valves dry, sacrificial zincs, replaceable valve cores and springs, plastic insulating washers, or nonconductive or noble materials for the valve cores and springs. Some instruments use several such features. The process of making the large open end (bell) of a brass instrument is called metal beating. In making the bell of, for example, a trumpet, a person lays out a pattern and shapes sheet metal into a bell-shape using templates, machine tools, handtools, and blueprints. The maker cuts out the bell blank, using hand or power shears. He hammers the blank over a bell-shaped mandrel, and butts the seam, using a notching tool. The seam is brazed, using a torch and smoothed using a hammer or file. A draw bench or arbor press equipped with expandable lead plug is used to shape and smooth the bell and bell neck over a mandrel. A lathe is used to spin the bell head and to form a bead at the edge of bell head. Previously shaped bell necks are annealed, using a hand torch to soften the metal for further bending. Scratches are removed from the bell using abrasive-coated cloth. ===Other materials=== A few specialty instruments are made from wood. Instruments made mostly from plastic emerged in the 2010s as a cheaper and more robust alternative to brass. Plastic instruments could come in almost any colour. The sound plastic instruments produce is different from the one of brass, lacquer, gold or silver. This is because plastic is much less dense, or rather has less matter in a given space as compared to the aforementioned which causes vibrations to occur differently. While originally seen as a gimmick, these plastic models have found increasing popularity during the last decade and are now viewed as practice tools that make for more convenient travel as well as a cheaper option for beginning players. ==Ensembles== Brass instruments are one of the major classical instrument families and are played across a range of musical ensembles. Orchestras include a varying number of brass instruments depending on music style and era, typically: two or three trumpets four to eight French horns two or three tenor trombones one or two bass trombones; the second of which may be a contrabass trombone or cimbasso one tuba Baroque and classical period orchestras may include valveless trumpets or bugles, or have valved trumpets/cornets playing these parts, and they may include valveless horns, or have valved horns playing these parts. Romantic, modern, and contemporary orchestras may include larger numbers of brass including more exotic instruments. Concert bands generally have a larger brass section than an orchestra, typically: four to six trumpets or cornets four French horns two to four tenor trombones one or two bass trombones two or three euphoniums or baritone horns two or three tubas British brass bands are made up entirely of brass, mostly conical bore instruments. Typical membership is: one soprano cornet nine cornets one flugelhorn three tenor (alto) horns two baritone horns two tenor trombones one bass trombone two euphoniums two E tubas two B tubas Quintets are common small brass ensembles; a quintet typically contains: two trumpets one horn one trombone one tuba or bass trombone Big bands and other jazz bands commonly contain cylindrical bore brass instruments. A big band typically includes: four trumpets four tenor trombones one bass trombone (in place of one of the tenor trombones) Smaller jazz ensembles may include a single trumpet or trombone soloist. Mexican bandas have: three trumpets three trombones two alto horns, also called "charchetas" and "saxores" one sousaphone, called "tuba" Single brass instruments are also often used to accompany other instruments or ensembles such as an organ or a choir.	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A. Couturier", "harmonic", "Horn section", "Keyed trumpet", "just minor second", "cornet", "Intonation (music)", "organ (instrument)", "sheet metal", "Key (instrument)", "Major second", "Trumpet", "wood", "Brass quintet", "Augmented fifth", "alto horn", "fundamental frequency", "organ pipe", "natural trumpet", "euphonium", "Trigger (musical instrument)", "German horn", "silver", "French horn", "keyed trumpet", "Didgeridoo", "2010 World Cup", "Trigger (music)", "copper", "oligodynamic effect", "Brass band (British style)", "piccolo trumpet", "aluminium", "Drum and bugle corps (modern)", "Alphorn", "Russia", "bore (wind instruments)", "gold", "Banda music", "embouchure", "Slide (wind instrument)", "Minor third", "resonator", "tenor horn", "Romantic music", "Haas (brass instrument makers)", "Metal polishing", "Brass instrument valve", "rotary valve", "Australia", "shofar", "Bell (wind)", "Brass Instrument Valves", "tenor trombone", "Classical music", "woodwind instrument", "galvanic corrosion", "serpent (instrument)", "just minor third", "Crook (music)", "Trigger (brass instrument)", "Bugle (instrument)", "brass", "biostatic", "Perfect fifth", "musical instrument", "Ophicleide", "pedal tone", "tuba", "keyed bugle", "baritone horn", "bacteria", "didgeridoo" ]
4,941	Blood libel	Blood libel or ritual murder libel (also blood accusation) is an antisemitic canard which falsely accuses Jews of murdering Christians in order to use their blood in the performance of religious rituals. Echoing very old myths of secret cultic practices in many prehistoric societies, the claim, as it is leveled against Jews, was rarely attested to in antiquity. According to Tertullian, it originally emerged in late antiquity as an accusation made against members of the early Christian community of the Roman Empire. Once this accusation had been dismissed, it was revived a millennium later as a Christian slander against Jews in the medieval period. The first examples of medieval blood libel emerged in England in the mid 1100s before spreading into other parts of Europe, especially France and Germany. This libel, alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration, became a major theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe from that period down to modern times. The accusations often assert that the blood of Christian children is especially coveted, and historically, blood libel claims have been made in order to account for the otherwise unexplained deaths of children. In some cases, the alleged victims of human sacrifice have become venerated as Christian martyrs. Many of these most prominently William of Norwich (1144), Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (1255), and Simon of Trent (1475) became objects of local cults and veneration; the cult of Hugh of Lincoln gained the support of Henry III and his son Edward I, giving it official credibility and helping it to be particularly well remembered. Although he was never canonized, the veneration of Simon was added to the General Roman Calendar. One child who was allegedly murdered by Jews, Gabriel of Białystok, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. In Jewish lore, blood libels served as the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century. The term 'blood libel' has also been used in reference to any unpleasant or damaging false accusation, and as a result, it has acquired a broader metaphoric meaning. However, this wider usage of the term remains controversial. ==History== The earliest versions of the accusations involving Jews supposedly crucifying Christian children on Easter/Passover is said to be because of a prophecy. There is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread at this time yet, which develops later as a major motivation for the crime. ===Possible precursors=== The earliest known antecedent is tenth century, from Damocritus (not Democritus the philosopher) mentioned in the Suda, who alleged that "every seven years the Jews captured a stranger, brought him to the temple in Jerusalem, and sacrificed him, cutting his flesh into bits." The Greco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple. Here, the writer states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, he discovered a Greek captive, who told him that he was being fattened for sacrifice. Every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred towards the Greeks. Apion's claim likely reflects already circulating attitudes towards Jews as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BCE. This idea is exampled later in history, when Socrates Scholasticus ( 5th century) reported that in a drunken frolic, a group of Jews bound a Christian child to a cross in mockery of the death of Christ and scourged him until he died. ===Medieval context=== The blood libels emerged at a time when the church and particularly the Crusades were driving increasingly anti-Judaic discourses. These were later reinforced through the Church council Lateran IV which mandated the segregation of Christian and Jewish society, and built an apparatus of enforcement across Europe. At a local context, many of the English examples may have included an element of church competition for saintly cults, with the income that veneration produced. Israel Yuval proposed that the blood libel may have originated in the 12th century due to Christian views on Jewish behavior during the First Crusade. Some Jews committed suicide and killed their own children rather than exposing them to forced conversion to Christianity. Yuval wrote that Christians may have argued that if Jews could kill their own children, they could also kill Christian children. ===Origins in England=== In England, in 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of ritual murder after a boy, William of Norwich, was found dead in the woods with stab wounds. William's hagiographer, Thomas of Monmouth, falsely claimed that every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the country in which a child will be killed during Easter, because of a Jewish prophecy that states that the killing of a Christian child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land. According to Monmouth, England was chosen in 1144, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing, after which they abducted and crucified William. The legend was turned into a cult, with William acquiring the status of a martyr and pilgrims bringing offerings to the local church. This was followed by similar accusations in Gloucester (1168), Bury St Edmunds (1181) and Bristol (1183). In 1189, the Jewish deputation attending the coronation of Richard the Lionheart was attacked by the crowd. Massacres of Jews at London and York soon followed. In 1190, on 16 March, 150 Jews were attacked in York and then massacred when they took refuge in the royal castle, where Clifford's Tower now stands, with some committing suicide rather than being taken by the mob. The remains of 17 bodies thrown in a well in Norwich between the 12th and 13th century (five that were shown by DNA testing to likely be members of a single Jewish family) were very possibly killed as part of one of these pogroms. After the death of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, there were trials and executions of Jews. The case was described by Matthew Paris and later by Chaucer, and formed the basis of the Sir Hugh ballads which have circulated to the present day. Its notoriety sprang from the intervention of the Crown, the first time an accusation of ritual killing had been given royal credibility. The eight-year-old Hugh disappeared at Lincoln on 31 July 1255. His body was probably discovered on 29 August, in a well. A Jew named Copin or Koppin confessed to involvement. He confessed to John of Lexington, a servant of the crown, and relative of the Bishop of Lincoln. He confessed that the boy had been crucified by the Jews, who had assembled at Lincoln for that purpose. King Henry III, who had reached Lincoln at the beginning of October, had Copin executed and 91 of the Jews of Lincoln seized and sent up to London, where 18 of them were executed. The rest were pardoned at the intercession of the Franciscans or Dominicans. Within a few decades, Jews would be expelled from all of England in 1290 and not allowed to return until 1657, although it is likely that some Jews lived there during this period and kept their religion secret. After the expulsion, Edward I renovated "Little Saint Hugh's" shrine and decorated it with his Royal insignia, as part of his efforts to justify his actions. As Stacey notes: "A more explicit identification of the crown with the ritual crucifixion charge can hardly be imagined." ===Continental Europe=== Much like the blood libel of England, the history of blood libel in continental Europe consists of unsubstantiated claims made about the corpses of Christian children. There were frequently associated supernatural events speculated about these discoveries and corpses, events which were often attributed by contemporaries to miracles. Also, just as in England, these accusations in continental Europe typically resulted in the execution of numerous Jews – sometimes even all, or close to all, the Jews in one town. These accusations and their effects also, in some cases, led to royal interference on behalf of the Jews. Thomas of Monmouth's story of the annual Jewish meeting to decide which local community would kill a Christian child also quickly spread to the continent. An early version appears in Bonum Universale de Apibus ii. 29, § 23, by Thomas of Cantimpré (a monastery near Cambray). Thomas wrote, in around 1260, "It is quite certain that the Jews of every province annually decide by lot which congregation or city is to send Christian blood to the other congregations." Thomas of Cantimpré also believed that since the time when the Jews called out to Pontius Pilate, "His blood be on us, and on our children" (), they have been afflicted with hemorrhages, a condition equated with male menstruation: A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood ("solo sanguine Christiano").' This suggestion was followed by the ever-blind and impious Jews, who instituted the custom of annually shedding Christian blood in every province, in order that they might recover from their malady. Thomas added that the Jews had misunderstood the words of their prophet, who by his expression "solo sanguine Christiano" had meant not the blood of any Christian, but that of Jesus the only true remedy for all physical and spiritual suffering. Thomas did not mention the name of the "very learned" proselyte, but it may have been Nicholas Donin of La Rochelle, who, in 1240, had a disputation on the Talmud with Yechiel of Paris, and who in 1242 caused the burning of numerous Talmudic manuscripts in Paris. It is known that Thomas was personally acquainted with Nicholas. Nicholas Donin and another Jewish convert, Theobald of Cambridge, are greatly credited with the adoption and the belief of the blood libel myth in Europe. The first known case outside England was in Blois, France, in 1171. This was the site of a blood libel accusation against the town's entire Jewish community that led to around 31–33 Jews (with 17 women making up this total being burned to death on 29 May of that year, or the 20th of Sivan of 4931. The child's body was never found. The count had about 40 adult Blois Jews arrested and they were eventually to be burned. The surviving members of the Blois Jewish community, as well as surviving holy texts, were ransomed. As a result of this case, the Jews garnered new promises from the king. The burned bodies of the sentenced Jews were supposedly maintained unblemished through the burning, a claim which is a well-known miracle, martyr myth for both Jews and Christians. Responding to the mass execution, the Twentieth of Sivan was declared a fast day by Rabbenu Tam. In this case in Blois, there was not yet the myth proclaimed that Jews needed the blood of Christians. At Pforzheim, Baden, in 1267, a woman supposedly sold a girl to Jews who, according to the myth, then cut her open and dumped her in the Enz River, where boatmen found her; the girl cried for vengeance, and then died. The body was said to have bled as the Jews were brought to it. The woman and the Jews allegedly confessed and were subsequently killed. That a judicial execution was summarily committed in consequence of the accusation is evident from the manner in which the Nuremberg "Memorbuch" and the synagogal poems refer to the incident. In 1270, at Weissenburg, of Alsace, a supposed miracle alone decided the charge against the Jews. A child's body had shown up in the Lauter River; it was claimed that Jews had cut into the child to acquire his blood, and that the child continued bleeding for five days. alleged miracles again constituted the only evidence against the Jews. In this case, it was claimed that the corpse of the 16-year-old Werner of Oberwesel (also referred to as "Good Werner") landed at Bacharach and the body performed miracles, particularly medicinal miracles. Light was also said to have been emitted by the body. Reportedly, the child was hung upside down, forced to throw up the host and was cut open. Rudolph of Habsburg, to whom the Jews had appealed for protection, in order to manage the miracle story, had the archbishop of Mainz declare great wrong had been done to the Jew. This apparent declaration was very limited in effectiveness. or 1294 the Jews tortured and murdered a boy called Rudolph (sometimes also referred to as Ruff, or Ruof). The body was reportedly found by the house of Jöly, a Jew. The Jewish community was then implicated. The penalties imposed upon the Jews included torture, execution, expulsion, and steep financial fines. Justinger argued Jews were out to harm Christianity. There have been several explanations put forth as to why these blood libel accusations were made and perpetuated. For example, it has been argued Thomas of Monmouth's account and other similar false accusations, as well as their perpetuation, largely had to do with the economic and political interests of leaders perpetuating these myths. The use of blood and other human products for medicinal or magical purposes was an established concept in medieval Europe. As such illegal ways of accessing these item were ascribed (in 1507) by Franciscans to Dominicans, by others to sorcerers and devil worshippers as well as Jews. that this case was constructed by the Spanish Inquisition to facilitate the expulsion of Jews from Spain. In a case at Tyrnau (Nagyszombat, today Trnava, Slovakia), the absurdity, even the impossibility, of the statements forced by torture from women and children shows that the accused preferred death as a means of escape from the torture, and admitted everything that was asked of them. They even said that Jewish men menstruated and that the latter therefore practiced the drinking of Christian blood as a remedy. At Bösing (Bazin, today Pezinok, Slovakia), it was charged that a nine-year-old boy had been bled to death, suffering cruel torture; thirty Jews confessed to the crime and were publicly burned. The true facts of the case were disclosed later when the child was found alive in Vienna. He had been taken there by the accuser, Count Wolf of Bazin, as a means of ridding himself of his Jewish creditors at Bazin. In Rinn, near Innsbruck, a boy named Andreas Oxner (also known as Anderl von Rinn) was said to have been bought by Jewish merchants and cruelly murdered by them in a forest near the city, his blood being carefully collected in vessels. The accusation of drawing off the blood (without murder) was not made until the beginning of the 17th century when the cult was founded. The older inscription in the church of Rinn, dating from 1575, is distorted by fabulous embellishments for example, that the money paid for the boy to his godfather turned into leaves, and that a lily blossomed upon his grave. The cult continued until officially prohibited in 1994, by the Bishop of Innsbruck. On 17 January 1670, Raphael Levy, a member of the Jewish community of Metz, was executed on charges of the ritual murder of a peasant child who had gone missing in the woods outside the village of Glatigny on 25 September 1669, the eve of Rosh Hashanah. Sandomierz, a city in Poland, has been the venue of a number of blood libel cases, leading to the torture and execution of several people. One such case from 1698 involved Małgorzata, a dead two-year-old Christian girl whose corpse was deposited in a church mortuary by her mother, and the Jew she accused under torture, Aleksander Berek. The revival of the cult in Belarus was cited as a dangerous expression of antisemitism in international reports on human rights and religious freedoms which were passed to the UNHCR. 1823–35 Velizh blood libel: After a Christian child was found murdered outside of this small Russian town in 1823, accusations by a drunk prostitute led to the imprisonment of many local Jews. Some were not released until 1835. 1840 Damascus affair: In February, at Damascus, a Catholic monk named Father Thomas and his servant disappeared. The accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus. 1840 Rhodes blood libel: The Jews of Rhodes, under the Ottoman Empire, were accused of murdering a Greek Christian boy. The libel was supported by the local governor and the European consuls posted to Rhodes. Several Jews were arrested and tortured, and the entire Jewish quarter was blockaded for twelve days. An investigation carried out by the central Ottoman government found the Jews to be innocent. In 1844, David Paul Drach, the son of the Head Rabbi of Paris and a convert to Christianity, wrote in his book De L'harmonie Entre L'eglise et la Synagogue, that a Catholic priest in Damascus had been ritually killed and the murder covered up by powerful Jews in Europe; referring to the 1840 Damascus affair [See above] In 1851–53, a case of blood libel took place in Surami, Georgia (then part of the Russian Empire): seven Jewish men, all versed in religious matters, were falsely accused of the murder of a Christian (Georgian) boy for ritual purposes. Local investigators pressed the case for three years before the Governing Senate in St Petersburg, the Russian Empire's highest judicial organ, convicted and exiled the accused to remote provinces. Soviet, Israeli and Georgian scholars agree that the Russian imperial state, especially Viceroy Mikhail Vorontsov, was heavily involved, even manipulated the case to ensure a conviction. This conviction greatly influenced the Kutaisi case (1878–80, see below). In March 1879, nine Jewish men from the village of Sachkhere were brought to Kutaisi, Georgia to stand trial for the alleged kidnapping and murder of a Christian girl. The case attracted a great deal of attention in the Russian Empire (of which Georgia was then a part): "While periodicals as diverse in tendency as Herald of Europe and Saint Petersburg Notices expressed their amazement that medieval prejudice should have found a place in the modern judiciary of a civilized state, New Times hinted darkly of strange Jewish sects with unknown practices." The trial ended in acquittal, and the orientalist Daniel Chwolson published a refutation of the blood libel. 1882 Tiszaeszlár blood libel: The Jews of the village of Tiszaeszlár, Hungary were accused of the ritual murder of a fourteen-year-old Christian girl, Eszter Solymosi. The case was one of the main causes of the rise of antisemitism in the country. The accused persons were eventually acquitted. In 1899, Hilsner Affair: Leopold Hilsner, a Czech Jewish vagabond, was accused of murdering a nineteen-year-old Christian woman, Anežka Hrůzová, with a slash to the throat. Despite the absurdity of the charge and the relatively progressive nature of society in Austria-Hungary, Hilsner was convicted and sentenced to death. He was later convicted of an additional unsolved murder, also involving a Christian woman. In 1901, the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Tomáš Masaryk, a prominent Austro-Czech philosophy professor and future president of Czechoslovakia, spearheaded Hilsner's defense. He was later blamed by Czech media because of this. In March 1918, Hilsner was pardoned by Austrian emperor Charles I. He was never exonerated, and the true guilty parties were never found. ===20th and 21st centuries=== The 1903 Kishinev pogrom, an anti-Jewish revolt, started when an anti-Semitic newspaper wrote that a Christian Russian boy, Mikhail Rybachenko, was found murdered in the town of Dubossary, alleging that the Jews killed him in order to use the blood in preparation of matzo. Around 49 Jews were killed and hundreds were wounded, with over 700 houses being looted and destroyed. In the 1910 Shiraz blood libel, the Jews of Shiraz, Iran, were falsely accused of murdering a Muslim girl. The entire Jewish quarter was pillaged; the pogrom left 12 Jews dead and about 50 injured. In Kyiv, a Jewish factory manager, Menahem Mendel Beilis, was accused of murdering 13-year-old Andriy Yushchinskyi, a Christian child, and using his blood to make matzos. He was acquitted by an all-Christian jury after a sensational trial in 1913. In 1928, the Jews of Massena, New York were falsely accused of kidnapping and killing a Christian girl in the Massena blood libel. Jews were frequently accused of the ritual murder of Christians for their blood in Der Stürmer, an antisemitic newspaper which was published in Nazi Germany. The infamous May 1934 issue of the paper was later banned by the Nazi authorities, because it went so far as to compare alleged Jewish ritual murder with the Christian rite of communion. In Tattarisuo case, where several severed heads, arms and other body parts were discovered in a spring, the far-right media in Finland blamed the case on Jewish ritual murder. In 1938 the British fascist politician and veterinarian Arnold Leese published an antisemitic booklet in defense of the Blood Libel which he titled My Irrelevant Defence: Meditations inside Gaol and Out on Jewish Ritual Murder. The 1944–1946 Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, which according to some estimates killed as many as 1000–2000 Jews (237 documented cases), involved, among other elements, accusations of blood libel, especially in the case of the 1946 Kielce pogrom. King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (r. 1964–1975) made accusations against Parisian Jews that took the form of a blood libel. The Matzah of Zion was written by the Syrian Defense Minister, Mustafa Tlass in 1986. The book concentrates on two issues: renewed ritual murder accusations against the Jews in the Damascus affair of 1840, and The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The book was cited at a United Nations conference in 1991 by a Syrian delegate. On 21 October 2002, the London-based Arabic paper Al-Hayat reported that the book The Matzah of Zion was undergoing its eighth reprinting and it was also being translated into English, French and Italian. Egyptian filmmaker Munir Radhi has announced plans to adapt the book into a film. In 2003, a private Syrian film company created a 29-part television series Ash-Shatat ("The Diaspora"). This series originally aired in Lebanon in late 2003 and it was subsequently broadcast by Al-Manar, a satellite television network owned by Hezbollah. This TV series, based on the antisemitic forgery The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, shows the Jewish people engaging in a conspiracy to rule the world, and it also presents Jews as people who murder the children of Christians, drain their blood and use it to bake matzah. In early January 2005, some 20 members of the Russian State Duma publicly made a blood libel accusation against the Jewish people. They approached the Prosecutor General's Office and demanded that Russia "ban all Jewish organizations." They accused all Jewish groups of being extremist, "anti-Christian and inhumane, and even accused them of practices that include ritual murders." Alluding to previous antisemitic Russian court decrees that accused the Jews of ritual murder, they wrote that "Many facts of such religious extremism were proven in courts." The accusation included traditional antisemitic canards, such as the claim that "the whole democratic world today is under the financial and political control of international Jewry. And we do not want our Russia to be among such unfree countries". This demand was published as an open letter to the prosecutor general, in Rus Pravoslavnaya (, "Orthodox Russia"), a national-conservative newspaper. This group consisted of members of the ultra-nationalist Liberal Democrats, the Communist faction, and the nationalist Motherland party, with some 500 supporters. The mentioned document is known as "The Letter of Five Hundred" ("Письмо пятисот"). Their supporters included editors of nationalist newspapers as well as journalists. By the end of the month, this group was strongly criticized, and it retracted its demand in response. At the end of April 2005, five boys, ages 9 to 12, in Krasnoyarsk (Russia) disappeared. In May 2005, their burnt bodies were found in the city sewage. The crime was not disclosed, and in August 2007 the investigation was extended until 18 November 2007. Some Russian nationalist groups claimed that the children were murdered by a Jewish sect with a ritual purpose. Nationalist M. Nazarov, one of the authors of "The Letter of Five Hundred" alleges "the existence of a 'Hasidic sect', whose members kill children before Passover to collect their blood", using the Beilis case mentioned above as evidence. M.Nazarov also alleges that "the ritual murder requires throwing the body away rather than its concealing". "The Union of the Russian People" demanded officials thoroughly investigate the Jews, not stopping at the search in synagogues, Matzah bakeries and their offices. During a speech in 2007, Raed Salah, the leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel, referred to Jews in Europe having in the past used children's blood to bake holy bread. "We have never allowed ourselves to knead [the dough for] the bread that breaks the fast in the holy month of Ramadan with children's blood", he said. "Whoever wants a more thorough explanation, let him ask what used to happen to some children in Europe, whose blood was mixed in with the dough of the [Jewish] holy bread." In the 2000s, a team of Polish anthropologists and sociologists investigated the currency of the blood libel myth in Sandomierz where a painting depicting the blood libel adorns the Cathedral, and Orthodox faithful in villages near Bialystok, and they discovered that these beliefs persist among some Catholic and Orthodox Christians. The fact that local Jews were saved by orders from the bishop, who saw them hide in the very same cathedral during the Holocaust, gave rise to hopes of transforming Sandomierz into a symbol of hope for the checkered historical Polish-Jewish relations. and described in 2005 as "one of America's most noted Muslim scholars", alleged that Jews kidnap Christians and others in order to slaughter them and use their blood for making matzos. Sultan, who is currently a lecturer on Muslim jurisprudence at Cairo University stated that: "The Zionists kidnap several non-Muslims Christians and others... this happened in a Jewish neighborhood in Damascus. They killed the French doctor, Toma, who used to treat the Jews and others for free, in order to spread Christianity. Even though he was their friend and they benefited from him the most, they took him on one of these holidays and slaughtered him, along with the nurse. Then they kneaded the matzos with the blood of Dr. Toma and his nurse. They do this every year. The world must know these facts about the Zionist entity and its terrible corrupt creed. The world should know this." (Translation by the Middle East Media Research Institute) During an interview which aired on Rotana Khalijiya TV on 13 August 2012, Saudi Cleric Salman Al-Odeh stated (as translated by MEMRI) that "It is well known that the Jews celebrate several holidays, one of which is the Passover, or the Matzos Holiday. I read once about a doctor who was working in a laboratory. This doctor lived with a Jewish family. One day, they said to him: 'We want blood. Get us some human blood.' He was confused. He didn't know what this was all about. Of course, he couldn't betray his work ethics in such a way, but he began inquiring, and he found that they were making matzos with human blood." Al-Odeh also stated that "[Jews] eat it, believing that this brings them close to their false god, Yahweh" and that "They would lure a child in order to sacrifice him in the religious rite that they perform during that holiday." In April 2013, the Palestinian non-profit organization MIFTAH, founded by Hanan Ashrawi apologized for publishing an article which criticized US President Barack Obama for holding a Passover Seder in the White House by saying "Does Obama, in fact, know the relationship, for example, between 'Passover' and 'Christian blood'...?! Or 'Passover' and 'Jewish blood rituals?!' Much of the chatter and gossip about historical Jewish blood rituals in Europe is real and not fake as they claim; the Jews used the blood of Christians in the Jewish Passover." MIFTAH's apology expressed its "sincerest regret". In an interview which aired on Al-Hafez TV on 12 May 2013, Khaled Al-Zaafrani of the Egyptian Justice and Progress Party, stated (as translated by MEMRI): "It's well known that during the Passover, they [the Jews] make matzos called the 'Blood of Zion.' They take a Christian child, slit his throat and slaughter him. Then they take his blood and make their [matzos]. This is a very important rite for the Jews, which they never forgo... They slice it and fight over who gets to eat Christian blood." In the same interview, Al-Zaafrani stated that "The French kings and the Russian czars discovered this in the Jewish quarters. All the massacring of Jews that occurred in those countries were because they discovered that the Jews had kidnapped and slaughtered children, in order to make the Passover matzos." In an interview which aired on the Al-Quds TV channel on 28 July 2014 (as translated by MEMRI), Osama Hamdan, the top representative of Hamas in Lebanon, stated that "we all remember how the Jews used to slaughter Christians, in order to mix their blood in their holy matzos. This is not a figment of imagination or something taken from a film. It is a fact, acknowledged by their own books and by historical evidence." In a subsequent interview with CNN's Wolf Blitzer, Hamdan defended his comments, stating that he "has Jewish friends". In a sermon broadcast on the official Jordanian TV channel on 22 August 2014, Sheik Bassam Ammoush, a former Minister of Administrative Development who was appointed to Jordan's House of Senate ("Majlis al-Aayan") in 2011, stated (as translated by MEMRI): "In [the Gaza Strip] we are dealing with the enemies of Allah, who believe that the matzos that they bake on their holidays must be kneaded with blood. When the Jews were in the diaspora, they would murder children in England, in Europe, and in America. They would slaughter them and use their blood to make their matzos... They believe that they are God's chosen people. They believe that the killing of any human being is a form of worship and a means to draw near their god." Accusations of genocide against Palestinians by Israel have been described as a form of "blood libel" by some supporters of Israel, including President Isaac Herzog, journalists Marcus Gee, Howard Jacobson, Clifford May, analyst Frida Ghitis, historian Norman Goda, Eylon Levy, and others. In April 27, 2019, John Earnest entered Poway synagogue in Poway, California and fatally shot one woman and injured three other people, including the synagogue's rabbi. In the manifesto that is attributed to him, he wrote that he was avenging the martyrdom of Simon of Trent: "You are not forgotten Simon of Trent, the horror that you and countless children have endured at the hands of the Jews will never be forgiven". In March 2020, Italian painter Giovanni Gasparro unveiled a painting of the martyrdom of Simon of Trent, titled "Martirio di San Simonino da Trento (Simone Unverdorben), per omicidio rituale ebraico (The Martyrdom of St. Simon of Trento in accordance with Jewish ritual murder)". The painting was condemned by the Italian Jewish community and the Simon Wiesenthal Center, among others. The QAnon conspiracy theory has been accused of advancing blood libel tropes through its belief that Hollywood elites are harvesting adrenochrome from children through Satanic ritual abuse in order to become immortal. In February 2022, a sculpture of Simon of Trent depicting the blood libel was used to promote the adrenochrome-harvesting conspiracy theory. ==Views of the Catholic Church== The attitude of the Catholic Church towards these accusations and the cults venerating children supposedly killed by Jews has varied over time. The Papacy generally opposed them, although it had problems in enforcing its opposition. In 1911, the Dictionnaire apologétique de la foi catholique, an important French Catholic encyclopedia, published an analysis of the blood libel accusations. This may be taken as being broadly representative of educated Catholic opinion in continental Europe at that time. The article noted that the popes had generally refrained from endorsing the blood libel, and it concluded that the accusations were unproven in a general sense, but it left open the possibility that some Jews had committed ritual murders of Christians. Other contemporary Catholic sources (notably the Jesuit periodical La Civiltà Cattolica) promoted the blood libel as truth. Today, the accusations are rarer in Catholic circles. While Simon of Trent's local status as a saint was removed in 1965, several towns in Spain still commemorate the blood libel. ===Papal pronouncements=== Pope Innocent IV took action against the blood libel: "5 July 1247 Mandate to the prelates of Germany and France to annul all measures adopted against the Jews on account of the ritual murder libel, and to prevent the accusation of Arabs on similar charges" (The Apostolic See and the Jews, Documents: 492–1404; Simonsohn, Shlomo, pp. 188–189, 193–195, 208). In 1247, he wrote also that "Certain of the clergy, and princes, nobles and great lords of your cities and dioceses have falsely devised certain godless plans against the Jews, unjustly depriving them by force of their property, and appropriating it themselves;... they falsely charge them with dividing up among themselves on the Passover the heart of a murdered boy...In their malice, they ascribe every murder, wherever it chance to occur, to the Jews. And on the ground of these and other fabrications, they are filled with rage against them, rob them of their possessions without any formal accusation, without confession, and without legal trial and conviction, contrary to the privileges granted to them by the Apostolic See... Since it is our pleasure that they shall not be disturbed,... we ordain that ye behave towards them in a friendly and kind manner. Whenever any unjust attacks upon them come under your notice, redress their injuries, and do not suffer them to be visited in the future by similar tribulations." Pope Gregory X (1271–1276) issued a letter which criticized the practice of blood libels and forbade arrests and persecution of Jews based on a blood libel, ... unless — which we do not believe — they be caught in the commission of the crime. Pope Benedict XIV wrote the bull Beatus Andreas (22 February 1755) in response to an application for the formal canonization of the 15th-century Andreas Oxner, a folk saint alleged to have been murdered by Jews "out of hatred for the Christian faith". Benedict did not dispute the claim that Jews murdered Christian children, and in anticipating that further cases on this basis would be brought appears to have accepted it as accurate, but decreed that in such cases beatification or canonization would be inappropriate. == Blood libels in Muslim lands == In late 1553 or 1554, Suleiman the Magnificent, the reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, issued a firman (royal decree) which formally denounced blood libels against the Jews. In 1840, following the Western outrage arising from the Damascus affair, British politician and leader of the British Jewish community, Sir Moses Montefiore, backed by other influential westerners including Britain's Lord Palmerston and Damascus consul Charles Henry Churchill, and Solomon Munk, persuaded Sultan Abdulmejid I in Constantinople, to issue a firman on 6 November 1840 intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire. The edict declared that blood libel accusations were a slander against Jews and they would be prohibited throughout the Ottoman Empire, and read in part: ... and for the love we bear to our subjects, we cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime alleged against them is evident, to be worried and tormented as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth... In the remainder of the 19th century and into the 20th century, there were many instances of the blood libel in Ottoman lands, such as the 1881 Fornaraki affair. However the libel almost always came from the Christian community, sometimes with the connivance of Greek or French diplomats. In this book, he argues that the true religious beliefs of Jews are "black hatred against all humans and religions", and no Arab country should ever sign a peace treaty with Israel. Tlass re-printed the book several times. Following the book's publication, Tlass told Der Spiegel, that this accusation against Jews was valid and he also claimed that his book is "an historical study ... based on documents from France, Vienna and the American University in Beirut." In 2003, the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles by Osama El-Baz, a senior advisor to the then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Among other things, Osama El-Baz explained the origins of the blood libel against the Jews. He said that Arabs and Muslims have never been antisemitic, as a group, but he accepted the fact that a few Arab writers and media figures attack Jews "on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe". He urged people not to succumb to "myths" such as the blood libel. Nevertheless, on many occasions in modern times, blood libel stories have appeared in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab and Muslim nations, as well as on their television shows and websites, and books which allege instances of Jewish blood libels are not uncommon there. The blood libel was featured in a scene in the Syrian TV series Ash-Shatat, shown in 2003. In 2007, Lebanese poet Marwan Chamoun, in an interview aired on Télé Liban, referred to the "... slaughter of the priest Tomaso de Camangiano ... in 1840... in the presence of two rabbis in the heart of Damascus, in the home of a close friend of this priest, Daud Al-Harari, the head of the Jewish community of Damascus. After he was slaughtered, his blood was collected, and the two rabbis took it." A novel, Death of a Monk, based on the Damascus affair, was published in 2004.	[ "Pope", "Sefer HaRazim", "Ottoman Empire", "Tiszaeszlár", "General Roman Calendar", "Liberal Democratic Party of Russia", "Prehistory", "forced conversion", "Columbus, Ohio", "Ramadan", "Wolf Blitzer", "Innsbruck", "Hilsner Affair", "Norman Cohn", "Europe's Inner Demons", "Novoye Vremya (newspaper)", "Loire", "canonization", "Apion", "Adrenochrome", "Lauter (Rhine)", "Wissembourg", "Moses Montefiore", "Times of Israel", "Pforzheim", "Masi, Veneto", "Racism", "King Louis VII", "New York (state)", "Tomáš Masaryk", "Frida Ghitis", "Robert of Bury", "American Jewish Historical Society", "David Littman (historian)", "Howard Jacobson", "MEMRI", "Syrian Ministry of Defense", "Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Lydia G. Cochrane", "Pope Benedict XIV", "Constantinople", "Human cannibalism", "Zionist", "Anti Defamation League", "Al-Ahram", "La Civiltà Cattolica", "host desecration", "Antiochus IV Epiphanes", "Trnava", "Syria", "Hamas", "United Nations", "David Paul Drach", "Holocaust", "well poisoning", "Al-Manar", "antisemitic canard", "Pontius Pilate", "Jewish Publication Society of America", "rabbi", "History of the Jews in England", "sultan of the Ottoman Empire", "Twentieth of Sivan", "Massena blood libel", "Province of Rovigo", "Blois", "The Washington Post", "Rosh Hashanah", "Haaretz", "it:Carocci Editore", "Society of Jesus", "UNHCR", "QAnon", "William of Norwich", "Greeks", "Al-Hayat", "Simon Wiesenthal Center", "Norwich", "The New York Times", "Clifford May", "Isaac Herzog", "Alsace", "Thomas of Cantimpré", "Dubăsari", "Glatigny, Moselle", "Kielce pogrom", "Tattarisuo case", "Isaac Moïse Crémieux", "Edict of Expulsion", "Massena (village), New York", "Christian martyr", "Communist Party of the Russian Federation", "Israel", "Encyclopedia.com", "Charles Henry Churchill", "Kutaisi", "History of the Jews in Europe", "Henry III of England", "Nuremberg", "Easter", "Hanan Ashrawi", "Loddon, Norfolk", "Golem of Prague", "Allah", "Indiana University Press", "Poway synagogue shooting", "CNN", "Damascus", "Baden", "Bacharach", "Nicholas Donin", "Rinn", "Jewish mythology", "Lincoln, Lincolnshire", "Alhambra decree", "Czech Jewish", "Muslim", "manifesto", "Matzah", "Gabriel of Białystok", "Shiraz", "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion", "antisemitic canards", "Passover Seder", "Central Asian Survey", "Białystok", "Pope Innocent IV", "Daniel Chwolson", "Velizh", "Moral panic", "Child sacrifice", "Sir Hugh", "Giovanni Gasparro", "Motherland (Russia)", "Conspiracy theory", "Arabs", "Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia", "Georgia (country)", "Candida Moss", "Jewish diaspora", "Harold of Gloucester", "Posidonius", "Governing Senate", "Arnold Leese", "Cairo University", "Second Temple", "John Lexington", "Suleiman the Magnificent", "Middle Ages", "Satanic ritual abuse", "Sacrament", "Yechiel of Paris", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Abdulmejid I", "Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)", "Bern", "Ministry of Defense (Syria)", "Barack Obama", "Der Spiegel", "converso", "Faisal of Saudi Arabia", "Werner of Oberwesel", "Europe", "Rabbenu Tam", "Tampereen Yliopisto", "Vestnik Evropy", "Thomas of Monmouth", "Chaucer", "Arutz Sheva", "Hasidic Judaism", "Nazi Germany", "Statute of Kalisz", "Norman J. W. Goda", "immortality", "Rabbi", "Gaza City", "Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti", "Spanish Inquisition", "Early Christianity", "Télé Liban", "pogroms", "Anti-Defamation League", "Blood ritual", "Suda", "Badia Polesine", "firman (decree)", "Roman Empire", "Calvin College", "Kishinev pogrom", "Al-Quds TV", "Jewish Historical Society of England", "Egypt", "Russian Orthodox Church", "Richard I of England", "First Crusade", "Ancient history", "Bernard Lewis", "Socrates Scholasticus", "Jews as the chosen people", "Ash-Shatat", "Letter of 5000", "Far-right politics in Finland", "Tiszaeszlár affair", "Dictionnaire apologétique de la foi catholique", "Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924", "Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–46", "Holy Child of La Guardia", "The Wall Street Journal", "Sandomierz", "Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston", "Enz", "E. M. Rose", "matzah", "State Duma", "All Saints Day", "Osama Hamdan", "Pope Paul VI", "Islamic Movement in Israel", "Krasnoyarsk", "Legnago", "Jordan Radio and Television Corporation", "Democritus", "Tertullian", "Cake of Light", "Syrian television series", "Israel Yuval", "Fornaraki affair", "Mustafa Tlass", "Yahweh", "Catholic Church", "Osama El-Baz", "1910 Shiraz blood libel", "Hosni Mubarak", "religious ritual", "Encyclopaedia Judaica", "folk saint", "Menahem Mendel Beilis", "Talmud", "Jerusalem", "Gaza Strip", "Lebanon", "Siegmund Salfeld", "Rhodes", "Cult (religious practice)", "Islamic American University", "History of the Jews in Poland", "Saudi Arabia", "Eucharist", "Salem witch trials", "Andreas Oxner", "Surami", "Blood atonement", "slander", "Judah Loew ben Bezalel", "U.S. Department of State", "Kyiv", "Poway, California", "The Times of Israel", "Eylon Levy", "Raphael Levy", "Konrad Justinger", "Raed Salah", "White House", "Pope Gregory X", "John Nicolayson", "Blood curse", "La Rochelle", "Metz", "Sachkhere", "Zwierki", "Hezbollah", "Edward I of England", "Pezinok", "Damascus affair", "Qajar Iran", "Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln", "Death of a Monk", "Al-Aqsa TV", "The Matzah of Zion", "Lateran IV", "Parliament of Jordan", "Der Stürmer", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "Bialystok", "Austria-Hungary", "Rhodes blood libel", "Belarus", "Marcus Gee", "American University in Beirut", "human sacrifice", "Czechoslovakia", "Karl of Austria", "Rotana (television)", "Prussia", "Fulda", "Tradition (journal)", "Apollonius Molon", "Palestinian genocide accusation", "Passover", "Jew", "History News Network", "Matthew Paris", "Southfield, Michigan", "Paris", "Al-Hafez", "it:Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History", "Middle East Media Research Institute", "Human sacrifice", "Rudolph I of Germany", "Simon of Trent" ]
4,942	Bagpuss	Bagpuss is a British animated children's television series which was made by Peter Firmin and Oliver Postgate through their company Smallfilms. The series of thirteen episodes was first broadcast from 12 February to 7 May 1974. The title character was "a saggy, old cloth cat, baggy, and a bit loose at the seams". Although only thirteen episodes were produced and broadcast, the programme remains fondly remembered, and was frequently repeated in the UK until 1986. In early 1999, Bagpuss topped a BBC poll for the UK's favourite children's television programme. ==Characters== Bagpuss himself is a stuffed cloth cat, referred to in the intro as "The Most Important, The Most Beautiful, The Most Magical, Saggy Old Cloth Cat in the Whole, Wide World". The six mice carved on the side of the "mouse organ" (a small mechanical pipe organ that played rolls of music) wake up and scurry around, singing in high-pitched voices. The names of the six mice are: Charlie Mouse, Jenny Mouse, Janey Mouse, Lizzy Mouse, Eddie Mouse and Willy Mouse, although only three of the mice are ever referred to by their name; the remaining three are named only in the books which accompany the series. A rag doll made of scraps, called Madeleine, sits in a wicker chair. Gabriel the toad, unlike most Smallfilms characters, could move by a special device beneath his can without the use of stop-motion animation. The wooden woodpecker bookend became the drily academic Professor Yaffle (based on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, whom Postgate had once met). ==Voices and music== Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner provided the voices of Madeleine and Gabriel respectively and put together and performed all the folk songs. All the other characters' voices, including that of the narrator, were performed by writer Oliver Postgate. ==Format== The scene is set at the turn of the 20th century, with Emily Firmin (Peter Firmin's daughter) playing the part of the Victorian child Emily. The first antique village vignette is a cropped image of Horrabridge taken in 1898, though nothing is known of the other photo of the children with the pram. The shop window was at the Firmin family home in Blean. who owns a shop. She never sells any merchandise, but instead finds lost or broken objects and later displays them in the front window after they have been mended so their owners might come in and claim them. Emily leaves an object in front of her favourite stuffed toy, the large, saggy, pink and white striped cat named Bagpuss, and recites the following verse: ==Production== The programmes were made using stop-frame animation. Bagpuss is an actual cloth cat, but was not intended to be such an electric pink. In Firmin's words: "It should have been a ginger marmalade cat but the company in Folkestone dyeing the material made a mistake and it turned out pink and cream. It was the best thing that ever happened". Madeleine the rag doll was made by Firmin's wife, Joan, with an extra long dress to hold their children's nightdresses, but Postgate asked Joan to make a new version as one of the characters. Gabriel the Toad was the only character in the series who could move freely without the use of stop-frame animation. Scenes featuring him playing the banjo and singing would have taken quite a bit of time if filmed with the stop-frame method, so Peter Firmin created a mechanism that helped him control Gabriel through a hole in his can. The character was based on a real toad that lived in the basement area of the flat that Peter and Joan rented in Twickenham beside the River Thames. Gabriel (named after Walter Gabriel in The Archers, a long-running British radio soap opera) was originally made for Firmin's live ITV programme The Musical Box. Postgate chose him to be one of the characters in Bagpuss and he was made into a new, slightly larger version. Professor Yaffle was created as the book-end who had access to "facts". The BBC did not like the original character, a man in top hat made from black Irish bog oak, called "Professor Bogwood". They thought he was too frightening and asked for a non-human instead. Most of the stories and songs used in the series are based on folk songs and fairy tales from around the world. ==Legacy== In 1987, the University of Kent at Canterbury awarded honorary degrees to Postgate and Firmin. In his speech, Postgate stated that the degree was really intended for Bagpuss, who was subsequently displayed in academic dress. In 1999, Bagpuss came first in a BBC poll selecting the nation's favourite children's programme made and broadcast by that corporation. It also came fourth in the Channel 4 poll, The 100 Greatest Kids' TV Shows, broadcast in 2001. In 2002 and 2005, a stage show of Bagpuss songs toured the UK folk festivals and theatres with original singers Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner, along with Kerr's daughter Nancy Kerr and her husband, James Fagan. In June 2002, the charity Hospices of Hope opened the Bagpuss Children's Wing in its hospice in Brașov, Romania. The wing was funded entirely by Postgate from royalties received from the BBC. In April 2012, Marc Jenner from Tunbridge Wells in Kent ran in the Virgin London Marathon dressed in a Bagpuss costume to raise money for the charity, supported by Emily Firmin (seen in the programme's opening titles) and Postgate's family. Thom Yorke of the band Radiohead has claimed to be a fan of the series, watching it with his son. It was an influence for 2003 album Hail to the Thief. Gabriel's song in Episode 2 was the acknowledged inspiration for the album track (and first single) "There There" (originally titled "The Bony King of Nowhere"). In 2009 Coolabi revealed that it had signed an “exclusive new option to develop and produce new content” based on Bagpuss, as they held the merchandising and distribution rights. Daniel Postgate, the son of co-creator Oliver Postgate, said he did not want a “lightweight” remake using CGI animation. He said CGI had “a slightly lurid quality, even at the best of times”. Bagpuss appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley in 2009, along with many other British children's characters. Bagpuss appeared on one of the twelve postage stamps issued by Royal Mail in January 2014 to celebrate classic children's programmes. Bagpuss was displayed with Rupert Bear in the Rupert Bear Museum in Canterbury, part of the Canterbury Heritage Museum. After its closure at the end of 2017, he and Rupert Bear moved to the Beaney House of Art and Knowledge in Canterbury. In 2014, Emily Firmin and Dan Postgate, surviving children of the series creators, created the account to share archive footage not widely available, such as several short stories narrated by Oliver Postgate. The first episode of the BBC show Man Like Mobeen was called Bagpuss. In the fourth season of The Crown, Bagpuss made a cameo appearance on the episodes "Fairytale" and "Favourites", in which the fictionalised version of Princess Diana (played by Emma Corrin) watched the show in two aforementioned episodes. ==Home media== ===VHS=== ===DVD and Blu-ray=== The full series was released on DVD, in April 2005 and in 2007. It was re-released in April 2015. The full series was re-released in 2023 on Blu-ray and DVD to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Bagpuss. This release included “Peter Firmin – At Home with Bagpuss” and “The Story of Smallfilms” as extra features. ===BBC iPlayer=== The entire series was released onto the BBC iPlayer for the first time in May 2021 for 30 days. ===Music=== A CD of the original songs was released in 1999. The CD was re-released as well as a vinyl LP, again of the original songs from the series, in 2018. ===Books=== Several books have been released over the years to accompany the series. The Bagpuss Annual (1974) The Second Bagpuss Annual (1975) Mr Rumbletum's Gumboot (1975) The Song of the Pongo (1975) Silly Old Uncle Feedle (1975) Bagpuss in the Sun (1975) Bagpuss on a Rainy Day (1975) The New Bagpuss Annual 2001 (2000) Little Book Of Bagpuss (2005) The Big Book of Bagpuss (2007) Happy Birthday Bagpuss! (2014)	[ "rag doll", "Brașov", "Walter Gabriel", "leprechaun", "There There", "Mill (grinding)", "Smallfilms", "Photographic print toning", "honorary degrees", "Folkestone", "weaving", "Emma Corrin", "banjo", "The Official BBC Children in Need Medley", "folk song", "Thom Yorke", "Canterbury Heritage Museum", "The Daily Telegraph", "Hail to the Thief", "Beaney House of Art and Knowledge", "Sumer Is Icumen In", "Princess Diana", "The Archers", "Royal Mail", "Yaffle", "Peter Firmin", "Victorian era", "Radiohead", "Channel 4", "Rupert Bear", "iPlayer", "Nancy Kerr", "Fairytale (The Crown)", "Blean", "BBC News", "Virgin London Marathon", "bookend", "Clematis vitalba", "The Guardian", "The Crown (TV series)", "Tunbridge Wells", "Hospices of Hope", "rowing boat", "pipe organ", "Man Like Mobeen", "Canterbury", "stop motion", "loom", "royalties", "The Wayback Machine", "bog oak", "folk festival", "Lima bean", "Horrabridge", "sepia tone", "tartan", "fairy tale", "elephant", "University of Kent at Canterbury", "statuette", "Sandra Kerr", "Nederlandse Christelijke Radio-Vereniging", "stop-frame animation", "Oliver Postgate", "pincushion", "fiddle", "Romania", "Bertrand Russell", "BBC" ]
4,944	Naive set theory	Naive set theory is any of several theories of sets used in the discussion of the foundations of mathematics. Unlike axiomatic set theories, which are defined using formal logic, naive set theory is defined informally, in natural language. It describes the aspects of mathematical sets familiar in discrete mathematics (for example Venn diagrams and symbolic reasoning about their Boolean algebra), and suffices for the everyday use of set theory concepts in contemporary mathematics. Sets are of great importance in mathematics; in modern formal treatments, most mathematical objects (numbers, relations, functions, etc.) are defined in terms of sets. Naive set theory suffices for many purposes, while also serving as a stepping stone towards more formal treatments. ==Method== A naive theory in the sense of "naive set theory" is a non-formalized theory, that is, a theory that uses natural language to describe sets and operations on sets. Such theory treats sets as platonic absolute objects. The words and, or, if ... then, not, for some, for every are treated as in ordinary mathematics. As a matter of convenience, use of naive set theory and its formalism prevails even in higher mathematics – including in more formal settings of set theory itself. The first development of set theory was a naive set theory. It was created at the end of the 19th century by Georg Cantor as part of his study of infinite sets and developed by Gottlob Frege in his Grundgesetze der Arithmetik. Naive set theory may refer to several very distinct notions. It may refer to Informal presentation of an axiomatic set theory, e.g. as in Naive Set Theory by Paul Halmos. Early or later versions of Georg Cantor's theory and other informal systems. Decidedly inconsistent theories (whether axiomatic or not), such as a theory of Gottlob Frege that yielded Russell's paradox, and theories of Giuseppe Peano and Richard Dedekind. ===Paradoxes=== The assumption that any property may be used to form a set, without restriction, leads to paradoxes. One common example is Russell's paradox: there is no set consisting of "all sets that do not contain themselves". Thus consistent systems of naive set theory must include some limitations on the principles which can be used to form sets. ===Cantor's theory=== Some believe that Georg Cantor's set theory was not actually implicated in the set-theoretic paradoxes (see Frápolli 1991). One difficulty in determining this with certainty is that Cantor did not provide an axiomatization of his system. By 1899, Cantor was aware of some of the paradoxes following from unrestricted interpretation of his theory, for instance Cantor's paradox and the Burali-Forti paradox, and did not believe that they discredited his theory. Cantor's paradox can actually be derived from the above (false) assumption—that any property may be used to form a set—using for " is a cardinal number". Frege explicitly axiomatized a theory in which a formalized version of naive set theory can be interpreted, and it is this formal theory which Bertrand Russell actually addressed when he presented his paradox, not necessarily a theory Cantorwho, as mentioned, was aware of several paradoxespresumably had in mind. ===Axiomatic theories=== Axiomatic set theory was developed in response to these early attempts to understand sets, with the goal of determining precisely what operations were allowed and when. ===Consistency=== A naive set theory is not necessarily inconsistent, if it correctly specifies the sets allowed to be considered. This can be done by the means of definitions, which are implicit axioms. It is possible to state all the axioms explicitly, as in the case of Halmos' Naive Set Theory, which is actually an informal presentation of the usual axiomatic Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. It is "naive" in that the language and notations are those of ordinary informal mathematics, and in that it does not deal with consistency or completeness of the axiom system. Likewise, an axiomatic set theory is not necessarily consistent: not necessarily free of paradoxes. It follows from Gödel's incompleteness theorems that a sufficiently complicated first-order logic system (which includes most common axiomatic set theories) cannot be proved consistent from within the theory itself – even if it actually is consistent. However, the common axiomatic systems are generally believed to be consistent; by their axioms they do exclude some paradoxes, like Russell's paradox. Based on Gödel's theorem, it is just not known – and never can be – if there are no paradoxes at all in these theories or in any first-order set theory. The term naive set theory is still today also used in some literature to refer to the set theories studied by Frege and Cantor, rather than to the informal counterparts of modern axiomatic set theory. ===Utility=== The choice between an axiomatic approach and other approaches is largely a matter of convenience. In everyday mathematics the best choice may be informal use of axiomatic set theory. References to particular axioms typically then occur only when demanded by tradition, e.g. the axiom of choice is often mentioned when used. Likewise, formal proofs occur only when warranted by exceptional circumstances. This informal usage of axiomatic set theory can have (depending on notation) precisely the appearance of naive set theory as outlined below. It is considerably easier to read and write (in the formulation of most statements, proofs, and lines of discussion) and is less error-prone than a strictly formal approach. == Sets, membership and equality == In naive set theory, a set is described as a well-defined collection of objects. These objects are called the elements or members of the set. Objects can be anything: numbers, people, other sets, etc. For instance, 4 is a member of the set of all even integers. Clearly, the set of even numbers is infinitely large; there is no requirement that a set be finite. The definition of sets goes back to Georg Cantor. He wrote in his 1915 article Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre: === Note on consistency === It does not follow from this definition how sets can be formed, and what operations on sets again will produce a set. The term "well-defined" in "well-defined collection of objects" cannot, by itself, guarantee the consistency and unambiguity of what exactly constitutes and what does not constitute a set. Attempting to achieve this would be the realm of axiomatic set theory or of axiomatic class theory. The problem, in this context, with informally formulated set theories, not derived from (and implying) any particular axiomatic theory, is that there may be several widely differing formalized versions, that have both different sets and different rules for how new sets may be formed, that all conform to the original informal definition. For example, Cantor's verbatim definition allows for considerable freedom in what constitutes a set. On the other hand, it is unlikely that Cantor was particularly interested in sets containing cats and dogs, but rather only in sets containing purely mathematical objects. An example of such a class of sets could be the von Neumann universe. But even when fixing the class of sets under consideration, it is not always clear which rules for set formation are allowed without introducing paradoxes. For the purpose of fixing the discussion below, the term "well-defined" should instead be interpreted as an intention, with either implicit or explicit rules (axioms or definitions), to rule out inconsistencies. The purpose is to keep the often deep and difficult issues of consistency away from the, usually simpler, context at hand. An explicit ruling out of all conceivable inconsistencies (paradoxes) cannot be achieved for an axiomatic set theory anyway, due to Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, so this does not at all hamper the utility of naive set theory as compared to axiomatic set theory in the simple contexts considered below. It merely simplifies the discussion. Consistency is henceforth taken for granted unless explicitly mentioned. === Membership === If x is a member of a set A, then it is also said that x belongs to A, or that x is in A. This is denoted by x ∈ A. The symbol ∈ is a derivation from the lowercase Greek letter epsilon, "ε", introduced by Giuseppe Peano in 1889 and is the first letter of the word ἐστί (means "is"). The symbol ∉ is often used to write x ∉ A, meaning "x is not in A". === Equality === Two sets A and B are defined to be equal when they have precisely the same elements, that is, if every element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A. (See axiom of extensionality.) Thus a set is completely determined by its elements; the description is immaterial. For example, the set with elements 2, 3, and 5 is equal to the set of all prime numbers less than 6. If the sets A and B are equal, this is denoted symbolically as A = B (as usual). === Empty set === The empty set, denoted as \varnothing and sometimes \{\}, is a set with no members at all. Because a set is determined completely by its elements, there can be only one empty set. (See axiom of empty set.) Although the empty set has no members, it can be a member of other sets. Thus \varnothing\neq\{\varnothing\}, because the former has no members and the latter has one member. == Specifying sets == The simplest way to describe a set is to list its elements between curly braces (known as defining a set extensionally). Thus denotes the set whose only elements are and . (See axiom of pairing.) Note the following points: The order of elements is immaterial; for example, . Repetition (multiplicity) of elements is irrelevant; for example, . (These are consequences of the definition of equality in the previous section.) This notation can be informally abused by saying something like to indicate the set of all dogs, but this example would usually be read by mathematicians as "the set containing the single element dogs". An extreme (but correct) example of this notation is , which denotes the empty set. The notation , or sometimes , is used to denote the set containing all objects for which the condition holds (known as defining a set intensionally). For example, denotes the set of real numbers, denotes the set of everything with blonde hair. This notation is called set-builder notation (or "set comprehension", particularly in the context of Functional programming). Some variants of set builder notation are: denotes the set of all that are already members of such that the condition holds for . For example, if is the set of integers, then is the set of all even integers. (See axiom of specification.) denotes the set of all objects obtained by putting members of the set into the formula . For example, is again the set of all even integers. (See axiom of replacement.) is the most general form of set builder notation. For example, is the set of all dog owners. == Subsets == Given two sets A and B, A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B. In particular, each set B is a subset of itself; a subset of B that is not equal to B is called a proper subset. If A is a subset of B, then one can also say that B is a superset of A, that A is contained in B, or that B contains A. In symbols, means that A is a subset of B, and means that B is a superset of A. Some authors use the symbols ⊂ and ⊃ for subsets, and others use these symbols only for proper subsets. For clarity, one can explicitly use the symbols ⊊ and ⊋ to indicate non-equality. As an illustration, let R be the set of real numbers, let Z be the set of integers, let O be the set of odd integers, and let P be the set of current or former U.S. Presidents. Then O is a subset of Z, Z is a subset of R, and (hence) O is a subset of R, where in all cases subset may even be read as proper subset. Not all sets are comparable in this way. For example, it is not the case either that R is a subset of P nor that P is a subset of R. It follows immediately from the definition of equality of sets above that, given two sets A and B, if and only if and . In fact this is often given as the definition of equality. Usually when trying to prove that two sets are equal, one aims to show these two inclusions. The empty set is a subset of every set (the statement that all elements of the empty set are also members of any set A is vacuously true). The set of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A and is denoted by 2^A or P(A); the "" is sometimes in a script font: . If the set A has n elements, then P(A) will have 2^n elements. == Universal sets and absolute complements == In certain contexts, one may consider all sets under consideration as being subsets of some given universal set. For instance, when investigating properties of the real numbers R (and subsets of R), R may be taken as the universal set. A true universal set is not included in standard set theory (see Paradoxes below), but is included in some non-standard set theories. Given a universal set U and a subset A of U, the complement of A (in U) is defined as . In other words, AC ("A-complement"; sometimes simply A, "A-prime" ) is the set of all members of U' which are not members of A. Thus with R, Z and O defined as in the section on subsets, if Z is the universal set, then OC is the set of even integers, while if R is the universal set, then OC is the set of all real numbers that are either even integers or not integers at all. == Unions, intersections, and relative complements == Given two sets A and B, their union is the set consisting of all objects which are elements of A or of B or of both (see axiom of union). It is denoted by . The intersection of A and B is the set of all objects which are both in A and in B. It is denoted by . Finally, the relative complement of B relative to A, also known as the set theoretic difference of A and B, is the set of all objects that belong to A but not to B. It is written as or . Symbolically, these are respectively . The set B doesn't have to be a subset of A for to make sense; this is the difference between the relative complement and the absolute complement () from the previous section. To illustrate these ideas, let A be the set of left-handed people, and let B be the set of people with blond hair. Then is the set of all left-handed blond-haired people, while is the set of all people who are left-handed or blond-haired or both. , on the other hand, is the set of all people that are left-handed but not blond-haired, while is the set of all people who have blond hair but aren't left-handed. Now let E be the set of all human beings, and let F be the set of all living things over 1000 years old. What is in this case? No living human being is over 1000 years old, so must be the empty set {}. For any set A, the power set P(A) is a Boolean algebra under the operations of union and intersection. == Ordered pairs and Cartesian products == Intuitively, an ordered pair is simply a collection of two objects such that one can be distinguished as the first element and the other as the second element, and having the fundamental property that, two ordered pairs are equal if and only if their first elements are equal and their second elements are equal. Formally, an ordered pair with first coordinate a, and second coordinate b, usually denoted by (a, b), can be defined as the set \{\{a\}, \{a, b\}\}. It follows that, two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only if and . Alternatively, an ordered pair can be formally thought of as a set {a,b} with a total order. (The notation (a, b) is also used to denote an open interval on the real number line, but the context should make it clear which meaning is intended. Otherwise, the notation ]a, b[ may be used to denote the open interval whereas (a, b) is used for the ordered pair). If A and B are sets, then the Cartesian product (or simply product) is defined to be: That is, is the set of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate is an element of A and whose second coordinate is an element of B. This definition may be extended to a set of ordered triples, and more generally to sets of ordered n-tuples for any positive integer n. It is even possible to define infinite Cartesian products, but this requires a more recondite definition of the product. Cartesian products were first developed by René Descartes in the context of analytic geometry. If R denotes the set of all real numbers, then represents the Euclidean plane and represents three-dimensional Euclidean space. == Some important sets == There are some ubiquitous sets for which the notation is almost universal. Some of these are listed below. In the list, a, b, and c refer to natural numbers, and r and s are real numbers. Natural numbers are used for counting. A blackboard bold capital N (\mathbb{N}) often represents this set. Integers appear as solutions for x in equations like x + a = b. A blackboard bold capital Z (\mathbb{Z}) often represents this set (from the German Zahlen, meaning numbers). Rational numbers appear as solutions to equations like a + bx = c. A blackboard bold capital Q (\mathbb{Q}) often represents this set (for quotient, because R is used for the set of real numbers). Algebraic numbers appear as solutions to polynomial equations (with integer coefficients) and may involve radicals (including i=\sqrt{-1\,}) and certain other irrational numbers. A Q with an overline (\overline{\mathbb{Q}}) often represents this set. The overline denotes the operation of algebraic closure. Real numbers represent the "real line" and include all numbers that can be approximated by rationals. These numbers may be rational or algebraic but may also be transcendental numbers, which cannot appear as solutions to polynomial equations with rational coefficients. A blackboard bold capital R (\mathbb{R}) often represents this set. Complex numbers are sums of a real and an imaginary number: r+s\,i. Here either r or s (or both) can be zero; thus, the set of real numbers and the set of strictly imaginary numbers are subsets of the set of complex numbers, which form an algebraic closure for the set of real numbers, meaning that every polynomial with coefficients in \mathbb{R} has at least one root in this set. A blackboard bold capital C (\mathbb{C}) often represents this set. Note that since a number r+s\,i can be identified with a point (r,s) in the plane, \mathbb{C} is basically "the same" as the Cartesian product \R\times\R ("the same" meaning that any point in one determines a unique point in the other and for the result of calculations, it doesn't matter which one is used for the calculation, as long as multiplication rule is appropriate for \mathbb{C}). == Paradoxes in early set theory == The unrestricted formation principle of sets referred to as the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension, is the source of several early appearing paradoxes: led, in the year 1897, to the Burali-Forti paradox, the first published antinomy. produced Cantor's paradox in 1897. yielded Cantor's second antinomy in the year 1899. Here the property is true for all , whatever may be, so would be a universal set, containing everything. , i.e. the set of all sets that do not contain themselves as elements, gave Russell's paradox in 1902. If the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension is weakened to the axiom schema of specification or axiom schema of separation, then all the above paradoxes disappear. There is a corollary. With the axiom schema of separation as an axiom of the theory, it follows, as a theorem of the theory: Or, more spectacularly (Halmos' phrasing): There is no universe. Proof: Suppose that it exists and call it . Now apply the axiom schema of separation with and for use . This leads to Russell's paradox again. Hence cannot exist in this theory. Related to the above constructions is formation of the set , where the statement following the implication certainly is false. It follows, from the definition of , using the usual inference rules (and some afterthought when reading the proof in the linked article below) both that and holds, hence . This is Curry's paradox. It is (perhaps surprisingly) not the possibility of that is problematic. It is again the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension allowing for . With the axiom schema of specification instead of unrestricted comprehension, the conclusion does not hold and hence is not a logical consequence. Nonetheless, the possibility of is often removed explicitly or, e.g. in ZFC, implicitly, by demanding the axiom of regularity to hold. One consequence of it is or, in other words, no set is an element of itself. The axiom schema of separation is simply too weak (while unrestricted comprehension is a very strong axiom—too strong for set theory) to develop set theory with its usual operations and constructions outlined above. The axiom of regularity is of a restrictive nature as well. Therefore, one is led to the formulation of other axioms to guarantee the existence of enough sets to form a set theory. Some of these have been described informally above and many others are possible. Not all conceivable axioms can be combined freely into consistent theories. For example, the axiom of choice of ZFC is incompatible with the conceivable "every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable". The former implies the latter is false.	[ "Boolean algebra (logic)", "Cartesian product", "Set theory", "first-order logic", "algebraic closure", "Giuseppe Peano", "relation (mathematics)", "axiom schema of specification", "universe (mathematics)", "set theory", "axiom of choice", "List of set identities and relations", "Axiomatic set theory", "Internal set theory", "epsilon", "Set (mathematics)", "Lebesgue measurable", "complement (set theory)", "cardinal number", "total order", "even and odd numbers", "Russell's paradox", "Script (typefaces)", "Root of a function", "natural language", "intersection (set theory)", "Functional programming", "Domain of discourse", "John D. P. Meldrum", "Paul Halmos", "universal set", "axiom of replacement", "Boolean algebra (structure)", "Complex number", "n-tuple", "Nicolas Bourbaki", "Curry's paradox", "David Hilbert", "union (set theory)", "set-builder notation", "Naive Set Theory (book)", "Euclidean space", "Euclidean plane", "René Descartes", "axiom of specification", "Jean van Heijenoort", "logical conjunction", "Mathematical logic", "Real number", "President of the United States", "ordered pair", "integer", "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory", "power set", "Richard Dedekind", "mathematical proof", "quotient", "vacuously true", "Venn diagram", "axiom of regularity", "logical disjunction", "analytic geometry", "Rational number", "Axiom schema of specification", "Georg Cantor", "von Neumann universe", "axiom of extensionality", "discrete mathematics", "subset", "paradoxes of set theory", "polynomial", "Cantor's paradox", "Burali-Forti paradox", "John L. Kelley", "real number", "Natural number", "axiom of union", "Algebraic number", "negation", "axiom of pairing", "infinite set", "real number line", "foundations of mathematics", "Bertrand Russell", "prime number", "Partially ordered set", "Keith J. Devlin", "antinomy", "number", "blackboard bold", "irrational number", "multiplicity (mathematics)", "Nth root", "Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik", "Gödel's incompleteness theorems", "empty set", "Oldest people", "transcendental number", "open interval", "wikt:ἐστί", "Gottlob Frege", "Equality (mathematics)", "Algebra of sets", "axiom of empty set", "natural number", "function (mathematics)", "Integer" ]
4,946	Breathy voice	Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, whispery voice, soughing and susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like sound. A simple breathy phonation, (not actually a fricative consonant, as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest), can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English between vowels, such as in the word behind, for some speakers. In the context of the Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Hindi and comparative Indo-European studies, breathy consonants are often called voiced aspirated, as in the Hindi and Sanskrit stops normally denoted bh, dh, ḍh, jh, and gh and the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European phonemes bʰ,dʰ,ǵʰ,gʰ,gʷʰ. , as breathy voice is a different type of phonation from aspiration. However, breathy and aspirated stops are acoustically similar in that in both cases there is a delay in the onset of full voicing. In the history of several languages, like Greek and some varieties of Chinese, breathy stops have developed into aspirated stops. ==Classification and terminology== The IPA uses the term "breathy voice", but VoQS uses the term "whispery voice". Both accept the term "murmur", popularised by Ladefoged. ==Transcription== A stop with breathy release or a breathy nasal is transcribed in the IPA as etc. or as etc. Breathy vowels are most often written etc. Indication of breathy voice by using subscript diaeresis was approved in or before June 1976 by members of the council of International Phonetic Association. In VoQS, the notation is used for whispery voice (or murmur), and is used for breathy voice. Some authors, such as Laver, suggest the alternative transcription (rather than IPA ) as the correct analysis of Gujarati , but it could be confused with the replacement of modal voicing in voiced segments with whispered phonation, conventionally transcribed with the diacritic . ==Methods of production== The distinction between the latter two of these realizations, vocal folds somewhat separated along their length (breathy voice) and vocal folds together with the arytenoids making an opening (whispery voice), is phonetically relevant in White Hmong (Hmong Daw). ==Phonological property== In some Bantu languages, historically breathy stops have been phonetically devoiced, but the four-way contrast in the system has been retained. In Portuguese, vowels after the stressed syllable can be pronounced with breathy voice. Gujarati is unusual in contrasting breathy vowels and consonants: 'twelve', 'outside', 'burden'. Tsumkwe Juǀʼhoan makes the following rare distinctions : fall, land (of a bird etc.); walk; herb species; and /n\|ʱoaᵑ/ greedy person; /n\|oaʱᵑ/ cat.	[ "allophone", "tenuis consonant", "Spanish dialects and varieties", "Indo-Aryan languages", "tautosyllabic", "Zulu language", "copula (linguistics)", "ejective consonant", "stress (linguistics)", "Whispering", "vocal folds", "fricative consonant", "Swazi language", "debuccalization", "Hindi", "tone (linguistics)", "phonation", "Punjabi language", "Slack voice", "Creaky voice", "Phuthi language", "Juǀʼhoan dialect", "Nguni languages", "Sanskrit", "International Phonetic Alphabet", "Portuguese language", "Gujarati phonology", "Voiced glottal fricative", "Proto-Indo-European language", "Aspirated consonant", "click consonant", "Gujarati language", "Bantu languages", "Hmong language", "Greek language", "Xhosa language", "Indo-European languages", "Index of phonetics articles", "Peter Ladefoged", "whispering", "arytenoid cartilage", "varieties of Chinese", "Guttural", "Voice Quality Symbols", "International Phonetic Association", "Southern Ndebele language", "Morphology (linguistics)", "aspirated consonant" ]
4,947	Bézout's identity	In mathematics, Bézout's identity (also called Bézout's lemma), named after Étienne Bézout who proved it for polynomials, is the following theorem: Here the greatest common divisor of and is taken to be . The integers and are called Bézout coefficients for ; they are not unique. A pair of Bézout coefficients can be computed by the extended Euclidean algorithm, and this pair is, in the case of integers one of the two pairs such that and ; equality occurs only if one of and is a multiple of the other. As an example, the greatest common divisor of 15 and 69 is 3, and 3 can be written as a combination of 15 and 69 as , with Bézout coefficients −9 and 2. Many other theorems in elementary number theory, such as Euclid's lemma or the Chinese remainder theorem, result from Bézout's identity. A Bézout domain is an integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds. In particular, Bézout's identity holds in principal ideal domains. Every theorem that results from Bézout's identity is thus true in all principal ideal domains. == Structure of solutions == If and are not both zero and one pair of Bézout coefficients has been computed (for example, using the extended Euclidean algorithm), all pairs can be represented in the form \left(x-k\frac{b}{d},\ y+k\frac{a}{d}\right), where is an arbitrary integer, is the greatest common divisor of and , and the fractions simplify to integers. If and are both nonzero and none of them divides the other, then exactly two of the pairs of Bézout coefficients satisfy \|x\| < \left \|\frac{b}{d}\right \|\quad \text{and}\quad \|y\| < \left \|\frac{a}{d}\right \|. If and are both positive, one has x>0 and y for one of these pairs, and x and y>0 for the other. If is a divisor of (including the case b=0), then one pair of Bézout coefficients is . This relies on a property of Euclidean division: given two non-zero integers and , if does not divide , there is exactly one pair such that and , and another one such that and . The two pairs of small Bézout's coefficients are obtained from the given one by choosing for in the above formula either of the two integers next to . The extended Euclidean algorithm always produces one of these two minimal pairs. === Example === Let and , then . Then the following Bézout's identities are had, with the Bézout coefficients written in red for the minimal pairs and in blue for the other ones. \begin{align} \vdots \\ 12 &\times ({\color{blue}{-10}}) & + \;\; 42 &\times \color{blue}{3} &= 6 \\ 12 &\times ({\color{red}{-3}}) & + \;\;42 &\times \color{red}{1} &= 6 \\ 12 &\times \color{red}{4} & + \;\;42 &\times({\color{red}{-1}}) &= 6 \\ 12 &\times \color{blue}{11} & + \;\;42 &\times ({\color{blue}{-3}}) &= 6 \\ 12 &\times \color{blue}{18} & + \;\;42 &\times ({\color{blue}{-5}}) &= 6 \\ \vdots \end{align} If is the original pair of Bézout coefficients, then yields the minimal pairs via , respectively ; that is, , and . == Existence proof == Given any nonzero integers and , let . The set is nonempty since it contains either or (with and ). Since is a nonempty set of positive integers, it has a minimum element , by the well-ordering principle. To prove that is the greatest common divisor of and , it must be proven that is a common divisor of and , and that for any other common divisor , one has . The Euclidean division of by may be written as a=dq+r\quad\text{with}\quad 0\le r The remainder is in , because \begin{align} r & = a - qd \\ & = a - q(as+bt)\\ & = a(1-qs) - bqt. \end{align} Thus is of the form , and hence . However, , and is the smallest positive integer in : the remainder can therefore not be in , making necessarily 0. This implies that is a divisor of . Similarly is also a divisor of , and therefore is a common divisor of and . Now, let be any common divisor of and ; that is, there exist and such that and . One has thus \begin{align} d&=as + bt\\ & =cus+cvt\\ &=c(us+vt). \end{align} That is, is a divisor of . Since , this implies . == Generalizations == === For three or more integers=== Bézout's identity can be extended to more than two integers: if \gcd(a_1, a_2, \ldots, a_n) = d then there are integers x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n such that d = a_1 x_1 + a_2 x_2 + \cdots + a_n x_n has the following properties: is the smallest positive integer of this form every number of this form is a multiple of === For polynomials === Bézout's identity does not always hold for polynomials. For example, when working in the polynomial ring of integers: the greatest common divisor of and is x, but there does not exist any integer-coefficient polynomials and satisfying . However, Bézout's identity works for univariate polynomials over a field exactly in the same ways as for integers. In particular the Bézout's coefficients and the greatest common divisor may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm. As the common roots of two polynomials are the roots of their greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity and fundamental theorem of algebra imply the following result: The generalization of this result to any number of polynomials and indeterminates is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. === For principal ideal domains === As noted in the introduction, Bézout's identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID). That is, if is a PID, and and are elements of , and is a greatest common divisor of and , then there are elements and in such that . The reason is that the ideal is principal and equal to . An integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds is called a Bézout domain. == History and attribution == The French mathematician Étienne Bézout (1730–1783) proved this identity for polynomials. The statement for integers can be found already in the work of an earlier French mathematician, Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581–1638). Andrew Granville traced the association of Bézout's name with the identity to Bourbaki, arguing that it is a misattribution since the identity is implicit in Euclid's Elements.	[ "well-ordering principle", "Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac", "integer", "Euclid's lemma", "field (mathematics)", "Chinese remainder theorem", "Hilbert's Nullstellensatz", "Euclid's Elements", "principal ideal domain", "greatest common divisor", "Euclidean division", "Étienne Bézout", "Andrew Granville", "Nicolas Bourbaki", "root of a polynomial", "ring (algebra)", "polynomial ring", "univariate polynomial", "integral domain", "ideal (ring theory)", "extended Euclidean algorithm", "theorem", "fundamental theorem of algebra", "elementary number theory", "complex number", "Bézout domain", "algebraically closed field", "mathematics" ]
4,948	Banacek	Banacek is an American detective television series starring George Peppard that aired on NBC from 1972 to 1974. The series was part of the rotating NBC Wednesday Mystery Movie anthology. It alternated in its time slot with several other shows, but was the only one of them to last beyond its first season. ==Premise== Peppard played Thomas Banacek, a Polish-American freelance, Boston-based, private investigator who solves seemingly impossible thefts. He collects from the insurance companies 10% of the insured value of the recovered property. One of Banacek's verbal signatures is the quotation of strangely worded yet curiously cogent "Polish proverbs" such as: "A wolf that takes a peasant to supper probably won't need any breakfast." "If you're not sure that it's potato borscht, there could be orphans working in the mines." "When an owl comes to a mouse picnic, it's not there for the sack races." "Though the hippopotamus has no sting in its tail, the wise man would prefer to be sat upon by the bee." "A truly wise man never plays leapfrog with a unicorn." "When a wolf is chasing your sleigh, throw him a raisin cookie, but don't stop to bake a cake." "Just because the cat has her kittens in the oven doesn't make them biscuits." "You can read all the books in the library my son, but the cheese will still smell after four days." "No matter how warm the smile on the face of the Sun, the cat still has her kittens under the porch." "Even a one thousand zloty note cannot tap dance." "Only the centipede can hear all the hundred footsteps of his uncle." Part of the joke is that Ralph Manza, as Banacek's chauffeur Jay Drury, will often ask "What does it mean, Boss?" Banacek also has a running agreement with his chauffeur for a 10% share of Banacek's 10% if he solved the crime. Mr. Drury is never at a loss for a potential solution that Banacek always manages to shoot down with his very next line. Another recurring gag is for other characters—particularly his rivals—to mispronounce his name deliberately. The name "Banaczek" (as pronounced in the show) is actually quite rare in Poland. Murray Matheson plays seller of rare books and information source Felix Mulholland, a character always ready with a droll remark and who exhibits a passion for chess and jigsaw puzzles. He is also the series' only character to ever call Banacek by his first name. Recurring characters include insurance company executive Cavanaugh (George Murdock), Banacek's rival and some-time love interest Carlie Kirkland (Christine Belford), and another insurance investigator/rival Fennyman/Henry DeWitt (Linden Chiles). Banacek lives on historic Beacon Hill in Boston. While he has a limousine and driver, he also owns and sometimes drives an antique 1941 Packard convertible. Both vehicles are equipped with mobile radio telephones at a time when such devices are uncommon and expensive. Banacek is intelligent, well-educated, cultured, and suave. An unapologetic ladies' man who enjoys the company of beautiful women, he is also street-smart and can engage in hand-to-hand combat when the need arises; in one episode he mentions having learned combat judo in the Marine Corps, which is probably a reference to George Peppard's two-year enlistment in the Marine Corps, being discharged at the rank of corporal. He grew up in Scollay Square and a childhood acquaintance described him as the neighborhood jock who excelled in all sports. For recreation he jogs, plays squash, engages in weekend touch football, and sculling on the Charles River. ==Cast== George Peppard as Thomas Banacek Ralph Manza as Jay Drury Murray Matheson as Felix Mulholland Christine Belford as Carlie Kirkland George Murdock as Cavanaugh ==Production== In general, the series was shot on the Universal Studios backlot, though location scenes were filmed around Los Angeles in areas that could pass for Boston, or rural areas near there. The episode titled "If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is?" was shot on location at the California Institute of the Arts around the time the school first opened. "Ten Thousand Dollars a Page" was filmed at the Pasadena Art Museum, later known as the Pasadena Museum of Modern Art and now the Norton Simon Museum of Art. "Horse of a Slightly Different Color" was filmed at Hollywood Park Racetrack, now the site of SoFi Stadium. A customized 1969 American Motors AMX was built by George Barris for the second regular-season episode. The car became known as the AMX-400 and it is now owned by an automobile collector. Other continuing cars in the series were a 1941 maroon Packard 180 with a Victoria body designed by Howard "Dutch" Darrin (license plate number 178344), a 1973 Corvette (driven by Ms. Kirkland) and a 1973 Cadillac Fleetwood limousine (mobile telephone number KL 17811). In keeping with both the exotic car theme and the humor between Banacek and his driver Jay Drury, he was even chauffeured around in a Willys MB, Jeep CJ2A, and a CJ6, as well as a brand new Ford/De Tomaso Pantera. Two Packards were used in filming, a 1941 used for principal photography and a modified 1942 model used for some shots in Los Angeles. The main 1941 picture car was auctioned in 2019 by RM Sotheby's for $373,500. In preparation for the pilot and then the first and second seasons, the cast went to Boston and filmed a variety of background scenes. These scenes were then used through the series and are especially shown in the opening scenes, including Banacek rowing on the Charles River and walking through Government Center. In the pilot, Banacek's car pulls into his Beacon Hill home, the historic Second Harrison Gray Otis House located at 85 Mount Vernon Street. In other episodes, views are shown of the Public Garden, the entry to Felix's bookstore at 50 Beacon Street, and the Esplanade. The Boston-filmed pieces were done by a second unit and directed by Peppard himself. ==Reception== Although the show had a mixture of humor and rather intricate plots, it never generated strong ratings. Despite this, the show was well received by critics. In addition, the Polish American Congress gave the series an award for portraying Polish Americans in a good manner. It also helped revive Peppard's career. ==Cancellation== Banacek was well received by television critics, and, as a result, was picked up for a third season. However, before the third season could start, Peppard quit the show to prevent his ex-wife Elizabeth Ashley from receiving a larger percentage of his earnings as part of their divorce settlement. The complication ended any chance of reviving Banacek during Peppard's lifetime. A&E continued rebroadcasts of Banacek in syndication. Both seasons of Banacek have been released on DVD under the TV Guide Presents banner. Season one was released on 2007 with Season two following in 2008 ==In popular culture== The mentalist Steven Shaw adopted his stage name "Banachek" after the television program. The show was referenced by the band Fun Lovin' Criminals in the lyrics of its 1998 single "Love Unlimited". The character Banacek was also referenced in The Simpsons "Treehouse of Horror III" segment "Dial Z for Zombies" when Bart tries to cast a spell to rid Springfield of the zombies he unleashed by intoning the magic words "Kojak, Mannix, Banacek, Danno..." (All names of 1970s TV detectives.) In 2018, Banacek was the subject of an episode-length parody in The Simpsons ("Homer Is Where the Art Isn't"), with Bill Hader voicing the Peppard character, named "Manacek". The episode is patterned closely after a typical Banacek outing, referencing items from the series' storytelling format to its establishing shots. The opening and closing credits mimicked Banacek's style, even including Goldenberg's theme music. In the Akron Beacon Journal, Rich Heldenfels called the episode "a dead-on parody of Banacek." Banacek has a clear resemblance to the title character of the Steve McQueen movie The Thomas Crown Affair, particularly in his attitude towards women and authority. The house used for exterior shots of Thomas Crown's home in Boston, the Harrison Gray Otis House, was used for Banacek's home in the series. Both the film and the show revolve around insurance investigations, but in the series Banacek is solving crimes, not committing them. ==Episodes== ===Pilot: 1972=== ===Season 1: 1972–73=== ===Season 2: 1973–74=== ==Home media== Arts Alliance America has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1. Season one was released on May 15, 2007, without the series pilot. Season two was released on January 22, 2008, and included the pilot episode. On September 30, 2008, Arts Alliance released Banacek: The Complete Series, a five-disc box set featuring all 17 episodes. In Region 2, Fabulous Films released both seasons on DVD in the UK on February 10, 2014. In Region 4, Madman Entertainment has released both seasons on DVD in Australia.	[ "Polish zloty", "Gary Lockwood", "Andrew Duggan", "Jeep CJ", "Daryl Duke", "Cesar Romero", "Christine Belford", "Elizabeth Ashley", "Bernard McEveety", "Madman Entertainment", "Bert Convy", "Polish proverbs", "Willys MB", "sculling", "George McCowan", "Ford Motor Company", "David White (actor)", "borscht", "John Saxon", "Theodore J. Flicker", "Peter Marshall (entertainer)", "Chevrolet Corvette (C3)", "Fun Lovin' Criminals", "Stella Stevens", "Anne Baxter", "De Tomaso Pantera", "Lou Antonio", "Candy Clark", "Los Angeles", "Linda Evans", "The NBC Mystery Movie", "Stefanie Powers", "William Windom (actor)", "George Murdock (actor)", "Penny Fuller", "Scollay Square", "Brenda Vaccaro", "Scott Brady", "Ralph Manza", "Sabrina Scharf", "Mike Farrell", "Anne Francis", "Murray Matheson", "Crime fiction", "Universal Pictures", "Broderick Crawford", "Kevin McCarthy (actor)", "Del Reisman", "Government Center, Boston", "Esplanade, Boston", "Cadillac Fleetwood", "Roger C. Carmel", "Jack Smight", "Howard Browne", "Janis Paige", "John Brodie", "Norton Simon Museum of Art", "Polish American Congress", "The Thomas Crown Affair (1968 film)", "Polish-American", "Stanley Ralph Ross", "George Peppard", "George Lindsey", "Jessica Walter", "Richard Jordan", "California Institute of the Arts", "mobile radio telephone", "second unit", "Billy Goldenberg", "Victoria Principal", "Sterling Hayden", "Terry Wilson (actor)", "Andrew McLaglen", "Banachek", "A&E (TV channel)", "American Motors", "Akron Beacon Journal", "Richard T. Heffron", "Jimmy Sangster", "Packard", "Stephen Kandel", "Beacon Hill, Boston", "Mannix", "Hawaii Five-O (1968 TV series)", "Garry Walberg", "David Wayne", "Howard \"Dutch\" Darrin", "Treehouse of Horror III", "Linden Chiles", "Joanna Pettet", "Kojak", "NBC Mystery Movie", "touch football (American)", "Arlene Martel", "Margot Kidder", "Pernell Roberts", "Hollywood Park Racetrack", "Bill Hader", "SoFi Stadium", "David Doyle (actor)", "Charles River", "Steve McQueen", "Penny Marshall", "Anitra Ford", "Second Harrison Gray Otis House", "squash (sport)", "Thorpe Hazell", "Louise Sorel", "Herschel Daugherty", "AMC AMX", "Universal Television", "The Simpsons", "Public Garden (Boston)", "George Barris (auto customizer)", "mentalism", "jock (stereotype)", "Homer Is Where the Art Isn't", "Harrison Gray Otis House", "Gretchen Corbett", "limousine", "Packard 180", "NBC", "RM Sotheby's", "mobile telephone", "Bernard L. Kowalski", "Howie Horwitz", "Ted Cassidy", "Harry Carey, Jr.", "Beacon Street" ]
4,949	Blue Angels	The Blue Angels, formally named the U.S. Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, are a flight demonstration squadron of the United States Navy. Formed in 1946, the unit is the second oldest formal aerobatic team in the world, following the which formed in 1931. The team has six Navy and one Marine Corps demonstration pilots. They fly the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules. The Blue Angels typically perform aerial displays in at least 60 shows annually at 32 locations throughout the United States and two shows at one location in Canada. The "Blues" still employ many of the same practices and techniques used in the inaugural 1946 season. An estimated 11 million spectators view the squadron during air shows from March through November each year. Members of the Blue Angels team also visit more than 50,000 people in schools, hospitals, and community functions at air show cities. Since 1946, the Blue Angels have flown for more than 505 million spectators. In 2011, the Blue Angels received $37 million from the annual Department of Defense budget. ==Mission== The mission of the Blue Angels is to showcase the pride and professionalism of the United States Navy and Marine Corps by inspiring a culture of excellence and service to the country through flight demonstrations and community outreach. ==Air shows== The Blue Angels perform at both military, non-military airfields and Remote Show Sites. They perform often at major U.S. cities and capitals; locations in Canada are also often included in the air show schedule. There are total of 6 Jets that perform in an airshow the Diamond (pilots 1 through 4) and Solos (pilots 5 and 6). === Airshow maneuvers === The Diamond Performs their takeoff (Burner Go Loop or Diamond Half Squirrel Cage) then the maneuvers (Diamond 360, Diamond Roll, Diamond Aileron Roll, Diamond Dirty Loop, Double Farvel, Echelon Parade "Fan Break", Changeover Roll, Line Abreast Loop "5 Ship with #5 Lead Solo", Vertical Break, Barrel Roll Break, Low Break Cross, Burner 270, with each Solo Maneuvers in between. The Solos perform, their Solo Section Takeoff (#5 Dirty Roll and #6 Low Transition takeoff or Solo Section Low Flap Maneuver for Remote Show Sites) then their Opposing Maneuvers (Knife Edge Pass, Inverted to Inverted), Mirror Formations (Fortus) showcasing the Super Hornet's turn rate capabilities (Solo Minimum Radius Turn). Both Solo approach maneuvers (Opposing Minimum Radius Turn) another opposing maneuvers (Opposing Horizontal Rolls). Sneak maneuvers (#5 Sneak Pass, #6 Sneak to Vertical Rolls), Opposing Maneuvers (Opposing Four Point Hesitation Roll, Vertical Pitch). Both Solo formation maneuvers (Tuck Over Roll, High Alpha Pass, Solos Rejoin "Wander"). The Solos will then join the Diamond formation once the Solos Routine is done for 5 Delta Maneuvers. Which includes (Delta Roll, Fleur De Lis, Delta Loop Break Cross, Delta Breakout, Delta Aileron Roll "For Low and Flat Show conditions" Delta Flat Pass "For Remote Show exit" Delta Pitch Up Break to Landing. The parameters of each show must be tailored in accordance with local weather conditions at showtime: in clear weather the High Show is performed; in overcast conditions a Low Show is performed, and in limited visibility (weather permitting) the Flat Show is presented. The High show requires at least an ceiling and visibility of at least from the show's center point. The minimum ceilings allowed for low and flat shows are 4,500 feet, and 1,500 feet respectively. ==Aircraft== ===Current=== The team flew the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet for 34 years from 1986 through 2020. The team currently flies the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet. In August 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use. Modifications to each F/A-18E/F include removal of the weapons and replacement with a tank that contains smoke-oil used in demonstrations and outfitting the control stick with a spring system for more precise aircraft control input. Control sticks are tensioned with of force to allow the pilot minimal room for non-commanded movement of the aircraft. Each modified F/A-18 remains in the fleet and can be returned to combat duty aboard an aircraft carrier within 72 hours. As converted aircraft were delivered, they were used for testing maneuvers starting in mid 2020. The team's Super Hornets became operational by the beginning of 2021, their 75th anniversary year. The show's narrator Blue Angels No. 7, flies a two-seat (F/A-18F Super Hornet), to show sites. The Blues use these jets for backups or spares, and to give demonstration rides to VIP (civilians). Usually, two back seats rides are available at each air show; one goes to a member of the press, and the other to the "Key Influencer". The team is divided to 3 Departments Officers, Enlisted and Technical Representative. All team members, both Officer and Enlisted Personnel, Pilots and staff officers, come from the ranks of regular United States Navy and United States Marine Corps units. The Demonstration Pilots and narrator are made up of Navy and USMC Naval Aviators. Pilots serve two to three years, Applicants "rush" the team at one or more airshows, paid out of their own finances, and sit in on team briefs, post-show activities, and social events. It is critical that new officers fit the existing culture and team dynamics. The application and evaluation process runs from March through early July, culminating with extensive finalist interviews and team deliberations. Team members vote in secret on the next year's officers. Selections must be unanimous. The Flight Leader (No. 1) is the Commanding Officer and always holds the rank of commander, and may be promoted to captain mid-tour if approved by the selection board. Current Flight Leader/Commanding Officer Commander Adam L. Bryan from Canton, Connecticut assumed command of the Blue Angels in November 2024. He relieved Captain Alexander P. Armatas, a native of Skaneateles, New York. Armatas graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 2002 with a Bachelor of Science in aerospace engineering. Armatas joined the Blue Angels in August 2022. He has accumulated more than 4,100 flight hours and 911 carrier-arrested landings. His decorations include the Meritorious Service Medal, four Strike/Flight Air Medals, five Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medals, one Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, and various personal, unit and service awards. Flight team Pilots numbered 2–7 are Navy Lieutenant Commanders or Lieutenants, or Marine Corps Majors or Captains. The (#7) pilot narrates for a year, and then typically flies Opposing Solo (#6) and then Lead Solo (#5) the following two years, respectively. The (#3) pilot moves to the (#4) "Slot" position for their second year. Blue Angel (#4) serves as the demonstration Safety Officer, due largely to the perspective they are afforded from the slot position within the formation, as well as their status as a second-year demonstration pilot. (#8) serves as Events Coordinator for two years. An Events Coordinator's job is to communicate, manage VIP, Media, and Key influerncer "KI"'s VIP Ride, and make sure each event and airshow is done successfully. Since 2008, six female flight officers have been selected. LCDR. Amanda Lee became the first woman to be named as a F/A-18 demonstration pilot. She served from 2022-2024. The Public Affairs Officer is incharge for all Media, Video, Social Media Accounts of the United States Navy Blue Angels. Its job is also to communicate for the Public for QnA and other interviews. ==Training and weekly routine== Annual winter training takes place at NAF El Centro, California, where new and returning pilots hone skills learned in the fleet. During winter training, the pilots fly two practice sessions per day, six days a week, to fly the 120 training missions needed to perform the demonstration safely. The separation between the formation of aircraft and their maneuver altitude is gradually reduced over the course of about two months in January and February. The team then returns to their home base in Pensacola, Florida, in March, and continues to practice throughout the show season. A typical week during the season has practices at NAS Pensacola on Tuesday and Wednesday mornings. The team then flies to its show venue for the upcoming weekend on Thursday, conducting "circle and arrival" orientation maneuvers upon arrival. The team flies a "practice" airshow at the show site on Friday. This show is attended by invited guests but is often open to the general public. The main airshows are conducted on Saturdays and Sundays, with the team returning home to NAS Pensacola on Sunday evenings after the show. Monday is an off day for the Blues' demonstration pilots and road crew. Extensive aircraft maintenance is performed on Sunday evening and Monday by maintenance team members. Pilots maneuver the flight stick with their right hand holding the stick with their knuckles facing the aircraft's display panels and operate the throttle with their left hand both hands wearing gloves each demonstration to avoid sweaty hands. They do not wear G-suits because the air bladders inside repeatedly deflate and inflate, increasing the risk of unintentional movement. To compensate for the lack of G-suits, Blue Angel pilots have developed a method for tensing their muscles to prevent blood from pooling in their lower extremities, possibly rendering them unconscious. ==History== ===Overview=== The Blue Angels were originally formed in April 1946 as the Navy Flight Exhibition Team. They changed their name to the Blue Angels after seeing an advertisement for the New York nightclub The Blue Angel, also known as The Blue Angel Supper Club, in the New Yorker Magazine. The team was first introduced as the Blue Angels during an air show in July 1946. The first Blue Angels demonstration aircraft wore navy blue (nearly black) with gold lettering. The current shades of blue and yellow were adopted when the first demonstration aircraft were transitioned from the Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat to the Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat in August 1946; the aircraft wore an all-yellow scheme with blue markings during the 1949 show season. The original Blue Angels insignia or crest was designed in 1949, by Lt. Commander Raleigh "Dusty" Rhodes, their third Flight Leader and first jet fighter leader. The aircraft silhouettes change as the team changes aircraft. The Blue Angels demonstration teams began wearing leather jackets and special colored flight suits with the Blue Angels insignia, in 1952. In 1953, they began wearing gold colored flight suits for the first show of the season and or to commemorate milestones for the flight demonstration squadron. The Navy Flight Exhibition Team was reorganized and commissioned the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron on 10 December 1973. ===1946–1949=== The Blue Angels were established as a Navy flight exhibition team on 24 April 1946 by order of Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Chester Nimitz to generate greater public support of naval aviation. To boost Navy morale, demonstrate naval air power, and maintain public interest in naval aviation, an underlying mission was to help the Navy generate public and political support for a larger allocation of the shrinking defense budget. Rear Admiral Ralph Davison personally selected Lieutenant Commander Roy Marlin "Butch" Voris, a World War II fighter ace, to assemble and train a flight demonstration team, naming him Officer-in-Charge and Flight Leader. Voris selected three fellow instructors to join him (Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, Lt. Mel Cassidy, and Lt. Cmdr. Lloyd Barnard, veterans of the War in the Pacific), and they spent countless hours developing the show. The group perfected its initial maneuvers in secret over the Florida Everglades so that, in Voris' words, "if anything happened, just the alligators would know". The first four pilots and those after them were some of the best and most experienced aviators in the Navy. The team's first demonstration with Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat aircraft took place before Navy officials on 10 May 1946 and was met with enthusiastic approval. The United States Navy's Blue Angels performed their first air show at what is now JaxEx (formerly Craig Municipal Airport, one of 6 airports in the Jacksonville, FL area developed for military training), on June 15, 1946. The exhibition team flew three Gruman F6F Hellcat Fighter planes (a fourth F6F-5 was held in reserve). On 15 June, Voris led the three Hellcats (numbered 1–3), specially modified to reduce weight and painted sea blue with gold leaf trim, through their inaugural 15-minute-long performance. The name had originated through a suggestion by Right Wing Pilot Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, after he had read about the Blue Angel nightclub in The New Yorker magazine. After ten appearances with the Hellcats, the Hellcats were replaced by the lighter, faster, and more powerful F8F-1 Bearcats on 25 August. In 1949, the team acquired a Douglas R4D Skytrain for logistics to and from show sites. The team's SNJ was also replaced by another Bearcat, painted yellow for the air combat routine, inheriting the "Beetle Bomb" nickname. In May, the team went to the west coast on temporary duty so the pilots and the rest of the team could become familiar with jet aircraft. On 20 August, the team debuted the panther jets under Team Leader Lt. Commander Raleigh "Dusty" Rhodes The F8F-1 "Beetle Bomb" was relegated to solo aerobatics before the main show, until it crashed on takeoff at a training show in Pensacola on 24 April 1950, killing "Blues" pilot Lt. Robert Longworth. Team headquarters shifted from NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, to NAAS Whiting Field, Florida, on 10 September 1949, announced 14 July 1949. ===1950–1959=== The Blue Angels pilots continued to perform nationwide in 1950. On 25 June, the Korean War started, and all Blue Angels pilots volunteered for combat duty. The squadron (due to a shortage of pilots, and no available planes) and its members were ordered to "combat-ready status" after an exhibition at Naval Air Station, Dallas, Texas on 30 July. On 25 October 1951, the Blues were ordered to re-activate as a flight demonstration team, and reported to NAS Corpus Christi, Texas. Lt. Cdr. Voris was again tasked with assembling the team (he was the first of only two commanding officers to lead them twice). In May 1952, the Blue Angels began performing again with F9F-5 Panthers at an airshow in Memphis, Tennessee. After summer, the team began demonstrating with F9F-6 Cougar. In 1954, the first Marine Corps pilot, Captain Chuck Hiett, joined the Navy flight demonstration team. The Blue Angels also received special colored flight suits. The Blue Angels began relocating to their current home at Naval Air Station (NAS) Pensacola, Florida that winter, and it was here they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman F9F-8 Cougar. In December, the team left its home base for its first winter training facility at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California In September 1956, the team added a sixth aircraft to the flight demonstration in the Opposing Solo position, and gave its first performance outside the United States at the International Air Exposition in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It also upgraded its logistics aircraft to the Douglas R5D Skymaster. The first demonstration was flying the short-nosed version on 23 March, at Barin Field, Pensacola, and then the long-nosed versions. The demonstration team (with added Angel 6) wore gold flight suits during the first air show that season. In 1958, the first Six-Plane Delta Maneuvers were added that season. ===1960–1969=== In July 1964, the Blue Angels participated in the Aeronaves de Mexico Anniversary Air Show over Mexico City, Mexico, before an estimated crowd of 1.5 million people. In 1965, the Blue Angels conducted a Caribbean island tour, flying at five sites. Later that year, they embarked on a European tour to a dozen sites, including the Paris Air Show, where they were the only team to receive a standing ovation. In 1967, the Blues toured Europe again, at six sites. In 1968, the C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft was replaced with a Lockheed VC-121J Constellation. The Blues transitioned to the two-seat McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II in 1969, nearly always keeping the back seat empty for flight demonstrations. The Phantom was the only plane to be flown by both the "Blues" and the United States Air Force Thunderbirds (the "Birds"). That year they also upgraded to the Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation for logistics. ===1970–1979=== In 1970, the Blues received their first U.S. Marine Corps Lockheed KC-130F Hercules, manned by an all-Marine crew. That year, they went on their first South American tour. In 1971, the team which wore the gold flight suits for the first show, conducted its first Far East Tour, performing at a dozen locations in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Guam, and the Philippines. In 1972, the Blue Angels were awarded the Navy's Meritorious Unit Commendation for the two-year period from 1 March 1970 to 31 December 1971. Another European tour followed in 1973, including air shows in Iran, England, France, Spain, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. On 10 December 1973, the Navy Flight Exhibition Team was reorganized and commissioned the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron. The Blues mission was more on Navy recruiting. In 1974, the Blue Angels transitioned to the new Douglas A-4F Skyhawk II. Navy Commander Anthony Less became the squadron's first "commanding officer" and "flight leader". A permanent flight surgeon position and administration officer was added to the team. "Fat Albert Airlines" flies with an all-Marine crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel. ===1980–1989=== In 1986, LCDR Donnie Cochran, joined the Blue Angels as the first African-American Naval Aviator to be selected. He served for two more years with the squadron flying the left wing-man position in the No.3 A-4F fighter, and returned to command the Blue Angels in 1995 and 1996. On 8 November 1986, the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling what would be their aircraft through their 75th anniversary year, the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The power and aerodynamics of the Hornet allows them to perform a slow, high angle of attack "tail sitting" maneuver, and to fly a "dirty" (landing gear down) formation loop. ===1990–1999=== In 1992, the Blue Angels deployed for a month-long European tour, their first in 19 years, conducting shows in Sweden, Finland, Russia (first foreign flight demonstration team to perform there), Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Spain. In 1998, CDR Patrick Driscoll made the first "Blue Jet" landing on a "haze gray and underway" aircraft carrier, USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75). On 8 October 1999, the Blue Angels lost two pilots. LCDR Kieron O'Connor and LT Kevin Colling were returning from a practice flight before an air show when their F/A-18B crashed in a wooded area of south Georgia. ===2000–2009=== In 2000, the Navy was conducting investigations in regard and connected to the loss of two Blue Angels pilots in October 1999. The pilots of the F/A-18 Hornet were not required to wear and do not wear g-suits. In 2006, the Blue Angels marked their 60th year of performing. On 30 October 2008, a spokesman for the team announced that the team would complete its last three performances of the year with five jets instead of six. The change was because one pilot and another officer in the organization had been removed from duty for engaging in an "inappropriate relationship". The Navy said one of the individuals was a man and the other a woman, one a Marine and the other from the Navy, and that Rear Admiral Mark Guadagnini, chief of Naval air training, was reviewing the situation. At the next performance at Lackland Air Force Base following the announcement the No.4 or slot pilot, was absent from the formation. A spokesman for the team would not confirm the identity of the pilot removed from the team. On 6 November 2008, both officers were found guilty at an admiral's mast on unspecified charges but the resulting punishment was not disclosed. On 21 April 2007, pilot Kevin "Kojak" Davis was killed and eight people on the ground were injured when Davis lost control of the No.6 jet and crashed during an air show at the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort in Beaufort, South Carolina. The Fat Albert performed its final JATO demonstration at the 2009 Pensacola Homecoming show, expending their eight remaining JATO bottles. This demonstration not only was the last JATO performance of the squadron, but also the final JATO use of the U.S. Marine Corps. In 2009, the Blue Angels were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum. ===2010–2019=== On 22 May 2011, the Blue Angels were performing at the Lynchburg Regional Airshow in Lynchburg, Virginia, when the Diamond formation flew the Barrel Roll Break maneuver at an altitude lower than the required minimum. The maneuver was aborted, the remainder of the demonstration canceled and all aircraft landed safely. The next day, the Blue Angels announced that they were initiating a safety stand-down, canceling their upcoming Naval Academy Airshow and returning to their home base in Pensacola, Florida, for additional training and airshow practice. On 26 May, the Blue Angels announced they would not be flying their traditional fly-over of the Naval Academy Graduation Ceremony and that they were canceling their 28–29 May 2011 performances at the Millville Wings and Wheels Airshow in Millville, New Jersey. On 27 May 2011, the Blue Angels announced that Commander Dave Koss, the squadron's commanding officer, would be stepping down. He was replaced by Captain Greg McWherter, the team's previous commanding officer. The squadron canceled performances at the Rockford, Illinois Airfest 4–5 June and the Evansville, Indiana Freedom Festival Air Show 11–12 June to allow additional practice and demonstration training under McWherter's leadership. Between 2 and 4 September 2011 on Labor Day weekend, the Blue Angels flew for the first time with a fifty-fifty blend of conventional JP-5 jet fuel and a camelina-based biofuel at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. McWherter flew an F/A-18 test flight on 17 August and stated there were no noticeable differences in performance from inside the cockpit. On 1 March 2013, the U.S. Navy announced that it was cancelling remaining 2013 performances after 1 April 2013 due to sequestration budget constraints. In October 2013, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel, stating that "community and public outreach is a crucial Departmental activity", announced that the Blue Angels (along with the U.S. Air Force's Thunderbirds) would resume appearing at air shows starting in 2014, although the number of flyovers will continue to be severely reduced. On 15 March 2014, the demonstration pilots numbered 1–7 wore gold flight suits to celebrate the team's "return to the skies" during their first air show of the season; there were only three air shows in 2013. In July 2014, Marine Corps C-130 pilot Capt. Katie Higgins, 27, became the first female pilot to join the Blue Angels, flying the support aircraft Fat Albert for the 2015 and 2016 show seasons. In July 2015, Cmdr. Bob Flynn became the Blue Angels' first executive officer. On 2 June 2016, Capt. Jeff Kuss, an Opposing Solo, died just after takeoff while performing the Split-S maneuver in his Hornet during a practice run for The Great Tennessee Air Show in Smyrna, Tennessee. The Navy's investigation found that Capt. Kuss had performed the maneuver too low while failing to retard the throttle out of afterburner, causing him to fall too fast and recover too low above the ground. Capt. Kuss ejected, but his parachute was immediately engulfed in flames, causing him to fall to his death. Kuss' body was recovered just yards away from the crash site. The cause of death was blunt force trauma to the head. The investigation also cited weather and pilot fatigue as additional causes of the crash. In a strange twist, Captain Kuss' fatal crash happened hours after the Blue Angels' fellow pilots in the United States Air Force Thunderbirds suffered a crash of their own, following the United States Air Force Academy graduation ceremony earlier that day. Capt. Jeff Kuss was replaced by Cmdr. Frank Weisser to finish out the 2016 and 2017 seasons. In July 2016, Boeing was awarded a $12 million contract to begin an engineering proposal for converting the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet for Blue Angels use, with the proposal to be completed by September 2017. The Fat Albert (BUNO 164763) was retired from service in May 2019 with 30,000 flight hours. The Blue Angels replaced it with a C-130J Super Hercules acquired from the Royal Air Force (BUNO 170000). === 2020–present === In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, the Blue Angels flew over multiple US cities as a tribute to healthcare and front line workers. The Blues officially transitioned to Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornets on 4 November 2020. In July 2022, Lt. Amanda Lee was announced as the first woman to serve as a demonstration pilot in the Blue Angels. ==Aircraft timeline== The "Blues" have flown ten different demonstration aircraft and six support aircraft models: Demonstration aircraft Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat: June – August 1946 Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat: August 1946 – 1949 Grumman F9F-2 Panther: 1949 – June 1950 (first jet); F9F-5 Panther: 1951 – Winter 1954/55 Grumman F9F-8 Cougar: Winter 1954/55 – mid-season 1957 (swept-wing) Grumman F11F-1 (F-11) Tiger: mid-season 1957 – 1968 (first supersonic jet) McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II: 1969 – December 1974 Douglas A-4F Skyhawk: December 1974 – November 1986 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet (F/A-18B as #7): November 1986 – 2010 Boeing F/A-18A/C (B/D as #7) Hornet: 2010-2020 Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet (F/A-18F as #7): 2020– Support aircraft JRB Expeditor (Beech 18): 1949–? Douglas R4D-6 Skytrain: 1949–1955 Curtiss R5C Commando: 1953 Douglas R5D Skymaster: 1956–1968 Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation: 1969–1973 Lockheed C-130 Hercules "Fat Albert": 1970–2019 (JATO usage was stopped in 2009) Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules "Fat Albert": 2020–present Miscellaneous aircraft North American SNJ Texan "Beetle Bomb" (used to simulate a Japanese A6M Zero aircraft in demonstrations during the late 1940s) Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star (Used during the 1950s as a VIP transport aircraft for the team) Vought F7U Cutlass (two of the unusual F7Us were received in late 1952 and flown as a side demonstration during the 1953 season but they were not a part of their regular formations which at the time used the F9F Panther. Pilots and ground crew found it unsatisfactory and a plan to use it as the team's primary aircraft was canceled). ==Commanding officers== Notable Commanding Officers include: Roy Marlin Voris – 1946, 1952 John J. Magda – 1950, Killed in Action March 1951, Korean War Arthur Ray Hawkins – 1952 to 1953 Richard Cormier – 1954 to 1956 Edward B. Holley – 1957 to 1958 Zebulon V. Knott – 1959 to 1961 Kenneth R. Wallace – 1962 to 1963 Robert F. Aumack – 1964 to 1966 William V. Wheat – 1967 to 1969 Harley H. Hall – 1970 to 1971 Don Bently – 1972 Marvin F. "Skip" Umstead – 1973 Anthony A. Less – Oct 1973 to Jan 1976 Keith S. Jones – 1976 to 1978 William E. Newman – 1978 to 1979 Hugh D. Wisely – Dec 1979 to 1982 David Carroll – 1982 to 1983 Larry Pearson – 1983 to 1985 Gilman E. Rud – Nov 1985 to Nov 1988 Gregory Wooldridge – 1990 to 1992, 1996 Robert E. Stumpf – 1993 to 1994 Donnie Cochran – Nov 1994 to May 1996 George B. Dom – Nov 1996 to Oct 1998 Patrick Driscoll – Oct 1998 to 2000 Robert Field – 2000 to Sept 2002 Russell J. Bartlett – Sept 2002 to Sept 2004 Stephen R. Foley – Sept 2004 to Nov 2006 Kevin Mannix – Nov 2006 to 2008 Gregory McWherter 2008 to 2010, 2011 David Koss – Fall 2010 to spring 2011 Gregory McWherter – 2011 to 2012 Thomas Frosch – 2012 to 2015 Ryan Bernacchi – 2015 to 2017 Eric D. Doyle – 2017 to 2019 Brian C. Kesselring – 2019 to 2022 Alexander P. Armatas – 2022 to 2024 Adam Bryan – 2024 to present ==Notable members== Below are some of the more notable members of the Blue Angels squadron: Capt Roy "Butch" Voris, World War II fighter ace and first Flight Leader Charles "Chuck" Brady Jr., Astronaut and physician Donnie Cochran, First African-American Blue Angels aviator and commander Edward L. Feightner, World War II fighter ace and Lead Solo Arthur Ray Hawkins, World War II flying ace Bob Hoover, World War II fighter pilot and flight instructor, honorary Blue Angel member Anthony A. Less, First Commanding Officer of Blue Angels squadron, numerous other commands including Naval Air Forces Atlantic Fleet Robert L. Rasmussen, aviation artist Raleigh Rhodes, World War II and Korean War fighter pilot and third Flight Leader of the Blue Angels Patrick M. Walsh, Left Wingman and Slot Pilot who later commanded the U.S. Pacific Fleet and became Vice Chief of Naval Operations and a White House Fellow Katie Higgins Cook, First female Blue Angels pilot Amanda Lee, First female Blue Angels demonstration pilot ==Team accidents and deaths== A total of 20 Blue Angels pilots and one crew member have died while assigned to the flight team. Four other pilots died in combat action after their service with the Blue Angels. Lt. Anton M. Campanella (#3 Left Wing)14 June 1960: killed flying a Grumman F-11A Tiger that crashed into the water near Fort Morgan, Alabama during a test flight. Lt. George L. Neale15 March 1964: killed during an attempted emergency landing at Apalach Airport near Apalachicola, Florida. Lt. Neale's F-11A Tiger had experienced mechanical difficulties during a flight from West Palm Beach, to Naval Air Station Pensacola, causing him to attempt the emergency landing. Failing to reach the airport, he ejected from the aircraft on final approach, but his parachute did not have sufficient time to fully deploy. Lt. Cmdr. Dick Oliver2 September 1966: crashed his F-11A Tiger and was killed at the Canadian International Air Show in Toronto. Lt Frank Gallagher1 February 1967: killed when his F-11A Tiger stalled during a practice Half Cuban Eight maneuver and spun into the ground. Capt. Ronald Thompson18 February 1967: killed when his F-11A Tiger struck the ground during a practice formation loop. Lt. Bill Worley (Opposing Solo)14 January 1968: killed when his Tiger crashed during a practice double Immelmann. Lt. Larry Watters14 February 1972: killed when his F-4J Phantom II struck the ground, upright, while practicing inverted flight, during winter training at NAF El Centro. Lt. Cmdr. Skip Umstead (Team Leader), Capt. Mike Murphy, and ADJ1 Ron Thomas (Crew Chief)26 July 1973: all three were killed in a mid-air collision between two Phantoms over Lakehurst, New Jersey, during an arrival practice. The rest of the season was cancelled after this incident. Lt. Nile Kraft (Opposing Solo)22 February 1977: killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during practice. Lt. Michael Curtin8 November 1978: one of the solo Skyhawks struck the ground after low roll during arrival maneuvers at Naval Air Station Miramar, and Curtin was killed. Lt. Cmdr. Stu Powrie (Lead Solo)22 February 1982: killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during winter training at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California, just after a dirty loop. Lt. Cmdr. Mike Gershon (Opposing Solo #6)13 July 1985: his Skyhawk collided with Lt. Andy Caputi (Lead Solo #5) during a show at Niagara Falls, Gershon was killed and Caputi ejected and parachuted to safety. Lt. Cmdr. Kieron O'Connor and Lt. Kevin Colling28 October 1999: flying in the back seat and front seat of a Hornet, both were killed after striking the ground during circle and arrival maneuvers in Valdosta, Georgia. Lt. Cmdr. Kevin J. Davis21 April 2007: crashed his Hornet near the end of the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort airshow in Beaufort, South Carolina, and was killed. Capt. Jeff Kuss (Opposing Solo, #6)2 June 2016: died just after takeoff while performing the Split-S maneuver in his F/A-18 Hornet during a practice run for The Great Tennessee Air Show in Smyrna, Tennessee. ===Other incidents=== Lt. John R. Dewenter2 August 1958: landed wheels up at Buffalo Niagara International Airport after experiencing engine troubles during a show in Clarence, New York. The Grumman F-11 Tiger landed on Runway 23, but exited airport property, coming to rest in the intersection of Genesee Street and Dick Road, nearly hitting a filling station. Lt. Dewenter was uninjured, but the plane was a total loss. Lt. Ernie Christensen30 August 1970: belly-landed his F-4J Phantom at The Eastern Iowa Airport in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, after he inadvertently left the landing gear in the up position. He ejected safely, while the aircraft slid off the runway. Cmdr. Harley Hall4 June 1971: safely ejected after his F-4J Phantom jet caught fire during practice over NAS Quonset Point in North Kingstown, Rhode Island, and crashed in Narragansett Bay. Capt. John Fogg, Lt. Marlin Wiita, and Lt. Cmdr. Don Bently8 March 1973: all three survived a multi-aircraft mid-air collision during practice over Superstition Mountain, near El Centro, California. Lt. Jim Ross (Lead Solo)April 1980: unhurt when his Skyhawk suffered a fuel line fire during a show at Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, Puerto Rico. Lt. Ross stayed with the plane and landed, leaving the end of the runway and rolling into the woods after a total hydraulic failure upon landing. Lt. Dave Anderson (Lead Solo)12 February 1987: ejected from his Hornet after a dual engine flame-out during practice near El Centro, California. Marine Corps Maj. Charles Moseley and Cmdr. Pat Moneymaker23 January 1990: their Blue Angel Hornets suffered a mid-air collision during a practice at El Centro. Moseley ejected safely and Moneymaker was able to land his airplane, which then required a complete right wing replacement. Lt. Ted Steelman1 December 2004: ejected from his F/A-18 approximately one mile off Perdido Key after his aircraft struck the water, suffering catastrophic engine and structural damage. He suffered minor injuries. ==Combat casualties== Four former Blue Angels pilots have been killed in action or died after being captured, all having been downed by anti-aircraft fire. ===Korean War=== Commander John Magda – 8 March 1951: Blue Angels (1949, 1950; Commander/Flight Leader 1950): Magda was killed after his F9F-2B Panther was hit by anti–aircraft fire while leading a low-level strike mission against North Korean and Chinese communist positions at Tanchon which earned him the Navy Cross during the Korean War. He also was a fighter ace in World War II. ===Vietnam War=== Commander Herbert P. Hunter – 19 July 1967: Blue Angels (1957–1959; Lead Solo pilot): Hunter was hit by anti-aircraft fire in North Vietnam and crashed in his F-8E Crusader during the Vietnam war. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross posthumously for actions on 16 July 1967. He also was a Korean War veteran. Captain Clarence O. Tolbert – 6 November 1972: Blue Angels (1968): Tolbert was flying a Corsair II (A-7B) during a mission in North Vietnam and was hit by anti-aircraft fire, crashed, and died during his second tour in the Vietnam war. He was awarded the Silver Star and Distinguished Flying Cross for his service. Captain Harley H. Hall – 27 January 1973: Blue Angels (1970–1971; Commander/Team Leader 1971): Hall and his co-pilot were shot down by anti-aircraft fire in South Vietnam flying their F-4J Phantom II on the last day of the Vietnam War, and they both were officially listed as prisoners of war. In 1980, Hall was presumed to have died while captured. His remains were identified on 6 September 1994. ==In the media== The Blue Angels was a dramatic television series, starring Dennis Cross and Don Gordon, inspired by the team's exploits and filmed with the cooperation of the Navy. It aired in syndication from 26 September 1960 to 3 July 1961. Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience is a 1975 documentary film, written by Dune author Frank Herbert, featuring the team in practice and performance during their F-4J Phantom era; many of the aerial photography techniques pioneered in Threshold were later used in the film Top Gun. To Fly!, a short IMAX film featured at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum since its 1976 opening features footage from a camera on a Blue Angels A4 Skyhawk tail as the pilot performs in a show. In 1981, the Blue Angels along with the USAF Thunderbirds were featured on a Laserdisc released in Japan called Blue Angels/Thunderbirds. The Blue Angels were featured in the 1986 music video for "Dreams" by rock band Van Halen, flying the A-4 Skyhawk. In 1987, the Blue Angels were featured in Rolling in the Sky: F/A-18 Blue Angels. In 1996, the Blue Angels appeared in the IMAX short film The Magic of Flight, narrated by Tom Selleck. In 2005, the Discovery Channel aired a documentary miniseries, Blue Angels: A Year in the Life, focusing on the intricate day-to-day details of that year's training and performance schedule. In 2009, MythBusters enlisted the aid of Blue Angels to help test the myth that a sonic boom could shatter glass. In 2024, the Blue Angels appeared in the IMAX feature film The Blue Angels, depicting the team's 2022 training and show seasons.	[ "Ceiling (cloud)", "Buffalo Niagara International Airport", "Flight Surgeon", "prisoner of war", "Frank Herbert", "Grumman F-9 Cougar", "Grumman F11F Tiger", "Narragansett Bay", "Nonjudicial punishment", "haze gray and underway", "Florida", "Clarence, New York", "Naval Air Station Whiting Field", "Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth", "Mitsubishi A6M Zero", "Don Gordon (actor)", "United States Pacific Fleet", "Rockford, Illinois", "The Eastern Iowa Airport", "Skaneateles, New York", "Discovery Channel", "United States Navy", "Aerobatics", "Memphis, Tennessee", "Evansville, Indiana", "Roosevelt Roads Naval Station", "Popular Mechanics", "Lockheed C-130 Hercules", "Toronto", "Grumman F11F-1 (F-11) Tiger", "Douglas R4D Skytrain", "Smithsonian Institution", "F/A-18 Hornet", "Black people", "Tom Selleck", "Canton, Connecticut", "Everglades", "Flight surgeon", "Katie Higgins Cook", "Naval Air Station Patuxent River", "Marine Corps Times", "Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star", "Los Angeles Times", "New York City", "San Diego Union Tribune", "To Fly!", "KXAS-TV", "The Tennessean", "F9F-5 Panther", "G-suit", "San Diego Air & Space Museum", "Beaumont, Texas", "Dune (novel)", "KNSD", "Raleigh Rhodes", "Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation", "Pensacola News Journal", "Naval Air Facility El Centro", "Lackland Air Force Base", "McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet", "Grumman F9F-2 Panther", "Lockheed C-121 Constellation", "Oshkosh, Wisconsin", "Spike Jones", "Caribbean", "Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort", "NAS Corpus Christi", "Douglas C-54 Skymaster", "JATO", "Canada", "Vought F7U Cutlass", "Japanese Zero", "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States", "Fort Morgan (Alabama)", "United States", "Amanda Lee (pilot)", "United States Air Force Academy", "Military Times", "West Palm Beach, Florida", "MythBusters", "Vice Chief of Naval Operations", "LaserDisc", "List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons", "Department of Defense", "North American SNJ Texan", "Admiral Chester Nimitz", "Commander (United States)", "Charles E. Brady Jr.", "Olivia Newton-John", "Vought F-8 Crusader", "Ralph E. Davison", "Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet", "Millville, New Jersey", "Bob Hoover", "Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation", "United States Marine Corps", "Texas Archive of the Moving Image", "Lieutenant (United States)", "Sequester (2013)", "Aerodrome", "Lieutenant commander (United States)", "Smithsonian Air and Space Museum", "Naval Air Station Corpus Christi", "Curtiss C-46 Commando", "naval flight officer", "Smyrna, Tennessee", "Lynchburg, Virginia", "Apalachicola, Florida", "Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules", "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)", "USS Harry S. Truman", "flying ace", "The Blue Angels (film)", "The Blue Angel (New York nightclub)", "The New Yorker", "The Hollywood Reporter", "William Tell Overture", "Arthur Ray Hawkins", "Tanchon", "Beaufort, South Carolina", "Roy Marlin Voris", "Quonset Point Air National Guard Station", "Grumman F9F Panther", "LTV A-7 Corsair II", "Paris Air Show", "EAA AirVenture Oshkosh", "Grumman F8F Bearcat", "Anthony A. Less", "Donnie Cochran", "Strake (aviation)", "Valdosta, Georgia", "United States Air Force Thunderbirds", "fighter ace", "Patrick M. Walsh", "angle of attack", "Naval Aviator", "2007 Blue Angels South Carolina crash", "Kushke Nosrat Airbase", "Grumman F-11 Tiger", "Television syndication", "diamond formation", "Edward L. Feightner", "Associated Press", "Chuck Hagel", "Dreams (Van Halen song)", "Korean War", "insignia", "Robert L. Rasmussen", "United States Marine Corps Aviation", "Pensacola", "Naval Outlying Landing Field Barin", "Cedar Rapids, Iowa", "Aerobatic", "Corpus Christi, Texas", "Douglas A-4 Skyhawk", "New Yorker Magazine", "RATO", "Canadian International Air Show", "Meritorious Unit Commendation", "IMAX", "Bolling Air Force Base", "Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience", "The Washington Post", "Marine Corps Air Station Miramar", "VF-191", "Navy Cross", "NAF El Centro", "aerobatics", "Grumman F6F Hellcat", "Aircraft carrier", "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II", "Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat", "Top Gun", "Douglas R5D Skymaster", "Eugene Register-Guard", "Curtiss R5C Commando", "Commanding Officer", "Silver Star", "g-suit", "Birmingham, Alabama", "Beechcraft Model 18", "Van Halen", "Naval Air Station Pensacola", "White House Fellow", "Dennis Cross", "WTKR", "Royal Air Force", "Mexico City", "Patrouille de France", "Omaha, Nebraska", "camelina", "Grumman F9F-8 Cougar", "Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat", "Naval Academy Graduation Ceremony", "North American T-6 Texan", "Douglas C-47 Skytrain" ]
4,950	Born again	To be born again, or to experience the new birth, is a phrase, particularly in evangelical Christianity, that refers to a "spiritual rebirth", or a regeneration of the human spirit. In contrast to one's physical birth, being "born again" is distinctly and separately caused by the operation of the Holy Spirit, and it occurs when one is baptized in water (John 3:5, Titus 3:5). While all Christians are familiar with the concept from the Bible, it is a core doctrine of the denominations of the Anabaptist, Moravian, Methodist, Baptist, Plymouth Brethren and Pentecostal churches along with evangelical Christian denominations. These Churches stress Jesus's words in the Gospels: "Do not be astonished that I said to you, ‘You must be born from above.’" (John 3:7). (In some English translations, the phrase "born again" is rendered as "born from above".) Their doctrines also hold that to be "born again" and thus "saved", one must have a personal and intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. The term born again has its origin in the New Testament. In the First Epistle of Peter, the author describes the new birth as taking place from the seed which is the Word of God. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus himself refers to the Word of God as the seed. In contemporary Christian usage and apart from evangelicalism, the term is distinct from similar terms which are sometimes used in Christianity in reference to a person who is, or is becoming, a Christian. This usage of the term is usually linked to baptism with water and the related doctrine of baptismal regeneration. Individuals who profess to be "born again" (meaning born in the "Holy Spirit") often state that they have a "personal relationship with Jesus Christ".}} The Gospel of John was written in Koine Greek, and the original text is ambiguous which results in a double entendre that Nicodemus misunderstands. The word translated as 'again' is (), which could mean either 'again', or 'from above'. The double entendre is a figure of speech that the gospel writer uses to create bewilderment or misunderstanding in the hearer; the misunderstanding is then clarified by either Jesus or the narrator. Nicodemus takes only the literal meaning from Jesus's statement, while Jesus clarifies that he means more of a spiritual rebirth from above. English translations have to pick one sense of the phrase or another; the NIV, King James Version, and Revised Version use "born again", while the New Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation prefer the "born from above" translation. Most versions will note the alternative sense of the phrase in a footnote. Edwyn Hoskyns argues that "born from above" is to be preferred as the fundamental meaning and he drew attention to phrases such as "birth of the Spirit", "birth from God", but maintains that this necessarily carries with it an emphasis upon the newness of the life as given by God himself. The final use of the phrase occurs in the First Epistle of Peter, rendered in the King James Version as: Here, the Greek word translated as 'born again' is (). ===Interpretations=== The traditional Jewish understanding of the promise of salvation is interpreted as being rooted in "the seed of Abraham"; that is, physical lineage from Abraham. Jesus explained to Nicodemus that this doctrine was in errorthat every person must have two birthsnatural birth of the physical body and another of the water and the spirit. This discourse with Nicodemus established the Christian belief that all human beingswhether Jew or Gentilemust be "born again" of the spiritual seed of Christ. This understanding is further reinforced in 1 Peter 1:23. Charles Hodge writes that "The subjective change wrought in the soul by the grace of God, is variously designated in Scripture" with terms such as new birth, resurrection, new life, new creation, renewing of the mind, dying to sin and living to righteousness, and translation from darkness to light. Jesus used the "birth" analogy in tracing spiritual newness of life to a divine beginning. Contemporary Christian theologians have provided explanations for "born from above" being a more accurate translation of the original Greek word transliterated . Theologian Frank Stagg cites two reasons why the newer translation is significant: The emphasis "from " (implying "from ") calls attention to the source of the "newness of life". Stagg writes that the word 'again' does not include the of the new kind of beginning; More than personal improvement is needed; "a new destiny requires a new origin, and the new origin must be from God." An early example of the term in its more modern use appears in the sermons of John Wesley. In the sermon entitled A New Birth he writes, "none can be holy unless he be born again", and "except he be born again, none can be happy even in this world. For[...] a man should not be happy who is not holy." Also, "I say, [a man] may be born again and so become an heir of salvation." Wesley also states infants who are baptized are born again, but for adults it is different: A Unitarian work called The Gospel Anchor noted in the 1830s that the phrase was not mentioned in any of the Gospels, nor by any Epistles except in that of 1 Peter. "It was not regarded by any of the Evangelists but John of sufficient importance to record." It adds that without John, "we should hardly have known that it was necessary for one to be born again." This suggests that "the text and context was meant to apply to Nicodemus particularly, and not to the world." ===Historicity=== Scholars of the historical Jesus, who attempt to ascertain how closely the stories of Jesus match the historical events they are based on, generally treat Jesus's conversation with Nicodemus in John 3 with skepticism. It details what is presumably a private conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus, with none of the disciples seemingly attending, making it unclear how a record of this conversation was acquired. In addition, the conversation is recorded in no other ancient Christian source other than John and works based on John. As the conversation was between two Jews in Jerusalem, where Aramaic was the native language, there is no reason to think that they would have spoken in Greek. ==Denominational positions== ===Anabaptism=== Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach that "true faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God." ===Anglicanism=== The phrase "born again" is mentioned in the 39 Articles of the Anglican Church in article 15, entitled "Of Christ alone without Sin". In part, it reads, "sin, as S. John saith, was not in Him. But all we the rest, although baptized and born again in Christ, yet offend in many things: and if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us." Although the phrase "baptized and born again in Christ" occurs in article 15, the reference is clearly to John 3:3. The Baptism Office of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer directly connects baptism with new birth, affirming a baptismal regeneration view of the meaning of the phrase "born again", not a conversion experience. Before the baptism, the prayers include: "None can enter into the kingdom of God, except he be regenerate and born anew of Water and of the Holy Ghost; I beseech you to call upon God the Father, through our Lord Jesus Christ, that of his bounteous goodness he will grant to these persons that which by nature they cannot have; that they may be baptized with Water and the Holy Ghost, and received into Christ's holy Church, and be made lively members of the same." And: "Beloved, ye hear in this Gospel the express words of our Saviour Christ, that except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. Whereby ye may perceive the great necessity of this Sacrament, where it may be had." And after baptism: "yield thee humble thanks, O heavenly Father, that thou hast vouchsafed to call us to the knowledge of thy grace, and faith in thee; Increase this knowledge, and confirm this faith in us evermore. Give thy Holy Spirit to these persons; that, being now born again, and made heirs of everlasting salvation, through our Lord Jesus Christ, they may continue thy servants, and attain thy promises; through the same Lord Jesus Christ thy Son, who liveth and reigneth with thee, in the unity of the same Holy Spirit, everlastingly. Amen." ===Baptists=== Baptists teach that people are born again when they start believing that Jesus "died for their sins", was buried, and rose again and that by believing/trusting in Jesus' death, burial, and resurrection, eternal life shall be granted as a gift by God. Those who have been born again, according to Baptist teaching, know that they are "[children] of God because the Holy Spirit witnesses to them that they are" (cf. assurance). ===Catholicism=== Historically, the classic text from John 3 was consistently interpreted by early Church Fathers as a reference to baptism. Modern Catholic interpreters have noted that the phrase 'born from above' or 'born again' is clarified as 'being born of water and Spirit'. Catholic commentator John F. McHugh notes, "Rebirth, and the commencement of this new life, are said to come about , of water and spirit. This phrase (without the article) refers to a rebirth which the early Church regarded as taking place through baptism." The Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) notes that the essential elements of Christian initiation are: "proclamation of the Word, acceptance of the Gospel entailing conversion, profession of faith, Baptism itself, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and admission to Eucharistic communion." Baptism gives the person the grace of forgiveness for all prior sins; it makes the newly baptized person a new creature and an adopted child of God; it incorporates them into the Body of Christ and creates a sacramental bond of unity leaving an indelible mark on the person's soul. "Incorporated into Christ by Baptism, the person baptized is configured to Christ. Baptism seals the Christian with the indelible spiritual mark (character) of his belonging to Christ. No sin can erase this mark, even if sin prevents Baptism from bearing the fruits of salvation. Given once for all, Baptism cannot be repeated." The Holy Spirit is involved with each aspect of the movement of grace. "The first work of the grace of the Holy Spirit is conversion. [...] Moved by grace, man turns toward God and away from sin, thus accepting forgiveness and righteousness from on high." The Catholic Church also teaches that under special circumstances, the need for water baptism can be superseded by the Holy Spirit in a 'Baptism of desire', such as when catechumens die or are martyred before Baptism. Pope John Paul II wrote in about "the problem of children baptized in infancy [who] come for catechesis in the parish without receiving any other initiation into the faith and still without any explicit personal attachment to Jesus Christ." He noted that "being a Christian means saying 'yes' to Jesus Christ, but let us remember that this 'yes' has two levels: It consists of surrendering to the word of God and relying on it, but it also means, at a later stage, endeavoring to know better—and better the profound meaning of this word." The modern expression "born again" refers to "conversion." The National Directory of Catechesis (published by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, USCCB) defines conversion as "the acceptance of a personal relationship with Christ, a sincere adherence to him, and a willingness to conform one's life to his." To put it more simply, "Conversion to Christ involves making a genuine commitment to him and a personal decision to follow him as his disciple." Declan O'Sullivan, co-founder of the Catholic Men's Fellowship and knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, wrote that the "New Evangelization emphasizes the personal encounter with Jesus Christ as a pre-condition for spreading the gospel. The born-again experience is not just an emotional, mystical high; the really important matter is what happened in the convert's life after the moment or period of radical change." ===Jehovah's Witnesses=== Jehovah's Witnesses believe that individuals do not have the power to choose to be born again, but that God calls and selects his followers "from above". Only those belonging to the "144,000" are considered to be born again. ===Lutheranism=== Lutheranism holds that "we are cleansed of our sins and born again and renewed in Holy Baptism by the Holy Ghost. But some Lutherans also teach that whoever is baptized must, through daily contrition and repentance, drown The Old Adam so that daily, a new man comes forth and arises who walks before God in righteousness and purity forever. Conservative Lutherans teach that whoever lives in sins after his baptism has again lost the grace of baptism." ===Moravianism=== About the new birth, the Moravian Church holds that a personal conversion to Christianity is a joyful experience in which the individual "accepts Christ as Lord," after which faith "daily grows inside the person." As such, "heart religion" characterizes Moravian Christianity. ===Methodism=== In Methodism, the "new birth is necessary for salvation because it marks the move toward holiness. That comes with faith." John Wesley held that the New Birth "is that great change which God works in the soul when he brings it into life, when he raises it from the death of sin to the life of righteousness." In keeping with Wesleyan-Arminian covenant theology, the Articles of Religion, in Article XVII – Of Baptism, state that baptism is a "sign of regeneration or the new birth." The Methodist Visitor in describing this doctrine admonishes individuals: "'Ye must be born again.' Yield to God that He may perform this work in and for you. Admit Him to your heart. 'Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved.'" Methodist theology teaches that the new birth contains two phases that occur together, justification and regeneration:}} At the moment a person experiences the New Birth, they are "adopted into the family of God". ===Plymouth Brethren=== The Plymouth Brethren teach that the new birth effects salvation and those who testify that they have been born again, repented, and have faith in the Scriptures are given the right hand of fellowship, after which they can partake of the Lord's Supper. ===Pentecostalism=== Holiness Pentecostals historically teach the new birth (first work of grace), entire sanctification (second work of grace) and baptism with the Holy Spirit, as evidenced by glossolalia, as the third work of grace. The new birth, according to Pentecostal teaching, imparts "spiritual life". ===Quakerism=== The majority of the world's Quakers are evangelical in churchmanship and teach a born-again experience (cf. Evangelical Friends Church International). The Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, a Holiness Quaker denomination, teaches that regeneration is the "divine work of initial salvation (Tit. 3:5), or conversion, which involves the accompanying works of justification (Rom. 5:18) and adoption (Rom. 8:15, 16)." Following the new birth, George Fox taught the possibility of "holiness of heart and life through the instantaneous baptism with the Holy Spirit subsequent to the new birth" (cf. Christian perfection). ===Reformed=== In Reformed theology, Holy Baptism is the sign and the seal of one's regeneration, which is of comfort to the believer. The time of one's regeneration, however, is a mystery to oneself according to the Canons of Dort. Effectual calling is "the work of God's Spirit, whereby, convincing us of our sin and misery, enlightening our minds in the knowledge of Christ, and renewing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to embrace Jesus Christ, freely offered to us in the gospel." In Reformed theology, "regeneration precedes faith." Samuel Storms writes that, "Calvinists insist that the sole cause of regeneration or being born again is the will of God. God first sovereignly and efficaciously regenerates, and only in consequence of that do we act. Therefore, the individual is passive in regeneration, neither preparing himself nor making himself receptive to what God will do. Regeneration is a change wrought in us by God, not an autonomous act performed by us for ourselves." === The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints === The Book of Mormon emphasizes the need for everyone to be reborn of God. Latter-day Saints believe that being born again refers to "true repentance". In other words, rejecting the "carnal, sinful nature" of humans and making a covenant with God to live a righteous, Christ-like life. This covenant is done initially as baptism by immersion at age 8, or the age of accountability, or when someone newly converts. It is then renewed weekly through partaking of the sacrament during church meetings. It is a common misconception that the Church of Jesus Christ teaches that these ordinances are required works to be "saved". It is actually taught that Christ has already saved all humanity from physical death and will save from spiritual death through repentance and obeying God's commandments on judgment day, after death and resurrection. Baptism and Sacrament are done as according to the faith of a person as an outward expression of an inward commitment to serve God and live a righteous life. ==Disagreements between denominations== The term "born again" is used by several Christian denominations, but there are disagreements on what the term means, and whether members of other denominations are justified in claiming to be born-again Christians. Catholic Answers says: On the other hand, an Evangelical site argues: The Reformed view of regeneration may be set apart from other outlooks in at least two ways. ==History and usage== Historically, Christianity has used various metaphors to describe its rite of initiation, that is, spiritual regeneration via the sacrament of baptism by the power of the water and the spirit. This remains the common understanding in most of Christendom, held, for example, in Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, and in other historic branches of Protestantism. However, sometime after the Reformation, Evangelicalism attributed a different significance to the expression born again as an experience of religious conversion, only symbolized by water baptism, and rather brought about by a commitment to one's own personal faith in Jesus Christ for salvation. This same belief is, historically, also an integral part of Methodist doctrine, and is connected with the doctrine of Justification. According to Encyclopædia Britannica: According to J. Gordon Melton: According to Andrew Purves and Charles Partee: The term born again has become widely associated with the evangelical Christian renewal since the late 1960s, first in the United States and then around the world. Associated perhaps initially with Jesus People and the Christian counterculture, born again came to refer to a conversion experience, accepting Jesus Christ as lord and savior in order to be saved from hell and given eternal life with God in heaven, and was increasingly used as a term to identify devout believers. The term was sufficiently prevalent so that during the year's presidential campaign, Democratic party nominee Jimmy Carter described himself as "born again" in the first Playboy magazine interview of an American presidential candidate. Colson describes his path to faith in conjunction with his criminal imprisonment and played a significant role in solidifying the "born again" identity as a cultural construct in the US. He writes that his spiritual experience followed considerable struggle and hesitancy to have a "personal encounter with God." He recalls: Jimmy Carter was the first President of the United States to publicly declare that he was born-again, in 1976. By the 1980 campaign, all three major candidates stated that they had been born again. Sider and Knippers state that "Ronald Reagan's election that fall [was] aided by the votes of 61% of 'born-again' white Protestants." The Gallup Organization reported that "In 2003, 42% of U.S. adults said they were born-again or evangelical; the 2004 percentage is 41%" and that, "Black Americans are far more likely to identify themselves as born-again or evangelical, with 63% of blacks saying they are born-again, compared with 39% of white Americans. Republicans are far more likely to say they are born-again (52%) than Democrats (36%) or independents (32%)." The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics, referring to several studies, reports "that 'born-again' identification is associated with lower support for government anti-poverty programs." It also notes that "self-reported born-again" Christianity, "strongly shapes attitudes towards economic policy." ==Names which have been inspired by the term== The idea of "rebirth in Christ" has inspired some common European forenames: French René/Renée, Dutch Renaat/Renate, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Croatian Renato/Renata, Latin Renatus/Renata, all of which mean "reborn", "born again". The command language and shell program Bash, short for "Bourne-Again SHell", is a pun on "born again", being a mix with the name of the previous Bourne shell. ==Statistics== The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics notes: "The GSS ... has asked a born-again question on three occasions ... 'Would you say you have been 'born again' or have had a 'born-again' experience?" The Handbook says that "Evangelical, black, and Latino Protestants tend to respond similarly, with about two-thirds of each group answering in the affirmative. In contrast, only about one third of mainline Protestants and one sixth of Catholics (Anglo and Latino) claim a born-again experience." However, the handbook suggests that "born-again questions are poor measures even for capturing evangelical respondents. ... it is likely that people who report a born-again experience also claim it as an identity."	[ "Pope John Paul II", "Baptismal regeneration", "New English Translation", "Logansport, Indiana", "Book of Mormon", "Given name", "Evangelical Friends Church International", "HarperOne", "Bash (Unix shell)", "double entendre", "Dutch Reformed Church", "Gospels", "Renatus", "Jehovah's Witnesses", "Regeneration (theology)", "Republican Party (United States)", "entire sanctification", "Methodism", "Evangelicalism", "Anglican Church", "Christian perfection", "Emmanuel Association", "New Revised Standard Version", "white American", "Secular Culture & Ideas", "evangelicalism", "Watergate scandal", "Oriental Orthodoxy", "New International Version", "Nicodemus", "Jesus in Christianity", "New Evangelization", "Chuck Colson", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Speaking in tongues", "Eucharist", "Koine Greek", "Body of Christ", "cultural construct", "Nabu Press", "Mennonite", "Unitarianism", "Baptists", "historical Jesus", "United States Conference of Catholic Bishops", "Gallup (company)", "39 Articles", "Ambiguity", "New Testament", "First Epistle of Peter", "Revised Version", "Central Yearly Meeting of Friends", "figure of speech", "Oxford University Press", "Catholic Answers", "seed of Abraham", "Jesus movement", "Gospel of John", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Protestantism", "tarry", "Anabaptist", "Holiness-Pentecostal", "Holy Baptism", "Christendom", "Bourne shell", "Religious Society of Friends", "John Wesley", "Wesleyan-Arminian covenant theology", "assurance (theology)", "College of William & Mary", "camp meeting", "Anglicanism", "Frank Stagg (theologian)", "baptism", "Jimmy Carter", "Book of Common Prayer (1662)", "Anabaptist theology", "King James Version", "Roman Catholicism", "Church Fathers", "Playboy", "Lutheranism", "Catechism of the Catholic Church", "Reformed theology", "Pentecostalism", "Westminster Shorter Catechism", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Christianity", "Holy Spirit", "tent revival", "first work of grace", "Justification (theology)", "catechesis", "Chambers Dictionary", "Reformed Church in America", "Clamp Divinity School", "Renée", "sacrament", "Methodist theology", "General Social Survey", "Jesus", "Eucharist in the Catholic Church", "Adoption (theology)", "Plymouth Brethren", "Gospel of Luke", "Aramaic language", "Protestant Reformation", "Methodist", "René", "Moravian Church", "Baptist", "Bart Ehrman", "Emmanuel Association of Churches", "Stanford University Press", "Articles of Religion (Methodist)", "catechumen", "Quakers", "Charles Hodge", "baptized", "religious conversion", "John 3", "Evangelical Methodist Church", "Time (magazine)", "metaphors", "Holy Spirit in Christianity", "salvation in Christianity", "Andrew Purves", "baptismal regeneration", "Alexandre Bida", "Four Evangelists", "144,000", "Pharisees", "George Fox", "Anabaptism", "Martyrdom in Christianity", "1980 United States presidential election", "right hand of fellowship", "Ronald Reagan", "evangelism", "Canons of Dort", "Rite (Christianity)", "third work of grace", "J. Gordon Melton", "Baptism of desire", "African American", "Wildside Press", "Sovereign Military Order of Malta" ]
4,952	Rockwell B-1 Lancer	The Rockwell B-1 Lancer{{efn\|The name "Lancer" was only applied to the B-1B variant in 1990. , it is one of the United States Air Force's three strategic bombers, along with the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress. It is a heavy bomber with up to a 75,000-pound (34,000 kg) of payload. The B-1 was first envisioned in the 1960s as a bomber that would combine the Mach 2 speed of the B-58 Hustler with the range and payload of the B-52, ultimately replacing both. After a long series of studies, North American Rockwell (subsequently renamed Rockwell International, B-1 division later acquired by Boeing) won the design contest for what emerged as the B-1A. Prototypes of this version could fly Mach 2.2 at high altitude and long distances and at Mach 0.85 at very low altitudes. The program was canceled in 1977 due to its high cost, the introduction of the AGM-86 cruise missile that flew the same basic speed and distance, and early work on the B-2 stealth bomber. The program was restarted in 1981, largely as an interim measure due to delays in the B-2 stealth bomber program. The B-1A design was altered, reducing top speed to Mach 1.25 at high altitude, increasing low-altitude speed to Mach 0.92, extensively improving electronic components, and upgrading the airframe to carry more fuel and weapons. Named the B-1B, deliveries of the new variant began in 1985; the plane formally entered service with Strategic Air Command (SAC) as a nuclear bomber the following year. By 1988, all 100 aircraft had been delivered. With the disestablishment of SAC and its reassignment to the Air Combat Command in 1992, the B-1B's nuclear capabilities were disabled and it was outfitted for conventional bombing. It first served in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 and again during the NATO action in Kosovo the following year. The B-1B has supported U.S. and NATO military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. As of 2025, the Air Force operates 45 B-1Bs bombers, with many retired units in the Boneyard. The Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider is to begin replacing the B-1B after 2025; all B-1s are planned to be retired by 2036, replaced by the Northrop B-2 Spirit and Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider. ==Development== ===Background=== In 1955, the USAF issued requirements for a new bomber combining the payload and range of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress with the Mach 2 maximum speed of the Convair B-58 Hustler. In December 1957, the USAF selected North American Aviation's B-70 Valkyrie for this role, a six-engine bomber that could cruise at Mach 3 at high altitude (). Soviet Union interceptor aircraft, the only effective anti-bomber weapon in the 1950s, the Valkyrie would fly at similar altitudes, but much higher speeds, and was expected to fly right by the fighters. as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers' U-2. The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) was aware of these developments and had begun moving its bombers to low-level penetration even before the U-2 incident. This tactic greatly reduces radar detection distances through the use of terrain masking; using features of the terrain like hills and valleys, the line-of-sight from the radar to the bomber can be broken, rendering the radar (and human observers) incapable of seeing it. and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic research program. Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52's huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition of improved radar jamming and deception suites to deal with radars. During the Vietnam War, the concept that all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head, and the "big belly" modifications increased the B-52's total bomb load to , turning it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used against ground troops along with strategic targets from high altitudes. A number of studies on a strategic-range counterpart followed. The first post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known as the Subsonic Low-Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was completed in 1961. This produced a design that looked more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept wing, T-tail, and large high-bypass engines. This was followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft (ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing, then en vogue in the aviation industry. ERSA envisioned a relatively small aircraft with a payload and a range of including flown at low altitudes. In August 1963, the similar Low-Altitude Manned Penetrator design was completed, which called for an aircraft with a bomb load and somewhat shorter range of . These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North American (later North American Rockwell). In mid-1964, the USAF had revised its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which differed from AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing Mach 2-class F-111. Given the lengthy series of design studies, North American Rockwell engineers joked that the new name actually stood for "America's Most Studied Aircraft". The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B-70 program had led some to question the need for a new strategic bomber of any sort. The USAF was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense. They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce option because the bombers could be quickly launched into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked. However, the introduction of the SLBM made moot the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs, such as the Minuteman III, had the accuracy and speed needed to attack point targets. During this time, ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their lower unit cost, but development costs were much higher. and felt a new expensive bomber was not needed. Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in 1968. ===B-1A program=== President Richard Nixon reestablished the AMSA program after taking office, keeping with his administration's flexible response strategy that required a broad range of options short of general nuclear war. Nixon's Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s, since they lacked the desired range, and recommended that the AMSA design studies be accelerated. In June 1970, North American Rockwell was awarded the development contract. The original program called for two test airframes, five flyable aircraft, and 40 engines. This was cut in 1971 to one ground and three flight test aircraft. The company changed its name to Rockwell International and named its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations in 1973. A fourth prototype, built to production standards, was ordered in the fiscal year 1976 budget. Plans called for 240 B-1As to be built, with initial operational capability set for 1979. Rockwell's design had features common to the F-111 and XB-70. It used a crew escape capsule, that ejected as a unit to improve crew survivability if the crew had to abandon the aircraft at high speed. Additionally, the design featured large variable-sweep wings in order to provide both more lift during takeoff and landing, and lower drag during a high-speed dash phase. Initially, it had been expected that a Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude, which required that titanium be used in critical areas in the fuselage and wing structure. The low altitude performance requirement was later lowered to Mach 0.85, reducing the amount of titanium and therefore cost. The first three B-1As featured the escape capsule that ejected the cockpit with all four crew members inside. The fourth B-1A was equipped with a conventional ejection seat for each crew member. The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October 1971; this resulted in 297 requests for alteration to the design due to failures to meet specifications and desired improvements for ease of maintenance and operation. The first B-1A prototype (Air Force serial no. 74–0158) flew on 23 December 1974. As the program continued the per-unit cost continued to rise in part because of high inflation during that period. In 1970, the estimated unit cost was $40 million, and by 1975, this figure had climbed to $70 million. ===New problems and cancellation=== In 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected to Japan with his MiG-25 "Foxbat". During debriefing he described a new "super-Foxbat" (almost certainly referring to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar in order to attack cruise missiles. This would also make any low-level penetration aircraft "visible" and easy to attack. Given that the B-1's armament suite was similar to the B-52, and it then appeared no more likely to survive Soviet airspace than the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned. In particular, Senator William Proxmire continually derided the B-1 in public, arguing it was an outlandishly expensive dinosaur. During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the Democratic Party's platforms, saying "The B-1 bomber is an example of a proposed system which should not be funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers' dollars." When Carter took office in 1977 he ordered a review of the entire program. By this point the projected cost of the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft, although this was lifetime cost over 20 years. He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that had started in 1975, and he decided that this was a better approach than the B-1. Pentagon officials also stated that the AGM-86 Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) launched from the existing B-52 fleet would give the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace. With a range of , the ALCM could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet defenses and penetrate at low altitude like a bomber (with a much lower radar cross-section (RCS) due to smaller size), and in much greater numbers at a lower cost. A small number of B-52s could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating the defense. A program to improve the B-52 and develop and deploy the ALCM would cost at least 20% less than the planned 244 B-1As. Domestically, the reaction to the cancellation was split along partisan lines. The Department of Defense was surprised by the announcement; it expected that the number of B-1s ordered would be reduced to around 150. Congressman Robert Dornan (R-CA) claimed, "They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in Moscow." However, it appears the Soviets were more concerned by large numbers of ALCMs representing a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s. Soviet news agency TASS commented that "the implementation of these militaristic plans has seriously complicated efforts for the limitation of the strategic arms race." ===Shifting priorities=== It was during this period that the Soviets started to assert themselves in several new theaters of action, in particular through Cuban proxies during the Angolan Civil War starting in 1975 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. U.S. strategy to this point had been focused on containing Communism and preparation for war in Europe. The new Soviet actions revealed that the military lacked capability outside these narrow confines. The U.S. Department of Defense responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Forces concept but suffered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability. In order to slow an enemy invasion of other countries, air power was critical; however the key Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the range of the United States Navy's carrier-based attack aircraft, leaving this role to the U.S. Air Force. During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was weak on defense, citing the cancellation of the B-1 program as an example, a theme he continued using into the 1980s. During this time Carter's defense secretary, Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apparently implying that this was the reason for the B-1 cancellation. ===B-1B program=== On taking office, Reagan was faced with the same decision as Carter before: whether to continue with the B-1 for the short term, or to wait for the development of the ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. Studies suggested that the existing B-52 fleet with ALCM would remain a credible threat until 1985. It was predicted that 75% of the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets. After 1985, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG-31 interceptor and the first effective Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B-52 increasingly vulnerable. During 1981, funds were allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s time-frame which led to developing the Long-Range Combat Aircraft (LRCA) project. The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111, and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic operations. In January 1982, the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers. Numerous changes were made to the design to make it better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in the B-1B. High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area for the revised design, To deal with the introduction of the MiG-31 equipped with the new Zaslon radar system, and other aircraft with look-down capability, the B-1B's electronic warfare suite was significantly upgraded. In particular it seemed the B-52 fitted with electronics similar to the B-1B would be equally able to avoid interception, as the speed advantage of the B-1 was now minimal. It also appeared that the "interim" time frame served by the B-1B would be less than a decade, being rendered obsolete shortly after the introduction of a much more capable ATB design. The primary argument in favor of the B-1 was its large conventional weapon payload, and that its takeoff performance allowed it to operate with a credible bomb load from a much wider variety of airfields. Production subcontracts were spread across many congressional districts, making the aircraft more popular on Capitol Hill. B-1A No. 1 was disassembled and used for radar testing at the Rome Air Development Center in the former Griffiss Air Force Base, New York. B-1As No. 2 and No. 4 were then modified to include B-1B systems. The first B-1B was completed and began flight testing in March 1983. The first production B-1B was rolled out on 4 September 1984 and first flew on 18 October 1984. The 100th and final B-1B was delivered on 2 May 1988; before the last B-1B was delivered, the USAF had determined that the aircraft was vulnerable to Soviet air defenses. In 1996, Rockwell International sold most of its space and defense operations to Boeing, which continues as the primary contractor for the B1 as of 2024. The B-1's variable-sweep wings and thrust-to-weight ratio provide it with improved takeoff performance, allowing it to use shorter runways than previous bombers. The length of the aircraft presented a flexing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude. To alleviate this, Rockwell included small triangular fin control surfaces or vanes near the nose on the B-1. The B-1's Structural Mode Control System moves the vanes, and lower rudder, to counteract the effects of turbulence and smooth out the ride. Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B cannot reach Mach 2+ speeds; its maximum speed is Mach 1.25 (about 950 mph or 1,530 km/h at altitude), but its low-level speed increased to Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 1,130 km/h). The speed of the current version of the aircraft is limited by the need to avoid damage to its structure and air intakes. To help lower its radar cross-section, the B-1B uses serpentine air intake ducts (see S-duct) and fixed intake ramps, which limit its speed compared to the B-1A. Vanes in the intake ducts serve to deflect and shield radar returns from the highly reflective engine compressor blades. The B-1A's engine was modified slightly to produce the GE F101-102 for the B-1B, with an emphasis on durability, and increased efficiency. The core from this engine was subsequently used in several other engines, including the GE F110 used in the F-14 Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and later versions of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. It is also the basis for the non-afterburning GE F118 used in the B-2 Spirit and the U-2S. The nose-gear door is the location for ground-crew control of the auxiliary power unit (APU) which can be used during a scramble for quick-starting the APU. ===Avionics=== The B-1's main computer is the IBM AP-101, which was also used on the Space Shuttle orbiter and the B-52 bomber. The computer is programmed with the JOVIAL programming language. The Lancer's offensive avionics include the Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive electronically scanned array radar set with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), synthetic aperture radar, ground moving target indication (GMTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar altimeter, and an inertial navigation suite. The B-1B Block D upgrade added a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver beginning in 1995. The B-1's defensive electronics include the Eaton AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming equipment, which has three sets of antennas; one at the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing in the tail radome. Also in the tail radome is the AN/ALQ-153 missile approach warning system (pulse-Doppler radar). The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of eight AN/ALE-49 flare dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ-184 avionics management system. Each AN/ALE-49 dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B flares. The MJU-23A/B flare is one of the world's largest infrared countermeasure flares at a weight of over . The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE-50 towed decoy system. Also aiding the B-1's survivability is its relatively low RCS. Although not technically a stealth aircraft, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths and use of radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th that of the similar sized B-52. This is approximately 26 ft2 or 2.4 m2, comparable to that of a small fighter aircraft. The B-1 holds 61 FAI world records for speed, payload, distance, and time-to-climb in different aircraft weight classes. In November 1993, three B-1Bs set a long-distance record for the aircraft, which demonstrated its ability to conduct extended mission lengths to strike anywhere in the world and return to base without any stops. The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for 1994. Block C provided an "enhanced capability" for delivery of up to 30 cluster bomb units (CBUs) per sortie with modifications made to 50 bomb racks. Block D added a "Near Precision Capability" via improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities. Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Standoff Munition), substantially improving the bomber's capability. Upgrades were completed in September 2006. Block F was the Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) to improve the aircraft's electronic countermeasures and jamming capabilities, but it was canceled in December 2002 due to cost overruns and delays. In 2007, the Sniper XR targeting pod was integrated on the B-1 fleet. The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircraft's chin near the forward bomb bay. Following accelerated testing, the Sniper pod was fielded in summer 2008. Future precision munitions include the Small Diameter Bomb. The USAF commenced the Integrated Battle Station (IBS) modification in 2012 as a combination of three separate upgrades when it realized the benefits of completing them concurrently; the Fully Integrated Data Link (FIDL), Vertical Situational Display Unit (VSDU) and Central Integrated Test System (CITS). FIDL enables electronic data sharing, eliminating the need to enter information between systems by hand. VSDU replaces existing flight instruments with multifunction color displays, a second display aids with threat evasion and targeting, and acts as a back-up display. CITS saw a new diagnostic system installed that allows crew to monitor over 9,000 parameters on the aircraft. Other additions are to replace the two spinning mass gyroscopic inertial navigation system with ring laser gyroscopic systems and a GPS antenna, replacement of the APQ-164 radar with the Scalable Agile Beam Radar – Global Strike (SABR-GS) active electronically scanned array, and a new attitude indicator. The IBS upgrades were completed in 2020. ==Operational history== ===Strategic Air Command=== The second B-1B, "The Star of Abilene", was the first B-1B delivered to SAC in June 1985. Initial operational capability was reached on 1 October 1986 and the B-1B was placed on nuclear alert status. The B-1 received the official name "Lancer" on 15 March 1990. However, the bomber has been commonly called the "Bone"; a nickname that appears to stem from an early newspaper article on the aircraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as "B-ONE" with the hyphen inadvertently omitted. In late 1990, engine fires in two Lancers led to a grounding of the fleet. The cause was traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and the aircraft were placed on "limited alert"; in other words, they were grounded unless a nuclear war broke out. Following inspections and repairs they were returned to duty beginning on 6 February 1991. By 1991, the B-1 had a fledgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude. Despite being cleared for this role, the problems with the engines prevented their use in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War. The B-52 was more suited to the role of conventional warfare and it was used by coalition forces instead. On 26 April 1991, ten B-1Bs narrowly avoided being hit by the 1991 Andover tornado while located at McConnell AFB, which took a direct hit. Two of the bombers were equipped with nuclear warheads. After the inactivation of SAC and the establishment of the Air Combat Command (ACC) in 1992, the B-1 developed a greater conventional weapons capability. Part of this development was the start-up of the U.S. Air Force Weapons School B-1 Division. In 1994, two additional B-1 bomb wings were also created in the Air National Guard, with former fighter wings in the Kansas Air National Guard and the Georgia Air National Guard converting to the aircraft. By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP weapons as well as various CBUs. By the end of the 1990s, with the advent of the "Block D" upgrade, the B-1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions. The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons; Under provisions of the New START treaty with Russia, further conversions were performed. These included modification of aircraft hardpoints to prevent nuclear weapon pylons from being attached, removal of weapons bay wiring bundles for arming nuclear weapons, and destruction of nuclear weapon pylons. The conversion process was completed in 2011, and Russian officials inspect the aircraft every year to verify compliance. ===Air Combat Command=== The B-1 was first used in combat in support of operations in Iraq during Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, employing unguided GP weapons. B-1s have been subsequently used in Operation Allied Force (Kosovo) and, most notably, in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the B-1 was able to raise its mission capable rate to 79%. In 2004, a new appropriation bill called for some retired aircraft to return to service, and the USAF returned seven mothballed bombers to service to increase the fleet to 67 aircraft. On 14 July 2007, the Associated Press reported on the growing USAF presence in Iraq, including reintroduction of B-1Bs as a close-at-hand platform to support Coalition ground forces. Beginning in 2008, B-1s were used in Iraq and Afghanistan in an "armed overwatch" role, loitering for surveillance purposes while ready to deliver guided bombs in support of ground troops as required. The B-1B underwent a series of flight tests using a 50/50 mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel; on 19 March 2008, a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the first USAF aircraft to fly at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a flight over Texas and New Mexico. This was conducted as part of an USAF testing and certification program to reduce reliance on traditional oil sources. On 4 August 2008, a B-1B flew the first Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted enemy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb in Afghanistan. In March 2011, B-1Bs from Ellsworth Air Force Base attacked undisclosed targets in Libya as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn. With upgrades to keep the B-1 viable, the USAF may keep it in service until approximately 2038. Despite upgrades, a single flight hour needs 48.4 hours of repair. The fuel, repairs, and other needs for a 12-hour mission cost $720,000 (~$ in ) as of 2010. The $63,000 cost per flight hour is, however, less than the $72,000 for the B-52 and the $135,000 of the B-2. In June 2010, senior USAF officials met to consider retiring the entire fleet to meet budget cuts. The Pentagon plans to begin replacing the aircraft with the B-21 Raider after 2025. In the meantime, its "capabilities are particularly well-suited to the vast distances and unique challenges of the Pacific region, and we'll continue to invest in, and rely on, the B-1 in support of the focus on the Pacific" as part of President Obama's "Pivot to East Asia". In August 2012, the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron returned from a six-month tour in Afghanistan. Its 9 B-1Bs flew 770 sorties, the most of any B-1B squadron on a single deployment. The squadron spent 9,500 hours airborne, keeping one of its bombers in the air at all times. They accounted for a quarter of all combat aircraft sorties over the country during that time and fulfilled an average of two to three air support requests per day. On 4 September 2013, a B-1B participated in a maritime evaluation exercise, deploying munitions such as laser-guided 500 lb GBU-54 bombs, 500 lb and 2,000 lb JDAM, and Long Range Anti-Ship Missiles (LRASM). The aim was to detect and engage several small craft using existing weapons and tactics developed from conventional warfare against ground targets; the B-1 is seen as a useful asset for maritime duties such as patrolling shipping lanes. Beginning in 2014, the B-1 was used against the Islamic State (IS) in the Syrian Civil War. From August 2014 to January 2015, the B-1 accounted for eight percent of USAF sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve. The 9th Bomb Squadron was deployed to Qatar in July 2014 to support missions in Afghanistan, but when the air campaign against IS began on 8 August, the aircraft were employed in Iraq. During the Battle of Kobane in Syria, the squadron's B-1s dropped 660 bombs over 5 months in support of Kurdish forces defending the city. This amounted to one-third of all bombs used during OIR during the period, and they killed some 1,000 ISIL fighters. The 9th Bomb Squadron's B-1s went "Winchester"–dropping all weapons on board–31 times during their deployment. They dropped over 2,000 JDAMs during the six-month rotation. ===Air Force Global Strike Command=== As part of a USAF reorganization announced in April 2015, all B-1s were reassigned from Air Combat Command to Global Strike Command (GSC) in October 2015. On 8 July 2017, the USAF flew two B-1s near the North Korean border in a show of force amid increasing tensions, particularly in response to North Korea's 4 July test of an ICBM capable of reaching Alaska. On 14 April 2018, B-1s launched 19 JASSM missiles as part of the 2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs in Syria. In August 2019, six B-1Bs met full mission capability; 15 were undergoing depot maintenance and 39 under repair and inspection. In February 2021, the USAF announced it will retire 17 B-1s, leaving 45 aircraft in service. Four of these will be stored in a condition that will allow their return to service if required. In March 2021, B-1s deployed to Norway's Ørland Main Air Station for the first time. During the deployment, they conducted bombing training with Norwegian and Swedish ground force Joint terminal attack controllers. One B-1 also conducted a warm-pit refuel at Bodø Main Air Station, marking the first landing inside Norway's Arctic Circle, and integrated with four Swedish Air Force JAS 39 Gripen fighters. On 2 February 2024, the U.S. deployed two B-1Bs to strike 85 terrorist targets in seven locations in Iraq and Syria as part of a multi-tiered response to the killing of three U.S. troops in a drone attack in Jordan. ==Variants== B-1A: The B-1A was the original B-1 design with variable engine intakes and Mach 2.2 top speed. Four prototypes were built; no production units were manufactured. B-1B: The B-1B is a revised B-1 design with reduced radar signature and a top speed of Mach 1.25. It is optimized for low-level penetration. A total of 100 B-1Bs were produced. The B-1R (R for "regional") would be fitted with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and new Pratt & Whitney F119 engines (from the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor). This variant would have a top speed of Mach 2.2, but with 20% shorter range. Existing external hardpoints would be modified to allow multiple conventional weapons to be carried, increasing overall loadout. For air-to-air defense, an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar would be added and some existing hardpoints modified to carry air-to-air missiles. ==Aircraft on display== B-1A: B-1B: ==Accidents and incidents== The Aviation Safety Network lists 15 accidents from 1984 to 2024 in which 11 B-1s were lost and a total of 12 crew members were killed. An April 2022 maintenance fire damaged another. Among the incidents: On 29 August 1984, B-1A (serial number (74-0159) crashed because of a loss of control during a test flight over the Mojave Desert. The center of gravity was well aft of the limit due to fuel transfer error. Two crew members survived and a Rockwell test pilot was killed. On 28 September 1987, B-1B (84–0052) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 338th Combat Crew Training Squadron, Dyess AFB, crashed near La Junta, Colorado, while flying on a low-level training route. This was the only B-1B crash with six crew members aboard. The two crew members in jump seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection seats perished. An impact—thought to be a bird strike on a wing's leading edge—severed fuel and hydraulic lines on one side of the aircraft, while the other side's engines functioned long enough to allow the crew to eject. The B-1B fleet was later modified to protect these supply lines. In October 1990, while flying a training route in eastern Colorado, B-1B (86-0128) from the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron, McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the engines reached full power without afterburners. Fire on the aircraft's left was spotted. The No. 1 engine was shut down and its fire extinguisher was activated. The accident investigation determined that the engine had suffered catastrophic failure, engine blades had cut through the engine mounts, and the engine had detached from the aircraft. On 19 September 1997, B-1B (85-0078) crashed near Alzada, Montana, during a daytime training flight. The aircraft struck the ground due to an excessive sink rate when the crew was performing a defensive maneuver. All four crew were killed. On 12 December 2001, while supporting Operation Enduring Freedom, B-1B (86-0114) flying from the British Air Base, Diego Garcia, crashed into the Indian Ocean about 30 miles north of the island. All four crew members ejected safely and were rescued in good condition after two hours in a warm, calm sea. The pilot, Capt. William Steele, later told reporters the aircraft had not been hit by hostile fire but had suffered "multiple malfunctions" that made it impossible to handle. In September 2005, a B-1B (85-0066) from Ellsworth AFB landed at Andersen AFB and caught fire while exiting the runway. Cause was determined to be failure of brakes on the right main landing gear when leaking hydraulic fluid came in contact in a "hot brakes" situation. The resulting fire damaged the right wing, nacelle, aircraft structure, and right main landing gear assembly. The aircraft was repaired at Andersen over a three-year period with many parts obtained from retired B-1Bs in storage at Davis–Monthan AFB, Arizona. The aircraft returned to flight in 2008. On 19 August 2013, B-1B (85-0091) crashed during a routine training mission in Broadus, Montana, 170 miles southeast of Billings, Montana, because of a fuel leak and explosion that damaged a wing during a wing sweep. All four crew ejected safely. On 1 May 2018, B-1B (86-0109) made an emergency landing at Midland International Air and Space Port in Texas after experiencing a mid-air engine fire on its number 4 engine. After the first crew member's ejection seat failed to leave the plane successfully, the aircraft commander ordered the crew to stop the escape procedure and an emergency landing was safely made. The aircraft was later inspected and cleared for return to service. This B-1 was then retired on 10 April 2021. Following its retirement, the aircraft was repurposed for training purposes and was towed to an Aircraft Battle Damage Repair training pad at the 76th Maintenance Group's Expeditionary Depot Maintenance Flight at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. On 20 April 2022, a fire broke out on B-1B (85-0089) of the 7th Bomb Wing, assigned to Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, that was undergoing maintenance on the main ramp. The fire damaged the No. 1 engine, the left nacelle, and the wing of the aircraft. Falling debris injured an airman. The cost of damage was estimated at $14.944 million. On 4 January 2024, B-1B (85-0085) assigned to Ellsworth Air Force Base in South Dakota crashed while attempting to land at the installation while on a training mission. At the time of the crash, visibility was poor and temperatures freezing. The four aircrew on board ejected safely. The total loss for the crash was reported as $456,248,485 (2024). ==Specifications (B-1B)== ===Weapons loads=== ==Notable appearances in media==	[ "Robert McNamara", "NATO bombing of Yugoslavia", "Second strike", "landing", "Arctic Circle", "United States Air Force", "supersonic speed", "Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum", "Bossier City, Louisiana", "United States Navy", "United States Secretary of Defense", "116th Bomb Wing", "New START", "Gary Powers", "37th Bomb Squadron", "338th Combat Crew Training Squadron", "heavy bomber", "La Junta, Colorado", "Ellsworth Air Force Base", "nuclear triad", "William Proxmire", "Rome Laboratory", "radar altimeter", "Westinghouse Electronic Systems", "Strategic Air Command", "bird strike", "Fédération Aéronautique Internationale", "Boeing", "Bodø Main Air Station", "Cuban intervention in Angola", "fire extinguisher", "Mark 84 bomb", "New York (state)", "radar cross-section", "missile approach warning system", "1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system", "Dyess AFB", "9th Bomb Squadron", "Operation Odyssey Dawn", "Libya", "Operation Desert Storm", "infrared countermeasure", "419th Flight Test Squadron", "Operation Desert Fox", "BLU-109", "ring laser gyroscope", "synthetic fuel", "Mark 82 bomb", "Tupolev Tu-22M", "Defense News", "List of active United States military aircraft", "surface-to-air missile", "Air National Guard", "Bombing of Iraq (1998)", "S-duct", "Fox News", "Iraq", "The Pentagon", "Rockwell International", "terrain mask", "aerodynamic drag", "strategic bomber", "electronic warfare", "Robins Air Force Base", "Grand Forks AFB", "Space Shuttle orbiter", "containment", "Air Force Flight Test Center", "Mojave Desert", "4018th Combat Crew Training Squadron", "AGM-86 ALCM", "conventional weapon", "John F. Kennedy", "Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)", "Denver", "Political positions of Ronald Reagan", "77th Weapons Squadron", "General Electric F101-GE-102", "Mountain Home Air Force Base", "cruise missile", "Communism", "Alexander Haig", "active electronically scanned array", "ASALM", "General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon", "United States Rapid Deployment Forces", "13th Bomb Squadron", "Global Positioning System", "Swedish Air Force", "McConnell Air Force Base", "payload", "penetrator (aircraft)", "Iraq War", "Global Strike Command", "escape crew capsule", "intake ramp", "Strategic Arms Limitation Talks", "Joint Direct Attack Munition", "APG-66", "cruise (flight)", "appropriation bill", "Soviet Union", "Kansas Air National Guard", "Dayton, Ohio", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "programming language", "moving target indication", "Joint terminal attack controller", "ejection seat", "GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb", "Gulf War", "General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark", "variable-sweep wing", "Indiana", "Northrop B-2 Spirit", "LGM-30 Minuteman", "Edwards AFB", "Capitol Hill", "T-tail", "Kansas", "Jimmy Carter", "Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod", "Airborne Early Warning and Control", "Radar warning receiver", "53d Test and Evaluation Group", "sortie", "Mach number", "Operation Allied Force", "Convair B-58 Hustler", "Idaho", "Ashland, Nebraska", "Texas", "avionics", "Robert Dornan", "28th Bomb Wing", "List of bomber aircraft", "GBU-54", "General Electric F118", "Saab JAS 39 Gripen", "Air Combat Command", "leading edge", "Lockheed U-2", "412th Test Wing", "Ogden, Utah", "96th Bomb Wing", "radar", "counterforce", "Oklahoma", "jump seat", "inflation", "Minnesota", "410th Flight Test Squadron", "North American Aviation", "South Dakota", "B-52 Stratofortress", "radar jamming and deception", "CBU-89 Gator", "57th Wing", "WP:Air/PC", "ejection seats", "Ronald Reagan", "George H. W. Bush", "2003 invasion of Iraq", "Georgia Air National Guard", "synthetic aperture radar", "Japan", "Dyess Air Force Base", "Ørland Main Air Station", "Vietnam War", "availability", "Richard Nixon", "Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum", "IBM", "MiG-31", "National Aeronautic Association", "Mountain Home AFB", "General Electric F110", "Viktor Belenko", "Classified information", "Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)", "Afterburner", "Ellsworth AFB", "Lowry Air Force Base", "stealth aircraft", "flexible response", "Air Force Times", "passive electronically scanned array", "Eaton Corporation", "Hill Aerospace Museum", "B-2 Spirit", "General Dynamics", "Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor", "MIL-STD-1760", "February 2024 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria", "B-58 Hustler", "Saddam Hussein", "Tupolev Tu-160", "2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs", "Tinker Air Force Base", "auxiliary power unit", "Soviet–Afghan War", "Zaslon", "Grumman F-14 Tomcat", "Battle of Kobane", "Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union", "Flare (countermeasure)", "AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon", "AN/APG-66", "START I", "thrust-to-weight ratio", "cruciform tail", "People's Republic of China–United States relations", "Air Force Global Strike Command", "B61 nuclear bomb", "clutter (radar)", "Doppler radar", "B83 nuclear bomb", "Melvin Laird", "NACA airfoil", "Small Diameter Bomb", "radar-absorbent material", "air-to-air missile", "Canard (aeronautics)", "337th Bomb Squadron", "Angolan Civil War", "AGM-158 JASSM", "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25", "1976 United States presidential election", "CFM International CFM56", "1960 U-2 incident", "Basic aircraft empty weight", "Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser", "North Dakota", "General Dynamics FB-111A Aardvark", "fighter aircraft", "Hill Air Force Base", "South Dakota Air and Space Museum", "Boeing Defense, Space & Security", "terrain-following radar", "McConnell AFB", "Montana", "Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider", "Pratt & Whitney F119", "List of military electronics of the United States", "Northrop Grumman", "lift (force)", "initial operational capability", "North American XB-70 Valkyrie", "Barksdale Air Force Base", "McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle", "Boeing B-52 Stratofortress", "afterburner", "turbofan", "takeoff", "North American Rockwell", "Griffiss Air Force Base", "AGM-183 ARRW", "SABR-GS", "NATO", "intercontinental ballistic missile", "pulse-Doppler radar", "blended wing body", "Nellis AFB", "Georgia (U.S. state)", "intake", "46th Bomb Squadron", "hypersonic", "Wichita, Kansas", "Advanced Technology Bomber", "New Mexico", "Autonetics", "384th Bomb Wing", "IBM AP-101", "7th Bomb Wing", "1991 Andover tornado", "radar warning receiver", "Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit", "submarine-launched ballistic missile", "Long Range Anti-Ship Missile", "California", "National Museum of the United States Air Force", "412th Operations Group", "Operation Inherent Resolve", "United States military aircraft serial numbers", "interceptor aircraft", "Mikoyan MiG-31", "Single Integrated Operations Plan", "AN/ALQ-153", "serpentine shape", "Billings, Montana", "366th Wing", "Warner Robins, Georgia", "JOVIAL", "Aviation Safety Network", "Davis–Monthan AFB", "General Electric F101", "Nevada", "Maine", "ALE-50 towed decoy system", "309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group", "Supersonic", "34th Bomb Squadron", "AGM-158C LRASM", "Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept", "337th Test and Evaluation Squadron", "Barksdale Global Power Museum", "Syrian Civil War", "Robins AFB", "Wright-Patterson AFB", "altitude", "radome", "SA-10", "inertial navigation", "28th Bomb Squadron", "FB-111A", "look-down/shoot-down" ]
4,953	Book of Common Prayer	The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) is the name given to a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion and by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism. The first prayer book, published in 1549 in the reign of King Edward VI of England, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. The 1549 work was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. It contains Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, the Litany, Holy Communion, and occasional services in full: the orders for Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, "prayers to be said with the sick", and a funeral service. It also sets out in full the "propers" (the parts of the service that vary weekly or daily throughout the Church's Year): the introits, collects, and epistle and gospel readings for the Sunday service of Holy Communion. Old Testament and New Testament readings for daily prayer are specified in tabular format, as are the Psalms and canticles, mostly biblical, to be said or sung between the readings. The 1549 book was soon succeeded by a 1552 revision that was more Reformed but from the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. It was used only for a few months, as after Edward VI's death in 1553, his half-sister Mary I restored Roman Catholic worship. Mary died in 1558 and, in 1559, Elizabeth I's first Parliament authorised the 1559 prayer book, which effectively reintroduced the 1552 book with modifications to make it acceptable to more traditionally minded worshippers and clergy. In 1604, James I ordered some further changes, the most significant being the addition to the Catechism of a section on the Sacraments; this resulted in the 1604 Book of Common Prayer. Following the tumultuous events surrounding the English Civil War, when the Prayer Book was again abolished, another revision was published as the 1662 prayer book. That edition remains the official prayer book of the Church of England, although throughout the later 20th century, alternative forms that were technically supplements largely displaced the Book of Common Prayer for the main Sunday worship of most English parish churches. Various permutations of the Book of Common Prayer with local variations are used in churches within and exterior to the Anglican Communion in over 50 countries and over 150 different languages. In many of these churches, the 1662 prayer book remains authoritative even if other books or patterns have replaced it in regular worship. Traditional English-language Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian prayer books have borrowed from the Book of Common Prayer, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language. Like the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, many words and phrases from the Book of Common Prayer have entered common parlance. ==Full name== The full name of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, according to the use of the Church of England, Together with the Psalter or Psalms of David, pointed as they are to be Sung or said in churches: And the Form and Manner of Making, ordaining, and Consecrating of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. The book contains prayers translated from the traditional Book of Common Prayer as well as those from the Church of North India and the CWM's Prayer Letter, along with original compositions by the Church of Bangladesh. ====China==== The Book of Common Prayer is translated literally as () in Chinese (Mandarin: Gōng dǎo shū; Cantonese: Gūng tóu syū). The former dioceses in the now defunct Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui had their own Book of Common Prayer. The General Synod and the College of Bishops of Chung Hwa Sheng Kung Hui planned to publish a unified version for the use of all Anglican churches in China in 1949, which was the 400th anniversary of the first publishing of the Book of Common Prayer. After the communists took over mainland China, the Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao became independent of the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui, and continued to use the edition issued in Shanghai in 1938 with a revision in 1959. This edition, also called the "Black-Cover Book of Common Prayer" () for its cover, still remains in use after the establishment of the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Anglican province in Hong Kong). The language style of "Black-Cover Book of Common Prayer" is closer to Classical Chinese than contemporary Chinese. ====India==== The Church of South India was the first modern Episcopal uniting church, consisting as it did, from its foundation in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, of Anglicans, Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Reformed Christians. Its liturgy, from the first, combined the free use of Cranmer's language with an adherence to the principles of congregational participation and the centrality of the Eucharist, much in line with the Liturgical Movement. Because it was a minority church of widely differing traditions in a non-Christian culture (except in Kerala, where Christianity has a long history), practice varied wildly. ====Japan==== The BCP is called "Kitōsho" () in Japanese. The initial effort to compile such a book in Japanese goes back to 1859, when the missionary societies of the Church of England and of the Episcopal Church of the United States started their work in Japan, later joined by the Anglican Church of Canada in 1888. In 1879, the Seikōkai Tō Bun (, Anglican Prayer Texts) were prepared in Japanese As the Anglican Church in Japan was established in 1887, the Romanised Nippon Seikōkai Kitō Bun () were compiled in 1879. There was a major revision of these texts and the first Kitōsho was born in 1895, which had the Eucharistic part in both English and American traditions. There were further revisions, and the Kitōsho published in 1939 was the last revision that was done before World War II, still using the Historical kana orthography. After the end of the War, the Kitōsho of 1959 became available, using post-war Japanese orthography, but still in traditional classical Japanese language and vertical writing. In the fifty years after World War II, there were several efforts to translate the Bible into modern colloquial Japanese, the most recent of which was the publication in 1990 of the Japanese New Interconfessional Translation Bible. The Kitōsho using the colloquial Japanese language and horizontal writing was published in the same year. It also used the Revised Common Lectionary. This latest Kitōsho since went through several minor revisions, such as employing the Lord's Prayer in Japanese common with the Catholic Church (共通口語訳「主の祈り」) in 2000. ====Korea==== In 1965, the Anglican Church of Korea first published a translation of the 1662 BCP into Korean and called it gong-dong-gi-do-mun (공동기도문) meaning "common prayers". In 1994, the prayers announced "allowed" by the 1982 Bishops Council of the Anglican Church of Korea was published in a second version of the Book of Common Prayers In 2004, the National Anglican Council published the third and the current Book of Common Prayers known as "seong-gong-hwe gi-do-seo (성공회 기도서)" or the "Anglican Prayers", including the Calendar of the Church Year, Daily Offices, Collects, Proper Liturgies for Special Days, Baptism, Holy Eucharist, Pastoral Offices, Episcopal Services, Lectionary, Psalms and all of the other events the Anglican Church of Korea celebrates. The Diction of the books has changed from the 1965 version to the 2004 version. For example, the word "God" has changed from classical Chinese term "Cheon-ju (천주)" to native Korean word "ha-neu-nim (하느님)," in accordance with the Public Christian translation, and as used in 1977 Common Translation Bible (gong-dong beon-yeok-seong-seo, 공동번역성서) that the Anglican Church of Korea currently uses. ====Philippines==== As the Philippines is connected to the worldwide Anglican Communion through the Episcopal Church in the Philippines, the main edition of the Book of Common Prayer in use throughout the islands is the same as that of the United States. Aside from the American version and the newly published Philippine Book of Common Prayer, Filipino-Chinese congregants of Saint Stephen's Pro-Cathedral in the Diocese of the Central Philippines uses the English-Chinese Diglot Book of Common Prayer, published by the Episcopal Church of Southeast Asia. The ECP has since published its own Book of Common Prayer upon gaining full autonomy on 1 May 1990. This version is notable for the inclusion of the Misa de Gallo, a popular Christmastide devotion amongst Filipinos that is of Catholic origin. ===Europe=== ====Ireland==== The first printed book in Ireland was in English, the Book of Common Prayer. William Bedell had undertaken an Irish translation of the Book of Common Prayer in 1606. An Irish translation of the revised prayer book of 1662 was effected by John Richardson (1664–1747) and published in 1712 as Leabhar na nornaightheadh ccomhchoitchionn. "Until the 1960s, the Book of Common Prayer, derived from 1662 with only mild tinkering, was quite simply the worship of the church of Ireland." The 1712 edition had parallel columns in English and Irish languages. After its independence and disestablishment in 1871, the Church of Ireland developed its own prayer book which was published in 1878. It has been revised several times, and the present edition has been used since 2004. ====Isle of Man==== The first Manx translation of the Book of Common Prayer was made by John Phillips (Bishop of Sodor and Man) in 1610. A more successful "New Version" by his successor Mark Hiddesley was in use until 1824 when English liturgy became universal on the island. ====Portugal==== The Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church formed in 1880. A Portuguese language Prayer Book is the basis of the Church's liturgy. In the early days of the church, a translation into Portuguese from 1849 of the 1662 edition of the Book of Common Prayer was used. In 1884 the church published its own prayer book based on the Anglican, Roman and Mozarabic liturgies. The intent was to emulate the customs of the primitive apostolic church. Newer editions of their prayer book are available in Portuguese and with an English translation. ====Spain==== The Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (, IERE) is the church of the Anglican Communion in Spain. It was founded in 1880 and since 1980 has been an extra-provincial church under the metropolitan authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Previous to its organisation, there were several translations of the Book of Common Prayer into Spanish in 1623 and in 1707. In 1881 the church combined a Spanish translation of the 1662 edition of the Book of Common Prayer with the Mozarabic Rite liturgy, which had recently been translated. This is apparently the first time the Spanish speaking Anglicans inserted their own "historic, national tradition of liturgical worship within an Anglican prayer book." A second edition was released in 1889, and a revision in 1975. This attempt combined the Anglican structure of worship with indigenous prayer traditions. ====Wales==== An Act of Parliament passed in 1563, entitled "An Act for the Translating of the Bible and the Divine Service into the Welsh Tongue", ordered that both the Old and New Testament be translated into Welsh, alongside the Book of Common Prayer. This translation – completed by the then bishop of St David's, Richard Davies, and the scholar William Salesbury – was published in 1567 as Y Llyfr Gweddi Gyffredin. A further revision, based on the 1662 English revision, was published in 1664. The Church in Wales began a revision of the book of Common Prayer in the 1950s. Various sections of authorised material were published throughout the 1950s and 1960s; however, common usage of these revised versions only began with the introduction of a revised order for the Holy Eucharist. Revision continued throughout the 1960s and 1970s, with definitive orders being confirmed throughout the 70s for most orders. A finished, fully revised Book of Common Prayer for use in the Church in Wales was authorised in 1984, written in traditional English, after a suggestion for a modern language Eucharist received a lukewarm reception. In the 1990s, new initiation services were authorised, followed by alternative orders for morning and evening prayer in 1994, alongside an alternative order for the Holy Eucharist, also in 1994. Revisions of various orders in the Book of Common Prayer continued throughout the 2000s and into the 2010s. ===Oceania=== ====Aotearoa, New Zealand, Polynesia==== As for other parts of the British Empire, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer was initially the standard of worship for Anglicans in New Zealand. The 1662 Book was first translated into Māori in 1830, and has gone through several translations and a number of different editions since then. The translated 1662 BCP has commonly been called ("the David"), reflecting the prominence of the Psalter in the services of Morning and Evening Prayer, as the Māori often looked for words to be attributed to a person of authority. The Māori translation of the 1662 BCP is still used in New Zealand, particularly among older Māori living in rural areas. After earlier trial services in the mid-twentieth century, in 1988 the Anglican Church of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia authorised through its general synod A New Zealand Prayer Book intended to serve the needs of New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and the Cook Island Anglicans. This book is unusual for its cultural diversity; it includes passages in the Māori, Fijian, Tongan and English languages. In other respects, it reflects the same ecumenical influence of the Liturgical Movement as in other new Anglican books of the period, and borrows freely from a variety of international sources. The book is not presented as a definitive or final liturgical authority, such as the use of the definite article in the title might have implied. While the preface is ambiguous regarding the status of older forms and books, the implication however is that this book is now the norm of worship for Anglicans in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The book has also been revised in a number of minor ways since the initial publication, such as by the inclusion of the Revised Common Lectionary and an online edition is offered freely as the standard for reference. ====Australia==== The Anglican Church of Australia, known officially until 1981 as the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania, became self-governing in 1961. Its general synod agreed that the Book of Common Prayer was to "be regarded as the authorised standard of worship and doctrine in this Church". After a series of experimental services offered in many dioceses during the 1960s and 70s, in 1978 An Australian Prayer Book was produced, formally as a supplement to the book of 1662, although in fact it was widely taken up in place of the old book. The AAPB sought to adhere to the principle that, where the liturgical committee could not agree on a formulation, the words or expressions of the Book of Common Prayer were to be used, if in a modern idiom. The result was a conservative revision, including two forms of eucharistic rite: a First Order that was essentially the 1662 rite in more contemporary language, and a Second Order that reflected the Liturgical Movement norms, but without elements such as a eucharistic epiclesis or other features that would have represented a departure from the doctrine of the old book. An Australian Prayer Book has been formally accepted for usage in other churches, including the Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States. A Prayer Book for Australia, produced in 1995 and again not technically a substitute for the 1662 prayer book, nevertheless departed from both the structure and wording of the Book of Common Prayer, prompting conservative reaction. Numerous objections were made and the notably conservative evangelical Diocese of Sydney drew attention both to the loss of BCP wording and of an explicit "biblical doctrine of substitutionary atonement". Sydney delegates to the general synod sought and obtained various concessions but that diocese never adopted the book. The Diocese of Sydney has instead developed its own prayer book, called Sunday Services, to "supplement" the 1662 prayer book, and preserve the original theology which the Sydney diocese asserts has been changed. In 2009 the diocese published Better Gatherings which includes the book Common Prayer (published 2012), an updated revision of Sunday Services. ===North and Central America=== ====Canada==== The Anglican Church of Canada, which until 1955 was known as the Church of England in the Dominion of Canada, or simply the Church of England in Canada, developed its first Book of Common Prayer separately from the English version in 1918, which received final authorisation from General Synod on 16 April 1922. The revision of 1959 was much more substantial, bearing a family relationship to that of the abortive 1928 book in England. The language was conservatively modernised, and additional seasonal material was added. As in England, while many prayers were retained though the structure of the Communion service was altered: a prayer of oblation was added to the eucharistic prayer after the "words of institution", thus reflecting the rejection of Cranmer's theology in liturgical developments across the Anglican Communion. More controversially, the Psalter omitted certain sections, including the entirety of Psalm 58. General Synod gave final authorisation to the revision in 1962, to coincide with the 300th anniversary of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. A French translation, Le Recueil des Prières de la Communauté Chrétienne, was published in 1967. After a period of experimentation with the publication of various supplements, the Book of Alternative Services was published in 1985. ====Indigenous languages==== The Book of Common Prayer has also been translated into these North American indigenous languages: Cowitchan, Cree, Haida, Ntlakyapamuk, Slavey, Eskimo-Aleut, Dakota, Delaware, Mohawk, Ojibwe. =====Ojibwa===== Joseph Gilfillan was the chief editor of the 1911 Ojibwa edition of the Book of Common Prayer entitled Iu Wejibuewisi Mamawi Anamiawini Mazinaigun (Iw Wejibwewizi Maamawi-anami'aawini Mazina'igan). ====United States==== The Episcopal Church separated itself from the Church of England in 1789, the first church in the American colonies having been founded in 1607. The first Book of Common Prayer of the new body, approved in 1789, had as its main source the 1662 English book, with significant influence also from the 1764 Scottish Liturgy (see above) which Bishop Seabury of Connecticut brought to the US following his consecration in Aberdeen in 1784. The preface to the 1789 Book of Common Prayer says, "this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship … further than local circumstances require." There were some notable differences. For example, in the Communion service the prayer of consecration follows mainly the Scottish orders derived from 1549 and found in the 1764 Book of Common Prayer. The compilers also used other materials derived from ancient liturgies especially Eastern Orthodox ones such as the Liturgy of St. James. An epiclesis or invocation of the Holy Spirit in the eucharistic prayer was included, as in the Scottish book, though modified to meet reformist objections. Overall however, the book was modelled on the English Prayer Book, the Convention having resisted attempts at more radical deletion and revision. Article X of the Canons of the Episcopal Church provides that "[t]he Book of Common Prayer, as now established or hereafter amended by the authority of this Church, shall be in use in all the Dioceses of this Church," which is a reference to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer. The Prayer Book Cross was erected in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1894 as a gift from the Church of England. Created by Ernest Coxhead, it stands on one of the higher points in Golden Gate Park. It is located between John F. Kennedy Drive and Park Presidio Drive, near Cross Over Drive. This sandstone cross commemorates the first use of the Book of Common Prayer in California by Sir Francis Drake's chaplain on 24 June 1579. In 2019, the Anglican Church in North America released its own revised edition of the BCP. It included a modernised rendering of the Coverdale Psalter, "renewed for contemporary use through efforts that included the labors of 20th century Anglicans T.S. Eliot and C.S. Lewis..." According to Robert Duncan, the first archbishop of the ACNA, "The 2019 edition takes what was good from the modern liturgical renewal movement and also recovers what had been lost from the tradition." The 2019 edition does not contain a catechism, but is accompanied by an extensive ACNA catechism, in a separate publication, To Be a Christian: An Anglican Catechism. ==Modern Catholic adaptations== Under Pope John Paul II's Pastoral Provision of the early 1980s, former Anglicans began to be admitted into new Anglican Use parishes in the US. The Book of Divine Worship was published in the United States in 2003 as a liturgical book for their use, composed of material drawn from the 1928 and 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America and the Roman Missal. It was mandated for use in all personal ordinariates for former Anglicans in the US from Advent 2013. Following the adoption of the ordinariates' Divine Worship: The Missal in Advent 2015, the Book of Divine Worship was suppressed. To complement the forthcoming Divine Worship missal, the newly erected Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham in the UK authorised the usage of an interim Anglican Use Divine Office in 2012. The Customary of Our Lady of Walsingham followed from both the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer tradition and that of the Catholic Church's Liturgy of the Hours, introducing hours–Terce, Sext, and None–not found in any standard Book of Common Prayer. Unlike other contemporary forms of the Catholic Divine Office, the Customary contained the full 150 Psalm psalter. In 2019, the St. Gregory's Prayer Book was published by Ignatius Press as a resource for all Catholic laity, combining selections from the Divine Worship missal with devotions drawn from various Anglican prayer books and other Anglican sources approved for Catholic use in a format that somewhat mimics the form and content of the Book of Common Prayer. In 2020, the first of two editions of Divine Worship: Daily Office was published. While the North American Edition was the first Divine Office introduced in the Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter, the Commonwealth Edition succeeded the previous Customary for the Personal Ordinariates of Our Lady of Walsingham and Our Lady of the Southern Cross. The North American Edition more closely follows the American 1928, American 1979, and Canadian 1962 prayer books, while the Commonwealth Edition more closely follows the precedents set by the Church of England's 1549 and 1662 Book of Common Prayer. ==Religious influence== The Book of Common Prayer has had a great influence on a number of other denominations. While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owe a great debt to the prayer book. In particular, many Christian prayer books have drawn on the Collects for the Sundays of the Church Year—mostly freely translated or even "rethought" by Cranmer from a wide range of Christian traditions, but including a number of original compositions—which are widely recognised as masterpieces of compressed liturgical construction. John Wesley, an Anglican priest whose revivalist preaching led to the creation of Methodism wrote in his preface to The Sunday Service of the Methodists in North America (1784), "I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England." Many Methodist churches in England and the United States continued to use a slightly revised version of the book for communion services well into the 20th century. In the United Methodist Church, the liturgy for eucharistic celebrations is almost identical to what is found in the Book of Common Prayer, as are some of the other liturgies and services. A unique variant was developed in 1785 in Boston, Massachusetts when the historic King's Chapel (founded 1686) left the Episcopal Church and became an independent Unitarian church. To this day, King's Chapel uniquely uses The Book of Common Prayer According to the Use in King's Chapel in its worship; the book eliminates trinitarian references and statements. ==Literary influence== Along with the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, the Book of Common Prayer has been one of the major influences on modern English parlance. As it has been in regular use for centuries, many phrases from its services have passed into everyday English, either as deliberate quotations or as unconscious borrowings. They have often been used metaphorically in non-religious contexts, and authors have used phrases from the prayer book as titles for their books. Some examples of well-known phrases from the Book of Common Prayer are: "Speak now or forever hold your peace" from the marriage liturgy. "Till death us do part", from the marriage liturgy. "Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust" from the funeral service. "In the midst of life, we are in death" from the committal in the service for the burial of the dead (first rite). "From all the deceits of the world, the flesh, and the devil" from the litany. "Read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest" from the collect for the second Sunday of Advent. "Evil liver" from the rubrics for Holy Communion. "All sorts and conditions of men" from the Order for Morning Prayer. "Peace in our time" from Morning Prayer, Versicles. References and allusions to Prayer Book services in the works of Shakespeare were tracked down and identified by Richmond Noble. Derision of the Prayer Book or its contents "in any interludes, plays, songs, rhymes, or by other open words" was a criminal offence under the 1559 Act of Uniformity, and consequently Shakespeare avoids too direct reference; but Noble particularly identifies the reading of the Psalter according to the Great Bible version specified in the Prayer Book, as the biblical book generating the largest number of Biblical references in Shakespeare's plays. Noble found a total of 157 allusions to the Psalms in the plays of the First Folio, relating to 62 separate Psalms—all, save one, of which he linked to the version in the Psalter, rather than those in the Geneva Bible or Bishops' Bible. In addition, there are a small number of direct allusions to liturgical texts in the Prayer Book; e.g. Henry VIII 3:2 where Wolsey states "Vain Pomp and Glory of this World, I hate ye!", a clear reference to the rite of Public Baptism; where the Godparents are asked "Doest thou forsake the vaine pompe and glory of the worlde..?" As novelist P. D. James observed, "We can recognize the Prayer Book's cadences in the works of Isaac Walton and John Bunyan, in the majestic phrases of John Milton, Sir Thomas Browne and Edward Gibbon. We can see its echo in the works of such very different writers as Daniel Defoe, Thackeray, the Brontës, Coleridge, T. S. Eliot and even Dorothy L. Sayers." James herself used phrases from the Book of Common Prayer and made them into best-selling titles – Devices and Desires and The Children of Men – while Alfonso Cuarón's 2006 film Children of Men placed the phrase onto cinema marquees worldwide. ==Copyright status== In England there are only three bodies entitled to print the Book of Common Prayer: the two privileged presses (Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press), and The King's Printer. Cambridge University Press holds letters patent as The King's Printer and so two of these three bodies are the same. The Latin term ("with privilege") is printed on the title pages of Cambridge editions of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (and the King James Version of the Bible) to denote the charter authority or privilege under which they are published. The primary function for Cambridge University Press in its role as King's Printer is preserving the integrity of the text, continuing a long-standing tradition and reputation for textual scholarship and accuracy of printing. Cambridge University Press has stated that as a university press, a charitable enterprise devoted to the advancement of learning, it has no desire to restrict artificially that advancement, and that commercial restrictiveness through a partial monopoly is not part of its purpose. It therefore grants permission to use the text, and licence printing or the importation for sale within the UK, as long as it is assured of acceptable quality and accuracy. The Church of England, supported by the Prayer Book Society, publishes an online edition of the Book of Common Prayer with permission of Cambridge University Press. In accordance with Canon II.3.6(b)(2) of the Episcopal Church (United States), the church relinquishes any copyright for the version of the Book of Common Prayer currently adopted by the Convention of the church (although the text of proposed revisions remains copyrighted). ==Editions== last=Anglican Church of Canada \|title=The Book of Common Prayer \|year=1962 \|publisher=Anglican Book Centre Publishing \|location=Toronto \|isbn=0-921846-71-1 \|page=736 Anglican Church of Canada (1964). The Canadian Book of Occasional Offices: Services for Certain Occasions not Provided in the Book of Common Prayer, compiled by the Most Rev. Harold E. Sexton, Abp. of British Columbia, published at the request of the House of Bishops of the Anglican Church of Canada. Toronto: Anglican Church of Canada, Dept. of Religious Education. x, 162 p. Anglican Catholic Church of Canada (198-?). When Ye Pray: Praying with the Church, [by] Roland F. Palmer [an editor of the 1959/1962 Canadian B.C.P.]. Ottawa: Anglican Catholic Convent Society. N.B.: "This book is a companion to the Prayer Book to help … to use the Prayer Book better."—Pg. 1. Without ISBN Reformed Episcopal Church in Canada and Newfoundland (1892). The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in the Dominion of Canada, Otherwise Known as the Protestant Church of England. ... Toronto, Ont.: Printed ... by the Ryerson Press ... for the Synod of Canada, 1951, t.p. verso 1892. N.B.: This is the liturgy as it had been authorised in 1891. last=Church of England \|title=The First and Second Prayer Books of King Edward VI \|orig-year=1549 & 1552 \|year=1977 \|publisher=Everyman's Library \|location=London \|isbn=0-460-00448-4 last=Church of England \|title=The Book of Common Prayer \|orig-year=1662 \|year=1999 \|publisher=Everyman's Library \|location=London \|isbn=1-85715-241-7 Church in Wales (1984). The Book of Common Prayer, for the Use in the Church in Wales. Penarth, Wales: Church in Wales Publications. 2 vol. N.B.: Title also in Welsh on vol. 2: Y Llfr Gweddi Giffredin i'w arfer yn Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru; vol. 1 is entirely in English; vol. 2 is in Welsh and English on facing pages. Without ISBN Reformed Episcopal Church (U.S.)(1932). The Book of Common Prayer, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Rev. fifth ed. Philadelphia, Penn.: Reformed Episcopal Publication Society, 1963, t.p. 1932. xxx, 578 p. N.B.: On p. iii: "[T]he revisions made … in the Fifth Edition [of 1932] are those authorized by the [Reformed Episcopal] General Councils from 1943 through 1963." last=The Episcopal Church \|title=The Book of Common Prayer (1979) \|year=1979 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=0-19-528713-4 The Episcopal Church (2003). The Book of Common Prayer: Selected Liturgies … According to the Use of the Episcopal Church = Le Livre de la prière commune: Liturgies sélectionnées … selon l'usage de l'Eglise Épiscopale. Paris: Convocation of American Churches in Europe. 373, [5] p. N.B.: Texts in English and as translated into French, from the 1979 B.C.P. of the Episcopal Church (U.S.), on facing pages. The Episcopal Church (2007). The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church Together with The Psalter or Psalms of David According to the use of The Episcopal Church". New York, Church Publishing Incorporated. N.B.: "…amended by action of the 2006 General Convention to include the Revised Common Lectionary." (Gregory Michael Howe, February 2007) last=The Church of England in Australia Trust Corporation \|title=An Australian Prayer Book \|year=1978 \|publisher=Anglican Information Office Press \|location=St.Andrew's House, Sydney Square, Sydney \|isbn=0-909827-79-6 \|pages=636 p \| ref=none	[ "Reformed Episcopal Church", "Real Presence", "Parish (Church of England)", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Sir Thomas Browne", "Great Ejection", "Consecration", "Richard Cox (bishop)", "blessing", "Book of Hours", "Act of Uniformity 1559", "First World War", "Litany", "Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge", "Book of Common Prayer (1843 illustrated version)", "Extra-provincial Anglican churches", "Churching of women", "Collect", "presbyterianism", "Canon law of the Episcopal Church in the United States", "Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland", "Oblation", "James VI and I", "Grace in Christianity", "prayer book", "Samuel Seabury (1729–1796)", "Filipino-Chinese", "Antiphoner", "Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of the Southern Cross", "Coverdale Bible", "Sunday Services", "Church of Scotland", "John Phillips (Bishop of Sodor and Man)", "Anishinaabe language", "Geneva", "Pontifical", "Golden Gate Park", "Common Worship", "Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn", "Irish Language", "Brontë family", "metrical psalms", "Swenske songer eller wisor 1536", "Filipino people", "Japanese New Interconfessional Translation Bible", "Act of Uniformity 1558", "Ornaments Rubric", "Anglican Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao", "Isaac Walton", "Dorothy L. Sayers", "Diarmaid MacCulloch", "Morning Prayer (Anglican)", "Biblical allusions in Shakespeare", "Lutheranism", "gospel", "Prayer Book Society (England)", "Liturgy of the Hours", "Anointing", "Edward King (English bishop)", "rood", "Episcopal Church in the Philippines", "Church of the Province of South Africa", "Māori language", "Thomissøn's hymnal", "Flixton, The Saints", "Roman Gradual", "Alcuin Club", "Eucharist in the Catholic Church", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Manx language", "Great Bible", "John Marbeck", "Anglican Church in North America", "Calvinism", "Church of South India", "Church Assembly", "Frankfurt am Main", "Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist", "Book of Common Order", "Samuel Taylor Coleridge", "Christian humanism", "predestination", "Terce", "Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "Lord's Prayer", "Geneva Bible", "Standard Mandarin", "Edward VI of England", "Book of Common Prayer (1549)", "Yale University", "surplice", "William III of England", "A New Zealand Prayer Book", "curate", "Scotland", "Bishops' Bible", "Psalter", "bishop", "confirmation", "classical Japanese language", "Oxford Movement", "Roman Missal", "John Tillotson", "Church of England", "via media", "Receptionism", "Purgatory", "Walter Whitford", "Presbyterian", "Anglican Use", "Book of Alternative Services", "St David's", "Episcopal Church in the United States of America", "Book of Common Prayer (1604)", "Roman Breviary", "San Francisco", "Advent", "wikt:ordinal", "churchwardens' accounts", "Edward Gibbon", "Methodism", "Episcopal Church (United States)", "The Children of Men", "Primer (prayer book)", "Book of Common Prayer (1552)", "P. D. James", "Act of Uniformity 1549", "collect", "Modern kana usage", "Percy Dearmer", "King's Printer", "Offertory", "pew", "Spain", "Anglican Service Book", "rochet", "Elevation (liturgy)", "Presbyterians", "real presence", "Unitarianism", "Martin Luther", "John Milton", "Book of Common Prayer (1962)", "Bible", "Liturgy", "Anglican Church of Australia", "letters patent", "Ash Wednesday", "House of Commons (United Kingdom)", "John Evelyn's Diary", "Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui", "Sarum Rite", "Catholic Church in Japan", "privileged presses", "Wantage", "Standard Cantonese", "Book of Homilies", "Boston", "Book of Common Prayer (1662)", "Savoy Conference", "Martin Bucer", "Christianity", "William Bedell", "Welsh language", "Peace for our time", "matrimony", "National Catholic Register", "justification by faith", "sacrament", "Elizabeth I", "Eton College", "deacon", "Kerala", "canticles", "lectionary", "SPCK", "marriage", "King's Chapel", "Confirmation", "Pastoral Provision", "Mary I", "Use of Sarum", "Miles Coverdale", "Catholic Church in the Philippines", "transubstantiation", "vicar", "Public Worship Regulation Act 1874", "Sext", "saint", "daily office", "Manila", "Pope John Paul II", "Sacrament", "Scottish Prayer Book (1637)", "stole (vestment)", "Anglican Church of Canada", "introit", "metropolitan bishop", "epiclesis", "United Methodist Church", "Erasmus", "Book of Divine Worship", "Prayer Book Rebellion", "Exorcism in Christianity", "St Giles' Cathedral", "chasuble", "John Evelyn", "absolution", "ordination", "Alternative Service Book", "The Books of Homilies", "Altar in the Catholic Church", "Daily Office (Anglican)", "Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church", "Catechism", "Edmund Grindal", "Reformation", "Massachusetts", "Jenny Geddes", "Oxford University Press", "George Herbert", "funeral", "Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library", "Missal", "Christian mission", "reformed worship", "John Wesley", "T. S. Eliot", "Genevan Psalter", "Joseph Gilfillan", "Book of Common Prayer (1559)", "Lutheran", "eucharistic adoration", "benefice", "Daniel Defoe", "English Civil War", "King James Version", "Winchester College", "Prayer Book Cross", "reserved sacrament", "cope", "Protestant", "The Oxford Guide to the Book of Common Prayer: A Worldwide Survey", "ja:主の祈り", "Scottish Episcopal Church", "Convocation of the English Clergy", "Alfonso Cuarón", "Roman Rite", "Methodist", "Sydney Anglicans", "A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years", "Cambridge University Press", "Unconditional election", "Colloquialism", "First Folio", "Metrical psalter", "supreme governor", "Richard Davies (bishop)", "Society of Archbishop Justus", "Historical kana orthography", "Mass in the Catholic Church", "rubric", "alb", "Devices and Desires", "Charles I of England", "John Baskerville", "vestment", "Stephen Gardiner", "plainchant", "Thomas Cranmer", "Millenary Petition", "communion wafer", "Anointing of the sick", "Divine Worship: Daily Office", "Edward VI", "Shakespeare", "Ernest Coxhead", "Catholic Church", "Anglican Church of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia", "Souterliedekens", "Anointing of the Sick", "Erfurt Enchiridion", "horizontal writing", "Anglican devotions", "Chinese language", "vertical writing", "dalmatic", "Christmas in the Philippines", "Liturgical year", "Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui", "Mountain Province", "Prayer Book Society of Canada", "Mozarabic Rite", "Classical Chinese", "personal ordinariate", "Evening Prayer (Anglican)", "Church of North India", "William Salesbury", "Mark Hiddesley", "Baptism", "Eucharist", "Requiem", "Walter Haddon", "propers", "Ritualism in the Church of England", "Sydney", "John Bunyan", "Henry VIII (play)", "New Testament", "St. Stephen's Parish, Manila", "plainsong", "Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham", "Holy Communion", "Anglican Communion", "Francis Drake", "Children of Men", "prayer for the dead", "Nones (liturgy)", "Exhortation and Litany", "Liturgical Movement", "John Knox", "Black Rubric", "Exhortation and Litany (1544)", "Misa de Gallo", "baptism", "Henry VIII", "Act of Supremacy", "Oliver Cromwell", "litanies", "Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary", "First Lutheran hymnal", "Old Testament", "Commonwealth of England", "Latin Church", "John Merbecke", "Hampton Court Conference", "Matthew Wren", "epistle", "Church of Bangladesh", "Church in Wales", "Romanisation of Japanese", "Thomas Sternhold", "General Convention of the Episcopal Church", "Divine Worship: The Missal", "Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter", "Revised Common Lectionary", "Authorized King James Version", "Richard Baxter", "A New History of the Book of Common Prayer", "World War II", "Anglican Church in Japan", "litany", "Tractarians", "Directory of Public Worship", "primer (prayer book)", "Marriage", "Epiclesis", "English Language", "English Reformation", "Thirty-nine Articles", "Whitsunday", "Bishops' Wars", "Ausbund", "Tracts for the Times", "John Cosin", "Scottish Prayer Book (1929)", "convocation", "Anglican Church of Korea", "William Makepeace Thackeray", "James II of England", "Episcopal Church of the United States", "Ignatius Press", "Minor exorcism in Christianity", "liturgy", "Book of Common Prayer (1845 illuminated version)", "priest", "parish", "Root and Branch", "Lord's Supper in Reformed theology", "Psalms" ]
4,955	Bokken	A bokken (, , 'wood', and ken, '(double-edged) sword') or bokutō (, , 'wood', and tō, '(single-edged) sword') is a Japanese wooden sword used for training in kenjutsu. It is usually the size and shape of a katana, but is sometimes shaped like other swords, such as the wakizashi and tantō. Some ornamental bokken are decorated with mother-of-pearl work and elaborate carvings. Sometimes, it is spelled "boken" in English. Bokken are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak, although any hardwood can be used. In comparison, practice swords made of flexible, soft wood such as bamboo are referred to as shinai. ==History== It is hard to determine precisely when the first bokken appeared due to secrecy in ancient martial arts training and loose record-keeping. While various mock weapons were surely used during the earlier periods of Japanese history, usage of bokken in their modern form first emerged during the Muromachi Period (1336–1600) for the training of samurai warriors in the various ryū (schools of martial arts and swordsmanship) of the era. If a steel katana is repeatedly used, it can easily become nicked and the edge flawed, potentially leading to a broken expensive sword. Bokken are safer than fighting with real swords, and are considerably more durable. A wielder can make contact with other trainee's swords with little fear of damage. While bokken are safer for sparring and practice than katana, they are still lethal weapons in the hands of trained users. A famous legend to this effect involves Miyamoto Musashi, a ronin known to fight fully armed foes with only one or two bokken. According to the story, he agreed to a duel with Sasaki Kojiro, in the early morning on Ganryūjima, a tiny sandbar between Kyushu and Honshu. Musashi overslept the morning of the duel, and made his way to the duel late. He carved a bokken from an oar with his knife while traveling on a boat to the duel. At the duel, Sasaki was armed with his large nodachi, yet Musashi crushed Sasaki's skull with a single blow from his bokken, killing him. While many elements of the story are likely apocryphal, the potential danger of a bokken from the legend is real. The "standard bokken", mostly used in kendo, iaido, and aikido, was created by master Aramaki Yasuo, in collaboration with the All Japan Kendo Federation in the 1950s and was the first standardized bokken ever created. ==Usage== The bokken is used as an inexpensive and relatively safe substitute for a real sword in several martial arts such as aikido, kendo, iaido, kenjutsu, and jodo. Its simple wooden construction demands less care and maintenance than a katana. Training with a bokken does not carry the same mortal risk associated with that of a sharp metal sword, both for the user and other practitioners nearby. While its use has several advantages over use of a live edged weapon, it can still be deadly, and any training with a bokken should be done with due care. Injuries occurring from bokken are very similar to those caused by clubs and similar battering weapons, and include compound fractures, ruptured organs, and other such blunt force injuries. In some ways, a bokken can be more dangerous, as the injuries caused are often unseen and inexperienced practitioners may underestimate the risk of harm. It is not a sparring weapon, but is intended to be used in kata, and to acclimate the student to the feel of a real sword. For sparring, a bamboo shinai is typically used instead, for obvious safety reasons. In 2003, the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) introduced a set of basic exercises using a bokutō called Bokutō Ni Yoru Kendō Kihon-waza Keiko-hō. This form of practice is intended primarily for kendo practitioners up to Nidan ranking, but can be beneficial for all kendo students. Suburitō (素振り刀) are bokken designed for use in suburi. Suburi (素振り), literally "bare swinging," are solo cutting exercises. Suburitō are thicker and heavier than normal bokken and users of suburitō must therefore develop both strength and technique. Their weight makes them unsuitable for paired practice and solo forms. Miyamoto Musashi's bokken made of an oar in his legendary duel with Sasaki Kojiro was presumably a suburitō-sized bokken. As late as 2015, bokken were issued to the Los Angeles Police Mounted Unit for use as batons. ==Types== Bokken can be made to represent any style of weapon required such as nagamaki, nodachi, yari, naginata, kama, etc. The most widely used styles are: daitō or tachi (katana-sized), long sword shōtō or kodachi or wakizashi bō (wakizashi-sized), short sword tantō bō (tantō-sized) suburitō can be made in daitō and shōtō sizes Various koryu (traditional Japanese martial arts) have their own distinct styles of bokken which can vary slightly in length, tip shape, or in whether or not a tsuba (hilt guard) is added. The All Japan Kendo Federation specify the dimensions of bokken for use in the modern kendo kata, called Nippon kendo kata. Tachi: Total length, approx. ; tsuka (handle) approx. . Kodachi: Total length, approx. ; tsuka (handle) approx. . Bokken are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak. White oak varieties are slightly more expensive and prestigious. Other common tree varieties used included ebony, biwa, and sunuke in Japan, and hickory, persimmon, ironwood, and walnut for trees native to the Americas. Biwa trees were used at least partially due to a folk superstition that wounds inflicted by biwa wood would never heal.	[ "Jō", "Aizuwakamatsu", "All Japan Kendo Federation", "Kodachi", "jodo", "kendo", "ironwood", "martial arts", "Ganryūjima", "bamboo", "Quercus myrsinifolia", "shinai", "Kinomichi", "oar", "iaido", "yari", "Loquat", "naginata", "Ryū (school)", "Distylium", "hickory", "nodachi", "persimmon", "Iaido", "kata", "kenjutsu", "Juglans", "Wayback Machine", "samurai", "waster", "wakizashi", "ronin", "Miyamoto Musashi", "Quercus acuta", "Byakkotai", "Battle of Aizu", "aikido", "Muromachi Period", "Kendo", "Waster", "katana", "nagamaki", "koryu", "Shōwa (1926–1989)", "Los Angeles Daily News", "Sasaki Kojirō", "suburi", "Miyakonojō", "tantō", "Aiki-ken", "Tachi", "ebony", "Suburitō", "Category:Japanese words and phrases", "kama (weapon)", "Dan (rank)" ]
4,957	BMI	BMI may refer to: ==Companies and organizations== BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated BMI Healthcare, UK BMI Film & TV Awards BMI Research, a research firm Flybmi airline, formerly BMI Regional and a BMI mainline subsidiary Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA Baltimore Museum of Industry Bank of Makati, a Philippine bank Bank Melli Iran, the first national Iranian bank Best Motoring International, a Japanese magazine Birmingham and Midland Institute, England Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency ==Other== Body mass index of weight in relation to height BMI Awards, annual award ceremonies for songwriters Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors Brain Machine Interface Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code Big Mac Index	[ "BMI Film & TV Awards", "Bank of Makati", "Bundesministerium des Innern", "British Midland International", "Bank Melli Iran", "BMI Foundation", "BMI Research", "Broadcast Music, Inc.", "Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets", "Flybmi", "Baltimore Museum of Industry", "Bureau of Military Information", "Best Motoring International", "Bmibaby", "Big Mac Index", "Body mass index", "BMI Awards", "Birmingham and Midland Institute", "Brain Machine Interface", "Central Illinois Regional Airport", "BMI Healthcare" ]
4,959	BSA	BSA may refer to: ==Businesses and organizations== Basketball South Africa Bearing Specialists Association, an American trade association Belarusian Socialist Assembly Bibliographical Society of America Birmingham Small Arms Company, UK manufacturer of firearms and vehicles Black Sky Aerospace, an Australian aerospace company Black Socialists in America Boston Society of Architects Botanical Society of America Boy Scouts of America Scouts BSA, the flagship program British Social Attitudes Survey British Sandwich & Food to Go Association British Science Association British Sociological Association British Speleological Association British Stammering Association Broadcasting Service Association, the former name of the Australian radio network Macquarie Media Broadcasting Standards Authority, a New Zealand statutory authority BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer BSA motorcycles, made by the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited The Software Alliance, a trade group established by Microsoft and formerly called Business Software Alliance BSA Manufacturing, a Malaysian manufacturer of aluminum alloy wheels Business Services Association, of UK service providers ===Schools=== Baltimore School for the Arts Birmingham School of Acting British School at Athens ==Science and medicine== Behavioral systems analysis Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide Body surface area Bovine serum albumin Broad-spectrum antiviral drug ==Other uses== Bank Secrecy Act, US Bilateral Security Agreement, US umbrella for military cooperation Bosnian Serb Army, the Army of Republika Srpska, the former armed forces of the Republika Srpska Bachelor of Science and Arts (BSA) Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA) Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (B.S.A.) Bosaso Airport, an airport in Puntland (IATA airport code BSA) British Soap Awards, an awards ceremony in the UK BSA, a brand of bicycles produced by Tube Investments of India Business systems analyst Blue Dragon Series Awards, an annual award ceremony in South Korea Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023, Indian evidence act	[ "Bosnian Serb Army", "BSA Company", "Bachelor of Arts and Science", "British Sociological Association", "Bearing Specialists Association", "BSA motorcycles", "Bosaso Airport", "British Soap Awards", "BSA Manufacturing", "British Science Association", "Software Alliance", "Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide", "Bovine serum albumin", "Birmingham Small Arms Company", "Business Services Association", "Boston Society of Architects", "Bank Secrecy Act", "Tube Investments of India", "Botanical Society of America", "Boy Scouts of America", "Bachelor of Accountancy", "British School at Athens", "British Social Attitudes Survey", "Behavioral systems analysis", "Basketball South Africa", "Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023", "British Stammering Association", "Black Socialists in America", "Blue Dragon Series Awards", "Belarusian Socialist Assembly", "Body surface area", "Black Sky Aerospace", "British Sandwich & Food to Go Association", "British Speleological Association", "Birmingham School of Acting", "Broadcasting Standards Authority", "Business systems analyst", "Broad-spectrum antiviral drug", "Bachelor of Science in Agriculture", "Bibliographical Society of America", "Bilateral Security Agreement", "Scouts BSA", "Baltimore School for the Arts", "Broadcasting Service Association" ]
4,960	Birmingham Small Arms Company	The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited (BSA) was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process. After the Second World War, BSA did not manage its business well, and a government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to a takeover of such operations as it still owned. Those few that survived this process disappeared into the ownership of other businesses. ==History of the BSA industrial group== ===Machine-made guns=== BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England. It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association specifically to manufacture guns by machinery. They were encouraged to do this by the War Office which gave the BSA gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and to the War Office's Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield. New machinery developed in the USA installed at Enfield had greatly increased its output without needing more skilled craftsmen. This new machinery brought to Birmingham the principle of the interchangeability of parts and mass production. BSA bought of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road. Their enterprise was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles. ====Erratic demand==== The first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, without work, the factory was shut for a year. ===New ventures=== ====Bicycles==== The next year, 1880, BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture. ====Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory==== In 1906, Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company. By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty. They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles. But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking. The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to purchase control of bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907. That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907. Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931. ====Motorcycles==== Motor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910. The BSA hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season. The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913. So in 1910, BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine. The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated. One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler. This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank. BSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources. BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season. In 1913, the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares. In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation. Dudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement. Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA–Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft. However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA–Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines. In 1913, Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well. =====Steel bodies===== In 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US. ====Lewis Automatic Machine Gun==== In 1913, BSA undertook to manufacture quick-firing machine guns for the Lewis Automatic Arms Company whose rights covered the world except for the American Continent. ===First World War=== During the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, bicycles, motorcycles and, through Daimler, aero engines, aircraft and other vehicles for the war effort as well as machine tools. Following the Armistice the BSA group was described by its chairman as: Three distinct legal entities: BSA guns, BSA (machine) tools and BSA cycles all at Sparkbrook, Smallheath and Redditch Daimler at Coventry William Jessop and Savilles the two steel-making companies in Sheffield Daimler Hire and Burton Griffiths in London ===New ventures=== ====Motorcycles==== In November 1919, BSA launched their first 50-degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season. The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one. Retail price was £130. Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork ====Aviation==== During the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month. In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes. Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed. Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator. Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited. BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses. Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways. As well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped. In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936. By the end of 1924 difficult economic conditions left the bulk of BSA profits coming from cars and cycles. There were no sales of arms for military purposes in spite of large new facilities built at Government's request. The shares in Pennsylvania's Jessop Steel Co were disposed of without loss. During 1928 there was a drastic reorganisation of the business of some BSA subsidiaries. By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA cycles and Daimler vehicles. Car production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s. BSA remained the largest manufacturer of motorcycles but the market was less than half the size of the late 1920s and production was unprofitable yet the value of BSA's motor cars and cycles was now more than half group turnover. ====Lanchester==== In 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works. The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18. Lanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg\|Lanchester 15/18, October 1931, 2504 cc 6-cylinder Lanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg\|Lanchester Ten, September 1932, 1203 cc 4-cylinder Daimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg\|Daimler Fifteen, September 1932, 1805 cc 6-cylinder BSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG\|BSA Ten, October 1932, 1185 cc 4-cylinder Economic conditions began to improve in the mid-1930s and BSA's activities and profits all grew sharply. International tensions added more activity. An aero engine shadow factory was built and entered production during 1938. Motor cycle sales shrank but BSA maintained its relative position. 1937's new British registrations fell from 57,000 to 46,500. Defence and military equipment including Daimler's Scout car were in heavy demand in Britain and in export markets. ====Armaments==== In the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty. In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király and the rights to manufacture it. Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre. It was estimated that it would only cost £5 each to manufacture: by comparison, the Thompson submachine guns bought after the start of hostilities cost around £50, while SMLE rifles and the later Sten submachine guns cost £7. 15s and £2. 10s respectively in 1943. However the trials did not lead to acceptance; referring to the complex trigger mechanism, Frank Hobart said "no soldier could have coped with this watchmaker's dream", ===Second World War=== By the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK. The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941. BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry (the main aircraft armament at the time) at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942. The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine. On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines. South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines. The Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production. A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour. The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment. The parlous state of affairs "no arms, no transport, no equipment" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940. The creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force. BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week. Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes. The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk. At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK. The BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life. Two further Blitz air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940. The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers. Since BSA was the sole producer of the main aircraft armament, the resulting delays in productions reportedly caused most worries to PM Churchill among all the industrial damage during the Blitz. Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers. Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal. Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production. The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months. The Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme. Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles. These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz. At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence. In 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use. This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over. Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II. BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division. In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture. BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply. BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944. During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces. This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier. BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board. The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time. 1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team. Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman. It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling. In 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it had established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens. Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and "King of the Mountains", 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st "Tiny" Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, "King of the Mountains" Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize. The team also competed in the 1,624-mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race. The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team. "Tiny" Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the "King of the Mountains" competition. Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship. 1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear. It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards. The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907. The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955 ====Management==== Sir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA Board removed him. In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld. Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, managing director from 1939 until his retirement. Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster. Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26, into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp. TI Group, owners of the British Cycle Corporation, bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand. Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company. In 1960, Daimler was sold to Jaguar. 1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and, in recognition of this milestone, the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of BSA Group News in June called BSA Centenary 1861–1961, in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated. This year also saw the end of military rifle production; however, BSA still continued to make sporting guns. ==Products== ===Bicycles=== According to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the "Delta" bicycle . In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the "Otto Dicycle". An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200. In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made. BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show. BSA went on to design and manufacture a "safety" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884). BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings. BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms. Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936. The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909. Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles. BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II. BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922. BSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles. The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well. BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton. BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the "Super-eeze". Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the "Opperman" model. A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the "Cyclo" 3 speed derailleur equipped "Clubman". Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with "Russ" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons. This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war. A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA "Streamlight" model. A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941. BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating. BSA bought Sunbeam in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits. The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949 Post war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials. The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II. BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub. The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success. BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam. It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the "Gold Column" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA "Tour of Britain" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race. The "Tour of Britain" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature. The factory made "Tour of Britain" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team. Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts. 1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings. The good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954. James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board. Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became chairman. The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957. ===Motorcycles=== BSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding BSA Motorcycles Ltd. The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906. The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the H.P. was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year. Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham "We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season .... These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery". The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles Various Martini action target .22lr rifles The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles Various bolt action hunting rifles ==Trademarks== Rights to the motorcycle brand went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by BSA Company. Rights to the guns brand were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary, BSA Guns (UK) Limited. == In popular culture == The Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) plays a prominent role in the inaugural season of the British crime drama series Peaky Blinders, as well as in subsequent seasons, where it serves as a focal point for armaments production, and as the day-to-day workplace of a number of characters. In the popular WW2 grand strategy game Hearts of Iron 4 you can select The Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) as a military company when producing infantry equipment.	[ "BSA Ten", "Jaguar Cars", "coaster brake", "Smethwick", "Dudley", "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)", "Airco", "Luftwaffe", "Royal Enfield", "Lanchester Motor Company", "George Holt Thomas", "sintered", "Raleigh Bicycle Company", "Associated Motor Cycles", "Kick start", "BSA M20", "Metro-Cammell", "BSA cars", ".22 Long Rifle", "Lewis gun", "Tyseley", "The Motor Cycle", "Second Battle of El Alamein", "Sunbeam Cycles", "machine tool", "Kynoch", "Board of Ordnance", "derailleur gear", "Lee–Metford", "Oerlikon 20mm cannon", "Mansfield", "firearm", "Air Ministry", "Sturmey-Archer", "Thompson submachine gun", "Nazi Germany", "Tipton", "Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939", "Air Raid Precautions", "Corsham", "Pál Király", "Amal (motorcycle)", "Raleigh (bicycle)", "Lee–Enfield", "Lye, West Midlands", "British Cycle Corporation", "Manganese Bronze Holdings", "Danuvia 43M submachine gun", "Tamworth, Staffordshire", "National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom", "Anthony Eden", "Special Operations Executive", "Sparkbrook", "9mm Mauser Export", "vehicle", "Birmingham", "John Dent Goodman", "motorcycle", "Coventry Blitz", "Hupmobile", "Churchill Machine Tool Company", "Stoke-on-Trent", "Imperial Chemical Industries", "Ruislip", "Raleigh Industries", "Sturmey Archer", "Hispano-Suiza HS.404", "safety bicycle", "Chief of the Imperial General Staff", "Gamo (airgun manufacturer)", "Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke", "Daimler Dingo", "Ministry of Supply", "Home Guard (United Kingdom)", "rifle", "Interchangeable parts", "Daimler Airway", "List of modern armament manufacturers", "Lanchester Eighteen 15/18", "ammunition", "Small Heath, Birmingham", "Enfield Town", "BSA Company", "Stanley Cycle Show", "ignition magneto", "BSA Welgun", "Welbike", "hand tool", "Public limited company", "Royal Small Arms Factory", "Stourport-on-Severn", "military", "Kidderminster", "Redditch", "Ordnance QF 2 pounder", "Ariel Motorcycles", "Freehub", "Airborne forces", "Besa machine gun", "V-twin engine", "Hubert Opperman", "folding bicycle", "Peaky Blinders (TV series)", "Patent Shaft", "Daimler Company", "Jessop Saville & Company", "Tour of Britain", "Daimler Light Twenty", "The Blitz", "Bromsgrove", "M1919 Browning machine gun", "Birmingham Blitz", "Gun Quarter", "George Medal", "TI Cycles of India", "Hallewell Rogers", "British Empire Medal", "Sten", "Bob Maitland", "Aircraft Transport and Travel", "bicycle", "BSA CF2", "Boys anti-tank rifle", "San Francisco, CA", "shell (projectile)", "Royal Ordnance Factory", "Imperial Airways", "Stafford", "Leicester", "Daimler Fifteen", "mass production", "Midland Bank", "Blackheath, West Midlands", "Solihull", "Jack Sangster", "Newcastle-under-Lyme", "power tool", "War Office", "Lanchester Ten", "Tube Investments", "Erwin Rommel", "Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick", "British shadow factories", "UK", "BSA Model E", "Lanchester 15/18", "Dunkirk evacuation", "Triumph Engineering Co Ltd", "Syd Cozens", "Bernard Docker", "RP-3", "Battle of Britain", "Dudley Docker" ]
4,961	Bovril	Bovril is a thick and salty meat extract paste, similar to a yeast extract, developed in the 1870s by John Lawson Johnston. It is sold in a distinctive bulbous jar and as cubes and granules. Its appearance is similar to the British Marmite and its Australian equivalent Vegemite. Bovril is owned and distributed by Unilever UK. Bovril can be made into a drink by diluting with hot water or, less commonly, with milk. It can be used as a flavouring for soups, broth, stews or porridge, or as a spread, especially on toast. In 2004 Unilever removed beef ingredients from the Bovril formula, rendering it vegetarian, but in 2006, reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to the formula. ==Etymology== The first part of the product's name comes from Latin , meaning "pertaining to an ox". Johnston took the -vril suffix from Edward Bulwer-Lytton's then-popular novel, The Coming Race (1871), the plot of which revolves around a superior race of people, the Vril-ya, who derive their powers from an electromagnetic substance named "Vril". Therefore, Bovril indicates great strength obtained from an ox. ==History== In 1870, in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III ordered one million cans of beef to feed his troops. The task of providing this went to John Lawson Johnston, a Scottish butcher living in Canada. By 1888, over 3,000 UK public houses, grocers and dispensing chemists were selling Bovril. In 1889, Bovril Ltd was formed to develop Johnston's business further. During the 1900 Siege of Ladysmith in the Second Boer War, a Bovril-like paste was produced from horsemeat within the garrison. Nicknamed Chevril (a portmanteau of cheval, French for horse, and Bovril) it was made by boiling down horse or mule meat to a jelly and serving it as a tea-like mixture. Bovril also produced concentrated, pemmican-like dried beef as part of the British Army emergency field ration during the war. The ration came in the form of a pocket-sized tin can that contained the beef on one half alongside a dried cocoa drink on another half. The dried beef could be eaten alone, or mixed with water to create a beef tea. Bovril continued to function as a "war food" in World War I and was frequently mentioned in the 1930 account Not So Quiet: Stepdaughters of War by Helen Zenna Smith. It describes the drink being prepared for the casualties at Mons where "the orderlies were just beginning to make Bovril for the wounded, when the bearers and ambulance wagons were shelled as they were bringing the wounded into the hospital". When John Lawson Johnston died, his son George Lawson Johnston inherited and took over the Bovril business. In 1929, George Lawson Johnston was made Baron Luke, of Pavenham, in the county of Bedford. Bovril's instant beef stock was launched in 1966 and its "King of Beef" range of instant flavours for stews, casseroles and gravy in 1971. In 1971, James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods acquired the Bovril Company but then sold most of its dairies and South American operations to finance further takeovers. The brand is now owned by the Anglo-Dutch multinational Unilever, which bought Bovril in 2001. In 2006, Unilever reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to their Bovril formula once sales increased and the beef export bans were lifted. Unilever now produces Bovril using beef extract and a chicken variety using chicken extract. In November 2020, Forest Green Rovers Football Club announced a collaboration with the makers of Bovril to create a beet-based version of Bovril to be sold at their New Lawn stadium, where meat-based products had been removed from sale some years prior. ==Licensed production== In South Africa Bovril is produced by the Bokomo division of Pioneer Foods. ==Cultural significance== Bovril was promoted as a superfood in the early 20th century. Advertisements recommended people to dilute it into a tea or spread it on their morning toast. Some adverts even claimed that Bovril could protect one from influenza. Since its invention, Bovril has become an icon of British culture. It is associated with football culture. During the winter, British football fans in stadium terraces drink it as a tea from Thermos flasks – or from disposable cups in Scotland, where thermoses are banned from football stadiums.Bovril holds the unusual distinction of having been advertised with a Pope. An advertising campaign of the early 20th century in Britain depicted Pope Leo XIII seated on his throne, bearing a mug of Bovril. The campaign slogan read: The Two Infallible Powers – The Pope & Bovril. Bovril beef tea was the only hot drink that Ernest Shackleton's team had when they were marooned on Elephant Island during the 1914–1917 Endurance Expedition. In the film In Which We Serve, the officers on the bridge are served "Bovril rather heavily laced with sherry" to warm them up, after being rescued during the Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force. British mountaineer Chris Bonington appeared in TV commercials for Bovril in the 1970s and 1980s in which he recalled melting snow and ice on the first ascent of Baintha Brakk (known as "The Ogre") to make hot drinks.	[ "Franco-Prussian War", "chocolate", "Cavenham Foods", "Chris Bonington", "Latin", "Siege of Ladysmith", "John Lawson Johnston", "George Lawson Johnston, 1st Baron Luke", "Beta vulgaris", "Elephant Island", "Liebig's Extract of Meat Company", "British Expeditionary Force (World War II)", "Bokomo", "South Africa", "The Coming Race", "Bovril boats", "field ration", "influenza", "James Goldsmith", "Pope", "Bonox", "Marmite", "World War I", "vegetarian", "Forest Green Rovers F.C.", "Ernest Shackleton", "South America", "meat extract", "Baintha Brakk", "dispensing chemist", "cultural icon", "culture of the United Kingdom", "Mons, Belgium", "In Which We Serve", "The New Lawn", "Bovril, Argentina", "Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition", "Helen Zenna Smith", "Portable soup", "yeast extract", "Oxo (food)", "superfood", "Thermos", "The Guardian", "Operation Dynamo", "bovine spongiform encephalopathy", "pemmican", "The Sydney Mail", "Baron Luke", "Pioneer Foods", "Vegemite", "disposable cup", "Second Boer War", "Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995", "mule", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Knowles Mill", "football culture", "The Scotsman", "Napoleon III", "boiling down", "vegetarianism", "Pope Leo XIII", "public house", "Vertebrate Publishing", "British Army", "Not So Quiet: Stepdaughters of War", "Unilever", "Edward Bulwer-Lytton" ]
4,963	Benjamin D. Santer	{{Infobox scientist \| name = Benjamin David Santer \| native_name = \| native_name_lang = \| image = File:Bensanter.jpg \| image_size = \| alt = \| caption = \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Washington, DC \| death_date = \| death_place = \| resting_place = \| resting_place_coordinates = \| other_names = \| residence = \| citizenship = \| nationality = American \| fields = Climatology \| workplaces = Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory \| patrons = \| alma_mater = University of East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit \| thesis_title = Regional validation of General Circulation Models \| thesis_url = https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59763672 \| thesis_year = 1987 \| doctoral_advisor = Tom Wigley He retired from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2021 and is now a Distinguished Scholar in Residence at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He also worked at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology from 1987 to 1992. He specializes mainly in statistical analysis of climate data sets, and detection/attribution of climate change forcings. Since 2012, Santer has been listed on the board of directors of the National Center for Science Education. ==Honors== Santer received a B.Sc. in Environmental Sciences and a 1987 Ph.D. in climatology from the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia. He has also received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award and a Distinguished Scientist Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Energy and the Norbert Gerbier/MUMM award from the World Meteorological Organization. In 2024 he received the Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Medal of the American Meteorological Society. In 2011, Santer was elected as a fellow of the American Geophysical Union and as a member of the National Academy of Sciences. == 1995 AR2 Chapter 8 == Santer was the convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report (AR2 WGI), which addressed the global warming issue. Santer and 40 other scientists responded to The Wall Street Journal that all IPCC procedural rules were followed, and that IPCC procedures required changes to the draft in response to comments from governments, individual scientists, and non-governmental organizations. They stated that the pre- and post-Madrid versions of Chapter 8 were equally cautious in their statements; that roughly 20% of Chapter 8 is devoted to the discussion of uncertainties in estimates of natural climate variability and the expected signal due to human activities; and that both versions of the chapter reached the same conclusion: "Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate." == Gold Standard Paper == On February 25, 2019, Santer et al. published the paper Celebrating the anniversary of three key events in climate change science in Nature Climate Change, claiming to have reached the 5-sigma "gold standard level" of statistical proof of human influence in global climate change using three sets of satellite data. ==References and notes==	[ "National Academy of Sciences", "Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution", "Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Medal", "Washington, DC", "statistical analysis", "U.S. Department of Energy", "John T. Houghton", "Science and Environmental Policy Project", "Tom Wigley", "Max Planck Institute for Meteorology", "Nature Climate Change", "Farmington Hills, Michigan", "Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award", "George C. Marshall Institute", "Global Climate Coalition", "Global warming", "Human impact on the environment", "National Center for Science Education", "The Wall Street Journal", "global warming", "University of East Anglia", "climate researcher", "Gale (Cengage)", "MacArthur Fellowship", "Thomson Corporation", "Fairfax County Public Library", "American Geophysical Union", "Climatic Research Unit", "Guardian Books", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change", "Climatology", "Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory", "World Meteorological Organization", "Fred Pearce", "Frederick Seitz" ]
4,964	Bernoulli number	In mathematics, the Bernoulli numbers are a sequence of rational numbers which occur frequently in analysis. The Bernoulli numbers appear in (and can be defined by) the Taylor series expansions of the tangent and hyperbolic tangent functions, in Faulhaber's formula for the sum of m-th powers of the first n positive integers, in the Euler–Maclaurin formula, and in expressions for certain values of the Riemann zeta function. The values of the first 20 Bernoulli numbers are given in the adjacent table. Two conventions are used in the literature, denoted here by B^{-{}}_n and B^{+{}}_n; they differ only for , where B^{-{}}_1=-1/2 and B^{+{}}_1=+1/2. For every odd , . For every even , is negative if is divisible by 4 and positive otherwise. The Bernoulli numbers are special values of the Bernoulli polynomials B_n(x), with B^{-{}}_n=B_n(0) and B^+_n=B_n(1). The Bernoulli numbers were discovered around the same time by the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli, after whom they are named, and independently by Japanese mathematician Seki Takakazu. Seki's discovery was posthumously published in 1712 in his work Katsuyō Sanpō; Bernoulli's, also posthumously, in his Ars Conjectandi of 1713. Ada Lovelace's note G on the Analytical Engine from 1842 describes an algorithm for generating Bernoulli numbers with Babbage's machine; it is disputed whether Lovelace or Babbage developed the algorithm. As a result, the Bernoulli numbers have the distinction of being the subject of the first published complex computer program. ==Notation== The superscript used in this article distinguishes the two sign conventions for Bernoulli numbers. Only the term is affected: with ( / ) is the sign convention prescribed by NIST and most modern textbooks. with ( / ) was used in the older literature, and (since 2022) by Donald Knuth following Peter Luschny's "Bernoulli Manifesto". In the formulas below, one can switch from one sign convention to the other with the relation B_n^{+}=(-1)^n B_n^{-}, or for integer = 2 or greater, simply ignore it. Since for all odd , and many formulas only involve even-index Bernoulli numbers, a few authors write "" instead of . This article does not follow that notation. ==History== === Early history === The Bernoulli numbers are rooted in the early history of the computation of sums of integer powers, which have been of interest to mathematicians since antiquity. Methods to calculate the sum of the first positive integers, the sum of the squares and of the cubes of the first positive integers were known, but there were no real 'formulas', only descriptions given entirely in words. Among the great mathematicians of antiquity to consider this problem were Pythagoras (c. 572–497 BCE, Greece), Archimedes (287–212 BCE, Italy), Aryabhata (b. 476, India), Abu Bakr al-Karaji (d. 1019, Persia) and Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965–1039, Iraq). During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries mathematicians made significant progress. In the West Thomas Harriot (1560–1621) of England, Johann Faulhaber (1580–1635) of Germany, Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) and fellow French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) all played important roles. Thomas Harriot seems to have been the first to derive and write formulas for sums of powers using symbolic notation, but even he calculated only up to the sum of the fourth powers. Johann Faulhaber gave formulas for sums of powers up to the 17th power in his 1631 Academia Algebrae, far higher than anyone before him, but he did not give a general formula. Blaise Pascal in 1654 proved Pascal's identity relating to the sums of the th powers of the first positive integers for . The Swiss mathematician Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) was the first to realize the existence of a single sequence of constants which provide a uniform formula for all sums of powers. The joy Bernoulli experienced when he hit upon the pattern needed to compute quickly and easily the coefficients of his formula for the sum of the th powers for any positive integer can be seen from his comment. He wrote: "With the help of this table, it took me less than half of a quarter of an hour to find that the tenth powers of the first 1000 numbers being added together will yield the sum 91,409,924,241,424,243,424,241,924,242,500." Bernoulli's result was published posthumously in Ars Conjectandi in 1713. Seki Takakazu independently discovered the Bernoulli numbers and his result was published a year earlier, also posthumously, in 1712. However, Seki did not present his method as a formula based on a sequence of constants. Bernoulli's formula for sums of powers is the most useful and generalizable formulation to date. The coefficients in Bernoulli's formula are now called Bernoulli numbers, following a suggestion of Abraham de Moivre. Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who found remarkable ways to calculate sum of powers but never stated Bernoulli's formula. According to Knuth a rigorous proof of Faulhaber's formula was first published by Carl Jacobi in 1834. Knuth's in-depth study of Faulhaber's formula concludes (the nonstandard notation on the LHS is explained further on): "Faulhaber never discovered the Bernoulli numbers; i.e., he never realized that a single sequence of constants ... would provide a uniform \sum n^m = \frac 1{m+1}\left( B_0n^{m+1}-\binom{m+1} 1 B_1 n^m+\binom{m+1} 2B_2n^{m-1}-\cdots +(-1)^m\binom{m+1}mB_mn\right) for all sums of powers. He never mentioned, for example, the fact that almost half of the coefficients turned out to be zero after he had converted his formulas for from polynomials in to polynomials in ." In the above Knuth meant B_1^-; instead using B_1^+ the formula avoids subtraction: \sum n^m = \frac 1{m+1}\left( B_0n^{m+1}+\binom{m+1} 1 B^+_1 n^m+\binom{m+1} 2B_2n^{m-1}+\cdots+\binom{m+1}mB_mn\right). === Reconstruction of "Summae Potestatum" === The Bernoulli numbers (n)/(n) were introduced by Jakob Bernoulli in the book Ars Conjectandi published posthumously in 1713 page 97. The main formula can be seen in the second half of the corresponding facsimile. The constant coefficients denoted , , and by Bernoulli are mapped to the notation which is now prevalent as , , , . The expression means – the small dots are used as grouping symbols. Using today's terminology these expressions are falling factorial powers . The factorial notation as a shortcut for was not introduced until 100 years later. The integral symbol on the left hand side goes back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675 who used it as a long letter for "summa" (sum). The letter on the left hand side is not an index of summation but gives the upper limit of the range of summation which is to be understood as . Putting things together, for positive , today a mathematician is likely to write Bernoulli's formula as: \sum_{k=1}^n k^c = \frac{n^{c+1}}{c+1}+\frac 1 2 n^c+\sum_{k=2}^c \frac{B_k}{k!} c^{\underline{k-1}}n^{c-k+1}. This formula suggests setting when switching from the so-called 'archaic' enumeration which uses only the even indices 2, 4, 6... to the modern form (more on different conventions in the next paragraph). Most striking in this context is the fact that the falling factorial has for the value . Thus Bernoulli's formula can be written \sum_{k=1}^n k^c = \sum_{k=0}^c \frac{B_k}{k!}c^{\underline{k-1}} n^{c-k+1} if , recapturing the value Bernoulli gave to the coefficient at that position. The formula for \textstyle \sum_{k=1}^n k^9 in the first half of the quotation by Bernoulli above contains an error at the last term; it should be -\tfrac {3}{20}n^2 instead of -\tfrac {1}{12}n^2. == Definitions == Many characterizations of the Bernoulli numbers have been found in the last 300 years, and each could be used to introduce these numbers. Here only four of the most useful ones are mentioned: a recursive equation, an explicit formula, a generating function, an integral expression. For the proof of the equivalence of the four approaches. === Recursive definition === The Bernoulli numbers obey the sum formulas \begin{align} \sum_{k=0}^{m}\binom {m+1} k B^{-{}}_k &= \delta_{m, 0} \\ \sum_{k=0}^{m}\binom {m+1} k B^{+{}}_k &= m+1 \end{align} where m=0,1,2... and denotes the Kronecker delta. The first of these is sometimes written as the formula (for m > 1) (B+1)^m-B_m=0, where the power is expanded formally using the binomial theorem and B^k is replaced by B_k. Solving for B^{\mp{}}_m gives the recursive formulas \begin{align} B_m^{-{}} &= \delta_{m, 0} - \sum_{k=0}^{m-1} \binom{m}{k} \frac{B^{-{}}_k}{m - k + 1} \\ B_m^+ &= 1 - \sum_{k=0}^{m-1} \binom{m}{k} \frac{B^+_k}{m - k + 1}. \end{align} === Explicit definition === In 1893 Louis Saalschütz listed a total of 38 explicit formulas for the Bernoulli numbers, usually giving some reference in the older literature. One of them is (for m\geq 1): \begin{align} B^-_m &= \sum_{k=0}^m \frac1{k+1} \sum_{j=0}^k \binom{k}{j} (-1)^j j^m \\ B^+_m &= \sum_{k=0}^m \frac1{k+1} \sum_{j=0}^k \binom{k}{j} (-1)^j (j + 1)^m. \end{align} === Generating function === The exponential generating functions are \begin{alignat}{3} \frac{t}{e^t - 1} &= \frac{t}{2} \left( \operatorname{coth} \frac{t}{2} -1 \right) &&= \sum_{m=0}^\infty \frac{B^{-{}}_m t^m}{m!}\\ \frac{te^t}{e^t - 1} = \frac{t}{1 - e^{-t}} &= \frac{t}{2} \left( \operatorname{coth} \frac{t}{2} +1 \right) &&= \sum_{m=0}^\infty \frac{B^+_m t^m}{m!}. \end{alignat} where the substitution is t \to - t. The two generating functions only differ by t. If we let F(t)=\sum_{i=1}^\infty f_it^i and G(t)=1/(1+F(t))=\sum_{i=0}^\infty g_it^i then G(t)=1-F(t)G(t). Then g_0=1 and for m>0 the m term in the series for G(t) is: g_mt^i=-\sum_{j=0}^{m-1}f_{m-j}g_jt^m If F(t)=\frac{e^t-1}t-1=\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{t^i}{(i+1)!} then we find that G(t)=t/(e^t-1) \begin{align} m!g_m&=-\sum_{j=0}^{m-1}\frac{m!}{j!}\frac{j!g_j}{(m-j+1)!}\\ &=-\frac 1{m+1}\sum_{j=0}^{m-1}\binom{m+1}jj!g_j\\ \end{align} showing that the values of i!g_i obey the recursive formula for the Bernoulli numbers B^-_i. The (ordinary) generating function z^{-1} \psi_1(z^{-1}) = \sum_{m=0}^{\infty} B^+_m z^m is an asymptotic series. It contains the trigamma function . === Integral Expression === From the generating functions above, one can obtain the following integral formula for the even Bernoulli numbers: B_{2n} = 4n (-1)^{n+1} \int_0^{\infty} \frac{t^{2n-1}}{e^{2 \pi t} -1 } \mathrm{d} t == Bernoulli numbers and the Riemann zeta function == The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function: for . Here the argument of the zeta function is 0 or negative. As \zeta(k) is zero for negative even integers (the trivial zeroes), if n>1 is odd, \zeta(1-n) is zero. By means of the zeta functional equation and the gamma reflection formula the following relation can be obtained: B_{2n} = \frac {(-1)^{n+1}2(2n)!} {(2\pi)^{2n}} \zeta(2n) \quad for . Now the argument of the zeta function is positive. It then follows from () and Stirling's formula that \|B_{2 n}\| \sim 4 \sqrt{\pi n} \left(\frac{n}{ \pi e} \right)^{2n} \quad for . == Efficient computation of Bernoulli numbers == In some applications it is useful to be able to compute the Bernoulli numbers through modulo , where is a prime; for example to test whether Vandiver's conjecture holds for , or even just to determine whether is an irregular prime. It is not feasible to carry out such a computation using the above recursive formulae, since at least (a constant multiple of) arithmetic operations would be required. Fortunately, faster methods have been developed which require only operations (see big notation). David Harvey describes an algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers by computing modulo for many small primes , and then reconstructing via the Chinese remainder theorem. Harvey writes that the asymptotic time complexity of this algorithm is and claims that this implementation is significantly faster than implementations based on other methods. Using this implementation Harvey computed for . Harvey's implementation has been included in SageMath since version 3.1. Prior to that, Bernd Kellner computed to full precision for in December 2002 and Oleksandr Pavlyk for with Mathematica in April 2008. * Digits is to be understood as the exponent of 10 when is written as a real number in normalized scientific notation. == Applications of the Bernoulli numbers == === Asymptotic analysis === Arguably the most important application of the Bernoulli numbers in mathematics is their use in the Euler–Maclaurin formula. Assuming that is a sufficiently often differentiable function the Euler–Maclaurin formula can be written as \sum_{k=a}^{b-1} f(k) = \int_a^b f(x)\,dx + \sum_{k=1}^m \frac{B^-_k}{k!} (f^{(k-1)}(b)-f^{(k-1)}(a))+R_-(f,m). This formulation assumes the convention . Using the convention the formula becomes \sum_{k=a+1}^{b} f(k) = \int_a^b f(x)\,dx + \sum_{k=1}^m \frac{B^+_k}{k!} (f^{(k-1)}(b)-f^{(k-1)}(a))+R_+(f,m). Here f^{(0)}=f (i.e. the zeroth-order derivative of f is just f). Moreover, let f^{(-1)} denote an antiderivative of f. By the fundamental theorem of calculus, \int_a^b f(x)\,dx = f^{(-1)}(b) - f^{(-1)}(a). Thus the last formula can be further simplified to the following succinct form of the Euler–Maclaurin formula \sum_{k=a+1}^{b} f(k)= \sum_{k=0}^m \frac{B_k}{k!} (f^{(k-1)}(b)-f^{(k-1)}(a))+R(f,m). This form is for example the source for the important Euler–Maclaurin expansion of the zeta function \begin{align} \zeta(s) & =\sum_{k=0}^m \frac{B^+_k}{k!} s^{\overline{k-1}} + R(s,m) \\ & = \frac{B_0}{0!}s^{\overline{-1}} + \frac{B^+_1}{1!} s^{\overline{0}} + \frac{B_2}{2!} s^{\overline{1}} +\cdots+R(s,m) \\ & = \frac{1}{s-1} + \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{12}s + \cdots + R(s,m). \end{align} Here denotes the rising factorial power. Bernoulli numbers are also frequently used in other kinds of asymptotic expansions. The following example is the classical Poincaré-type asymptotic expansion of the digamma function . \psi(z) \sim \ln z - \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{B^+_k}{k z^k} === Sum of powers === Bernoulli numbers feature prominently in the closed form expression of the sum of the th powers of the first positive integers. For define S_m(n) = \sum_{k=1}^n k^m = 1^m + 2^m + \cdots + n^m. This expression can always be rewritten as a polynomial in of degree . The coefficients of these polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by Bernoulli's formula: S_m(n) = \frac{1}{m + 1} \sum_{k=0}^m \binom{m + 1}{k} B^+_k n^{m + 1 - k} = m! \sum_{k=0}^m \frac{B^+_k n^{m + 1 - k}}{k! (m+1-k)!} , where denotes the binomial coefficient. For example, taking to be 1 gives the triangular numbers . 1 + 2 + \cdots + n = \frac{1}{2} (B_0 n^2 + 2 B^+_1 n^1) = \tfrac12 (n^2 + n). Taking to be 2 gives the square pyramidal numbers . 1^2 + 2^2 + \cdots + n^2 = \frac{1}{3} (B_0 n^3 + 3 B^+_1 n^2 + 3 B_2 n^1) = \tfrac13 \left(n^3 + \tfrac32 n^2 + \tfrac12 n\right). Some authors use the alternate convention for Bernoulli numbers and state Bernoulli's formula in this way: S_m(n) = \frac{1}{m + 1} \sum_{k=0}^m (-1)^k \binom{m + 1}{k} B^{-{}}_k n^{m + 1 - k}. Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who also found remarkable ways to calculate sums of powers. Faulhaber's formula was generalized by V. Guo and J. Zeng to a -analog. ===Taylor series=== The Bernoulli numbers appear in the Taylor series expansion of many trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions. \begin{align} \tan x &= \hphantom \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n-1} 2^{2n} (2^{2n}-1) B_{2n} }{(2n)!}\; x^{2n-1}, && \left\|x \right\| < \frac \pi 2. \\ \cot x &= {1\over x} \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n B_{2n} (2x)^{2n}}{(2n)!}, & 0 < & \|x\| < \pi. \\ \tanh x &= \hphantom \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{2^{2n}(2^{2n}-1)B_{2n}}{(2n)!}\;x^{2n-1}, && \|x\| < \frac \pi 2. \\ \coth x &= {1\over x} \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{B_{2n} (2x)^{2n}}{(2n)!}, & 0 < & \|x\| < \pi. \end{align} ===Laurent series=== The Bernoulli numbers appear in the following Laurent series: Digamma function: \psi(z)= \ln z- \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac {B_k^{+{}}} {k z^k} === Use in topology === The Kervaire–Milnor formula for the order of the cyclic group of diffeomorphism classes of exotic -spheres which bound parallelizable manifolds involves Bernoulli numbers. Let be the number of such exotic spheres for , then \textit{ES}_n = (2^{2n-2}-2^{4n-3}) \operatorname{Numerator}\left(\frac{B_{4n}}{4n} \right) . The Hirzebruch signature theorem for the genus of a smooth oriented closed manifold of dimension 4n also involves Bernoulli numbers. == Connections with combinatorial numbers == The connection of the Bernoulli number to various kinds of combinatorial numbers is based on the classical theory of finite differences and on the combinatorial interpretation of the Bernoulli numbers as an instance of a fundamental combinatorial principle, the inclusion–exclusion principle. === Connection with Worpitzky numbers === The definition to proceed with was developed by Julius Worpitzky in 1883. Besides elementary arithmetic only the factorial function and the power function is employed. The signless Worpitzky numbers are defined as W_{n,k}=\sum_{v=0}^k (-1)^{v+k} (v+1)^n \frac{k!}{v!(k-v)!} . They can also be expressed through the Stirling numbers of the second kind W_{n,k}=k! \left\{ {n+1\atop k+1} \right\}. A Bernoulli number is then introduced as an inclusion–exclusion sum of Worpitzky numbers weighted by the harmonic sequence 1, , , ... B_{n}=\sum_{k=0}^n (-1)^k \frac{W_{n,k}}{k+1}\ =\ \sum_{k=0}^n \frac{1}{k+1} \sum_{v=0}^k (-1)^v (v+1)^n {k \choose v}\ . This representation has . Consider the sequence , . From Worpitzky's numbers , applied to is identical to the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind). This can be seen via the table: The first row represents . Hence for the second fractional Euler numbers () / (): A second formula representing the Bernoulli numbers by the Worpitzky numbers is for B_n=\frac n {2^{n+1}-2}\sum_{k=0}^{n-1} (-2)^{-k}\, W_{n-1,k} . The simplified second Worpitzky's representation of the second Bernoulli numbers is: () / () = × () / () which links the second Bernoulli numbers to the second fractional Euler numbers. The beginning is: The numerators of the first parentheses are (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind). === Connection with Stirling numbers of the second kind === If one defines the Bernoulli polynomials as: B_k(j)=k\sum_{m=0}^{k-1}\binom{j}{m+1}S(k-1,m)m!+B_k where for are the Bernoulli numbers, and is a Stirling number of the second kind. One also has the following for Bernoulli polynomials, B_k(j)=\sum_{n=0}^k \binom{k}{n} B_n j^{k-n}. The coefficient of in is . Comparing the coefficient of in the two expressions of Bernoulli polynomials, one has: B_k=\sum_{m=0}^{k-1} (-1)^m \frac{m!}{m+1} S(k-1,m) (resulting in ) which is an explicit formula for Bernoulli numbers and can be used to prove Von-Staudt Clausen theorem. === Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind === The two main formulas relating the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind to the Bernoulli numbers (with ) are \frac{1}{m!}\sum_{k=0}^m (-1)^{k} \left[{m+1\atop k+1}\right] B_k = \frac{1}{m+1}, and the inversion of this sum (for , ) \frac{1}{m!}\sum_{k=0}^m (-1)^k \left[{m+1\atop k+1}\right] B_{n+k} = A_{n,m}. Here the number are the rational Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers, the first few of which are displayed in the following table. The Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers satisfy a simple recurrence relation which can be exploited to iteratively compute the Bernoulli numbers. This leads to the algorithm shown in the section 'algorithmic description' above. See /. An autosequence is a sequence which has its inverse binomial transform equal to the signed sequence. If the main diagonal is zeroes = , the autosequence is of the first kind. Example: , the Fibonacci numbers. If the main diagonal is the first upper diagonal multiplied by 2, it is of the second kind. Example: /, the second Bernoulli numbers (see ). The Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to = 1/ leads to (n) / (n + 1). Hence: See and . () / () are the second (fractional) Euler numbers and an autosequence of the second kind. ( = ) × ( = ) = = . Also valuable for / (see Connection with Worpitzky numbers). ===Connection with Pascal's triangle=== There are formulas connecting Pascal's triangle to Bernoulli numbers B^{+}_n=\frac{(n+1)!}~~~ where \|A_n\| is the determinant of a n-by-n Hessenberg matrix part of Pascal's triangle whose elements are: a_{i, k} = \begin{cases} 0 & \text{if } k>1+i \\ {i+1 \choose k-1} & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} Example: B^{+}_6 =\frac{\det\begin{pmatrix} 1& 2& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 3& 3& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 4& 6& 4& 0& 0\\ 1& 5& 10& 10& 5& 0\\ 1& 6& 15& 20& 15& 6\\ 1& 7& 21& 35& 35& 21 \end{pmatrix}}{7!}=\frac{120}{5040}=\frac 1 {42} === Connection with Eulerian numbers === There are formulas connecting Eulerian numbers to Bernoulli numbers: \begin{align} \sum_{m=0}^n (-1)^m \left \langle {n\atop m} \right \rangle &= 2^{n+1} (2^{n+1}-1) \frac{B_{n+1}}{n+1}, \\ \sum_{m=0}^n (-1)^m \left \langle {n\atop m} \right \rangle \binom{n}{m}^{-1} &= (n+1) B_n. \end{align} Both formulae are valid for if is set to . If is set to − they are valid only for and respectively. ==A binary tree representation== The Stirling polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by . S. C. Woon described an algorithm to compute as a binary tree: Woon's recursive algorithm (for ) starts by assigning to the root node . Given a node of the tree, the left child of the node is and the right child . A node is written as in the initial part of the tree represented above with ± denoting the sign of . Given a node the factorial of is defined as N! = a_1 \prod_{k=2}^{\operatorname{length}(N)} a_k!. Restricted to the nodes of a fixed tree-level the sum of is , thus B_n = \sum_\stackrel{N \text{ node of}}{\text{ tree-level } n} \frac{n!}{N!}. For example: ==Integral representation and continuation== The integral b(s) = 2e^{s i \pi/2}\int_0^\infty \frac{st^s}{1-e^{2\pi t}} \frac{dt}{t} = \frac{s!}{2^{s-1}}\frac{\zeta(s)}(-i)^s= \frac{2s!\zeta(s)}{(2\pi i)^s} has as special values for . For example, and . Here, is the Riemann zeta function, and is the imaginary unit. Leonhard Euler (Opera Omnia, Ser. 1, Vol. 10, p. 351) considered these numbers and calculated \begin{align} p &= \frac{3}{2\pi^3}\left(1+\frac{1}{2^3}+\frac{1}{3^3}+\cdots \right) = 0.0581522\ldots \\ q &= \frac{15}{2\pi^5}\left(1+\frac{1}{2^5}+\frac{1}{3^5}+\cdots \right) = 0.0254132\ldots \end{align} Another similar integral representation is b(s) = -\frac{e^{s i \pi/2}}{2^{s}-1}\int_0^\infty \frac{st^{s}}{\sinh\pi t} \frac{dt}{t}= \frac{2e^{s i \pi/2}}{2^{s}-1}\int_0^\infty \frac{e^{\pi t}st^s}{1-e^{2\pi t}} \frac{dt}{t}. ==The relation to the Euler numbers and == The Euler numbers are a sequence of integers intimately connected with the Bernoulli numbers. Comparing the asymptotic expansions of the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers shows that the Euler numbers are in magnitude approximately times larger than the Bernoulli numbers . In consequence: \pi \sim 2 (2^{2n} - 4^{2n}) \frac{B_{2n}}{E_{2n}}. This asymptotic equation reveals that lies in the common root of both the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers. In fact could be computed from these rational approximations. Bernoulli numbers can be expressed through the Euler numbers and vice versa. Since, for odd , (with the exception ), it suffices to consider the case when is even. \begin{align} B_n &= \sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\binom{n-1}{k} \frac{n}{4^n-2^n}E_k & n&=2, 4, 6, \ldots \\[6pt] E_n &= \sum_{k=1}^n \binom{n}{k-1} \frac{2^k-4^k}{k} B_k & n&=2,4,6,\ldots \end{align} These conversion formulas express a connection between the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers. But more important, there is a deep arithmetic root common to both kinds of numbers, which can be expressed through a more fundamental sequence of numbers, also closely tied to . These numbers are defined for as S_n = 2 \left(\frac{2}{\pi}\right)^n \sum_{k = 0}^\infty \frac{ (-1)^{kn} }{(2k+1)^n} = 2 \left(\frac{2}{\pi}\right)^n \lim_{K\to \infty} \sum_{k = -K}^K (4k+1)^{-n}. The magic of these numbers lies in the fact that they turn out to be rational numbers. This was first proved by Leonhard Euler in a landmark paper De summis serierum reciprocarum (On the sums of series of reciprocals) and has fascinated mathematicians ever since. The first few of these numbers are S_n = 1,1,\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{3},\frac{5}{24}, \frac{2}{15},\frac{61}{720},\frac{17}{315},\frac{277}{8064},\frac{62}{2835},\ldots ( / ) These are the coefficients in the expansion of . The Bernoulli numbers and Euler numbers can be understood as special views of these numbers, selected from the sequence and scaled for use in special applications. \begin{align} B_{n} &= (-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [ n \text{ even}] \frac{n! }{2^n - 4^n}\, S_{n}\ , & n&= 2, 3, \ldots \\ E_n &= (-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [ n \text{ even}] n! \, S_{n+1} & n &= 0, 1, \ldots \end{align} The expression [ even] has the value 1 if is even and 0 otherwise (Iverson bracket). These identities show that the quotient of Bernoulli and Euler numbers at the beginning of this section is just the special case of when is even. The are rational approximations to and two successive terms always enclose the true value of . Beginning with the sequence starts ( / ): 2, 4, 3, \frac{16}{5}, \frac{25}{8}, \frac{192}{61}, \frac{427}{136}, \frac{4352}{1385}, \frac{12465}{3968}, \frac{158720}{50521},\ldots \quad \longrightarrow \pi. These rational numbers also appear in the last paragraph of Euler's paper cited above. Consider the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform for the sequence () / (): From the second, the numerators of the first column are the denominators of Euler's formula. The first column is − × . ==An algorithmic view: the Seidel triangle== The sequence Sn has another unexpected yet important property: The denominators of Sn+1 divide the factorial . In other words: the numbers , sometimes called Euler zigzag numbers, are integers. T_n = 1,\,1,\,1,\,2,\,5,\,16,\,61,\,272,\,1385,\,7936,\,50521,\,353792,\ldots \quad n=0, 1, 2, 3, \ldots (). See (). Their exponential generating function is the sum of the secant and tangent functions. \sum_{n=0}^\infty T_n \frac{x^n}{n!} = \tan \left(\frac\pi4 + \frac x2\right) = \sec x + \tan x. Thus the above representations of the Bernoulli and Euler numbers can be rewritten in terms of this sequence as \begin{align} B_n &= (-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [n\text{ even}] \frac{n }{2^n-4^n}\, T_{n-1}\ & n &\geq 2 \\ E_n &= (-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [n\text{ even}] T_{n} & n &\geq 0 \end{align} These identities make it easy to compute the Bernoulli and Euler numbers: the Euler numbers are given immediately by and the Bernoulli numbers are fractions obtained from by some easy shifting, avoiding rational arithmetic. What remains is to find a convenient way to compute the numbers . However, already in 1877 Philipp Ludwig von Seidel published an ingenious algorithm, which makes it simple to calculate . Start by putting 1 in row 0 and let denote the number of the row currently being filled If is odd, then put the number on the left end of the row in the first position of the row , and fill the row from the left to the right, with every entry being the sum of the number to the left and the number to the upper At the end of the row duplicate the last number. If is even, proceed similar in the other direction. Seidel's algorithm is in fact much more general (see the exposition of Dominique Dumont ) and was rediscovered several times thereafter. Similar to Seidel's approach D. E. Knuth and T. J. Buckholtz gave a recurrence equation for the numbers and recommended this method for computing and 'on electronic computers using only simple operations on integers'. V. I. Arnold rediscovered Seidel's algorithm and later Millar, Sloane and Young popularized Seidel's algorithm under the name boustrophedon transform. Triangular form: Only , with one 1, and , with two 1s, are in the OEIS. Distribution with a supplementary 1 and one 0 in the following rows: This is , a signed version of . The main andiagonal is . The main diagonal is . The central column is . Row sums: 1, 1, −2, −5, 16, 61.... See . See the array beginning with 1, 1, 0, −2, 0, 16, 0 below. The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () yields: 1. The first column is . Its binomial transform leads to: The first row of this array is . The absolute values of the increasing antidiagonals are . The sum of the antidiagonals is 2. The second column is . Its binomial transform yields: The first row of this array is . The absolute values of the second bisection are the double of the absolute values of the first bisection. Consider the Akiyama-Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / ( () = abs( ()) + 1 = . The first column whose the absolute values are could be the numerator of a trigonometric function. is an autosequence of the first kind (the main diagonal is ). The corresponding array is: The first two upper diagonals are = × . The sum of the antidiagonals is = 2 × (n + 1). − is an autosequence of the second kind, like for instance / . Hence the array: The main diagonal, here , is the double of the first upper one, here . The sum of the antidiagonals is = 2 × (1). − = 2 × . ==A combinatorial view: alternating permutations== Around 1880, three years after the publication of Seidel's algorithm, Désiré André proved a now classic result of combinatorial analysis. Looking at the first terms of the Taylor expansion of the trigonometric functions and André made a startling discovery. \begin{align} \tan x &= x + \frac{2x^3}{3!} + \frac{16x^5}{5!} + \frac{272x^7}{7!} + \frac{7936x^9}{9!} + \cdots\\[6pt] \sec x &= 1 + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{5x^4}{4!} + \frac{61x^6}{6!} + \frac{1385x^8}{8!} + \frac{50521x^{10}}{10!} + \cdots \end{align} The coefficients are the Euler numbers of odd and even index, respectively. In consequence the ordinary expansion of has as coefficients the rational numbers . \tan x + \sec x = 1 + x + \tfrac{1}{2}x^2 + \tfrac{1}{3}x^3 + \tfrac{5}{24}x^4 + \tfrac{2}{15}x^5 + \tfrac{61}{720}x^6 + \cdots André then succeeded by means of a recurrence argument to show that the alternating permutations of odd size are enumerated by the Euler numbers of odd index (also called tangent numbers) and the alternating permutations of even size by the Euler numbers of even index (also called secant numbers). ==Related sequences== The arithmetic mean of the first and the second Bernoulli numbers are the associate Bernoulli numbers: , , , , , / . Via the second row of its inverse Akiyama–Tanigawa transform , they lead to Balmer series / . The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () leads to the Bernoulli numbers / , / , or without , named intrinsic Bernoulli numbers . Hence another link between the intrinsic Bernoulli numbers and the Balmer series via (). () = 0, 2, 1, 6,... is a permutation of the non-negative numbers. The terms of the first row are f(n) = . 2, f(n) is an autosequence of the second kind. 3/2, f(n) leads by its inverse binomial transform to 3/2 −1/2 1/3 −1/4 1/5 ... = 1/2 + log 2. Consider g(n) = 1/2 – 1 / (n+2) = 0, 1/6, 1/4, 3/10, 1/3. The Akiyama-Tanagiwa transforms gives: 0, g(n), is an autosequence of the second kind. Euler () / () without the second term () are the fractional intrinsic Euler numbers The corresponding Akiyama transform is: The first line is . preceded by a zero is an autosequence of the first kind. It is linked to the Oresme numbers. The numerators of the second line are preceded by 0. The difference table is: ==Arithmetical properties of the Bernoulli numbers== The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function as for integers provided for the expression is understood as the limiting value and the convention is used. This intimately relates them to the values of the zeta function at negative integers. As such, they could be expected to have and do have deep arithmetical properties. For example, the Agoh–Giuga conjecture postulates that is a prime number if and only if is congruent to −1 modulo . Divisibility properties of the Bernoulli numbers are related to the ideal class groups of cyclotomic fields by a theorem of Kummer and its strengthening in the Herbrand-Ribet theorem, and to class numbers of real quadratic fields by Ankeny–Artin–Chowla. === The Kummer theorems === The Bernoulli numbers are related to Fermat's Last Theorem (FLT) by Kummer's theorem, which says: If the odd prime does not divide any of the numerators of the Bernoulli numbers then has no solutions in nonzero integers. Prime numbers with this property are called regular primes. Another classical result of Kummer are the following congruences. Let be an odd prime and an even number such that does not divide . Then for any non-negative integer \frac{B_{k(p-1)+b}}{k(p-1)+b} \equiv \frac{B_{b}}{b} \pmod{p}. A generalization of these congruences goes by the name of -adic continuity. ===-adic continuity=== If , and are positive integers such that and are not divisible by and , then (1-p^{m-1})\frac{B_m}{m} \equiv (1-p^{n-1})\frac{B_n} n \pmod{p^b}. Since , this can also be written \left(1-p^{-u}\right)\zeta(u) \equiv \left(1-p^{-v}\right)\zeta(v) \pmod{p^b}, where and , so that and are nonpositive and not congruent to 1 modulo . This tells us that the Riemann zeta function, with taken out of the Euler product formula, is continuous in the -adic numbers on odd negative integers congruent modulo to a particular , and so can be extended to a continuous function for all -adic integers \mathbb{Z}_p, the -adic zeta function. === Ramanujan's congruences === The following relations, due to Ramanujan, provide a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers that is more efficient than the one given by their original recursive definition: \binom{m+3}{m} B_m=\begin{cases} \frac{m+3}{3}-\sum\limits_{j=1}^\frac{m}{6}\binom{m+3}{m-6j}B_{m-6j}, & \text{if } m\equiv 0\pmod 6;\\ \frac{m+3}{3}-\sum\limits_{j=1}^\frac{m-2}{6}\binom{m+3}{m-6j}B_{m-6j}, & \text{if } m\equiv 2\pmod 6;\\ -\frac{m+3}{6}-\sum\limits_{j=1}^\frac{m-4}{6}\binom{m+3}{m-6j}B_{m-6j}, & \text{if } m\equiv 4\pmod 6.\end{cases} === Von Staudt–Clausen theorem === The von Staudt–Clausen theorem was given by Karl Georg Christian von Staudt and Thomas Clausen independently in 1840. The theorem states that for every , B_{2n} + \sum_{(p-1)\,\mid\,2n} \frac1p is an integer. The sum extends over all primes for which divides . A consequence of this is that the denominator of is given by the product of all primes for which divides . In particular, these denominators are square-free and divisible by 6. === Why do the odd Bernoulli numbers vanish? === The sum \varphi_k(n) = \sum_{i=0}^n i^k - \frac{n^k} 2 can be evaluated for negative values of the index . Doing so will show that it is an odd function for even values of , which implies that the sum has only terms of odd index. This and the formula for the Bernoulli sum imply that is 0 for even and ; and that the term for is cancelled by the subtraction. The von Staudt–Clausen theorem combined with Worpitzky's representation also gives a combinatorial answer to this question (valid for n > 1). From the von Staudt–Clausen theorem it is known that for odd the number is an integer. This seems trivial if one knows beforehand that the integer in question is zero. However, by applying Worpitzky's representation one gets 2B_n =\sum_{m=0}^n (-1)^m \frac{2}{m+1}m! \left\ x^{k}}{(2\pi)^{2k}\left(\frac{B_{2k}}{2k}\right)} = 2\sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{k^{\overline{k}}x^k}{(2\pi)^{2k}\beta_{2k}}. denotes the rising factorial power in the notation of D. E. Knuth. The numbers occur frequently in the study of the zeta function and are significant because is a -integer for primes where does not divide . The are called divided Bernoulli numbers. ==Generalized Bernoulli numbers== The generalized Bernoulli numbers are certain algebraic numbers, defined similarly to the Bernoulli numbers, that are related to special values of Dirichlet -functions in the same way that Bernoulli numbers are related to special values of the Riemann zeta function. Let be a Dirichlet character modulo . The generalized Bernoulli numbers attached to are defined by \sum_{a=1}^f \chi(a) \frac{te^{at}}{e^{ft}-1} = \sum_{k=0}^\infty B_{k,\chi}\frac{t^k}{k!}. Apart from the exceptional , we have, for any Dirichlet character , that if . Generalizing the relation between Bernoulli numbers and values of the Riemann zeta function at non-positive integers, one has the for all integers : L(1-k,\chi)=-\frac{B_{k,\chi}}k, where is the Dirichlet -function of . ===Eisenstein–Kronecker number=== Eisenstein–Kronecker numbers are an analogue of the generalized Bernoulli numbers for imaginary quadratic fields. They are related to critical L-values of Hecke characters.	[ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz", "Laurent series", "fundamental theorem of calculus", "Hurwitz zeta function", "hyperbolic function", "generating function", "Genocchi number", "Stirling numbers of the first kind", "Chinese remainder theorem", "uniform distribution (continuous)", "Project Gutenberg", "Poly-Bernoulli number", "implementation", "sums of powers", "Pythagoras", "Leopold Kronecker", "Herbrand-Ribet theorem", "Philipp Ludwig von Seidel", "harmonic number", "irregular prime", "Kronecker delta", "Kummer's congruences", "odd function", "Pascal's triangle", "Mathematica", "Désiré André", "Umbral calculus", "probability distribution", "Sums of powers", "trigonometric functions", "Abraham de Moivre", "closed manifold", "digamma function", "inclusion–exclusion principle", "Stirling formula", "integral", "Ada Lovelace", "square-free", "sequence", "Vandiver's conjecture", "Special values of L-functions", "Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind", "note G", "Thomas Clausen (mathematician)", "Karl Georg Christian von Staudt", "Dirichlet character", "Hyperbolic function", "Riesz function", "cumulant", "Ernst Kummer", "Aryabhata", "Leonhard Euler", "p-adic number", "Archimedes", "Eisenstein–Kronecker number", "Zagier", "Gamma function", "Hecke character", "parallelizable manifold", "Von Staudt–Clausen theorem", "Bernoulli polynomial", "Duke Mathematical Journal", "literateprograms:Category:Bernoulli numbers", "square pyramidal number", "boustrophedon transform", "Agoh–Giuga conjecture", "asymptotic expansion", "trigamma function", "Ramanujan", "Modular arithmetic", "Euler summation", "Ankeny–Artin–Chowla congruence", "imaginary unit", "falling factorial", "Taylor series", "Riemann hypothesis", "computer program", "dimension", "Asymptotic analysis", "Seki Takakazu", "Fermat's Last Theorem", "exotic sphere", "algorithm", "Marcel Riesz", "algebraic number", "Abu Bakr al-Karaji", "Riemann zeta function", "Euler number", "binomial coefficient", "Iverson bracket", "Louis Saalschütz", "Smooth manifold", "Mathematical analysis", "antiderivative", "tangent (trigonometry)", "tangent function", "Bernoulli umbra", "Charles Babbage", "Computational complexity theory", "asymptotic series", "Harmonic progression (mathematics)", "coefficient", "Kervaire–Milnor formula", "cyclotomic field", "Ars Conjectandi", "Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi", "Rahul Pandharipande", "polynomial", "triangular number", "Digamma function", "Alternating permutations", "rational number", "Yuri Matiyasevich", "summation", "gutenberg:2586", "Bernoulli polynomials", "big-O notation", "Faulhaber's formula", "q-analog", "alternating permutation", "Thomas Harriot", "Pierre de Fermat", "p-adic zeta function", "prime number", "Dirichlet L-function", "exponential generating function", "Analytical Engine", "Fibonacci Quarterly", "Euler–Maclaurin formula", "D. E. Knuth", "Stirling numbers of the second kind", "Blaise Pascal", "Jacob Bernoulli", "scientific notation", "Hirzebruch signature theorem", "imaginary quadratic field", "Orientability", "al-Haytham", "Donald Knuth", "Closed-form expression", "SageMath", "Johann Faulhaber", "Eulerian number", "Logical equivalence", "Stirling polynomial", "Pochhammer symbol", "ideal class group", "Bell number", "NIST", "Hessenberg matrix", "regular prime", "S. Plouffe", "mathematics" ]
4,965	Bubble Bobble (video game)	is a 1986 platform game developed and published by Taito for arcades. It was distributed in the United States by Romstar, and in Europe by Electrocoin. Players control Bub and Bob, two dragons that set out to save their girlfriends from a world known as the Cave of Monsters. In each level, Bub and Bob must defeat each enemy present by trapping them in bubbles and popping, who turn into bonus items when they hit the ground. There are 100 levels total, each becoming progressively more difficult. Bubble Bobble was designed by Fukio "MTJ" Mitsuji. When he joined Taito in 1986, he felt that Taito's game output was of mediocre quality. In response, he decided to make a game that was fun to play and could rejuvenate the company's presence in the industry. Mitsuji hoped his game would appeal to women, specifically couples that visited arcades. As such, he decided to make Bubble Bobble focus largely on its two player co-operative mode. He made bubbles the core mechanic as he thought they would be a fun element that girls would enjoy. Bubble Bobble became one of Taito's biggest arcade successes, and is credited with inspiring the creation of many similar screen-clear platform games that followed. It was acclaimed by critics for its character design, memorable soundtrack, gameplay, and multiplayer, and is often listed among the greatest games of all time. Bubble Bobble was followed by a long list of sequels and successors for multiple platforms; one of these, Puzzle Bobble, has become successful in its own right and spawned its own line of sequels. ==Plot== Brothers Bub and Bob are two happy go lucky dragons [sic] living in a magical forest. "Baron Von Blubba" has kidnapped the brothers' girlfriends. Bub and Bob have to finish 100 levels in the Cave of Monsters in order to rescue them. At the end of the game after fighting Super Drunk on level 100 in cooperative mode, it is revealed that Bub, Bob, and their girlfriends are humans transformed by magic and that Bub and Bob's parents were kidnapped as well. ==Gameplay== In the game, each player controls one of the two dragons. Players can move along platforms, fall to lower ones, and jump to higher ones and over gaps. Each level is limited to a single screen, with no left/right scrolling; however, if a screen has gaps in its bottom edge, players can fall through these and reappear at the top. Each level has a certain number of enemies that must be defeated in order to advance. The players must blow bubbles to trap the enemies and then burst these bubbles by colliding with them. Magic items appear from time to time and grant special abilities and advantages when picked up. Special bubbles occasionally appear that can be burst to attack enemies with fire, water, or lightning. Each defeated enemy turns into a food item that can be picked up for extra points. Defeating multiple enemies at once awards higher scores and causes more valuable food items to appear. Furthermore, if a player collects letter bubbles to spell the word EXTEND, a bonus life is earned and both players immediately advance to the next level. All bubbles will float for a certain length of time before bursting on their own; players can jump on these and ride them to otherwise inaccessible areas to reach enemies and/or powerups. A player loses one life upon touching any free enemies or their projectiles (rocks, fireballs, lasers, bottles). Enemies turn "angry"—turning pink in color and moving faster—if they escape from a bubble after being left too long or the players spend a certain amount of time on the current level. They return to normal if either player loses a life. After a further time limit expires, an additional invincible enemy appears for each player, actively chasing them using only vertical and horizontal movements. These disappear once the level is cleared, or when a player loses a life. When there is only one enemy left, it immediately becomes angry and remains in this state until defeated. In the 100th and final level, players face a boss. This is one of the first games to feature multiple endings. Completing Level 100 in single-player mode reveals a message stating that the game has not truly ended and a hint to the player: "Come here with your friend". If two players complete the game, they see a "happy end", in which the brothers are transformed to their human selves and reunited with their girlfriends. This ending also includes a code that, when deciphered, allows the game to be played in the faster and more difficult "super" mode. If this mode is completed with two players, a second "happy end" is displayed in which Super Drunk (the defeated boss) is revealed to be the brothers' parents under the control of some outside influence. The brothers return to normal and are reunited with their parents and girlfriends. His first game was the four-screen racer Super Dead Heat in 1985, followed by the shoot'em up Halley's Comet the same year. His initial idea was to have the player control a robot with a spike on its head to pop bubbles—Mitsuji disliked it for not being "cool", instead preferring dinosaurs with ridges along their back. Mitsuji intended the game to be played by couples, leading to the creation of the multiple endings, which differ based on player performance. Bubble Bobble was first published in Japan on June 16, 1986, followed by a wide release in Japan in September and internationally in October of the same year. and to Electrocoin Automatics for Europe. In 1996, Taito announced that the source code for Bubble Bobble had been lost, leading to all subsequent home conversions to be reverse-engineered from an original arcade board. \| CRASH_ARC = Positive \| CRASH_ZX = 90% \| CVG_ARC = Positive \| EGM_SGG = 31/40 \| TGM_C64 = 93% \| YSinclair_ZX = 90% \| Z64_C64 = 97% \| award1Pub = Zzap!64 \| award1 = Gold Medal \| award2Pub = Crash \| award2 = Smash }} In Japan, Game Machine listed Bubble Bobble on their November 1, 1986, issue as the second-most-successful table arcade cabinet of the month, after Taito's Arkanoid. It went on to be the fifth-highest-grossing table arcade game of 1987 in Japan. In the United Kingdom, Bubble Bobble was the top-grossing arcade game for three months in 1987, from April to June. The home conversions were also successful in the United Kingdom, where the game appeared on the sales charts for several years. The ZX Spectrum budget re-release topped the UK charts in July 1991. The arcade game received positive reviews from Computer and Video Games and Crash. Mean Machines gave the Game Boy port of the game a score of 91%, noting that, while some changes had been made, the game played identical to the original arcade port and "provides much addiction and challenge". The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that the Game Gear version is a faithful conversion of the original which works well in portable form. They particularly praised the simplicity of the gameplay concept and the graphics, and the two-player link option. Bubble Bobble has been listed by numerous publications among the greatest video games of all time. Your Sinclair magazine ranked the ZX Spectrum version at #58 in their "Top 100 Games of All Time" in 1993 based on reader vote. In 1996, GamesMaster rated the game 19th on its "Top 100 Games of All Time". Yahoo! ranked it at #71 in their "100 Greatest Computer Games Of All Time" in 2005 for its charming premise and cute character designs. Stuff magazine listed it as part of their "100 Greatest Games" in 2008, while GamesTM magazine listed it in their "Top 100 Games" in 2010. Stuff.tv ranked it at #47 in their Top 100 Games in 2009, saying "Today's kids might laugh, but this was gold in 1986". GamesRadar+ ranked it at #95 in their "100 Best Games Of All Time" list in 2011, praising its multiplayer and secrets. GamesRadar+ also labeled it the 24th greatest Nintendo Entertainment System game of all time in 2012 for its advancements over other games of its genre and its usage of multiple endings. IGN named it the 23rd best NES game. Hardcore Gaming 101 listed it in their book The 200 Best Video Games of All Time in 2015. Game Informer placed it in their "Top 300 Games of All Time" in 2018 for its long-lasting appeal and multiplayer. ==Legacy== ===Re-releases=== The game has had at least 30 official ports to a large array of computers and consoles throughout the decades. A remastered version named Bubble Bobble Old & New was made for Game Boy Advance, which also included the original arcade version. Europe and North American versions by Empire Interactive Japan version by MediaKite In October 2005, a version was released for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and Microsoft Windows as part of the Taito Legends compilation. In December 2007, the NES version of Bubble Bobble was released in North America on Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii. The Famicom Disk System version of Bubble Bobble was also released for the Nintendo eShop on October 16, 2013, for the Nintendo 3DS and on January 29, 2014, for the Wii U. In July 2020, the MORIBIX Corporation released a mobile port, titled "Bubble Bobble Classic," on iOS and Android.	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4,967	Blackwood convention	In the partnership card game contract bridge, the Blackwood convention is a bidding convention developed by Easley Blackwood in 1933 and still widely used in the modern game. Its purpose is to enable the partnership to explore its possession of aces, kings and in some variants, the queen of trumps to judge whether a slam would be a feasible contract. The essence of the convention is the use of an artificial 4NT bid made under certain conditions to ask partner how many aces he has; responses by partner are made in step-wise fashion to indicate the number held. ==Blackwood's original summary== After developing the concept in 1933, Easley Blackwood submitted an article proposing his slam-seeking convention to The Bridge World magazine but it was rejected. Nevertheless, it gained awareness and use amongst players and was written about by several authors. In his own first publication on the convention in 1949, Easley Blackwood comments on the entries in books by others and noted that "...in every one of these books, they have it wrong!" A synopsis of that summary follows: In order to make the 4NT ace-asking bid, you must first: think your partnership has sufficient strength for a slam, expect to be able to make at the five-level even if partner has no aces, and be prepared with a sound rebid no matter how partner responds Partner's responses to the 4NT ace-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion: 5 to indicate 0 or 4 aces 5 to indicate 1 ace 5 to indicate 2 aces 5 to indicate 3 aces When responding, do not count a void as an ace. Generally, 4NT is ace-asking when your side has bid a suit. There are exceptions: when notrump has previously been bid by partner and he subsequently removes one's four-level suit bid to 4NT when a previous opportunity to employ 4NT as ace-asking has not been taken When clubs are expected to be trumps, one must have at least two aces to employ 4NT ace-asking and when diamonds are to be trump, one must have at least one ace. The 4NT bidder is only partial captain of the auction and responder has certain rights: the 4NT bidder sets the level of the contract but partner may correct the denomination when responder has a void in the suit in which he would convey, at the five-level, the number of aces he possesses, he may jump to six of the void suit to convey both the number of aces and the location of the void. when responder has a void and his ace-showing response is in a suit of lower rank than the trump suit, he first tells partner the number of aces he has. If partner signs-off at the five-level, responder may continue to slam if his holding justifies it. If the 4NT bidder, after hearing partner's response, bids a previously unmentioned suit, responder must bid 5NT to end the auction. An ace shown by a cuebid by either partner should not be counted in responding to the 4NT ace-asking bid. A 5NT bid after a response to a 4NT ace-asking bid, asks for kings. Partner's responses to the 5NT king-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion: 6 to indicate 0 kings 6 to indicate 1 king 6 to indicate 2 kings 6 to indicate 3 kings 6NT to indicate 4 kings To ask for kings via 5NT, one must first ask for aces via 4NT even when possessing all four aces oneself. A jump to 5NT without employing the 4NT ace-asking bid is the Culbertson Grand Slam Force and obliges partner to bid the grand slam if he holds two of the three top trumps and a small slam if he does not. If the opponents interfere after the 4NT ace-asking bid, a Pass by responder indicates no aces, the suit one above the opponent's indicates one ace, two above indicates two and so on. Except in duplicate, the king-asking 5NT bid assures partner possession of all four aces. After a 5NT king-asking bid, neither partner is captain and either can set the final contract.) recommend the 5NT reply to 4NT – the cheapest with no standard assigned meaning – to show a void plus two aces and six of a suit to show a void in the bid suit plus one ace. ===Roman Blackwood=== A variation of the standard Blackwood convention, known as Roman Blackwood, was popularized by the Italian Blue Team in the 1960s. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is: In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown, for example, 12-15 range of high points is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc. Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5 and 5 responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5 shows extra values, while 5 does not. In other variations, responses 5 - 5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or "mixed"). If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows: 5NT is the Grand slam force The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings. The partner responds stepwise, as above. ===Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB)=== Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the standard version among tournament players. It developed from the Roman Blackwood variant (see above). According to RKCB there are five equivalent key cards rather than just the four aces: the trump king is counted as the fifth key card. The key card replies to 4NT are more compressed than standard ones and they also begin to locate the queen of trumps. Although the replies to 4NT are more compressed, it is almost always possible to infer which number of keycards is correct: 0 or 3, 1 or 4, 2 or 5. Evidence for that inference includes the entire auction as well as the number of key cards that the 4NT bidder holds. The 5 and 5 replies with 2 or 5 key cards also deny and show the trump queen, respectively. (Responder may also show the queen with extra length in trumps, typically indicating a 10-card fit, where the ace and king will probably draw all outstanding cards in the suit.) The 5 and 5 replies tell nothing about the queen or extra length, but the 4NT bidder may ask about that using the cheapest bid other than five of the trump suit. The code for replies to that "queen ask" vary; a common rule is that the cheapest bid in the trump suit denies the queen or extra length and any other call shows it. An option is for the positive calls to show a feature, such as a king in that suit, and 6 of the trump suit can show the queen of trumps with no outside kings. Roman Key Card Blackwood is predicated on existence of a trump suit, which determines which of the four kings and queens responder should show as key cards. Trump agreement is not necessary, however. One common rule is that the last suit bid before 4NT bid is the key suit, lacking trump agreement. Some partnerships use the club response to show 1 or 4 and the diamond response to show 3 or none, dubbed "1430" (coincidentally the score for making a vulnerable small slam in a major suit), with the original version being dubbed "3014" when distinction is necessary. In order to facilitate the Queen Ask, an experts' version has been developed, where "1430" is used by the strong hand and "3014" is used by the weak hand. There are specific rules which determine when the asker hand is the weak one and when it is the strong one. ===Key Card Blackwood (KCB)=== A half-way house between standard Blackwood and RKCB is Keycard Blackwood. Again there are five key cards, including the trump king, but unlike RKCB, the queen of trumps is not considered. 5♣ – 0 or 4 key cards 5 – 1 or 5 key cards 5 – 2 key cards 5♠ – 3 key cards This is advocated by Bernard Magee as being simpler for club players, as with RKCB players are sometimes unsure whether partner holds 0 or 3 key cards, or 1 or 4. ==Variations not based on 4NT== ===Kickback=== "Kickback" is the variant of RKCB devised by Jeff Rubens in accordance with the Useful Space Principle. The step responses are the same as in RKCB, but the ask is not necessarily 4NT. Instead it is the 4-level bid immediately above the agreed trump suit; i.e.: Kickback has the advantage that it saves bidding space and, especially for minor-suit fits, provides safety at the 5-level if the required key cards are missing. Because the Kickback bid would otherwise be a control bid, 4NT is usually substituted as the control bid in that suit (e.g., 4NT is a control bid in hearts if the agreed trump suit is diamonds). The drawback is that in unpracticed partnerships there can be confusion as to whether a bid is Kickback, a control bid or preference for a different strain: East intended 4 as Kickback, but West thought it was secondary support for hearts, and decided to pass with minimum values. As result, a reasonable grand slam in diamonds was missed. An established partnership might have agreed that as hearts were not supported after opener's rebid, 4 cannot possibly show support, and must be ace asking in diamonds. ===Redwood=== "Redwood" is a variation of Kickback that is only used when a minor suit is trumps. A 4 level bid in the suit above the agreed trump suit is the ace / key card ask and the name comes from the fact that this bid will always be a red suit: 4– RKCB for clubs 4– RKCB for diamonds Once key cards have been identified the next step bid (other than trumps) can be used to ask for Kings. One advantage of this approach is that it avoids the potential for misunderstanding that can occur when using Minorwood but one disadvantage is that it uses up one more bid (than Minorwood) and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens. Using "Redwood," the ace/key card ask of 4NT is still used when the trump suit is a major (hearts or spades). ===Minorwood=== "Minorwood" is a variation of Blackwood, in which the minor suit which the partners agree will be trumps is itself used as the ace/key card ask. The ask will be at the four level. Hence: 4– RKCB for clubs 4– RKCB for diamonds One disadvantage to this convention is that either the partnership must agree to lose the natural 4 level bid in trumps or have clear agreement on which sequences are slam seeking and which are natural bids. The advantage of this approach is that it conserves bidding space. For example, the use of Redwood reduces the risk of a misunderstanding but uses up one more bid and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens. ===Exclusion Blackwood=== Exclusion Blackwood or Voidwood. was devised by Bobby Goldman as an attempt to resolve the situation when the Blackwood-asker has a void. In that case, he is not interested in the partner's ace in the void suit, as he already has the first-round control; partner's ace would present a duplicated value in that case. Many players, even experts, refuse to play Exclusion Blackwood because of the potential disaster of forgetting the agreement. It is usually played as the Roman Key Card Blackwood, with only four key cards: the three Aces outside the void suit and the King of trumps. However, the asking bid is not 4NT, but the void suit — Voidwood is made by jumping on level 4 or 5 in the void suit after a fit has been found, for example: Bids of 5, 5 and 5 present a Voidwood, denoting the void in the suit bid and asking for other key cards. The responses are, as in RKCB: 1st step – 0 or 3 key cards (1 or 4, if playing 1430) 2nd step – 1 or 4 key cards (0 or 3) 3rd step – 2 key cards without trump queen 4th step – 2 key cards with trump queen	[ "Bobby Goldman", "contract bridge", "Ron Klinger", "Quantitative no trump bids", "Blue Team (bridge)", "Useful Space Principle", "Norman four notrump", "Slam-seeking conventions", "Ben Cohen (bridge)", "Victor Gollancz Ltd", "4NT (bid)", "Culbertson 4-5 Notrump", "cue bid", "San Francisco convention", "Grand slam force", "Glossary of contract bridge terms", "convention (bridge)", "Trump (card games)", "Talk: Paul Mendelson", "High card point", "Gerber convention", "Byzantine Blackwood convention", "card game", "Easley Blackwood Sr.", "The Bridge World", "Jeff Rubens", "Paul Hamlyn" ]
4,969	Bill Bixby	Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III (January 22, 1934 – November 21, 1993) was an American actor and television director. His career spanned more than three decades, including appearances on stage, in films, and on television series. He is known for his roles in the CBS sitcom My Favorite Martian as Tim O'Hara, in the ABC sitcom The Courtship of Eddie's Father as Tom Corbett, in the NBC crime drama series The Magician as stage Illusionist Anthony Blake, in the ABC mini-series Rich Man, Poor Man as Willie Abbott, and the CBS science-fiction drama series The Incredible Hulk as Dr. David Bruce Banner. ==Early life== A fifth-generation Californian of English descent and an only child, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III was born on January 22, 1934, in San Francisco, California. His father, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby II, was a store clerk. His mother, Jane (née McFarland) Bixby, was a senior manager at I. Magnin & Co. In 1942, when Bixby was eight years old, his father enlisted in the Navy during World War II and traveled to the South Pacific. While in the seventh grade, Bixby attended Grace Cathedral and sang in the church's choir. he shot the bishop using a slingshot during a service and was kicked out of the choir. In 1946, his mother encouraged him to take ballroom dance lessons and from there he started dancing all around the city. While dancing, he attended Lowell High School, where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society. Though he received average grades, he also competed in high-school speech tournaments regionally. After graduation from high school in 1952, he majored in drama at City College of San Francisco, against his parents' wishes. He served primarily in personnel management with Marine Attack Squadron 141 (VMA-141) at Naval Air Station Oakland, and attained the rank of private first class before his 1956 discharge. Later, he attended the University of California, Berkeley, his parents' alma mater, and left just a few credits short of earning a degree. He explained that he had only been majoring in pre-law because it was what his parents expected of him, and he finally asked his parents to instead give him five years to find out if he could succeed as an actor. In a 2011 interview with Marilyn Beck and Stacy Jenel Smith about how Bill Bixby's fame was supposed to posthumously honor him for a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Cruz said, "When I found out they were putting this out, I thought, 'It's about time.' Bill Bixby had an amazing body of work, not only Courtship of Eddie's Father, but My Favorite Martian, The Magician, The Incredible Hulk, and so many other things, as an actor, as a director — and he never got an Emmy. He's never been recognized posthumously by the Academy. And he doesn't have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. That is criminal.... There are people who have stars that, not to be blunt, but I wouldn't bother spitting on their stars. Bill's talent would take a couple of blocks of stars compared to them. It really demeans the whole thing that Bill is not included." ===1973 to 1977=== In 1973, Bixby starred in The Magician. The series was well liked, but lasted for only one season. An accomplished amateur magician himself, he hosted several TV specials in the mid-1970s which featured other amateur magicians, and was a respected member of the Hollywood magic community, belonging to The Magic Castle, an exclusive club for magicians. During the show's popular, although short-lived, production, Bixby invited a few old friends along to co-star such as Pamela Britton (in her final role), Kristina Holland, and Ralph O'Hara. Also in 1973, he starred in Steambath, a play by author Bruce Jay Friedman, on PBS with Valerie Perrine and Jose Perez. Bixby became a popular game-show panelist, appearing mostly on Password and The Hollywood Squares. He was also a panelist on the 1974 revival of Masquerade Party, which was hosted by Richard Dawson. He had also appeared with Dawson on Cop-Out, an unsold 1972 pilot produced by Chuck Barris, and on the 1972 revival of I've Got a Secret. In 1974–1975, he directed four episodes of the eighth season of Mannix, guest-starring as Mannix's friend-turned-villain in one of the episodes. In 1975, he co-starred with Tim Conway and Don Knotts in the Disney movie The Apple Dumpling Gang, which was well received by the public. Returning to television, Bixby worked with Susan Blakely on Rich Man, Poor Man, a highly successful television miniseries in 1976. He played a daredevil stunt pilot in an episode of the short-lived 1976 CBS adventure series Spencer's Pilots, starring Gene Evans. In 1977, he co-starred in the pilot for the television series Fantasy Island; starred in "No Way Out", the final episode of the NBC anthology series Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected (known in the United Kingdom as Twist in the Tale); and appeared with Donna Mills, Richard Jaeckel, and William Shatner in the last episode, "The Scarlet Ribbon", of NBC's Western series The Oregon Trail, starring Rod Taylor and Andrew Stevens. Bixby directed two episodes of The Oregon Trail. In 1976, he was honored with two Emmy Award nominations, one for Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Appearance in Drama or Comedy for The Streets of San Francisco and the other for Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in Comedy or Drama Series for Rich Man, Poor Man. When Bixby was offered the role, he declined it – until he read the script and discussed it with Johnson. The success of the pilot (coupled with some theatrical releases of the film in Europe) convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly series, which began airing in the spring of 1978. The pilot also starred Susan Sullivan as Dr. Elaina Marks, who tries to help the conflicted and widowed Dr. Banner overcome his "problem" and falls in love with him in the process. In a retrospective on The Incredible Hulk, Glenn Greenberg declared Bixby's performance to be the series' "foremost" strength, elaborating that he "masterfully conveyed the profound loneliness and tragedy of Dr. Banner while also bringing to the role an abundance of warmth, intelligence, humor, nobility, likability, and above all else, humanity." During the series' run, Bixby invited two of his longtime friends, Ray Walston and Brandon Cruz, to guest-star with him in different episodes of the series. He also worked on the series with his friend, movie actress Mariette Hartley, who later starred with Bixby in his final series, Goodnight, Beantown, in 1983. Hartley appears in the well-regarded double-length episode "Married", The series was cancelled after the following season, but leftover episodes aired as late as the next June. Bixby later executive-produced and reprised the role in three television movies – The Incredible Hulk Returns, The Trial of the Incredible Hulk, and The Death of the Incredible Hulk – the last two of which he also directed, and the first of which he has been said to have unofficially co-directed. and The Elvis Conspiracy (1992). Bixby made his last acting appearance in 1992, guest-starring in the television movie Diagnosis Murder: Diagnosis of Murder. He finished his career by directing 30 episodes (in seasons two and three) of the NBC sitcom Blossom. ==Personal life and death== Bixby's first marriage was to actress Brenda Benet. They were married in 1971, and she gave birth to their son, Christopher, in September 1974. They divorced in 1980. A few months later, in March 1981, six-year-old Christopher died while on a skiing vacation at Mammoth Lakes with Benet. He went into cardiac arrest after doctors inserted a breathing tube when he suffered acute epiglottitis. Benet committed suicide the following year. The two deaths profoundly impacted Bixby; years later his home was still filled with pictures of Christopher, and he confessed to reporters that he would often speak to Christopher when he was alone. Though Bixby felt he had recovered following the treatment, a year later the symptoms returned, and Michaels divorced him shortly after. In late 1992, friends introduced Bixby to the artist Judith Kliban, widow of the cartoonist B. Kliban. He married her in October 1993. In early 1993, after rumors began circulating about his health, Bixby went public with his illness, making several appearances on shows such as Entertainment Tonight, Today, and Good Morning America, among others. He also counselled other cancer patients. ==Filmography== ===Film=== === Television === == Production credits == === Television ===	[ "Jackson Hole, Wyoming", "Room 222", "Death Valley Days", "I Had Three Wives", "Three on a Date", "My Favorite Martian", "CBS", "Insight (American TV series)", "Ironside (TV series)", "Tim Conway", "Mariette Hartley", "Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series", "Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected", "Hollywood, California", "Kristina Holland", "TwoMorrows Publishing", "Kenneth Johnson (producer)", "WALTE*R", "Rod Serling", "Man of the People (TV series)", "Steambath (play)", "Brenda Benet", "epiglottitis", "Black Market Baby (film)", "Naval Air Station Oakland", "Ben Casey", "Chicago Tribune", "Rod Taylor", "The Joey Bishop Show (TV series)", "Mammoth Lakes", "Pantomime Quiz", "William Shatner", "Marvel Comics", "Fantasy Island", "People (magazine)", "Dreams (TV series)", "Password (American game show)", "Los Angeles Times", "University of California, Berkeley", "Irma La Douce", "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "FDA Consumer", "United States Army", "prostate cancer", "Richard Dawson", "Century City", "That Girl", "Sons and Daughters (1991 TV series)", "cardiac arrest", "The Eleventh Hour (1962 TV series)", "United Press International", "The Courtship of Eddie's Father (TV series)", "Public Broadcasting Service", "Ray Walston", "General Motors", "James Komack", "The Boy Friend (musical)", "The Incredible Hulk (1978 TV series)", "pre-law", "The Best of Times (TV pilot)", "International Airport (film)", "Chuck Barris", "Doctor, You've Got to Be Kidding!", "Night Gallery", "location shooting", "Good Morning America", "Lonely Are the Brave", "Spencer's Pilots", "I've Got a Secret", "Masquerade Party", "Alcoa Premiere", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie", "Better Days (TV series)", "Susan Sullivan", "widower", "Tracheal tube", "Search (American TV series)", "The Thirty-Fathom Grave", "United Kingdom", "Dr. Kildare (TV series)", "Donna Mills", "Barbary Coast (TV series)", "B. Kliban", "Brandon Cruz", "The Nutt House", "Congratulations, It's a Boy!", "The Love Boat", "Lowell High School (San Francisco)", "San Francisco, California", "comedy drama", "American Broadcasting Company", "Win with the Stars", "The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis", "Today (NBC program)", "Diagnosis: Murder (film series)", "Checkmate (American TV series)", "The Couple Takes a Wife", "Ride Beyond Vengeance", "Murphy's Law (American TV series)", "Richard Jaeckel", "Once Upon a Classic", "Elvis Presley", "BNET", "Emmy Award", "It Takes a Thief (1968 TV series)", "Jack Kirby", "Hollywood Squares", "Hennesey", "Kate McShane", "J.J. Starbuck", "Academy Awards", "Rosemary Clooney", "Stan Lee", "The Incredible Hulk Returns", "Elvis sightings", "Ironside (1967 TV series)", "Entertainment Tonight", "Love, American Style", "Gene Evans", "Back Issue!", "Mr. Merlin", "The Hollywood Squares", "My Three Sons", "Sledge Hammer!", "Mannix", "Valentine's Day (TV series)", "Herbie, the Love Bug (TV series)", "Combat! (TV series)", "Loni Anderson", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series", "Rich Man, Poor Man (miniseries)", "The Oregon Trail (series)", "Bachelor Father (American TV series)", "Susan Blakely", "The Oregon Trail (TV series)", "Iron Horse (TV series)", "Pamela Britton", "Clambake (film)", "Speedway (1968 film)", "The Ghost & Mrs. Muir (TV series)", "The Magic Castle", "Korean War", "Straightaway (TV series)", "Charlie's Angels", "VMA-141", "TV Land Award", "Rich Man, Poor Man Book II", "The Magician (American TV series)", "The Danny Thomas Show", "Miyoshi Umeki", "The Trial of the Incredible Hulk", "Los Angeles, California", "City College of San Francisco", "Medical Center (TV series)", "Goodnight, Beantown", "The Death of the Incredible Hulk", "United States Marine Corps Reserve", "The Lieutenant", "Under the Yum Yum Tree", "Barnaby Jones", "Bert D'Angelo/Superstar", "Bruce Jay Friedman", "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)", "Anchor Bay Entertainment", "Marlo Thomas", "Andrew Stevens", "It Takes Two (game show)", "The Great Houdini (film)", "character actor", "Baby of the Bride", "The Apple Dumpling Gang (film)", "Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Special", "Nickelodeon", "Chrysler", "Hulk", "I. Magnin", "Wizards and Warriors (TV series)", "The New York Times", "Irma la Douce", "The Woman Who Loved Elvis", "Glenn Greenberg", "Blossom (American TV series)", "The Danny Thomas Hour", "The Andy Griffith Show", "NBC", "The Streets of San Francisco", "Don Knotts", "Valerie Perrine", "Danny Thomas", "Against the Odds (TV series)", "The Kentucky Fried Movie", "Ferris Bueller (TV series)", "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series", "The Dating Game" ]
4,971	Boers	Boers ( ; ; ) are the descendants of the proto Afrikaans-speaking Free Burghers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. From 1652 to 1795, the Dutch East India Company controlled the Dutch Cape Colony, which the United Kingdom incorporated into the British Empire in 1806. The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later "boer", which means "farmer" in Dutch and Afrikaans. In addition, the term also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to colonise the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics), and to a lesser extent Natal. They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophone common law system being introduced into the Cape and the British abolition of slavery in 1833. The term Afrikaners or Afrikaans people is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek. == Origin == === European colonists === The Dutch East India Company (; VOC) was formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and at this time the Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe. Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC. During the same year, one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay near what would eventually become Cape Town, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Dutch Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at the Cape. As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led by Jan van Riebeek, who constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade. === Free Burghers === VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers (citizens). As a result, Jan van Riebeek approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near the Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Greenfield and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants. In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from the indigenous Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper. As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed part of the class of , also known as ('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at the Cape after serving their contracts. A large number of became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration. === French Huguenots === During 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots, who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They joined colonies at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek and Paarl. The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools. This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French. The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony. At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity. Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to profit the VOC. The VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions. === Trekboers === From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of freeburghers but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well. The tyranny caused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before the 1700 trekking began. In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg, the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of the colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond". In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted. Image:Burchell02.jpg\|Descending from the Sneeuberge, a scene near Graaff-Reinet, by Burchell Image:Charles Michell03.jpg\|Passing Cradock Pass, Outeniqua Mountains, by Charles Collier Michell Image:Daniell Trekboer.jpg\|An aquatint by Samuel Daniell of Trekboers making camp Image:TrekBoers crossing the Karoo.jpg\|Trekboers crossing the Karoo by Charles Davidson Bell It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos River had been declared, , the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples, agreed with them to make the Great Fish River the common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. The trekboers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of the same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal. If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the 19th. The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment. The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek, had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by the trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property. Image:Trekboer migration map.png\|A map of the expansion of the Trekboers (1700–1800) Image:Nederlandse Kaapkolonie.svg\|Evolution of the Dutch Cape Colony (1700–1800) Image:Kapkolonie 1795.jpg\|Administrative divisions of the Dutch Cape Colony == Invasion of the Cape Colony == The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope. The Netherlands had fallen under the revolutionary government of France and a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for the Prince of Orange, a refugee in England. The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated. His action was hastened by the fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic which introduced many reforms, as had the British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £16,000,000. The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them. When the War of the Third Coalition broke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Castle of Good Hope surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird, and in the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands to the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for the San people), and had an area of about sq km and a population of some , of whom were whites, free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays. === Dislike of British rule === Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and the Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery. Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country. === Slachter's Nek === A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a small rebellion in 1815, known as Slachters Nek, described as "the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign" by Henry Cloete. Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel "the English tyrants". The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of and (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as a result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, what the Boers viewed as the inadequate compensation for the freeing of the slaves, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government. While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions. == Cape Frontier Wars (1779–1879) == The migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where the native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect the boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War. The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into the conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet. The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803). == Boer states and republics == As the Voortrekkers progressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa. == Anglo-Boer wars == Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of the British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the South African Republic\|) and the Orange Free State, remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902. === Boer War diaspora === After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil. Another group emigrated to the British colony of Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States. == 1914 Boer Revolt == The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British. Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie, an officer in the Union Defence Force, was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914. == Characteristics == === Language === Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken widely in South Africa and Namibia, and to a lesser extent in Botswana and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch (also used to refer collectively to the early Cape colonists) or kitchen Dutch (a derogatory term used in its earlier days). However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as a creole or as a partially creolised language. The term is ultimately derived from Dutch meaning African Dutch. === Culture === The desire to wander, known as , was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse, and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland ('') Trek. One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home". === Beliefs === The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism. The Boers possessed a distinct Protestant culture, and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church. The ('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands. The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence, remains present in a minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty. Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members of Baptist, Charismatic, Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches. == Modern usage == During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called , rather than Afrikaners, to distinguish their identity. They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as the Cape-based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum. They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty, which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity per se. The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established. In contemporary South Africa, Boer and Afrikaner have often been used interchangeably. directly translated means African, and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. Boer is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population. During apartheid, Boer was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party, or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as Boere) and Army, Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally. This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa. === Politics === Boere-Vryheidsbeweging Boerestaat Party Freedom Front Plus Front National Herstigte Nasionale Party National Conservative Party of South Africa === Education === The Movement for Christian-National Education is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12. === Media === Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria. An internet-based radio station, Boerevolk Radio, promotes Boer separatism. === Territories === Territorial areas in the form of a ('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notably Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria. ==Notable Boers== Voortrekker leaders Sarel Cilliers Andries Hendrik Potgieter Andries Pretorius Piet Retief Great trek Racheltjie de Beer Dirkie Uys Marthinus Jacobus Oosthuizen Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War Koos de la Rey, general; regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War Danie Theron, soldier Christiaan Rudolf de Wet, general Siener van Rensburg, considered a prophet by some Politicians Louis Botha, first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general Petrus Jacobus Joubert, general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th State President of the Orange Free State Spies Robey Leibbrandt Fritz Joubert Duquesne, Boer captain known as the Black Panther who served in the Second Boer War == Persecution == Since the early 2000s, South African farmers, including many Boers, have faced a wave of violent attacks in rural areas, often involving extreme brutality such as torture and murder. These incidents, which have drawn international attention, have led many within the Boer community to fear for their safety. Some have emigrated to countries like Australia, while others have invested in private security measures to protect their families and property. The ongoing attacks remain a significant concern for South Africa's rural communities. In 2020 a group of protestors in Senekal demanded that two men accused of murdering white farmers be handed over to them. The protest fell into chaos, and was described as “anarchic” by Justice Minister Ronald Lamola. Protestors attempted to force their way into the court cells, and a police vehicle was overturned and set alight. ==In modern fiction== The history of the Cape Colony and the Boers in South Africa is covered at length in the 1980 novel The Covenant by American author James A. Michener. The Boers appear as a civilization in the 'Scramble to Africa' scenario in Civilization V: Brave New World. Paul Kruger leads the civilization during the scenario. The Boers' unique unit is the foreign volunteer.	[ "Dutch people", "Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal", "Edict of Nantes", "Christiaan Rudolf de Wet", "Graaff-Reinet", "Dutch Republic", "Koos de la Rey", "History of the Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870", "divine providence", "Orange River", "Dirkie Uys", "French language", "Boer goat", "James Henry Craig", "Winburg", "Orania, Northern Cape", "National Party (South Africa)", "State of Goshen", "white South Africans", "Andries Hendrik Potgieter", "Invasion of the Cape Colony", "Creolisation", "British Cape Colony", "Abolitionism in the United Kingdom", "Dutch Reformed Church", "diaspora", "Peace of Vereeniging", "KwaZulu-Natal", "Drakenstein", "Flemish people", "Namibia", "Zoutspansberg", "Transvaal Republic", "Fritz Joubert Duquesne", "Boer music", "Utrecht Republic", "Karoo", "Slavery Abolition Act 1833", "Brazil", "Second Boer War", "Netherlands", "aquatint", "Charismatic", "Ben Viljoen", "Danie Theron", "Protestant culture", "Mexico", "Robey Leibbrandt", "Cape Colony", "tyranny", "Encyclopædia Britannica Online", "Upingtonia", "Pentecostal movement", "Civilization V: Brave New World", "Stellenbosch", "Transvaal Colony", "Swellendam", "£", "Dutch East India Company", "Union of South Africa", "William John Burchell", "Louis Botha", "common law", "Limpopo", "Treaty of Amiens", "Klein Vrystaat", "Zoutpansberg", "Argentina", "Swellendam, Western Cape", "Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk", "Huguenots", "Algoa Bay", "Right-wing politics", "Germans", "Jopie Fourie", "Boer Republics", "World War I", "Bloemfontein Convention", "Piet Retief, Mpumalanga", "Patagonia", "Paul Kruger", "North West (South African province)", "Cape Province", "despotism", "Lancaster University", "Oxford University Press", "peace of Amiens", "slavery", "Table Bay", "Boerehaat", "Amsterdam", "1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty", "Piet Retief", "Zimbabwe", "Dutch language", "Potchefstroom", "Herstigte Nasionale Party", "Senekal", "Palgrave Macmillan", "Dutch Cape Colony", "Liesbeek River", "Radboud University Nijmegen", "Franschhoek", "Republic of Swellendam", "Siener van Rensburg", "South African Republic", "New Mexico", "Pretoria Convention", "Lists of people by nationality", "Khoekhoe", "South African Army", "daughter language", "West Germanic languages", "University of Kentucky", "Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal", "creole language", "Trekboer", "Boer republics", "Voortrekkers", "Kenya Colony", "Reformed Church", "German Empire", "Lutheranism", "South African wine", "House of Orange", "White South Africans", "landdrost", "Paarl", "Boere-Vryheidsbeweging", "Sneeuberge", "Lydenburg, Mpumalanga", "South African Police", "University of Groningen", "Afrikaans", "Charles Collier Michell", "Orange Free State", "French Huguenots", "Bantu peoples", "London Missionary Society", "Texas", "Cape Dutch", "Free Burghers", "South African farm attacks", "Voortrekker", "Petrus Jacobus Joubert", "Lydenburg Republic", "Margraviate of Moravia", "Boerboel", "coloured", "Second Anglo-Boer War", "Cambridge University Press", "Baptist", "Germans in South Africa", "Overvaal Stereo", "David Baird, 1st Baronet", "Outeniqua Mountains", "Batavian Republic", "Free State (province)", "Jan Smuts", "Racheltjie de Beer", "Grahamstown", "Samuel Daniell", "Boerestaat Party", "Slachter's Nek Rebellion", "Hollandic dialect", "Natalia Republic", "Khoikhoi", "Cape Town", "Freedom Front Plus", "San people", "The Crown", "Creole language", "predestination", "Transvaal civil war", "rebellion", "magistrate", "South Africa", "Potchefstroom, North West", "Boerevolk Radio", "The Covenant (novel)", "Walter de Gruyter", "Sand River Convention", "Great Trek", "Cape of Good Hope", "Sarel Cilliers", "Dutch Surinamese", "Republic of Stellaland", "London Convention (1884)", "Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM", "William V, Prince of Orange", "Kleinfontein", "Jan van Riebeek", "Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape", "Andries Pretorius", "National Conservative Party of South Africa", "British Empire", "Graaff Reinet", "Suriname", "Gamtoos River", "Radio Pretoria", "Thirty Years' War", "Protestant Christianity", "Settler colonialism", "Battle of Blaauwberg", "Martinus Theunis Steyn", "War of the Third Coalition", "French First Republic", "Castle of Good Hope", "Nieuwe Republiek", "Afrikaners", "Pretoria", "Calvinist", "Joachim van Plettenberg", "John Benjamins Publishing Company", "Charles Davidson Bell", "Eastern Cape", "South Holland", "Front National (South Africa)", "apartheid", "Queen Margaret University College", "Marthinus Jacobus Oosthuizen", "Southern Africa", "BCVO", "Botswana", "Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal", "General (United Kingdom)", "Ronald Lamola", "Great Fish River", "Gauteng" ]
4,972	Bronze Star Medal	The Bronze Star Medal (BSM) is a United States Armed Forces decoration awarded to members of the United States Armed Forces for either heroic achievement, heroic service, meritorious achievement, or meritorious service in a combat zone. When the medal is awarded by the Army, Air Force, or Space Force for acts of valor in combat, the "V" device is authorized for wear on the medal. When the medal is awarded by the Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard for acts of valor or meritorious service in combat, the Combat "V" is authorized for wear on the medal. Officers from the other Uniformed Services of the United States are eligible to receive this award, as are foreign soldiers who have served with or alongside a service branch of the United States Armed Forces. Civilians serving with U.S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award. For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with "V" device for actions during the Vietnam War, specifically rescuing a badly wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of Ia Drang Valley, in 1965. Another civilian recipient was writer Ernest Hemingway. ==General information== The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419, 4 February 1944 (superseded by Executive Order 11046, 24 August 1962, as amended by Executive Order 13286, 28 February 2003). The Bronze Star Medal may be awarded by the Secretary of a military department or the Secretary of Homeland Security with regard to the Coast Guard when not operating as a service in the Department of the Navy, or by such military commanders, or other appropriate officers as the Secretary concerned may designate, to any person who, while serving in any capacity in or with the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard, or Space Force of the United States, after 6 December 1941, distinguishes, or has distinguished, herself or himself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight— (a) while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States; (b) while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force; or (c) while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party. The acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than that required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction. The Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) may be awarded to each member of the Armed Forces of the United States who, after 6 December 1941, was cited in orders or awarded a certificate for exemplary conduct in ground combat against an armed enemy between 7 December 1941 and 2 September 1945. For this purpose, the US Army's Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders. Documents executed since 4 August 1944 in connection with recommendations for the award of decorations of higher degree than the Bronze Star Medal cannot be used as the basis for an award under this paragraph. Effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal (without Combat "V" device) for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater. ==Appearance== The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund (1878–1960) of the jewelry firm Bailey, Banks & Biddle. (Freund also designed the Silver Star.) The medal is a bronze star in circumscribing diameter. In the center is a diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding. The reverse bears the inscription "HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT" with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star hangs from its ribbon by a rectangular metal loop with rounded corners. The suspension ribbon is wide and consists of the following stripes: white 67101; scarlet 67111; white; center stripe ultramarine blue 67118; white; scarlet; and white. the oak leaf cluster is worn to denote additional awards. 5/16 inch star – In the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the 5/16 inch star is worn to denote additional awards. "V" device – In the Army, the "V" is worn solely to denote "participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy."; The idea eventually rose through the military bureaucracy and gained supporters. General George C. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D. Roosevelt dated 3 February 1944, wrote The Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944, retroactive to 7 December 1941. This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 3, dated 10 February 1944. President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in an armed conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, so US advisers serving with the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces would not have been eligible for the award. Since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to "any person ... while serving in any capacity in or with" the US Armed Forces, awards to members of foreign armed services serving with the United States are permitted. Thus, a number of Allied soldiers received the Bronze Star Medal in World War II, as well as UN soldiers in the Korean War, Vietnamese and allied forces in the Vietnam War, and coalition forces in recent military operations such as the Persian Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. A number of Bronze Star Medals with the "V" device were awarded to veterans of the Battle of Mogadishu. ===World War II infantry award=== As a result of a study conducted in 1947, a policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) to all soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge or the Combat Medical Badge during World War II. The basis for this decision was that these badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the establishment of the Bronze Star Medal. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders. ===U.S. Air Force criteria controversy=== In 2012, two U.S. airmen were allegedly subjected to cyber-bullying after receiving Bronze Star Medals for meritorious non-combat service. The two airmen, who had received the medals in March 2012, had been finance NCOICs in medical units deployed to the War in Afghanistan. The awards sparked a debate as to whether or not the Air Force was awarding too many medals to its members, and whether the Bronze Star should be awarded for non-combat service. This prompted the Air Force to take down stories of the two posted to the internet, and to clarify its criteria for awarding medals. The Air Force contended that meritorious service awards of the Bronze Star outnumber valor awards, and that it views awards on a case-by-case basis to maintain the integrity of the award. This is not the first time that the USAF has been criticized for offering this award. The Department of Defense investigated the award of the Bronze Star Medal (BSM) by the USAF to some 246 individuals after operations in Kosovo in 1999. All but 60 were awarded to officers, and only 16 of those awarded were actually in the combat zone. At least five were awarded to officers who never left Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri. During this campaign, the Navy had awarded 69 BSMs, and the Army with 5,000 troops in neighboring Albania (considered part of the combat zone) awarded none. In the end, there was a Pentagon review and decision by Congress in 2001 to stop the awarding of Bronze Stars to personnel outside the combat zone. ==Notable recipients== Joe Medicine Crow, Crow War Chief and historian Julius Ochs Adler, publisher and journalist Eddie Albert, actor James Arness, actor Robert H. Barrow, 27th Commandant of the Marine Corps Eben Bartlett, member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives Tony Bennett, singer Allison Black, Air Force officer Rocky Bleier, NFL football player Rudy Boesch, contestant on Survivor: Borneo and Survivor All Stars Bill Bowerman, coach and co-founder of Nike, Inc., 4 Bronze Stars received Omar Bradley, US Army Chief of Staff and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Edward Brooke, US Senator Russell Adam Burnham, U.S. Army Soldier of the Year in 2003 Hugh Carey, Former Governor of New York State Leonard F. Chapman Jr., 24th Commandant of the Marine Corps Joseph S. Clark Jr., Mayor of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Cordelia E. Cook, first woman recipient of the Bronze Star Medal and the Purple Heart Erastus Corning 2nd, Mayor of Albany, New York Tom Cotton, US Senator Alan "Ace" Cozzalio, US Army helicopter pilot Dan Crenshaw, former United States Navy SEAL officer, serving as the U.S. representative for Texas's 2nd congressional district since 2019. Robert E. Cushman Jr., 25th Commandant of the Marine Corps Dieter Dengler, aviator and POW escapee Ron DeSantis, Governor of Florida Bob Dole, former US Senator Desmond Doss, combat medic awarded the Medal of Honor in the Battle of Okinawa, 2 Bronze Stars Dale Dye, actor Frank Sutton, actor George Kennedy, actor Jeremiah Denton, US Senator Donnie Dunagan, actor Mark Esper, 27th US Secretary of Defense Walter Fetterly, Colonel who led a rescue mission deep in enemy territory Kenneth Raymond Fleenor, Mayor of Selma, Texas Henry Fonda, actor Joseph L. Galloway, war correspondent Maurice R. Greenberg, CEO of American International Group (AIG) Eric Greitens, Governor of Missouri Bob Gunton, actor Michael Hagee, 33rd Commandant of the Marine Corps Pete Hegseth, two-time recipient, nominee for 29th US Secretary of Defense. Ernest Hemingway, writer and war correspondent Gil Hodges, Hall of Fame baseball player and manager Leo Hoegh, former Governor of Iowa Samuel M. Hogan, youngest tank battalion commander during WWII, of Task Force Hogan fame. Daniel Inouye, US Senator Isadore Jachman, Medal of Honor recipient Bernard Jackvony, Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island Rick James, Kansan legislator James L. Jones, 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps, 22nd US National Security Advisor Bob Kalsu, NFL football player Otto Kerner Jr., Governor of Illinois Bob Kerrey, US Senator John Kerry, 68th US Secretary of State, senator of Massachusetts Ben Key, Royal Navy Admiral Henry Kissinger, Secretary of State and foreign affairs consultant Kareem Rashad Sultan Khan, Muslim-American soldier Charles C. Krulak, 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps Sharon Ann Lane, Army Nurse Corps Eddie LeBaron, NFL football player Jessica Lynch, POW in Iraq Douglas MacArthur, US General of the Army and Field Marshal of the Philippines James "Mad Dog" Mattis, 26th US Secretary of Defense John McCain, US Senator Dave McCormick, US Senator Ed Meads, NFL player Charles Mergendahl, novelist, television writer Glenn Miller, jazz musician and band leader John U. Monro, Dean of Harvard College Bud Moore, NASCAR team owner and crew chief, two Bronze Stars received Hal Moore, US Army Lieutenant General Seth Moulton. USMC Captain, United States Congressman Robert Neller, 37th Commandant of the Marine Corps Scott O'Grady, USAF Lieutenant shot down during the Bosnian War and evaded capture for nearly a week, which inspired the 2001 film Behind Enemy Lines Peter Pace, 16th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Ferruccio Parri, leader of the Italian resistance movement George S. Patton, famed US Army major general David Petraeus, Army General and former Director of the CIA Colin Powell, 65th US Secretary of State, 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Geronimo Pratt, high-ranking member of the Black Panther Party, two Bronze Stars received Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller, famed US Marine Corps general Tony Radakin, 24th Chief of the Defence Staff Elliot Richardson, 11th US Secretary of Defense, 69th Attorney General, and Secretary of Commerce Tom Ridge, former Governor of Pennsylvania and 1st Secretary, US Department of Homeland Security Mickey Rooney, actor Justus Rosenberg, member of the French Resistance, Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, and Emeritus Professor of Languages and Literature Jack Rudin, real estate developer Rod Serling, writer/creator of The Twilight Zone Raymond P. Shafer, Governor of Pennsylvania Tim Sheehy, US Senator Lloyd Stowell Shapley Larry Siegel, writer EJ Snyder, survivalist and television personality Oliver Stone, Film Director Grace Thorpe, environmentalist and Native rights activist Pat Tillman, NFL player and US Army Ranger Lee Van Cleef, actor John Paul Vann, soldier and state department official Richard Vinroot, Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina John Walsh, US Senator Edward Warburg, Philanthropist Leroy H. Watson, Mayor of Beverly Hills, California Douglas Wilder, former Governor of Virginia Elmo Zumwalt, 19th Chief of Naval Operations Command Cai Dexian, Chief Of Army, Singapore Armed Forces Lauri Törni (Larry Thorne), Army, Vietnam, Former Finnish And Waffen SS captain	[ "United States Space Force", "Survivor All Stars", "Legion of Honour", "Battle of Okinawa", "Defense Technical Information Center", "Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)", "Award star", "John Paul Vann", "Rocky Bleier", "United States Air Force", "George Kennedy", "Bud Moore (NASCAR owner)", "Jack Rudin", "Ben Key", "Jessica Lynch", "George C. Marshall", "United States Navy", "Rod Serling", "Battle of Mogadishu (1993)", "Bob Gunton", "Coast Guard Medal", "John U. Monro", "US Army Chief of Staff", "Chesty Puller", "Iraq War", "Navy and Marine Corps Medal", "Erastus Corning 2nd", "Combat Medical Badge", "John Walsh (Montana politician)", "Frank Sutton", "s:Executive Order 9419", "Whiteman Air Force Base", "Purple Heart", "Tim Sheehy", "United States Armed Forces", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Tony Bennett", "Leonard F. Chapman Jr.", "Bob Dole", "Otto Kerner Jr.", "United States Army", "Tom Cotton", "Lee Van Cleef", "Eben Bartlett", "personal combat", "Eric Greitens", "Peter Pace", "Samuel Hogan", "Medal ribbon", "Edward Brooke", "Larry Siegel", "War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)", "Charles C. Krulak", "Justus Rosenberg", "New Hampshire House of Representatives", "Dan Crenshaw", "United Press International", "Lauri Törni", "Code of Federal Regulations", "Bosnian War", "Tony Radakin", "Kareem Rashad Sultan Khan", "Leroy H. Watson", "Awards and decorations of the United States Armed Forces", "Robert Neller", "Oak leaf cluster", "Air Force Times", "Gulf War", "United States Department of the Navy", "Mickey Rooney", "French Resistance", "Singapore Armed Forces", "WP:EL", "David Petraeus", "United States Department of the Army", "Jeremiah Denton", "Meritorious Service Medal (United States)", "United States Department of the Air Force", "Geronimo Pratt", "Nike, Inc.", "Behind Enemy Lines (2001 film)", "Black Panther Party", "War in Afghanistan (2001–14)", "Tom Ridge", "Dieter Dengler", "Maurice R. Greenberg", "Eddie Albert", "Medal of Honor", "Emeritus", "s:Executive Order 11046", "Isadore Jachman", "Douglas Wilder", "Seth Moulton", "Airman's Medal", "Muslim-American", "Gil Hodges", "Ernest Hemingway", "Omar Bradley", "John McCain", "United States Marine Corps", "Pete Hegseth", "Russell Adam Burnham", "Executive order (United States)", "Rick James (politician)", "service ribbon", "Air Medal", "James L. Jones", "Edward Warburg", "Bailey Banks & Biddle", "cyber-bullying", "Hugh Carey", "Michael Hagee", "Homeland Security", "Mark Esper", "Duell, Sloan and Pearce", "Sharon Ann Lane", "Robert H. Barrow", "Legion of Merit", "Dale Dye", "United States Secretary of State", "\"V\" device", "Ron DeSantis", "Eddie LeBaron", "George S. Patton", "General of the Army (United States)", "Commissioned Officers Association of the U.S. Public Health Service", "Oliver Stone", "Alan \"Ace\" Cozzalio", "Leo Hoegh", "Cordelia E. Cook", "Bob Kerrey", "Executive Order", "World War II", "Glenn Miller", "Battle of Ia Drang", "Charles Mergendahl", "Robert E. Cushman Jr.", "Elmo Zumwalt", "Korean War", "Scott O'Grady", "Kenneth Raymond Fleenor", "Bill Bowerman", "Daniel Inouye", "Hal Moore", "Combat Infantryman Badge", "Desmond Doss", "Pat Tillman", "United States Coast Guard", "Russell Reeder", "Joseph S. Clark Jr.", "Henry Fonda", "James Arness", "Joseph L. Galloway", "bronze", "Combat", "Allison Black", "Survivor: Borneo", "United States Department of Homeland Security", "Joe Medicine Crow", "Henry Kissinger", "Best Warrior", "Ed Meads", "Dave McCormick", "Non-Commissioned Officer in Charge", "Jim Mattis", "Uniformed services of the United States", "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff", "Julius Ochs Adler", "UNHCR", "Bob Kalsu", "National Archives and Records Administration", "Richard Vinroot", "Raymond P. Shafer", "Silver Star", "Donnie Dunagan", "John F. Kennedy", "Elliot Richardson", "Bernard Jackvony", "Grace Thorpe", "Soldier's Medal", "EJ Snyder", "Stars and Stripes (newspaper)", "Ferruccio Parri", "Cai Dexian", "Walter Fetterly", "John Kerry", "Colin Powell", "Douglas MacArthur", "Field Marshal of the Philippines", "Lloyd Stowell Shapley", "Rudy Boesch", "Vietnam War" ]
4,973	Ballarat	Ballarat ( ) () is a city in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. At the 2021 census, Ballarat had a population of 111,973, making it the third-largest urban inland city in Australia and the third-largest city in Victoria. Within months of Victoria separating from the colony of New South Wales in 1851, gold was discovered near Ballarat, sparking the Victorian gold rush. Ballarat subsequently became a thriving boomtown that for a time rivalled Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, in terms of wealth and cultural influence. In 1854, following a period of civil disobedience in Ballarat over gold licenses, local miners launched an armed uprising against government forces. Known as the Eureka Rebellion, it led to the introduction of white male suffrage in Australia, and as such is interpreted as the origin of Australian democracy. The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol. Proclaimed a city on 9 September 1870, Ballarat's prosperity, unlike that of many other gold boomtowns, continued until the late 19th century, as the city's fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades. By the turn of the century, Ballarat's importance relative to Melbourne rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction. It has endured as a major regional centre and is the commercial capital and largest city of the Central Highlands, as well as a significant tourist destination. Ballarat is known for its history, culture and well-preserved colonial-era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays. == History == === Prehistory and European settlement === The Ballarat region was first populated by the Wadawurrung people, an Indigenous Australian people. The first Europeans to sight the area were an August 1837 party of six men, including Thomas Livingstone Learmonth and Henry Anderson, who scaled Mount Buninyong. Some of this party set off again in January 1838, this time with others including Thomas' brother Somerville Learmonth and William Cross Yuille and his cousin Archibald Buchanan Yuille. The Yuille cousins arrived in 1838 and took up a sheep run at Ballarat. The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek (Sebastopol) by Henry Anderson and taken over by the Yuilles. William Yuille established a hut on the northern edge of the swamp which would be called Yuille's Swamp, later Lake Wendouree. Archibald Yuille named his property "Ballaarat", from the local Wathaurong Aboriginal words, balla and arat, meaning a camping or 'resting place', with the word 'balla' meaning bent elbow. Both 'Ballaarat' and 'Ballarat' were used interchangeably until the present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1994, when the city amalgamated with surrounding local government areas. === Gold rush era === The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851, in Buninyong to the south. The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851, more gold was found at Poverty Point. Within days, a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee Valley, which became known as the Ballarat diggings. Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day. As news of the Victorian gold rush reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield. As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills. Within a few months, numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people. The first post office opened on 1 November 1851, the first to open in a Victorian gold-mining settlement. Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851. By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement. The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair. These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings. The first newspaper, The Banner, published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period. Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement. Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians. Civil disobedience in Ballarat led to an armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the "Eureka Stockade") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854. The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history. The city earned the nickname "The Golden City" in the 1850s. The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858. However the early population was largely itinerant. As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857. By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining. Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing. A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town. As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained. The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay. The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit. The later attempt by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell to assassinate the Prince was met with shock and great horror from locals. Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry. === 20th century === Local boosters at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname "Athens of Australia", first used to describe Ballarat by the jurist and politician Sir John Madden. The first electricity supply was completed in 1901, and that year a bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade with the main aim of electrifying the city's tramway network. Despite such advancements, mining activity slowed at this time and Ballarat's growth all but stopped, leading to a decades-long period of decline. The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents, and in August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and the injury of seven others, as well as the destruction of numerous homes. Ballarat's significant representation in World War I resulted in heavy human loss. Around this time, it was overtaken in population by the port city of Geelong, further diminishing its provincial status. In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917. The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue. During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line. In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued. In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred. An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West). The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses. While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962. The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city. On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953. Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954. Ballarat played an important role in the Stolen Generation throughout the 20th century, where the Ballarat Orphanage saw Aboriginal children who had been taken from their families. The Ballarat and District Aboriginal Co-operative (BADAC) was established by members of the Ballarat and district Aboriginal community in 1979. It became a co-operative to deliver health, social, welfare and community development programs to local Aboriginal people. In 2017, local Aboriginal community elder Ted Lovett was awarded the Order of Australia Medal for services to the indigenous community and for his works in eliminating racism in sports in south-west Victoria. Karen Heap and Ted Lovett were listed on the Victoria's Aboriginal Honour Role both in part for their work at BADAC. === 21st century === The city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century. In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre. The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones. The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse final report, published on 15 December 2017, found that 139 people made a claim of child sexual abuse to the Diocese of Ballarat between 1980 and 2015, and 21 alleged perpetrators were identified in these claims. Seventeen of the 21 alleged and convicted perpetrators were priests, which is 8.7% of the priests who ministered during this period. About 45 victims are estimated to have committed suicide. ==Geography== Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria. Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its elevated position and moderate hills and terrain with a lack of any alpine mountains that are situated a few hundred kilometres NE. The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland volcanic plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west. Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong (750m, 2460 ft) and Warrenheip (746m, 2446 ft), which are the area's tallest peaks. As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil. Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz. Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation. There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests. The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex. Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond. The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's . Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban. with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919). Ballarat is a primarily low-rise city. The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres. The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994). Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles. Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes. Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people. The central business district (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant Street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River. Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance. The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington. The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west. To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree, Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong. Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman. Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts. Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary. This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe. In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan New activity centres have been developed at Delacombe and Alfredton. ===Architecture=== Ballarat is renowned for its Victorian architectural heritage. In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress. The city's history is a major focus of the Collaborative Research Centre in Australian History, part of Federation University Australia, and is located at old Ballarat Gaol. The legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area. This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia. Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888). Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland. Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme. and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies. Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation. This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular. Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street. Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process. The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister. Ballarat is notable for its very wide boulevards. The main street is Sturt Street with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts. Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of Avenues of Honour in Victoria. The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road. Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I. The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year. The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present. Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric. These include, Robert Burns, Peter Lalor, Sir Albert Coates, Harold "Pompey" Elliott, William Dunstan, King George V, Queen Victoria and more. Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial. The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city. The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour. Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory). ==Climate== Ballarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) with four distinct seasons. Its elevation, ranging between above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne, especially in winter. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is . Perhaps the most infamous feature of Ballarat's climate is the chilly winter, often accentuated by driving winds. In 2023, a journalist for ABC Ballarat wrote that Ballarat "is notorious for its frosty winters and the near year-round puffer jacket uniform of its residents". When measured by mean temperatures, Ballarat is the coldest city in Victoria. Temperatures can dip below freezing from May to September, however, a low of 0-2 °C is more common - widespread frosts and fog are a regular sight. Snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip several times a year, but in the urban area only once or twice, particularly during heavy winters. Snow has been known to fall heavily with several centimetres accumulating even in the CBD. Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s. Snowfalls in the urban area have occurred in recent years: November 2006 (light), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light), July 2017 (light), June 2018 (moderate), May 2019 (light), and August and September 2020 (light and heavy).The mean annual rainfall is , Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007. More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month. The city's mean daily wind run is 470 km, almost twice that of Melbourne, making it one of the windiest cities in Australia. This in turn causes warm summers to feel substantially cooler and near-freezing winter days to have a far below zero wind chill. Ballarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave. The lowest recorded minimum was on 21 July 1982. ==Environment== ===Natural reserves and commons=== While there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east. The most central park to the city is the 130 ha Victoria Park, with a plethora of ovals and fields, playgrounds, walking tracks and quiet roads. There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park. There are also smaller parks, like Black Hill, Victoria Park, Pioneer Park and Yarowee Reserve, located within walking distance of the city centre. Ballarat is unique in Australia—and internationally—for having retained much of its commons land, which can be used by any resident of Ballarat. Ballarat Town Common, Ballarat West Town Common and Ballarat Common are located to the west of the city. Ballarat Town Common can be accessed via Howe Street in Miners Rest and is used by dog walkers and ramblers, especially because of its open grass fields and native wetland. Ballarat West Town Common is presently farmed on by licensed farmers. The commons were reduced in size during the 20th century for property development. The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements. ===Pollution=== Air quality in Ballarat is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces contributes to reductions in visibility in the winter months. Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry. The Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings. Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006. The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007. Many parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora. Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control. European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas. ==Economy== The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education. Secondary sector including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector. The city's historic primary sector roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century. Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy. ===Service industries=== As a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations. Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity. Ballarat is the main retail economy in the region. The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders. There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree. better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores. Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe. Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented. Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, ANZ, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo & Adelaide Bank and St George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms. Federation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs. In recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people. Ballarat West Employment Zone (BWEZ) is located on the north-west fringe of Ballarat, adjacent to the Ballarat Airport, existing rail infrastructure and the Ballarat Western Link Road. Ballarat West Employment Zone (BWEZ) will become the engine room for jobs and economic growth in Ballarat over the next 20 years. The project involves the development of surplus Crown Land for industrial, wholesale, logistics, construction, commercial and residential uses, encouraging employment growth in Ballarat and the surrounding region. BWEZ will also include a freight hub, secure infrastructure and access to road, rail and ports. and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people. Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism. A significant heritage tourism industry has grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s. Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970. Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand. Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue. Several businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history. They include Kryal Castle (1972), "Gold Rush Mini Golf" (2002) featuring the "Big Miner" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance. Other tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Wildlife Park. A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry. The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry. Ballarat hosts a number of annual festivals with historical and cultural focus including the Ballarat Begonia Festival, Ballarat Heritage Weekend and Ballarat Beat Rockabilly Festival. ===Manufacturing=== According to the 2021 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's sixth largest employment sector, accounting for 7% of all workers. Ballarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers. The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers. McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations. The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom. Ballarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components. Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry. ===Primary sector=== Though historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary sector declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006. Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce. Ballarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city. Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating. There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies. Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields. Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted. An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts. Approximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate. The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports. Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries. Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry. The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859. A$7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations. ====Renewable energy==== The Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils. The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially. All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market. Wind energy is generated by local wind farms. The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat. Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population. The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford. Hydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes. Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm. Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes. ==Demographics== Ballarat is the 4th largest inland city in Australia, and the 3rd largest Victorian city behind Melbourne and Geelong. According to the 2021 census, there were 111,973 people in Ballarat, This follows annual growth of 1.78% since June 2013 (slightly faster than the national rate of 1.56% during the same period). These include people from England (2.1%), India (1.6%), New Zealand (0.9%), China (0.6%), and the Philippines (0.6%). According to the 2021 Census, Ballarat's working population include Professionals (22.8%), Community and Personal Service Workers (13.8%), Technicians and Trades Workers (13.8%), Clerical and Administrative Workers (12.3%), and Managers (11.2%). ===Religion=== Christianity is the most common religion in Ballarat. Catholics (21.3%), Anglicans (7.9%) and the Uniting Church (4.7%) were the largest Christian denominations. 47.6% stated they had no religion and a further 5.9% did not answer the question. The Mayor of Ballarat, currently Des Hudson, is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term. The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane. In state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Eureka and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party. In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat. The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin. Law enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong. Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol. Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street. Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965. Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat. Public safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations. Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree. Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol. Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services. City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police. ==Media== ===Newspapers=== Ballarat has two local newspapers, one owned by Australian Community Media and one a private equity. The Courier is a daily and The Ballarat Times News Group is a free weekly. The latter is distributed across most of the city on Thursday and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, and a classifieds section. Ballarat was the hub of Australian Community Media's Victoria production and manufacturing with all printed material for the state coming from the Wendouree print site until it closed in September 2020. ===Radio stations=== Local radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations. There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network. 102.3 FM – 3BA (local "classic hits" commercial radio station) 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local "top-40" commercial radio station) 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station) 107.9 FM – ABC Ballarat (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback) 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station) ===Television=== Television station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962. Today Ballarat is serviced by numerous "free to air" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services. Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, WIN HD, 9Life, 9Go! and 9Gem (sub-licensees of the Nine Network) and Seven, 7HD, 7two, 7mate, 7Bravo and 7flix (Seven Network owned and operated). These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria. The city also receives 10, 10 HD, 10 Peach Comedy, 10 Bold Drama, Nickelodeon and Sky News Regional (Network 10 owned and operated) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office. Ballarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programming. WIN previously presented a 30-minute local WIN News bulletin from its studios in the city, where WIN News bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura were also broadcast. In 2015, the Ballarat studios closed with production of the regional Victorian news bulletins being relocated to Wollongong in New South Wales, where they now originate from. WIN retains reporters and camera crews for its Ballarat bulletin in the city. Southern Cross 10, airs short local news updates like Seven throughout the day, broadcast from its Hobart studios. Seven airs short local news and weather updates throughout the day, broadcast from its Canberra studios with an office in the city. In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government funded ABC (ABC TV, ABC Family, ABC Kids, ABC Entertains, ABC News) and SBS (SBS TV, SBS Viceland, SBS World Movies, SBS WorldWatch, SBS Food and NITV) television services. On 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas. All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems. Subscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV. ==Education== Ballarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University. Formerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014. It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne. The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city. The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Berwick, Brisbane, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell. The Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street. It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909. It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city. Ballarat has five State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest. Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools. The three remaining schools are Phoenix College and the two newly formed schools Mount Rowan Secondary College and Woodmans Hill Secondary College which emerged from the old Ballarat Secondary College. Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School. The city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995. Ballarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School. The later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12. Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above. In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College. Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern. The City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the Ballarat Library, run by the City of Ballarat and located on Doveton Street North. Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books. The Xin Jin Shan Chinese Library opened in 2022. It contains over 240,000 Chinese-language books, reportedly the largest collection in the Southern Hemisphere. ==Arts and culture== ===Galleries=== The Art Gallery of Ballarat houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works. It is the oldest and largest regional gallery in Australia. Federation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell-designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets. ===Performing arts=== Ballarat has a lively and well-established theatrical community, with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues. Major performing arts venues include the 800-capacity Her Majesty's Theatre, the 857 seat Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts and the Loreto Abbey Theatre in the Mary's Mount Centre which is part of Loreto College a Roman Catholic girls school with 500 seats. Ballarat also hosts the smaller 90 seat Post Office Box Theatre which is also used by Federation University's Performing Arts Academy program. Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include Ballarat National Theatre (since 1938); BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company; since 1959); the amateur theatre troupe Creswick Theatre Company (since 1981); and the female-led boutique company, Salty Theatre (established 2018). The Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1956 as a general purpose venue. Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years. Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and public pressure forced the council to redevelop it in 2018 as a modern performing arts and exposition centre. The refurbished building is a modern interpretation of its original 1950s built form and features a 1000 capacity main hall capable of use for concerts, meetings and civic events. The Regent Cinemas, which opened in the heart of the city in 1928, was once the largest picture palace in regional Victoria, with nearly 2,000 seats in stalls and balcony. or 1970. It was acquired and renovated by the Anderson family, who reopened it in 1976. It was completely refurbished and the interiors redesigned to create a multiplex containing three separate theatres in 1986, and a further three screens were added in the early 2000s. The facade remained intact, and the sign at its entrance showed the words "The Regent Multiplex", while the vertical sign simply said "Regent". On 24 June, 2024, the owners announced the closure of the cinema, effective immediately, to the dismay of many patrons and the mayor of Ballarat. Ballarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra, which was formed in 1987. The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene. ===Events and festivals=== Ballarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors. The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city. Ballarat is home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod. The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually. From the late 1880s, there were annual competitions run by the South Street Society, later revived as the Royal South Street Eisteddfod (in recess in 2020 due to COVID-19 restrictions). Lake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953). SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake. The Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year. Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria. The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors. The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands. Other minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennale and the Goldfields Music Festival. ===Other entertainment=== In the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained around 60 hotels. The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts. By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of the remaining ones had been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues. Gaming machines brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs, enabling expansion and modernisation. The city has many restaurants and wine bars. ==Cultural depictions== Ballarat has inspired many visual artists. Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes. Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1891); King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories (1892) by Morley Roberts; The Fortunes of Richard Mahony (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; Murder on the Ballarat Train (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and Illywhacker (1985) by Peter Carey. Ballarat is also a popular filming location. Australia's second oldest feature film, Eureka Stockade (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event. The city makes cameos in Dogs in Space (1986), My Brother Jack (2001), Ned Kelly (2003) and The Writer (2005). The television series The Doctor Blake Mysteries (2012–2017) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there. The series was picked by the Seven Network, which proposes to make several telemovies without the Blake character, picking up the story line after his death, leaving his widow Jean. Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, the corvette HMAS Ballarat (J184) and the frigate HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155). ==Sport and recreation== Ballarat Highlanders Rugby Football Club (est. 1976) is based at Doug Dean Reserve, Delecombe. They play in the statewide Victoria Rugby Championship, which they last won in 2016. They also host the Ballarat Charity 7s (est 2022), a short form version of Rugby Union and all proceeds from the event get donated to a local charity (2022 – Ballarat Men's Mental Health, 2023 – GROW Group Ballarat). Australian rules football is the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat. It has its own dedicated stadium, Eureka Stadium, which serves as a venue of the Australian Football League (AFL), as well as the home ground of the semi-professional North Ballarat Roosters, which formerly competed in the Victorian Football League (VFL). The Ballarat Football League, established in 1893, features six local teams, including the Ballarat Football Club, which was founded in 1860 and remains one of the world's oldest football clubs. Other Ballarat-based teams compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League. Cricket is Ballarat's second most-popular sport. It has three international standard cricket ovals, including Eastern Oval, which was one of the host venues of the 1992 Cricket World Cup. The Ballarat Cricket Association is the city's principle cricket competition. Soccer is also popular in Ballarat. Based at Morshead Park Stadium, the semi-professional Ballarat City FC competes in the National Premier League, the third tier competition of Australian soccer. Melbourne's Western United FC plays four A-League matches per year at Eureka Stadium. Basketball is played in Ballarat with the Ballarat Sports Events Centre hosting South East Australian Basketball League matches involving the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush. Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs. Athletics is and has historically been very popular with 4 local clubs competing at the BRAC (Ballarat Regional Athletics Centre) located at the Llanberis Athletics Track in Golden Point, 5 minutes from the CBD. The city features a rich and decorated athletics history with Australia's most successful track and field athlete (Jared Tallent - Racewalker), and many other Olympians (Steve Moneghetti, Greg Smith (Paralympian)) having been born in Ballarat. Rowing and kayaking are centred on Lake Wendouree, which hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual "Head of the Lake" rowing regatta. The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympic Games. Horse racing and greyhound racing are also popular, with dedicated facilities. The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November. Athletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Golden Point. Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool. The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located in Lake Gardens. Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857, and three local teams compete in the Geelong Baseball Association. Golf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course in Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club. The Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009. They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions. The World Athletics-Certified Ballarat Marathon Road Running Festival, inaugurated in 2024, is now an annual event. It features a variety of road running events, including a full marathon, half marathon, 10km run, and family-friendly fun runs, attracting participants from across the region and beyond. The 2024 Marathon Event was a qualifying race for the Abbott World Marathon Majors 2025 Age Group Championships. The festival promotes community participation, and showcases Ballarat's scenic landmarks. Until they were cancelled in July 2023, Ballarat, along with other cities in regional Victoria, was scheduled to host the 2026 Commonwealth Games with Eureka Stadium flagged to host athletics, the Eastern Oval T20 cricket, and Selkirk Stadium to host boxing. ==Infrastructure== ===Health=== Ballarat has two major hospitals. The public health services are managed by Grampians Health Ballarat including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth. The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment. The Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese. ===Utilities=== Ballarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council. Water supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water. Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan. The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder. Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system. Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 with a capacity of ). Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant. Residential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy. Telephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility. The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA). Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009. Data communications are provided by several companies. Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001. Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road). These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G). Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry. During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable. ==Suburbs== Ballarat has the following suburbs: Addington, Alfredton, Ascot, Bakery Hill, Ballarat Central, Ballarat East, Ballarat North, Black Hill, Blowhard, Bonshaw, Brown Hill, Bunkers Hill, Canadian, Cardigan, Cardigan Village, Chapel Flat, Coghills Creek, Delacombe, Eureka, Glendaurel, Glendonald, Golden Point, Gong Gong, Invermay Park, Lake Gardens, Lake Wendouree, Learmonth, Lucas, Magpie, Miners Rest, Mitchell Park, Mount Bolton, Mount Clear, Mount Helen, Mount Pleasant, Mount Rowan, Nerrina, Newington, Redan, Scotchmans Lead, Sebastopol, Soldiers Hill, Tourello, Weatherboard, Wendouree, Windermere and Winter Valley. ==Transportation== The motor vehicle is the main form of transport in Ballarat. A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham. Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287). The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes). The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura. Sturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets. Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street. The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes. From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough. Since the controversial removal of "flagship" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes. Patronage however has continued to grow. The Regional Rail Link project was built in 2015 to separate Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network. Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station. A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way. Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013. Ballarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight. ===Bus=== CDC Ballarat operates the bus network covering the city centre, Ballarat and Wendouree stations, and most surrounding suburbs, contracted by Public Transport Victoria. ===Tram=== The once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway. There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals. ===Airport=== Ballarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid. Master Plans for the Airport were completed in 2005 and subsequently 2013. The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway, consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal, recommendations for future use of aprons, and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft that would result from the forecast increased frequent usage. In 2020, initial Federal funding was provided to enable the re-building and re-instatement of the main north–south runway to 1900m (6233 feet). ===Cycling and walking=== Ballarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation. The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes: the Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail and the Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir. The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city. The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city. == Crime == In 2014, the city was one of a number of Australian regional centres examined by an ABC Four Corners report on the use of methamphetamine, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud.	[ "Central Highlands (Victoria)", "emergency services", "Rural Ambulance Victoria", "Great Depression", "Australian House of Representatives", "Australian dollar", "10 HD", "AGL Energy", "boosterism", "The Herald (Melbourne)", "Common gorse", "Alfredton, Victoria", "Vodafone", "Ballarat Clarendon College", "Nickelodeon (Australian TV channel)", "League of Historical Cities", "performing arts", "Ballarat Gaol", "Wendouree West, Victoria", "Ballarat North, Victoria", "GLV/BCV", "Ballarat Roller Derby League", "UTC10", "Southern Cross railway station", "The Argus, Melbourne", "Electoral district of Ripon", "Loreto College, Victoria", "ABC Kids (Australia)", "King George V", "retail", "Mount Pleasant, Victoria", "SBS Food", "Boral", "Sharp Corporation", "Electoral district of Wendouree", "Thomas Hiscock", "tradespeople", "2021 Australian census", "Mount Warrenheip", "US Army Air Forces", "Mount Mercer Wind Farm", "Voice FM 99.9", "Ballarat East, Victoria", "St George Bank", "Invermay Park, Victoria", "Invermay, Victoria", "Hepburn Wind Project", "St. Paul's College, Ballarat", "Henry James O'Farrell", "Abbott World Marathon Majors", "Australian Football League", "Midland Highway (Victoria)", "Dogs in Space", "primary sector", "Bonshaw, Victoria", "1992 Cricket World Cup", "Newington, Victoria", "Kerry Greenwood", "The Gold Museum, Ballarat", "Creswick", "Commonwealth Bank", "Indigenous Australian", "Henry Sutton (inventor)", "RAAF", "National Electricity Market", "10 Bold Drama", "Georgian architecture", "St Arnaud, Victoria", "service organisation", "Trinity Grammar School (Victoria)", "Phoenix P-12 Community College", "agriculture", "Ballarat Rush", "Maryborough railway station, Victoria", "facade", "DVB-T", "Sunraysia Highway", "Daylesford, Victoria", "South East Australian Basketball League", "A-League", "fireplace", "Glenelg Highway", "Secondary sector", "National Trust of Australia", "dual carriageway", "1956 Summer Olympics", "City of Ballarat", "Serviceton railway line", "IGA (supermarkets)", "Arthur Purnell", "SBS WorldWatch", "Australia", "Geelong", "Public Transport Victoria", "rail transport", "Coles Supermarkets", "Peter Lalor", "Roman Catholic Diocese of Ballarat", "oldest football club", "Mount Buninyong", "WIN News", "Ararat railway station", "7Bravo", "Thoroughbred racing in Australia", "Haileybury, Melbourne", "Ballarat Begonia Festival", "Bendigo, Victoria", "Prime Minister of Australia", "sustainability", "Lake Burrumbeet", "Big W", "renewable energy", "Baseball", "Regent Theatre, Melbourne", "Ballarat International Foto Biennale", "HMAS Ballarat (J184)", "mining", "Xin Jin Shan Chinese Library", "Brown Hill, Victoria", "Stalls (theatre)", "Western United FC", "Athens", "Eureka Stadium", "Ballarat North Workshops", "Queen Elizabeth Centre, Ballarat", "microbrewery", "WIN HD", "ABC Local Radio", "SBS World Movies", "Mars bar", "2026 Commonwealth Games", "State Emergency Service", "Australian soccer league system", "wetlands", "Neighbourhood Cable", "Thomas Livingstone Learmonth", "Mars, Incorporated", "Mount Clear College", "police commissioner", "Bakery Hill, Victoria", "History of Victoria", "Sacred Heart College, Ballarat", "Ballarat Aerodrome", "service economy", "specialty store", "Cricket", "Miners Rest, Victoria", "service industry", "10 Peach Comedy", "Wathaurong", "conurbation", "Canberra", "The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes", "Ward (country subdivision)", "Leonards Hill, Victoria", "Anglicans", "William Swan Urquhart", "National Broadband Network", "Sebastopol, Victoria", "World War I", "WIN Television", "Division of Ballarat", "Ballarat Sports Events Centre", "7mate", "open-air museum", "seat of local government", "Ballarat Football League", "Shepparton, Victoria", "Lucas, Victoria", "Geelong Baseball Association", "Sturt Street Gardens", "Brisbane, Queensland", "Grampians (region)", "7two", "Sport of athletics", "Black Hill, Ballarat", "HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155)", "Buninyong, Victoria", "Foxtel", "V/Line", "Uniting Church", "William Dunstan", "hospitality", "plateau", "South Street Society", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "Delacombe, Victoria", "UTC11", "University of Ballarat", "Aldi", "Tintern Schools", "Eugene von Guerard", "Ex Prisoner of War Memorial", "red fox", "Waubra Wind Farm", "CDC Ballarat", "St John of God Health Care", "Network 10", "Ballarat Showgrounds", "visual art", "Wendouree railway station", "Great Dividing Range", "Gippsland", "Damascus College", "Morley Roberts", "Maltesers", "information technology", "greyhound racing", "Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother", "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", "Golden Point, Victoria", "Multiplex (movie theater)", "Trams in Ballarat", "Australian rules football", "9Life", "Australian Height Datum", "Ned Kelly (2003 film)", "McCain Foods Limited", "commons", "Ballarat City FC", "Avenue of Honour", "European rabbit", "Morshead Park", "water sport", "post-war", "Avenue of honour", "North Ballarat Football Club", "activity centre", "New South Wales", "Albury", "Canadian, Victoria", "IBM", "ABC Entertains", "Köppen climate classification", "Peter Carey (novelist)", "SBS Viceland", "Melbourne Grammar School", "Royal Australian Navy", "Regional Rail Link", "Snickers", "Wombat State Forest", "Devonport, Tasmania", "Geelong-Ballarat railway line", "digital terrestrial television in Australia", "roller derby", "Goulburn River (Victoria)", "Churchill, Victoria", "Politics of Victoria", "Mechanics' Institutes", "National Australia Bank", "Four Corners (Australian TV program)", "Lake Gardens, Victoria", "Underground mining (hard rock)", "ABC Ballarat", "Western Freeway (Victoria)", "Sky News Regional", "nature conservation", "Jared Tallent", "Mount Clear, Victoria", "Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt", "Kryal Castle", "Ballarat Associated Schools", "Ballarat Base Hospital", "boomtown", "Kmart Australia", "The Age", "Geelong Grammar School", "Ballarat Orphanage", "Royal South Street Eisteddfod", "Beaufort railway station, Victoria", "Talbot railway station", "Ballarat railway station", "Horsham, Victoria", "Telstra", "IGA (Australian supermarket group)", "Cardigan, Victoria", "eisteddfod", "gold commissioner", "Stockland Wendouree", "railway town", "ABC News (Australia)", "Non-governmental organization", "Burnie", "manufacturing", "Begonia Festival", "World Athletics", "postal voting", "Victorian Football League", "Coffee Palace", "Oceanic climate", "Public safety", "Fiery Creek (Victoria)", "shanty town", "Big Four (banks)", "Myer", "Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail", "basalt", "Ballarat Heritage Weekend", "Origin Energy", "Country Fire Authority", "industry (economics)", "Victorian gold rush", "Ambulance Victoria", "deciduous", "Wesley College (Victoria)", "Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse", "V/Line VLocity", "councillor", "Ballarat Football Club", "Creswick railway station", "VTV (TV station)", "Special Broadcasting Service", "Elizabeth II", "Victoria (state)", "Queen Victoria", "Lal Lal", "Freight rail transport", "Ballarat Airport", "public services", "7HD", "Woolworths (supermarket)", "Burke and Wills", "The Courier (Ballarat)", "Ballarat Tramway Museum", "picture palace", "Soldiers Hill, Victoria", "King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories", "urban growth boundary", "Nine Network", "Ballarat High School", "Australia & New Zealand Banking Group", "Enfield State Park", "Good News Radio 103.9", "Stawell, Victoria", "John Madden (jurist)", "Murder on the Ballarat Train", "Hopkins Correctional Centre (Ararat)", "Albert Henry Fullwood", "Harris Scarfe", "Wendouree, Victoria", "Redan, Victoria", "Australian Bureau of Statistics", "Knut Bull", "Association football", "Brewing", "Melbourne", "Eastern Oval", "Harold Elliott (Australian Army officer)", "Mayor of Ballarat", "Non-directional beacon", "suffrage in Australia", "SelecTV (Australian television)", "Victorian Legislative Assembly", "democracy in Australia", "Sunshine rail disaster", "Arthur Conan Doyle", "Illywhacker", "Seven Network", "Warrenheip, Victoria", "Chinese language", "education", "My Brother Jack", "koala", "Politics of Australia", "Art Gallery of Ballarat", "ABC TV (Australian TV channel)", "Henry Handel Richardson", "Xavier College", "Soccer in Australia", "Wollongong", "Bolwarrah, Victoria", "Lihir Gold", "Australian Labor Party", "Sisters of Mercy", "List of RAAF inland aircraft fuel depots", "Myki", "grid plan", "Alstom", "Mildura railway line", "Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh", "Law enforcement", "HMAS Ballarat", "Central Highlands Football League", "Southern Hemisphere", "Robert Burns", "Alfred Deakin", "health care", "Melbourne 2030", "St Patrick's College, Ballarat", "Ballarat Wildlife Park", "Prime Ministers Avenue", "Mechanics' Institute", "Triumphal Arch", "The Doctor Blake Mysteries", "Greg Smith (Paralympian)", "9Go!", "Clunes railway station, Victoria", "Steve Moneghetti", "Post Office Gallery", "economic sector", "heritage tourism", "Powercor", "Smythes Creek, Victoria", "List of people from Ballarat", "Scotch College, Melbourne", "public holiday", "decentralisation", "Housing Commission of Victoria", "Westpac", "Stolen Generations", "optical fiber cable", "Charles III of the United Kingdom", "National Indigenous Television", "William Wardell", "Bendigo & Adelaide Bank", "Optus", "passenger rail", "Mount Helen, Victoria", "Eureka, Victoria", "professional services", "SBS (Australian TV channel)", "Collaborative Research Centre in Australian History", "Mildura", "The Fortunes of Richard Mahony", "Eureka Stockade (1907 film)", "Castlemaine, Victoria", "Federation University Australia", "Eureka Flag", "St. John Ambulance", "segregated bicycle facilities", "News.com.au", "Collins Street, Melbourne", "M&M's", "Victorian era", "ABC Family (Australian TV channel)", "Hoyts", "9Gem", "Bendigo", "Basketball", "Corrections Victoria", "Electoral district of Eureka", "Victorian Railways", "COVID-19 pandemic in Victoria", "Ararat, Victoria", "Victorian Heritage Register", "World War II", "Horse racing", "The Maitland Mercury and Hunter River General Advertiser", "1956 Summer Olympic Games", "Ballarat Cricket Association", "Target Australia", "Ballarat Central", "University of Melbourne", "The Geelong College", "USAAF", "Mount Gambier", "7flix", "pedestrian mall", "Eureka Centre", "Henry Dana", "National Premier Leagues Victoria 2", "Australian Catholic University", "Sovereign Hill", "Australia's big things", "Wallace, Victoria", "Victoria (Australia)", "Eureka Rebellion", "Ballarat Miners", "Lake Wendouree", "Ballarat Grammar School", "distance education", "Harvey Norman", "Ballarat Botanical Gardens", "Berwick, Victoria", "Order of Australia Medal", "Sir Albert Coates", "2009 southeastern Australia heat wave", "tourism", "Nerrina, Victoria" ]
4,975	Battle of Abritus	The Battle of Abritus also known as the Battle of Forum Terebronii occurred near Abritus (modern Razgrad) in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior in the summer of 251. It was fought between the Romans and a federation of Gothic and Scythian tribesmen under the Gothic king Cniva. The Roman army was soundly defeated, and Roman emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus, his son, were both killed in battle. It was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Empire against the Germanic tribes, rated by the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus as on par with the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9, the Marcomannic invasion of Roman Italy in 170, and the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The defeat was a disaster for Rome. The emperors' deaths led to more political instability at home; and the loss of the army allowed repeated barbarian incursions in the region for the next two decades. The new Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus was forced to allow the Goths to return home with their loot and prisoners. The barbarians would not be expelled from Roman territory until 271. ==Location== The long-debated location of Abritus was thought to be east of the city of Razgrad after excavations by T. Ivanov in 1969 and 1971. However recent work has shown it took place about northwest of Abritus, in the valley of the river Beli Lom, to the south of the village of Dryanovets near the site known locally as "Poleto" (the Field). This is evidenced by the large number of Roman coins and arms including swords, shields, spears, armour, greaves, and even military tentpoles found by archaeologists and local residents on the site which must be the last Roman camp. == Background == Soon after Decius ascended to the throne in 249, barbarian tribes invaded the Roman provinces of Dacia, Moesia Superior, and Moesia Inferior. Two factors had contributed to growing unrest in the area north of the Danube. First, Decius' predecessor Philip the Arab had refused to continue payments, initiated by Emperor Maximinus Thrax in 238, of annual subsidies to the aggressive tribes of the region. Second and more important, there were continuous movements of new peoples since the time of Emperor Severus Alexander. Decius may also have taken with him troops from the Danube frontier, in order to depose Philip in 249. He probably had with him three legions: legio XIV Gemina from Carnuntum, legio IV Flavia Felix from Singidunum, and legio VII Claudia from Viminacium and/or their vexillationes. The resultant military vacuum would inevitably attract invaders. In 250 a tribal coalition under Cniva crossed the Roman Danube frontier, probably advancing in two columns. Whether these were consisted only of Goths is rather unlikely so the name "Scythians" by which the Greek sources called them (a geographical definition) seems more appropriate. It is quite possible that other people of Germanic and Sarmatian origin (like Bastarnae, Taifals, and Hasdingian Vandals), perhaps Roman deserters as well, had joined the invaders. Meanwhile, the Carpi invaded Dacia, eastern Moesia Superior, and western Moesia Inferior. Then they probably headed south to besiege Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria). Cniva's main column of 70,000 under the King himself crossed the Danube at Oescus then headed eastwards to Novae, where he was repelled by the provincial governor (and future emperor) Trebonianus Gallus. Then the invaders headed south to plunder Nicopolis ad Istrum where Decius defeated them but not decisively. After these initial setbacks, the barbarians moved southwards through Haemus mountain and Decius pursued them (likely through the Shipka Pass) to save Philippopolis. It seems that Priscus, after receiving the news of the defeat at Beroe, thought that the Goths would spare him and the city. He was wrong and was probably killed when the city fell. Then some of Cniva's forces began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, among them many of senatorial rank. ==Battle== In either June, July, or August of 251, the Roman army engaged the forces under Cniva near Abritus. The strengths of the belligerent forces are unknown, but we know that Cniva divided his forces into three units, with one of these parts concealed behind a swamp. Jordanes and Aurelius Victor claim that Herennius Etruscus was killed by an arrow during a skirmish before the battle but his father addressed his soldiers as if the loss of his son did not matter. He allegedly said, "Let no one mourn. The death of one soldier is not a great loss to the Republic". However, other sources state that Herennius died with his father. Decius' forces initially defeated their opponents in the front line, but made the fatal mistake of pursuing their fleeing enemy into the swamp, where they were ambushed and completely routed under a barrage of Gothic missiles. The immense slaughter that ensued marked one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of the Roman Empire. Decius died in the midst of the chaos and slaughter, buried under the mud. The bodies of Decius and Herennius were never found. The Goths captured Decius' treasury of tons of gold coins and many weapons which have since been discovered in many locations across Gothic territories. Zonaras vividly narrates how: He and his son and a large number of Romans fell into the marshland; all of them perished there, none of their bodies to be found, as they were covered by the mud. A 6th-century Byzantine scholar, Zosimus, also described the total massacre of Decius' troops and the fall of the pagan emperor: "Proceeding therefore incautiously in an unknown place, he and his army became entangled in the mire, and under that disadvantage were so assailed by the missiles of the Barbarians, that not one of them escaped with life. Thus ended the life of the excellent emperor Decius." Lactantius, a 4th-century early Christian and advisor to Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, described the emperor's demise as following: He was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and slain, together with great part of his army; nor could he be honoured with the rites of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay to be devoured by wild beasts and birds, a fit end for the enemy of God. D. S. Potter rejects the story of Zosimus about Treboniannus Gallus who supposedly conspired with the enemies of Romans for delivering Decius' army into the Gothic trap since it seems impossible that, afterwards, the shattered Roman legions proclaimed emperor a traitor who was responsible for the loss of so many soldiers from their ranks. Another strong point against Gallus' treason is the fact that he adopted Hostilian, the younger son of Decius, after returning to Rome. ==Aftermath== Gallus, who became emperor upon Decius' death, negotiated a treaty with the Goths under duress, which allowed them to keep their booty and return to their homes on the other side of the Danube. It is also possible that he agreed to pay an annual tribute in return for the Goths' promise to respect Roman territory. This humiliating treaty, the contemporary spread of the Plague of Cyprian with its devastating effects, and the chaotic situation in the East with the Sassanian invasions left Gallus with a very bad reputation amongst the later Roman historians. However, D. S. Potter suggests that, before the defeat at Abritus, the situation was not so serious that the available Roman forces would not be able to manage the invasions. Therefore, it is Decius' bad conduct which was responsible for the disastrous turn of the events. In any case, Gallus had no choice but to get rid of the Goths as soon as possible. In 271, the Emperor Aurelian conclusively defeated the Goths and killed their king Cannabaudes in battle. Based on the similarity of the names, that king might coincide with the King Cniva who defeated Decius in Abritus.	[ "Gothic War (248-253)", "Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum", "aurei", "Trajan Decius", "Zosimus (historian)", "Dexippus", "Herennius Etruscus", "Roman army", "Marcomanni", "Maximinus Thrax", "Bulgaria", "Cniva", "Beli Lom (river)", "Ammianus Marcellinus", "legio XIV Gemina", "Marcomannic Wars", "Razgrad", "Crisis of the Third Century", "Patrologia Graeca", "Philip the Arab", "Scythians", "early Christian", "Germanic Wars", "George Syncellus", "Charles C. Mierow", "Moesia Superior", "Nicopolis ad Istrum", "legio VII Claudia", "Marcianopolis", "Shipka Pass", "Gothic and Vandal warfare", "Roman Italy", "Jordanes", "Roman Empire", "Carnuntum", "Hostilian", "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest", "Bastarnae", "Moesia Inferior", "Novae (fortress)", "J. P. Migne", "Joannes Zonaras", "Stara Zagora", "Battle of Adrianople (378)", "vexillationes", "Viminacium", "Aurelian", "Gordian III", "Hasdingi", "auxilia", "Decius", "Balkan Mountains", "Roman Dacia", "Plague of Cyprian", "Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World", "Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus", "Aurelius Victor", "legio IV Flavia Felix", "Constantine the Great", "Taifals", "Singidunum", "Titus Julius Priscus", "Severus Alexander", "Cannabaudes", "Abritus", "Lactantius", "Battle of Beroe", "Germanic peoples", "Roman emperor", "Goths", "God", "Trebonianus Gallus", "Danube", "Carpians", "Plovdiv", "Oescus", "Ostrogotha" ]
4,978	Battle of Berestechko	The Battle of Berestechko (Ukrainian: Битва під Берестечком, Polish: Bitwa pod Beresteczkiem; 28 June – 10 July 1651) was fought between the Cossack Hetmanate and Crimean Khanate against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a part of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. Near the site of the present-day city of Berestechko in Ukraine, a forces of the Zaporozhian Cossacks and Crimean Tatars under the command of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Otaman Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, Colonels Ivan Bohun and Fylon Dzhalaliy with Khan İslâm III Giray and Tugay Bey, who was killed in the battle, was defeated by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's forces under the command of the Polish King John II Casimir, Prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, Hetmans Marcin Kalinowski and Stanisław Lanckoroński. The battle took place in the Volhynian Voivodeship on the hilly plain south of the Styr River. The Polish–Lithuanian camp was on the Styr River opposite Berestechko and faced south, towards the Zaporozhian Cossacks about two kilometers away, whose right flank was against the Pliashivka (Pliashova) River and the Crimean Tatars on their left flank. It is considered to have been among the largest European land battles of the 17th century. ==Armies== The number of Polish troops is uncertain. One of the senior Polish commanders, Duke Bogusław Radziwiłł, wrote that the Crown Army had 80,000 soldiers, which included "40,000 regulars and 40,000 nobles of the levée en masse, accompanied by roughly the same number of various servants, footmen, and such." Some modern historians, such as Zbigniew Wójcik, Józef Gierowski, and Władysław Czapliński, have reduced this figure to 60,000–63,000 soldiers. There is no reliable source on the number of Zaporozhian Cossack and Crimean Tatar troops. The possible estimates range from 90,000 men to 130,000 men. The core of Cossack forces at Berestechko consisted of 12 Registered Cossack regiments named after towns they were stationed in (list numbers provided according to the Treaty of Zboriv (1649): A total of 33,313 from the above. Additional 5 Cossack regiments (of Kyiv, Kaniv, Chernihiv, Nizhyn, Pavoloch) didn't participate in the battle being deployed mostly against the Lithuanian forces of Janusz Radziwiłł advancing on Kyiv. The Registered Cossack force was supported by a large number of Ukrainian peasants armed with scythes, flails and the likes which were rather undisciplined and organised poorly. The Crimean Tatar force is estimated to 25,000–30,000 men, though might be lower. There were also 2,000 Don Cossacks and a few thousand of Turks and Vlachs. On 19 June 1651, the Crown Army numbered 14,844 Polish cavalry, 2,250 German-style cavalry, 11,900 German-style infantry and dragoons, 2,950 Hungarian-style infantry (haiduks), 1,550 Lithuanian volunteers, and 960 Lipka Tatars. A number of registered Cossacks remained loyal and participated in the battle on the Polish side. Many magnates brought in their large private armies. In addition, there was a huge militia force, of limited value, numbering 30,000 noblemen of the levée en masse. The Polish commanders were hoping to break the Cossack ranks with a charge of the Polish Winged Hussars, a tactic that had proven effective in many previous battles, including at Kircholm, and Kłuszyn (and which would later prove successful at the 1683 Battle of Vienna against the Turks). The Cossack Army was well acquainted with this Polish style of war, having had much experience fighting against the Poles and alongside them. Their preferred tactic was to avoid an open field battle, and to fight from the cover of a huge fortified camp. ==First day of the battle== 2,000 Polish cavalry (one regiment under the command of Aleksander Koniecpolski, supported by Jerzy Lubomirski, six pancern cavalry companies of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki and Winged Hussars under the command of Stefan Czarniecki) repulsed the Crimean Tatars, who suffered heavy losses. During the first day of "skirmishes by the Tatar and Cossack vanguard regiments", the Poles were victorious "since their army sustained that first attack cheerfully and in high spirits". ==Second day of the battle== The Poles, encouraged by their success on the first day, deployed all their available cavalry against the "main Tatar horde" and "Cossack vanguard regiments". At 3 p.m. Duke Jeremi Wiśniowiecki led a successful charge of 18 cavalry companies against the right wing of the Cossack-Tatar armies and "the zealous cavalry attack was a success: it broke up the rows of Cossack infantry and the wagons moving in corral formation". However the Cossacks regrouped, pushed the Polish cavalry out of the camp and advanced further with the help of the Tatars. The left flank of the Polish army started to retreat when the King reinforced it with all German mercenaries under command of Colonel Houwaldt who repulsed the attack and "drove the Tatars from the field". During the fighting, a Polish nobleman called Otwinowski noticed the Tatar Khan's standard, and Polish artillery was directed to fire at it. The Khan's brother Amurat was wounded mortally. With the battle already turning against them, the Tatar forces panicked, "abandoning the Khan's camp as it stood", and fled the battlefield leaving most of their belongings behind. Khmelnytsky and Vyhovsky with a few Cossacks chased Khan attempting to bring him with his force back, but were taken hostage to be released when the battle was over. A heavy rain started which complicated cavalry operations. With the Tatar cavalry gone, the Cossacks moved their wagons in the night to a better defensive position closer to the river, dug trenches and constructed walls to Polish surprise in the morning. == Siege of the Cossack–Tatar camp == The Crown Army and Cossack camp exchanged artillery fire for ten days while both sides built fortifications. The Poles tried to blockade the camp. Leaderless without Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Cossacks were commanded by Colonel Fylon Dzhalaliy who was replaced by Ivan Bohun on 9 July. Other accounts state the commander was Matviy Hladky. The Cossack morale was decreasing and desertions started to the other river side, though they maintained a high rate of artillery fire and made occasional sorties. When the offered terms for surrender were rejected, the Poles prepared to dam the Pliashivka River so as to flood the Cossack camp. Stanisław Lanckoroński with a cavalry force of 2,000 moved across the river on 9 July to complete the encirclement of the Cossacks. When they found out about the Polish advance, Bohun called for a council with other leaders of the registered Cossacks on further actions. However, none of the peasant militia was invited to the council. The Cossacks built three bridges and Bohun led 2,000 cavalry with two cannons to the other river side by the morning of 10 July to attack Lanckoroński. The uninformed peasants thought they were abandoned, started to panic and flee across the river. Lanckoroński didn't expect a large movement in his direction and retreated. Bohun returned to the camp and tried to restore order, but in vain. The main Polish force observed the disorder, but didn't launch an attack on the Cossack camp immediately thinking of a trap. They assaulted eventually, breached the defences and made their way to the river crossing. A few Cossack regiments managed to retreat in order though. Some Cossacks drowned, but archaeological excavations on the river crossing site revealed about a hundred Cossack human remains all showing damage from melee weapons which suggested heavy fighting. A rearguard of 200 to 300 Cossacks heroic protected the river crossing; all of them were killed in battle rejecting surrender offers. "Khmelnytsky's tent was captured intact, with all his belongings", which included two banners, one he received from John II Casimir's 1649 commission and one from Wladyslaw IV in 1646. Although it was difficult to estimate how many Cossacks and peasants were killed in the retreat, Piasecki and Brzostowski, who participated in the battle, mentioned 3,000 killed. Tsar's ambassador podyachy Bogdanov in his report to Moscow mentioned 4,000 killed. Most Cossack artillery pieces were either lost to the Poles or drowned in the marshes. Many spoils were collected in the Cossack camp including the army treasury of 30,000 talers. ===Schematic map of the battle=== 1000px\|center ==Aftermath== As the battle ended, King John Casimir made the error of not pressing even harder the pursuit of the fleeing Cossacks, "the first several days following ... defeat of the enemy were so blatantly wasted" but there "was the unwillingness of the nobility's levée en masse to proceed into Ukraine" plus "rainy weather and a lack of food and fodder, coupled with epidemics and diseases that were becoming active in the army, were generally undercutting any energy for war". The "king left the whole army to Potocki" on 17 July 1651, and returned "to Warsaw to celebrate his victories over the Cossacks". The Ukrainian revolt, far from ending, would continue for several more years under Khmelnytsky. There is a little town on it, In the middle of Volhynia, called Berestechko, Belonging to the Leszczynski family, that was not as famous in the past As it has now become – both ancient Cannae And Khotyn are far outshone by it, because as many heads here Our eyes have seen as at Thermopylae Or Marathon they counted, although there the whole strength Of Europe and Asia had come together. Since our arrival – hilly roads And steep slopes, until open Meadows unfold near the Styr's Low banks. It was pleasant to look from the south At the pyramid of the Pronskis and the groves that are green In winter always. And to th east there lies as if a natural Field for a camp – and there it was indeed placed Later, but first – this was pondered for a long time. The Battle of Berestechko is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription "BERESTECZKO 28-30 VI 1651".	[ "Aleksander Koniecpolski (1620-1659)", "Cherkasy", "Khan (title)", "Matviy Hladky", "Battle of Kluszyn", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi", "Mykhailo Gromyka", "Crown Army", "Polish language", "Warsaw", "Khmelnytsky Uprising", "Pospolite ruszenie", "Europe", "Ivan Gulyanitsky", "Colonel", "Treaty of Bila Tserkva", "Styr", "Rivne Oblast", "Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski", "Battle of Marathon", "Nizhyn", "Tugay Bey", "Yosyp Glukh", "Paweł Jan Sapieha", "Kaniv", "Ivan Bogun", "Treaty of Zboriv", "Hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "King", "Crimean Tatars", "Towarzysz pancerny", "\"King\" of Poland", "pospolite ruszenie", "Chernihiv", "Uman", "John II Casimir of Poland", "Ukraine", "Kyiv", "Mikołaj Potocki", "Crimean Khanate", "Vlachs", "Bohdan Khmelnytsky", "John II Casimir Vasa", "Zaporozhian Host", "Brandenburg-Prussia", "haiduks", "Ukrainian language", "Bila Tserkva", "Registered Cossacks", "Bogusław Radziwiłł", "Chyhyryn", "Fedir Loboda", "Thermopylae", "Stefan Czarniecki", "Vinnytsia", "Khotyn", "Kropyvna", "Battle of Bila Tserkva (1651)", "Styr River", "Martyn Pushkar", "Filon Dzhelaliy", "Władysław Czapliński", "Myrhorod", "Stanisław Lanckoroński (hetman)", "Tymofiy Khmelnytsky", "Tymofiy Nosach", "Battle of Vienna", "İslâm III Giray", "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw", "Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)", "magnate", "Marcin Kalinowski", "Prince", "Pryluky", "Ataman", "Cossack Hetmanate", "Bratslav", "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Duke", "Poltava", "Mykhailo Krysa", "Samuel Twardowski", "Zaporozhian Cossacks", "Janusz Radziwiłł (1612–1655)", "Berestechko", "Pavoloch", "Yakiv Voronchenko", "Battle of Cannae", "Ivan Bohun", "Turkish people", "Pereiaslav", "podyachy", "Jeremi Wisniowiecki", "registered Cossacks", "Hetman of the Zaporizhian Host", "land battle", "Danylo Nechai", "Lipka Tatars", "Jeremi Wiśniowiecki", "Winged Hussars", "Wladyslaw IV", "Battle of Kircholm" ]
4,980	Bohdan Khmelnytsky	Zynoviy Bohdan Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky of the Abdank coat of arms (Ruthenian: Ѕѣнові Богданъ Хмелнiцкiи; modern , Polish: ; 15956 August 1657) was a Ruthenian nobleman and military commander of Zaporozhian Cossacks as Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host, which was then under the suzerainty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He led an uprising against the Commonwealth and its magnates (1648–1654) that resulted in the creation of an independent Cossack state in Ukraine. In 1654, he concluded the Treaty of Pereiaslav with the Russian Tsar and allied the Cossack Hetmanate with Tsardom of Russia, thus placing central Ukraine under Russian protection. During the uprising, the Cossacks under his leadership massacred tens of thousands of Poles and Jews, one of the most traumatic events in Polish and Jewish history. ==Early life== Although there is no definite proof of the date of Khmelnytsky's birth, Ukrainian-born historian Mykhailo Maksymovych suggests that it is likely 27 December 1595 Julian (St. Theodore's day). As was the custom in the Orthodox Church, he was baptized with one of his middle names, Theodore, translated into Ukrainian as Bohdan. A biography of Khmelnytsky by Smoliy and Stepankov, however, suggests that it is more likely he was born on 9 November (feast day of St Zenoby, 30 October in Julian calendar) and was baptized on 11 November (feast day of St. Theodore in the Catholic Church). In the work of Paul of Aleppo, "the Travels of Macarius: Patriarch of Antioch", Khmelnytsky is called as the Khatman Zenobius Akhmil. Khmelnytsky was probably born in the village of Subotiv, near Chyhyryn in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland at the estate of his father Mykhailo Khmelnytsky. He was born into Ukrainian lesser nobility. His father was a courtier of Great Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, but later joined the court of his son-in-law Jan Daniłowicz, who in 1597 became starosta of Korsuń and Chyhyryn and appointed Mykhailo as his deputy in Chyhyryn (pidstarosta). For his service, he was granted a strip of land near the town, where Mykhailo set up a khutor Subotiv. There has been controversy as to whether Bohdan and his father belonged to the Szlachta (Polish term for noblemen). Some sources state that in 1590 his father Mykhailo was appointed as a sotnyk for the Korsun-Chyhyryn starosta Jan Daniłowicz, who continued to colonize the new Ukrainian lands near the Dnieper river. Khmelnytsky attended a Jesuit college, possibly in Jarosław, but more likely in Lviv in the school founded by hetman Żółkiewski. He completed his schooling by 1617, acquiring a broad knowledge of world history and learning Polish and Latin. Later he learned Turkish, Tatar, and French. Unlike many of the other Jesuit students, he did not embrace Roman Catholicism but remained Orthodox. ===Marriage and family=== Khmelnytsky married Hanna Somkivna, a sister of a rich Pereyaslav Cossack; the couple settled in Subotiv. By the second half of the 1620s, they had three daughters: Stepanyda, Olena, and Kateryna. His first son Tymish (Tymofiy) was born in 1632, and another son Yuriy was born in 1640. ==Registered Cossack== Upon completion of his studies in 1617, Khmelnytsky entered into service with the Cossacks. As early as 1619, he was sent together with his father to Moldavia, when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into war against the Ottoman Empire. During the battle of Cecora (Țuțora) on 17 September 1620, his father was killed, and young Khmelnytsky, among many others including future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, was captured by the Turks. He spent the next two years in captivity in Constantinople as a prisoner of an Ottoman Kapudan Pasha (presumably Parlak Mustafa Pasha). Other sources claim that he spent his slavery in Ottoman Navy on galleys as an oarsman, where he picked up a knowledge of Turkic languages. While there is no concrete evidence as to his return to Ukraine, most historians believe Khmelnytsky either escaped or was ransomed. Sources vary as to his benefactor – his mother, friends, the Polish king – but perhaps by Krzysztof Zbaraski, ambassador of the Commonwealth to the Ottomans. In 1622 he paid 30,000 thalers in ransom for all prisoners of war captured at the Battle of Cecora. Upon return to Subotiv, Khmelnytsky took over operating his father's estate and became a registered Cossack in the Chyhyryn Regiment. He most likely did not take part in any of the Cossack uprisings that broke out in Ukraine at that time. His loyal service achieved him the rank of military clerk (pisarz wojskowy) of the registered Cossacks in 1637. It happened after the capitulation of the Pavlyuk uprising in the town Borowica on 24 December 1637, when field hetman Mikołaj Potocki appointed new Cossack eldership. He had to do it because some of the elders either joined Pavlyuk or were killed by him (like former military clerk, Teodor Onuszkowicz). Because of his new position Khmelnytsky was the one who prepared and signed an act of capitulation. Fighting didn't stop in Borowica, rebel Cossacks rose up again under the new command of Ostryanyn and Hunia in the spring next year. Mikołaj Potocki was successful again and after a six week long siege, the rebel Cossacks were forced to capitulate on 3 August 1638. Like the year before, some registered Cossacks joined the rebels, while some of them remained loyal. Unlike the last time, Potocki decided not to punish the rebel Cossacks, but forced all of them to swear loyalty to the king and the state and swear not to seek revenge against each other. The Hetman also agreed to their request to send emissaries to the king to seek royal grace and preserve Cossack rights. They were elected on a council on 9 September 1638 in Kiev. Bohdan Khmelnytsky was one of them; the other three were Iwan Bojaryn, colonel of Kaniów, Roman Połowiec and Jan Wołczenko. The emissaries didn't achieve much, mostly because all decisions were already made by the Sejm earlier this year, when deputies accepted the project presented by the grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski. Cossacks were forced to accept harsh new terms at the next council in Masłowy Staw, at the Ros river. According to one of the articles of the Ordynacya Woyska Zaporowskiego ("Ordinance of the Zaporozhian Army") registered Cossacks lost the right to elect their own officers and a commander, called elder (starszy) or commissar. From now on, the elder was to be nominated by the Sejm, from the Grand Hetman's recommendation. The Grand Hetman also got the right to appoint all officers. Commissars, colonels and osauls had to be a noblemen, while sotniks and atamans had to be Cossacks, who were "distinguished in a service for Us and the Commonwealth". Khmelnytsky became one of the sotniks of Chyhryn regiment. In 1663 in Paris Pierre Chevalier published a book about Cossack uprising called Histoire de la guerre des Cosaques contre la Pologne, which he dedicated to Nicolas Léonor de Flesselles, count de Brégy, who was an ambassador to Poland in 1645. In the dedication he described the meeting de Brégy had with Khmelnytsky in France, and group of Cossacks he brought to France to fight against Spain in Flanders. Chevalier also claimed that he himself commanded Cossacks in Flanders. Although in distant parts of the book Chevalier doesn't mention either Cossacks or Khmelnytsky even once. In his other writing, Relation des Cosaques (avec la vie de Kmielniski, tirée d'un Manuscrit), published the same year, which also contains a biography of Khmelnytsky, there is no mention about his or any other Cossacks stay in France or Flanders. Moreover, first Chevalier book is the only source that mention such an event, there is not trace of it even in correspondence of count de Brègy. Although it is true that he was conducting a recruitment of soldiers in Poland for French army in years 1646–1648. In fact he succeeded and about 3000 of them travelled via Gdańsk to Flanders and took part in fights around Dunkirk. French sources describes them as infanterie tout Poulonnois qu'Allemand. They were commanded by colonels Krzysztof Przyjemski, Andrzej Przyjemski and Georges Cabray. Second recruitment that shipped off in 1647 were commanded by Jan Pleitner, Dutch military engineer in service of Władysław IV and Jan Denhoff, colonel of Royal Guard. 17th century French historian Jean-François Sarasіn in his Histoire de siège de Dunkerque when describing participation of Polish mercenaries in fights over Dunkirk, notes that they were commanded by some "Sirot". Some historians identify him as Ivan Sirko, Cossack Otaman. Claims that Khmelnytsky and Cossacks were actually in France are supported by some Ukrainian historians, while other and most Polish scholarship finds it unlikely. ==Czapliński Affair== Upon the death of magnate Stanisław Koniecpolski (March 1646) his successor, Aleksander, redrew the maps of his possessions. He laid claim to Khmelnytsky's estate, claiming it as his. Trying to find protection from this grab by the powerful magnate, Khmelnytsky wrote numerous appeals and letters to different representatives of the Polish crown but to no avail. At the end of 1645 the Chyhyryn starosta Daniel Czapliński officially received authority from Koniecpolski to seize Khmelnytsky's Subotiv estate. thumb\|left\|Portrait of Bohdan Khmelnytsky (c. 1650) in the District Museum in [[Tarnów. Khmelnytsky obtained ready-made garments from the East. According to a 1651 message, Sultan Mehmed IV sent to him "a samite caftan, one of his honorable royal caftans." Religion, ethnicity, and economics factored into this discontent. While the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a union of nations, a sizable population of Orthodox Ruthenians were ignored. Oppressed by the Polish magnates, they took their wrath out on Poles, as well as the Jews, who often managed the estates of Polish nobles. The advent of the Counter-Reformation worsened relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Many Orthodox Ukrainians considered the Union of Brest as a threat to their Orthodox faith. ==Initial successes== At the end of 1647 Khmelnytsky reached the estuary of the Dnieper river. On 7 December, his small detachment (300–500 men), with the help of registered Cossacks who went over to his side, disarmed the small Polish detachment guarding the area and took over the Zaporozhian Sich. The Poles attempted to retake the Sich but were decisively defeated as more registered Cossacks joined the forces. At the end of January 1648, a Cossack Rada was called and Khmelnytsky was unanimously elected a hetman. A period of feverish activity followed. Cossacks were sent with hetman's letters to many regions of Ukraine calling on Cossacks and Orthodox peasants to join the rebellion, Khortytsia was fortified, efforts were made to acquire and make weapons and ammunition, and emissaries were sent to the Khan of Crimea, İslâm III Giray. Initially, Polish authorities took the news of Khmelnytsky's arrival at the Sich and reports about the rebellion lightly. The two sides exchanged lists of demands: the Poles asked the Cossacks to surrender the mutinous leader and disband, while Khmelnytsky and the Rada demanded that the Commonwealth restore the Cossacks' ancient rights, stop the advance of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, yield the right to appoint Orthodox leaders of the Sich and of the Registered Cossack regiments, and to remove Commonwealth troops from Ukraine. The Polish magnates considered the demands an affront, and an army headed by Stefan Potocki moved in the direction of the Sich. Had the Cossacks stayed at Khortytsia, they might have been defeated, as in many other rebellions. However, Khmelnytsky marched against the Poles. The two armies met on 16 May 1648 at Zhovti Vody, where, aided by the Tatars of Tugay Bey, the Cossacks inflicted their first crushing defeat on the Commonwealth. It was repeated soon afterwards, with the same success, at the Battle of Korsuń on 26 May 1648. Khmelnytsky used his diplomatic and military skills: under his leadership, the Cossack army moved to battle positions following his plans, Cossacks were proactive and decisive in their manoeuvrers and attacks, and most importantly, he gained the support of both large contingents of registered Cossacks and the Crimean Khan, his crucial ally for the many battles to come. ===Establishment of Cossack Hetmanate=== []] The Patriarch of Jerusalem Paiseus, who was visiting Kiev at this time, referred to Khmelnytsky as the Prince of Rus. In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation headed by Senator Adam Kysil, Khmelnytsky declared that he was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, Podilia, and Volhynia... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Kholm (modern Chełm), and Halych." After the period of initial military successes, the state-building process began. His leadership was demonstrated in all areas of state-building: military, administration, finance, economics and culture. Khmelnytsky made the Zaporozhian Host the supreme power in the new Ukrainian state and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. Khmelnytsky built a new government system and developed military and civilian administration. A new generation of statesmen and military leaders came to the forefront: Ivan Vyhovsky, Pavlo Teteria, Danylo Nechai and Ivan Nechai, Ivan Bohun, Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky. From Cossack polkovnyks, officers, and military commanders, a new elite within the Cossack Hetman state was born. Throughout the years, the elite preserved and maintained the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate in the face of Russia's attempt to curb it. It was also instrumental in the onset of the period of Ruin that followed, eventually destroying most of the achievements of the Khmelnytsky era. ===Complications=== Khmelnytsky's initial successes were followed by a series of setbacks as neither Khmelnytsky nor the Commonwealth had enough strength to stabilise the situation or to inflict a defeat on the enemy. What followed was a period of intermittent warfare and several peace treaties, which were seldom upheld. From spring 1649 onward, the situation turned for the worse for the Cossacks; as Polish attacks increased in frequency, they became more successful. The resulting Treaty of Zboriv on 18 August 1649 was unfavourable for the Cossacks. It was followed by another defeat at the battle of Berestechko on 18 June 1651 in which the Tatars betrayed Khmelnytsky and held the hetman captive. The Cossacks suffered a crushing defeat, with an estimated 30,000 casualties. They were forced to sign the Treaty of Bila Tserkva, which favoured the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Warfare broke open again and, in the years that followed, the two sides were almost perpetually at war. Now, the Crimean Tatars played a decisive role and did not allow either side to prevail. It was in their interests to keep both Ukraine and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from getting too strong and becoming an effective power in the region. Khmelnytsky started looking for another foreign ally. Although the Cossacks had established their de facto independence from Poland, the new state needed legitimacy, which could be provided by a foreign monarch. In search of a protectorate, Khmelnytsky approached the Ottoman sultan in 1651, and formal embassies were exchanged. The Turks offered vassalship, like their other arrangements with contemporary Crimea, Moldavia and Wallachia. However, the idea of a union with the Muslim monarch was not acceptable to the general populace and most Cossacks. The other possible ally was the Tsardom of Russia. However, despite appeals for help from Khmelnytsky in the name of the shared Orthodox faith, the tsar preferred to wait, until the threat of a Cossack-Ottoman union in 1653 finally forced him to action. The differences were expressed during the ceremony of the oath of allegiance to the tsar: the Russian envoy refused to reciprocate with an oath from the ruler to his subjects, as the Cossacks and Ruthenians expected since it was the custom of the Polish king. Khmelnytsky stormed out of the church and threatened to cancel the entire treaty. The Cossacks decided to rescind the demand and abide by the treaty. ==Final years== As a result of the 1654 Treaty of Pereiaslav, the geopolitical map of the region changed. Russia entered the scene, and the Cossacks' former allies, the Tatars, had switched sides and gone over to the Polish side, initiating warfare against Khmelnytsky and his forces. Tatar raids depopulated whole areas of Sich. Cossacks, aided by the Tsar's army, took revenge on Polish possessions in Belarus, and in the spring of 1654, the Cossacks drove the Poles from much of the country. Sweden entered the mêlée. Old adversaries of both Poland and Russia, they occupied a share of Lithuania before the Russians could get there. The occupation displeased Russia because the tsar sought to take over the Swedish Baltic provinces. In 1656, with the Commonwealth increasingly war-torn but also increasingly hostile and successful against the Swedes, the ruler of Transylvania, George II Rákóczi, also joined in. Charles X of Sweden had solicited his help because of the massive Polish popular opposition and resistance against the Swedes. Under blows from all sides, the Commonwealth barely survived. Russia attacked Sweden in July 1656, while its forces were deeply involved in Poland. That war ended in status quo two years later, but it complicated matters for Khmelnytsky, as his ally was now fighting his overlord. In addition to diplomatic tensions between the tsar and Khmelnytsky, a number of other disagreements between the two surfaced. In particular, they concerned Russian officials' interference in the finances of the Cossack Hetmanate and in the newly captured Belarus. The tsar concluded a separate treaty with the Poles in Vilnius in 1656. The Hetman's emissaries were not even allowed to attend the negotiations. Khmelnytsky wrote an irate letter to the tsar accusing him of breaking the Pereiaslav agreement. He compared the Swedes to the tsar and said that the former were more honourable and trustworthy than the Russians. On 22 July, he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and became paralysed after his audience with the Kiev Colonel Zhdanovich. His expedition to Halychyna had failed because of mutiny within his army. Less than a week later, Bohdan Khmelnytsky died at 5 a.m. on 27 July 1657. His funeral was held on 23 August, and his body was taken from his capital, Chyhyryn, to his estate, at Subotiv, for burial in his ancestral church. In 1664 a Polish hetman Stefan Czarniecki recaptured Subotiv and, according to some Ukrainian historians, ordered the bodies of the hetman and his son, Tymish, to be exhumed and desecrated, while others claim that is not the case. ==Influences == Khmelnytsky had a crucial influence on the history of Ukraine. He not only shaped the future of Ukraine but affected the balance of power in Europe, as the weakening of Poland-Lithuania was exploited by Austria, Saxony, Prussia, and Russia. His actions and role in events were viewed differently by different contemporaries, and even now there are greatly differing perspectives on his legacy. ===Ukrainian assessment=== In Ukraine, Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as a national hero. A city and a region of the country bear his name. His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian banknotes and his monument in the centre of Kyiv is a focal point of the Ukrainian capital. There have also been several issues of the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky – one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union. However, with all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in Ukraine it is far from being unanimous. He is criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country. Prominent Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko, was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics. Others criticize him for his alliance with the Crimean Tatars, which permitted the latter to take a large number of Ukrainian peasants as slaves, as the Cossacks as a military caste did not protect the kholopy, the lowest stratum of the Ukrainian people. Folk songs capture this. On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, with some critics acknowledging that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times. In a 2018 Ukraine's Rating Sociological Group poll, 73% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive attitude to Khmelnytsky. ===Polish assessment=== Khmelnytsky's role in the history of the Polish State has been viewed mostly in a negative light. The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the Golden Age of the Commonwealth and the beginning of its demise. Although it survived the rebellion and the following war, within less than two hundred years it was divided amongst Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the partitions of Poland. Many Poles blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth. Khmelnytsky has been a subject to several works of fiction in the 19th century Polish literature, but the most notable treatment of him in Polish literature is found in Henryk Sienkiewicz's With Fire and Sword. The rather critical portrayal of him by Sienkiewicz has been moderated in the 1999 movie adaptation by Jerzy Hoffman. ===Russian and Soviet history=== The official Russian historiography stressed the fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with an expressed desire to "re-unify" Ukraine with Russia. This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow as an heir of the Kievan Rus', which appropriately gathered its former territories. Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the "eternal union" of all the Russias – Great (Russia), Little (Ukraine) and White (Belarus) Russia. As such, he was much respected and venerated during the existence of the Russian Empire. His role was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow: to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia. This view was expressed in a monument commissioned by the Russian nationalist Mikhail Yuzefovich, which was installed in the centre of Kiev in 1888. Russian authorities decided the original version of the monument (created by Russian sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin) was too xenophobic; it was to depict a vanquished Pole noble, Jewish landlord, and a Catholic priest under the hooves of the horse. The inscription on the monument reads "To Bohdan Khmelnytsky from one and indivisible Russia." Mikeshin also created the Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, which has Khmelnytsky shown as one of Russia's prominent figures. Soviet historiography followed in many ways the Imperial Russian theory of re-unification while adding the class struggle dimension to the story. Atrocity stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. The pogroms contributed to a revival of the ideas of Isaac Luria, who revered the Kabbalah, and the identification of Sabbatai Zevi as the Messiah. Orest Subtelny writes: Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history. == Commemoration == The Ukrainian city of Khmelnytskyi is named after Khmelnytsky. In most Ukrainian cities there are streets named after Bohdan Khmelnytskyi. There is also Bohdan Khmelnytskyi Avenue in the city of Dnipro. There are monuments to Khmelnytsky in Kyiv, Chyhyryn, Chernihiv, Khmelnytskyi, Cherkasy, Nikopol, Kropyvnytskyi, Zaporizhzhia, and Subotiv. The Separate Presidential Brigade "Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytskyi", a unit of the Armed Forces of Ukraine tasked with protecting the president of Ukraine, is named in honor of Khmelnytsky. The National Academy of the State Border Service of Ukraine is named after Khmelnytsky. The Bohdan Khmelnytsky Battalion, a Russian battalion allegedly formed from Ukrainian POWs is named in honor of Khmelnytsky.	[ "Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky", "Golden Age", "Millennium of Russia", "Ruin (period of history)", "Catholic Church", "suzerainty", "prisoner of war", "Cherkasy", "Jan Daniłowicz", "Volhynia", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Polish language", "Warsaw", "Moldavia", "Stanisław Koniecpolski", "Władysław Andrzej Serczyk", "Khmelnytsky Uprising", "Russian nationalism", "CBS News", "Ottoman Empire", "Mykhailo Hrushevsky", "boyar", "Habsburg monarchy", "Kiev Voivodeship", "historiography", "Cossacks", "Ivan Vyhovsky", "Kapudan Pasha", "Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church", "Helen of Troy", "Treaty of Bila Tserkva", "Bogdan", "Russian Empire", "Krasnoluzhsky Bridge", "osaul", "Separate Presidential Brigade", "Counter-Reformation", "Pavlyuk uprising", "Kabbalah", "Battle of Korsuń", "Tugay Bey", "partitions of Poland", "Subotiv", "Zaporizhzhia", "Paul of Aleppo", "starosta", "Battle of Zhovti Vody", "Alexei Mikhailovich", "Henryk Sienkiewicz", "Novgorod", "Mehmed IV", "Treaty of Zboriv", "Tatar invasions", "Crimean Tatars", "Jerzy Hoffman", "Isaac Luria", "Polish Statute of 1505", "Stanisław Barącz", "Frank E. Sysyn", "Kiev", "Daniel Czapliński", "Adam Kysil", "Chernihiv", "Tsar", "Tsardom of Russia", "Ukraine", "Kyiv", "St. Theodore (died 820)", "Ros river", "Mikołaj Potocki", "estuary", "Jan Mikołaj Daniłowicz", "Pereyaslav", "Mykhailo", "Mikhail Yuzefovich", "Tomasz Padura", "Battle of Cecora (1620)", "Parlak Mustafa Pasha", "Zaporozhian Host", "Great Crown Hetman", "Ostryanyn uprising", "pidstarosta", "galley", "Chełm", "invasion", "With Fire and Sword", "ataman", "balance of power in international relations", "Yurii Khmelnytsky", "Serhii Plokhy", "Registered Cossacks", "Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky", "hetman", "Chyhyryn", "Ottoman Navy", "Ruthenian nobility", "Transylvania", "Martin Gilbert", "Polish literature", "history of the Jews in Ukraine", "Stefan Czarniecki", "Aleksander Koniecpolski (1620–1659)", "banknote", "Ruthenians", "oarsman", "kholop", "Bohdan Khmelnytskyi National Academy of the State Border Service of Ukraine", "Union of Lublin", "Szlachta", "Abdank coat of arms", "Chyhyryn Regiment", "Giray dynasty", "Hetman of Zaporizhian Host", "Cossack Rada", "Mikhail Mikeshin", "Dnipro", "Ottoman Turks", "de facto", "Armed Forces of Ukraine", "Stockholm", "Kropyvnytskyi", "Mykhailo Maksymovych", "Tymofiy Khmelnytsky", "Treaty of Pereiaslav", "Kievan Rus'", "Dnieper", "samite", "Crimean Tatar language", "Frank Sysyn", "Mykhailo Khmelnytsky", "İslâm III Giray", "Kingdom of Prussia", "magnate", "Soviet historiography", "Khortytsia", "Armed Forces of Russia", "courtier", "Jan Matejko", "Taras Shevchenko", "Jan Kazimierz", "Sabbatai Zevi", "Prisoner of war", "Constantinople", "state-building", "ABC-Clio", "Helena Czaplińska", "president of Ukraine", "Charles X of Sweden", "Otaman", "Krzysztof Zbaraski", "Khmelnytskyi", "Vasily Buturlin", "Khmelnytskyi Oblast", "National Museum, Warsaw", "Jarosław", "Kaftan", "Vilnius", "Cossack Hetmanate", "Orest Subtelny", "cerebral hemorrhage", "Khmelnytsky family", "Wallachia", "Halychyna", "With Fire and Sword (film)", "Bohdan Khmelnytsky Monument, Kiev", "Valeriy Stepankov", "Halych", "Hetman of Zaporizhian Cossacks", "Yuriy Khmelnytsky", "Belarus", "class struggle", "Vasily Borisovich Sheremetev", "Theodore (given name)", "polkovnyk", "Santa Barbara, California", "thaler", "Ivan Sirko", "Turkic languages", "Zaporozhian Sich", "Władysław IV Vasa", "Hanna Zolotarenko", "Union of Brest", "Ivan Nechai", "Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky (Soviet Union)", "Ukraine: A History", "Zhovkva", "Nikopol, Ukraine", "Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem", "Ivan Bohun", "sotnyk", "xenophobic", "Pereiaslav", "Jewish history", "Stanisław Żółkiewski", "Crown of the Kingdom of Poland", "Alexis of Russia", "Cossack", "Hetman of Ukraine", "Society of Jesus", "khutor", "Danylo Nechai", "Khanate of Crimea", "Oleksander Ohloblyn", "Ems Ukase", "The Battle for God", "Ruthenian language", "Julian calendar", "Khan of Crimea", "Bohdan Khmelnytsky Battalion", "Valeriy Smoliy", "George II Rákóczi", "Ottoman sultan", "Sociological group \"RATING\"", "sotnik", "Podilia", "battle of Berestechko", "Lviv", "Pavlo Teteria" ]
4,982	Ben Bova	Benjamin William Bova (November 8, 1932November 29, 2020) was an American writer and editor. During a writing career of 60 years, he was the author of more than 120 works of science fact and fiction, an editor of Analog Science Fiction and Fact, for which he won a Hugo Award six times, and an editorial director of Omni; he was also president of both the National Space Society and the Science Fiction Writers of America. ==Personal life and education== Ben Bova was born on November 8, 1932, in Philadelphia. He graduated from South Philadelphia High School in 1949. In 1953, while attending Temple University in Philadelphia, he married Rosa Cucinotta; they had a son and a daughter. The couple divorced in 1974. That year he married Barbara Berson Rose. Barbara Bova died on September 23, 2009. Bova dedicated his 2011 novel Power Play to Barbara. In March 2013, he announced on his website that he had remarried, to Rashida Loya. He wrote an op-ed piece in 2012, in which he argued that atheists can be just as moral as religious believers. He went back to school in the 1980s, earning a Master of Arts degree in communications in 1987 from the State University of New York at Albany and a Doctor of Education degree from California Coast University in 1996. ==Career== Bova worked as a technical writer for Project Vanguard in the 1950s and later for the Avco Everett Research Laboratory In 1972, Bova became editor of Analog Science Fact & Fiction, after John W. Campbell's death in 1971. At Analog, Bova won six Hugo Awards for Best Professional Editor. resigning as he lacked the "contractual right to remove his name from the credits." His novel The Starcrossed, loosely based on his experiences, featured a characterization of his friend and colleague Harlan Ellison as "Ron Gabriel". In 1974, he co-wrote the screenplay for an episode of the children's science-fiction television series Land of the Lost, titled "The Search". After leaving Analog in 1978, Bova went on to edit Omni, from 1978 to 1982. In 2000, he attended the 58th World Science Fiction Convention (Chicon 2000) as the Author Guest of Honor. In 2007, Stuber/Parent Productions hired him as a consultant to provide insight into what the world may look like in the near future, for their film Repo Men (2010) starring Jude Law and Forest Whitaker. Also in 2007 he provided consulting services to Silver Pictures on the film adaptation of Richard K. Morgan's hardboiled cyberpunk science-fiction novel Altered Carbon (2002). He was awarded the Robert A. Heinlein Award in 2008 for his work in science fiction. ==Published works== , Bova had written over 124 books in various genres. He edited several works, including The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two (1973) and Nebula Awards Showcase 2008. He wrote the Grand Tour novel series about exploration and colonization of the Solar System by humans. Reviewing a collection of 12 of the series published in 2004, Gerald Jonas in The New York Times described Bova as "the last of the great pulp writers".	[ "Pennsylvania", "Grand Tour (novel series)", "California Coast University", "Naples, Florida", "National Space Society", "Omni (magazine)", "Land of the Lost (1974 TV series)", "Inkpot Award", "Forest Whitaker", "John W. Campbell", "Template:Infobox writer/doc", "Chicago Sun-Times", "Master of Arts", "South Philadelphia High School", "Newspapers.com", "writer", "Silver Pictures", "Jude Law", "op-ed", "Repo Men", "cyberpunk", "Mary Parent", "Windsor Star", "Temple University", "Canadian Press", "Analog Science Fiction and Fact", "St. James Press", "exploration", "editor", "Doctor of Education", "hardboiled", "Ed Emshwiller", "COVID-19", "University at Albany, SUNY", "Freedom From Religion Foundation", "Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America", "atheist", "religion", "Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor", "Richard K. Morgan", "Altered Carbon", "Nebula Awards Showcase 2008", "The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two", "science fiction", "The Starlost", "Robert A. Heinlein Award", "Hugo Award", "Project Vanguard", "Solar System", "Science Fiction Writers of America", "technical writer", "Philadelphia", "Avco", "Harlan Ellison", "Locus Publications", "58th World Science Fiction Convention" ]
4,986	Battle of Okinawa	The , codenamed Operation Iceberg, was a major battle of the Pacific War fought on the island of Okinawa by United States Army and United States Marine Corps forces against the Imperial Japanese Army. The initial invasion of Okinawa on April 1, 1945 was the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific Theater of World War II. The Kerama Islands surrounding Okinawa were preemptively captured on March 26 by the 77th Infantry Division. The 82-day battle on Okinawa itself lasted from April 1, 1945 until June 22, 1945. After a long campaign of island hopping, the Allies were planning to use Kadena Air Base on the island as a staging point for Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands, away. The United States created the Tenth Army, a cross-branch force consisting of the U.S. Army 7th, 27th, 77th and 96th Infantry Divisions with the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Marine Divisions, to seize the island. The Tenth Army was unique because it had its own Tactical Air Force (joint Army-Marine command) and was supported by combined naval and amphibious forces. Opposing the Allied forces on the ground was the Japanese Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima's Thirty-Second Army, a mixed force consisting of regular army troops, naval infantry and conscripted local Okinawans. Total Japanese troop strength on the island was about 100,000 at the onset of the invasion. The Battle of Okinawa was the single longest sustained carrier campaign of the Second World War. The battle has been referred to as the "typhoon of steel" in English, known in Japanese as "tetsu no bōfū". The nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was the bloodiest and fiercest in the Pacific Ocean Theatre, with some 50,000 Allied and around 100,000 Japanese casualties, over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly Seabees and medical personnel). The British naval contingent accompanied 251 British naval aircraft and included a British Commonwealth fleet with Australian, New Zealand and Canadian ships and personnel. ===Japanese=== The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 67,000-strong (77,000 according to some sources) regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku Naval Base (only a few hundred of whom had been trained and equipped for ground combat), supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people (including 24,000 hastily drafted rear militia called Boeitai and 15,000 non-uniformed laborers). The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but now for the first time they became a major institutionalized aspect of the Japanese defensive strategy. Between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th and 62nd Divisions and the 44th Independent Mixed Brigade. The 9th Division was moved to Taiwan before the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Colonel Hiromichi Yahara. Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one. In the north, Colonel Takehido Udo was in command. The naval troops were led by Rear Admiral Minoru Ōta. They expected the Americans to land 6–10 divisions against the Japanese garrison of two and a half divisions. The staff calculated that superior quality and numbers of weapons gave each US division five or six times the firepower of a Japanese division. To this, would be added the Americans' abundant naval and air firepower. ====Japanese use of children==== On Okinawa, the Imperial Japanese Army mobilized 1,780 schoolboys aged 14–17 years into front line service as an Iron and Blood Imperial Corps (), while female Himeyuri students were organized into a nursing unit. ==Naval battle== The US Navy's Task Force 58, deployed to the east of Okinawa with a picket group of 6 to 8 destroyers, kept 13 carriers (7 fleet carriers and 6 light carriers) on duty from 23 March to 27 April and a smaller number thereafter. Until 27 April, a minimum of 14 and up to 18 escort carriers were in the area at all times. Until 20 April, British Task Force 57, with 4 large and 6 escort carriers, remained off the Sakishima Islands to protect the southern flank. During the period of 26 March to 30 April, 20 American ships were sunk and 157 damaged by enemy action. By 30 April the Japanese had lost more than 1,100 planes to Allied naval forces alone. The ships lost were smaller vessels, particularly the destroyers of the radar pickets, as well as destroyer escorts and landing ships. While no major Allied warship was lost, several fleet carriers were severely damaged. Land-based Shin'yō-class suicide motorboats were also used in the Japanese suicide attacks, although Ushijima had disbanded the majority of the suicide boat battalions before the battle because of expected low effectiveness against a superior enemy. The boat crews were re-formed into three additional infantry battalions. File:Yamato battleship explosion.jpg\|The super battleship explodes after persistent attacks from US aircraft. File:USS Bunker Hill hit by two Kamikazes.jpg\|American aircraft carrier burns after being hit by two kamikaze planes within 30 seconds. ===Operation Ten-Go=== Operation Ten-Go (Ten-gō sakusen) was the attempted attack by a strike force of ten Japanese surface vessels, led by Yamato and commanded by Admiral Seiichi Itō. This small task force had been ordered to fight through enemy naval forces, then beach Yamato and fight from shore, using her guns as coastal artillery and her crew as naval infantry. The Ten-Go force was spotted by submarines shortly after it left the Japanese home waters and was intercepted by US carrier aircraft. Under attack from more than 300 aircraft over a two-hour span, the world's largest battleship sank on 7 April 1945 after a one-sided battle, long before she could reach Okinawa. (US torpedo bombers were instructed to aim for only one side to prevent effective counter flooding by the battleship's crew, and to aim for the bow or the stern where armor was believed to be the thinnest.) Of Yamatos screening force, the light cruiser and four of the eight destroyers were also sunk. The Imperial Japanese Navy lost some 3,700 sailors, including Admiral Itō, at the cost of ten US aircraft and twelve airmen. ===British Pacific Fleet=== The British Pacific Fleet, taking part as Task Force 57, was assigned the task of neutralizing the Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, which it did successfully from March 26 to April 10. On April 10, its attention was shifted to airfields in northern Formosa. The force withdrew to San Pedro Bay on April 23. On May 1, the British Pacific Fleet returned to action, subduing the airfields as before, this time with naval bombardment as well as aircraft (they only used aircraft during their first mission of destroying airfields in the Sakishima Islands). Several kamikaze attacks caused significant damage, but as the Royal Navy carriers had armored flight decks, they experienced only a brief interruption to their force's operations. File:HMS Implacable AWM 019037.jpg\|Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Avengers, Seafires and Fireflies on warm up their engines before taking off. File:HMS Formidable (67) on fire 1945.jpg\| on fire after a kamikaze attack on May 4. The ship was out of action for fifty minutes. ==Land battle== The land battle took place over about 81 days beginning on 1 April 1945. The first Americans ashore were soldiers of the 77th Infantry Division who landed in the Kerama Islands, west of Okinawa on 26 March. Subsidiary landings followed, and the Kerama group was secured over the next five days. In these preliminary operations, the 77th Infantry Division suffered 27 dead and 81 wounded, while the Japanese dead and captured numbered over 650. On March 28, 1945, 394 civilians on Tokashiki island were forced by Japanese soldiers to kill themselves after the landing of US troops. The operation provided a protected anchorage for the fleet and eliminated the threat from suicide boats. the 1st Marine Division relieved the 27th Infantry Division and the 77th Infantry Division relieved the 96th. When the 6th Marine Division arrived, the III Amphibious Corps took over the right flank and Tenth Army assumed control of the battle. The 32nd Army withdrew to the south and thus the Marines had an easy task of securing Shuri Castle. The castle, however, was outside the 1st Marine Division's assigned zone, and only frantic efforts by the commander and staff of the 77th Infantry Division prevented an American airstrike and artillery bombardment which would have resulted in many friendly fire casualties. before being removed and replaced by a US flag three days later on orders of General Buckner. The Japanese retreat, although harassed by artillery fire, was conducted with great skill at night and aided by the monsoon storms. The 32nd Army was able to move nearly 30,000 personnel into its last defense line on the Kiyan Peninsula, which ultimately led to the greatest slaughter on Okinawa in the latter stages of the battle, including the deaths of thousands of civilians. In addition, there were 9,000 IJN troops supported by 1,100 militia, with approximately 4,000 holed up at the underground headquarters on the hillside overlooking the Okinawa Naval Base in the Oroku Peninsula, east of the airfield. Ushijima and Chō committed suicide by seppuku in their command headquarters on Hill 89 in the closing hours of the battle. The most complete tally of deaths during the battle is at the Cornerstone of Peace monument at the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum, which identifies the names of each individual who died at Okinawa in World War II. As of 2023, the monument lists 242,046 names, including 149,634 Okinawans, 77,823 Imperial Japanese soldiers, 14,010 Americans, and smaller numbers of people from South Korea (381), the United Kingdom (82), North Korea (82) and Taiwan (34). 234,183 names were inscribed by the time of unveiling, and new names are added as necessary. 40,000 of the Okinawan civilians killed had been drafted or impressed by the Japanese army and are often counted as combat deaths. ===Military losses=== ====American==== The Americans suffered some 48,000 casualties, not including some 33,000 non-battle casualties (psychiatric, injuries, illnesses), of whom over 12,000 were killed or missing. Killed in action were 4,907 Navy, 4,675 Army, and 2,938 Marine Corps personnel; when excluding naval losses at sea and losses on the surrounding islands (such as Ie Shima), 6,316 killed and over 30,000 wounded occurred on Okinawa proper. Other authors such as John Keegan have come up with higher numbers. The battle caused more than twice the number of American casualties than both the Guadalcanal Campaign and Battle of Iwo Jima combined, with the Japanese kamikaze effort causing the American Navy to suffer more casualties than any previous engagement in the Atlantic or Pacific. The most famous American casualty was Lieutenant General Buckner, whose decision to attack the Japanese defenses head-on, although extremely costly in American lives, was ultimately successful. Four days from the closing of the campaign, Buckner was killed by Japanese artillery fire, which blew lethal slivers of coral into his body, while inspecting his troops at the front line. He was the highest-ranking US officer to be killed by enemy fire during the Second World War. The day after Buckner was killed, Brigadier General Easley was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire. War correspondent Ernie Pyle was also killed by Japanese machine-gun fire on Ie Shima, a small island just off of northwestern Okinawa. Aircraft losses over the three-month period were 768 US planes, including those bombing the Kyushu airfields launching kamikazes. Combat losses were 458, and the other 310 were operational accidents. At sea, 368 Allied ships—including 120 amphibious craft—were damaged while another 36—including 15 amphibious ships and 12 destroyers—were sunk during the Okinawa campaign. The US Navy's dead exceeded its wounded, with 4,907 killed and 4,874 wounded, primarily from kamikaze attacks. American personnel casualties included thousands of cases of mental breakdown. According to the account of the battle presented in Marine Corps Gazette: Medal of Honor recipients from Okinawa are: Marine Corps Richard E. Bush – 16 April Henry A. Courtney Jr. – 14–15 May () James L. Day – 14–17 May John P. Fardy – 7 May (posth.) William A. Foster – 2 May (posth.) Harold Gonsalves – 15 April (posth.) Dale M. Hansen – 7 May (posth.) Louis J. Hauge Jr. – 14 May (posth.) Elbert L. Kinser – 4 May (posth.) Robert M. McTureous Jr. – 7 June (posth.) Albert E. Schwab – 7 May (posth.) Army Beauford T. Anderson – 13 April Clarence B. Craft – 31 May Desmond Doss – 29 April – 21 May Martin O. May – 19–21 April (posth.) Seymour W. Terry – 11 May John W. Meagher – 19 June Edward J. Moskala – 9 April (posth.) Joseph E. Muller – 15–16 May (posth.) Alejandro R. Ruiz – 28 April Navy Robert Eugene Bush – 2 May William D. Halyburton Jr. – 10 May (posth.) Fred F. Lester – 8 June (posth.) Richard M. McCool Jr. – 10–11 June ====Allied naval vessels sunk or damaged at Okinawa==== The following table lists the Allied naval vessels that received damage or were sunk in the Battle of Okinawa between 19 March – 30 July 1945. The table lists a total of 147 damaged ships, five of which were damaged by enemy suicide boats and another five by mines. During the naval battle, which started before the amphibious landings on Okinawa on 1 April, suffered over 800 killed and missing and suffered 396 killed and missing. These were the first and third largest loss of life on damaged or sunken American aircraft carriers during World War II. USS Franklin (hit by two bombs in a level bombing attack by a D4Y Suisei (Judy) on 19 March 1945) and USS Bunker Hill were the only two aircraft carriers that sustained very severe damage from Japanese attacks and as a result were the only aircraft carriers in the that did not experience any active service after the end of World War II. One source estimated that total Japanese sorties during the entire Okinawa campaign exceeded 3,700, with a large percentage being kamikaze attacks, and that the attackers damaged slightly more than 200 Allied vessels, with 4,900 naval officers and seamen killed and roughly 4,824 wounded or missing. USS Thorton was damaged as the result of a collision with another US ship. The Japanese air attacks were so intense that Fifth Fleet commander Admiral Spruance's flagships were struck two separate times ( was hit in March and had to retire for repairs which forced him to transfer to which was also hit in May). Fast Carrier Task Force commander Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher and his chief of staff Commodore Arleigh Burke were yards away from getting killed or wounded by kamikazes on his flagship USS Bunker Hill, which killed three of Mitscher's staff officers and eleven of his enlisted staff members and also destroyed his flag cabin along with all of his uniforms, personal papers, and possessions. Just three days later Mitscher's new flagship was also struck by a kamikaze forcing him to have to change his flagship yet again. Both fleet carriers were knocked out for the rest of the war. sunk or had to be scuttled due to irreparable damage. Of those sunk, the majority were relatively smaller ships; these included destroyers of around 300–450 feet. A few small cargo ships were also sunk, several containing munitions which caught fire. scrapped or decommissioned as a result of damage. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- \|+ Allied Naval vessels sunk or damaged by Japanese forces at Okinawa, primarily kamikazes, 19 March – 30 July 1945 \|- ! style="text-align:center; width:55px;" \|Day ! style="text-align:center;" \|Ship ! style="text-align:center;" \|Type ! style="text-align:center;" \|Cause ! style="text-align:center;" \|Killed ! style="text-align:center;" \|Wounded \|- \| 19 Mar 45 \| USS Wasp \| Carrier \| Air attack, bomb through flight, & hangar decks \| 102 \| 269 \|- \| 19 Mar 45 \| USS Franklin \| Carrier \| Air attack \| 807 \| 487 \|- \| 20 Mar 45 \| USS Enterprise \| Carrier \| Air attack, two near misses from bombs, at the same time of near misses immediately hit by two 5-inch AA shells from U.S. ships \| 9 \| 28 \|- \| 20 Mar 45 \| USS Hasley Powell \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 12 \| 29 \|- \| 24 Mar 45 \| USS Nevada \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit and knocked out 14-inch guns in turret number 3 \| 11 \| 49 \|- \| 26 Mar 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Haligan \| Destroyer \| Mine, 3 miles SE of Maye Shima, exploded two forward magazines, bow blown off \| 153 \| 39 \|- \| 26 Mar 45 \| USS Kimberly \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 4 \| 57 \|- \| 27 Mar 45 \| USS Murray \| Destroyer \| Air attack, bomb \| 1 \| 116 \|- \| 27 Mar 45 \| USS O'Brian \| Destroyer \| Air attack, Val kamikaze with bomb \| 50 \| 76 \|- \| 28 Mar 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Skylark \| Small Minesweeper \| Mine, struck mines twice off Hagushi beaches \| 5 \| 25 \|- \| 28 Mar 45 \| USS LSM(R)-188 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 15 \| 32 \|- \| 29 Mar 45 \| USS Wyandot \| Attack Cargo Ship \| Mine, possibly bomb \| 0 \| 1 \|- \| 31 Mar 45 \| USS Indianapolis \| Cruiser \| Air attack, kamikaze with bomb through fuel tanks and propeller shafts \| 9 \| 20 \|- \| 1 Apr 45 \| USS Adams \| Destroyer Minelayer \| Air attack, kamikaze with bombs to fantail \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 1 Apr 45 \| USS Alpine \| Attack Transport \| Air attack, bomb and kamikaze \| 16 \| 27 \|- \| 1 Apr 45 \| USS Hinsdale \| Attack Transport \| Air attack, kamikaze with bombs at waterline \| 16 \| 39 \|- \| 1 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS LST-884 \| Tank Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze, scuttled 6 May \| 24 \| 21 \|- \| 1 Apr 45 \| HMS Ulster \| Destroyer \| Air attack, near miss bomb, badly damaged \| 2 \| 1 \|- \| 1 Apr 45 \| USS West Virginia \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 4 \| 23 \|- \| 2 Apr 45 \| USS New York \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze destroyed search plane on catapult \| 0 \| 2 \|- \| 2 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Dickerson \| Destroyer Transport \| Air attack, kamikaze Nick crashed bridge, towed, scuttled \| 54 \| 23 \|- \| 2 Apr 45 \| USS Goodhue \| Attack Transport \| Air attack, kamikaze aimed at bridge glanced mainmast, hit cargo boom, gun tubs, over side \| 24 \| 119 \|- \| 2 Apr 45 \| USS Henrico \| Attack Transport \| Air attack, kamikaze w/bombs hit bridge \| 49 \| 125 \|- \| 2 Apr 45 \| USS Achernar \| Attack Cargo Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb hit starboard \| 5 \| 41 \|- \| 3 Apr 45 \| USS Wake Island \| Escort Carrier \| Air attack, kamikaze blew below waterline \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 3 Apr 45 \| USS Pritchett \| Destroyer \| Air attack, 500 lb bomb \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 3 Apr 45 \| USS Foreman \| Destroyer \| Air attack, bomb passed through her bottom, exploded below \| 0 \| 3 \|- \| 3 Apr 45 \| USS LST-599 \| Tank Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze through main deck, fires \| Landing Craft, Infantry \| Suicide boat \| 8 \| 11 \|- \| 5 Apr 45 \| USS Nevada \| Battleship \| Air attack 25 Mar and 5 April coastal battery \| 2 \| 16 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Bush \| Destroyer \| Air attack, three kamikaze hits, two between stacks, blew forward engine room, broke in half \| 94 \| 32 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Colhoun \| Destroyer \| Air attack, four kamikaze hits, bombs blew forward, & aft fire rooms at waterline \| 9 \| 14 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| USS Hyman \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze Hampton hit torpedo tubes twixt stacks \| 10 \| 40 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Leutze \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze blew at fantail, bad flooding \| 7 \| 34 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Morris \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kate kamikaze portside \| 0 \| 5 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| USS Mullany \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit depth charges \| 13 \| 45 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Newcomb \| Destroyer \| Air attack, multiple kamikazes \| 40 \| 24 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| USS Haynsworth \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 7 \| 25 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Witter \| Destroyer Escort \| Starboard waterline kamikaze \| 0 \| 5 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| USS Fieberling \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze near miss \| 6 \| 6 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Emmons \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, five kamikaze hits, scuttled 7 April \| 64 \| 71 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| USS Rodman \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, four kamikaze hits \| 16 \| 20 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| USS Defense \| Small Minesweeper \| Air attack, two kamikaze strikes \| 0 \| 9 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LST-447 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit close above waterline, bomb blew \| 5 \| 17 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* SS Hobbs Victory \| Cargo \| Air attack, kamikaze struck port, flames ignited ammunition \| 15 \| 3 \|- \| 6 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* SS Logan Victory \| Cargo \| Air attack, kamikaze struck superstructure, flames ignited ammunition \| 16 \| 11 \|- \| 7 Apr 45 \| USS Hancock \| Carrier \| Air attack, cartwheeling kamikaze \| 72 \| 82 \|- \| 7 Apr 45 \| USS Maryland \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard \| 16 \| 37 \|- \| 7 Apr 45 \| USS Bennett \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit engine room \| 3 \| 18 \|- \| 7 Apr 45 \| USS Wesson \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze starboard \| 8 \| 23 \|- \| 7 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS PGM-18 \| Small Gunboat \| Mine, powerful explosion \| 14 \| 14 \|- \| 7 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* YMS-103 \| Small Minesweeper \| Mine, struck two mines, blowing off her bow and stem rescuing PGM-18 \| 5 \| 0 \|- \| 8 Apr 45 \| USS Gregory \| Destroyer \| Air attack, port kamikaze amidships near waterline \| 0 \| 2 \|- \| 8 Apr 45 \| USS YMS-92 \| Small Sweeper \| Air attack \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 9 Apr 45 \| USS Charles J. Badger \| Destroyer \| Suicide boat threw depth charge or mine \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 9 Apr 45 \| USS Sterett \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard at waterline \| 0 \| 9 \|- \| 9 Apr 45 \| USS Hopping \| Destroyer Transport \| Coastal Battery, damaging hits off Buckner Bay \| 2 \| 18 \|- \| 11 Apr 45 \| USS Enterprise \| Carrier \| Air attack, two kamikazes hit at the waterline near her hull \| 1 \| 18 \|- \| 11 Apr 45 \| USS Kidd \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 38 \| 55 \|- \| 11 Apr 45 \| USS Missouri \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Idaho \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit port side anti-torpedo bulge \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Tennessee \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit signal bridge \| 25 \| 104 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Mannert L. Abele \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 79 \| 35 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Purdy \| Destroyer \| Air attack, splashed kamikaze bomb skidded in \| 13 \| 27 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Cassin Young \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit foremast \| 1 \| 59 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Zellars \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze crashed port, bomb blew \| 29 \| 37 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Rall \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze starboard aft, bomb blew \| 21 \| 38 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Whitehurst \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze with bomb crashed into pilot house \| 37 \| 37 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS Lindsey \| Destroyer Minelayer \| Air attack, two kamikaze Val strikes \| 56 \| 51 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS LSM(R)-189 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 0 \| 4 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LCS(L)-33 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack, kamikaze Val amidships \| 4 \| 29 \|- \| 12 Apr 45 \| USS LCS(L)-57 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack, three kamikaze strikes \| 2 \| 6 \|- \| 14 Apr 45 \| USS Sigsbee \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze damaged port engine \| 4 \| 74 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS Intrepid \| Carrier \| Air attack, kamikaze crashed deck, fires put out \| 10 \| 87 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS Bryant \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze to bridge, with explosion \| 34 \| 33 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS Laffey \| Destroyer \| Air attack, multiple kamikaze hits \| 31 \| 72 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Pringle \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze Val hit abaft stack No. 1, explosion, broke in half \| 65 \| 110 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS Bowers \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze to bridge, bomb hit pilot house \| 48 \| 56 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Harding \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, kamikaze struck side near bridge \| 22 \| 10 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS Hobson \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, near miss kamikaze's bomb veered in \| 4 \| 8 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS LCS(L)-116 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack, kamikaze hit aft gun mount \| 12 \| 12 \|- \| 16 Apr 45 \| USS Missouri \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit stern crane \| 0 \| 2 \|- \| 18 Apr 45 \| USS LSM-28 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 22 Apr 45 \| USS Isherwood \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb crashed gun mount \| 42 \| 41 \|- \| 22 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Swallow \| Small Sweeper \| Air attack, bad kamikaze hit flooded her, 3 mins sunk \| 2 \| 9 \|- \| 22 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LCS(L)-15 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack \| 15 \| 11 \|- \| 27 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Hutchins \| Destroyer \| Suicide boat explosive blew close \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 27 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Rathburne \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit port bow waterline \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 27 Apr 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* SS Canada Victory \| Cargo \| Air attack, kamikaze hit stern, lit ammo, sunk in ten minutes \| 12 \| 27 \|- \| 28 Apr 45 \| USS Pinkney \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit aft of superstructure, lit ammo \| 35 \| 12 \|- \| 28 Apr 45 \| USS Comfort \| Hospital Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze through three decks to surgery \| 30 \| 48 \|- \| 29 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Haggard \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze went through hull, blew engine room \| 11 \| 40 \|- \| 29 Apr 45 \| USS Hazelwood \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze zero hit port bridge \| 46 \| 26 \|- \| 29 Apr 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS LCS(L)-37 \| Landing Craft \| Suicide boat \| 0 \| 4 \|- \| 30 Apr 45 \| USS Terror \| Minelayer \| Air attack, kamikaze blew through main deck \| 48 \| 123 \|- \| 3 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Little \| Destroyer \| Air attack, five kamikaze strikes \| 30 \| 79 \|- \| 3 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Aaron Ward \| Destroyer Minelayer \| Air attack; three kamikaze hits and bomb frags \| 45 \| 49 \|- \| 3 May 45 \| USS Macomb \| Destroyer Minelayer \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 7 \| 14 \|- \| 3 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LSM(R)-195 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit rockets, sunk \| 8 \| 16 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Sangamon \| Escort Carrier \| Air attack, kamikaze & bomb blew through flight deck \| 46 \| 116 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| USS Birmingham \| Light Cruiser \| Air attack, kamikaze hit forward \| 51 \| 81 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| USS Ingraham \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze above port waterline, bomb blew \| 14 \| 37 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| HMS Formidable \| Carrier \| Air attack, kamikaze & bomb blew through flight deck \| 8 \| 55 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| USS Hopkins \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, glancing blow by burning kamikaze \| 0 \| 1 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Luce \| Destroyer \| Air attack, first kamikaze bomb hit, second kamikaze struck aft \| 149 \| 94 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Morrison \| Destroyer \| Air attack, first kamikaze hit bridge, then three more hits \| 159 \| 102 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| USS Shea \| Destroyer \| Air attack, Ohka kamikaze through starboard bridge \| 27 \| 91 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| USS Carina \| Cargo Ship \| Suicide boat ramming caused explosion \| 0 \| 6 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LSM(R)-190 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze set off her rockets \| 13 \| 18 \|- \| 4 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LSM(R)-194 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack \| 13 \| 23 \|- \| 9 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS England \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze dive bomber \| 35 \| 27 \|- \| 9 May 45 \| HMS Formidable \| Carrier \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 1 \| 4 \|- \| 9 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Oberrender \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard gun mount, bomb through main deck \| 8 \| 53 \|- \| 11 May 45 \| USS Bunker Hill \| Carrier \| Air attack, three kamikaze hits with bombs through flight deck \| 396 \| 264 \|- \| 11 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Hugh W. Hadley \| Destroyer \| Air attack, aft bomb, an Ohka, and two more kamikazes struck \| 28 \| 67 \|- \| 11 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Evans \| Destroyer \| Air attack, struck by four kamikazes, fires put out \| 30 \| 29 \|- \| 11 May 45 \| USS LCS(L)-88 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack \| 7 \| 9 \|- \| 12 May 45 \| USS New Mexico \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit, bomb \| 54 \| 119 \|- \| 13 May 45 \| USS Bache \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit, bomb exploded amidships just above main deck \| 41 \| 32 \|- \| 13 May 45 \| USS Bright \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze zero hit fantail, bomb exploded \| 0 \| 2 \|- \| 14 May 45 \| USS Enterprise \| Carrier \| Air attack, two kamikazes, struck port, & under starboard bow \| 14 \| 68 \|- \| 17 May 45 \| USS Douglas H. Fox \| Destroyer \| Two kamikaze strikes, one to forward gun mounts, one to fantail \| 9 \| 35 \|- \| 18 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Longshaw \| Destroyer \| Coastal Battery, four hits, one ignited magazine, blew off bow back to bridge \| 86 \| 97 \|- \| 18 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LST-808 \| Landing Ship Tank \| Air attack \| 11 \| 11 \|- \| 20 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Chase \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, splashed kamikaze skidded in, bombs opened hull, with flooding \| 0 \| 35 \|- \| 20 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Thatcher \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze Oscar struck aft of bridge, large hole \| 14 \| 53 \|- \| 20 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS John C. Butler \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze hit to mast and antennas \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| USS Stormes \| Destroyer \| Air attack, crashed aft torpedo mount, bomb blew large hole, flooded aft \| 21 \| 6 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| USS O'Neill \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 0 \| 16 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| USS Butler \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, kamikaze bombs exploded under keel \| 0 \| 15 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Spectacle \| Small Minesweeper \| Air attack, kamikaze crashed port gun tub causing fires \| 29 \| 6 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Barry \| Destroyer Transport \| Air attack, kamikaze badly crashed starboard side, fires, abandoned \| 0 \| 30 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Bates \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, two kamikaze hits, fires, abandoned, towed, later sank \| 21 \| 35 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| USS Roper \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit off Hanagushi, Okinawa \| 1 \| 10 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* LSM-135 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze caused fires, beached, abandoned \| 11 \| 10 \|- \| 25 May 45 \| SS William B. Allison (aka USS Inca) \| Cargo Ship, Liberty Ship \| Air attack, Aerial Torpedo off Nakagusuku Wan \| 8 \| 2 \|- \| 27 May 45 \| USS Braine \| Destroyer \| Air attack, two kamikazes, first hit bridge, and second hit amidships \| 66 \| 78 \|- \| 27 May 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS Forrest \| Destroyer Minesweeper \| Air attack, kamikaze crashed starboard side waterline \| 5 \| 13 \|- \| 27 May 45 \| USS Rednour \| Transport \| Air attack, two kamikazes hits, one made ten foot hole in main deck \| 3 \| 13 \|- \| 27 May 45 \| USS Loy \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, kamikaze near miss sprayed fragments \| 3 \| 15 \|- \| 27 May 45 \| LCS(L)-119 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack \| 12 \| 6 \|- \| 28 May 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Drexler \| Destroyer \| Air attack, first kamikaze Frances hit topside, second Francis with bombs crashed into superstructure \| 158 \| 51 \|- \| 28 May 45 \| USS Sandoval \| Attack Transport \| Air attack, kamikaze hit portside of wheelhouse \| 8 \| 26 \|- \| 28 May 45 \| SS Brown Victory \| Cargo \| Air attack, kamikaze hit \| 4 \| 16 \|- \| 28 May 45 \| SS Josiah Snelling \| Cargo \| Air attack, kamikaze hit \| 0 \| 11 \|- \| 28 May 45 \| SS Mary A. Livermore \| Cargo \| Air attack, kamikaze hit on starboard \| 10 \| 4 \|- \| 29 May 45 \| USS Shubrick \| Destroyer \| Air attack, kamikaze bomb hit starboard causing hole, exploding depth charge \| 32 \| 28 \|- \| 3 June 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS LCI-90 \| Landing Craft Infantry \| Air attack, kamikaze \| 1 \| 7 \|- \| 5 Jun 45 \| USS Louisville \| Cruiser \| Air attack, kamikaze hit quad 40mm AA gun mount and number 1 smoke stack \| 8 \| 45 \|- \| 5 Jun 45 \| USS Mississippi \| Battleship \| Air attack, kamikaze hit \| 1 \| 2 \|- \|- \| 6 June 45 \| style="background:wheat;" \| # USS J. William Ditter \| Destroyer Minelayer \| Air attack, first kamikaze glanced, second hit port near main deck \| 10 \| 27 \|- \| 6 Jun 45 \| USS Harry F. Bauer \| Destroyer Minelayer \| Air attack, kamikaze hit superstructure \| 0 \| 0 \|- \| 7 June 45 \| USS Natoma Bay \| Escort carrier \| Air attack, kamikaze hit flight deck \| 1 \| 4 \|- \| 10 Jun 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS William D. Porter \| Destroyer \| Air attack, splashed kamikaze Val's bomb exploded close underwater \| 0 \| 61 \|- \| 11 Jun 45 \| USS LCS(L)-122 \| Landing Craft \| Air attack kamikaze hit conning tower base, bomb fragments caused fires \| 11 \| 29 \|- \| 16 Jun 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS Twiggs \| Destroyer \| Air attack, splashed kamikaze and bomb blew in hull plating, with structural damage \| 126 \| 34 \|- \| 21 Jun 45 \| USS Halloran \| Destroyer Escort \| Air attack, splashed kamikaze's bomb struck \| 3 \| 24 \|- \| 21 Jun 45 \| USS Curtiss \| Seaplane Tender \| Air attack, kamikaze and bomb ripped two holes in hull and blew \| 41 \| 28 \|- \| 21 Jun 45 \| style="background:lightpink" \|* USS LSM-59 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze strike while towing USS Barry, sank in four minutes \| 2 \| 8 \|- \| 22 Jun 45 \| USS LSM-213 \| Landing Ship \| Air attack, kamikaze strike at Kimmu Wan, hull damage \| 3 \| 10 \|- \| 22 Jun 45 \| USS LST-534 \| Landing Ship Tank \| Air attack, while offloading on Nagagusuku Wan, kamikaze hit bow doors, tank deck In its history of the war, the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum presents Okinawa as being caught between Japan and the United States. During the battle, the Imperial Japanese Army showed indifference to Okinawans' safety, and its soldiers used civilians as human shields or outright killed them. The Japanese military also confiscated food from the Okinawans and executed those who hid it, leading to mass starvation, and forced civilians out of their shelters. Japanese soldiers also killed about 1,000 people who spoke in the Okinawan language to suppress spying. The museum writes that "some were blown apart by [artillery] shells, some finding themselves in a hopeless situation were driven to suicide, some died of starvation, some succumbed to malaria, while others fell victim to the retreating Japanese troops." Thousands of civilians, having been induced by Japanese propaganda to believe that American soldiers were barbarians who committed horrible atrocities, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture at the hands of the Americans. Some of them threw themselves and their family members from the southern cliffs where the Peace Museum now resides. Okinawans "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy". Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden states that the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned". American Military Intelligence Corps combat translators such as Teruto Tsubota managed to convince many civilians not to kill themselves. Survivors of the mass suicides blamed also the indoctrination of their education system of the time, in which the Okinawans were taught to become "more Japanese than the Japanese" and were expected to prove it. Witnesses and historians claim that American and Japanese soldiers raped Okinawan women during the battle. Rape by Japanese troops reportedly "became common" in June, after it became clear that the Imperial Japanese Army had been defeated. There are, however, numerous credible testimony accounts which note that a large number of rapes were committed by American forces during the battle. This includes stories of rape after trading sexual favors or even marrying Americans, such as the alleged incident in the village of Katsuyama, where civilians said they had formed a vigilante group to ambush and kill three black American soldiers who they claimed would frequently rape the local girls there. ====MEXT textbook controversy==== There is ongoing disagreement between Okinawa's local government and Japan's national government over the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides during the battle. In March 2007, the national Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) advised textbook publishers to reword descriptions that the embattled Imperial Japanese Army forced civilians to kill themselves in the war to avoid being taken prisoner. MEXT preferred descriptions that just say that civilians received hand grenades from the Japanese military. This move sparked widespread protests among Okinawans. In June 2007, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly adopted a resolution stating, "We strongly call on the (national) government to retract the instruction and to immediately restore the description in the textbooks so the truth of the Battle of Okinawa will be handed down correctly and a tragic war will never happen again." On 29 September 2007, about 110,000 people held the biggest political rally in the history of Okinawa to demand that MEXT retract its order to textbook publishers regarding revising the account of the civilian suicides. The resolution states, "It is an undeniable fact that the 'multiple suicides' would not have occurred without the involvement of the Japanese military and any deletion of or revision to (the descriptions) is a denial and distortion of the many testimonies by those people who survived the incidents." In December 2007, MEXT partially admitted the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides. The ministry's Textbook Authorization Council allowed the publishers to reinstate the reference that civilians "were forced into mass suicides by the Japanese military", on condition it is placed in sufficient context. The council report states, "It can be said that from the viewpoint of the Okinawa residents, they were forced into the mass suicides." That was not enough for the survivors who said it is important for children today to know what really happened. The Nobel Prize-winning author Kenzaburō Ōe wrote a booklet that states that the mass suicide order was given by the military during the battle. He was sued by revisionists, including a wartime commander during the battle, who disputed this and wanted to stop publication of the booklet. At a court hearing, Ōe testified "Mass suicides were forced on Okinawa islanders under Japan's hierarchical social structure that ran through the state of Japan, the Japanese armed forces and local garrisons." In March 2008, the Osaka Prefecture Court ruled in favor of Ōe, stating, "It can be said the military was deeply involved in the mass suicides." The court recognized the military's involvement in the mass suicides and murder-suicides, citing the testimony about the distribution of grenades for suicide by soldiers and the fact that mass suicides were not recorded on islands where the military was not stationed. In 2012, Korean-Japanese director Pak Su-nam announced her work on the documentary Nuchigafu (Okinawan for "only if one is alive") collecting living survivors' accounts to show "the truth of history to many people", alleging that "there were two types of orders for 'honorable deaths'—one for residents to kill each other and the other for the military to kill all residents". In March 2013, Japanese textbook publisher Shimizu Shoin was permitted by MEXT to publish the statements that "Orders from Japanese soldiers led to Okinawans committing group suicide" and "The [Japanese] army caused many tragedies in Okinawa, killing local civilians and forcing them to commit mass suicide." ==Aftermath== Military historian and journalist Hanson W. Baldwin stated about scale and ferocity of the battle, especially for American forces, that:According to historian George Feifer, Okinawa was the "site of the largest land-sea-air battle in history" and that the battle was the "last major one before the start of the atomic age". At least 90% of the buildings on the island were destroyed, along with countless historical documents, artifacts, and cultural treasures, and the tropical landscape was turned into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots". The military value of Okinawa was significant, as Okinawa provided a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in proximity to Japan. The US cleared the surrounding waters of mines in Operation Zebra, occupied Okinawa, and set up the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, a form of military government, after the battle. In 2011, one official of the prefectural government told David Hearst of The Guardian: ===Effect on the wider war=== Because the next major event following the Battle of Okinawa was the total surrender of Japan, the effect of this battle is more difficult to consider. Because Japan surrendered when it did, the anticipated series of battles and the invasion of the Japanese homeland never occurred, and all military strategies on both sides which presupposed this apparently-inevitable next development were immediately rendered moot. Some military historians believe that the Okinawa campaign led directly to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as a means of avoiding the planned ground invasion of the Japanese mainland. This view is explained by Victor Davis Hanson in his book Ripples of Battle: Meanwhile, many parties continue to debate the broader question of "why Japan surrendered", attributing the surrender to a number of possible reasons including: the atomic bombings, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and Japan's depleted resources. ===Memorial=== In 1995, the Okinawa government erected a memorial monument named the Cornerstone of Peace in Mabuni, the site of the last fighting in southeastern Okinawa. The memorial lists all the known names of those who died in the battle, civilian and military, Japanese and foreign. As of 2024, the monument lists 242,225 names. ===Modern US base=== Significant US forces remain garrisoned on Okinawa as the United States Forces Japan, which the Japanese government sees as an important guarantee of regional stability, and Kadena remains the largest US air base in Asia. Local residents have long protested against the size and presence of the base.	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Lester", "naval bombardment", "napalm", "Operation Downfall", "ja:鉄血勤皇隊", "Manchurian Incident", "Military reserve", "Operation Cartwheel", "USS Bache (DD-470)", "artillery", "infiltration tactics", "USS Tennessee (BB-43)", "USS Goodhue (APA-107)", "Morale", "USS Aaron Ward (DM-34)", "USS Whitehurst (DE-634)", "YMS-1-class minesweeper", "USS Franklin (CV-13)", "USS Roper (DD-147)", "coastal artillery", "Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign", "USS Twiggs (DD-591)", "USS Newcomb (DD-586)", "USS Hancock (CV-19)", "Louis J. Hauge Jr.", "flight deck", "USS New Mexico (BB-40)", "USS Cassin Young", "United States Marine Corps", "Guadalcanal campaign", "Imperial Japanese Army during the Pacific War", "History of the Ryukyus", "Military Intelligence Corps (United States Army)", "Rear (military)", "Charles R. Brown", "Kyushu", "Camp Foster", "Himeyuri students", "Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr.", "HMS Formidable (67)", "Shuri, Okinawa", "Thirty-Second Army (Japan)", "USS Birmingham (CL-62)", "USS Natoma Bay", "Osaka Prefecture", "USS Rathburne (DD-113)", "reverse slope defence", "USS Rednour (APD-102)", "USS Charles J. Badger (DD-657)", "155 mm gun M1", "Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology", "USS Braine (DD-630)", "SS Logan Victory", "USS Prichett (DD-561)", "US Tenth Army", "USS Hutchins (DD-476)", "Desmond Doss", "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)", "Torii Station", "light carrier", "counter-battery fire", "Mixed Brigades (Imperial Japanese Army)", "USS LSM(R)-195", "SS Hobbs Victory", "USS Mullany (DD-528)", "Air Force Historical Research Agency", "Battle of Peleliu", "USS Halligan (DD-584)", "USS Emmons (DD-457)", "Arleigh Burke", "USS Macomb (DD-458)", "Kerama Islands", "Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum", "Yonabaru, Okinawa", "Albert E. Schwab", "USS Hinsdale (APA-120)", "Stars and Stripes (newspaper)", "Japanese battleship Yamato", "light cruiser", "USS Indianapolis (CA-35)", "Japanese archipelago", "Roy Geiger", "Clarence B. Craft", "1st Battalion 5th Marines", "Josef R. Sheetz", "Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet", "USS Shea", "USS Bunker Hill (CV-17)", "Giretsu Kuteitai", "United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands", "USS Gregory (DD-802)", "USS LSM(R)-190", "Marc Mitscher", "Shuri Castle", "Marine Corps Gazette", "airstrike", "Buckner Bay", "List of sunken aircraft carriers", "USS Halsey Powell", "USS Butler (DD-636)", "USS Hugh W. Hadley", "USS William D. Porter (DD-579)", "demonstration (military)", "mass suicide", "superstructure", "Naval Base Okinawa", "Military strategy", "Operation Zebra", "USS Witter (DE-636)", "George Feifer", "Ryukyu Islands", "ja:前田の戦い", "The Pinnacle, Battle of Okinawa", "Richard M. McCool Jr.", "Imperial Japanese Army Air Service", "Flanking maneuver", "USS Sterett (DD-407)", "Victory in Europe Day", "World War I", "Robert Eugene Bush", "Martin O. May", "9th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)", "Kakazu Ridge", "Stern", "USS Dickerson (DD-157)", "USS O'Brien (DD-725)", "USS Wyandot (AKA-92)", "Suicide in Japan", "cruiser", "SS Josiah Snelling", "Tokashiki, Okinawa", "III Amphibious Corps", "USS Henrico (APA-45)", "Ernie Pyle", "Richard E. Bush", "Maye Shima", "USS Longshaw (DD-559)", "Beauford T. Anderson", "Alejandro R. Ruiz", "SS Mary A. Livermore", "USS Achernar", "USS Hopkins (DD-249)", "Minoru Ōta", "Tactical Air Force, Tenth Army", "USS Carina (AK-74)", "sortie", "USS Hobson (DD-464)", "breakthrough (military)", "Chester W. Nimitz", "USS Enterprise (CV-6)", "Royal Canadian Navy", "USS Loy (DE-160)", "Imperial Japanese Army", "USS Isherwood (DD-520)", "Impressment", "Atomic Age", "Rape during the occupation of Japan", "Dale M. Hansen", "Cape Hedo", "carrier based aircraft", "22nd Marine Regiment (United States)", "USS Purdy", "The Guardian", "Imperial Japanese Navy", "Chiran Peace Museum for Kamikaze Pilots", "Sakishima Islands", "USS Haynsworth", "Fifth Air Force", "USS Zellars", "Mitsuru Ushijima", "USS Pinkney", "Edward J. Moskala", "USS Colhoun (DD-801)", "USS LST-447", "front line", "fast battleship", "USS Defense (AM-317)", "USS Bryant", "SS Brown Victory", "regular army", "Mark Selden", "Stem (ship)", "USS Curtiss (AV-4)", "Command and General Staff College", "USS Laffey (DD-724)", "USS Terror (CM-5)", "Naha", "Empire of Japan", "Combined Fleet", "Twilight of the Gods: War in the Western Pacific, 1944–1945", "III Amphibious Corps (United States)", "Naha, Okinawa", "Elbert L. Kinser", "Historical revisionism", "Aichi D3A", "Isamu Yokoyama", "Supermarine Seafire", "Battle of Britain", "Rear Admiral", "chief of staff", "radar picket", "Cactus Ridge", "Operation Ten-Go", "USS Morris (DD-417)", "Isamu Chō", "Fast Carrier Task Force", "USS Evans (DD-552)", "Royal Australian Navy", "Boeitai", "Ishikawa Isthmus", "flame tank", "USS Hazelwood (DD-531)", "Battle of Iwo Jima", "USS Kidd (DD-661)", "Mount Yae", "USS Lindsey", "Iejima", "James L. Day", "1st Marine Division", "kamikaze", "Shin'yō-class suicide motorboat", "Amphibious warfare", "Okinawa Prefectural Assembly", "Harold Gonsalves", "United States Army", "USS England (DE-635)", "Taiwan", "Joseph Stilwell", "Surrender of Japan", "Motobu Peninsula", "USS Nevada (BB-36)", "USS Stormes", "boeitai", "John W. Meagher", "Ryūkyū Shimpō", "Masahide Ōta", "Leapfrogging (strategy)", "friendly fire", "Yokosuka D4Y", "USS Skylark (AM-63)", "USS LSM(R)-189", "USS Chase (DE-158)", "2nd Marine Division", "Teruto Tsubota", "division (military)", "escort carrier", "Japanese propaganda during World War II", "Kenzaburō Ōe", "Materiel", "Henry A. Courtney Jr.", "USS Adams (DM-27)", "beachhead", "Matome Ugaki", "Hiromichi Yahara", "malaria", "feint", "USS Ingraham (DD-694)", "Okinawa Island", "USS Harding (DD-625)", "fleet carrier", "Kadena Air Base", "ja:嘉数の戦い", "USS Halloran", "USS Forrest", "USS Harry F. Bauer", "Nakagusuku Wan", "Joseph E. Muller", "USS Alpine", "USS New York (BB-34)", "HMS Ulster (R83)", "USS Sigsbee", "United States Fifth Fleet", "XXIV Corps (United States)", "Camp Schwab", "American mutilation of Japanese war dead", "Seiichi Itō", "28th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)", "USS Haggard (DD-555)", "Royal New Zealand Navy", "Japan Times", "torpedo bomber", "USS J. 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Butler", "close combat", "96th Infantry Division (United States)", "Conscription", "Battle of Leyte Gulf", "7th Infantry Division (United States)", "Yomitan", "Japan Policy Research Institute", "William A. Foster", "USS LCI-90", "1st Marine Division (United States)", "Robert M. McTureous Jr.", "British Pacific Fleet", "Soemu Toyoda", "2nd Marine Division (United States)", "USS Little (DD-803)", "USS Rodman (DD-456)", "USS PGM-18", "USS Howorth (DD-592)", "USS Swallow (AM-65)", "Mortar (weapon)", "Commonwealth of Nations", "Victor Davis Hanson", "USS LSM(R)-188", "suicide attack", "USS Thatcher (DD-514)", "77th Sustainment Brigade", "USS Inca (IX-229)", "Ohka", "South Korea", "USS Idaho (BB-42)", "Okinawa Memorial Day", "Life magazine", "United States Third Fleet", "History of United States Naval Operations in World War II", "763rd Tank Battalion (United States)", "barbarian", "USS West Virginia (BB-48)", "Royal Navy", "USS Wasp (CV-18)", "96th Sustainment Brigade (United States)", "USS Spectacle (AM-305)", "USS Mississippi (BB-41)", "6th Marine Division (United States)", "murder-suicide", "USS Leutze (DD-481)", "Allies of World War II", "USS Wesson", "William D. Halyburton Jr.", "USS Drexler (DD-741)", "World War II", "USS O'Neill", "Tunnel warfare", "Combat stress reaction", "USS Murray (DD-576)", "Military tactics", "Seymour W. Terry", "USS Luce (DD-522)", "Kamikaze", "Grumman TBF Avenger", "3rd Battalion, 1st Marines", "USS Kimberly (DD-521)", "Camp Hansen", "Taiwan under Japanese rule", "USS Wake Island", "Richmond K. Turner", "USS Callaghan (DD-792)", "aircraft carrier", "USS Bates", "USS Shubrick (DD-639)", "USS Hyman", "Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki", "United States Army Center of Military History", "Camp Kinser", "SS Canada Victory", "human shield", "USS Missouri (BB-63)", "destroyer escort", "USS Fieberling", "Cornerstone of Peace", "USS LST-884" ]
4,987	Battle of El Alamein	There were two Battles of El Alamein in World War II, both fought in 1942. The battles occurred during the North African campaign in Egypt, in and around an area named after a railway stop called El Alamein. First Battle of El Alamein: 1–27 July 1942 Second Battle of El Alamein: 23 October – 4 November 1942 In addition, the Battle of Alam el Halfa (30 August – 5 September 1942) was fought during the same period and in the same location. ja:エル・アラメインの戦い	[ "Second Battle of El Alamein", "Egypt", "World War II", "ja:エル・アラメインの戦い", "First Battle of El Alamein", "North African campaign", "El Alamein", "Battle of Alam el Halfa" ]
4,988	Brezhnev Doctrine	The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed that any threat to "socialist rule" in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to all of them, and therefore, it justified the intervention of fellow socialist states. It was proclaimed in order to justify the Soviet-led occupation of Czechoslovakia earlier in 1968, with the overthrow of the reformist government there. The references to "socialism" meant control by the communist parties which were loyal to the Kremlin. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev repudiated the doctrine in the late 1980s, as the Kremlin accepted the peaceful overthrow of Soviet rule in all its satellite countries in Eastern Europe. The policy was first and most clearly outlined by Sergei Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article entitled "Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries". Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." This doctrine was announced to retroactively justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that ended the Prague Spring, along with earlier Soviet military interventions, such as the invasion of Hungary in 1956. These interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Soviet Bloc, which was considered by the Soviet Union to be an essential and defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out. In practice, the policy meant that only limited independence of the satellite states' communist parties was allowed and that none would be allowed to compromise the cohesiveness of the Eastern Bloc in any way. That is, no country could leave the Warsaw Pact or disturb a ruling communist party's monopoly on power. Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the power to define "socialism" and "capitalism". Following the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, numerous treaties were signed between the Soviet Union and its satellite states to reassert these points and to further ensure inter-state cooperation. The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the communist (but non-Warsaw Pact) nation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Brezhnev Doctrine stayed in effect until it was ended with the Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981. Mikhail Gorbachev refused to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989 and Solidarity defeated the Polish United Workers' Party. It was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1989, alluding to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way". The refusal to intervene in the emancipation of the Eastern European satellite states and the Pan-European Picnic then led to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the largely peaceful collapse of the Eastern Bloc. ==Origins== ===1956 Hungarian Revolution and Soviet invasion=== The period between 1953 and 1968 was saturated with dissidence and reformation within the Soviet satellite states. 1953 saw the death of Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin, followed closely by Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 "Secret Speech" denouncing Stalin. This denouncement of the former leader led to a period of the Soviet Era known commonly as "De-Stalinization." Under the blanket reforms of this process, Imre Nagy came to power in Hungary as the new prime minister, taking over for Mátyás Rákosi. Almost immediately Nagy set out on a path of reform. Police power was reduced, collectivized farms were split up and being returned to individual peasants, industry and food production shifted and religious tolerance was becoming more prominent. These reforms shocked the Hungarian Communist Party. Nagy was quickly overthrown by Rákosi in 1955, and stripped of his positions. Shortly after this coup, Khrushchev signed the Belgrade Declaration which stated "separate paths to socialism were permissible within the Soviet Bloc." With hopes for serious reform just having been extinguished in Hungary, this declaration was not received well by the Hungarians. Although order was restored, tensions remained on both sides of the conflict. Hungarians resented the end of the reformation, and the Soviets wanted to avoid a similar crisis from occurring again anywhere in the Soviet Bloc. ===A peaceful Brezhnev Doctrine=== When the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was suppressed, the Soviets adopted the mindset that governments supporting both communism and capitalism must coexist, and more importantly, build relations. This idea stressed that all people are equal, and own the right to solve the problems of their own countries themselves, and that in order for both states to peacefully coexist, neither country can exercise the right to get involved in each other's internal affairs. While this idea was brought up following the events of Hungary, they were not put into effect for a great deal of time. This is further explained in the Renunciation section. ===1968 Prague Spring=== Notions of reform had been slowly growing in Czechoslovakia since the early-mid 1960s. However, once the Stalinist President Antonín Novotný resigned as head of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in January 1968, the Prague Spring began to take shape. Alexander Dubček replaced Novotný as head of the party, initially thought a friend to the Soviet Union. It was not long before Dubček began making serious liberal reforms. In an effort to establish what Dubček called "developed socialism", he instituted changes in Czechoslovakia to create a much more free and liberal version of the socialist state. Aspects of a market economy were implemented, travel restrictions were eased for citizens, state censorship loosened, the power of the StB secret police was limited, and steps were taken to improve relations with the west. As the reforms piled up, the Kremlin quickly grew uneasy as they hoped to not only preserve their power within Czechoslovakia, but to avoid another Hungarian-style revolution as well. Soviet panic compounded in March 1968 when student protests erupted in Poland and Antonín Novotný resigned as the Czechoslovak president. On March 21, Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, issued a grave statement concerning the reforms taking place under Dubček. "The methods and forms by which the work is progressing in Czechoslovakia remind one very much of Hungary. In this outward appearance of chaos…there is a certain order. It all began like this in Hungary also, but then came the first and second echelons, and then, finally the social democrats." Leonid Brezhnev sought clarification from Dubček on March 21, with the Politburo convened, on the situation in Czechoslovakia. Eager to avoid a similar fate as Imre Nagy, Dubček reassured Brezhnev that the reforms were totally under control and not on a similar path to those seen in 1956 in Hungary. By May 6, Brezhnev condemned Dubček's system, declaring it a step toward "the complete collapse of the Warsaw Pact." "Economic integration, political consolidation, a return to ideological orthodoxy, and inter-Party cooperation became the new watchwords of Soviet bloc relations." On November 12, 1968, Brezhnev stated that "[w]hen external and internal forces hostile to socialism try to turn the development of a given socialist country in the direction of … the capitalist system ... this is no longer merely a problem for that country's people, but a common problem, the concern of all socialist countries." Brezhnev's statement at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers Party effectively classified the issue of sovereignty as less important than the preservation of Soviet-style socialism. While no new doctrine had been officially announced, it was clear that Soviet intervention was imminent if Moscow perceived any satellite to be at risk of jeopardizing the Soviet hegemony. ==Brezhnev Doctrine in practice== The vague, broad nature of the Brezhnev Doctrine allowed application to any international situation the USSR saw fit. This is clearly evident not only through the Prague Spring in 1968, and the indirect pressure on Poland from 1980 to 1981, but also in the Soviet involvement in Afghanistan starting in the 1970s. Any instance which caused the USSR to question whether or not a country was becoming a "risk to international socialism", the use of military intervention was, in Soviet eyes, not only justified, but necessary. ===Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979=== The Soviet government's desire to link its foreign policy to the Brezhnev Doctrine was evoked again when it ordered a military intervention in Afghanistan in 1979. This was perhaps the last chapter of this doctrine's saga. In April 1978, a coup in Kabul brought the Afghan Communist Party to power with Nur Muhammad Taraki being installed as the second president of Afghanistan. The previous president, Mohammed Daoud Khan was killed during the coup. The Saur Revolution (as the coup was known) took Moscow by surprise, who preferred that the pro-Soviet Daoud Khan stay in power. The previous regime had maintained a pro-Soviet foreign policy as Daoud Khan was a Pashtun who rejected the Durand Line as the frontier with Pakistan. The Afghan Communist Party was divided into a factional struggle between factions known as the Khalq and Parcham. The Parcham was the more moderate of the two factions, arguing that Afghanistan was not ready for socialism, requiring more gradual process while the ultra-Communist Khalq favored a more radical approach. The Khalq faction was victorious and the leader of the Pacham faction Babrak Karmal fled to Moscow in fear of his life, to take up the position as Afghan ambassador in Moscow. Islamic fundamentalists took issue with the Communist party in power. As a result, a jihad was proclaimed against the Communist government. Brezhnev and other Soviet leaders falsely portrayed the United States as the one behind the jihad in Afghanistan, and the rebellion in Afghanistan was seen in Moscow not so much in the context of Afghan politics with an unpopular government pursuing policies that much of the population rejected (such as the collectivisation of agriculture), but rather in the context of the Cold War, being seen as the first stage of an alleged American plot to instigate a jihad in Soviet Central Asia where the majority of the population was Muslim. To assist the government, the Soviet Union drastically increased its military aid to Afghanistan while sending Soviet advisers to train the Afghan military. Following a split in the Communist Party, the leader of the Khalq faction, Hafizullah Amin, overthrew President Nur Muhammad Taraki and had him murdered on 8 October 1979. Soviet diplomats in Kabul had a low opinion of Taraki's ability to handle the rebellion, and an even lower one of Amin, who was regarded as a fanatic, but incompetent leader who lost control of the situation. In the fall of 1979, the leaders who pressed the most strongly for an invasion of Afghanistan to replace the incompetent Amin with Karmal, who was the man better able to preserve the communist regime's existence, were the Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko, the Chairman of KGB, Yuri Andropov and the Defense Minister Marshal Dmitry Ustinov. The intervention was envisioned in Moscow was merely a short conflict to stabilize the situation and allow the Communist regime to regain power. Brezhnev was indecisive, fearing that an occupation of Afghanistan might not be the short war that Gromyko, Ustinov and Andropov kept insisting it would be, but was fearful of the possibility of an Islamic fundamentalist regime being established that would export Islam into Soviet Central Asia. As it was, the inability and unwillingness of much of the Soviet-controlled Afghan Army to fight led the Soviets to involve themselves in Afghanistan for almost 10 years. Ironically, despite what was being feared in Moscow, the United States was not supporting the Islamic fundamentalist rebellion in Afghanistan, and only started to support the mujahideen ("warriors of Allah") with weapons after the Soviet invasion, concentrating foreign policy matters in the form of linkage towards preventing Soviet expansion. During his talks with the Soviets during his time as Ambassador, Karmal coordinated with the Soviet government to replace Amin. It was this coordination that led to both Soviet soldiers and airborne units organizing a coup against the Amin-led Afghanistan government, during which Amin was assassinated. In his place, the Soviets installed their ally, former-Ambassador Babrak Karmal, as the new lead of the government in Afghanistan. ==Post-Brezhnev Doctrine== The abandonment of the doctrine had a major effect on the way that the Soviets dealt with countries they once tried to control. The new Sinatra doctrine allowed other countries that were oppressed under communist intervention, to go about their own political reform. This carried over internally as well. In fact, the Soviet Union's biggest problem after the removal of the Brezhnev Doctrine, was the Khrushchev Dilemma. This did not address how to stop internal political reform, but how to tame the physical violence that comes along with it. It had become clear that the Soviet Union was beginning to loosen up. It is possible to pinpoint the renouncement of the Brezhnev Doctrine as a factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Countries that were once micromanaged now could do what they wanted to politically, because the Soviets could no longer try to conquer where they saw fit. With that, the Soviet Union began to collapse. While the communist agenda had caused infinite problems for other countries, it was the driving force behind the Soviet Union staying together. After all, it seems that the removal of the incentive to conquer, and forcing of communism upon other nations, defeated the one thing Soviet Russia had always been about, the expansion of Communism.	[ "Central Europe", "Joseph Stalin", "Soviet Central Asia", "Nur Muhammad Taraki", "Soviet Empire", "Ulbricht Doctrine", "My Way", "Babrak Karmal", "Kremlin", "Poland", "Communist party", "KGB", "Operation Storm-333", "Leonid Brezhnev", "Los Angeles Times", "Khmer Rouge", "Mohammed Daoud Khan", "Parcham", "Socialism with a human face", "Soviet Union", "Polish People's Republic", "Democratic Republic of Afghanistan", "Communist Party of Czechoslovakia", "Hafizullah Amin", "Tankie", "Warsaw Pact", "liberalization", "Glasnost", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "Khrushchev", "Collective farming", "Yuri Andropov", "NATO", "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic", "Dmitry Ustinov", "dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic", "Imre Nagy", "Polish United Workers Party", "Hungarian People's Republic", "Hungarian Revolution of 1956", "political reform", "hegemony", "Western betrayal", "Imperialism", "Satellite state", "Military occupations by the Soviet Union", "Perestroika", "Sino-Vietnamese War", "Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "Sovietization", "Saur Revolution", "Alexander Dubček", "Nikita Khrushchev", "Berlin Wall", "1989 Polish legislative election", "Eastern Europe", "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences", "Khalq", "Soviet–Afghan War", "Truman Doctrine", "Peaceful Revolution", "Blowback (intelligence)", "Andrei Gromyko", "Cambodian–Vietnamese War", "communism", "Soviet Armed Forces", "Durand Line", "Prague Spring", "Captive Nations", "fall of the Iron Curtain", "Ghost Wars", "Antonín Novotný", "Soviet foreign policy", "Belgrade declaration", "Sinatra Doctrine", "socialism", "Mátyás Rákosi", "Penguin Group", "Monroe Doctrine", "capitalism", "Reformist Marxism", "East Germany", "People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan", "Solidarity (Polish trade union)", "Cold War History (journal)", "Linkage (policy)", "Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia", "Pan-European Picnic", "Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–81", "Russian-occupied territories", "Polish United Workers' Party", "Emigration from the Eastern Bloc", "Pravda", "StB", "Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)", "Hungarian Communist Party", "Eastern Bloc", "Frank Sinatra", "Pashtuns" ]
4,990	Bain-marie	A bain-marie ( , ), also known as a water bath or double boiler, a type of heated bath, is a piece of equipment used in science, industry, and cooking to heat materials gently or to keep materials warm over a period of time. A bain-marie is also used to melt ingredients for cooking. == History == The name comes from the French or , in turn derived from the medieval Latin and the Arabic , all meaning 'Mary's bath'. In his books, the 300 AD alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis credits for the invention of the device Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist. However, the water bath was known many centuries earlier (Hippocrates and Theophrastus), and the balneum Mariae attributed to Mary the Jewess was used to heat its contents above , while the bain-marie that continues to be used today only heats its contents up to a gentle heat of less than . == Description == The double boiler comes in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and types, but traditionally is a wide, cylindrical, usually metal container made of three or four basic parts: a handle, an outer (or lower) container that holds the working fluid, an inner (or upper), smaller container that fits inside the outer one and which holds the material to be heated or cooked, and sometimes a base underneath. Under the outer container of the bain-marie (or built into its base) is a heat source. Typically, the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working fluid. The inner container, filled with the substance to be heated, fits inside the outer container filled with the working fluid (often water, but alternatively steam or oil). The outer container is heated at or below the base, causing the temperature of the working fluid to rise and thus transferring heat to the inner container. The maximum obtainable temperature of the working fluid is dictated by its composition and boiling point at the ambient pressure. Since the surface of the inner container is always in contact with the working fluid, the double boiler serves as a constant-temperature heat source for the substance being heated, without hot or cold spots that can affect its properties. When the working fluid is water and the bain-marie is used at sea level, the maximum temperature of the material in the lower container will not exceed , the boiling point of water at sea level. Using different working fluids such as oil in the outer container, or pressurizing the outer container, will result in different maximum temperatures obtainable in the inner container. == Alternatives == A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric "dry-heat" bain-marie, heated by elements below both pots. The dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions. They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are often much less expensive than their traditional counterparts. Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using either hot water or vapor, or steam, in the heating process. The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub (or "bath"), and the vapour-type bain-marie heats with scalding-hot steam. == Culinary applications == In cooking applications, a bain-marie usually consists of a pan or pot of water in which another container or containers of food to be cooked is/are placed. Chocolate can be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting (separation of cocoa butter and cocoa solids, breaking emulsion) and caking onto the pot. Special dessert bains-marie usually have a thermally insulated container and can be used as a chocolate fondue for the purposes of dipping foods (typically fruits) at the table. Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the centre. Baked custard desserts such as custard tarts may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked. In the case of the crème brûlée, placing the ramekins in a roasting pan and filling the pan with hot water until it is half to two-thirds of the way up the sides of the ramekins transfers the heat to the custard gently, which prevents the custard from curdling. The humidity from the steam that rises as the water heats helps keep the top of the custard from becoming too dry. Classic warm high-fat sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, are often cooked using a double-boiler bain-marie as they require enough heat to emulsify the mixture of fats and water but not enough to curdle or split the sauce. Similarly, the classic Italian dessert zabaglione (in French, sabayon), consisting of egg yolks, sugar and sweet wine, is made in a double boiler bain-marie to avoid over-cooking the egg yolks while whisking the mixture into a stable froth. Some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an "oven-type" bain-marie. The making of clotted cream. Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is done in a bain-marie. Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings. Bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful. A simple or impromptu bain-marie can be used to re-liquefy hardened or "sugared" honey in a glass jar by placing the opened jar on top of any improvised platform sitting at the bottom of a partially-full pot of gently boiling water. == Other uses == In small scale soap-making, a bain-marie's inherent control over maximum temperature makes it optimal for liquefying melt-and-pour soap bases prior to molding them into bars. It offers the advantage of maintaining the base in a liquid state, or reliquefying a solidified base, with minimal deterioration. Similarly, using a water bath, traditional wood glue can be melted and kept in a stable liquid state over many hours without damage to the animal proteins it incorporates.	[ "Latin", "Zabaione", "Mary the Jewess", "Heated bath", "zabaglione", "French language", "pâtés", "wood glue", "Cheesecake", "charcuterie", "emulsion", "Terrine (food)", "hot plate", "Theophrastus", "Laboratory water bath", "Hippocrates", "dessert", "confection", "condensed milk", "Melt and pour", "curdle", "reduction (cooking)", "breast milk", "Industry (manufacturing)", "custard", "beurre blanc", "Hollandaise", "Chocolate", "cooking", "protein", "sea level", "Zosimos of Panopolis", "fondue", "chafing dish", "Double steaming", "crème brûlée", "clotted cream", "alchemist", "Arabic", "Wiley-VCH", "heated bath", "science", "heating element" ]
4,992	Belgian	Belgian may refer to: Something of, or related to, Belgium Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German Ancient Belgian language, an extinct language formerly spoken in Gallia Belgica Belgian Dutch or Flemish, a variant of Dutch Belgian French, a variant of French Belgian horse (disambiguation), various breeds of horse Belgian waffle, in culinary contexts SS Belgian, a cargo ship in service with F Leyland & Co Ltd from 1919 to 1934 The Belgian, a 1917 American silent film	[ "Ancient Belgian language", "SS Belgian", "The Belgian", "Belgium", "Belgian French", "Belgians", "Belgica (disambiguation)", "Belgian waffle", "Belgian horse (disambiguation)", "Belgian Dutch", "Belgic (disambiguation)", "Languages of Belgium" ]
4,994	Ballu tundu	' or ' is a traditional Sardinian folk dance which is typically danced in a closed or open circle. The dance was described as early as 1805 by Mameli and by La Marmora in 1825. In northern and central Sardinia, the dance is lively and animated with leaps and agile movements and usually accompanied by a choir of three or more singers in the center of the circle. In other areas, the dance is done to launeddas and the shepherd's , but the accordion had also made its appearance by the 19th century. The introduction is in Time signature#Frequently used time signatures\| time but the dance itself is done in Time signature#Frequently used time signatures\|. At least in the past, the manner of holding hands was very important and followed strict rules. Married or engaged couples could hold hands palm to palm with fingers entwined, but a man could not do this with a young girl or another man's wife. If a stranger entered the circle, he had to do so to the woman's right so as not to come between her and her husband.	[ "Sardinia", "Time signature", "launeddas", "folk dance", "Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora" ]
4,995	Barbagia	Barbagia (; or ) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif. The name comes from Cicero, who described the land as inhabited by barbarians; Roman domination over this part of the island was in fact never more than nominal as a result of the Roman-Sardinian Wars. This word shares its etymology with the now antiquated Barbary. The Sardinians, many of whose revolts came from this area, were also mocked by the ancient Romans with the pejorative term 'thieves wearing rough woolen garments'. In 594, Pope Gregory the Great wrote a letter to Hospito, a Christian whom he calls the "leader of the Barbaricini" (). Hospito apparently permitted the evangelisation of pagan Barbagia by Christian missionaries. The area is usually divided into five Barbagias: the Barbagia of Ollolai, the Barbagia of Seulo, the Barbagia of Belvì, the Mandrolisai, and finally the , the historical name by which the area of Ogliastra was once referred to. The latter two are named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages. The area comprises mainly rocky and steep hills and mountains, and there is little human presence. Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe, which has allowed Barbagia to preserve better the island's cultural and natural treasures. According to a thesis by the archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, Sardinian history has always been characterised by what he called the "constant of Sardinian resistance", opposed to the invaders who attempted at various times to lord over the indigenous inhabitants. Barbagia is one of the few Sardinian regions where the Sardinian language in its own varieties, both Nuorese and Campidanese, is still spoken on an everyday basis, while the rest of the island has already mostly undergone thorough Italianization and language shift to Italian. One of the most important villages is Gavoi. Orgosolo was famous for its bandits and kidnappers and typical murals. Oliena is well known for its wines (especially the Nepente, a wine made with Cannonau grapes). Another well known town is Fonni, the highest town in Sardinia at more than 1,000 meters above sea level. Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system. The economy consists of agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry.	[ "geographical region", "Cannonau", "barbarians", "Ogliastra", "Gregory the Great", "Logudorese dialect", "Campidanese dialect", "natural region", "Sardinians", "Gavoi", "Barbagia di Seulo", "Sardinian language", "Oliena", "Italianization", "Cicero", "cultural region", "Nuoro", "Roman-Sardinian Wars", "Gennargentu", "Barbary", "wine", "Barbagia of Belvì", "Mandrolisai", "Cantu a tenore", "Fonni", "language shift", "murals", "Sardinia", "Ancient Rome", "Ollolai", "Giovanni Lilliu", "Orgosolo", "Hospito", "province of Nuoro" ]
4,996	Brabham	Motor Racing Developments Ltd., commonly known as Brabham ( ), was a British racing car manufacturer and Formula One racing team. It was founded in 1960 by the Australian driver Jack Brabham and the British-Australian designer Ron Tauranac. The team had a successful thirty-year history, winning four FIA Formula One World Drivers' Championships and two World Constructors' Championships. Under Brabham and Tauranac, Brabham won double world championships in 1966 and 1967, with the 1966 drivers' title going to Jack Brabham and the 1967 title going to Denny Hulme. Jack Brabham is the only Formula One driver to win a Drivers' Championship in a car bearing his own name. Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to design cars. It became the world's largest manufacturer of open-wheel racing cars sold to customer teams, having built more than 500 cars by 1970. Teams using Brabham cars won championships in Formula Two and Formula Three. The cars also competed in events like the Indianapolis 500 and Formula 5000 racing. The businessman Bernie Ecclestone owned Brabham during most of the 1970s and 1980s, and later became responsible for administering the commercial aspects of Formula One. Under Ecclestone and chief designer Gordon Murray, the team won two more Drivers' Championships in the 1980s with Brazilian Nelson Piquet. During this period, the team withdrew from manufacturing customer cars but introduced innovations such as carbon brakes and hydropneumatic suspension; it also reintroduced in-race refuelling. Its unique 'fan car' won its only race, in , before being withdrawn. Piquet won his first championship in in the ground effect BT49-Ford. In , he became the first driver to win a title with a turbocharged car, the Brabham BT52, which was powered by BMW's M12 straight-four engine and won four Grands Prix that season. Ecclestone sold the team in 1988. Midway through the 1992 season, the team collapsed financially and was investigated for fraud, as its new owner, Japanese engineering firm Middlebridge, failed to make its loan repayments. In 2009, a German organisation unsuccessfully attempted to enter the 2010 Formula One season using the Brabham name. ==Origins== The Brabham team was founded by Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac, who met in 1951 while both were successfully building and racing cars in their native Australia. Brabham, who was a highly successful dirt oval speedway Speedcar driver with multiple Australian national and state titles to his credit before moving full time into road racing in 1953, was the more successful driver and went to the United Kingdom in 1955 to further his racing career. There he started driving for the Cooper Car Company works team and by 1958 had progressed with them to Formula One, the highest category of open-wheel racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), motor sport's world governing body In 1959 and 1960, Brabham won the Formula One World Drivers' Championship in Cooper's revolutionary mid-engined cars. Despite their innovation of putting the engine behind the driver, the Coopers and their chief designer, Owen Maddock, were generally resistant to developing their cars. Brabham pushed for further advances, and played a significant role in developing Cooper's highly successful 1960 T53 "lowline" car, with input from his friend Tauranac. Brabham was confident he could do better than Cooper, and in late 1959 he asked Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him, initially producing upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors, but with the long-term aim of designing racing cars. Brabham describes Tauranac as "absolutely the only bloke I'd have gone into partnership with". Later, Brabham offered a Coventry-Climax FWE-engined version of the Herald, with and uprated suspension to match the extra power. To meet that aim, Brabham and Tauranac set up Motor Racing Developments Ltd. (MRD), deliberately avoiding the use of either man's name. The new company would compete with Cooper in the market for customer racing cars. As Brabham was still employed by Cooper, Tauranac produced the first MRD car, for the entry level Formula Junior class, in secrecy. Unveiled in the summer of 1961, the "MRD" was soon renamed. Motoring journalist Jabby Crombac pointed out that "[the] way a Frenchman pronounces those initials—written phonetically, 'em air day'—sounded perilously like the French word... merde." Gavin Youl achieved a second-place finish at Goodwood and another at Mallory Park in the MRD-Ford. The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams, with type numbers starting with BT for "Brabham Tauranac". By the 1961 Formula One season, the Lotus and Ferrari teams had developed the mid-engined approach further than Cooper. Brabham had a poor season, scoring only four points, and—having run his own private Coopers in non-championship events during 1961—left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team: the Brabham Racing Organisation, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments. The team was based at Chessington, England and held the British licence. ==Racing history—Formula One== ===Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac (1961–1970)=== Motor Racing Developments initially concentrated on making money by building cars for sale to customers in lower formulae, so the new car for the Formula One team was not ready until partway through the 1962 Formula One season. The Brabham Racing Organisation (BRO) started the year fielding a customer Lotus chassis, which was delivered at 3am to keep it a secret. From the 1963 season, Brabham was partnered by American driver Dan Gurney, the pair now running in Australia's racing colours of green and gold. Brabham took the team's first win at the non-championship Solitude Grand Prix in 1963. Gurney took the marque's first two wins in the world championship, at the 1964 French and Mexican Grands Prix. Brabham works and customer cars took another three non-championship wins during the 1964 season. The 1965 season was less successful, with no championship wins. Brabham finished third or fourth in the Constructors' Championship for three years running, but poor reliability marred promising performances on several occasions. Motor sport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results, a view echoed by Tauranac. The FIA doubled the Formula One engine capacity limit to 3 litres for the 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce. Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm Repco, which had never produced a Formula One engine before, based on aluminium V8 engine blocks from the defunct American Oldsmobile F85 road car project, and other off-the-shelf parts. Consulting and design engineer Phil Irving (of Vincent Motorcycle fame) was the project engineer responsible for producing the initial version of the engine. Few expected the Brabham-Repcos to be competitive, but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season. At the French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name. Only his former teammate, Bruce McLaren, has since matched the achievement. It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran. Brabham won his third title in 1966, becoming the only driver to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name (cf Surtees, Hill and Fittipaldi Automotive). In 1967, the title went to Brabham's teammate, New Zealander Denny Hulme. Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Brabham's desire to try new parts first. The Brabham team took the Constructors' World Championship in both years. For 1968, Austrian Jochen Rindt replaced Hulme, who had left to join McLaren. Repco produced a more powerful version of their V8 to maintain competitiveness against Ford's new Cosworth DFV, but it proved very unreliable. Slow communications between the UK and Australia had always made identifying and correcting problems very difficult. The car was fast—Rindt set pole position twice during the season—but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them, and ended the year with only ten points. Although Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the 1969 season, Rindt left to join Lotus. His replacement, Jacky Ickx, had a strong second half to the season, winning in Germany and Canada, after Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident. Ickx finished second in the Drivers' Championship, with 37 points to Jackie Stewart's 63. Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top-3 finishes, but did not finish half the races. The team were second in the Constructors' Championship, aided by second places at Monaco and Watkins Glen scored by Piers Courage, driving a Brabham for the Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad. Brabham took his last win in the opening race of the 1970 season and was competitive throughout the year, although mechanical failures blunted his challenge. After losing secured victories in the last corner at both Monaco and England, Jack decided he had had enough, and sold his part in the company to former Jochen Rindt manager, a businessman named Bernie Ecclestone, at the end of the year. Aided by number-two driver Rolf Stommelen, the team came fourth in the Constructors' Championship. ===Ron Tauranac (1971)=== Tauranac signed double world champion Graham Hill and young Australian Tim Schenken to drive for the 1971 season. Tauranac designed the unusual 'lobster claw' BT34, featuring twin radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels, a single example of which was built for Hill. Although Hill, no longer a front-runner since his 1969 accident, took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone, the team scored only seven championship points. The highlights of an aimless year, during which the team ran three different models, were pole position for Argentinian driver Carlos Reutemann at his home race at Buenos Aires and a victory in the non-championship Interlagos Grand Prix. For the 1973 season, Ecclestone promoted the young South African engineer Gordon Murray to chief designer and moved Herbie Blash from the Formula Two programme to become the Formula One team manager. Both would remain with the team for the next 15 years. For 1973, Murray produced the triangular cross-section BT42, with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the Drivers' Championship. In the 1974 season, Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career, and Brabham's first since 1970. The team finished a close fifth in the Constructors' Championship, fielding the much more competitive BT44s. After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the team were favourites to win the 1975 title. The year started well, with a first win for Brazilian driver Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo. However, as the season progressed, tyre wear frequently slowed the cars in races, and the team was constantly outperformed by Ferrari and McLaren. Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship; while Reutemann had five podium finishes, including a dominant win in the 1975 German Grand Prix, and finished third in the Drivers' Championship. The team likewise ranked second in the Constructors' Championship at the end of the year. At that time, designer David North was hired to work alongside Murray. The 1976 and 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again. Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with Ferrari. Ulsterman John Watson replaced him at Brabham for 1977. Watson lost near certain victory in the French Grand Prix (Dijon) of that year when his car ran low on fuel on the last lap and was passed by Mario Andretti's Lotus, with Watson's second place being the team's best result of the season. The car often showed at the head of races, but the unreliability of the Alfa Romeo engine was a major problem. The team lost Pace early in the 1977 season when he died in a light aircraft accident. For the 1978 season, Murray's BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa Romeo engines. Ecclestone signed then two-time Formula One world champion Niki Lauda from Ferrari through a deal with Italian dairy products company Parmalat which met the cost of Lauda ending his Ferrari contract and made up his salary to the £200,000 Ferrari was offering. 1978 was the year of the dominant Lotus 79 "wing car", which used aerodynamic ground effect to stick to the track when cornering, but Lauda won two races in the BT46, one with the controversial "B" or "fan car" version. The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the 1979 season, the team's first with young Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet. Murray designed the full-ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective "carbon-carbon braking" system—a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976. However, unexpected movement of the car's aerodynamic centre of pressure made its handling unpredictable and the new engine was unreliable. The team dropped to eighth in the Constructors' Championship by the end of the season. Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season, prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines, a move Murray described as being "like having a holiday". The new, lighter, Cosworth-powered BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the Canadian Grand Prix; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving, later saying that he "was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles". The team used the BT49 over four seasons. In the 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took third in the Constructors' Championship with Piquet second in the Drivers' Championship. This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor, until the team's demise in 1992. With a better understanding of ground effect, the team further developed the BT49C for the 1981 season, incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride height limitations intended to reduce downforce. Piquet, who had developed a close working relationship with Murray, took the drivers' title with three wins, albeit amid accusations of cheating. The team finished second in the Constructors' Championship, behind the Williams team. Ecclestone held BMW to their contract for the 1987 season, but the German company would only supply the laydown engine. The upright units, around which Brabham had designed their new car, were sold for use by the Arrows team. Senior figures at Brabham, including Murray, have admitted that by this stage Ecclestone had lost interest in running the team. The 1987 season was only slightly more successful than the previous year—Patrese and de Cesaris scoring 10 points between them, including two third places at the Belgian Grand Prix and the Mexican Grand Prix. Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier, the team missed the FIA deadline for entry into the 1988 world championship and Ecclestone finally announced the team's withdrawal from Formula One at the Brazilian Grand Prix in April 1988. During the season-ending Australian Grand Prix, Ecclestone announced he had sold MRD to EuroBrun team owner Walter Brun for an unknown price. ===Joachim Lüthi (1989)=== Brun soon sold the team on, this time to Swiss financier Joachim Lüthi, who brought it back into Formula One for the 1989 season. The new Brabham BT58, powered by a Judd V8 engine (originally another of Jack Brabham's companies), was produced for the 1989 season. Italian driver Stefano Modena, who had driven for the team in the 1987 Australian Grand Prix in a one off drive for the team, drove alongside the more experienced Martin Brundle who was returning to Formula One after spending 1988 winning the World Sportscar Championship for Jaguar. Modena took the team's last podium: a third place at the Monaco Grand Prix (Brundle, who had only just scraped through pre-qualifying by 0.021 seconds before qualifying a brilliant 4th, had been running third but was forced to stop to replace a flat battery, finally finishing sixth). The team also failed to make the grid sometimes: Brundle failed to prequalify at the Canadian Grand Prix and the French Grand Prix. The team finished 9th in the Constructors' Championship at the end of the season. several parties disputed the ownership of the team. Middlebridge Group Limited, a Japanese engineering firm owned by billionaire Koji Nakauchi, was already involved with established Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing and gained control of Brabham for the 1990 season. Herbie Blash had returned to run the team in 1989 and continued to do so in 1990. Middlebridge paid for its purchase using £1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing, but the team remained underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons. Jack Brabham's youngest son, David, raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990 including the season-ending Australian Grand Prix (the first time a Brabham had driven a Brabham car in an Australian Grand Prix since 1968). 1990 was another disastrous year, with Modena's fifth place in the season-opening United States Grand Prix being the only top six finish. The team finished ninth in the Constructors' Championship. Brundle and fellow Briton Mark Blundell, scored only three points during the 1991 season. Due to poor results in the first half of 1991, they had to prequalify in the second half of the season; Blundell failed to do so in Japan, as did Brundle in Australia. The team finished 10th in the Constructors' Championship, behind another struggling British team, Lotus. The 1992 season started with Eric van de Poele and Giovanna Amati after Japanese Formula 3000 driver Akihiko Nakaya was denied a superlicense. Damon Hill, the son of another former Brabham driver and World Champion, debuted in the team after Amati was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise. Amati, the fifth and last () woman to race in Formula One, ended her career with three DNQs. Argentine Sergio Rinland designed the team's final cars around Judd engines, except for 1991 when Yamaha powered the cars. In the 1992 season the cars (which were updated versions of the 1991 car) rarely qualified for races. Hill gave the team its final finish, at the Hungarian Grand Prix, where he crossed the finish line 11th and last, four laps behind the winner, Ayrton Senna. After the end of that race the team ran out of funds and collapsed. Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing, which went into administration. The Serious Fraud Office investigated the case. Landhurst's managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned, having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge. Among these was the team's old factory in Chessington, which was acquired by Yamaha Motor Sports and used to house Activa Technology Limited, a company manufacturing composite components for race and road cars run by Herbie Blash. The factory was bought by the Carlin DPR GP2 motor racing team in 2006. ==Motor Racing Developments== Brabham cars were also widely used by other teams, and not just in Formula One. Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac called the company they set up in 1961 to design and build formula racing cars to customer teams Motor Racing Developments (MRD), and this company had a large portfolio of other activities. Initially, Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 per cent of the shares. From 1963 to 1965, MRD was not directly involved in Formula One, and often ran works cars in other formulae. A separate company, Jack Brabham's Brabham Racing Organisation, ran the Formula One works entry. Like other customers, BRO bought its cars from MRD, initially at £3,000 per car, although it did not pay for development parts. Tauranac was unhappy with his distance from the Formula One operation and before the 1966 season suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement. Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO, however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category. After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969, the works Formula One team was MRD. Despite only building its first car in 1961, by the mid-1960s MRD had overtaken established constructors like Cooper to become the largest manufacturer of single-seat racing cars in the world, and by 1970 had built over 500 cars. Of the other Formula One teams which used Brabhams, Frank Williams Racing Cars and the Rob Walker Racing Team were the most successful. The 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete, only two of them from the works team, and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season. The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year, peaking with 89 cars in 1966. At the end of 1971 Bernie Ecclestone bought MRD. He retained the Brabham brand, as did subsequent owners. Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Ecclestone's ownership, he believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed. The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and the Formula Three BT41 of 1973, although Ecclestone sold ex-works Formula One BT44Bs to RAM Racing as late as 1976. In 1988 Ecclestone sold Motor Racing Developments to Alfa Romeo. The Formula One team did not compete that year, but Alfa Romeo put the company to use designing and building a prototype "Procar"—a racing car with the silhouette of a large saloon (the Alfa Romeo 164) covering a composite racing car chassis and mid-mounted race engine. This was intended for a racing series for major manufacturers to support Formula One Grands Prix, and was designated the Brabham BT57. ==Racing history—other categories== ===IndyCar=== Brabham cars competed at the Indianapolis 500 from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s. After an abortive project in 1962, MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an IndyCar chassis powered by an American Offenhauser engine. The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the "Zink-Urschel Trackburner" at the 1964 event and retired with a fuel tank problem. The car was entered again in 1966, taking a third place for Jim McElreath. From 1968 to 1970, Brabham returned to Indianapolis, at first with a 4.2-litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One—with which Peter Revson finished fifth in 1969—before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970. The Brabham-Offenhauser combination was entered again in 1971 by J.C. Agajanian, finishing fifth in the hands of Bill Vukovich II. Although no Brabham car ever won at Indianapolis, McElreath won four United States Automobile Club (USAC) races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12. The "Dean Van Lines Special" in which Mario Andretti won the 1965 USAC national championship was a direct copy of this car, made with permission from Brabham by Andretti's crew chief Clint Brawner. Revson took Brabham's final USAC race win in a BT25 in 1969, using the Repco engine. ===Formula Two=== In the 1960s and early 1970s, drivers who had reached Formula One often continued to compete in Formula Two. In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category, with a Honda engine acting as a stressed component. The car was extremely successful, winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme. Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation, avoiding a direct conflict with Repco, their Formula One engine supplier. ===Formula Three=== The first Formula Three Brabham, the BT9, won only four major races in 1964. The BT15 which followed in 1965 was a highly successful design. 58 cars were sold, which won 42 major races. Further developments of the same concept, including wings by the end of the decade, were highly competitive up until 1971. The BT38C of 1972 was Brabham's first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac. Although 40 were ordered, it was less successful than its predecessors. The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham. ===Formula 5000=== Brabham made one car for Formula 5000 racing, the Brabham BT43. Rolled out in late 1973 it was tested in early 1974 by John Watson at Silverstone before making its debut at the Rothmans F5000 Championship Round at Monza on 30 June 1974, driven by Martin Birrane. Former Australian Drivers' Champion Kevin Bartlett used the Chevrolet powered Brabham BT43 to finish 3rd in the 1978 Australian Drivers' Championship including finishing 5th in the 1978 Australian Grand Prix. The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965. The design was "stretched" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3-litre version of the Repco engine for Can-Am racing. It was quickly abandoned by MRD after engine reliability problems became evident. ==Technical innovation== Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s, chiefly because it persevered with traditional spaceframe cars long after Lotus introduced lighter, stiffer monocoque chassis to Formula One in 1962. Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis, and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD's customers. His "old fashioned" cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships, and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970. Despite the perceived conservatism, in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone its designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed. The practice became the norm in only the early 1980s, and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars. Towards the end of the 1960s, teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars' tyres down harder on the track and enable them to maintain faster speeds through high-speed corners. At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, Brabham was the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings to this effect. The team's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director. During 1976, the team introduced carbon-carbon brakes to Formula One, which promised reduced unsprung weight and better stopping performance due to carbon's greater coefficient of friction. The initial versions used carbon-carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon "pucks." The technology was not reliable at first; in 1976, Carlos Pace crashed at at the Österreichring circuit after heat build-up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car. By 1979, Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads. Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid-1970s, the team, like the rest of the field, did not immediately understand Lotus's development of a ground effect car in 1977. The Brabham BT46B "Fan car" of 1978, generated enormous downforce with a fan, which sucked air from beneath the car, although its claimed use was for engine cooling. The car raced only once in the Formula One World Championship—Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix—before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA. Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight carbon fibre composite panels to stiffen Brabham's aluminium alloy monocoques, he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques. Murray was reluctant to build the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis. For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a minimum ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect. Gordon Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed. Brabham was accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations. No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects. At the 1982 British Grand Prix, Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car's tyres during the race, unseen since the 1957 Formula One season, to allow its drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres. After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States, the team was able to refuel and re-tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race. In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than "get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning," but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic. Refuelling was banned for 1984, although it reappeared between 1994 and 2009, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One. ==Controversy== The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations. In the early 1980s, Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations. During 1981, Piquet's first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis. Driver Jacques Laffite was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering. The accusation was denied by Brabham's management. No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against it by the sporting authorities. From 1978, Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), a body formed by the teams to represent their interests. This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes. Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon its new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983. Brabham had to design and build a replacement, the BT52, in only three months. At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the Drivers' Championship by Piquet, protested that the Research Octane Number (RON) 102.4 of the team's fuel was above the legal limit of 102. The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit. == Later use of the Brabham name == === Revival attempts === On 4 June 2009, Franz Hilmer confirmed that he had used the name to lodge an entry for the 2010 Formula One season as a cost-capped team under the new budget cap regulations. The Brabham family was not involved and announced that it was seeking legal advice over the use of the name. The team's entry was not accepted, and the Brabham family later obtained legal recognition of their exclusive rights to the Brabham brand. === Brabham Racing === In September 2014, David Brabham—the son of Brabham founder Sir Jack Brabham—announced the reformation of the Brabham Racing team under the name Project Brabham, with plans to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in the LMP2 category using a crowdsourcing business model. The company also expressed interest in returning to Formula One, but did not have the financial capacity to do so. In 2019, Brabham Automotive announced its goal to enter the 2021 FIA World Endurance Championship using a BT62 in the GTE class. The team competed in the 2019 GT Cup Championship. It also entered the final two races of the 2019 Britcar Endurance Championship, winning on its debut. In 2021, Brabham Automotive debuted their BT63 GT2 car at the season finale of the 2021 GT2 European Series. ==Championship results== Results achieved by the "works" Brabham team. Bold results indicate a championship win.	[ "Milton Keynes", "Jaguar Cars", "BMW in Formula One", "Lotus 79", "Coventry Climax FPF", "Brabham BT56", "Independent (newspaper)", "1969 Canadian Grand Prix", "24 Hours of Le Mans", "1968 Formula One season", "1966 Formula One season", "Parmalat", "1976 Formula One season", "hydropneumatic suspension", "monocoque", "1967 Formula One season", "1964 Formula One season", "Alfa Romeo 164", "Japanese Formula 3000", "Graham Hill", "Brabham BT55", "Brabham BT62", "List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions", "1979 Formula One season", "open-wheel racing", "Martin Brundle", "List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions", "Martini Racing", "Alain Prost", "Brabham BT11", "Eric van de Poele", "List of Formula One constructors", "1977 Formula One season", "Coventry Climax", "Teo Fabi", "Jochen Rindt", "pole position", "WilliamsF1", "1989 Formula One season", "Brabham BT26A", "2019 Britcar Endurance Championship", "1966 Indianapolis 500", "McLaren MP4/1", "straight-four engine", "1978 Formula One season", "Formula One Constructors Association", "Brabham BT54", "Denis Jenkinson", "Manfred Winkelhock", "Brabham BT45", "List of international auto racing colors", "1982 British Grand Prix", "Jack Brabham", "Derek Warwick", "Australian Drivers' Championship", "1988 World Sportscar Championship season", "1982 Canadian Grand Prix", "Jackie Stewart", "1957 Formula One season", "1969 Monaco Grand Prix", "Gordon Murray", "1979 Canadian Grand Prix", "1962 Formula One season", "1981 Formula One season", "NASCAR", "1982 Formula One season", "John Barnard", "1969 United States Grand Prix", "1972 Formula One season", "BMW M12", "Mallory Park", "Brabham BT50", "1968 Belgian Grand Prix", "Judd (engine)", "Herbie Blash", "Indianapolis 500", "GP2 Series", "Stefano Modena", "Peter Revson", "Brabham BT59", "spaceframe", "Marc Surer", "1969 German Grand Prix", "Giovanna Amati", "marque", "Silvio Moser", "throttle", "1966 French Grand Prix", "Yamaha Motor Company", "RAM Racing", "2009 Formula One season", "Bernie Ecclestone", "downforce", "LM GTE", "1989 French Grand Prix", "Ricardo Zunino", "Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior", "Andrea de Cesaris", "Offenhauser", "Teddy Pilette", "1965 Formula One season", "Brabham BT44", "1978 Swedish Grand Prix", "1978 Australian Grand Prix", "1987 Belgian Grand Prix", "1964 Mexican Grand Prix", "John Judd", "Rob Walker Racing Team", "Roy Salvadori", "reinforced carbon-carbon", "Oldsmobile", "Sunbeam Rapier", "coefficient of friction", "Jacky Ickx", "ground effect in cars", "Chessington", "1965 British Grand Prix", "Rikky von Opel", "Brabham BT22", "Repco", "Coachwork", "1987 Mexican Grand Prix", "Sergio Rinland", "Pirelli", "Disc brake", "2010 Formula One season", "1986 Formula One season", "livery", "1964 Indianapolis 500", "1961 Formula One season", "Tim Schenken", "Brabham BT3", "John Watson (racing driver)", "James Hunt", "1989 Monaco Grand Prix", "turbocharger", "1985 French Grand Prix", "Buenos Aires", "Gérard Crombac", "Ron Tauranac", "1984 Canadian Grand Prix", "Cosworth DFV", "Ayrton Senna", "1990 Formula One season", "brake pads", "Brabham BT19", "1987 Formula One season", "Formula One", "Brabham BT43", "1988 Australian Grand Prix", "Carlos Reutemann", "V8 engine", "1978 Australian Drivers' Championship", "scrutineer", "1982 Monaco Grand Prix", "Denny Hulme", "Formula Junior", "unsprung weight", "1994 Formula One season", "Andrea de Adamich", "Australian Speedcar Championship", "Champ Car", "Australian Grand Prix", "Brabham BT60", "Brabham BT26", "Brabham BT42", "engine block", "Brabham BT52", "Ford Motor Company", "Hans-Joachim Stuck", "race car", "Akihiko Nakaya", "Yamaha Motor Company Ltd.", "Carbon fibre reinforced plastic", "Elio de Angelis", "Vincent Motorcycle", "Brabham BT48", "1989 Canadian Grand Prix", "Dave Charlton", "2021 FIA World Endurance Championship", "1963 Formula One season", "Can-Am", "1975 Formula One season", "Brabham BT34", "Mario Andretti", "Circuit Paul Ricard", "Kevin Bartlett (racing driver)", "John Frankenheimer", "Formula 5000", "formula racing", "1960 Formula One season", "Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile", "open wheel car", "United Kingdom", "Gregor Foitek", "Richard Robarts", "List of Brabham racing cars", "EuroBrun", "1990 United States Grand Prix", "1992 Hungarian Grand Prix", "Brabham BT37", "David Brabham", "Giancarlo Baghetti", "Österreichring", "United States Automobile Club", "Brabham BT7", "1970 Formula One season", "Lotus 24", "1991 Formula One season", "Hill (constructor)", "Dan Gurney", "1984 Detroit Grand Prix", "steel", "Cooper Car Company", "Damon Hill", "Lotus 25", "Formula Three", "mid-engine", "Frank Williams Racing Cars", "1974 Formula One season", "François Hesnault", "machine shop", "flat-12", "Mark Blundell", "John Player & Sons", "Charlie Whiting", "Brabham Automotive", "1980 Formula One season", "Giorgio Francia", "1975 German Grand Prix", "Silverstone Circuit", "Fittipaldi Automotive", "Alfa Romeo in Formula One", "Brabham BT53", "Pit stop", "Administration order", "Owen Maddock", "Renault F1", "Office of Public Sector Information", "Surtees Racing Organisation", "2019 GT Cup Championship", "Christopher J.C. Agajanian", "Andrea Moda Formula", "1969 Formula One season", "Administrative receivership", "1992 Formula One season", "Larry Perkins", "wind tunnel", "Solituderennen", "March Engineering", "Coventry Climax FWMV", "McLaren", "Jaguar D-type", "Walter Brun", "1971 Formula One season", "1983 South African Grand Prix", "1964 French Grand Prix", "ground effect (cars)", "brake fluid", "Rolf Stommelen", "Honda", "Fondmetal", "crowdsourcing", "crash test", "Midget car racing", "São Paulo", "Niki Lauda", "Brabham BT49", "Ron Dennis", "Autódromo José Carlos Pace", "Formula Two", "aerodynamic", "radiator (engine cooling)", "BRDC International Trophy", "Brabham BT46", "drag (physics)", "Piers Courage", "light aircraft", "Dirt track racing", "Bruce McLaren", "Brabham BT24", "Triumph Herald", "Brabham BT33", "Martin Birrane", "Serious Fraud Office (UK)", "Nelson Piquet", "Corrado Fabi", "1968 Australian Grand Prix", "1987 Australian Grand Prix", "Carlin DPR", "1959 Formula One season", "Carlos Pace", "Octane rating", "Reims-Gueux", "1986 British Grand Prix", "Brabham BT20", "aluminium", "Arrows (F1)", "Motor Industry Research Association", "Scuderia Ferrari", "ride height", "fan car", "1977 French Grand Prix", "Jacques Laffite", "1983 Formula One season", "1990 Australian Grand Prix", "Team Lotus", "FIA World Endurance Championship", "1962 German Grand Prix", "Brabham BT58", "turbocharged", "Grand Prix (1966 film)", "1973 Formula One season", "Riccardo Patrese", "center of pressure (fluid mechanics)", "Héctor Rebaque", "Phil Irving", "Chevrolet small-block engine", "Formula One Group", "BMW M10", "Motor Sport (magazine)", "Jim McElreath", "Bill Vukovich II", "José Carlos Pace", "2021 GT2 European Series", "International Formula 3000" ]
4,997	Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress	The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is an American four-engined heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). A fast and high-flying bomber, the B-17 dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during World War II, used primarily in the European Theater of Operations. It is the third-most produced bomber of all time, behind the American four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator and the German multirole, twin-engined Junkers Ju 88. The B-17 was also employed in transport, anti-submarine warfare, and search and rescue roles. In a USAAC competition, Boeing's prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the Douglas B-18 Bolo. Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938. The B-17 evolved through numerous design advances but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the United States Army Air Forces, USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon. It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bomb load. It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base. The B-17 saw early action in the Pacific War, where it conducted air raids against Japanese shipping and airfields. But it was primarily employed by the USAAF in the daylight component of the Allied strategic bombing campaign over Europe, complementing RAF Bomber Command's night bombers in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets. About 50 survive in storage or are on static display, the oldest of which is The Swoose, a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II. There are also several reasonably complete wrecks, such as underwater, that have been found. B-17 survivors gained national attention in 2022 in the United States, when one was destroyed in a fatal mid-air collision with another warbird at an airshow. == Development == === Origins === On 8 August 1934, the USAAC tendered a proposal for a multiengine bomber to replace the Martin B-10. The Air Corps was looking for a bomber capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama, and Alaska. The most distinctive mount was in the nose, which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward nearly all frontal angles. Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use. Boeing also claimed in some of the early press releases that Model 299 was the first combat aircraft that could continue its mission if one of its four engines failed. On , the prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes with an average ground speed of , much faster than the competition. Their opinions were shared by the air corps procurement officers, and even before the competition had finished, they suggested buying 65 B-17s. Doyle notes, "The loss of Hill and Tower, and the Model 299, was directly responsible for the creation of the modern written checklist used by pilots to this day." === Initial orders === Despite the crash, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance, and on 1936, through a legal loophole,}} In one of their first missions, three B-17s, directed by lead navigator Lieutenant Curtis LeMay, were sent by General Andrews to "intercept" and photograph the Italian ocean liner Rex off the Atlantic coast. Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers, and its first flight was delayed until 1938. Opposition to the Air Corps' ambitions for the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-17B were ordered to equip two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast. This production rate was, however, surpassed by that of the Consolidated B-24 Liberator: at its peak in 1944, the Willow Run plant alone produced one B-24 per hour and 650 B-24s per month.}} The aircraft went on to serve in every World War II combat zone, and by the time production ended in May 1945, 12,731 B-17s had been built by Boeing, Douglas, and Vega (a subsidiary of Lockheed). the nose (especially the bombardier's framed, 10-panel nose glazing) remained relatively the same as the earlier B through D versions had; a Sperry electrically powered manned dorsal gun turret just behind the cockpit was added; a similarly powered (also built by Sperry) manned ventral ball turret just aft of the bomb bay – replaced the relatively hard-to-use, Sperry model 645705-D remotely operated ventral turret on the earliest examples of the E variant. These modifications resulted in a 20% increase in aircraft weight. By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to 13, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were completed. The B-17G was the final version of the Flying Fortress, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F, == Operational history == The B-17 began operations in World War II with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1941, and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army. During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide. respectively. === RAF use === The RAF entered World War II without a sufficient supply of modern heavy bombers, with the largest available long-range medium bombers in any numbers being the Vickers Wellington, which could carry of bombs. While the Short Stirling and Handley Page Halifax became its primary bombers by 1941, in early 1940, the RAF agreed with the U.S. Army Air Corps to acquire 20 B-17Cs, which were given the service name Fortress Mk.I. Their first operation, against Wilhelmshaven on 1941 was unsuccessful. By September, the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat and had experienced numerous mechanical problems, and Bomber Command abandoned daylight bombing raids using the Fortress I because of the aircraft's poor performance. The experience showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads, and more accurate bombing methods were required. However, the USAAF continued using the B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings by the RAF that attempts at daylight bombing would be ineffective. === Initial USAAF operations over Europe === The air corps – renamed United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 20 June 1941 – used the B-17 and other bombers to bomb from high altitudes with the aid of the then-secret Norden bombsight, known as the "Blue Ox", which was an optical electromechanical gyrostabilized analog computer. The device was able to determine, from variables put in by the bombardier, the point at which the bombs should be released to hit the target. The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level altitude during the final moments before release. Two additional groups arrived in Britain at the same time, bringing with them the first B-17Fs, which served as the primary AAF heavy bomber fighting the Germans until September 1943. As the raids of the American bombing campaign grew in numbers and frequency, German interception efforts grew in strength (such as during the attempted bombing of Kiel on 13 June 1943 Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe. General Ira C. Eaker and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories, and ball-bearing manufacturers. Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings, though these were also then lost. The allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed, while the B-17 crews claimed five more. Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged. At their peak, 168 B-17 bombers were in the Pacific theater in September 1942, but already in mid-1942 Gen. Arnold had decided that the B-17 was unsuitable for the kind of operations required in the Pacific and made plans to replace all of the B-17s in the theater with B-24s (and later, B-29s) as soon as they became available. Although the conversion was not complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat operations in the Pacific theater came to an end after a little over a year. Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the 54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop section and were used to drop supplies to ground forces operating in close contact with the enemy. Special airdrop B-17s supported Australian commandos operating near the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17 target in 1942 and early 1943. B-17s were still used in the Pacific later in the war, however, mainly in the combat search and rescue role. A number of B-17Gs, redesignated B-17Hs and later SB-17Gs, were used in the Pacific during the final year of the war to carry and drop lifeboats to stranded bomber crews who had been shot down or crashed at sea. These aircraft were nicknamed Dumbos, and remained in service for many years after the end of World War II. === Bomber defense === Before the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor. Luftwaffe fighter pilots likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a fliegendes Stachelschwein, "flying porcupine", with dozens of machine guns in a combat box aimed at them from almost every direction. However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive maneuvers: they had to fly constantly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to German flak. Moreover, German fighter aircraft later developed the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict damage with minimum risk. The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely. === Luftwaffe attacks === After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that on average it took about 20 hits with 20 mm shells fired from the rear to bring them down.]] During World War II approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished by Germany after crash-landing or being forced down, with about a dozen put back into the air. Given German Balkenkreuz national markings on their wings and fuselage sides, and swastika tail fin–flashes, the captured B-17s were used to determine the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in attack tactics. According to these allegations, the practice was initially successful, but Army Air Forces combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's formation. but they never saw combat. In 1946 (or 1947, according to Holm), the regiment was assigned to the Kazan factory (moving from Baranovichi) to help the Soviet effort to reproduce the more advanced Boeing B-29 as the Tupolev Tu-4. === Swiss-interned B-17s === During the Allied bomber offensive, some US and British bombers landed in Switzerland and were interned. Some had been damaged and were unable to get back to Allied bases. Others flew into Swiss airspace due to navigation errors, and on rare occasions, accidentally bombed Swiss cities. Swiss fighter aircraft intercepted such aircraft and sought to force them to land. In October 1943, a B-17F-25-VE (tail number 25841) developed engine trouble after a raid over Germany and was forced to land in Switzerland. The plane and its US flight crew were interned. The aircraft was turned over to the Swiss Air Force, which flew the bomber until the end of the war, using other interned but non-airworthy B-17s for spare parts. The bomber's topside surfaces were repainted a dark olive drab, but it retained its light gray underwing and lower fuselage surfaces. It carried the Swiss national white cross insignia in red squares on the topside and underside of its wings, and on both sides of its rudder and its fuselage, with the light gray flash letters "RD" and "I" on either side of the fuselage insignias. === Japanese-captured B-17s === In 1942, Japanese technicians and mechanics rebuilt three damaged B-17s, one "D" and two "E" series, using parts salvaged from abandoned B-17 wrecks in the Philippines and the Java East Indies. The three bombers, which still contained their top-secret Norden bombsights, were ferried to Japan where they underwent extensive technical evaluation by the Giken, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's Air Technical Research Institute (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo) at Tachikawa's air field. The "D" model, later deemed an obsolescent design, was used in Japanese training and propaganda films. The two "E"s were used to develop air combat tactics for use against B-17s; they were also used as enemy aircraft in pilot and crew training films. One of the two "E"s was photographed late in the war by US aerial recon. It was code-named "Tachikawa 105" after the mystery aircraft's wingspan () but not correctly identified as a captured B-17 until after the war. No traces of the three captured Flying Fortresses were ever found in Japan by Allied occupation forces. The bombers were assumed either lost by various means or scrapped late in the war for their vital war materials. In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as drone aircraft for atmospheric sampling during the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, being able to fly close to or even through the mushroom clouds without endangering a crew. This led to more widespread conversion of B-17s as drones and drone control aircraft, both for further use in atomic testing and as targets for testing surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. Perhaps the most famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, has been restored – with the B-17D The Swoose under way – to her World War II wartime appearance by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been stripped of all weapons and painted black. One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was flown to Clark Air Base in the Philippines in mid-September, assigned for covert missions into Tibet. On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8, as Operation Coldfeet. Smith and LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and searched the station for several days. On 1 June, Seigrist and Price returned and picked up Smith and LeSchack using a Fulton Skyhook system installed on the B-17. N809Z was used to perform a Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie Thunderball in 1965. This aircraft, now restored to its original B-17G configuration, was on display in the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon until it was sold to the Collings Foundation in 2015. == Operators == The B-17, a versatile aircraft, served in dozens of USAAF units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in other roles for the RAF. Its main use was in Europe, where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft did not hamper it as much as in the Pacific Theater. Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide. == Surviving aircraft and wrecks == Of the more than 12,000 B-17 made, four were known to be in flying as of January 2025. and overall about 46 globally. There are also nearly complete or partially complete B-17 wrecks that have been discovered: an example of this is a B-17F that ditched in the Pacific on 11 July 1943, but was located in 1986. == Fortresses as a symbol == The B-17 Flying Fortress became symbolic of the United States of America's air power. In a 1943 Consolidated Aircraft poll of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated advertisements had been run in newspapers, 73% had heard of the B-24 and 90% knew of the B-17. During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the Eighth Air Force, had an open preference for the B-17. Lieutenant General Jimmy Doolittle wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping field forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their individual servicing and spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth. His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose mission studies showed that the Flying Fortress's utility and survivability was much greater than those of the B-24 Liberator. a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction with the B-17. All American – This B-17F survived having its tail almost cut off in a mid-air collision with a Bf 109 over Tunisia but returned safely to base in Algeria. Snap! Crackle! Pop! – B-17F-27-BO, 41-24620, part of the 360th Bomb Squadron, 303rd Bomb Group, was on a daylight bombing run over Saint-Nazaire, France when downed by flak. The ball turret gunner, Alan Magee, his parachute damaged and unusable, free fell from 22,000 feet, survived and became a POW. Chief Seattle – sponsored by the city of Seattle, she disappeared (MIA) on 14 August 1942 flying a recon mission for the 19th BG, 435th BS and the crew declared dead on 7 December 1945. Hell's Kitchen – B-17F 41-24392 was one of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to complete more than 100 combat missions. Mary Ann – a fictional B-17D that was part of an unarmed flight which left Hamilton Air Field, Novato, California on 6 December 1941 en route to Hickam Field in Hawaii, arriving during the attack on Pearl Harbor. The plane and its crew were immediately forced into action on Wake Island and in the Philippines during the outbreak of World War II. The aircraft became famous when its fictional exploits were featured in Air Force, one of the first of the patriotic war films released in 1943. Memphis Belle – one of the first B-17s to complete a tour of duty of 25 missions in the 8th Air Force and the subject of a feature film, now completely restored and on display since 17 May 2018 at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. Milk Wagon - B-17G. Over the course of its tour of duty, Milk Wagon set a record in the 3rd Division, possibly the war, for 129 missions without aborting for mechanical failure. Miss Every Morning Fix'n – B-17C. Previously named 'Pamela'. Stationed in Mackay, Queensland, Australia during World War II. On 14 June 1943, crashed shortly after takeoff from Mackay while ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to Port Moresby, with 40 of the 41 people on board killed. It remains the worst air disaster in Australian history. The sole survivor, Foye Roberts, married an Australian and returned to the States. He died in Wichita Falls, Texas, on 4 February 2004. Murder Inc. – A B-17 bombardier wearing the name of the B-17 "Murder Inc." on his jacket was used for propaganda in German newspapers. Old 666 – B-17E flown by the most highly decorated crew in the Pacific Theater Royal Flush – B-17F 42-6087 from the 100th Bomb Group and commanded on one mission by highly decorated USAAF officer Robert Rosenthal, she was the lone surviving 100th BG B-17 of 10 October 1943 raid against Münster to return to the unit's base at RAF Thorpe Abbotts. Sir Baboon McGoon – B-17F featured in the June 1944 issue of Popular Science magazine and the 1945 issue of Flying magazine. Articles discuss mobile recovery crews following October 1943 belly landing at Tannington, England. The Swoose – Initially nicknamed Ole Betsy while in service, The Swoose is the only remaining intact B-17D, built in 1940, the oldest surviving Flying Fortress, and the only surviving B-17 to have seen action in the Philippines campaign (1941–1942); she is in the collection of the National Air and Space Museum and is being restored for final display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. The Swoose was flown by Frank Kurtz, father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, who named his daughter after the bomber. Ye Olde Pub – A highly damaged B-17 piloted by Charlie Brown that was not shot down by Franz Stigler, as memorialized in the painting A Higher Call by John D. Shaw. 5 Grand – 5,000th B-17 made, emblazoned with Boeing employee signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe. Damaged and repaired after gear-up landing, transferred to 388th Bomb Group. Returned from duty following V-E Day, flown for war bonds tour, then stored at Kingman, Arizona. Following an unsuccessful bid for museum preservation, the aircraft was scrapped. == Accidents and incidents == Most of the losses were during WWII, however because of the Warbird flights there have been losses in the 2020s as well. == Noted B-17 pilots and crew members == thumb\|upright\|L–R, [[Nancy Harkness Love\|Nancy Love, pilot and Betty (Huyler) Gillies, co-pilot, the first women to fly the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber for the WASP 2nd Lt Robert Femoyer (navigator) – awarded posthumously 1st Lt Donald J. Gott (pilot) – awarded posthumously 2nd Lt David R. Kingsley (bombardier) – awarded posthumously for tending to injured crew and giving up his parachute to another 1st Lt William R. Lawley Jr. – "heroism and exceptional flying skill" Sgt Archibald Mathies (engineer-gunner) – awarded posthumously 1st Lt Jack W. Mathis (bombardier) – posthumously, the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor 2nd Lt William E. Metzger Jr. (co-pilot) – awarded posthumously 1st Lt John C. Morgan Capt Harl Pease (awarded posthumously) 2nd Lt Joseph Sarnoski (awarded posthumously) S/Sgt Maynard H. Smith (gunner) 1st Lt Walter E. Truemper (awarded posthumously) Brigadier General Kenneth Walker Commanding officer of V Bomber Command, killed while leading small force in raid on Rabaul – awarded posthumously Maj Jay Zeamer Jr. (pilot) – earned on unescorted reconnaissance mission in Pacific, same mission as Sarnoski === Other military achievements or events === Lincoln Broyhill (1925–2008), tail-gunner on a B-17 in the 483rd Bombardment Group. He received a Distinguished Unit Citation and set two individual records in a single day: (1) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner in one mission (two), and (2) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner during the entirety of World War II. Allison C. Brooks (1917–2006), a B-17 pilot who was awarded numerous military decorations and was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and served in active duty until 1971. 1st Lt Eugene Emond (1921–1998): Lead pilot for Man O War II Horsepower Limited. Received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through his formation over Germany. One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces. Immanuel J. Klette (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II. Capt Colin Kelly (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action. Col Frank Kurtz (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II. Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy. Clark Field Philippines attack survivor. Olympic bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945. Father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, herself named for the still-surviving B-17D mentioned above. Gen Curtis LeMay (1906–1990): Became head of the Strategic Air Command and Chief of Staff of the USAF. Lt Col Nancy Love (1914–1976) and Betty (Huyler) Gillies (1908–1998): The first women pilots to be certified to fly the B-17, in 1943 and to qualify for the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron. on 3 February 1945, that is likely to have ended the life of Roland Freisler, the infamous "hanging judge" of the People's Court. ==Specifications (B-17G)== {{Aircraft specs \|ref= The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft Hollywood featured the B-17 in its period films, such as director Howard Hawks' Air Force starring John Garfield and Twelve O'Clock High starring Gregory Peck. Both films were made with the full cooperation of the United States Army Air Forces and used USAAF aircraft and (for Twelve O'Clock High) combat footage. In 1964, the latter film was made into a television show of the same name and ran for three years on ABC TV. Footage from Twelve O' Clock High was also used, along with three restored B-17s, in the 1962 film The War Lover. An early model YB-17 also appeared in the 1938 film Test Pilot with Clark Gable and Spencer Tracy, and later with Clark Gable in Command Decision in 1948, in Tora! Tora! Tora! in 1970, and in Memphis Belle with Matthew Modine, Eric Stoltz, Billy Zane, and Harry Connick Jr. in 1990. The most famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, toured the U. S. with her crew to reinforce national morale (and to sell war bonds). She was featured in a USAAF documentary, Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress. The Flying Fortress has also been featured in artistic works expressing the physical and psychological stress of the combat conditions and the high casualty rates that crews suffered. Works such as The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner by Randall Jarrell and Heavy Metals section "B-17" depict the nature of these missions. The Ball turret itself has inspired works like Steven Spielberg's The Mission. Artists who served on the bomber units also created paintings and drawings depicting the combat conditions in World War II. Masters of the Air, a 2024 American war drama television miniseries created by John Shiban and John Orloff, based on the 2007 book Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany by Donald L. Miller, follows the actions of the 100th Bomb Group, a B-17 unit in eastern England during World War II.	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5,001	Trieste (bathyscaphe)	Trieste is a Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep-diving research bathyscaphe. In 1960, it became the first crewed vessel to reach the bottom of Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, the deepest point in Earth's seabed. The mission was the final goal for Project Nekton, a series of dives conducted by the United States Navy in the Pacific Ocean near Guam. The vessel was piloted by Swiss oceanographer Jacques Piccard and US Navy lieutenant Don Walsh. They reached a depth of about . The bathyscaphe was designed by Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, the father of pilot Jacques Piccard. It was built in Italy and first launched in 1953. The vessel was first owned and operated by the French Navy until it was purchased by the US Navy in 1958. It was taken out of service in 1966. Since the 1980s, it has been on exhibit in the National Museum of the United States Navy in Washington, D.C. ==Design== Trieste was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, based on his previous experience with the bathyscaphe FNRS-2. The term bathyscaphe refers to its capacity to dive and manoeuvre untethered to a ship in contrast to a bathysphere, bathys being ancient Greek meaning "deep" and scaphe being a light, bowl-shaped boat. Built in Italy and launched on 26 August 1953 near the Isle of Capri on the Mediterranean Sea it was operated in the Mediterranean by the French Navy for several years until it was purchased by the United States Navy in 1958 for US$250,000, equivalent to $ million today. Trieste consisted of a heavy crew sphere suspended from a hull containing tanks filled with gasoline (petrol) for buoyancy, ballast hoppers filled with iron shot and floodable water tanks to sink. This pressure sphere was replaced in December 1958 with another cast by the Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany in three sections; an equatorial ring and two caps, which were finely machined and joined by the Ateliers de Constructions Mécaniques de Vevey. The new sphere was also steel, but smaller at diameter and with thicker walls, at , Outside observations by the crew were made through a porthole made from a single, tapered block of acrylic glass; the only transparent material available that could withstand the pressure. Outside illumination was by quartz arc-light bulbs, which could withstand the pressure without modification. The buoyancy tanks were filled with gasoline, which floats in water and is similarly incompressible. Changes in the volume of the gasoline caused by any slight compression or temperature changes were accommodated by the free flow of seawater into and out of the bottom of the tanks during a dive via valves, equalising the pressure and allowing them to be lightly built. Ballast was held in two conical hoppers fore and aft of the crew sphere each containing of iron shot. This shot ballast allowed the craft to sink, and its release caused it to ascend. The iron shot was locked in place at the throats of the hoppers by electromagnets thus was released either by switching the electromagnets off or automatically in the event of an electrical failure. Progressive release allowed buoyancy trim. Compressed-air–driven variable-buoyancy pressure vessels typically used in submarines are not feasible at extreme pressure. Water tanks at each end of the hull were pumped out for flotation, lifting, and towing on the surface and fully flooded to allow sinking. Following its acquisition by the United States Navy, Trieste was modified extensively by the Naval Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, California, tested in the Pacific Ocean over the next few years, and culminated in a dive to the bottom of Challenger Deep 23 January 1960. ==The Mariana Trench dives== Trieste departed San Diego on 5 October 1959 for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January 1960, it reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh. This was the first time a vessel, crewed or uncrewed, had reached the deepest known point of the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was revised later to ; fairly recently, more accurate measurements have found Challenger Deep to be between and deep. The descent to the ocean floor took 4 hours 47 minutes at a descent rate of . After passing , one of the outer Plexiglas window panes cracked, shaking the entire vessel. The two men spent twenty minutes on the ocean floor. The temperature in the cabin was 7 °C (45 °F) at the time. While at maximum depth, Piccard and Walsh unexpectedly regained the ability to communicate with the support ship, USS Wandank (ATA-204), using a sonar/hydrophone voice communications system. At a speed of almost – about five times the speed of sound in air – it took about seven seconds for a voice message to travel from the craft to the support ship and another seven seconds for answers to return. While at the bottom, Piccard and Walsh reported observing a number of sole and flounder (both flatfish). The accuracy of this observation has later been questioned and recent authorities do not recognize it as valid. The theoretical maximum depth for fish is at about , beyond which they would become hyperosmotic. Invertebrates such as sea cucumbers, some of which potentially could be mistaken for flatfish, have been confirmed at depths of and more. Walsh later said that their original observation could be mistaken as their knowledge of biology was limited. ==Other deep dives and retirement== The Trieste performed a number of deep dives in the Mediterranean prior to being purchased by the U.S. Navy in 1958. Trieste's participation in the search earned it the Navy Unit Commendation. Following the mission, Trieste was returned to San Diego and taken out of service in 1966. Between 1964 and 1966, Trieste was used to develop its replacement, the Trieste II, with the original Terni pressure sphere reincorporated in its successor. In early 1980, it was transported to the Washington Navy Yard where it remains on exhibit today in the National Museum of the U.S. Navy, along with the Krupp pressure sphere. Meritorious Unit Commendation with star Navy E Ribbon National Defense Service Medal with star	[ "FNRS-2", "Capri", "Naples", "Ateliers de Constructions Mécaniques de Vevey", "flatfish", "MIR (submersible)", "bathyscaphe", "Washington Navy Yard", "Soda lime", "New England", "acrylic glass", "Navy Unit Citation", "oxygen", "flounder", "Washington, D.C.", "sea cucumber", "Guam", "Don Walsh", "Project Mohole", "shot (pellet)", "Meritorious Unit Commendation", "compressibility", "Project Nekton", "Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico", "Terni", "Auguste Piccard", "United States Navy", "French Navy", "National Museum of the United States Navy", "factor of safety", "Free Territory of Trieste", "Forging", "Navy Unit Commendation", "Challenger Deep", "Bathyscaphe", "Mediterranean Sea", "sonar", "Pacific Ocean", "USS Wandank (ATA-204)", "Krupp", "buoyancy", "hydrophone", "BBC", "Trieste II (Bathyscaphe)", "Carbon dioxide scrubber", "Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle", "U.S. Navy Museum", "San Diego", "variable-buoyancy pressure vessel", "Essen, Germany", "Mariana Trench", "rebreather", "USS Point Defiance", "Deep Submergence Vehicle", "sole (fish)", "bathysphere", "DSV Alvin", "arc lamp", "Atlantic Ocean", "National Defense Service Medal", "Castellammare di Stabia", "Navy E Ribbon", "diatom", "hyperosmotic", "gasoline", "Jacques Piccard", "Naval Electronics Laboratory", "Diving cylinder" ]
5,003	Battle of Bouvines	The Battle of Bouvines took place on 27 July 1214 near the town of Bouvines in the County of Flanders. It was the concluding battle of the Anglo-French War of 1213–1214. Although estimates on the number of troops vary considerably among modern historians, at Bouvines, a French army commanded by King Philip Augustus routed a larger allied army led by Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV in one of the rare pitched battles of the High Middle Ages and one of the most decisive medieval engagements. In early 1214, a coalition was assembled against King Philip Augustus of France, consisting of Otto IV, King John of England, Count Ferrand of Flanders, Count Renaud of Boulogne, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg. Its objective was to reverse the conquests made by Philip earlier in his reign. After initial manoeuvring in late July, battle was offered near Bouvines on 27 July. The long allied column deployed slowly into battle order, leaving the allies at a disadvantage. The superior discipline and training of the French knights allowed them to carry out a series of devastating charges, shattering the Flemish knights on the allied left wing. In the centre, the allied knights and infantry under Otto enjoyed initial success, scattering the French urban infantry and nearly killing Philip. A counterattack by French knights smashed the isolated Allied infantry and Otto's entire centre division fell back. Otto fled the battle and his knightly followers were defeated by the French knights, who went on to capture the Imperial eagle standard. With the allied centre and left wing routed, only the soldiers of the right wing under Renaud of Boulogne and William de Longespée held on. They were killed, captured or driven from the field. A pursuit was not conducted as it was nearly dark. The crushing French victory dashed English and Flemish hopes of regaining their lost territories. Having lost all credibility as emperor following the battle, Otto IV was deposed by Pope Innocent III, leading to Frederick II's accession to the Imperial throne. King John was compelled to hand over Anjou, the ancient patrimony of the Angevin kings of England, to Philip in a peace settlement. This confirmed the collapse of the Angevin Empire. The disaster at Bouvines forever altered the political situation in England, as John was so weakened that his discontented barons forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215. Counts Ferrand, Renaud and Longespée were captured and imprisoned. The balance of power shifted, with the popes of the 13th century increasingly seeking the support of a powerful France. Philip had achieved remarkable success in the expansion of his realm and by the end of his reign, in 1223, had not only laid the foundations for the era of Capetian pre-eminence in Europe which followed and marked much of the Late Middle Ages, but also those of the absolutism that came to define the Ancien Régime. ==Prelude== In 1214, Count Ferdinand of Flanders desired the return of the cities of Aire-sur-la-Lys and Saint-Omer, which he had recently lost to King Philip II of France, in the Treaty of Pont-à-Vendin. He thus broke allegiance with Philip and assembled a broad coalition including Emperor Otto IV, King John of England, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg. The campaign was planned by John, who was the fulcrum of the alliance; his plan was to draw the French away from Paris southward towards his forces and keep them occupied, while the main army, under Emperor Otto IV, marched on Paris from the north. John's plan was followed initially, but the allies in the north moved slowly. John, after two encounters with the French, retreated to Aquitaine on 3 July. On 23 July, having summoned his vassals, Philip had an army consisting of 6,000 to 8,000 soldiers. The Emperor finally succeeded in concentrating his forces at Valenciennes, although this did not include John, and in the interval Philip had counter-marched northward and regrouped. Philip now took the offensive himself, and after manoeuvring to obtain good ground for his cavalry he offered battle on 27 July, on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque. Otto was surprised by the speed of his enemy and was thought to have been caught unprepared by Philip, who probably deliberately lured Otto into his trap. Otto decided to launch an attack on what was then the French rearguard. The allied army drew up facing south-west towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings and the infantry in one great mass in the centre, supported by a cavalry corps under Otto himself. The French army formed up opposite in a similar formation, cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the town militias, in the centre. Philip, with the cavalry reserve and the royal standard, the Oriflamme, positioned himself to the rear of the men on foot. It is said by William the Breton, chaplain to Philip at the battle, that the soldiers stood in line in a space of 40,000 steps (), which leaves very little clearance and predisposes to hand-to-hand fighting. William the Breton also says in his chronicle that "the two lines of combatants were separated by a small space". ==Order of battle== ===French=== The French army contained 1,200–1,360 knights (of whom 765 were from the royal demesne) and 300 mounted sergeants. Philip had launched an appeal to the municipalities in northern France, in order to obtain their support. Sixteen of the thirty-nine municipalities of the royal demesne answered the call to arms. They provided 3,160 infantry, broken down as: Amiens 250, Arras 1,000, Beauvais 500, Compiegne 200, Corbie 200, Bruyeres 120, Cerny and Crepy-en-Laonnais 80, Crandelain 40, Hesdin 80, Montreuil-sur-Mer 150, Noyon 150, Roye 100, Soissons 160, and Vailly 50. The balance of the infantry, possibly another 2,000 men, was composed of mercenaries. The other communes of the royal demesne were supposed to provide a further 1,980 infantry, but it is doubtful that they did. In total, the royal army totalled approximately 6,000–7,000 men. The royal fleur-de-lis standard was borne by Galon or Gales of Montigny. The royal army was divided into three parts, or "battles": The right wing, composed of the knights of Champagne and Burgundy, was commanded by Eudes, Duke of Burgundy, and his lieutenants: Gaucher of Châtillon, Count of Saint-Pol, Count Guillaume I de Sancerre, Count de Beaumont, Mathieu of Montmorency and Adam II Viscount of Melun. In the front of the right wing were men-at-arms and militia from Burgundy, Champagne, and Picardy led by 150 mounted sergeants from Soissons. The central battle was led by Philip Augustus and his chief knights – Guillaume des Barres, Bartholomé de Roye, Girard Scophe, Guillaume de Garland, Enguerrand of Coucy and Gautier of Nemours. In front of the King and his 175 knights were 2,150 infantry from the towns of the Île de France and Normandy. The left wing was led by Robert of Dreux, supported by Count William of Ponthieu. The main body of the left wing consisted of Bretons and militia from Dreux, Perche, Ponthieu, and Vimeux. The bridge of Bouvines, the only means of retreat across the marshes, was guarded by 150 sergeants-at-arms, who also formed the French reserve. ===Allied=== Otto's army contained some 1,300–1,500 knights: 600–650 Flemish, 425–500 Hainaulter and 275–350 from elsewhere. He also fielded approximately 7,500 infantry, to give a total force of just under 9,000 men. The imperial army was also formed up in three battles: The left flank, under the command of Ferrand of Flanders with his Flemish knights – directed by Arnaud of Oudenaarde. The infantry were from Flanders and Hainaut. The centre was under the command of Otto and of Theobald, Duke of Lorraine, Henry, Duke of Brabant, and Philip Courtenay, Marquis of Namur. It included many Saxons and infantry from Brabant and Germany. In the front of the battle stood German pike phalanxes. Saxon infantry formed the second line. Otto stood between these with 50 German knights. The right flank, under the command of Renaud de Dammartin, included Brabant infantry and English knights, the latter under the command of the Earl of Salisbury, William Longespée. On the extreme right, English archers supported the flank of both the Brabant infantry and the nobles of the two Lorraines (i.e. of the Duchy of Lorraine and the County of Bar). ==Battle== ===Allied left=== The battle opened with an attack by 150 light cavalrymen from the Abbey of Saint-Médard de Soissons against the Flemish knights on the allied left, aiming to throw it into confusion. The Flemish knights easily drove off the unarmoured horsemen. Some Flemish knights left their formations and chased the retreating light cavalry; 180 French knights from Champagne in turn attacked and killed or captured the over-aggressive Flemish knights. The Count of Flanders counter-attacked with his entire force of 600 knights and threw the French back. Gaucher de Châtillon launched his 30 knights at the Flemish force, followed by a further 250 knights. They carried out a continuous series of charges, and halted the allied advance. Many knights on both sides fell from their horses in the first clash. The French were better ordered than the more loosely formed Flemish knights, and the allied ranks grew thinner as they were assaulted by the compact French masses. Châtillon and Melun with their knights broke through the ranks of their Flemish counterparts, then wheeled and struck them from the rear, constantly switching targets. St. Pol's knights and the Burgundians engaged in an exhausting struggle against the Flemings, taking no prisoners. The Duke of Burgundy's horse was killed and the Duke thrown to the ground, but he was saved by his knights, who beat off the Flemish and found him a fresh horse. The Flemings fought on for three hours despite their increasingly desperate situation, driven by knightly honour. Finally, the wounded and unhorsed Count of Flanders was captured by two French knights, triggering the collapse of his knights' morale. ===Centre=== The French urban militia infantry, 2,150 strong, were gathered under the Oriflamme in the centre, in front of Philip's knights and the fleur-de-lis standard. Soon after deploying, they were attacked by allied knights and infantry under Otto and thrown back. Otto and his knights had nearly reached the French king when they were halted by French knights. The allied infantrymen broke through to Philip and his handful of knightly companions, unhorsing him with their hooked pikes. The French king's armour deflected an enemy lance and saved his life. Galon or Gales de Montigny used the royal standard to signal for help and another knight gave Philip a fresh horse. The allied infantry used daggers to stab unhorsed French knights through the openings in their helmets and other weak spots in their armour. The Norman knight Etienne de Longchamp was killed in this way and the French suffered heavy losses. After repeated French counterattacks and a prolonged fight the allies were thrown back. The battle in the centre was now a mêlée between the two mounted reserves led by the King and the Emperor in person. The French knight Pierre Mauvoisin nearly captured Otto and his horse and Gérard la Truie stabbed the Emperor with a dagger, which bounced off his coat of mail and struck Otto's horse in the eye, killing it. Otto was saved by four German lords and their followers. As the French sent more knights to attack him personally he fled the field. The German knights fought to the bitter end to save their emperor, all being killed or captured. The Imperial Standard with the eagle and dragon was captured by the French knights, who brought it to their king. By this time, allied resistance in the centre had ceased. ===Allied right=== Meanwhile, on the French left Robert de Dreux's troops were at first pressed by men led by William Longespée. William Longespée was unhorsed and taken prisoner by Philip of Dreux, the Bishop of Beauvais, and the English soldiers fled. Mathieu de Montmorency captured twelve enemy imperial banners, in memory of which feat twelve more eagles were added to the existing four on the Montmorency coat of arms. ===Last stand=== The day was already decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne (Renaud de Dammartin), a former vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of 400–700 Brabançon pikemen. They defied every attack by the French cavalry, while Reginald made repeated sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, long after the Imperial army had retreated, the Brabant schiltrom was overrun by a charge of 50 knights and 1,000–2,000 infantry under Thomas de St. Valery. Reginald was taken prisoner in the melee. A pursuit was not conducted owing to the approaching nightfall and a fear that the prisoners might escape. The French formations were recalled using trumpets. ==Aftermath== The French cavalry had 2 knights killed; the French infantry casualties are not recorded. The Allies had 169 knights killed and "heavy" but unquantified losses among the infantry; including between 400 and 700 Brabant infantry killed. As well as Reginald of Boulogne two other counts were captured by the French, Hainaut Ferrand and William Longespée, as well as twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The battle ended the threat from both Otto and John. According to Jean Favier, Bouvines is "one of the most decisive and symbolic battles in the history of France". For Philippe Contamine "the Battle of Bouvines had both important consequences and a great impact". Ferdinand Lot called it a "medieval Austerlitz". Philip returned to Paris triumphant, marching his captive prisoners behind him in a long procession, as his subjects lined the streets to greet the victorious king. In the aftermath of the battle, Otto retreated to his castle of Harzburg and was soon overthrown as Holy Roman Emperor by Frederick II, who had already been recognised as emperor in the south a year and a half earlier. Count Ferdinand remained imprisoned following his defeat, while King John obtained a five-year truce, on very lenient terms given the circumstances. Longespée was eventually exchanged for a high-ranking French captive, but the Count of Boulogne was imprisoned in a small cell, chained to a log and with little room for movement. He eventually committed suicide in 1227. Philip's decisive victory was crucial to the political situation in England. The battle ended all hope of a restoration of the Angevin Empire. So weakened was the defeated King John that he soon needed to submit to his barons' demands and agree to Magna Carta in 1215, limiting the power of the crown and establishing the basis for common law. File:La France victorieuse à Bouvines.JPG\|France Victorious at Bouvines, allegorical painting by Merry-Joseph Blondel, 1828, in the decoration of the Louvre File:St Pol.png\|A detail of one of the stained-glass windows installed in the parish church of Bouvines in 1914 ==Commemoration== In thanksgiving for the victory, Philip Augustus founded the Abbey of Notre Dame de la Victoire, between Senlis and Mont l'Evêque. In 1914, to mark the seventh centenary, Félix Dehau had the parish church of Bouvines rebuilt with a number of stained-glass windows representing the history of the battle. In 2014, the eighth centenary was commemorated in Bouvines by an association called Bouvines 2014. A series of events, including an official ceremony and a show called "Bouvines la Bataille", attracted more than 6,000 viewers in Bouvines.	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5,008	Battle of Actium	{{Infobox military conflict \| conflict = Battle of Actium \| width = \| partof = the War of Actium \| image = Medinaceli Actium reliefs 06.jpg \| image_size = 300 \| alt = \| caption = Detail of the naval battle from an early 1st-century relief commemorating Actium (extensively restored) \| date = 2 September 31 BC \| place = Ionian Sea, near the promontory of Actium in Greece \| coordinates = \| map_type = Greece#Mediterranean#Europe \| map_relief = \| map_size = 300px \| map_caption = \| map_label = \| result = Octavian victory \| combatant1 = Octavian's forces \| combatant2 = Antony's forcesPtolemaic Egypt \| commander1 = OctavianMarcus AgrippaLucius ArruntiusMarcus Lurius \| commander2 = Mark AntonyGaius SosiusLucius GelliusCleopatra \| strength1 = 250–400 galleys3,000 archers16,000 infantry on ships \| strength2 = 250–500 larger galleys30–50 transports20,000–70,000 infantry on ships2,000 archers Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Gaius Sosius and Agrippa. Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby. Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen"), and in 27 BC was awarded the title of Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was known in later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. ==Background== The alliance among Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus, commonly known as the Second Triumvirate, was renewed for a five-year term at Tarentum in 37 BC. However, the triumvirate broke down when Octavian saw Caesarion, the professed son of Julius Caesar and Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, as a major threat to his power. This occurred when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of the triumvirate, abandoned his wife, Octavian's sister Octavia Minor. Afterward he moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, becoming Caesarion's de facto stepfather. Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate saw Antony as leading a separatist movement that threatened to break the Roman Republic's unity. Octavian's prestige and, more importantly, his legions' loyalty had been boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which he was officially adopted as Caesar's only son and the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth. Antony had been the most important and most successful senior officer in Caesar's army (magister equitum) and, thanks to his military record, claimed a substantial share of the political support of Caesar's soldiers and veterans. Both Octavian and Antony had fought against their common enemies in the Liberators' civil war that followed the assassination of Caesar. After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Antony started to act independently, eventually arousing his rival's suspicion that he was vying to become sole master of Rome. When he left Octavia Minor and moved to Alexandria to become Cleopatra's official partner, many Roman politicians suspected that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the East. As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him. Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated Caesarion, then 13, to power in 34 BC, giving him the title "King of the Kings" (Donations of Alexandria). Such an entitlement was seen as a threat to Roman republican traditions. It was widely believed that Antony had once offered Caesarion a diadem. Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome and asserting that he intended to establish a monarchy over the Roman Empire on Caesarion's behalf, circumventing the Roman Senate. It was also said that Antony intended to move the imperial capital to Alexandria. As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed. He hoped that it might regard him as its champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner. The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been accumulating. Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus, in taking over the countries held by Sextus Pompeius and in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him. Octavian complained that Antony had no authority to be in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; and that his connection with Cleopatra and acknowledgement of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself. In 32 BC, one-third of the Senate and both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, allied with Antony. The consuls had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands. Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet, but on 1 January Sosius made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed the confirmation of his act had it not been vetoed by a tribune. Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply that provoked both consuls to leave Rome to join Antony; Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, went at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion. After staying with his allies at Samos, Antony moved to Athens. His land forces, which had been in Armenia, came down to the coast of Asia and embarked under Publius Canidius Crassus. Octavian kept up his strategic preparations. Military operations began in 32 BC, when his general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony. But by the publication of Antony's will, which Lucius Munatius Plancus had put into Octavian's hands, and by carefully letting it be known in Rome what preparations were going on at Samos and how Antony was effectively acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31 BC, for which Antony had been designated. In addition to the deposition, Octavian procured a proclamation of war against Cleopatra. This was well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named. In issuing a war declaration, the Senate deprived Antony of any legal authority. ==Battle== Antony initially planned to anticipate an attack by descent upon Italy toward the end of 32 BC; he went as far as Corcyra. Finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, Antony retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet for the most part lay in the Ambracian Gulf, and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops. After Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony were scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the struggle the next year. The early months passed without any notable events, other than some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece, primarily designed to divert Antony's attention. In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait. Still, Antony could not be tempted out. It took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered. During these months Agrippa continued his attacks upon Greek towns along the coast, while Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes, so that Antony abandoned the strait's north side between the Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the southern camp. Cleopatra now advised that garrisons be put into strong towns and that the main fleet return to Alexandria. The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony, and it appears that this movement was agreed to. Octavian learned of this and debated how to prevent it. At first of a mind to let Antony sail and then attack him, he was prevailed upon by Agrippa to give battle. On 1 September he addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle. The next day was wet and the sea was rough. When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and remained quiet. Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships. For fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack. ===Order of battle=== The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium on the morning of 2 September. Antony's fleet had 250 larger galleys, with towers full of armed men. He led them through the straits towards the open sea. Octavian's fleet had 400 galleys. His fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius the centre and Marcus Lurius the right. Titus Statilius Taurus Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals', was a "ten". An "eight" war galley had around 200 heavy marines, archers and at least six ballista catapults. Larger than Octavian's ships, Antony's war galleys were very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower ships. The harpax, Agrippa's device made for grappling and boarding enemy ships, made this task a bit easier. The galleys' bows were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet. Antony's ships' main weakness was lack of manoeuvrability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks. Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been a severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive. Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller "Liburnian" vessels. His ships, though smaller, were still manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat. Moreover, his crews were better-trained, professional, well-fed and rested. A medium ballista could penetrate the sides of most warships at close range and had an effective range of around 200 yards. Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the ships' fighting decks. Before the battle one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans. Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy. Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to attack. The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result. Cleopatra's fleet, in the rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight. Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat. Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed the fleeing squadron. The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by the board. Some fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was the work done. Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible. Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those left behind were captured or sunk. J. M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle. He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships, which until this point were tightly arranged. He sent Sosius to spread the remaining ships to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force. With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on board. The next day, as much of the land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war. ===Alternative theories=== Scientists researching the "dead water" phenomenon are investigating whether the Egyptian fleet may have been trapped in dead water, which can substantially reduce the speed of a ship. ==Aftermath== The battle had extensive political consequences. Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Thus, after Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to Octavian's, deserted. Though he had not laid down his imperium, Antony was a fugitive and a rebel without that shadow of a legal position the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year. Some of the victorious fleet went in pursuit of him, but Octavian visited Greece and Asia and spent the winter at Samos, though he had to briefly visit Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land. At Samos Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favor of her sons. She was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his triumph. Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium and Octavian landed at Pelusium, with the connivance, it was believed, of Cleopatra. Antony was defeated by Gallus and, returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium. Despite a minor victory at Alexandria on 31 July 30 BC, more of Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. A slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten. Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in the stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumours propagated by Cleopatra claiming that she had committed suicide. He did not die at once, and when he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, he insisted on being taken to the mausoleum where she was hiding and died in her arms. She was soon brought to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity. Cleopatra killed herself on 12 August 30 BC. Most accounts say she put an end to her life by the bite of an asp conveyed to her in a basket of figs. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that month, finally securing his legacy as Caesar's only 'son', while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son. Octavian admired the bravery of Cleopatra and gave her and Antony a public military funeral in Rome. The funeral was grand and a few of Antony's legions marched alongside the tomb. A day of mourning throughout Rome was enacted. This was partly due to Octavian's respect for Antony and partly because it further helped show the Roman people how benevolent Octavian was. Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium. Further, after the battle, upon Octavian's return to Rome he celebrated his triple triumph spread over three days: the first for his victory over Illyria, the second for the Battle of Actium, and the third for his conquest of Egypt. Octavian's victory at Actium gave him sole, uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" ("Our Sea", i.e., the Roman Mediterranean) and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. The victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked Rome's transition from republic to empire. Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked the demise of both the Hellenistic Period and the Ptolemaic Kingdom, turning it into a Roman province. To commemorate his victory, Octavian founded the nearby city of Nicopolis ("City of Victory") in 29 BC on the southernmost promontory of Epirus, opposite Actium at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. He also built a series of memorials around the battlefield and campsites. On a hill just north of the newly founded Nicopolis, at the site where he had made his camp during the war, he constructed the Campsite Memorial, a tropaion dedicated to Neptune, Mars, and Apollo, renown for the display of the bronze rostra (rams) taken from the captured warships. At the cape of Actium, Octavian built the Actian dekanaia, another tropaion composed of the dedication a whole set of ten warships captured from his enemy's fleet. The Actian dekanaia was symbolically located adjacent to the naval battlefield and probably within the area of Mark Antony's camp. Meanwhile, it was situated down the hill where the Temple of Apollo Aktios stood. Apollo Aktios was a deity which Octavian repetitively invoked in his post-war commemoration, and the temple was renovated and enlarged following his victory.	[ "Donations of Alexandria", "Publius Canidius Crassus", "Mersa Matruh", "Octavia gens", "Marcus Antonius Antyllus", "quinquereme", "Master of the Horse", "harpax", "Temple of Apollo Aktios", "Campsite Memorial of Augustus", "triumvir", "War of Actium", "Roman consul", "Octavian", "Mars (mythology)", "Patras", "Assassination of Julius Caesar", "Suetonius", "Jerome", "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "Sextus Pompeius", "Cassius Dio", "Naval warfare", "dead water", "Actian dekanaia", "Greece", "Caesarion", "Insteia gens", "Mark Antony", "tropaion", "Lepidus", "Ptolemaic Kingdom", "Neptune (mythology)", "Cleopatra", "Quintus Dellius", "Marcus Lurius", "Shield of Aeneas", "Princeps", "Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)", "Methoni, Messenia", "Gaius Sosius", "Roman Empire", "Augustus", "galley", "Ephesus", "Apollo", "consul", "king of Armenia", "Second Triumvirate", "Corcyra", "Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)", "relief", "Corfu", "Hellenistic Period", "Via Cassia", "Routledge", "Roman Republic", "cavalry", "imperium", "Titus Statilius Taurus", "Velleius Paterculus", "Roman triumph", "Peloponnese", "Vatican Museums", "Augustus (title)", "Triton (mythology)", "it:Tomba di Nerone", "Alexandria", "quadrireme", "Ionian Sea", "Antony and Cleopatra", "Plancus", "asp (reptile)", "Museo Pio-Clementino", "Actium", "Marcus Agrippa", "Ptolemaic coinage", "Gulf of Actium", "Naval ram", "King of Kings", "Plutarch", "Nicopolis", "Chronicon (Jerome)", "Corinth", "Altar of Victory", "Military Heritage", "Death of Cleopatra", "bronze", "Blockade", "Dio Cassius", "Samos", "Egypt (Roman province)", "Lucius Pinarius", "Roman–Dalmatae Wars", "Liberators' civil war", "Classical Quarterly", "Lucius Gellius Poplicola", "Greco-Roman hairstyle", "Lucius Arruntius (consul 22 BC)", "Julius Caesar", "Epirus", "Tarentum (Campus Martius)", "Liburna", "Octavia the Younger", "Adriatic Sea", "Random House", "diadem", "Ambracian Gulf" ]
5,009	Zebrafish	The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish belonging to the family Danionidae of the order Cypriniformes. Native to South Asia, it is a popular aquarium fish, frequently sold under the trade name zebra danio (and thus often called a "tropical fish" although it is both tropical and subtropical). The zebrafish is an important and widely used vertebrate model organism in scientific research, particularly developmental biology, but also gene function, oncology, teratology, and drug development, in particular pre-clinical development. Zebrafish are also closely related to the genus Devario, as demonstrated by a phylogenetic tree of close species. == Distribution == === Range === The zebrafish is native to freshwater habitats in South Asia where it is found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The northern limit is in the South Himalayas, ranging from the Sutlej river basin in the Pakistan–India border region to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in northeast India. It has frequently been said to occur in Myanmar (Burma), but this is entirely based on pre-1930 records and likely refers to close relatives only described later, notably Danio kyathit. Likewise, old records from Sri Lanka are highly questionable and remain unconfirmed. Elsewhere the species has been introduced to Colombia and Malaysia. === Habitats === Zebrafish typically inhabit moderately flowing to stagnant clear water of quite shallow depth in streams, canals, ditches, oxbow lakes, ponds and rice paddies. One unusually cold site was only and another unusually warm site was , but the zebrafish still appeared healthy. The unusually cold temperature was at one of the highest known zebrafish locations at above sea level, although the species has been recorded to . In the wild it is typically an annual species. The Mauthner cells integrate a wide array of sensory stimuli to produce the escape reflex. Those stimuli are found to include the lateral line signals by McHenry et al. 2009 and visual signals consistent with looming objects by Temizer et al. 2015, Dunn et al. 2016, and Yao et al. 2016. == Reproduction == The approximate generation time for Danio rerio is three months. A male must be present for ovulation and spawning to occur. Zebrafish are asynchronous spawners and under optimal conditions (such as food availability and favorable water parameters) can spawn successfully frequently, even on a daily basis. Females are able to spawn at intervals of two to three days, laying hundreds of eggs in each clutch. Upon release, embryonic development begins; in absence of sperm, growth stops after the first few cell divisions. Fertilized eggs almost immediately become transparent, a characteristic that makes D. rerio a convenient research model species. Sex determination of common laboratory strains was shown to be a complex genetic trait, rather than to follow a simple ZW or XY system. The zebrafish embryo develops rapidly, with precursors to all major organs appearing within 36 hours of fertilization. The embryo begins as a yolk with a single enormous cell on top (see image, 0 h panel), which divides into two (0.75 h panel) and continues dividing until there are thousands of small cells (3.25 h panel). The cells then migrate down the sides of the yolk (8 h panel) and begin forming a head and tail (16 h panel). The tail then grows and separates from the body (24 h panel). The yolk shrinks over time because the fish uses it for food as it matures during the first few days (72 h panel). After a few months, the adult fish reaches reproductive maturity (bottom panel). To encourage the fish to spawn, some researchers use a fish tank with a sliding bottom insert, which reduces the depth of the pool to simulate the shore of a river. Zebrafish spawn best in the morning due to their Circadian rhythms. Researchers have been able to collect 10,000 embryos in 10 minutes using this method. Male zebrafish are furthermore known to respond to more pronounced markings on females, i.e., "good stripes", but in a group, males will mate with whichever females they can find. What attracts females is not currently understood. The presence of plants, even plastic plants, also apparently encourages spawning. Exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of diisononyl phthalate (DINP), commonly used in a large variety of plastic items, disrupt the endocannabinoid system and thereby affect reproduction in a sex-specific manner. == Feeding == Zebrafish feeding practices vary significantly across different developmental stages, reflecting their changing nutritional needs. For newly hatched larvae, which begin feeding at approximately 5 days post-fertilization (dpf), small live prey such as Paramecium or rotifers are commonly used until they reach 9–15 dpf. This early diet is crucial for their growth and survival, as these small organisms provide essential nutrients. As the larvae develop, from 15 dpf onwards, they are typically transitioned to a diet that includes brine shrimp nauplii and dry feeds, which are more nutritionally balanced and easier to manage in laboratory settings. For larvae aged 25 dpf, feeding rates can range from 50% to 300% of their body weight (BW) per day, depending on their size and growth requirements. As zebrafish grow into juveniles (30–90 dpf), the recommended feeding rate decreases to about 6–8% of their BW per day, with a focus on high-quality dry feeds that meet their protein and energy needs. Upon reaching adulthood (over 90 dpf), zebrafish typically require a feeding rate of around 5% of their BW per day. Throughout these stages, it is essential to adjust the particle size of the feed: less than 100 μm for newly hatched larvae, 100–200 μm for those between 16 and 30 dpf, and larger particles for juveniles and adults. This structured approach to feeding not only supports optimal growth and health but also enhances the reliability of experimental outcomes in research settings. ==In the aquarium== Zebrafish are hardy fish and considered good for beginner aquarists. Their enduring popularity can be attributed to their playful disposition, as well as their rapid breeding, aesthetics, cheap price and broad availability. They also do well in schools or shoals of six or more, and interact well with other fish species in the aquarium. However, they are susceptible to Oodinium or velvet disease, microsporidia (Pseudoloma neurophilia), and Mycobacterium species. Given the opportunity, adults eat hatchlings, which may be protected by separating the two groups with a net, breeding box or separate tank. In captivity, zebrafish live approximately forty-two months. Some captive zebrafish can develop a curved spine. They can range from a few centimeters to a few inches, and provide movement in a freshwater fish tank. The zebra danio was also used to make genetically modified fish and were the first species to be sold as GloFish (fluorescent colored fish). ==Strains== In late 2003, transgenic zebrafish that express green, red, and yellow fluorescent proteins became commercially available in the United States. The fluorescent strains are trade-named GloFish; other cultivated varieties include "golden", "sandy", "longfin" and "leopard". The leopard danio, previously known as Danio frankei, is a spotted colour morph of the zebrafish which arose due to a pigment mutation. Xanthistic forms of both the zebra and leopard pattern, along with long-finned strains, have been obtained via selective breeding programs for the aquarium trade. Various transgenic and mutant strains of zebrafish were stored at the China Zebrafish Resource Center (CZRC), a non-profit organization, which was jointly supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. === Wild-type strains === The Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN) provides up-to-date information about current known wild-type (WT) strains of D. rerio, some of which are listed below. AB (AB) AB/C32 (AB/C32) AB/TL (AB/TL) AB/Tuebingen (AB/TU) C32 (C32) Cologne (KOLN) Darjeeling (DAR) Ekkwill (EKW) HK/AB (HK/AB) HK/Sing (HK/SING) Hong Kong (HK) India (IND) Indonesia (INDO) Nadia (NA) RIKEN WT (RW) Singapore (SING) SJA (SJA) SJD (SJD) SJD/C32 (SJD/C32) Tuebingen (TU) Tupfel long fin (TL) Tupfel long fin nacre (TLN) WIK (WIK) WIK/AB (WIK/AB) ===Hybrids=== Hybrids between different Danio species may be fertile: for example, between D. rerio and D. nigrofasciatus. Its importance has been consolidated by successful large-scale forward genetic screens (commonly referred to as the Tübingen/Boston screens). The fish has a dedicated online database of genetic, genomic, and developmental information, the Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN). The Zebrafish International Resource Center (ZIRC) is a genetic resource repository with 29,250 alleles available for distribution to the research community. D. rerio is also one of the few fish species to have been sent into space. Research with D. rerio has yielded advances in the fields of developmental biology, oncology, toxicology, reproductive studies, teratology, genetics, neurobiology, environmental sciences, stem cell research, regenerative medicine, muscular dystrophies and evolutionary theory. Furthermore, well-characterized mutant strains are readily available. Other advantages include the species' nearly constant size during early development, which enables simple staining techniques to be used, and the fact that its two-celled embryo can be fused into a single cell to create a homozygous embryo. The zebrafish embryos are transparent and they develop outside of the uterus, which allows scientists to study the details of development starting from fertilization and continuing throughout development. The zebrafish is also demonstrably similar to mammalian models and humans in toxicity testing, and exhibits a diurnal sleep cycle with similarities to mammalian sleep behavior. However, zebrafish are not a universally ideal research model; there are a number of disadvantages to their scientific use, such as the absence of a standard diet and the presence of small but important differences between zebrafish and mammals in the roles of some genes related to human disorders. ===Regeneration=== Zebrafish have the ability to regenerate their heart and lateral line hair cells during their larval stages. The cardiac regenerative process likely involves signaling pathways such as Notch and Wnt; hemodynamic changes in the damaged heart are sensed by ventricular endothelial cells and their associated cardiac cilia by way of the mechanosensitive ion channel TRPV4, subsequently facilitating the Notch signaling pathway via KLF2 and activating various downstream effectors such as BMP-2 and HER2/neu. In 2011, the British Heart Foundation ran an advertising campaign publicising its intention to study the applicability of this ability to humans, stating that it aimed to raise £50 million in research funding. Zebrafish have also been found to regenerate photoreceptor cells and retinal neurons following injury, which has been shown to be mediated by the dedifferentiation and proliferation of Müller glia. Researchers frequently amputate the dorsal and ventral tail fins and analyze their regrowth to test for mutations. It has been found that histone demethylation occurs at the site of the amputation, switching the zebrafish's cells to an "active", regenerative, stem cell-like state. In 2012, Australian scientists published a study revealing that zebrafish use a specialised protein, known as fibroblast growth factor, to ensure their spinal cords heal without glial scarring after injury. In addition, hair cells of the posterior lateral line have also been found to regenerate following damage or developmental disruption. Study of gene expression during regeneration has allowed for the identification of several important signaling pathways involved in the process, such as Wnt signaling and Fibroblast growth factor. In probing disorders of the nervous system, including neurodegenerative diseases, movement disorders, psychiatric disorders and deafness, researchers are using the zebrafish to understand how the genetic defects underlying these conditions cause functional abnormalities in the human brain, spinal cord and sensory organs. Researchers have also studied the zebrafish to gain new insights into the complexities of human musculoskeletal diseases, such as muscular dystrophy. Another focus of zebrafish research is to understand how a gene called Hedgehog, a biological signal that underlies a number of human cancers, controls cell growth. ===Genetics=== ====Background genetics==== Inbred strains and traditional outbred stocks have not been developed for laboratory zebrafish, and the genetic variability of wild-type lines among institutions may contribute to the replication crisis in biomedical research. Genetic differences in wild-type lines among populations maintained at different research institutions have been demonstrated using both Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and microsatellite analysis. ====Gene expression==== Due to their fast and short life cycles and relatively large clutch sizes, D. rerio or zebrafish are a useful model for genetic studies. A common reverse genetics technique is to reduce gene expression or modify splicing using Morpholino antisense technology. Morpholino oligonucleotides (MO) are stable, synthetic macromolecules that contain the same bases as DNA or RNA; by binding to complementary RNA sequences, they can reduce the expression of specific genes or block other processes from occurring on RNA. MO can be injected into one cell of an embryo after the 32-cell stage, reducing gene expression in only cells descended from that cell. However, cells in the early embryo (less than 32 cells) are permeable to large molecules, allowing diffusion between cells. Guidelines for using Morpholinos in zebrafish describe appropriate control strategies. Morpholinos are commonly microinjected in 500pL directly into 1–2 cell stage zebrafish embryos. The morpholino is able to integrate into most cells of the embryo. A known problem with gene knockdowns is that, because the genome underwent a duplication after the divergence of ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes, it is not always easy to silence the activity of one of the two gene paralogs reliably due to complementation by the other paralog. Despite the complications of the zebrafish genome, a number of commercially available global platforms exist for analysis of both gene expression by microarrays and promoter regulation using ChIP-on-chip. ====Genome sequencing==== The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute started the zebrafish genome sequencing project in 2001, and the full genome sequence of the Tuebingen reference strain is publicly available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)'s Zebrafish Genome Page. The zebrafish reference genome sequence is annotated as part of the Ensembl project, and is maintained by the Genome Reference Consortium. In 2009, researchers at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology in Delhi, India, announced the sequencing of the genome of a wild zebrafish strain, containing an estimated 1.7 billion genetic letters. The genome of the wild zebrafish was sequenced at 39-fold coverage. Comparative analysis with the zebrafish reference genome revealed over 5 million single nucleotide variations and over 1.6 million insertion deletion variations. The zebrafish reference genome sequence of 1.4GB and over 26,000 protein coding genes was published by Kerstin Howe et al. in 2013. ====Mitochondrial DNA==== In October 2001, researchers from the University of Oklahoma published D. rerio's complete mitochondrial DNA sequence. Its length is 16,596 base pairs. This is within 100 base pairs of other related species of fish, and it is notably only 18 pairs longer than the goldfish (Carassius auratus) and 21 longer than the carp (Cyprinus carpio). Its gene order and content are identical to the common vertebrate form of mitochondrial DNA. It contains 13 protein-coding genes and a noncoding control region containing the origin of replication for the heavy strand. In between a grouping of five tRNA genes, a sequence resembling vertebrate origin of light strand replication is found. It is difficult to draw evolutionary conclusions because it is difficult to determine whether base pair changes have adaptive significance via comparisons with other vertebrates' nucleotide sequences. The Bruce et al. team are known for this area, and in Bruce et al. 2003 & Bruce et al. 2005 uncover the role of two of these elements in oocytes of this species. Mutations in human MITF result in eye defects and loss of pigment, a type of Waardenburg Syndrome. In December 2005, a study of the golden strain identified the gene responsible for its unusual pigmentation as SLC24A5, a solute carrier that appeared to be required for melanin production, and confirmed its function with a Morpholino knockdown. The orthologous gene was then characterized in humans and a one base pair difference was found to strongly segregate fair-skinned Europeans and dark-skinned Africans. Zebrafish with the nacre mutation have since been bred with fish with a roy orbison (roy) mutation to make Casper strain fish that have no melanophores or iridophores, and are transparent into adulthood. These fish are characterized by uniformly pigmented eyes and translucent skin. ====Transgenesis==== Transgenesis is a popular approach to study the function of genes in zebrafish. Construction of transgenic zebrafish is rather easy by a method using the Tol2 transposon system. Tol2 element which encodes a gene for a fully functional transposase capable of catalyzing transposition in the zebrafish germ lineage. Tol2 is the only natural DNA transposable element in vertebrates from which an autonomous member has been identified. Examples include the artificial interaction produced between LEF1 and Catenin beta-1/β-catenin/CTNNB1. Dorsky et al. 2002 investigated the developmental role of Wnt by transgenically expressing a Lef1/β-catenin reporter. The Tol2 transposon system was used to develop transgenic zebrafish as sensitive biosensors for heavy metal detection. This involved creating a transgenic zebrafish line expressing a fluorescent protein under the control of a heavy metal-responsive promoter, enabling the detection of low concentrations of cadmium (Cd2+) and zinc (Zn2+). There are well-established protocols for editing zebrafish genes using CRISPR-Cas9 and this tool has been used to generate genetically modified models. ====Transparent adult bodies==== In 2008, researchers at Boston Children's Hospital developed a new strain of zebrafish, named Casper, whose adult bodies had transparent skin. In January 2013, Japanese scientists genetically modified a transparent zebrafish specimen to produce a visible glow during periods of intense brain activity. In January 2007, Chinese researchers at Fudan University genetically modified zebrafish to detect oestrogen pollution in lakes and rivers, which is linked to male infertility. The researchers cloned oestrogen-sensitive genes and injected them into the fertile eggs of zebrafish. The modified fish turned green if placed into water that was polluted by oestrogen. ====RNA splicing==== In 2015, researchers at Brown University discovered that 10% of zebrafish genes do not need to rely on the U2AF2 protein to initiate RNA splicing. These genes have the DNA base pairs AC and TG as repeated sequences at the ends of each intron. On the 3'ss (3' splicing site), the base pairs adenine and cytosine alternate and repeat, and on the 5'ss (5' splicing site), their complements thymine and guanine alternate and repeat as well. They found that there was less reliance on U2AF2 protein than in humans, in which the protein is required for the splicing process to occur. The pattern of repeating base pairs around introns that alters RNA secondary structure was found in other teleosts, but not in tetrapods. This indicates that an evolutionary change in tetrapods may have led to humans relying on the U2AF2 protein for RNA splicing while these genes in zebrafish undergo splicing regardless of the presence of the protein. ====Orthology==== D. rerio has three transferrins, all of which cluster closely with other vertebrates. ===Inbreeding depression=== When close relatives mate, progeny may exhibit the detrimental effects of inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is predominantly caused by the homozygous expression of recessive deleterious alleles. For zebrafish, inbreeding depression might be expected to be more severe in stressful environments, including those caused by anthropogenic pollution. Exposure of zebrafish to environmental stress induced by the chemical clotrimazole, an imidazole fungicide used in agriculture and in veterinary and human medicine, amplified the effects of inbreeding on key reproductive traits. Embryo viability was significantly reduced in inbred exposed fish and there was a tendency for inbred males to sire fewer offspring. ===Aquaculture research=== Zebrafish are common models for research into fish farming, including pathogens and parasites ===DNA repair=== Zebrafish have been used as a model for studying DNA repair pathways. Embryos of externally fertilized fish species, such as zebrafish during their development, are directly exposed to environmental conditions such as pollutants and reactive oxygen species that may cause damage to their DNA. ==Drug discovery and development== The zebrafish and zebrafish larva is a suitable model organism for drug discovery and development. As a vertebrate with 70% genetic homology with humans, As demonstrated through ongoing research programmes, the zebrafish model enables researchers not only to identify genes that might underlie human disease, but also to develop novel therapeutic agents in drug discovery programmes. Zebrafish embryos have proven to be a rapid, cost-efficient, and reliable teratology assay model. ===Drug screens=== Drug screens in zebrafish can be used to identify novel classes of compounds with biological effects, or to repurpose existing drugs for novel uses; an example of the latter would be a screen which found that a commonly used statin (rosuvastatin) can suppress the growth of prostate cancer. To date, 65 small-molecule screens have been carried out and at least one has led to clinical trials. Within these screens, many technical challenges remain to be resolved, including differing rates of drug absorption resulting in levels of internal exposure that cannot be extrapolated from the water concentration, and high levels of natural variation between individual animals. Because of its small size, however, it is very challenging to quantify the internal drug exposure. Traditionally multiple blood samples would be drawn to characterize the drug concentration profile over time, but this technique remains to be developed. To date, only a single pharmacokinetic model for paracetamol has been developed in zebrafish larvae. ===Computational data analysis=== Using smart data analysis methods, pathophysiological and pharmacological processes can be understood and subsequently translated to higher vertebrates, including humans. An example is the use of systems pharmacology, which is the integration of systems biology and pharmacometrics. Systems biology characterizes (part of) an organism by a mathematical description of all relevant processes. These can be for example different signal transduction pathways that upon a specific signal lead to a certain response. By quantifying these processes, their behaviour in healthy and diseased situation can be understood and predicted. Pharmacometrics uses data from preclinical experiments and clinical trials to characterize the pharmacological processes that are underlying the relation between the drug dose and its response or clinical outcome. These can be for example the drug absorption in or clearance from the body, or its interaction with the target to achieve a certain effect. By quantifying these processes, their behaviour after different doses or in different patients can be understood and predicted to new doses or patients. By integrating these two fields, systems pharmacology has the potential to improve the understanding of the interaction of the drug with the biological system by mathematical quantification and subsequent prediction to new situations, like new drugs or new organisms or patients. Using these computational methods, the previously mentioned analysis of paracetamol internal exposure in zebrafish larvae showed reasonable correlation between paracetamol clearance in zebrafish with that of higher vertebrates, including humans. Zebrafish expressing mutated forms of either the BRAF or NRAS oncogenes develop melanoma when placed onto a p53 deficient background. Histologically, these tumors strongly resemble the human disease, are fully transplantable, and exhibit large-scale genomic alterations. The BRAF melanoma model was utilized as a platform for two screens published in March 2011 in the journal Nature. In one study, the model was used as a tool to understand the functional importance of genes known to be amplified and overexpressed in human melanoma. One gene, SETDB1, markedly accelerated tumor formation in the zebrafish system, demonstrating its importance as a new melanoma oncogene. This was particularly significant because SETDB1 is known to be involved in the epigenetic regulation that is increasingly appreciated to be central to tumor cell biology. In another study, an effort was made to therapeutically target the genetic program present in the tumor's origin neural crest cell using a chemical screening approach. This revealed that an inhibition of the DHODH protein (by a small molecule called leflunomide) prevented development of the neural crest stem cells which ultimately give rise to melanoma via interference with the process of transcriptional elongation. Because this approach would aim to target the "identity" of the melanoma cell rather than a single genetic mutation, leflunomide may have utility in treating human melanoma. ===Cardiovascular disease=== In cardiovascular research, the zebrafish has been used to model human myocardial infarction model. The zebrafish heart completely regenerates after about 2 months of injury without any scar formation. The Alpha-1 adrenergic signalling mechanism involved in this process was identified in a 2023 study. Zebrafish is also used as a model for blood clotting, blood vessel development, and congenital heart and kidney disease. ===Immune system=== In programmes of research into acute inflammation, a major underpinning process in many diseases, researchers have established a zebrafish model of inflammation, and its resolution. This approach allows detailed study of the genetic controls of inflammation and the possibility of identifying potential new drugs. Zebrafish has been extensively used as a model organism to study vertebrate innate immunity. The innate immune system is capable of phagocytic activity by 28 to 30 h postfertilization (hpf) while adaptive immunity is not functionally mature until at least 4 weeks postfertilization. ===Infectious diseases=== As the immune system is relatively conserved between zebrafish and humans, many human infectious diseases can be modeled in zebrafish. The transparent early life stages are well suited for in vivo imaging and genetic dissection of host-pathogen interactions. Zebrafish models for a wide range of bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens have already been established; for example, the zebrafish model for tuberculosis provides fundamental insights into the mechanisms of pathogenesis of mycobacteria. Other bacteria commonly studied using zebrafish models include Clostridioides difficile, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Furthermore, robotic technology has been developed for high-throughput antimicrobial drug screening using zebrafish infection models. ===Repairing retinal damage=== Another notable characteristic of the zebrafish is that it possesses four types of cone cell, with ultraviolet-sensitive cells supplementing the red, green and blue cone cell subtypes found in humans. Zebrafish can thus observe a very wide spectrum of colours. The species is also studied to better understand the development of the retina; in particular, how the cone cells of the retina become arranged into the so-called 'cone mosaic'. Zebrafish, in addition to certain other teleost fish, are particularly noted for having extreme precision of cone cell arrangement. This study of the zebrafish's retinal characteristics has also extrapolated into medical enquiry. In 2007, researchers at University College London grew a type of zebrafish adult stem cell found in the eyes of fish and mammals that develops into neurons in the retina. These could be injected into the eye to treat diseases that damage retinal neurons—nearly every disease of the eye, including macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetes-related blindness. The researchers studied Müller glial cells in the eyes of humans aged from 18 months to 91 years, and were able to develop them into all types of retinal neurons. They were also able to grow them easily in the lab. The stem cells successfully migrated into diseased rats' retinas, and took on the characteristics of the surrounding neurons. The team stated that they intended to develop the same approach in humans. === Muscular dystrophies === Muscular dystrophies (MD) are a heterogeneous group of genetic disorders that cause muscle weakness, abnormal contractions and muscle wasting, often leading to premature death. Zebrafish is widely used as model organism to study muscular dystrophies. The Machuca-Tzili and co-workers applied zebrafish to determine the role of alternative splicing factor, MBNL, in myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) pathogenesis. More recently, Todd et al. described a new zebrafish model designed to explore the impact of CUG repeat expression during early development in DM1 disease. Zebrafish is also an excellent animal model to study congenital muscular dystrophies including CMD Type 1 A (CMD 1A) caused by mutation in the human laminin α2 (LAMA2) gene. The zebrafish, because of its advantages discussed above, and in particular the ability of zebrafish embryos to absorb chemicals, has become a model of choice in screening and testing new drugs against muscular dystrophies. === Bone physiology and pathology === Zebrafish have been used as model organisms for bone metabolism, tissue turnover, and resorbing activity. These processes are largely evolutionary conserved. They have been used to study osteogenesis (bone formation), evaluating differentiation, matrix deposition activity, and cross-talk of skeletal cells, to create and isolate mutants modeling human bone diseases, and test new chemical compounds for the ability to revert bone defects. The larvae can be used to follow new (de novo) osteoblast formation during bone development. They start mineralising bone elements as early as 4 days post fertilisation. Recently, adult zebrafish are being used to study complex age related bone diseases such as osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta. The (elasmoid) scales of zebrafish function as a protective external layer and are little bony plates made by osteoblasts. These exoskeletal structures are formed by bone matrix depositing osteoblasts and are remodeled by osteoclasts. The scales also act as the main calcium storage of the fish. They can be cultured ex-vivo (kept alive outside of the organism) in a multi-well plate, which allows manipulation with drugs and even screening for new drugs that could change bone metabolism (between osteoblasts and osteoclasts). === Diabetes === Zebrafish pancreas development is very homologous to mammals, such as mice. The signaling mechanisms and way the pancreas functions are very similar. The pancreas has an endocrine compartment, which contains a variety of cells. Pancreatic PP cells that produce polypeptides, and β-cells that produce insulin are two examples of those such cells. This structure of the pancreas, along with the glucose homeostasis system, are helpful in studying diseases, such as diabetes, that are related to the pancreas. Models for pancreas function, such as fluorescent staining of proteins, are useful in determining the processes of glucose homeostasis and the development of the pancreas. Glucose tolerance tests have been developed using zebrafish, and can now be used to test for glucose intolerance or diabetes in humans. The function of insulin are also being tested in zebrafish, which will further contribute to human medicine. The majority of work done surrounding knowledge on glucose homeostasis has come from work on zebrafish transferred to humans. === Obesity === Zebrafish have been used as a model system to study obesity, with research into both genetic obesity and over-nutrition induced obesity. Obese zebrafish, similar to obese mammals, show dysregulation of lipid controlling metabolic pathways, which leads to weight gain without normal lipid metabolism. === Epilepsy === Zebrafish have been used as a model system to study epilepsy. Mammalian seizures can be recapitulated molecularly, behaviorally, and electrophysiologically, using a fraction of the resources required for experiments in mammals.	[ "tRNA", "Reviews in Aquaculture", "congenital heart defect", "Eomesodermin", "Xinhua", "Bone morphogenetic protein 2", "episodic memory", "List of freshwater aquarium fish species", "morph (zoology)", "pre-clinical development", "pH", "absorption (pharmacology)", "Advances in Hematology", "Teratogen", "Takifugu rubripes", "Ganges", "Nature Reviews Drug Discovery", "melanoma", "introduced species", "Fudan University", "transgenic", "Fibroblast growth factor", "glucocorticoid receptor", "gene knockdown", "sea bass", "anal fin", "vertebrate", "pharmacokinetic", "torpedo", "Circadian rhythms", "protein", "Ministry of Science and Technology of China", "Oryzias latipes", "environmental science", "University of Oklahoma", "Australia New Zealand Marine Biotechnology Society", "Splicing (genetics)", "Animal testing", "Myotonic dystrophy", "Sutlej", "carp", "Molecular Psychiatry", "Regeneration (biology)", "DNA repair", "Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor", "Frontiers Media", "genetic distance", 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profiling", "replication crisis", "camouflage", "GCaMP", "FAO", "retina", "diisononyl phthalate", "evolutionary theory", "Annual Review of Neuroscience", "Boston Children's Hospital", "SLC24A5", "regeneration (biology)", "thymine", "Ensembl", "Ctenopharyngodon idella", "developmental biology", "The China Post", "cone cell", "clutch (eggs)", "RNA splicing", "solute", "amputate", "Scientific Reports", "salmonid", "T cell", "ray-finned fish", "Single-nucleotide polymorphism", "T-box", "hepatocellular carcinoma", "glaucoma", "oncology", "Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute", "clearance (pharmacology)", "fish parasite", "glial cells", "Coagulation", "Danio kyathit", "Fish anatomy", "Muller glia", "Vegt (development)", "Annual Reviews (publisher)", "pigment", "PLOS ONE", "systems biology", "stagnant (water)", "pharmacometrics", "clinical trials", "pancreatic cancer", "Wiley publishing", "GloFish", "ultraviolet", "endocannabinoid system", "Morpholino", "genetic screen", "Waardenburg Syndrome", "transcription factor", "Japanese Society for Marine Biotechnology", "teleost", "tropical fish", "neurobiology", "Histology", "sea bream", "prostate cancer", "Brown University", "Transgene", "photoreceptor cells", "Cyprinidae", "Himalayas", "Gasterosteus aculeatus", "drug development", "paracetamol", "neuron", "Nature (journal)", "pharmacodynamic", "nucleotide", "Complementation (genetics)", "phylogenetic tree", "Wnt signaling pathway", "adenine", "National Center for Biotechnology Information", "alleles", "tetrapod", "fluoxetine", "natural killer cell", "dominance (genetics)", "Family (biology)", "academic journal", "model species", "Herman Meinken", "Shoaling and schooling", "Devario", "John McClelland (doctor)", "environmental toxicology", "nucleic acid secondary structure", "guanine", "osteogenesis imperfecta", "List of animals that have been cloned", "exploration", "microinjection", "Journal of Visualized Experiments", "nucleoside", "The Genetics Society", "genetics", "spinal cord", "rice paddies", "melanin", "antisense", "Arunachal Pradesh", "light sheet fluorescence microscopy", "Kosi River", "European Society for Marine Biotechnology", "oligonucleotide", "oncogene", "Order (biology)", "Japanese rice fish", "Danio nigrofasciatus", "systems pharmacology", "teratology", "ZFIN", "fibroblast growth factor", "Actinopterygii", "Xenotransplantation", "Nature Reviews Genetics", "homeobox", "Molecular Ecology" ]
5,011	Balance	Balance may refer to: ==Common meanings== Balance (ability) in biomechanics Balance (accounting) Balance or weighing scale Balance, as in equality (mathematics) or equilibrium ==Arts and entertainment== ===Film=== Balance (1983 film), a Bulgarian film Balance (1989 film), a short animated film La Balance, a 1982 French film ===Television=== Balance: Television for Living Well, a Canadian television talk show "The Balance" (Roswell), an episode of the television series Roswell "The Balance", an episode of the animated series Justice League ===Music=== ====Performers==== Balance (band), a 1980s pop-rock group ====Albums==== Balance (Akrobatik album), 2003 Balance (Kim-Lian album), 2004 Balance (Leo Kottke album), 1978 Balance (Joe Morris album), 2014 Balance (Swollen Members album), 1999 Balance (Ty Tabor album), 2008 Balance (Melly Goeslaw album), 2013 Balance (Van Halen album), 1995 Balance (Armin van Buuren album), 2019 The Balance, a 2019 album by Catfish and the Bottlemen ====Songs==== "Balance", a song by Axium from The Story Thus Far "Balance", a song by Band-Maid from Unleash "Balance", a song by Ed Sheeran from - (Deluxe vinyl edition) "The Balance", a Moody Blues song on the 1970 album A Question of Balance ===Other=== Balance (game design), the concept and the practice of tuning relationships between a game's component systems Balance (installation), a 2013 glazed ceramic installation by Tim Ryan Balance (puzzle), a mathematical puzzle "Balance", a poem by Patti Smith from the book kodak ==Government and law== BALANCE Act (Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations Act), a proposed US federal legislation Balance (apportionment), a criterion for fair allocation of seats among parties or states Census balance, a census-designated geography in the United States == Other uses == Balance (advertisement), a 1989 award-winning television advertisement for the Lexus LS 400 Balance (metaphysics), a desirable point between two or more opposite forces Balance (stereo), the amount of signal from each channel reproduced in a stereo audio recording The Balance, a personal finance website owned by Dotdash	[ "Dotdash", "Balance (accounting)", "Balance (Leo Kottke album)", "Balancing (disambiguation)", "Balance (Armin van Buuren album)", "weighing scale", "Balance (apportionment)", "Census balance", "Kodak (book)", "La Balance", "Balance (puzzle)", "Balance (Kim-Lian album)", "Balance: Television for Living Well", "Balance (ability)", "Balance (Akrobatik album)", "- (album)", "wine tasting descriptors", "List of Justice League episodes", "A Question of Balance", "Balance (metaphysics)", "equality (mathematics)", "Balance (band)", "Balance (Swollen Members album)", "Balance (1983 film)", "Melly Goeslaw", "Balance (1989 film)", "The Balance", "BALANCE Act", "The Story Thus Far (album)", "Balance (installation)", "Balance (Van Halen album)", "Balance (stereo)", "Ty Tabor", "Balance (game design)", "Balance (advertisement)", "Unleash (EP)", "The Balance (Roswell)", "Balance (Joe Morris album)" ]
5,013	Battle of Adwa	The Battle of Adwa (; ; , also spelled Adowa) was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Ethiopian army defeated an invading Italian and Eritrean force led by Oreste Baratieri on March 1, 1896, near the town of Adwa. The victory, aided by vastly superior numbers, decisively thwarted the Kingdom of Italy's attempt to expand its colonial empire in the Horn of Africa. As a result, by the end of the 19th century Ethiopia was the only independent country left in Africa, which had otherwise been carved up by European powers following the Berlin Conference. The Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty. As a result, Italy and Ethiopia came into confrontation, in what was later to be known as the First Italo-Ethiopian War. In December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akele Guzai, in what was then Italian controlled Eritrea. Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta. In January 1895, Baratieri's army went on to defeat Ras Mengesha Yohannes in the Battle of Coatit, forcing Mengesha to retreat further south. By late 1895, Italian forces had advanced deep into Ethiopian territory and occupied much of Tigray. On 7 December 1895, Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael, Fitawrari Gebeyehu and Ras Mengesha Yohannes commanding a larger Ethiopian group of Menelik's vanguard annihilated a small Italian unit at the Battle of Amba Alagi. The Italians were then forced to withdraw to more defensible positions in Tigray Province, where the two main armies faced each other. By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low. General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Emperor Menelik II's army would begin to melt away. However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act. On the evening of 29 February, Baratieri, about to be replaced by a new governor, General Baldissera, met with his generals Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Vittorio Dabormida, and Giuseppe Ellena, concerning their next steps. He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as Asmara. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale. Dabormida exclaimed, "Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat." Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait for some last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00am. His troops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight. ==Order of battle== ===Ethiopian forces=== Shewa; Negus Negasti Menelik II: 25,000 rifles / 3,000 horses / 32 guns Semien; Itaghiè Taytu: 3,000 rifles / 600 horses / 4 guns The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress Taytu Betul, Ras Welle Betul, Ras Mengesha Atikem, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Ras Alula Engida (Abba Nega), Ras Mikael of Wollo, Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael, Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis, Fitawrari Gebeyyehu, and Negus Tekle Haymanot Tessemma. Pétridès (as well as Pankhurst, with slight variations) break the troop numbers down (over 100,000 by their estimates) as follows: 35,000 infantry (25,000 riflemen and 10,000 spearmen) and 8,000 cavalry under Emperor Menelik; 5,000 infantry under Empress Taytu; 8,000 infantry (6,000 riflemen and 2,000 spearmen) under Ras Wale; 8,000 infantry (5,000 riflemen and 3,000 spearmen) under Ras Mengesha Atikem, 12,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engida; 6,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 5,000 Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael of Wollo; 15,000 riflemen under Ras Makonnen; 8,000 infantry under Fitawrari Gebeyyehu Gora; 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam. In addition, the armies were followed by a similar number of camp followers who supplied the army, as had been done for centuries. Most of the army consisted of riflemen, a significant percentage of whom were in Menelik's reserve; however, there were also a significant number of cavalry and infantry only armed with lances (those with lances were referred to as "lancer servants"). ===Italian forces=== Immediately before the battle of Adwa, the Italian army consisted of 29,700 Italians and 14,000 askaris. However, as Harold Marcus notes, "several thousand" soldiers were needed in support roles and to guard the lines of communication to the rear. He accordingly estimates that the Italian force at Adwa consisted of just 14,519 effective combat troops. Where as, David L. Lewis estimates that the Italian army consisted of four brigades, totaling 17,770 troops with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Eritrean Ascari led by Italian officers. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Brigadiers Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi. While these included elite Bersaglieri and Alpini units, a large proportion of the troops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed "d'Africa" battalions for service in Africa. Additionally, a limited number of troops were from the Cacciatori d'Africa; units permanently serving in Africa and in part recruited from Italian settlers. According to historian Chris Prouty: The Italian operational corps in Eritrea was under the command of General Oreste Baratieri. The chief of staff was Lieutenant Colonel Giacchino Valenzano. Right column: (4,833 rifles / 18 cannons) 2nd Infantry Brigade (Gen. Vittorio Dabormida); 3rd Africa Infantry Regiment, (Col. Ottavio Ragni) 5th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Giordano) 6th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Leopoldo Prato) 10th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Gennaro De Fonseca) 6th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Cesare Airaghi) 3rd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Branchi) 13th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Alberto Rayneri) 14th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Secondo Solaro) Native Mobile Militia Battalion (Maj. Lodovico De Vito) Native Company from the Asmara Chitet (Cpt. Alberto Sermasi) 2nd Artillery Brigade (Maj. Alberto Zola) 5th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Giuseppe Mottino) 6th Mountain Artillery Battery (Col. Francesco Stevani) 1st Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Matteo De Stefano) 2nd Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Lorenzo Compiano) 1st Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Ugo Brusati) 2nd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Flaciano Viancini) 4th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi De Amicis) 9th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Giuseppe Baudoin) 1st Company of the 5th Native Battalion (Cpt. Pietro Pavesi) 8th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Clemente Henry) 2nd Section of the 2nd Native Mountain Artillery Battery (Lt. Arnaldo Vibi) 3rd Mountain Artillery Battery ==Battle== On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March, three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped. David Levering Lewis states that the Italian battle plan called for three columns to march in parallel formation to the crests of three mountains – Dabormida commanding on the right, Albertone on the left, and Arimondi in the center – with a reserve under Ellena following behind Arimondi. The supporting crossfire each column could give the others made the 'soldiers as deadly as razored shears'. Albertone's brigade was to set the pace for the others. He was to position himself on the summit known as Kidane Mehret, which would give the Italians the high ground from which to meet the Ethiopians. The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on the hills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, who were exposed and vulnerable to crossfire. Initially the Italian artillery inflicted heavy casualties on the Ethiopian formations until a portion of the Ethiopians led by Balcha Safo deployed their quick-firing Hotchkiss guns on the lower side of Mount Abba Gerima and Albertone's advantage in artillery fire was removed. General Baratieri, realizing that the battle was lost, ordered a general retreat. He tried to get the last uncommitted units of the Italian reserve column led by General Ellena to cover the retreat. But before they could form up, their lines were broken by a flood of fleeing Italian soldiers. The reserve had no chance to form a coherent defence and were overwhelmed within minutes. By noon, the Italian center was completely broken and the Ethiopian cavalry from Shewa and Wollo then pursued the fleeing Italians relentlessly, as Berkeley records from eyewitness accounts, "the Abyssinians wild with enthusiasm then rushed in upon them, reckless of losses and death." General Arimondi's mule ran away in the confusion and Arimondi as well as almost all his officers were cut down. Dabormida's Italian Brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida was unaware that the other Italian troops had been annihilated as he had not received any communication from Baratieri. The Ethiopians who had just defeated Generals Arimondi's and Ellena's brigades were now moving to encircle Dabormida's brigade from the rear. By 3:00PM Dabormida, still unaware of the rout of the rest of the army, now began a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement and make a hasty retreat. However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Wollo Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael slaughtered his brigade, shouting 'Ebalgume! Ebalgume!' ('Reap! Reap!'). Dabormida's remains were never found, although an old woman living in the area said that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italian officer, "a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars". The retreating columns under Baratieri were harried for nine miles before the Ethiopian cavalry gave up the pursuit, fires were then lit on the highest hilltops to signal local peasants to attack Italian and Ascari stragglers. Baratieri's defeated army continued to retreat throughout the night, crossing the Belessa River and reaching Italian Eritrea by March 4. Back at the battlefield the Ethiopians were celebrating, chanting "Mow, mow down the tender grass! The corn of Italy that was sown in Tigré has been reaped by Menelik, and he has given it to the birds!" ==Immediate aftermath== George Berkeley records that the Italian casualties were approximately 6,100 men killed: 261 officers, 2,918 white NCOs and privates, with 954 permanently missing, and about 2,000 ascari dead. Another 1,428 were wounded – 470 Italians (including 31 officers) and 958 ascari. In addition, 1,865 Italians and 2,000 ascaris were taken prisoner. Richard Caulk estimates that the number of Italians killed were 300 officers, 4,600 Italian rank, and 1,000 askari for a total of 5,900 dead. Moreover, 1,000 escaped wounded and at least 2,000 were captured. Citing contemporary figures, Caulk records Ethiopian losses to be 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded. On the other hand, Berkeley estimates Ethiopian losses to be 7,000 killed and 10,000 wounded. In their desperate flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport. 800 captured Eritrean Ascari, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. Augustus Wylde records that when he visited the battlefield months after the battle, the pile of severed hands and feet was still visible, "a rotting heap of ghastly remnants." Many mutilated Ascari did not survive. Wylde wrote how the neighborhood of Adwa "was full of their freshly dead bodies; they had generally crawled to the banks of the streams to quench their thirst, where many of them lingered unattended and exposed to the elements until death put an end to their sufferings." Despite some instances of abuse (including possibly some instances of castration), the Italian prisoners were generally treated better by the Ethiopians. Among the prisoners was General Albertone. Chris Prouty notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". However, around 70 Italian prisoners were massacred in retaliation for the death of Bashah Aboye. The officer responsible for the massacre was reportedly imprisoned by Menelik. Public opinion in Italy was outraged. Chris Prouty offers a panoramic overview of the response in Italy to the news: == Aftermath == Emperor Menelik decided not to follow up on his victory by attempting to drive the routed Italians out of their colony. The victorious Emperor limited his demands to little more than the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale. In the context of the prevailing balance of power, the emperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence. In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine; Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service in the field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to a crawl would soon start to fall. At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage of cavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers. Chris Prouty observes that "a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italian and Ethiopian sources." Lewis believes that it "was his farsighted certainty that total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force the Italian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade" that stayed his hand. As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations's weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis, the Italians launched a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. This time the Italians employed vastly superior military technology such as tanks and aircraft, as well as chemical warfare, and the Ethiopian forces were defeated by May 1936. Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia for five years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire forces and Ethiopian Arbegnoch guerillas. ==Significance== "The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze. On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa". This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for later African nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-African movement. As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains, On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military. Italian historian Tripodi argued that some of the roots of the rise of Fascism in Italy went back to this defeat and to the perceived need to "avenge" the defeat that started to be present in the military and nationalistic groups of the Kingdom of Italy. The same Mussolini declared when Italian troops occupied Addis Ababa in May 1936: Adua è vendicata (Adwa has been avenged). Indeed, one student of Ethiopia's History, Donald N. Levine, points out that for the Italians Adwa "became a national trauma which demagogic leaders strove to avenge. It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935". Levine also noted that the victory "gave encouragement to isolationist and conservative strains that were deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture, strengthening the hand of those who would strive to keep Ethiopia from adopting techniques imported from the modern West – resistances with which both Menelik and Haile Selassie would have to contend". == Present-day celebrations of Adwa == ===Public holiday=== The Adwa Victory Day is a public holiday in all regional states and charter cities across Ethiopia. All schools, banks, post offices and government offices are closed, with the exceptions of health facilities. Some taxi services and public transports choose not to operate on this day. Shops are normally open but most close earlier than usual. ===Public celebrations=== The Victory of Adwa, being a public holiday, is commemorated in public spaces. In Addis Ababa, the Victory of Adwa is celebrated at Menelik Square with the presence of government officials, patriots, foreign diplomats and the general public. The Ethiopian Police Orchestra play various patriotic songs as they walk around Menelik Square. The public dress up in traditional Ethiopian patriotic attire. Men often wear Jodhpurs and various types of vest; they carry the Ethiopian flag and various patriotic banners and placards, as well as traditional Ethiopian shields and swords called Shotel. Women dress up in different patterns of handcrafted traditional Ethiopian clothing, known in Amharic as Habesha kemis. Some wear black gowns over all, while others put royal crowns on their heads. Women's styles of dress, like their male counterparts, imitate the traditional styles of Ethiopian patriotic women. Of particular note is the dominant presence of the Empress Taytu Betul during these celebrations. The beloved and influential wife of Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu Betul, played a significant role during the Battle of Adwa. Although often overlooked, thousands of women participated in the Battle of Adwa. Some were trained as nurses to attend to the wounded, and others mainly cooked and supplied food and water to the soldiers and comforted the wounded. In addition to Addis Ababa, other major cities in Ethiopia, including Bahir Dar, Debre Markos and the town of Adwa itself, where the battle took place, celebrate the Victory of Adwa in public ceremonies. ===Symbols=== Several images and symbols are used during the commemoration of the Victory of Adwa, including the tri-coloured green, gold and red Ethiopian flag, images of Emperor Menelik II and Empress Taytu Betul, as well as other prominent kings and war generals of the time including King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, King Michael of Wollo, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde, and Fitawrari Gebeyehu, among others. Surviving members of the Ethiopian patriotic battalions wear the various medals that they collected for their participation on different battlefields. Young people often wear T-shirts adorned by Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu, Emperor Haile Selassie and other notable members of the Ethiopian monarchy. Popular and patriotic songs are often played on amplifiers. Of particular note are Ejigayehu Shibabaw's ballad dedicated to the Battle of Adwa and Teddy Afro's popular song "Tikur Sew", which literally translates to "black man or black person" – a poetic reference to Emperor Menelik II's decisive African victory over Europeans, as well as the Emperor's darker skin complexion.	[ "Debre Markos", "Cesare Airaghi", "Balcha Safo", "Adwa", "Giovanni Romero", "Mikael of Wollo", "Shotel", "camp follower", "First Italo-Ethiopian War", "Giuseppe Galliano", "Jerusalem", "ballad", "protectorate", "Ethiopian aristocratic and religious titles", "Pan-African", "Colonisation of Africa", "Arbegnoch", "Teddy Afro", "Oromo people", "pan-Africanism", "Tigray province", "Domenico Turitto", "New York City", "brigade", "Ugo Brusati", "Shewa", "Begemder", "Treaty of Wuchale", "Fitawrari Gebeyehu", "Bahru Zewde", "League of Nations", "charter cities", "King", "Bahta Hagos", "Bands (Italian Army irregulars)", "Mussolini", "Mengesha Yohannes", "Matteo Albertone", "it:7 BR Ret. Mont", "Makonnen Wolde Mikael", "Battle of Amba Alagi (1895)", "Oreste Baratieri", "Ethiopian clothing", "Treaty of Addis Ababa", "Vittorio Dabormida", "Menelik Square", "Berlin Conference", "Second Italo-Ethiopian War", "Bashah Aboye", "Alpini", "Davide Menini", "Gojjam", "Institute of Ethiopian Studies", "St. Petersburg", "Francesco De Rosa", "Lasta", "public holiday", "Ethiopian Empire", "Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam", "Habesha kemis", "Mengesha Atikem", "Bahir Dar", "Eritrean Ascari", "Giuseppe Baudoin", "Belessa River", "Jodhpurs", "Eritrea", "Edoardo Bianchini", "Taytu Betul", "Bersaglieri", "Habte Giyorgis Dinagde", "Scramble for Africa", "Giuseppe Arimondi", "Umberto Masotto", "Ejigayehu Shibabaw", "Haile Selassie", "Ethiopian Review", "Ras Alula", "Cacciatori d'Africa", "Luigi Nava", "Hararghe", "Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles", "national trauma", "Giuseppe Ellena", "Ottavio Ragni", "Benito Mussolini", "Tigray Province", "Chicago", "Encyclopaedia Aethiopica", "Michael of Wollo", "London", "Battle of Coatit", "Adwa Zero KM Project", "Amharic", "Richard K. P. Pankhurst", "Kingdom of Italy", "Menelik II", "battalion", "Buenos Aires", "Addis Ababa", "David Levering Lewis", "Carcano", "Ras Mengesha Yohannes", "Abyssinia Crisis", "World Digital Library", "Welle Betul", "Adwa Victory Day", "British Empire", "Horn of Africa", "Pietro Toselli", "Semien province", "Leopoldo Prato", "Fascism", "Ras Makonnen", "Italian Eritrea", "lance", "Kinfe Abraham", "Asmara", "Wollo", "Afrocentrism", "Famines in Ethiopia", "Sappers", "chemical warfare", "Dejazmach", "Guerilla warfare" ]
5,014	Bistability	In a dynamical system, bistability means the system has two stable equilibrium states. A bistable structure can be resting in either state. An example of a mechanical device that is bistable is a light switch. The switch lever is designed to rest in the "on" or the "off" position but not between them. Bistable behavior can occur in mechanical linkages, electronic circuits, nonlinear optical systems, chemical reactions, and physiological and biological systems. In a conservative force field, bistability stems from the fact that the potential energy has two local minima, which are the stable equilibrium points. The rest states need not have equal potential energy. By mathematical arguments, a local maximum, an unstable equilibrium point, must lie between the two minima. At rest, a particle will be in one of the minimum equilibrium positions, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy. The maximum can be visualized as a barrier between them. A system can transition from one state of minimal energy to the other if it is given enough activation energy to penetrate the barrier (compare activation energy and the Arrhenius equation for the chemical case). After the barrier has been reached, assuming the system has damping, it will relax into the other minimum state in a time called the relaxation time. Bistability is widely used in digital electronics devices to store binary data. It is the essential characteristic of the flip-flop, a circuit that is a fundamental building block of computers and some types of semiconductor memory. A bistable device can store one bit of binary data, with one state representing a "0" and the other state a "1". It is also used in relaxation oscillators, multivibrators, and the Schmitt trigger. Optical bistability is an attribute of certain optical devices in which two resonant transmissions states are possible and stable, dependent on the input. Bistability can arise also in biochemical systems for which it creates digital, switch-like outputs from the constituent chemical concentrations and activities. It is often associated with hysteresis in such systems. ==Mathematical modelling== In the mathematical language of dynamic systems analysis, one of the simplest bistable systems is \frac{dy}{dt} = y (1-y^2). This system describes a ball rolling down a curve with shape \frac{y^4}{4} - \frac{y^2}{2}, and has three equilibrium points: y = 1 , y = 0 , and y = -1. The middle point y=0 is marginally stable ( y = 0 is stable but y \approx 0 will not converge to y = 0 ), while the other two points are stable. The direction of change of y(t) over time depends on the initial condition y(0). If the initial condition is positive (y(0)>0), then the solution y(t) approaches 1 over time, but if the initial condition is negative (y(0)< 0), then y(t) approaches −1 over time. Thus, the dynamics are "bistable". The final state of the system can be either y = 1 or y = -1 , depending on the initial conditions. The appearance of a bistable region can be understood for the model system \frac{dy}{dt} = y (r-y^2) , which undergoes a supercritical pitchfork bifurcation with bifurcation parameter r . ==In biological and chemical systems== Bistability is key for understanding basic phenomena of cellular functioning, such as decision-making processes in cell cycle progression, cellular differentiation, and apoptosis. It is also involved in loss of cellular homeostasis associated with early events in cancer onset and in prion diseases as well as in the origin of new species (speciation). Bistability can be generated by a positive feedback loop with an ultrasensitive regulatory step. Positive feedback loops, such as the simple X activates Y and Y activates X motif, essentially link output signals to their input signals and have been noted to be an important regulatory motif in cellular signal transduction because positive feedback loops can create switches with an all-or-nothing decision. Studies have shown that numerous biological systems, such as Xenopus oocyte maturation, mammalian calcium signal transduction, and polarity in budding yeast, incorporate multiple positive feedback loops with different time scales (slow and fast). Bistability can be modified to be more robust and to tolerate significant changes in concentrations of reactants, while still maintaining its "switch-like" character. Feedback on both the activator of a system and inhibitor make the system able to tolerate a wide range of concentrations. An example of this in cell biology is that activated CDK1 (Cyclin Dependent Kinase 1) activates its activator Cdc25 while at the same time inactivating its inactivator, Wee1, thus allowing for progression of a cell into mitosis. Without this double feedback, the system would still be bistable, but would not be able to tolerate such a wide range of concentrations. Bistability has also been described in the embryonic development of Drosophila melanogaster (the fruit fly). Examples are anterior-posterior and dorso-ventral axis formation and eye development. A prime example of bistability in biological systems is that of Sonic hedgehog (Shh), a secreted signaling molecule, which plays a critical role in development. Shh functions in diverse processes in development, including patterning limb bud tissue differentiation. The Shh signaling network behaves as a bistable switch, allowing the cell to abruptly switch states at precise Shh concentrations. gli1 and gli2 transcription is activated by Shh, and their gene products act as transcriptional activators for their own expression and for targets downstream of Shh signaling. Simultaneously, the Shh signaling network is controlled by a negative feedback loop wherein the Gli transcription factors activate the enhanced transcription of a repressor (Ptc). This signaling network illustrates the simultaneous positive and negative feedback loops whose exquisite sensitivity helps create a bistable switch. Bistability can arise in biological and chemical systems only if three necessary conditions are fulfilled: positive feedback, a mechanism to filter out small stimuli and a mechanism to prevent increase without bound. Bistability is often accompanied by hysteresis. On a population level, if many realisations of a bistable system are considered (e.g. many bistable cells (speciation)), one typically observes bimodal distributions. In an ensemble average over the population, the result may simply look like a smooth transition, thus showing the value of single-cell resolution. A specific type of instability is known as modehopping, which is bi-stability in the frequency space. Here trajectories can shoot between two stable limit cycles, and thus show similar characteristics as normal bi-stability when measured inside a Poincare section. == In mechanical systems == Bistability as applied in the design of mechanical systems is more commonly said to be "over centre"—that is, work is done on the system to move it just past the peak, when the mechanism goes "over centre" to its secondary stable position. The result is a toggle-type action- work applied to the system below a threshold sufficient to send it 'over center' results in no change to the mechanism's state. Springs are a common method of achieving an "over centre" action. A spring attached to a simple two position ratchet-type mechanism can create a button or plunger that is clicked or toggled between two mechanical states. Many ballpoint and rollerball retractable pens employ this type of bistable mechanism. An even more common example of an over-center device is an ordinary electric wall switch. These switches are often designed to snap firmly into the "on" or "off" position once the toggle handle has been moved a certain distance past the center-point. A ratchet-and-pawl is an elaboration—a multi-stable "over center" system used to create irreversible motion. The pawl goes over center as it is turned in the forward direction. In this case, "over center" refers to the ratchet being stable and "locked" in a given position until clicked forward again; it has nothing to do with the ratchet being unable to turn in the reverse direction. == Gallery == File:Żelazo na szczury, kuny, dziki - Piłka - 003408n.jpg\|An animal foothold trap File:Slap bracelet wiki loves earth logo.jpg\|A slap bracelet File:Mechanischer Schalter (Schwarz).jpg\|A toggle switch File:BB clip.jpg\|A snapclip File:Two mouse traps.jpg\|Mouse traps File:Iver Johnson Safety Hammer grip.jpg\|Safety hammer of a revolver File:オレンズ(0.5と0.3).jpg\|Retractable pens	[ "hysteresis", "activation energy", "Wee1", "cell cycle", "relaxation time", "light switch", "potential energy", "saddle-node bifurcation", "Interferometric modulator display", "prion", "binary number", "binary digit", "local minimum", "cancer", "feedback", "speciation", "climate variability and change", "es:Biestable", "Sonic hedgehog", "ferromagnetic", "Rollerball Pen", "Marginal stability", "Qualcomm", "bistable perception", "Schmitt trigger", "computers", "non-equilibrium thermodynamics", "stochastic resonance", "Hysteresis", "Allee effect", "dynamical system", "damping", "conservative force", "semiconductor memory", "Bifurcation theory", "spring (device)", "stable equilibrium (disambiguation)", "relaxation oscillator", "Multistability", "local maximum", "Dynamical systems theory", "Arrhenius equation", "ferroelectric", "flip-flop (electronics)", "multivibrator", "pitchfork bifurcation", "cellular differentiation", "negative feedback", "ratchet (device)", "Ballpoint Pen", "Optical bistability", "digital electronics", "apoptosis", "bimodal distribution", "Reversal theory" ]
5,015	Bjørn Lomborg	Bjørn Lomborg (; born 6 January 1965) is a Danish political scientist, author, and the president of the think tank Copenhagen Consensus Center. He is the former director of the Danish government's Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI) in Copenhagen. He became internationally known for his best-selling book The Skeptical Environmentalist (2001). In 2002, Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus. In 2004, he was listed as one of Time's 100 most influential people. In his subsequent book, Cool It (2007), and its film adaptation, Lomborg outlined his views on global warming, many of which contradict the scientific consensus on climate change. These views include the claim that the negative impacts are overstated and the opinion that too much emphasis is put on climate change mitigation at the expense of climate change adaptation. Lomborg agrees that global warming is real and man-made and will have a serious impact but enumerates other disagreements with the scientific consensus. In 2009, Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of "The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics". Lomborg's views and work have attracted scrutiny from the scientific community. He was formally accused of scientific misconduct over the book The Skeptical Environmentalist. The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DSCD) concluded in an evaluation of the book that "one couldn't prove that Lomborg had deliberately been scientifically dishonest, although he had broken the rules of scientific practice in that he interpreted results beyond the conclusions of the authors he cited." The Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation criticised the procedural aspects of the DCSD investigation. His positions on climate change have been challenged by experts and characterized as cherry picking. == Career == Lomborg lectured in statistics in the Department of Political Science at the Aarhus University as an assistant professor (1994–1996) and associate professor (1997–2005). He left the university in February 2005 and in May of that year became an adjunct professor in Policy-making, Scientific Knowledge and the Role of Experts at the Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School. Early in his career, his professional areas of interest lay in the simulation of strategies in collective action dilemmas, simulation of party behavior in proportional voting systems, and the use of surveys in public administration. In 1996, Lomborg's paper, "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", was published in the academic journal American Sociological Review. Later, Lomborg's interests shifted to the use of statistics in the environmental arena. In 1998, Lomborg published four essays about the state of the environment in the leading Danish newspaper Politiken, which according to him "resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers." This led to the Skeptical Environmentalist, whose English translation was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. The book brought him international prominence as an opponent of the scientific consensus on climate change. saying his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector. As of 2020, Lomborg is a visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank. In 2023 he was a mainstage speaker at the inaugural Alliance for Responsible Citizenship. == Books == === The Skeptical Environmentalist === In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing The Skeptical Environmentalist, a controversial book whose main thesis is that many of the most-publicized claims and predictions on environmental issues are wrong. The book received negative reviews among the scientific community, including from the Union of Concerned Scientists, Nature and Scientific American, with many scientists criticising its assertions as poorly supported, selectively using data and misrepresenting sources. However, it was well received in popular media and brought Lomborg to international attention. ==== Formal accusations of scientific dishonesty ==== After the publication of The Skeptical Environmentalist, Lomborg was formally accused of scientific dishonesty by a group of environmental scientists, who brought a total of three complaints against him to the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DCSD), a body under Denmark's Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI). Lomborg was asked whether he regarded the book as a "debate" publication, and thereby not under the purview of the DCSD, or as a scientific work; he chose the latter, clearing the way for the inquiry that followed. That February, Lomborg filed a complaint against the decision with the MSTI, which had oversight over the DCSD. In December, 2003, the Ministry annulled the DCSD decision, citing procedural errors, including lack of documentation of errors in the book, and asked the DCSD to re-examine the case. In March 2004, the DCSD formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion. The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition signed by 287 Danish academics, primarily social scientists, who criticized the DCSD for evaluating the book as a work of science, whereas the petitioners considered it clearly an opinion piece by a non-scientist. The Danish Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency (DRA) to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices. In response to this, another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures, primarily from the medical and natural sciences community, to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the DRA. Lomborg starts with the premise "Global warming is real and man-made. It will have a serious impact on humans and the environment toward the end of this century." Lomborg argues at length that warming will result in reducing total deaths from extreme temperatures, due to warming in cold climates. The Lomborg Deception, a 2010 Yale University Press book by Howard Friel, analyzed the ways in which Lomborg has "selectively used (and sometimes distorted) the available evidence", Lomborg denied those claims in a 27-page argument-by-argument response. Friel wrote a reply to that response, in which he admitted two errors but otherwise rejected Lomborg's arguments. ==== Documentary film ==== Bjørn Lomborg was the subject of documentary feature film Cool It, adapted from his book of the same name. It was released on 12 November 2010 in the US. The film in part explicitly challenged Al Gore's 2006 Oscar-winning environmental awareness documentary, An Inconvenient Truth." The film received a media critic collective rating of 51% from Rotten Tomatoes and 61% from Metacritic. == Copenhagen Consensus == Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus in 2002, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics. A panel of prominent economists was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems every four years. The project was funded largely by the Danish government and was co-sponsored by The Economist. A book summarizing the conclusions of the economists' first assessment, Global Crises, Global Solutions, edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by Cambridge University Press. In 2006, Lomborg became director of the newly established Copenhagen Consensus Center, a Danish government-funded institute intended to build on the mandate of the EAI, and expand on the original Copenhagen Consensus conference. Denmark withdrew its funding in 2012 and the Center faced imminent closure. The Center was based out of a "Neighborhood Parcel Shipping Center" in Lowell, Massachusetts, though Lomborg himself was based in Prague in the Czech Republic. In 2015, Lomborg described the center's funding as "a little more than $1m a year ... from private donations", On 21 October 2015, the offered funding was withdrawn. In April 2015, it was announced that an alliance between the Copenhagen Consensus Center and the University of Western Australia would see the establishment of the Australian Consensus Centre, a new policy research center at the UWA Business School. The University described the Center's goals as a "focus on applying an economic lens to proposals to achieve good for Australia, the region and the world, prioritizing those initiatives which produce the most social value per dollar spent.". This appointment came under intense scrutiny, particularly when leaked documents revealed that the Australian government had approached UWA and offered to fund the Consensus Centre, information subsequently confirmed by a senior UWA lecturer. Reports indicated that Prime Minister Tony Abbott's office was directly responsible for Lomborg's elevation. $4 million of the total funding for the Center was to be provided by the Australian federal government, with UWA not contributing any funding for the centre. On 8 May 2015, UWA cancelled the contract for hosting the Australian Consensus Centre as "the proposed centre was untenable and lacked academic support". and Scott Ludlam. The story appeared the next day in The Australian, but described as "academic conversations" with no mention of Bjorn Lomborg's involvement and portrayed as a grassroots desire for the Centre by the University. The following week, a story appeared in The Guardian quoting two Flinders University academics and an internal document demonstrating staff's withering rejection of the idea. Flinders staff and students vowed to fight against the establishment of any Centre or any partnership with Lomborg, citing his lack of scientific credibility, his lack of academic legitimacy and the political nature of the process of establishing the Centre with the Abbott federal government. The Australian Youth Climate Coalition and 350.org launched a national campaign to support staff and students in their rejection of Lomborg. On 21 October 2015, education minister Simon Birmingham told a senate committee the offered funding had been withdrawn. It was subsequently unclear whether the Australian Government would honour its original commitment and transfer the funds directly to the Centre to cover the costs incurred. == Views on climate change == thumb\|Visualisation of the [[Global warming hiatus\|global warming "hiatus", which Lomborg highlighted in the 2010s. Lomborg believes that climate change is occurring and humans are responsible, but disputes that the effects and economic impacts will be negative. He argues that finances should be spent elsewhere, rather than on mitigation. He has opposed the Kyoto Protocol He has been accused of exaggerating the economic costs of climate change mitigation policies. Several of Lomborg's articles, in newspapers such as The Wall Street Journal and The Daily Telegraph, have been checked by Climate Feedback, a worldwide network of scientists who assess the credibility of influential climate change media coverage. The Climate Feedback reviewers assessed that the scientific credibility of the articles ranged between "low" and "very low". The Climate Feedback reviewers came to the conclusion that in one case, Lomborg "practices cherry picking"; in a third case, "[his] article [is in] blatant disagreement with available scientific evidence, while the author does not offer adequate evidence to support his statements"; and in a fourth case, "The author, Bjorn Lomborg, cherry-picks this specific piece of research and uses it in support of a broad argument against the value of climate policy. He also misrepresents the Paris Agreement to downplay its potential to curb future climate change." == Personal life == Lomborg is gay and a vegetarian. As a public figure he has been a participant in information campaigns in Denmark about homosexuality, and states that "Being a public gay is to my view a civic responsibility. It's important to show that the width of the gay world cannot be described by a tired stereotype, but goes from leather gays on parade-wagons to suit-and-tie yuppies in boardrooms, as well as everything in between". == Recognition and awards == The Global Leaders of Tomorrow (Class 2002) – World Economic Forum (2002) The Stars of Europe (category: Agenda Setters) – BusinessWeek (17 June 2002): "No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core." The 2004 Time 100 (in Scientists & Thinkers) – Time (26 April 2004): "Our list of the most influential people in the world today: He just might be the Martin Luther of the environmental movement." Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#14) Foreign Policy and Prospect (2005) Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#41) Foreign Policy and Prospect (2008) 50 people who could save the planet – The Guardian (5 January 2008) Glocal Hero Award – Transatlantyk – Poznań International Film and Music Festival (2011) FP Top 100 Global Thinkers – Foreign Policy (2012): "For taking the black and white out of climate politics" == Discussions in the media == After the release of The Skeptical Environmentalist in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the media. As in the scientific community, his scientific qualifications and integrity were criticized, although some popular media outlets supported him. The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal. The Economist defended Lomborg, claiming the panel of experts that had criticized Lomborg in Scientific American was both biased and did not actually counter Lomborg's book. The Economist argued that the panel's opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg's responses had not been reported. Penn & Teller: Bullshit! — the U.S. Showtime television programme featured an episode entitled "Environmental Hysteria" in which Lomborg criticized what he claimed was environmentalists' refusal to accept a cost–benefit analysis of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others. Rolling Stone stated, "Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty's concern for the fate of the planet." The Union of Concerned Scientists criticized The Skeptical Environmentalist, claiming it to be "seriously flawed and failing to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis", accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature. The review was conducted by Peter Gleick, Jerry D. Mahlman, Edward O. Wilson, Thomas Lovejoy, Norman Myers, Jeff Harvey, and Stuart Pimm. The New York Times criticized False Alarm, stating "This book proves the aphorism that a little knowledge is dangerous. It's nominally about air pollution. It's really about mind pollution." The review was conducted by Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz. == Publications == "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", American Sociological Review, 1996. Global Crises, Global Solutions, Copenhagen Consensus, Cambridge University Press, 2004. , as editor How to Spend $50 Billion to Make the World a Better Place, Cambridge University Press, 2006. , as editor Solutions for the World's Biggest Problems – Costs and Benefits, Cambridge University Press, 2007. , as editor Smart Solutions to Climate Change, Comparing Costs and Benefits, Cambridge University Press, 2010, . The Nobel Laureates Guide to the Smartest Targets for the World 2016–2030, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2015. Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals Cambridge University Press, 2018, , as editor Best Things First: The 12 Most Efficient Solutions for the World's Poorest and Our Global SDG Promises, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2023.	[ "World Economic Forum", "Lowell, Massachusetts", "Environmental movement", "Scientific consensus on climate change", "350.org", "Stuart Pimm", "Jerry D. Mahlman", "Anders Fogh Rasmussen", "Rotten Tomatoes", "vegetarian", "Centre-right", "List of people who have been pied", "News media", "Tony Abbott", "causes of climate change", "Al Gore", "Rolling Stone", "solar energy", "scientific consensus on climate change", "Prospect (magazine)", "Prague", "Hillsdale College", "associate professor", "BBC News", "Global warming controversy", "Penn & Teller: Bullshit!", "American Sociological Review", "climate change mitigation", "Kyoto Protocol", "The New York Review of Books", "ABC (Australian TV channel)", "essay", "Scientific American", "Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Denmark", "University of Western Australia", "Showtime (TV network)", "Thomas Lovejoy", "E&E TV", "environmental movement", "cost–benefit analysis", "climate change adaptation", "cherry picking", "political party", "Cool It (film)", "climate change", "collective action", "Nature (journal)", "Martin Luther", "Stephen Sackur", "Hillsdale, MI", "Copenhagen Consensus Center", "Paris Agreement", "Wired (magazine)", "political science", "The Daily Telegraph", "BusinessWeek", "Ethical dilemma", "PhD", "Imprimis", "Ministry of Higher Education and Science (Denmark)", "Christopher Pyne", "climate change media coverage", "Peter Gleick", "Climate change mitigation", "Political science", "Politiken", "New Statesman", "Prime Minister of Denmark", "An Inconvenient Truth", "Social structure", "Cosmos (Australian magazine)", "Australian Youth Climate Coalition", "Copenhagen", "climate change vulnerability", "The Globe and Mail", "conservative think tank", "Copenhagen Consensus", "fossil fuel subsidies", "public administration", "University of Copenhagen", "academic journal", "Union of Concerned Scientists", "Copenhagen Business School", "Danmarks Radio", "Aarhus University", "Alliance for Responsible Citizenship", "University of Georgia", "Flinders University", "economics of climate change mitigation", "Foreign Policy", "Effects of climate change", "statistics", "Party-list proportional representation", "Global Crises, Global Solutions", "Project Syndicate", "assistant professor", "The Wall Street Journal", "Doctor of Philosophy", "welfare economics", "Foreign Policy (magazine)", "American Association for the Advancement of Science", "global warming", "economic impacts of climate change", "The Guardian", "technological fix", "website", "Cambridge University Press", "Norman Myers", "copyright infringement", "Publishing", "Grist (magazine)", "The Economist", "American Sociological Association", "effects of climate change", "Transatlantyk Festival", "natural science", "The Skeptical Environmentalist", "Jeffrey Harvey (biologist)", "Science (journal)", "Howard Friel", "environmental issues", "World Travel and Tourism Council", "Time (magazine)", "Environmental skepticism", "Master of Arts", "petition", "Frederiksberg", "Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming", "Cherry picking", "Environmental Assessment Institute", "LGBT rights in Denmark", "Edward O. Wilson", "public figure", "gay", "environment (biophysical)", "mass media", "Hoover Institution", "Australian Government", "Reuters", "Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty", "think tank", "Business Insider", "Metacritic", "Joseph Stiglitz", "The New York Times", "Skeptical Inquirer", "environmental economics", "The Conversation (website)", "Time 100", "Simon Birmingham", "Climate Feedback", "Newsweek", "The Lomborg Deception" ]
5,020	Banda Islands	The Banda Islands () are a volcanic group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea, about south of Seram Island and about east of Java, and constitute an administrative district (kecamatan) within the Central Maluku Regency in the Indonesian province of Maluku. The islands rise out of deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately ; with associated maritime area this reaches . They had a population of 18,544 at the 2010 Census and 20,924 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as of mid-2023 was 21,902. Until the mid-19th century the Banda Islands were the world's only source of the spices nutmeg and mace, produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for scuba diving and snorkeling. The main town and administrative centre is Banda Neira, located on the island of the same name. == Geography == There are seven inhabited islands and several that are uninhabited. The inhabited islands are: Main group (formed from the drowned caldera of a former volcano, with Bandaneira and still-smoking Guning Api islands at the centre of the crater, and the crescent-shaped Lonthair, Pulau Pisang and Batu Kapal being the surviving above-water parts of the volcanic rim): Bandaneira, or Naira, the island with the administrative capital and a small airfield (which stretches across the whole island, splitting the southern third from the northern two-thirds) as well as accommodation for visitors. It contains six villages (desa), from south to north being Nusantara (that part not on Gunung Api Island, and containing the district administration), Kampung Baru, Dwiwarna, Rajawali, Tanah Rata and Merdeka. Present on Banda Neira is Fort Belgica, one of the largest remaining Dutch forts that are still intact in Indonesia, and Fort Nassau. Banda Api, an active volcano (Gunung Api) with a peak of about 650 m. It forms most of the land area of the desa of Nusantara. Banda Besar, also called Lontar or Lonthoir, is the largest island (Indonesian besar, big), long and wide. It has three main settlements, Lonthoir (in the west of the island), Selamon (which includes Pulau Pisang, and which with Cumbir Kaisastoren, Walling Spanciby and Boiyauw villages faces the islands in the centre of the caldera) and Waer (which with Dender to its north and Lautang and Uring-Tutra to its west face away from the caldera). The residual former Dutch fortifications of Fort Hollandia and Fort Concordia are on this island. Some distance to the west: Pulau Ay (formerly spelt Pulau Ai), 12 km from Bandaneira, and containing the remains of the former Dutch Fort Revenge. Pulau Rhun (formerly spelt Run), another 8 km further west again. In the 17th century, this island was involved in an exchange between the British and the Dutch, when it was exchanged for the island of Manhattan in New York. To the north of Banda Besar: Pulau Pisang (Banana Island), also known as Syahrir. To the southeast: Pulau Hatta (formerly Rosengain or Rozengain), 19 km from Bandaneira, with its single village (of the same name) at its northern tip. Others, all small and/or uninhabited, are: Naijalaka, a short distance northeast of Pulau Rhun Batu Kapal, a small island northwest of Pulau Pisang Manuk, an active volcano Pulau Keraka or Pulau Karaka (Crab Island), a short distance north of Banda Api Manukang or Suanggi, to the northwest of the main group Skaru Reef, a short distance south of Pulau Hatta The islands are part of the Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests ecoregion. ==Administration== The Banda Islands District (kecamatan) is sub-divided into eighteen administrative villages (desa), listed below with their areas and their officially-estimated populations as at mid 2002. All share the postcode of 97586. Notes: (a) comprising 10,723 males and 10,702 females. == History == ===Pre-European history=== The first documented human presence in the Banda Islands comes from a rock shelter site on Pulau Ay that was in use at least 8,000 years ago. The earliest mention of the Banda Islands is found in Chinese records dating as far back as 200 BCE though there is speculation that it is mentioned in earlier Indian sources. The Srivijaya Kingdom had extensive trade contacts with the Banda Islands. Also during this period (from the late 13th century and onwards) Islam arrived in the region. It soon became established in the area. Before the arrival of Europeans, Banda had an oligarchic form of government led by ('rich men') and the Bandanese had an active and independent role in trade throughout the archipelago. Banda was the world's only source of nutmeg and mace, spices used as flavourings, medicines, and preserving agents that were at the time highly valued in European markets. They were sold by Arab traders to the Venetians for exorbitant prices. The traders did not divulge the exact location of their source and no European was able to deduce their location. The first written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires who was based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515 but visited Banda several times. On his first visit, he interviewed the Portuguese and the far more knowledgeable Malay sailors in Malacca. He estimated the early sixteenth century population to be 2500–3000. He reported the Bandanese as being part of an Indonesia-wide trading network and the only native Malukan long-range traders taking cargo to Malacca, although shipments from Banda were also being made by Javanese traders. In addition to the production of nutmeg and mace, Banda maintained significant entrepôt trade; goods that moved through Banda included cloves from Ternate and Tidore in the north, bird-of-paradise feathers from the Aru Islands and Western New Guinea, and massoi bark for traditional medicines and salves. In exchange, Banda predominantly received rice and cloth; namely light cotton batik from Java, calicoes from India and ikat from the Lesser Sundas. In 1603, an average quality sarong-sized cloth traded for eighteen kilograms of nutmeg. Some of these textiles were then sold on, ending up in Halmahera and New Guinea. Coarser ikat from the Lesser Sundas was traded for sago from the Kei Islands, Aru and Seram. ===Portuguese=== In August 1511, on behalf of the king of Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was a major hub of Asian trade. In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learned of the Banda Islands' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his good friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512. The first Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained in Banda for about one month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg, mace, and cloves, in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade. A number of Banda's were persuaded by the Dutch to sign a treaty granting the Dutch a monopoly on spice purchases. Even though the Bandanese had little understanding of the significance of the treaty known as 'The Eternal Compact', or that not all Bandanese leaders had signed, it would later be used to justify Dutch troops being brought in to defend their monopoly. In April 1609, Admiral Pieter Willemsz. Verhoeff arrived at Banda Neira with a request by Maurice, Prince of Orange to build a fort on the island (the eventual Fort Nassau). The Bandanese were not excited about this idea. On 22 May, before building of the fort had started, the called a meeting with the Dutch admiral, purportedly to negotiate prices. Instead, they led Verhoeff and two high-ranked men into an ambush and decapitated them and subsequently killed 46 of the Dutch visitors. Jan Pietersz Coen, who was a lower-ranked merchant on the expedition, managed to escape, but the traumatic event likely influenced his future attitude towards the Bandanese. ===English–Dutch rivalry=== While Portuguese and Spanish activity in the region had weakened, the English had built fortified trading posts on tiny Ai and Run islands, ten to twenty kilometres from the main Banda Islands. With the English paying higher prices, they were significantly undermining Dutch aims for a monopoly. As Anglo-Dutch tensions increased in 1611 the Dutch built the larger and more strategic Fort Belgica above Fort Nassau. In 1615, the Dutch invaded Ai with 900 men, whereupon the English retreated to Run where they regrouped. Japanese mercenaries served in the Dutch forces. That same night, the English launched a surprise counter-attack on Ai, retaking the island and killing 200 Dutchmen. A year later, a much stronger Dutch force attacked Ai. This time the defenders were able to hold off the attack with cannon fire, but after a month of siege they ran out of ammunition. The Dutch killed the defenders, and afterwards strengthened the fort, renaming it 'Fort Revenge'. ===Massacre of the Bandanese=== Newly appointed VOC governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen set about enforcing Dutch monopoly over the Banda's spice trade. In 1621 well-armed soldiers were landed on Bandaneira Island and within a few days they had also occupied neighbouring and larger Lontar. The were forced at gunpoint to sign an unfeasibly arduous treaty, one that was in fact impossible to keep, thus providing Coen an excuse to use superior Dutch force against the Bandanese. forty of whom were beheaded with their heads impaled and displayed on bamboo spears. The butchering and beheadings were carried out by the Japanese for the Dutch. The islanders were tortured and their villages destroyed by the Dutch. The Bandanese chiefs were also tortured by the Dutch and Japanese. The Dutch carved 68 parcels out of the islands after the enslavement and slaughter of the natives. The population of the Banda Islands prior to Dutch conquest is generally estimated to have been around 13,000–15,000 people, some of whom were Malay and Javanese traders, as well as Chinese and Arabs. The actual numbers of Bandanese who were killed, forcibly expelled or fled the islands in 1621 remain uncertain. But readings of historical sources suggest around one thousand Bandanese likely survived in the islands, and were spread throughout the nutmeg groves as forced labourers. The Dutch subsequently re-settled the islands with imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia. Most survivors fled as refugees to the islands of their trading partners, in particular Keffing and Guli Guli in the Seram Laut chain and Kei Besar, Shipments of surviving Bandanese were also sent to Batavia (Jakarta) to work as slaves in developing the city and its fortress. Some 530 of these individuals were later returned to the islands because of their much-needed expertise in nutmeg cultivation (something sorely lacking among newly arrived Dutch settlers). Now enjoying control of the nutmeg production, the VOC paid the nd of the Dutch market price for nutmeg; however, the still profited immensely, building substantial villas with opulent imported European decorations. The outlying island of Run was harder for the VOC to control and they exterminated all nutmeg trees there. The production and export of nutmeg was a VOC monopoly for almost two hundred years. Fort Belgica, one of many forts built by the Dutch East India Company, is one of the largest remaining European forts in Indonesia. ===English–Dutch rivalry continues=== Though not physically present at the Banda Islands, the English claimed the small island of Run until 1667 when, under the Treaty of Breda, the Dutch and English agreed to maintain the colonial status quo and relinquish their respective claims. In 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was a vassal of Napoleonic France and hence in conflict with Britain. The French and British were each seeking to control lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes. On 10 May 1810, a squadron consisting of the 36-gun frigate , HMS Piedmontaise (formerly a French frigate), 18-gun sloop , and the 12-gun transport left Madras with money, supplies and troops to support the garrison at Amboyna, recently captured from the Dutch. The frigates and sloop carried a hundred officers and men of the Madras European Regiment, while the Mandarin carried supplies. The squadron was commanded by Captain Christopher Cole, with Captain Charles Foote on the Piedmontaise and Captain Richard Kenah aboard the Barracouta. After departing from Madras, Cole informed Foote and Kenah of Cole's plan to capture the Bandas; Foote and Kenah agreed. In Singapore, Captain Spencer informed Cole that over 700 regular Dutch troops may have been located in the Bandas. The squadron took a circuitous route to avoid alerting the Dutch. On 9 August 1810, the British appeared at Banda Neira. They quickly stormed the island and attacked Belgica Castle at sunrise. The battle was over within hours, with the Dutch surrendering Fort Nassau – after some subterfuge – and within days the remainder of the Banda Islands. After the Dutch surrender, Captain Charles Foote (of the Piedmontaise) was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Banda Islands. This action was a prelude to Britain's invasion of Java in 1811. ===Recent history=== In the late 1990s, violence between Christians and Muslims spilled over from intercommunal conflict in Ambon. The disturbance and resulting deaths damaged the previously prosperous tourism industry. ==Demographics== ===Language=== Bandanese speak Banda Malay, which has several features distinguishing it from Ambonese Malay, a Malay dialect that is a lingua franca in central and southern Maluku alongside Indonesian. Banda Malay is famous in the region for its unique, lilting accent, but it also has a number of locally identifying words in its lexicon, many of them borrowings or loanwords from Dutch. Examples: fork: (Dutch ) ant: (Dutch ) spoon: (Dutch ) difficult: (Dutch ) floor: (Dutch ) porch: (Dutch ) Banda Malay shares many Portuguese loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in the national language, Indonesian. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation. Examples: turtle: (Banda Malay); (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese ) throat: (Banda Malay); (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese ) Finally, and most noticeably, Banda Malay uses some distinct pronouns. The most immediately distinguishing is that of the second person singular familiar form of address: . The descendants of some of the Bandanese who fled Dutch conquest in the seventeenth century live in the Kai Islands (Kepulauan Kei) to the east of the Banda group, where a version of the original Banda language is still spoken in the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kai Besar Island. While long integrated into Kei Island society, residents of these settlements continue to value the historical origins of their ancestors. ==Culture== Most of the present-day inhabitants of the Banda Islands are descended from migrants and plantation labourers from various parts of Indonesia, as well as from indigenous Bandanese. They have inherited aspects of pre-colonial ritual practices in the Banda Islands that are highly valued and still performed, giving them a distinct and very local cultural identity.	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Verhoeff", "Maluku sectarian conflict", "sago", "Indonesia", "Francisco Serrão", "Jan Pieterszoon Coen", "Amitav Ghosh", "caldera", "Cruizer-class brig-sloop", "Fort Belgica", "rock shelter", "Maluku Islands", "ecoregion", "Ambonese Malay", "New Guinea", "Central Maluku Regency", "Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests", "Malay (ethnic group)", "scuba diving", "Banda Neira", "Dutch empire", "Banda language (Indonesia)", "List of earthquakes in Indonesia", "Javanese people", "Malacca", "Invasion of Java (1811)", "Kai Islands", "Ambon Island", "Southeast Asia", "Kingdom of Holland", "Java", "Afonso de Albuquerque", "Jan Pietersz Coen", "Calico (textile)", "Halmahera", "1938 Banda Sea earthquake", "Arab", "snorkeling", "Morotai", "French frigate Piémontaise (1804)", "Portuguese language", "Tomé Pires", "102nd Regiment of Foot (Royal Madras Fusiliers)", "loanwords", "volcanic island", "porcelain", "Kei Islands", "tourism", "oligarchic", "Banda Api", "Srivijaya", "Banda Sea", "Chennai" ]
5,025	Brisbane Broncos	The Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Football Club Ltd., commonly referred to as the Broncos, is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in Red Hill, a suburb of Brisbane, Queensland. Founded in April 1987, the Broncos currently compete in the National Rugby League (NRL) and play their home games at Lang Park in nearby Milton. The club has won six premierships, including two New South Wales Rugby League premierships, a Super League premiership and three NRL premierships. The Broncos have also won two World Club Challenges, and four minor premierships in multiple competitions. In 2024, it reportedly had more members than any other NRL club with 53,672. The club was founded in April 1987 as part of the Winfield Cup's national expansion, becoming, along with the Gold Coast-Tweed Giants, one of Queensland's first two participants in the New South Wales Rugby League premiership. The Broncos later became the dominant force in the competition before playing a significant role in the Super League War of the mid-1990s, then continuing to compete successfully in the newly created National Rugby League competition. Trading as Brisbane Broncos Limited (), it is the only publicly listed sports club on the Australian Securities Exchange. In 2024, the Brisbane Broncos rugby league club had over 1 million fans. ==History== === Beginnings (1988–1991) === A Brisbane license was the Queensland Rugby League's direct response to the threat posed by the VFL's (now AFL) expansion team the Brisbane Bears which was granted a license in 1986 for entry in the 1987 season. Soon after the granting of the license, QRL officials mobilized, seeking a NSWRL franchise and rich backers. The aim of QRL general manager Ross Livermore was specifically to stifle the VFL's publicity and promotions in the state. The Broncos secured the services of Australia national rugby league team captain Wally Lewis to be the inaugural club captain and former BRL and then Canberra Raiders coach Wayne Bennett, Broncos CEO John Ribot moved to take over the running of the rebel Super League, leading to a perception that the conflict was orchestrated by the club. The 1995 season, the first under the ARL banner, went pretty well for Brisbane- they sat in the Top 4 for most of the year, finished 3rd, and unearthed a pair of future club legends- rugged prop Shane Webcke and future Golden Boot winner Darren Lockyer. Unfortunately, Brisbane couldn't capitalise in the first 8-team finals series, losing to the Raiders 14–8 in the qualifying final before falling 24–10 to the eventual Premiers, the now-Sydney Bulldogs. 1996 went pretty similarly- sit comfortably in the Top 4 and ultimately finish 2nd, only to lose 21–16 to North Sydney and 22–16 to the Cronulla Sharks to end their season. Brisbane's decision to side with the Super League saw a host of players join them from the ARL- most notably St George pair Anthony Mundine and Gorden Tallis, which offset the departure of longtime hooker Kerrod Walters to the Adelaide Rams. Brisbane dominated the Super League season, never leaving 1st position after Round 5 and beating Cronulla 34–2 and then 2 weeks later 26–8 to win the title in convincing fashion. Brisbane also competed in the World Club Challenge, going undefeated in their group (including a 76–0 demolition of Halifax Blue Sox), before beating St Helens 66–12, the Auckland Warriors 22–16 and the Hunter Mariners 36–12 to win the only edition of the costly tournament. === Unified competition, sixth premiership (1998–2006) === Brisbane entered the 1998 NRL season as one of the favourites to win the unified competition- despite the return of Mundine to the Dragons and the departure of Lazarus to become the inaugural captain of the newly formed Melbourne Storm. Despite a rocky period which saw them drop to 6th after 14 rounds, Brisbane stormed home on a 12-game unbeaten run to seal the minor premiership. They were also able to fill the hole of Lazarus by debuting Petero Civoniceva.Despite this form however, they were stunned 15–10 by the Parramatta Eels in their first finals match, meaning they would need an extra game to qualify for the Grand Final. They responded in typical Brisbane style- routing Melbourne and Sydney City (formerly Eastern Suburbs) 30–6 and 46–18 respectively to qualify for the big dance, where they ended Canterbury's dream finals run with a 38–12 victory. The rampaging Tallis was named Clive Churchill Medallist after a dominant performance in the middle of the park, including a try from dummy half. 1999 was disappointing for the club with a terrible early-season form hindering their attempt at a third consecutive premiership losing 8 of their first 10 matches. Club legend Langer retired mid-season, with Kevin Walters taking over the captaincy. The club went on another 12 game unbeaten run and ultimately qualified for the finals in 8th position, however their season ended in a dominant 42–20 loss against minor premiers Cronulla. The season wasn't all negative, as future Queensland representatives Dane Carlaw, Lote Tuqiri and Chris Walker all made first grade debuts for the club, although club legend Renouf did leave to finish his career with the Wigan Warriors. But Brisbane responded with a dominant 2000 season, buoyed by the signing of Ben Ikin to fill the hole left by Langer. Brisbane dominated the regular season, running away with the minor premiership, before beating the Sharks 34–20 and the Eels 16–10 to book a Grand Final matchup with the Roosters. The Broncos ground out a 14–6 victory for their 5th title in 9 years, with Lockyer receiving the Clive Churchill Medal for his performance. 2000 also saw the debut of even more future representative players- Ashley Harrison, Justin Hodges, Brad Meyers and Carl Webb. After just one full season as captain, Walters retired (although he would have a 5-game comeback in 2001), with Tallis anointed as club captain, and young North Queensland Cowboys half Scott Prince was brought in as his replacement 2001 saw the beginning of the Broncos "Post-Origin Slump", a succession of losing streaks after Origin which sees Brisbane slide down the ladder and disappoint in the finals. In Round 19, Brisbane sat 2nd on the ladder, before losing 6 straight matches and finishing the year in 5th place. They fell 22–6 to Cronulla in the Qualifying Final, before beating the now-merged St George-Illawarra Dragons 44–28 to secure a Preliminary Final berth, where they were defeated 24–16 by minor premiers Parramatta. The year saw the debut of 2 more future stars- the speedy Brent Tate as well as goal kicking forward Corey Parker. A brutal knee injury suffered by Ikin would sideline him for all of 2002, and while a neck injury to Tallis threatened to end his career, he would return at the start of the next season. Sailor would also leave the club, enticed by a massive offer from the Queensland Reds to switch codes. Hodges also left the club, the offer of guaranteed gametime from the Roosters too much for him to ignore. After joining the Warrington Wolves and making a stunning comeback to the Queensland squad, Langer returned to the club for one last season in 2002 to help ease their halves problem. Brisbane finished the year in 3rd position, although they were challenging for the minor premiership until they lost 4 of their last 5 matches. Brisbane eliminated Parramatta with a 24–14 win, but fell in the Preliminary Final for the second year in a row, losing 16–12 to the eventual premiers, the Roosters. 2002 also saw one of the greatest moments in Brisbane's club history- in a Round 12 clash with the Wests Tigers, missing 15 regular first graders as well as head coach Bennett due to injuries and Origin, a Broncos squad captained by Shane Walker and coached by assistant Craig Bellamy pulled off a stunning 28–14 victory. Just a year after Sailor went to Rugby Union, his former wing partner Tuqiri joined him, joining the New South Wales Waratahs. Wing partner Chris Walker also jumped ship, heading to the South Sydney Rabbitohs on a big contract. 2003 saw one of the worst "Post-Origin Slumps" in club history. The club sat 1st as late as Round 17, and were comfortably positioned 3rd after 19 weeks before both Tallis and Lockyer were felled by injuries in the Round 19 win over Melbourne. Brisbane dropped their last 7 matches, even after the return of their 2 superstar for the last 2 weeks of the season, and dropped to 8th place on the ladder- their season ending in the Qualifying Final when minor premiers and eventual premiers Penrith reversed an 18–10 half time deficit to beat Brisbane 28–18. That year did see the debuts of Neville Costigan and Sam Thaiday. Meanwhile, Prince had struggled to find game time after 2001 and left for the Tigers, where he would win the 2005 Clive Churchill medal and captain the side to premiership glory in one of the biggest "Ones that Got Away" for the Broncos. The club again had a bounceback year in 2004, with the shock move of Lockyer from fullback to five-eighth a major catalyst for their success. Of course, it helped that his replacement at fullback, 17 year old sensation Karmichael Hunt, was able to fit straight into the Broncos side. Brisbane spent almost the entire season inside the Top 4 and finished in 3rd position, but were stunned 31–14 by Melbourne, who had Bellamy as their head coach. This set them up with a sudden death semi final against the Cowboys, who they were undefeated against leading into the match. Brisbane volunteered to move the match from Stadium Australia to Willows Sports Complex, and the Cowboys responded by using their raucous home support to stun their "Big Brothers" 10–0. The match would be the last for a host of club icons- captain Tallis and Ikin both retired, their NSW representative goal kicking winger Michael De Vere (Huddersfield Giants) and Queensland prop Meyers (Bradford Bulls) left for the English Super League, while their other Origin prop Webb joined the Cowboys. With Lockyer named club captain and Hodges returning to the club, Brisbane dominated the start of the 2005 season and sat in 1st position after 24 rounds, but 5 straight losses to end the season saw them again slide to 3rd, where they again lost in the opening week to Melbourne, this time 24–18. This sent them into another semi final, this time against Prince and the eventual premiers Tigers, who brushed the Broncos aside 34–6. Leading into 2006, Brisbane were able to retain a similar squad to 2005. Ben Hannant proved to be a key rotational piece after arriving from the Roosters, Darius Boyd made his first grade debut and would be a key part of Brisbane's backline, and longtime Queensland Cup veteran Shane Perry would become the solution for Brisbane's halfback spot. After being inside the Top 2 after Round 17, the Broncos again entered the post-Origin slump, losing 5 consecutive games. This season however, they reversed this run of form, winning 5 straight games to close out the regular season in 3rd. This had come after Bennett had signed a secret deal to become the Roosters coach from 2007, but reneged on the deal after it became public. Despite the reverse in form, it looked like their finals success was going on par with previous seasons after they fell 20–4 against the Dragons in the qualifying final. But Brisbane got a break against an injury hit Knights squad, and Brisbane took a crushing 50–6 victory to qualify for their first Preliminary Final in 4 seasons. Brisbane took on the Bulldogs, and their season was on life support when Canterbury led 20–6 at half time. The lead prompted Bulldogs prop Willie Mason to exclaim “We're going to the grand final!”. That sledge sparked a dramatic Broncos comeback, as they ran in a 31–0 second half to blitz the Bulldogs 37–20 and book a spot in the Grand Final against Melbourne. Despite being massive underdogs, Brisbane looked in control throughout the entire match, and a Darren Lockyer field goal sealed a dramatic 15–8 victory and Brisbane's 6th premiership. Unsung hooker Shaun Berrigan was awarded the Clive Churchill Medal for his aggressive performance in the ruck. Webcke had already announced his intention to retire, and did so as a champion. === Bennett's final years (2007–2008) === Once again, Brisbane started a premiership defence poorly, losing 7 of their first 10 to sit 15th, but their stay at the bottom of the table was abruptly ended when they produced a club record 71–6 victory over a battered Knights side. Brisbane climbed back up the ladder to sit 5th after Origin, but their season again took a turn in a Round 18 clash with the Cowboys, when Lockyer's season abruptly ended with a torn ACL. Brisbane would lose 5 of their last 7 matches, including a 68–22 thrashing at the hands of the Eels, and would end the season in 8th place and being thrashed 40–0 by the Storm in the Qualifying Final. Civoniceva left the club for Penrith, upset that they had prioritised the signing of Panthers prop Joel Clinton over retaining him. Tate also departed for the Warriors, while Berrigan left for Hull FC. In their place came Clinton, Eels hooker PJ Marsh and another ex-Panther, Peter Wallace, who would replace the ageing Perry as Lockyer's halves partner. Lockyer, however, missed some serious game time in 2008 and wasn't 100% healthy until Round 18, at which point Brisbane sat 7th on the ladder. But the bigger news to come out of the start of that season was Bennett's decision to walk out of the final year of his contract to become the head coach of the Dragons from 2009. Bennett had seen his relationship with the Broncos board deteriorate after his courtship with the Roosters, and decided to leave after 21 seasons with the club. His former assistant Bellamy seemed set for a return to Brisbane as his replacement, only to blindside the club by re-signing with the Storm after a botched interview. Ultimately, it was decided that longtime assistant Ivan Henjak would be promoted to the head coaching role from 2009, and he began taking more of a role in training. With Lockyer returning, Brisbane won 6 of their final 9 games to finish 5th, and upset the Roosters 24–16 in the qualifying final to set up a semi final showdown with Bellamy and the Storm. Brisbane led 14–12 with under 10 minutes to go, and seemed to have won the game when Hannant crossed the line, with Bennett seen displaying a rare show of emotion. But the video referee deemed Hannant was held up, and a few minutes later an Ashton Sims knock on saw Greg Inglis score for the Storm to seal a late 16–14 victory, breaking Brisbane hearts and ending their season. === Rebuilding (2009–2014) === 2009 saw a wave of change around Red Hill- not only was there a new head coach, but a host of roster changes. Boyd joined Bennett at the Dragons, the representative foursome of Hannant, Greg Eastwood, Michael Ennis and David Stagg all joined the Bulldogs, and boom winger Denan Kemp, who tied the club record with 4 tries in a single game against the Eels, was lured away to the Warriors. In their place was boom teenager Israel Folau, young back rower Ben Te'o and a host of club-developed talent, including Gerard Beale, Alex Glenn, Josh McGuire, Andrew McCullough and Jharal Yow Yeh. Brisbane sat Top 4 until the Origin period, when they collapsed, conceding 40+ points in 3 straight games, an extra 44–12 loss to South Sydney and a then-club record 56–0 thrashing at the hands of the Raiders, leaving them dangling in 10th position. But 5 straight wins to close out the season, including a 22–10 win over Canberra just 36 days later, saw them finish in 6th position. This revival was largely due to the emergence of rampaging forward Dave Taylor. The Broncos stunned the 3rd place Titans 40–32 in the qualifying final, setting up a showdown with Bennett's Dragons in a sudden death semi final. Brisbane took one up on their former mentor with a dominant 24–10 victory, however Wallace fractured his ankle in the win, leaving them without a recognised halfback ahead of their preliminary final matchup with the Storm, one of the bigger reasons they fell 40–10. 2010 saw significant roster changes: the injury-enforced retirement of Marsh, Taylor's decision to move to the Rabbitohs and Karmichael Hunt's decision to switch to the AFL with the Gold Coast Suns. Furthermore, they received a massive blow during pre-season when Hodges ruptured his achilles, causing him to miss the entire season. Brisbane stuttered and lost 6 of their first 8 matches, before reversing form and entering the Top 8. But in their Round 22 clash with the Cowboys, Lockyer took a hit and injured his rib cartilage. Despite his best efforts, Lockyer missed the rest of the regular season, and without him Brisbane slumped to 4 straight defeats, sliding from 7th to 10th and missing the finals for the first time since 1991. An even bigger blow for Brisbane was a contract saga involving Greg Inglis, who was departing the Melbourne Storm in the wake of their salary cap saga. Inglis had agreed in principle to join the Broncos for 2011 onward, but then decided to cancel a flight to Brisbane to sign the contract under the alibi that "It's raining and I don't think the planes are flying". Behind the scenes, former Bronco Anthony Mundine was convincing Inglis to join the Rabbitohs, which he did a week later. Inglis would've replaced Folau, who followed Hunt's lead in switching to the AFL, this time to the Greater Western Sydney Giants. On a positive note, the season saw the debut of future international Matt Gillett. In February 2011, it was announced that Henjak was to be sacked from the club, only three weeks before the beginning of the season. Anthony Griffin, Henjak's assistant, took over as coach for the 2011 season, becoming just the third head coach in the history of Broncos. Ben Hannant also returned to the club, but even more pressing was the decision of Lockyer to retire after the season, ending a 16-year playing career which, in Round 22, saw him overtake Terry Lamb and Steve Menzies for the most first grade games played, finishing at 355, a record which would stand until Cameron Smith overtook him in 2017. Brisbane stagnated for a little while, but finished the season in 3rd position, setting up a qualifying finals matchup with the Warriors which they won 40–10, meaning they would head to take on the Dragons once again in the semi-finals. Bennett, who had looked like he was set to rejoin the Broncos in 2012, had announced that he was joining Newcastle at the end of the season- meaning the match would either be the last of Lockyer's career, or Bennett's last with the Dragons. Brisbane led 12–6 towards the end of the game before Lockyer caught Beale's knee in his face, fracturing his cheekbone. St George Illawarra tied the game, necessitating Golden Point, where an injured Lockyer slotted home a field goal to seal a 13–12 win and keep Brisbane in the finals. Unfortunately, Lockyer was unable to play in the Preliminary Final against Manly, which the Sea Eagles won 26–14. 2012 marked the Broncos' 25th season in the NRL competition. Civoniceva returned for one last season, and Thaiday was appointed club captain. The club also lost winger Jharal Yow Yeh in Round 4 to a brutal leg injury, suffering a compound fracture in his leg and an ankle dislocation. Yow Yeh retired in 2014, as he never fully recovered from the injury. Brisbane spent much of the season inside the Top 4, but another "Post-Origin Slide" saw them finish 8th, and they were eliminated by the Cowboys 33–16 in the Qualifying Final. Beale (Dragons) and Te'o (Rabbitohs) both left the club, along with the retiring Civoniceva, and Prince returned to the club for his swansong. Unfortunately, 2013 was not a good year for Brisbane- they were out of the Top 8 after Round 10 and never returned, finishing 12th, the lowest position in club history at the time. Future Origin winger Corey Oates made his debut during this season, however. Prince retired and Wallace returned to the Panthers, largely because of the emergence of Ben Hunt as the club's halfback. Perhaps one of their biggest signings in quite some time, former Dally M Medallist Ben Barba joined the club in 2014 as their marquee signing. Barba attempted to join the Broncos one year prior, but was refused a release by the Bulldogs. Todd Lowrie, Martin Kennedy and Daniel Vidot also joined the Broncos from the Warriors, Roosters and Dragons respectively. There was also a change in the club captaincy, with Thaiday standing down and being replaced by a co-captain structure of Hodges and Parker. The Broncos failed to find any sort of consistency during the season, their best patch of form being four straight wins against the Titans, Tigers, Sea Eagles and Raiders. They also experienced their worst collapse as a club against the Cronulla Sharks at home in Round 16, where they led the Sharks 22–0 at one stage, ultimately falling 24–22 by full time. Brisbane never really challenged for the title throughout the season and ultimately finished 8th, again being eliminated by the Cowboys in the Qualifying Final, this time by the score of 32–20. That game would be Griffin's last as head coach, as it had been announced mid-season that Wayne Bennett was set to return to the Broncos from 2015. === Bennett's second stint (2015–2018) === The roster change under Bennett was dramatic from the moment he returned. Ben Barba was released after just one season, eventually joining Cronulla. Ben Hannant left for the Cowboys, and Kiwi international Josh Hoffman departed for the Gold Coast. In return, Darius Boyd returned to the club, and was joined by ex-Tiger enforcer Adam Blair and boom Raider Anthony Milford, as well as a pair of up and coming rookies in Joe Ofahengaue and Kodi Nikorima making their debuts. The captaincy underwent another change as well, with Hodges given sole captaincy of the club. Their campaign started rocky, a 36–6 thrashing at the hands of South Sydney, but they soon found their feet and won 8 straight matches during the Origin period – a drastic change from the previous years – ultimately finishing the season in 2nd place. They took down the Cowboys 16–12 in the Qualifying Final to advance straight to a Preliminary Final showdown with the minor premier Roosters. A Boyd intercept try inside the first minute set the tone for the clash, and Brisbane would dominate 31–12 to advance to a Grand Final showdown with the Cowboys. In what is considered by some commentators to be one of the best Grand Finals in recent history, the Broncos led 16–12 for much of the second half before Cowboys winger Kyle Feldt scored in the corner on the last play of regulation to tie the match. Superstar half Johnathan Thurston missed the subsequent conversion, sending the clash to golden point. The Broncos won the golden point coin toss and elected to receive, putting them in a great position to win the match. However, off the kickoff, Ben Hunt knocked on, giving the Cowboys possession just metres out from the Broncos line. Thurston kicked a field goal 2 minutes into the Golden Point period to win the match for the Cowboys 17–16, ending the season in jubilation for Townsville and heartbreak for Brisbane. Justin Hodges retired after the Grand Final, and the captaincy was again given to Corey Parker. James Roberts, a speedy centre, had been lured away from the Titans at the last minute to join the Broncos, and he was joined by young Raiders forward Tevita Pangai Junior and young back rower Jai Arrow, who had emerged from Brisbane's development program. Brisbane started the season strongly but endured a "Post-Origin Slump" to drop out of the Top 4, finishing in 5th. After eliminating the Titans 44–28 in the Qualifying Final, Brisbane travelled to Townsville for a knockout clash with the Cowboys. In another classic between the two sides, the game went into extra time – a new rule brought in after their grand final thriller 12 months earlier. At 20-all, when a Michael Morgan try sealed a 26–20 win for the Cowboys, ending their season – the third time in 5 years their season had concluded in Townsville. Parker retired after the match, but Brisbane brought in embattled ex-New Zealand halfback Benji Marshall on a lifeline deal, as well as established prop Korbin Sims from Newcastle and experienced winger David Mead from the Gold Coast. Darius Boyd was also named club captain for 2017. Prior to the start of the 2017 season it was announced Hunt had signed a large contract with the Dragons beginning in 2018, and that likely contributed to a season where Hunt was dropped to reserve grade and the bench, before finishing the season at hooker after Andrew McCullough tore his ACL. Brisbane started their 2017 campaign in shaky fashion, winning two of their first five games, the club sitting in ninth position at the end of Round 5. Following this, the Broncos found their form and re-entered the top 8 without exiting it again, finishing the 2017 season in 3rd, but with a 4 win gap between them and the 1st placed Storm. Making matters worse, Boyd was injured in their Round 26 win over the Cowboys, and missed their 24–22 loss in a classic Qualifying Final against the Roosters, before the Boyd-less Broncos advanced to another Preliminary Final with a 13–6 win over the Panthers. Boyd was rushed back into the squad for the showdown with runaway favourites Melbourne, but was clearly not healthy and didn't do much to alter the 30–0 defeat. Along with Ben Hunt, Jai Arrow, Adam Blair and Benji Marshall also left the club, departing for the Titans, Warriors and Tigers respectively. Jack Bird was the club's marquee signing, joining from Cronulla, although his season lasted just 8 games as he dealt with injury. Wayne Bennett blamed Cronulla for Jack Bird's injury problems, as he had claimed that Cronulla had told Bird that he was not injured and did not require surgery before departing for Brisbane. The Broncos also had signed prop Matt Lodge on a one-year deal, a move which attracted controversy, as Lodge had been out of the NRL due to his arrest in New York during the 2015 off-season. While many in the media and the NRL fanbase called for Lodge's contract to be deregistered, Bennett and the Broncos stood by Lodge. 2018 also saw a major success from Brisbane's youth, with debuts handed out to Payne Haas, David Fifita, Kotoni Staggs and Jake Turpin. Brisbane, however, were not the team they had been, and instead of being in the Top 4 race, they were just looking to make the finals. A big 48–16 win over Manly, which saw Corey Oates score 4 tries, saw the club finish in 6th, but just one win separated them from 1st, such was the tightness of the competition. The following week, Brisbane were eliminated from the finals series after being defeated 48–18 by a highly unfancied St George-Illawarra side. The loss was also the final game for the retiring Sam Thaiday. After the 2018 season, a rift emerged between Bennett and CEO Paul White, which ultimately saw Bennett sign with the Rabbitohs to become coach from 2020. Just weeks later, Bennett was sacked as the head coach for making preseason plans with the Rabbitohs for the following year, and in return South Sydney appointed Bennett as head coach with immediate effect, freeing up their coach Anthony Seibold, who had already signed with Brisbane from 2020, to become the Broncos head coach for 2019. === Anthony Seibold era (2019–2020) === Along with Bennett, a host of key players left Brisbane. Josh McGuire left for North Queensland and Korbin Sims for St. George Illawarra, then halfway through the season, James Roberts, Jaydn Su'A and Kodi Nikorima also departed the club for the Rabbitohs and Warriors. Jack Bird once again dealt with injuries, only playing 9 games, and it quickly became clear that the now 32 year old Darius Boyd had lost a step. The Broncos handed debuts to Patrick Carrigan, Xavier Coates, Tom Dearden, Herbie Farnworth and Keenan Palasia, while also signing Rhys Kennedy and James Segeyaro mid-season. A four match losing streak early in the season set the tone for the club, as they sat 14th after Round 16, only to go on a run of 6 wins and a draw from their last 10 games to ensure they finished in 8th place. They played Parramatta in week one of the finals at the new Bankwest Stadium and lost the match 58–0, marking the club's worst ever defeat. It was also the biggest finals loss in the history of the competition which eclipsed the previous record set by Newtown when they defeated St George 55–7 in the 1944 finals series. It also extended the club's longest ever premiership drought to thirteen seasons. The club signed out of favour half Brodie Croft from the Melbourne Storm on a three-year deal, beginning in 2020. 2020 started well for Brisbane, winning their first two games against North Queensland and South Sydney, before the competition was suspended upon completion of round 2 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. When the competition returned from its unscheduled hiatus in late May, the optimism at the Broncos fizzled out quickly, as they lost 34–6 to Parramatta in the first game of the season restart. The club then recorded their worst ever loss the following week against the Sydney Roosters, losing 59–0. The losses continued to pile up for Brisbane, the mid-season signing of Issac Luke and the return of Ben Te'o making almost no impact. The Broncos were also impacted by injuries, as many players missed more than half of the shortened season. The club's only post COVID lockdown victory came against fellow bottom of the ladder team, Canterbury-Bankstown in round 9. After a 28–10 loss to South Sydney, Anthony Seibold resigned as coach of the Brisbane Broncos, with assistant Peter Gentle taking over as caretaker coach until the end of the season. While the Brisbane club were more competitive under Gentle, the club would lose their final 11 matches of the season in a row including a 36–8 loss to the Canberra Raiders despite leading 8–6 at half time, another big loss against the Sydney Roosters, this time 58–12 at the Sydney Cricket Ground and a 32–16 loss in the final round to North Queensland which condemned Brisbane to the club's first ever wooden spoon after Canterbury-Bankstown beat Souths in round 19 to leap ahead of the Brisbane club on the ladder on points differential. Darius Boyd and Jordan Kahu both retired at the end of the 2020 season, while David Fifita would be departing as well to join the Titans. === Kevin Walters era (2021–2024) === After missing out on the signature of Craig Bellamy as head coach, Kevin Walters was signed as coach for the 2021 NRL season for two years. Walters moved on two of Brisbane's players who were on large contracts in Jack Bird and Joe Ofahengaue. Brisbane brought in experienced players, John Asiata, Albert Kelly, David Mead, Dale Copley and Danny Levi in an attempt to take pressure off the young players. Walters named Alex Glenn as the captain for the 2021 season. The problems at Red Hill continued, firstly surrendering a 16–0 lead against Parramatta in their season opener to concede the next 24 points without an answer to end up losing 16–24, followed by losing 16–28 to local rivals, the Gold Coast Titans to record their 13th loss in a row. In round 3, Brisbane recorded their first victory in 259 days after they beat Canterbury-Bankstown 24–0. In round 8 of the 2021 NRL season, Brisbane staged an incredible comeback against the Gold Coast. After being down 22–0, Brisbane would go on to win the match 36–28. An unlikely round 11 win against the Sydney Roosters at the Sydney Cricket Ground saw the Brisbane club end a 13-game losing streak outside of Queensland, however losses to Melbourne, St. George Illawarra, Canberra and South Sydney saw Brisbane once again fall to the bottom of the ladder as of round 15. The club would go on to win four of their last nine games to avoid the Wooden Spoon and finish in 14th place. Alex Glenn retired after this game, marking the end of a twelve-year career. Even though Brisbane struggled, Tyson Gamble emerged as a serviceable half for the club. Gamble was limited to two games in 2020, but managed more game time under Walters, as he chopped and changed halves pairings throughout the season. The club also lured Karmichael Hunt back from the NSW Waratahs, twelve years after he initially departed the Broncos for Australian rules football. During the season, the Brisbane club ran the broom through the front office and the playing group. Paul White resigned as CEO and was replaced with Dave Donaghy from the Storm. Donaghy began his tenure in the middle of 2021, after a lengthy legal process that prevented him from commencing his role earlier in the year. Former Bronco Ben Ikin was hired as the Football and Performance Director. The turnaround for Brisbane's recruitment seemingly began when the club announced the signing of embattled Rabbitohs half Adam Reynolds on a three-year deal from 2022 onwards. In addition to Reynolds, the club also signed Ryan James from the Raiders, Cowboys forward Corey Jensen, Kurt Capewell from the Panthers, as well as Jordan Pereira and Tyrone Roberts as depth signings. In addition to the new signings at the club, many of the young players extended their contracts to keep them at the Broncos, something that was becoming a rarity ever since 2018. Ben Te'o and Karmichael Hunt quietly retired from rugby league, while Danny Levi, Anthony Milford, John Asiata, Brodie Croft, Xavier Coates and Richard Kennar departed for other clubs. Jesse Arthars was also sent to the New Zealand Warriors on a loan deal for the 2022 season, expected to return for the 2023 campaign. Ex-Cowboy Te Maire Martin also made his NRL return with the Broncos, having initially retired three years prior due to a bleed on his brain. Adam Reynolds was named as the captain for the Brisbane in the 2022 season. 2022 began well for Brisbane, despite losing captain Adam Reynolds to COVID-19 in their Round 1 clash against the South Sydney Rabbitohs. They won their opening games against South Sydney and the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs to sit in the top 8 at the end of the round for the first time since 2020. They then went on to lose three games in a row, before going on a seven-game winning streak, including a 38–0 thrashing of Manly and another comeback victory against the Gold Coast Titans. This was the longest winning streak the Broncos had experienced since winning six straight games under Wayne Bennett in 2017. During the club's winning streak, the club was rocked by star forward Payne Haas requesting a release, which was denied. During the Round 12 clash against the Gold Coast, Haas was relentlessly booed by Brisbane fans when he had the ball. The Broncos' seven-game winning streak was broken by the Melbourne Storm, who had beaten the Brisbane side 32–20 after a shaky start. Brisbane were defeated 40–26 by North Queensland the following week, before winning three games in a row. The last placed Wests Tigers defeated Brisbane at home in an upset, winning 32–18. This match saw Patrick Carrigan placed on report for a 'hip drop' tackle on Jackson Hastings, which caused an injury to the Tigers' half and ended his season. Carrigan missed four matches due to suspension. After losing to the Sydney Roosters the following week, Brisbane seemed to be back on track after beating the Newcastle Knights 28–10. The final three rounds were a nightmare for the Broncos, as they recorded a 60–12 loss against the Storm, a 53–6 loss against the Eels, then a 22–12 loss to St. George Illawarra in the final round of the regular season. Brisbane's horrific performances saw them drop out of the top 8 and miss the finals for a third straight season, the longest consecutive finals drought in Brisbane's history to date. The club also made history for the wrong reasons, being the first club to miss the finals with more wins than losses since Canberra in 1999, as well as being the first club to sit in the top four after Round 17 and miss the finals. During the 2022 season, rumours had persisted that Warriors fullback Reece Walsh was seeking a return to Australia after the New Zealand Warriors had announced that they would be returning to New Zealand. However, both the Warriors and Walsh denied the rumours and insisted that he was committed to the move. In July, however, reports began emerging that Walsh was granted a release from the Warriors and that he was looking to return to a Queensland team. On 7 July, the Broncos confirmed the signing of Walsh for 2023 and beyond. To accommodate Walsh in the salary cap, utility back Te Maire Martin was given permission to negotiate with other clubs and signed with the New Zealand Warriors from 2023 onwards. At the start of the final round of the regular 2023 season, Brisbane was positioned on top of the NRL ladder. Brisbane lost their final regular season game against the Melbourne Storm 22–32 and missed out on claiming their first minor premiership win since 2000, due to having a lesser points differential than the Penrith Panthers, who shared the same number of points. Notwithstanding, Brisbane qualified to play Penrith in the 2023 NRL Grand Final at Stadium Australia on 1 October. Brisbane lost the game, having led the game 24–8 with 18 minutes of play remaining to lose 24–26. This was the worst collapse in NRL Grand final history. Under Walters in the 2024 NRL season, Brisbane were unable to back up their feats from 2023 with the club finishing twelfth on the table. Walters' position as Brisbane head coach came under heavy scrutiny by the media. The club conducted an internal review after the end of the regular season, and Walters was terminated from his coaching position on 26 September 2024. Michael Maguire was subsequently appointed immediately as head coach for the next three seasons. === Michael Maguire era (2025–2027) === In September 2024, the Brisbane Broncos confirmed that Michael Maguire had been signed for three years and would immediately take over as head coach ahead of the 2025 pre-season. Having wanted to continue with the use of alliteration for local sporting teams such as the Brisbane Bullets and Brisbane Bears (later the Brisbane Lions), the club's directors eventually decided on the nickname Broncos. The original club logo was first featured in the Broncos' inaugural season in the premiership in 1988 and was used until 1999. It used a mostly gold colour scheme, in line with the predominant colour on the team jerseys. In 2000, the club adopted a new logo with a more maroon design, which was much closer to the traditional colour associated with Queensland rugby league and Queensland sport in general. This design continues to be used to date. Traditionally, the colours of the Brisbane Broncos have been maroon, white and gold, which have all long been linked to the history of rugby league in Queensland. Initially, the founders of the club favored the official blue and gold colours of Brisbane City Council. However, Sydney advertiser John Singleton advised the board that "Queenslanders had been booing players wearing blue for more than three-quarters of a century." In 2001, following the release of the club's predominantly white with navy-blue and maroon away jersey, the National Rugby League ordered the club to produce a third jersey since the new away jersey clashed with the home jerseys of the Penrith Panthers, Melbourne Storm and New Zealand Warriors. An aqua strip using the same design as the jerseys used from 1999 to 2001 was worn, which was much derided by the local media. Following two years of public pressure the club dropped the jersey in favor of the design worn against Newcastle in 2003. File:Brisbane Jersey 1988.png\|1988–1990 File:Brisbane Jersey 1991.png\|1991–1996 File:Brisbane Jersey 1997.png\|1997–1998 File:Brisbane Jersey 1999.png\|1999–2001 File:Brisbane Broncos home jersey 2013.png\|2013–2014 ==Stadium== In their first five seasons, the Broncos played their matches at the 52,500 capacity Lang Park, the ground considered to be the home of rugby league in Queensland. However, following ongoing conflict with the Queensland Rugby League and Lang Park Trust due to a sponsorship conflict with the QRL having a commercial agreement with Castlemaine XXXX brewery with prominent signs around the ground, while the Broncos were sponsored by rival brewery Powers who were not permitted any permanent signs (the Broncos initially got around this by not using the change rooms at half time during games, instead sitting on the ground with a temporary protective banner surrounding them which just happened to have prominent Powers logos), the team relocated to the 60,000 capacity QEII Stadium in 1993 (QEII had been the main stadium of the 1982 Commonwealth Games). the team moved back to the refurbished ground upon its completion in mid-2003. The more centrally-located stadium has begun to attract larger crowds, with the 2006 average attendance of 31,208 being significantly higher than the Newcastle Knights with 21,848 and about double the regular season competition average of 15,601. The club record attendance for a regular season match is 58,593, set against the St. George Dragons in the final round of the 1993 season. The record attendance for a match at Lang Park is 50,859 for Darren Lockyer's final home game. Before kick-off at the Stadium an instrumental version of Led Zeppelin's "Kashmir" is routinely played. Whenever the Broncos score a try, "Chelsea Dagger" by The Fratellis is played. The Broncos all-time home attendance record was set at QEII Stadium during the 1997 Super League Grand Final when 58,912 saw the Broncos defeat the Cronulla Sharks 26–8 to claim the only Super League premiership played in Australia. The Broncos record home attendance at Lang Park set during the 2023 Preliminary Final on 23 September 2023, when 52,273 saw the Broncos defeat the New Zealand Warriors 42–12 to win a place in the 2023 NRL Grand Final. === Home venues === ==Supporters== The Brisbane Broncos have the largest fan base of any NRL club and they have been voted the most popular rugby league team in Australia for several years. A Broncos supporters group called "The Thoroughbreds" which is made up of prominent businessmen, made an unsuccessful bid to purchase News Ltd's controlling share of the club in 2007. Average regular season attendance 1988: 16,111 (lowest home attendance) 1989: 18,217 1990: 22,709 1991: 19,463 1992: 21,687 1993: 43,200 (largest home attendance) 1994: 37,705 1995: 35,902 1996: 23,712 1997: 19,298 1998: 20,073 1999: 22,763 2000: 21,239 2001: 19,710 2002: 20,131 2003: 24,326 2004: 28,667 2005: 30,331 2006: 31,208 2007: 32,868 2008: 33,426 2009: 34,587 2010: 35,032 2011: 33,209 2012: 33,337 2013: 30,480 2014: 34,235 2015: 36,096 2016: 34,476 2017: 31,929 2018: 31,394 2019: 29,516 2020: 8,624 (Attendance numbers impacted by crowd restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic) 2021: 21,444 (Attendance numbers impacted by crowd restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic) 2022: 29,594 2023: 33,793 2024: 39,873 Notable supporters Notable supporters of this club, amongst others, include: Mackenzie Arnold, Australian footballer and goalkeeper Pierre Gasly, Formula 1 Driver Carl Barron, Australian comedian Allan Border, Australian cricket captain Tom Brady, 7 time Super Bowl winning quarterback for the New England Patriots and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Quentin Bryce, 25th Governor General of Australia Cate Campbell, Malawian-born Australian swimmer and Olympic gold medallist Jim Chalmers, 41st Treasurer of Australia Cameron Dick, 36th Deputy Premier of Queensland Andrew Fraser, 47th Treasurer of Queensland Bernard Fanning, lead singer of Powderfinger Katrina Gorry, Australian footballer Wayne Goss, 34th Premier of Queensland Ian Healy, former international wicket-keeper Les Hiddins, former Australian soldier, known as "The Bush Tucker Man" Mark Hunt, mixed martial artist Dami Im, singer, winner of The X Factor Australia in 2013 Steve Irwin, TV personality and environmentalist Marnus Labuschagne, South African-born Australian cricketer Denan Kemp, Former NRL Player and owner and creator of Bloke In A Bar, Bloke Beer and Grumpy Coffee Georgie Tunny, The Project co-host Yvonne Sampson, Fox Sports Presenter Lincoln Lewis, Australian actor Craig Lowndes, V8 Supercars driver Chris Lynn, Australian cricketer Steven Miles, 40th Premier of Queensland Patty Mills, professional basketballer Susie O' Neill, former Australian Swimmer James Parsons, former Auckland Blues and All Blacks Hooker Sally Pearson, Olympic athlete Rick Price, musician Terry Price, professional golfer Patrick Rafter, retired tennis player Kevin Rudd, 26th Prime Minister of Australia Cam Smith, professional golfer Karl Stefanovic, television presenter Samantha Stosur, professional tennis player and 2011 US Open champion Andrew Symonds, international cricketer Ken Talbot, mining magnate Don Walker, musician ==Corporate== The Broncos are the only publicly listed NRL club. The largest shareholder in the Broncos is Nationwide News Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of News Corp Australia, which as of 30 June 2021, owned 68.87%. BGM Projects is another major shareholder. John Ribot, a former first grade rugby league player in Queensland and New South Wales, was the club's original chief executive officer (CEO). Ribot left when he signed to become the CEO of the rebel Australian rugby league competition Super League. (p. 24,112) Shane Edwards, the Broncos Marketing Manager at the time, was promoted to CEO and later resigned. Bruno Cullen, who had been with the Broncos' off-field staff since 1989, became the club's third CEO in 2003. Rugby league player Darren Lockyer is a member of the board of directors. Between 1997 and 2016, the club's apparel was manufactured by Nike. Between 2017 and 2020, International Sports Clothing served as the club's apparel manufacturer. From the 2021 season, Asics will supply the club's on-and-off-field apparel. == Sponsors == The Brisbane Broncos' first major sponsor was Powers Brewing who sponsored them until 1993. The Broncos currently have a number of sponsorship deals with the following: Kia Motors NRMA Insurance ISC Firstmac / loans.com.au Asics Coca-Cola Powerade Star Entertainment Group Hostplus Deadly Choices Arrow Energy Tyrepower National Storage BCF New Era Nova 106.9 Nine News Queensland McDonald's The Courier-Mail Event Cinemas XXXX Gold Four'n Twenty Makita Gallagher Insurance World Gym Hyperice Australian Venue Co. Elastoplast ==Players== ===2025 NRL squad=== === Representative players === ===Notable players=== Due to the club's premiership success and its being the dominant Queensland team in the competition for the majority of its participation, the Brisbane Broncos' list of representative players is extensive. Consequently, there have been a large number of Queensland Maroons in the team. In 2007, a 20-man legends team was announced to celebrate the club's 20-year anniversary. === 1988 first-ever squad === Colin Scott – Fullback Joe Kilroy – Wing Chris Johns – Centre Gene Miles – Centre Michael Hancock – Wing Wally Lewis – Five-eighth Allan Langer – Halfback Terry Matterson – Lock Brett Le Man – Second Row Keith Gee – Second Row Greg Dowling – Prop Greg Conescu – Hooker Bryan Niebling – Prop Mark Hohn – Interchange Billy Noke – Interchange Craig Grauf – Interchange Wayne Bennett – Coach == Personnel == === Coaches === === Current personnel === ==Statistics and records== In their thirty-nine completed seasons, the club has made a total of eight Grand Finals, winning six and losing two; once to the North Queensland Cowboys in 2015, and once to the Penrith Panthers in 2023. They are one of only two clubs to have won the World Club Challenge twice, and were the first club to do so on British soil. They also won the now defunct Panasonic Cup in 1989. Six players have scored four tries in a match for the Brisbane Broncos including Steve Renouf (5 times), Wendell Sailor, Karmichael Hunt, Justin Hodges, Denan Kemp and former Australian Wallabies player, Israel Folau. Wendell Sailor has held the record for the most tries scored in a finals match (four tries against St. George Illawarra Dragons, Semi-final 2001, Brisbane won 44–28). The most field goals in a match however hasn't been past one field goal which has been accomplished several times. The club's biggest winning margin is 65 points, achieved in 2007 in a 71–6 victory over the Newcastle Knights. Their heaviest defeat is a 59–0 loss by the Sydney Roosters on 4 June 2020 . The club's highest winning margin in a Grand Final is by 26 points (38–12, against Canterbury Bulldogs, 1998). In the 2017 NRL season, the Brisbane Broncos' highest try-scorer was former Gold Coast Titans centre James Roberts with 15 tries. The highest points-scorer was Jordan Kahu with 67 goals and 8 tries. The most metres run in the season was by Tautau Moga with 3410 metres. ===Brisbane Broncos win–loss records=== ====Active teams==== ====Defunct teams==== ==Season summary== ===Finals appearances=== 28 (1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2023) ==Honours== World Club Challenge: 2 1992, 1997 Premiership: 6 1992, 1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2006 Minor Premiership: 4 1992, 1997, 1998, 2000 Panasonic Cup: 1 1989 Lotto Challenge Cup: 1 1991 Tooheys Challenge Cup: 1 1995 == Club Rivalries == === North Queensland Cowboys === Brisbane's biggest rivals are the North Queensland Cowboys. The two clubs had a long-standing 'sibling rivalry' with North Queensland characterized as the underdog. Brisbane initially were dominant in the fixture with Brisbane going undefeated against North Queensland for the first nine years until North Queensland recorded their first ever victory in the 2004 elimination final defeating Brisbane 10–0. The rivalry reached new heights after North Queensland won their first premiership, beating Brisbane at the 2015 Grand Final at Stadium Australia. Considered one of the greatest grand finals of all time, the win established North Queensland as competitive equals. Between 2015 and 2017 a staggering three of five games played between the two clubs led to a Golden Point finish. In the final round of the 2020 NRL season, North Queensland condemned Brisbane to their first ever Wooden Spoon. Brisbane needed to win the match to overtake Canterbury-Bankstown but lost the match. It is regarded as one of the greatest modern sports rivalries earning the nickname of the "Queensland derby". The Gold Coast are geographically the closest club to Brisbane. Brisbane previously enjoyed derbies with the Gold Coast Chargers, until the Chargers exited the competition at the end of 1998 season, returning as the Gold Coast Titans in 2007 and before that with the Gold Coast Seagulls and Gold Coast-Tweed Giants. In the 2021 NRL season, Brisbane recorded the biggest ever comeback in their history by defeating the Gold Coast 36–28 after being down 22–0. ===Melbourne Storm=== Since the 2006 NRL Grand Final where Brisbane edged out Melbourne 15–8, a rivalry still continues today between the two clubs. The two sides have played each other in multiple finals matches. Adding to this, both Brisbane and Melbourne players usually feature heavily in Queensland's annual State of Origin side. Since the 2006 decider, Brisbane have played Melbourne on thirty-four occasions and only won five times. In round 27 of the 2023 NRL season, the two sides met in the final round of the regular campaign. Brisbane and Melbourne both rested regular players as each team had already qualified for the finals. Melbourne won 32–22 and by the end of the round, Brisbane missed out on their first Minor Premiership win since 2000. The two sides would meet the following week in the 2023 qualifying final with Brisbane defeating Melbourne 26–0 to book a place in the preliminary final. It was the first time Brisbane had beaten Melbourne at Lang Park since 2009 and the first time that they had defeated Melbourne in 14 attempts. ===Dolphins=== "The Battle for Brisbane" is a new rivalry which began with the Dolphins' admission as the second Brisbane club in 2023. This marked the first time that Brisbane has had two professional rugby league teams since the demise of the South Queensland Crushers in 1997. In round 4 of the 2023 NRL season, the two sides played against each other for the first time. In a match which saw both sides take the lead, Brisbane would go on to win 18–12 in front of 51,047 fans. This was the biggest crowd at Lang Park for a regular season game in its history. == Club affiliations == The Brisbane Broncos have three split feeder clubs from the Queensland Cup: Northern Suburbs Devils, Souths Logan Magpies and Wynnum-Manly Seagulls. Former feeder clubs of the Broncos are the now-defunct Aspley Broncos and Toowoomba Clydesdales, active clubs Central Queensland Capras, who switched to The Dolphins, Ipswich Jets who switched to Newcastle Knights, Redcliffe Dolphins who switched to the Warriors, and Burleigh Bears who switched to the Gold Coast Titans. ==Women's team== In 2017, the Brisbane Broncos launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership in 2018. On 27 March 2018, the club won a license to participate in the inaugural NRL Women's season, on the back of a strong bid which included the NRL's desire for a geographical spread. Paul Dyer was named as the coach of the women's side, but stepped down after the inaugural season to concentrate on his role as game development manager. Kelvin Wright was named his replacement in May 2019. In June 2018, Ali Brigginshaw, Brittany Breayley, Heather Ballinger, Teuila Fotu-Moala and Caitlyn Moran were unveiled as the club's first five signings. Tain Drinkwater was also appointed the CEO of the team. The club won the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership title by defeating the Sydney Roosters by 34–12 in the 2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final.	[ "David Fifita (rugby league, born 2000)", "Ashton Sims", "Anthony Milford", "Cronulla Sharks", "Canberra Raiders", "Burleigh Bears", "brumby", "Brad Thorn", "Northern Eagles", "Teuila Fotu-Moala", "2009 Brisbane Broncos season", "Central Queensland Capras", "Ben Barba", "Wooden Spoon (award)", "Joe Kilroy", "2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final", "Triple M Brisbane", "Willie Mason", "Illawarra Steelers", "Powderfinger", "John Singleton (Australian entrepreneur)", "Les Hiddins", "2017 NRL season", "Susie O'Neill", "New South Wales rugby league team", "Adam Reynolds", "Ken Talbot", "1989 Brisbane Broncos season", "2011 Brisbane Broncos season", "Terry Lamb", "Ben Hannant", "New South Wales Waratahs", "Sportingbet", "Allan Langer", "The Courier-Mail", "Hunter Mariners", "Kotoni Staggs", "National Rugby League", "Australian national rugby league team", "Glenn Lazarus", "Andrew McCullough", "Shane Webcke", "New South Wales Rugby League", "TDK", "Peter Wallace (rugby league)", "Scott Prince", "Terry Price (golfer)", "Denver Broncos", "2012 NRL season", "2004 Brisbane Broncos season", "North Queensland Cowboys", "Shaun Berrigan", "Cate Campbell", "Ergon Energy", "National Storage", "Hyperice", "Queensland Rugby League", "Coca-Cola", "Billy Noke", "NSWRL season 1993", "Queensland derby", "2019 NRL season", "Chris Walker (rugby league)", "Sydney Football Stadium (1988)", "2015 Brisbane Broncos season", "Jim Chalmers", "John Asiata", "1997 Super League (Australia) season", "Wynnum Manly Seagulls", "Amco Cup", "2022 Brisbane Broncos season", "Te Maire Martin", "2007 Brisbane Broncos season", "Australian Football League", "2016 NRL season", "1999 NRL season", "Kevin Walters", "2014 NRL season", "Tom Dearden", "Minor Premiership", "2017 Brisbane Broncos season", "Andrew Gee (rugby league)", "1990 Brisbane Broncos season", "Castlemaine XXXX", "Greg Eastwood", "WOW Sight & Sound", "1991 NSWRL season", "Israel Folau", "NSWRL season 1992", "ABC Radio Brisbane", "QTQ", "David Stagg", "Darren Smith (rugby league)", "Daniel Vidot", "Neville Costigan", "Warrington Wolves", "Steve Menzies", "2024 NRL season", "1997 World Club Challenge", "Tevita Pangai Junior", "Marnus Labuschagne", "Winfield Cup", "Arthur J. Gallagher & Co.", "St George Illawarra Dragons", "Herbie Farnworth", "Brodie Croft", "Queensland Sport and Athletics Centre", "News Corp Australia", "Manly Sea Eagles", "2020 NRL season", "Wally Lewis", "1990 NSWRL season", "The Canberra Times", "Newcastle Knights", "kangaroo", "World Gym", "St George Dragons", "Dane Carlaw", "Steve Renouf", "Penrith Panthers", "Josh McGuire", "2002 NRL season", "Australian Securities Exchange", "Craig Bellamy (rugby league)", "Elastoplast", "Kia Motors", "Patrick Rafter", "Trevor Gillmeister", "Ian Healy", "Brittany Breayley", "Ansett Australia", "New Zealand Warriors", "Don Walker (musician)", "Dami Im", "2003 NRL season", "New Era Cap Company", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Issac Luke", "Milton, Queensland", "Reece Walsh", "Poinsettia", "Adam Blair", "Petero Civoniceva", "2013 NRL season", "Brisbane Bullets", "Carl Webb", "Super League (Australia)", "NRL season 2000", "2023 NRL finals series", "Phalangeriformes", "2018 NRL Women's season", "Cameron Smith (golfer)", "Jack Bird", "Jharal Yow Yeh", "2015 NRL season", "Steven Miles", "Gold Coast Suns", "Tonie Carroll", "Caitlin Moran (rugby league)", "Lote Tuqiri (rugby, born 1979)", "Nike, Inc", "Sport in Queensland", "Gerard Beale", "2021 Brisbane Broncos season", "The Courier Mail", "1992 Brisbane Broncos season", "Brisbane Rugby League", "Tyrone Roberts", "Matt Gillett", "Jackson Hastings", "Barry Maranta", "2006 NRL Grand Final", "St Helens RFC", "Benji Marshall", "2020 Brisbane Broncos season", "Red Hill, Queensland", "The Mole (Australia season 3)", "ARL season 1995", "Karmichael Hunt", "Brisbane, Queensland", "Bulimba Cup (rugby league competition)", "2007 NRL season", "Keenan Palasia", "Tyson Gamble", "Panasonic Cup", "ISC (sportswear)", "Fullback (rugby league)", "Patty Mills", "Manly Warringah Sea Eagles", "Gold Coast-Tweed Giants", "Parramatta Eels", "2014 Brisbane Broncos season", "Wayne Goss", "Nine News Queensland", "1997 World Club Championship", "Australian Broadcasting Corporation", "William Hill (bookmaker)", "1982 Commonwealth Games", "South Sydney Rabbitohs", "2010 Brisbane Broncos season", "2011 NRL season", "Western Reds", "St. George Illawarra", "1994 NSWRL season", "Western Suburbs Magpies", "1998 Brisbane Broncos season", "alliteration", "Ryan James (rugby league)", "Tom Brady", "2005 Brisbane Broncos season", "Facebook", "PJ Marsh", "2018 Brisbane Broncos season", "1993 NSWRL season", "Led Zeppelin", "Lincoln Lewis", "Michael Ennis", "Fauna of Australia", "Strathfield (retailer)", "Jesse Arthars", "Mark Hunt", "Bernard Fanning", "Darren Lockyer", "Shane Walker (rugby league, born 1978)", "2005 NRL season", "1988 Winfield Cup", "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs", "2008 NRL season", "2012 Brisbane Broncos season", "NSWRL season 1991", "Corey Parker (rugby league)", "Australian Venue Co.", "Nike Inc", "Norths Devils", "Justin Hodges", "2019 Brisbane Broncos season", "Eastern Suburbs Roosters", "2011 US Open (tennis)", "Gold Coast Chargers", "David Taylor (rugby league)", "The X Factor (Australia season 5)", "Greg Inglis", "Lang Park", "Kia", "Steve Irwin", "Greg Dowling", "Andrew Fraser (Queensland politician)", "Canterbury Bulldogs", "golden point", "Willows Sports Complex", "2000 Brisbane Broncos season", "Tooheys Challenge Cup", "James Parsons (rugby union)", "Chris Johns (rugby league)", "Bronco", "Rick Price", "1994 Brisbane Broncos season", "Michael De Vere", "Jake Turpin", "2000 NRL season", "Ricky Stuart", "Chelsea Dagger", "Michael Morgan (rugby league, born 1991)", "1989 NSWRL season", "Wigan Warriors", "Anthony Griffin (rugby league)", "2025 NRL season", "Chris Lynn", "Denan Kemp", "Balmain Tigers", "Nike, Inc.", "2015 NRL Grand Final", "Joel Clinton", "Rugby league in Queensland", "Cameron Dick", "Darius Boyd", "Boating Camping and Fishing", "Sydney Roosters (NRLW)", "Danny Levi", "Asics", "Corey Jensen", "ABC News (Australia)", "Melbourne Storm", "Brent Tate", "1993 Brisbane Broncos season", "Paddle steamer", "Powers Brewing", "Bankwest Stadium", "Jai Arrow", "minor premiership", "Michael Maguire (rugby league)", "Xavier Coates", "Gorden Tallis", "Powerade", "Craig Grauf", "B105 FM", "Alex Glenn", "1998 NRL season", "David Mead (rugby league)", "NSW Waratahs", "Toowoomba Clydesdales", "Bryan Niebling", "Stadium Australia", "Sam Backo", "McDonald's", "Michael Hancock (rugby league)", "Mackenzie Arnold", "Nova 106.9", "2010 NRL season", "Sally Pearson", "Souths Logan Magpies", "Korbin Sims", "Sydney Cricket Ground", "South Queensland Crushers", "New South Wales Rugby League premiership", "Pierre Gasly", "James Roberts (rugby league)", "Australia national rugby league team", "Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles", "Greg Conescu", "Rugby Union", "Event Cinemas", "Samantha Stosur", "Halifax RLFC", "Kyle Feldt", "Star Entertainment Group", "Bradford Bulls", "Queensland Reds", "1996 ARL season", "2023 NRL Women's season", "Wayne Bennett (rugby league)", "Wendell Sailor", "1999 Brisbane Broncos season", "Sydney Roosters", "Super League War", "Wests Tigers", "North Sydney Bears", "2021 NRL season", "Keith Gee", "Corey Oates", "Brisbane Lions", "Carl Barron", "Shane Perry", "1996 Brisbane Broncos season", "Suncorp Stadium", "Allan Cann", "galah", "Johnathan Thurston", "Ivan Henjak", "Kurt Capewell", "Terry Matterson", "The Fratellis", "Super League (Australia) season 1997", "Yvonne Sampson", "Brisbane Broncos 1999", "St George-Illawarra Dragons", "Ben Ikin", "Gold Coast Titans", "Mark Hohn", "Pirtek", "John Ribot", "Kerrod Walters", "2004 NRL season", "Brisbane Broncos 1995", "2001 Brisbane Broncos season", "1988 Brisbane Broncos season", "1995 ARL season", "NRMA", "1991 Brisbane Broncos season", "2016 Brisbane Broncos season", "2006 Brisbane Broncos season", "Craig Lowndes", "Ben Te'o", "The Independent", "Georgie Tunny", "Payne Haas", "Cooktown Orchid", "Kashmir (song)", "NRL season 2006", "1992 World Club Challenge", "2025 NRL Pre-season Challenge", "Anthony Seibold", "1988 NSWRL season", "Allan Border", "Rhys Kennedy", "State of Origin series", "Paul Morgan (rugby league, died 2001)", "1989 Panasonic Cup (rugby league)", "Greater Western Sydney Giants", "Ashley Harrison", "2024 Brisbane Broncos season", "International Sports Clothing", "World Club Challenge", "2008 Brisbane Broncos season", "2009 NRL season", "Brett Le Man", "Gene Miles", "The Coffee Club", "1995 Brisbane Broncos season", "Hostplus", "Anthony Mundine", "2002 Brisbane Broncos season", "2013 Brisbane Broncos season", "2003 Brisbane Broncos season", "Rugby League World Sevens", "Ipswich Jets", "Kevin Rudd", "BTQ", "Brisbane Bears", "Patrick Carrigan", "kookaburra", "News Ltd", "2018 NRL season", "Cameron Smith (rugby league, born 1983)", "Todd Lowrie", "Albert Kelly", "Karl Stefanovic", "Brad Meyers", "Pan Macmillan", "Dolphins (NRL)", "Clive Churchill Medal", "supporters group", "Aspley Broncos", "Hull FC", "NRL season 1998", "Quentin Bryce", "Kodi Nikorima", "2006 NRL season", "NRL Women's Premiership", "Toyota", "XXXX Gold", "rugby league", "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks", "Joe Ofahengaue", "2023 NRL Grand Final", "Colin Scott (rugby league)", "Heather Ballinger", "Roy Morgan Research", "Queensland rugby league team", "2001 NRL season", "Power's Brewery", "1992 NSWRL season", "Huddersfield Giants", "Richard Kennar", "Ali Brigginshaw", "1997 Brisbane Broncos season", "The Australian", "Jason Taylor rugby league", "Katrina Gorry", "Ben Hunt (rugby league)", "Paul Dyer (rugby league)", "Manufacturers Mutual Insurance", "Peter Gentle", "Sam Thaiday", "2023 Brisbane Broncos season", "Redcliffe Dolphins", "James Segeyaro", "Brisbane City Council", "Martin Kennedy (rugby league)", "Matthew Lodge", "Adelaide Rams", "Josh Hoffman", "Four'n Twenty", "Andrew Symonds", "2022 NRL season", "2023 NRL season", "Makita", "Ladbrokes", "Jordan Pereira (rugby league)" ]
5,026	Brisbane Lions	The Brisbane Lions are a professional Australian rules football club based in Brisbane, Queensland, that compete in the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's elite competition. Brisbane are the reigning AFL premiers, having won the 2024 Grand Final by sixty points. The Lions came into existence in 1996 when the AFL expansion club the Brisbane Bears, established in 1987, absorbed the AFL operations of one of the league's foundation clubs, Fitzroy, established in Melbourne, Victoria in 1883. Its colours of maroon, blue, and gold were drawn from both Fitzroy and the Bears. The club plays its home matches at the Gabba in Brisbane, and its headquarters and training facilities are located at Springfield Central Stadium. The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 2000s, appearing in four consecutive grand finals from 2001 to 2004, a period in which they won three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003). They also finished runners-up in 2023, and won their fourth premiership in 2024. The Lions were a foundation team in the AFL Women's competition in 2017, and have featured in five grand finals in that time, winning the premiership in 2021 and again in 2023 also finishing runners-up on the other occasions. They also field a reserves men's team in the Victorian Football League, and operate an under-18s academy which contests Division 2 of the men's and women's underage national championships and the Talent League. ==History of Fitzroy Football Club pre-1996, and Brisbane Bears== ===Fitzroy Football Club=== The Melbourne-based Fitzroy Football Club was formed on 26 September 1883 at the Brunswick Hotel. The Victorian Football Association (VFA) made changes to their rules, allowing Fitzroy to join as the seventh club in 1884, playing in the maroon and blue colours of the local Normanby Junior Football Club. They quickly became one of the most successful clubs, consistently in the top four, and drawing large crowds to their home at the Brunswick Street Oval in Edinburgh Gardens. This success was capped off by Fitzroy winning the VFA premiership in 1895. Fitzroy then went on to be one of the eight break-away clubs who formed the Victorian Football League in 1897. They continued their VFA form and be a powerhouse in the early days of the new VFL, winning a total of eight premierships, of which seven (1898, 1899, 1904, 1905, 1913, 1916 and 1922) were won while they were nicknamed the Maroons, and one (1944) as the Gorillas. The club also boasted 6 Brownlow Medal winners who were Haydn Bunton Sr., Wilfred Smallhorn, Dinny Ryan, Allan Ruthven, Kevin Murray, and Bernie Quinlan. The club changed its nickname to the Lions in 1957, but when Fitzroy was evicted from its home ground of Brunswick St Oval in 1965, this began a sustained period of poor on-field performance and financial losses. Fitzroy entered one of the least successful periods any VFL/AFL club has had. The club finished in the bottom three 11 times in the 1960s and 1970s, including three wooden spoons in four years between 1963 and 1966. The club won only a single game between 1963 and 1964 – known as the Miracle Match when it defeated eventual premiers Geelong in Round 10, 1963 – but its 1964 season was winless, and as of 2023 stands as the only winless season by any club since 1950. Despite a revival in the '80s, when the Lions made the finals four times under the coaching of Robert Walls and David Parkin, and the playing group of 1981 Brownlow Medallist Bernie Quinlan, Ron Alexander, Garry Wilson, Gary Pert and Paul Roos, the club's financial situation was perilous. The VFL's plans to move or merge struggling Fitzroy to Brisbane pre-dated the Brisbane Bears, and negotiations between the league and the club began in 1986 with the playing group voting for a move to Brisbane. However, Fitzroy resisted the move despite significant incentives and in response, the VFL made the decision to cut any further financial assistance to the club. By the start of the 1996 season, they were almost at the end of their financial tether. With no home ground, back to back wooden spoons, and their future under a cloud, Fitzroy began to consider options for survival. ===Brisbane Bears (1987–1996)=== The Brisbane Bears were born in 1987 and initially played home matches at Carrara Stadium on the Gold Coast. In its early days, the club was uncompetitive on the field and struggled to shake the derisive tags which included "The Carrara Koalas" (in reference to the Gold Coast home and the somewhat tame marsupial) and "The Bad News Bears". After the collapse of the business empire belonging to Bears deputy chairman Christopher Skase and the resignation of chairman Paul Cronin, the club was taken over by the AFL and re-sold to Gold Coast hospitality businessman Reuben Pelerman. Off-field, Pelerman was losing millions of dollars annually on the club and at one point in 1991 told Bears coach Robert Walls that he was closing it down. The Bears finished last in 1990 and 1991. To survive, The Bears experimented with playing matches at the Gabba in Brisbane in 1991, moving all home matches to the venue ahead of the 1993 season. As part of the club's move to the Gabba, Pelerman agreed to release the Bears from private ownership and revert to a traditional club structure in which the club's members were able to elect the board. Membership and attendances instantly tripled now that the club was finally playing in their home city of Brisbane. === Brisbane Bears absorb Fitzroy's AFL operations, become Brisbane Lions=== Fitzroy's directors had agreed in principle to merge with the eventual 1996 premiers, North Melbourne, as the "North-Fitzroy Kangaroos". However, that proposal was rejected 15–1 by the club presidents, reportedly out of concern that an all-Victorian merge would be too powerful. Instead, Fitzroy was placed into administration, and its administrator accepted an offer to merge its AFL operations with Brisbane. The club became the Brisbane Bears-Fitzroy Football Club (trading as Brisbane Lions), remained at the Gabba, and were coached by Bears coach John Northey. However, the club's identity, logo, song, and guernsey were based on those of Fitzroy, three Fitzroy representatives served on the board, and the Lions kept an office in Melbourne. None of the Fitzroy representatives, former Fitzroy champion Laurie Serafini, David Lucas and Ken Levy, chosen to serve on Brisbane's board, were Fitzroy directors at that time. Eight Fitzroy players were allowed to be recruited to the Brisbane Lions outside of the normal draft or trade system. They were Brad Boyd, Chris Johnson, Jarrod Molloy, John Barker, Nick Carter, Simon Hawking, Scott Bamford and Shane Clayton. Fitzroy played its last VFL/AFL game on 1 September 1996 against Fremantle at Subiaco Oval, and the Bears' last match was a preliminary final on Saturday 21 September 1996 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against North Melbourne. The Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997. ==Brisbane Lions history== ===Beginnings: 1997–2000=== In 1997, the Lions narrowly made the finals, finishing eighth. They ended up with the same win–loss record as fellow 1997 newcomers Port Adelaide, who missed out due to having an inferior percentage. Their first two games were against the eventual grand finalists of that year, Adelaide and St Kilda. They went down to Adelaide by 36 points before recording an emphatic 97-point thrashing of St Kilda in round 2. The Lions met St Kilda again in a cut-throat away qualifying final, going down by 46 points after leading the Saints at half-time. The Brisbane Lions in 1997 remain the only team in VFL/AFL history to have made the finals in their first season. Despite a talented playing list, the disruption of the merger and injuries to key players Michael Voss and Brad Boyd took their toll. The Lions finished last at the end of the 1998 season. Accordingly, Northey was sacked as coach with eight rounds remaining in the season. During the off-season, the club hired Leigh Matthews, who in 1990 had delivered Collingwood its first premiership since 1958. Matthews, who was voted "Player of the Century" in 2000, played his entire career with Hawthorn and brought many of the Hawthorn disciplines to the Lions. Importantly, he forced the Lions to embrace and acknowledge their Fitzroy heritage with murals and records being erected at the Gabba, and past players names being placed on lockers. Within a year, the Lions rose from the bottom of the ladder to fourth. The 1999 season included a Round 20 Gabba match where the Lions led Fremantle by 113 points at half-time after having kicked 21 goals. Their half-time score of 21.5 (131) still remains the highest half-time score in VFL/AFL history. Brisbane won their first finals as a merged entity against Carlton and the Western Bulldogs before losing to the eventual premiers, the Kangaroos, in a 1999 preliminary final. The Lions played finals again in 2000 but bowed out in the second week after losing an away game to Carlton by 82 points. In this period the club drafted and recruited key players who went on to be pillars of the Lions triple premiership years. Victorian Luke Power, Fitzroy father–son selection Jonathan Brown, and exciting WA product Simon Black came via the draft, and Brad Scott, Mal Michael, and ex-Fitzroy B&F winner Martin Pike were recruited from Hawthorn, Collingwood, and North Melbourne respectively. === Triple premiership success: 2001–2004 === The Lions began 2001 by making the final of the Ansett Australia Cup, their first pre-season grand final. They went down by 85 points away to Port Adelaide, who they had also been scheduled to play in Round 1 at the same venue. After an inconsistent start to their 2001 season, the Lions took on the reigning premiers Essendon in Round 10. Brisbane finished as 28-point victors, and head coach Leigh Matthews famously used a Predator quote, "if it bleeds, we can kill it", to inspire his team for the game. The Lions then won 16 games straight, finishing the year undefeated and booking their place in the 2001 AFL Grand Final to play Essendon. Going in as underdogs, Brisbane started the game well, scoring the first goal of the match from a free kick awarded to Alastair Lynch for holding against Dustin Fletcher. Essendon fought back late in the first quarter and then took control of the game in the second term. The Lions' poor kicking for goal almost put them out of the game in the second quarter as Essendon blew their lead out to 20 points late in the term. However, The Lions managed to overrun Essendon in the third term, kicking six goals to one and turning a 14-point deficit into a 16-point lead. Brisbane's pace in the midfield and the tiring legs of most of the Essendon players played a pivotal role in them taking full control of the game in the second half. The Lions won their first premiership comfortably, with a final score of 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82). The win was topped off with Lions utility player Shaun Hart winning the Norm Smith Medal after being judged best on ground in the Grand Final. In 2002, the Lions won a club-record 17 games, spending most of the season firmly entrenched in the top two with Port Adelaide. They narrowly missed out on the minor premiership following a final round defeat to the Power in Adelaide. In the finals, the Lions claimed easy home victories over the two Adelaide-based teams on their way to a second consecutive Grand Final. They faced Collingwood, who had surprised many that year after having missed the finals the previous seven seasons. Brisbane ended up defeating the Magpies 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Early in the contest, the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench. In 2003, the Lions became the first team in the national era to win three consecutive premierships. With a number of players under an injury cloud—and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously–the Lions went into the game as underdogs. However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions. At one stage in the final quarter, the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals. The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) During their premiership years, the club took the premiership cups to Brunswick Street Oval, Fitzroy, the home of the Fitzroy Football Club, each morning after the grand final. Honouring Fitzroy's history at their traditional home ground was seen as an important way of connecting with the Melbourne-based Fitzroy supporters who'd chosen to support the Brisbane Lions. This tradition was continued for the 2024 premiership triumph, and fan days were also held for the 2004 and 2023 grand final loses. The 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season. Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG. Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide. Former player Jason Akermanis has since claimed that coach Leigh Matthews was furious over the preliminary final location decision. Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the grand final for the fourth consecutive year. Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win in what was the first-ever all-non-Victorian grand final. The grand final is partly remembered for a wild punch-up between Port Adelaide's Darryl Wakelin and Alastair Lynch, who was playing in his last ever game and therefore immune from suspension. === Rebuild and Michael Voss: 2005–2013 === The Lions endured a slow start to the 2005 season before having a form reversal towards the end of the year, which included ten-goal thrashings of top-four contenders Geelong and Melbourne. Going into Round 20, they were half a game clear inside the top eight and had one of the strongest percentages in the league. However, they lost their final three games and miss the finals, with their season culminating in a record-breaking 139-point loss to St Kilda at the Telstra Dome. It remains the club's heaviest defeat, in addition to being the largest victory in the over-100-year history of St Kilda. Some believed that the St Kilda game, rather than the 2004 Grand Final, had signaled the end of Brisbane's triple premiership dynasty. The Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries plagued the club as they again missed the finals, with Brisbane's players recording an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season. The Brisbane Lions' 2007 season started with them finishing runners-up to Carlton in the 2007 NAB Cup Grand Final. The Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year, again showing promising glimpses at stages, with a shock away win against reigning premiers the West Coast Eagles, and a 93-point hiding of finalists Collingwood at the MCG. They made history in 2007 by becoming the first club in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains. The team struggled during the 2008 season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games. Following the season, Coach Leigh Matthews resigned after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club. The Lions appointed former player and Captain Michael Voss as the coach ahead of 2009. After only winning 2 games from the first 5 played in 2009, the club won 9 of the next 12 to sit in 6th on the ladder, where they finished the season. They also recorded a strong victory over eventual premiers Geelong during this timeframe by 43 points. The club beat Carlton in their Elimination Final, coming from 30 points behind in the final quarter to win by 7 points, before losing to the Western Bulldogs in a Semi Final. The 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, with a belief in the club that Fevola could help them capitalise and improve upon their strong 2009 season. Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they only won three more games after that, to finish 13th by the end of the season. The Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations. On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year and finished 15th overall. The 2011 season saw the debut of another Queensland-based team, the Gold Coast Suns. The Suns, who were coming off a 139-point loss to Essendon the previous week, upset the Lions by 8 points in their first encounter. Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future. Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership-winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown. The 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground. However, the club began its 2013 season with back-to-back losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide. Injuries took a toll on the team, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries. In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match, in what became known as the Miracle on Grass. On 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told his contract would not be renewed. On 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions Hall of Famer Simon Black announced his retirement. === Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 === On 25 August 2013, a former premiership player for the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed as the senior coach of the Lions for the next three seasons. During Round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants. He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground. He suffered a concussion and subsequently retired from football. His retirement, alongside the retirement of Ash McGrath, meant there were no players from the triple-premiership era remaining at the club. On 29 August 2016, just one day after the end of the club's season, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions after multiple disappointing seasons, despite being granted a one-year contract extension at the start of the year which would have seen him remain at the club until the end of the 2017 season. === Building under Chris Fagan: 2017–2022=== On 4 October 2016, Hawthorn football manager Chris Fagan was announced as Brisbane's senior coach from the 2017 season onwards. The Lions claimed the 2017 wooden spoon, despite winning 5 games for the season, 2 more than the previous season. Their percentage of 74.3 was the worst in the league, behind Fremantle with a percentage of 74.4. The 2018 season was very similar, recording 5 wins to finish in 15th place, but multiple close losses showed signs of a young team about to breakout into finals contention. The Lions had a dramatically improved 2019 season, making the finals for the first time since 2009 and finishing second on the AFL ladder with 16 wins, behind minor premiers Geelong on percentage. However, Brisbane were bundled out of the finals in straight sets at the Gabba, losing to eventual premiers Richmond by 47 points in their qualifying final and then to eventual runners-up Greater Western Sydney by three points in their semi-final due to a late Brent Daniels goal. The Lions became the first team since Geelong in 1997 to finish second on the ladder and not progress to a preliminary final. Brisbane repeated their form displayed in 2019 the following year, once again finishing second on percentage at the conclusion of the home-and-away season, which, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, was mostly played in south-east Queensland. They won 14 games in a shortened 17-game season. During their qualifying final, they defeated Richmond for the first time since 2009 and qualified for a preliminary final berth, but were beaten by a more experienced Geelong side in that match, thus missing out on the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to play for a premiership in their own Gabba backyard. After an inconsistent start to the 2021 season the Lions hit form, winning seven straight games to sit in the top four for most of the year. However, losses to Melbourne, Richmond, Hawthorn and St Kilda meant the Lions sat in fifth as of the final round. With the double chance on the line, the Lions regained fourth spot in the dying seconds of their final home-and-away game against West Coast. A behind kicked by Lincoln McCarthy put them ahead of the fourth-placed Bulldogs by a single point of ladder percentage, and a goal after the siren from Charlie Cameron then sealed the result for the Lions, who finished in the top four for the third year running under Chris Fagan. However, the Lions bowed out in straight sets for the second time in three years after suffering losses to eventual premiers Melbourne and eventual runners-up Western Bulldogs in the finals, with the latter winning by a single point, due to a contentious free kick paid to the Bulldogs in the final seconds of the game. Brisbane reached the finals once again in 2022, but this time missed the top four. With a win-loss record of fifteen wins and seven losses, the Lions finished sixth and hosted seventh-placed Richmond at the Gabba in an Elimination Final. After a close game which had 17 lead changes, the Lions prevailed, defeating the Tigers by a margin of two points in a 106–104 victory thanks to a late Joe Daniher goal. The Lions then played the Melbourne Demons in the Semi-Final, and upset the reigning premiers against all odds, bundling them out in straight sets with a score of 92–79 to progress to their second Preliminary Final under Fagan, taking on Geelong once again in a rematch of the 2020 Preliminary Final. Unfortunately for Brisbane, their impressive finals run came to an end against the Cats, suffering a 71-point defeat in the First Preliminary Final that ended their 2022 season. === Back-to-back grand final appearances under Fagan, 2024 premiers: 2023–present === Brisbane reinforced their squad with multiple star signings in the off-season, such as gun midfielder Josh Dunkley, tall forward Jack Gunston and father–son draftee Will Ashcroft, to make them one of the competition's flag favourites for the 2023 AFL season. Additionally, Fagan also penned a two-year contract extension to keep him at the club until 2025, with Lachie Neale and Harris Andrews also taking over as co-captains from long-serving Lions veteran Dayne Zorko, who stepped down before the commencement of the 2023 season. Brisbane finished the 2023 Home & Away season in second position, finishing in the Top 2 for the third time under Fagan after previously doing so in 2019 and 2020, and finishing in the Top 4 for the fourth time after also doing so in 2021. They faced Port Adelaide in the Second Qualifying Final on the 9th of September at the Gabba, beating the Power by 48 points and going straight through to a home preliminary final, their third under Fagan, where they faced Carlton on the 23rd of September for a place in the 2023 AFL Grand Final. After conceding the first five goals, The Lions fought back, prevailing by 16 points over the Blues to progress to the AFL Grand Final for the first time since 2004. This meant that they faced Collingwood, exactly 20 years on since they faced the Magpies in the 2003 Grand Final and completed the historic three-peat. The Lions fell short of the premiership in 2023, losing to the Magpies in an extremely close Grand Final with a final score of 12.18.(90) to 13.8.(86). The Lions had a rough start to the 2024 season, starting 2–5 and suffering multiple season-ending injuries to best-23 players, and sitting in 13th by the conclusion of Round 13. However, the Lions would rally post-bye, at one stage stringing together a nine-game win streak and sitting as high as second on the ladder. The Lions would eventually finish fifth on the ladder with a home and away record of 14–8–1, qualifying for finals for the sixth successive season and locking in a home Elimination Final at the Gabba against Carlton, who they defeated 14.15.(99) to 11.5.(71) to progress to the second week of finals, where they met Greater Western Sydney in an away Semi-Final. The Lions made history against the Giants in the Semi-Final, after trailing by as much as 44 points midway through the third quarter and still managing to prevail, defeating the Giants 15.15. (105) to 15.10. (100) to record one of the biggest finals comebacks of all time. Their victory meant that they progressed to their fourth Preliminary Final under Fagan, facing Geelong in a Preliminary Final at the MCG. The Lions came back from a 25 point deficit to defeat the Cats 14.11. (95) to 12.13. (85) to progress to their second straight Grand Final under Fagan. The Lions faced off against Sydney in the 2024 AFL Grand Final, thumping the Swans with a score of 18.12. (120) to 9.6. (60), avenging their loss in 2023 and claiming the club's first premiership since 2003. The Lions became the second side under the current finals system to win the premiership from outside the Top Four, after the Western Bulldogs in 2016. Will Ashcroft claimed the Norm Smith Medal as the best afield, winning the award at the age of 20, the second youngest player to do so in VFL/AFL history, after Carlton's Wayne Harmes in the 1979 VFL Grand Final, who was 19 at the time. == Membership base and sponsorship == Crowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final. The club still maintains healthy Victorian support, and The Royal Derby Hotel in Fitzroy is the official social venue for Victorian Lions fans, showing all televised games, and displaying a mural of club greats Kevin Murray, Jonathan Brown, and Chris Johnson on its Alexandra Parade side. To add to this presence in Melbourne, the Lions Historical Society is based at Etihad Stadium, containing exhibits from Fitzroy, the Bears, and the Brisbane Lions. A 2000 Roy Morgan AFL survey of household incomes suggested that Brisbane Lions supporters were among the lowest-earning supporters in the league. Statistics highlighted in bold denote the best known season for Brisbane in that category Statistics highlighted in italic denote the worst known season for Brisbane in that category ===Non-playing/coaching staff=== ===Sponsorship=== ====AFL==== ====AFL Women's==== ==Relationship with the Fitzroy Football Club== The Fitzroy Football Club came out of administration in 1998. For a brief time, it experimented in partnerships with other semi-professional and amateur clubs before incorporating the Fitzroy Reds in 2009 to play in the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA). Fitzroy largely resumed its original VFL/AFL identity playing in the VAFA through its continued use of its 1975–1996 VFL/AFL jumper, its club song, and its 1884–1966 home ground at the Brunswick Street Oval. The goal was to not only maintain a strong presence in Melbourne for Victorian-based Fitzroy/Brisbane Lions supporters, but to also provide for the Fitzroy supporters who chose not to support Brisbane in the AFL. This was all done with the full support of the Brisbane Lions. Fitzroy Football Club improved its relationship with the Brisbane Lions in the ten years from 1999 to 2009. In that time Brisbane have used the letters BBFFC printed below the back of the neck of the club's guernseys from 2002 onwards, in line with Brisbane's official name. Fitzroy played the curtain-raiser at the MCG when the Brisbane Lions met in the AFL Heritage Round fixture in 2003. Brisbane also now wears a version of the Fitzroy guernsey, with red instead of maroon, for most AFL matches in Victoria and other states. Relationships between Fitzroy and Brisbane became strained in 2009, when Brisbane announced that it was adopting a new club logo. The Fitzroy Football Club argued this decision contravened Section 7.2 (c) of the Deed of Arrangement between Fitzroy and Brisbane when the two entities merged in 1996. The new logo, featuring a forward-facing lion's head, replaced the former Fitzroy logo of a passant lion with a football. The new logo was placed onto the club's home jumper and was mockingly referred to as 'The Paddlepop Lion', proving to be deeply unpopular among Lions fans who demanded it be changed back to the traditional Fitzroy passant Lion. On 22 December 2009, Fitzroy lodged a Statement of Claim in the Supreme Court of Victoria, seeking an order that the Brisbane Lions be restrained from using as its logo, the new logo or any other logo other than 'the Fitzroy lion logo', in line with Brisbane's legal obligations as specified in the Deed of Arrangement, including their obligation to use the Fitzroy logo in perpetuity. On 15 July 2010, the two clubs reached a settlement, agreeing that the Fitzroy logo symbolically represents the historic deal between Brisbane and Fitzroy, and represents the Brisbane Lions in the AFL. Fitzroy agreed to a compromise whereby Brisbane would use both the old and new logos alongside each other in an official capacity for the next 14 years on all official club stationery and club publications, as well as the Lions' official website for seven years. After immense pressure from both Lions and Fitzroy fans, Brisbane returned to using the old passant lion logo on its playing guernseys from 2015 onwards, but the new lion remained as the club's official logo. The Brisbane Lions have since renewed and maintained strong ties with the Fitzroy Football Club in the VAFA and the Fitzroy junior football club. The Brisbane Lions sponsor a male and female Fitzroy player each year, conduct coaching workshops for Fitzroy, frequently invite the Fitzroy juniors to form a guard of honour for Victorian games, and have had many Fitzroy past players and representatives as elected board members. ==Club identity== ===Emblem=== In 1997, the club unveiled its new emblem, consisting of the golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge of Maroon and Blue. The club used this emblem from 1997 until the end of 2000. In 2001, the club unveiled a new emblem in the shape of a football, emblazoned with the words "Brisbane Lions" and with the Fitzroy Lion located within the "o" of Lions, and the last of the club logos to have the AFL logo on it & this emblem was used until 2009, when the emblem was again changed, this time in favour of a forward-facing Lion head. === Guernseys === Home Guernsey (worn 1997–2009 and since 2015): Predominantly maroon guernsey with a blue yoke featuring a golden Fitzroy Lion, with a gold collar and cuffs. For shorts, maroon home shorts are worn in home games including the away match against the Swans at the SCG, while the white shorts are worn with the guernsey in the AFL Grand Final, only if the Lions were to played as the away team. Away Guernsey (worn 2008–2009 and since 2015): Predominantly red guernsey with a blue yoke featuring a golden Fitzroy lion, with a blue collar and cuffs, and based on Fitzroy's final colours in the AFL. White away shorts are worn when this guernsey is used and played predominantly in matches except against the Suns, Giants and the Swans. Clash Guernsey (worn since 2023): This predominantly gold guernsey features a maroon Fitzroy lion on a gold background (reminiscent of the Bears' first guernsey), with a maroon yoke and golden cuffs, only to be worn if playing against both the Suns and the Giants. The same shorts as the Away Guernsey are worn. ===Mascot=== The Lions' Mascot Manor representative and club mascot was Bernie "Gabba" Vegas until 2015 when Roy the Lion (named Roy after the nickname for Fitzroy fans) replaced him as mascot. In 2021 the club unveiled their Lioness mascot Auroara. ===Song=== The club's team song, "The Pride of Brisbane Town", is based on the Fitzroy Football Club song written by ex-Fitzroy player Bill Stephen, and is sung to the music of "La Marseillaise", the French national anthem. ===Training base=== Between 1997 and 2022, the club trained out of the Gabba during the football season. The club's administrative and indoor training facilities were also located in the stadium. Due to the cricket season in the summer which is during the off-season for the Lions, the club was required to train at alternative locations over the years, this has included the University of Queensland campus, Leyshon Park in Yeronga, Giffin Park in Coorparoo, Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex in Burpengary and elsewhere, meaning the club lacked a dedicated and permanent home year-round. In 2020 the club announced that it would move its training and administrative facilities into Springfield Central Stadium (known for ground-sponsorship purposes as Brighton Homes Arena), an 8,000-capacity high-class facility in Ipswich that enables the club to base itself in the single location and play reserve-grade and AFLW matches at the one location. The Lions moved into the facility in October 2022. ==Rivalries== ===Collingwood=== Pre-1996, Fitzroy and Collingwood were fierce local rivals for over 100 years, sharing a suburban boundary down Smith Street, Melbourne, meeting in the 1905 and 1922 grand finals (both won by Fitzroy), and both clubs topping the premiership tally in the early days of the VFL. The bad blood between The Bears and Collingwood began in 1993 after top draft pick Nathan Buckley walked out on them and went to the Magpies after playing only a single season in Brisbane. Buckley was adamant that the move was the right career direction, with the belief he had more chance of winning a premiership elsewhere. However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies was properly ignited in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park. The Lions emerged 42 point victors that day and consigned the Magpies to their second wooden spoon in their VFL/AFL history. The rivalry between the two clubs peaked in the early 2000s, as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions. The two clubs clashed once again in the 2023 Grand Final, 20 years on from their 2003 contest, with the Magpies emerging as the victors this time. ===Gold Coast Suns=== The Brisbane Lions have a rivalry with fellow Queensland AFL team the Gold Coast Suns. The two teams contest the QClash twice each season. The first QClash was held in 2011, with the game establishing the highest pay TV audience ever for an AFL game, with a total of 354,745 viewers watching the game. The medal for the player adjudged best on ground is known as the Marcus Ashcroft Medal. It is named after former footballer Marcus Ashcroft, who played junior football on the Gold Coast for Southport and 318 VFL/AFL games for the Brisbane Bears/Lions between 1989 and 2003. He later joined Gold Coast's coaching staff and was the first Queenslander to play 300 VFL/AFL games. Sun Touk Miller has won the medal four times, the most by any player. The trophy awarded to the winner of the game is currently known as the "QClash Trophy". The trophy is a "traditional style" looking silver cup with a wooden base and a plaque. The plaque's inscription reads from left to right, "Brisbane Lions AFC", "QCLASH", "Gold Coast Suns FC". ===Port Adelaide=== The Port Adelaide Football Club entered the AFL in 1997 after Fitzroy's AFL operations were merged with Brisbane. Supporters of Fitzroy and the Brisbane Bears were aggrieved about Port's entry having taken place under these circumstances. In their early days, the two clubs could not be separated and had multiple close encounters, with a draw in two of their first three meetings. Between 2001 and 2004, the clubs met each other in the 2001 Ansett Australia Cup Grand Final, a 2001 qualifying final, a 2002 preliminary final and the 2004 Grand Final. Other notable encounters from this period include a round 22 match in 2002 to determine the minor premiership that year, ====Hall of Fame==== =====Legends===== ===Season summaries=== Statistics highlighted in bold denote the best known season for Brisbane in that category Statistics highlighted in italic denote the worst known season for Brisbane in that category ==AFL Women's team== In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017. The Brisbane Lions were granted a licence on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season. Tayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016. A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period. Emma Zielke captained the team for their inaugural season. Former Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016. The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach. Car company Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, sponsored the team in 2017. The Lions have been a successful team in the AFLW, reaching the finals in six of the first seven seasons. They narrowly lost grand finals in 2017, 2018, and 2022 (S7), and only missed out on finals in 2019. Due to a shortened 2020 season, the Lions played a Qualifying Final against Carlton before the season was prematurely ended due to COVID border restrictions. No premiership was awarded in 2020. In 2021 the team finally broke through to win their first premiership by defeating arch-rival Adelaide in the grand final. In 2023 the Lions took out their second premiership by defeating North Melbourne at IKON Park by 17 points. Captain Breanna Koenen was adjudged best afield for her performance in the grand final. The team plays their home games at Springfield Central Stadium in Ipswich. ===Current squad=== ===Non-playing/coaching staff=== ===Season summaries=== ==Brisbane Lions Academy== The Brisbane Lions Academy consists of the club's junior development signings. It was formed in 2010 as one of four Northern AFL Academies including the Gold Coast Suns Academy, Sydney Swans Academy and GWS Giants Academy. 28 staff (including 3 full time) manage 220 selected underage players from age 12 up. The men's and women's U16 and U18 teams have contested Division 2 of the men's and women's underage championships since 2017. The Under 16 women's was crowned inaugural champions in 2023. The Lions Academy also joined the Talent League in 2019. ===Notable members=== Past academy members include the Brisbane Lions senior men's AFL players Harris Andrews, Eric Hipwood, Keidean Coleman, Jack Payne, Jaspa Fletcher and Matthew Hammelmann. It also includes players who went on to other clubs : Mabior Chol, Noah Cumberland, Wylie Buzza, Samson Ryan, Ben Keays, and Will Martyn. Academy members who went on to excel in other sports include Kalyn Ponga and Corey Horsburgh. Notable female academy players include Brisbane Lions senior AFLW players Mikayla Pauga, Sophie Conway, Belle Dawes, Gabby Collingwood, Nat Grider, Tahlia Hickie, Jade Ellenger, Lily Postlethwaite, Luka Yoshida-Martin and Charlotte Mullins. Players who went on to other clubs include: Jesse Wardlaw, Zimmorlei Farquharson and Jacqui Yorston. ==Activism== ===Same Sex Marriage=== During the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, Brisbane Lions supported the Yes vote.	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5,030	Bloody Sunday (1972)	Bloody Sunday, or the Bogside Massacre, All of those shot were Catholics. The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) to protest against internment without trial. The soldiers were from the 1st Battalion of the Parachute Regiment ("1 Para"), the same battalion implicated in the Ballymurphy massacre several months before. Two investigations were held by the Government of the United Kingdom. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the aftermath, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame. It described some of the soldiers' shooting as "bordering on the reckless", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers. The report was widely criticised as a "whitewash". The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident much more thoroughly. Following a twelve-year investigation, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were "unjustified" and "unjustifiable". It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown and that soldiers "knowingly put forward false accounts" to justify their firing. The soldiers denied shooting the named victims but also denied shooting anyone by mistake. On publication of the report, British Prime Minister David Cameron formally apologised. Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings. One former soldier was charged with murder, but the case was dropped two years later when evidence was deemed inadmissible. Following an appeal by the families of the victims, the Public Prosecution Service resumed the prosecution. Bloody Sunday came to be regarded as one of the most significant events of the Troubles because so many civilians were killed by forces of the state, in view of the public and the press. It was the highest number of people killed in a shooting incident during the conflict and is considered the worst mass shooting in Northern Irish history. Bloody Sunday fuelled Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility to the British Army and worsened the conflict. Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose, and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally. The Republic of Ireland held a national day of mourning, and huge crowds besieged and burnt down the chancery of the British Embassy in Dublin. ==Background== The City of Derry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as "fifty years of Unionist misrule": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority. The city was perceived to be deprived of public investment: motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the smaller (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry (see University for Derry Committee) and, above all, the city's housing stock was in a generally poor state. Derry therefore became a major focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s. It was the scene of the major riot known as Battle of the Bogside in August 1969, which pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support. While many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force – in contrast to the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), which was regarded as a sectarian police force – relations between them soon deteriorated. In response to rising levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. There was disorder across the region following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of violence. In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead eleven civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy massacre. A month after internment was introduced, a British soldier shot dead a 14-year-old Catholic schoolgirl, Annette McGavigan, in Derry. Two months later, Kathleen Thompson, a 47-year-old mother of six, was shot dead in her back garden in Derry by the British Army. IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland, with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, which also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, sixteen of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. Four days later, in defiance of the ban, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry. Protesters marched to an internment camp but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment. When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges. The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers. These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press. Some in the British Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers. NICRA intended to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on 30 January. The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Bogside, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers, to avoid rioting. Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest rioters. The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'. The Saville Report criticised Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had "a reputation for using excessive physical violence". March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA members would be near the march, although Tony Geraghty wrote that some of the stewards were probably IRA members. ==Events of the day== The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions. Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks. He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para. He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who would launch the arrest operation. The protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall in the city centre, where they would hold a rally. The march set off at about 2:45p.m. There were 10,000–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route. Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000. The march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers. The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead. However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers. The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannons. Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was no more violent than usual. Some of the crowd spotted paratroopers occupying a derelict three-story building overlooking William Street and began throwing stones up at the windows. At about 3:55p.m., these paratroopers opened fire. The civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building. These were the first shots fired. The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed. At 4:07p.m., the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters. The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside. Two people were knocked down by the vehicles. MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street. Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers. There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse. The Saville Report agreed that soldiers "used excessive force when arresting people […] as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody". One group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street. There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but were not near enough to hit them. The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh. A large group fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats. This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats. The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others. This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back. Another group fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also surrounded by flats. Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about away. Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded. The Saville Report says it is probable that at least one soldier fired randomly at the crowd from the hip. The paratroopers went through the car park and out the other side. Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians. The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two. About ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot. More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers. No warnings were given before soldiers opened fire. ===Casualties=== In all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed. John Young, age 17. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash. The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F'. testified at the Saville Inquiry that he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot. The Inquiry concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot; but that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot, and was not shot because he had bombs. "He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers".]] Patrick Doherty, age 31. Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats. The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F', who came out of Glenfada Park. Bernard "Barney" McGuigan, age 41. Shot in the back of the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions. Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. Apart from the soldiers, all eyewitnesses—including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present—maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those helping the wounded. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or bombs, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims. Bernadette Devlin, the independent Irish socialist republican Member of Parliament (MP) for Mid Ulster, slapped Maudling for his comments, and was temporarily suspended from Parliament. Having seen the shootings firsthand, she was infuriated that the Speaker of the House of Commons, Selwyn Lloyd, repeatedly denied her the chance to speak about it in Parliament, although convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be allowed to do so. On Wednesday 2 February 1972, tens of thousands attended the funerals of eleven of the victims. Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic, while schools closed and public transport stopped running. Large crowds had besieged the chancery of the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin, and embassy staff had been evacuated. That Wednesday, tens of thousands of protesters marched to the chancery and thirteen symbolic coffins were placed outside the entrance. The Union Jack was burnt and the building was attacked with stones and petrol bombs. The outnumbered Gardaí tried to push back the crowd, but the building was burnt down. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland conflict. Kieran Conway, the head of the IRA's intelligence-gathering department for a period in the 1970s, stated in his memoir that after the massacre, the IRA Southern Command in Dublin received up to 200 applications from Southern Irish citizens to fight the British. Harold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland. On 22 February 1972, the Official IRA attempted to retaliate for Bloody Sunday by detonating a car bomb at Aldershot military barracks, headquarters of 16th Parachute Brigade, killing seven ancillary staff. At the end of 1972, Wilford, who was directly in charge of the soldiers involved in Bloody Sunday and Shankill, was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). ==Widgery Inquiry== Two days after Bloody Sunday, the British Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the shootings, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but many were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within ten weeks (on 10 April) and published within eleven weeks (on 19 April)—supported the British Army's account of the events of the day. It stated that the soldiers returned fire at gunmen and bomb-throwers.}} Widgery held the march organisers responsible, concluding "There would have been no deaths [...] if those who organised the illegal march had not thereby created a highly dangerous situation". The Saville Inquiry also trawled classified documents and found no evidence of such a plan, but said "It is of course possible for plans to be hatched in secret and kept out of documents". Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash, the slogan, "Widgery washes whiter" – a play on the contemporary advertisement for Daz soap powder – emblazoned on walls in Derry, crystallised the views of many nationalists about the report. In 1992, British Prime Minister John Major, replying to John Hume's request for a new public inquiry, stated: "The Government made clear in 1974 that those who were killed on 'Bloody Sunday' should be regarded as innocent of any allegation that they were shot whilst handling firearms or explosives". Major was succeeded by Tony Blair. Blair's chief aide, Jonathan Powell, later described Widgery as a "complete and utter whitewash". ==Saville Inquiry== In 1998, during the latter stages of the Northern Ireland peace process, Prime Minister Blair agreed to hold a public inquiry into Bloody Sunday. The inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in April 1998. The other judges were John Toohey, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and William Hoyt, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The inquiry heard testimony at the Guildhall in Derry from March 2000 until November 2004. Colonel Wilford expressed anger at the decision to hold the inquiry and said he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday. Two years later, in 2000, Wilford said: "There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed. But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act. It was done as an act of war." In 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: "I have no doubt that innocent people were shot." This was in contrast to his insistence, for more than thirty years, that those killed had not been innocent. One former paratrooper testified that a lieutenant told them the night before Bloody Sunday: "Let's teach these buggers a lesson - we want some kills tomorrow". He did not see anyone with a weapon nor hear any explosions, and said some fellow soldiers were thrilled and were shooting out of bravado or frustration. Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence (MoD) acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 Army photographs and original Army helicopter video footage were never made available. Furthermore, guns used by the soldiers on Bloody Sunday, which could have been evidence in the inquiry, were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed all the guns had been destroyed, but some were later recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction. By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the 2010 general election. ===Report=== The report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010. It concluded, "The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury." It stated that British paratroopers "lost control", shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to help the wounded. Contrary to the soldiers' claims, the report concluded that the victims were unarmed, and no nail bombs or petrol bombs were thrown. "None of them fired in response to attacks or threatened attacks by nail or petrol bombers." The report stated that soldiers lied to hide their acts. The inquiry concluded that an Official IRA sniper, positioned in a block of flats, fired one round at British soldiers, who were at the Presbyterian church on the other side of William Street. The bullet missed the soldiers and hit a drainpipe. The inquiry concluded that it was fired shortly after the British soldiers had shot Damien Donaghy and John Johnston in this area. It rejected the sniper's account that he fired in reprisal, concluding that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position and probably fired simply because the opportunity presented itself. The inquiry also concluded an Official IRA member fired a handgun at a British APC from behind a gable wall near Rossville Flats, but there is no evidence the soldiers noticed this. The IRA member said he fired three rounds in anger after seeing civilians shot. He was seen by Father Edward Daly and others, who shouted at him to stop. Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, stated in his testimony that he was second-in-command of the Provisional IRA Derry Brigade and was at the march. Regarding the soldiers in charge on Bloody Sunday, the inquiry arrived at the following findings: Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for the arrest operation. Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior, Brigadier Patrick MacLellan, by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan). Cleared of sinister actions for compiling the "Loden List of Engagements". This was a brief account of what soldiers told Major Loden about why they had fired. This list played a role in the Army's initial explanations. The list did not include soldiers' names. Jackson told the inquiry it was simply a record of shots fired, not an investigative document. While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', it accepted Jackson's explanations. a Lance Corporal referred to as "Soldier F" was found responsible for five of the killings on Bloody Sunday. Reporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, British Prime Minister David Cameron said: Cameron added: "You do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible." He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed and that a British soldier had fired the first shots at civilians. He also said that this was not premeditated, though "there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate" as "what happened should never, ever have happened". Cameron apologised on behalf of the British Government, saying he was "deeply sorry". A survey by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology. Stephen Pollard, a solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said the report had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for its findings. ==Murder charges== Following the publication of the Saville Report, a murder investigation was begun by the Police Service of Northern Ireland's Legacy Investigation Branch. On 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment, referred to as "Soldier J" in the Saville Report, was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young. He was released on bail shortly after. The Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland announced in March 2019 that there was enough evidence to prosecute "Soldier F" for the murders of James Wray and William McKinney, both of whom were shot in the back. He was also charged with four attempted murders. The Saville Inquiry concluded, based on the evidence, that "Soldier F" also killed Michael Kelly, Patrick Doherty and Barney McGuigan, but evidence from the inquiry was inadmissible to the prosecution and "the only evidence capable of identifying the soldier who fired the relevant shots came from "Soldier F"'s co-accused, "Soldier G", who is deceased". Relatives of the Bloody Sunday victims expressed dismay that only one soldier would face trial for some of the killings. In September 2020, it was ruled that there would be no charges against any other soldiers. The victims' relatives were supported by Irish nationalist political representatives. "Soldier F" received support from some Ulster loyalists and from the group Justice for Northern Ireland Veterans. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) called for former British soldiers to be given immunity from prosecution. Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) leader and former soldier, Doug Beattie, said that if soldiers "went outside the law, then they have to face the law". In July 2021, the Public Prosecution Service decided it would no longer prosecute "Soldier F" because statements from 1972 were deemed inadmissible as evidence. On 17 July Village magazine published the identity of "Soldier F" and some pictures of him at the time of the massacre. In March 2022, the High Court overturned the decision not to press charges against "Soldier F" following an appeal by the family of William McKinney and ordered the Public Prosecution Service to reconsider the case. The PPS subsequently appealed the court's decision to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, but permission to appeal was refused that September and the PPS were forced to continue with the prosecution. On 24 January 2023 the case against "Soldier F" was resumed at Derry Magistrate's Court. Following an adjournment, the case resumed on 26 May 2023. On 25 August 2023 Judge Ted Magill ruled that five statements given to the Widgery Report implicating "Soldier F" could be used as evidence at trial. In December 2023, an evidentiary hearing was held to decide whether or not to proceed to trial. Judge Magill ruled that "Soldier F" should face trial at Belfast Crown Court. The soldier appeared in court for the first time on 14 June 2024. In December 2024, "Soldier F" pleaded not guilty to two charges of murder and five of attempted murder after Judge Mr. Justice Fowler overruled attempts by the soldier's lawyers to have the case dismissed. The trial has been scheduled to begin on 15 September 2025. ==Impact on Northern Ireland divisions== When it was first deployed on duty in Northern Ireland during the 1969 Northern Ireland riots, the British Army was welcomed by many Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant loyalist mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British Army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to armed republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected youth. In the following twenty years, the Provisional IRA and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it. With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the republican and loyalist communities (such as the UDA, Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc. on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people. In 1979, the Provisional IRA killed 18 British soldiers in the Warrenpoint ambush, most of them paratroopers. This happened the same day the IRA assassinated Lord Mountbatten. Republicans portrayed the attack as belated retaliation for Bloody Sunday, with graffiti declaring "13 gone and not forgotten, we got 18 and Mountbatten". In 2012 a serving British soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred, due to their use of online social media to post sectarian slurs about the killings along with banners of the Parachute Regiment. In recent years, Parachute Regiment flags have been erected by some loyalists around the time of the Bloody Sunday anniversaries. In January 2013, shortly before the yearly Bloody Sunday remembrance march, several Parachute Regiment flags were flown in loyalist areas of Derry. The flying of the flags was condemned by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead. The MoD also condemned the flying of the flags. The flags were replaced by Union Jacks. Later that year, the Parachute Regiment flag was flown alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland. In 2014, loyalists erected the flags near the route of a Saint Patrick's Day parade in Cookstown. ==Artistic reaction== Paul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident. The single, entitled "Give Ireland Back to the Irish", expressed his views on the matter. This song was one of few McCartney released with Wings to be banned by the BBC. In March 1972, Irish traditional group Paddywagon released "Sunday Bloody Sunday", responding to the incident; it reached #1 in the Republic of Ireland. The 1972 John Lennon album Some Time in New York City features a song entitled "Sunday Bloody Sunday", inspired by the incident, as well as the song "The Luck of the Irish", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday. Irish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem Butcher's Dozen is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday. Black Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" on the album of the same name in 1973. Butler stated, "…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in." The Roy Harper song "All Ireland" from the album Lifemask, written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long-term view with regard to a solution. In Harper's book (The Passions of Great Fortune), his comment on the song ends "…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom". Brian Friel's 1973 play The Freedom of the City deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians. The Irish rock band U2 commemorated the incident in their 1983 protest song "Sunday Bloody Sunday". Christy Moore's song "Minds Locked Shut" on the album Graffiti Tongue is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians. The events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, Bloody Sunday (starring James Nesbitt) and Sunday by Jimmy McGovern. Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. "30 January 1972" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance at the Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including The Times: "The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating"; The Daily Telegraph: "I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama"; and The Independent: "A necessary triumph". In October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song "Domhnach na Fola" (Irish for "Bloody Sunday"), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Moya Brennan, Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill and Maighread Ní Dhomhnaill on their T with the Maggies album.	[ "Operation Demetrius", "Guildhall, Derry", "Bogside", "Tony Geraghty", "Democratic Unionist Party", "CS gas", "Bloody Sunday (film)", "Northern Ireland", "Cookstown", "first aid", "IRA Southern Command", "Ballymurphy massacre", "The Times", "civil rights", "Manchester University Press", "Harold Wilson", "Derek Wilford", "water cannon", "Irish nationalists", "Company (military unit)", "Hansard", "Chancery (diplomacy)", "Lifemask", "attempted murder", "Irish nationalist", "United Nations Security Council", "John Hume", "Tony Blair", "Warrenpoint ambush", "BBC News", "Daz (detergent)", "John Toohey (judge)", "Adjutant", "Give Ireland Back to the Irish", "baton charge", "Village (magazine)", "Provisional IRA campaign", "Chief Justice", "Saville Inquiry", "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom", "Maighread Ní Dhomhnaill", "HarperCollins", "Thompson submachine gun", "Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association", "New Brunswick", "John Major", "baton (law enforcement)", "housing estate", "Royal Ulster Constabulary", "Raymond McClean", "BBC", "Ulster Defence Regiment", "shrapnel (fragment)", "B-Specials", "Tricycle Theatre", "Christy Moore", "Irish traditional", "Fianna Éireann", "Ulster loyalism", "Lord Mountbatten", "Bernadette Devlin", "House of Commons of the United Kingdom", "Sunday Bloody Sunday", "Lord Widgery", "Kieran Conway", "nail bomb", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "solder", "Derry Journal", "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "Black Sabbath", "Sunday Bloody Sunday (John Lennon and Yoko Ono song)", "Lord Saville of Newdigate", "boycott", "Morning Star (British newspaper)", "Home Secretary", "Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry", "English, Richard", "Brian Faulkner", "Seamus Heaney", "Belfast", "U2", "Eamonn McCann", "1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment", "Irish republicanism", "The Irish Times", "Some Time in New York City", "bail", "Folk-Lore", "Provisional IRA Derry Brigade", "Embassy of the United Kingdom, Dublin", "Geezer Butler", "Humber Pig", "united Ireland", "Burning of British Embassy, Dublin", "Ulster Protestants", "immunity from prosecution", "Northern Ireland peace process", "Colum Eastwood", "Paul McCartney and Wings", "The Freedom of the City", "Creggan, Derry", "Irish Catholics", "Ted Loden", "protest song", "Robert Ford (British Army officer)", "Ulster University at Coleraine", "Government of the United Kingdom", "British Army", "L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle", "Official IRA", "UN peacekeeping", "Bombardier (rank)", "High Court of Australia", "Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill", "Police Service of Northern Ireland", "British Prime Minister", "Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland", "inquest", "Moya Brennan", "Don Mullan", "1969 Northern Ireland riots", "Dublin", "Social Democratic and Labour Party", "T with the Maggies", "internment camp", "Martin McGuinness", "Edward Somers", "Anglo-Irish relations", "Mass shooting", "Ulster Unionist Party", "white flag", "Paul McCartney", "deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland", "Ulster Defence Association", "Free Derry Corner", "Official Sinn Féin", "James Nesbitt", "Canadian Judicial Council", "16th Parachute Brigade", "Willie Doherty", "Jimmy McGovern", "Coleraine", "national day of mourning", "Whitewashing (censorship)", "Battle of the Bogside", "Reginald Maudling", "2010 United Kingdom general election", "Angus Reid Public Opinion", "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)", "rubber bullet", "The Guardian", "Annette McGavigan", "The Luck of the Irish (song)", "Union Jack", "Derry", "Judge", "T with the Maggies (album)", "no-go area", "tribunal", "Prime Minister of Northern Ireland", "Shankill Road", "Edward Daly (bishop)", "kerosene", "gerrymandering", "Mid Ulster (UK Parliament constituency)", "Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh", "Lord Saville", "Officer of the Order of the British Empire", "Sunday Bloody Sunday (Paddywagon song)", "Irish National Liberation Army", "coroner", "1972 Aldershot bombing", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Falls Road Curfew", "Merrion Square", "Celtic metal", "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)", "Colin Wallace", "John Lennon", "Magilligan", "Conflict Archive on the Internet", "Gerard V. Donaghy", "prosecution", "Second World War", "Gardaí", "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath (song)", "Ulster Volunteer Force", "Saint Patrick's Day", "Republic of Ireland", "David Cameron", "Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs", "Doug Beattie", "Lord Chief Justice", "Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)", "Cruachan (band)", "Jonathan Powell (aide)", "Marxism", "social media", "Patrick Hillery", "Brian Friel", "Pan Books", "Free Derry", "the Troubles", "Australian Aborigines", "Sunday (2002 film)", "Edward Heath", "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath", "University for Derry Committee", "Unionism in Ireland", "incendiary device", "Ivan Cooper", "massacre", "Expanding bullet", "Sierra Leone", "William Lloyd Hoyt", "Beirut", "Democracy Now!", "The Stationery Office", "general strike", "armoured personnel carrier", "The National Archives (United Kingdom)", "parliamentary privilege", "Roy Harper (singer)", "Widgery Tribunal", "William Craig (Northern Ireland politician)", "The News Letter", "Gilles Peress", "Ebrington Barracks", "Thomas Kinsella", "Selwyn Lloyd", "Mike Jackson (British Army officer)", "Richard Norton-Taylor", "Leader of the Opposition (UK)", "Sinn Féin" ]
5,031	Bruno of Querfurt	Bruno of Querfurt, O.S.B. Cam., (; 974 – 14 February or 9/14 March 1009), also known as Brun, was a Christian missionary bishop, Camaldolese monk and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania for trying to spread Christianity. He is also called the second "Apostle of the Prussians". == Biography == === Early life === Bruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt). He is rumoured to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, the seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Adalbert of Prague. While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg. The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. In 995 Otto III appointed Bruno as his court chaplain. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Adalbert of Prague, the first "Apostle of the Prussians", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Adalbert. In 998, Bruno entered a Benedictine monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and later underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Romuald. === Missionary life === Otto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area. In 1001, two monks from his monastery travelled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II. Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland, Bruno could not go directly to Poland so he set out for Hungary. There he went to the places that Adalbert of Prague had attended. Bruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under the jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks. Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous "Life of Adalbert of Prague," a literary memorial giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians. whose mother had come from Poland. Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003. === Mission to Prussia and death === In the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then travelled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia. Bruno met opposition in his efforts to evangelize the borderland and when he persisted in disregarding their warnings he was beheaded on 14 February (or 9 or 14 March) 1009, and most of his eighteen companions were hanged by Zebeden, brother of Netimer. Duke Boleslaus the Brave bought the bodies and brought them to Poland. (It was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018.) The Annals of Magdeburg, Thietmar of Merseburg's Chronicle, the Annals of Quedlinburg, various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story. Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized. It was said that Braunsberg was named after Bruno.	[ "missionary", "Christian martyrs", "Christianization", "John Canaparius", "Prussia (Baltic)", "decapitation", "Pomerania", "Name of Lithuania", "Holy Roman Empire", "Querfurt", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Saxony-Anhalt", "ascetic", "Boleslaus I of Poland", "Oder", "Elbe", "Pope Sylvester II", "Ahtum", "Pechenegs", "Magdeburg", "Consecration", "Boleslaus the Brave", "Romuald", "Margraviate of Brandenburg", "Patriarchate of Constantinople", "Kyiv", "canonized", "Braunsberg", "Bishop of Rome", "Lithuania", "Yotvingians", "Adalbert of Prague", "Holy Roman Emperor", "Paganism", "Thietmar of Merseburg", "Ravenna", "Turkic peoples", "Kingdom of Hungary", "Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor", "Camaldolese", "bishop", "Old Prussians", "Danube", "Kievan Rus", "Cathedral of Magdeburg", "Don River, Russia", "Adalbert of Magdeburg", "monk", "Saint", "Western Pomerania", "Vladimir I, Prince of Kiev", "Canon (priest)", "Roman Catholic Church", "Rome", "Christianization of Lithuania", "Banat", "Przemyśl", "Annals of Quedlinburg" ]
5,033	Bo Diddley	{{Infobox musical artist \| name = Bo Diddley \| image = Bo Diddley (1957 publicity portrait).jpg \| caption = Diddley in 1957 \| birth_name = Ellas Otha Bates \| alias = \| birth_date = \| birth_place = McComb, Mississippi, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Archer, Florida, U.S. \| instrument = \| genre = ===Studio albums=== ===Collaborations=== Berry Is on Top, with Chuck Berry (Chess, 1959) Two Great Guitars, with Chuck Berry (Checker, 1964) Super Blues, with Muddy Waters and Little Walter (Checker, 1967) The Super Super Blues Band, with Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf (Checker, 1968) ===Chart singles===	[ "grassroots", "Sixteen Tons", "clave (rhythm)", "Pretty Thing", "Congestive heart failure", "Red Saunders (musician)", "United States House of Representatives", "Breakin' Through the B.S.", "Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs", "Diddley Daddy", "Uncut (magazine)", "Super Blues", "Bo Diddley & Company", "Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger", "Bo Diddley (1958 album)", "Washington, D.C.", "Another Dimension", "Florida", "This Should Not Be", "Earl Hooker", "musical ensemble", "McComb, Mississippi", "Chess Records", "Mystic Eyes", "Elvis Costello", "the Rolling Stones", "sub-Saharan African music traditions", "Consequence of Sound", "B.B. King", "Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame", "Music of Africa", "Rolling Stone", "Billy Boy Arnold", "Rum and Coca Cola", "ballad", "Columbia Records", "Sounds (magazine)", "hip hop music", "Jerome Green", "Louis Jordan", "George W. Bush", "John Conyers", "Eric Clapton", "Hey Bo Diddley", "Valencia County, New Mexico", "Bo Diddley Is a Lover", "People (magazine)", "The Independent", "OKeh Records", "Norma-Jean Wofford", "Dick's Picks Volume 30", "New York City", "violin", "Have Guitar Will Travel (Bo Diddley album)", "Dick's Picks", "the Andrews Sisters", "The Black Gladiator", "Archer, Florida", "Them (band)", "A Man Amongst Men", "Deep South", "pop music", "rock music", "Go Bo Diddley", "Trading Places", "Hurricane Katrina", "Guitar Player", "bell pattern", "Johnny Otis", "Rockula", "Little Richard", "Jody Williams (blues musician)", "doo-wop", "RCA Victor", "Bassist", "Florida Keys", "Rock and roll", "South Side, Chicago", "Bo Diddley (1962 album)", "Syd Barrett", "the dozens", "Phil Ranstrom", "Leonard Chess", "The Originator (album)", "Popular music", "Ronnie Hawkins", "Maxwell Street", "Bo Diddley beat", "Who Do You Love? (Bo Diddley song)", "Bonnie Raitt", "trombone", "University of Florida", "Lincoln Theatre (Washington, D.C.)", "Triple J", "Robbie Robertson", "AllMusic", "intensive care", "Universal Recording Corp.", "Rhythm and Blues Foundation", "A-side and B-side", "Triple X Records", "twelve-bar blues", "Two Great Guitars", "Say Man", "Cheat You Fair: The Story of Maxwell Street", "Academy of Music (New York City)", "Zora Neale Hurston", "roots of hip hop", "Voice of America", "Chuck Berry", "New Mexico", "Buddy Holly", "Les Paul", "Gretsch", "Jerry Lee Lewis", "beat (music)", "Posthumous recognition", "One Day It Will Please Us to Remember Even This", "Mickey Baker", "Atlantic Records", "Not Fade Away (song)", "Mississippi Blues Trail", "aphasia", "Harvey Fuqua", "interracial marriage", "rock and roll", "Voodoo Lounge", "Dick Clark", "Eric Burdon", "Howlin' Wolf", "Mickey & Sylvia", "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "Muddy Waters", "Surfin' with Bo Diddley", "Original Church of God or Sanctified Church", "Berry Is on Top", "diddley bow", "Gainesville, Florida", "Blues Foundation", "Juba dance", "Ocean Springs, Mississippi", "Little Walter", "Tom Petty", "Alachua County", "Pop Chronicles", "Checker Records", "Accent (music)", "Gibson L5", "Gene Autry", "Robert Plant", "folk music", "John Lee Hooker", "Jo Ann Campbell", "the Animals", "home recording", "Berry Gordy Jr.", "diabetes", "The London Bo Diddley Sessions", "instrumental rock", "Albert Collins", "Marvin Gaye", "Everly Brothers", "busking", "Creighton University Medical Center", "the Clash", "Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award", "Magnolia, Mississippi", "Los Lunas, New Mexico", "Shave and a Haircut", "royalties", "I'm a Man (Bo Diddley song)", "blues", "hypertension", "New York Dolls", "Council Bluffs, Iowa", "chord (music)", "Peggy Jones (musician)", "Hawthorne, Florida", "Dean Cameron", "Otis Spann", "Doctor of Fine Arts", "Grammy Hall of Fame", "Lester Davenport", "Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame", "Demo (music)", "Billboard Hot 100", "Sylvia Vanderpool", "Albuquerque, New Mexico", "Fritz the Cat (film)", "The Super Super Blues Band", "UK Singles Chart", "Bo Diddley (Bo Diddley song)", "Grateful Dead", "Ebenezer Missionary Baptist Church (Chicago)", "Go Johnny Go", "Rockabilly Hall of Fame", "the Beatles", "500% More Man", "Bo Knows", "Big Bad Bo", "Bo Diddley's a Twister", "Bo Jackson", "Road Runner (Bo Diddley song)", "The Washington Post", "Bo Diddley in the Spotlight", "Johnnie Johnson (musician)", "Jingle, Jangle, Jingle", "Mick Jagger", "The Ed Sullivan Show", "Live Aid", "CBC Radio", "Broadcast Music Incorporated", "Alan Freed", "Where It All Began (Bo Diddley album)", "tension (music)", "Pentecostal Church", "psychedelic funk", "Saturday Night Blues", "Hey! Good Lookin' (album)", "Birmingham, Alabama", "Moonglows", "Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life", "Love Is Strange", "The Shirelles", "Ronnie Wood", "Red Cross", "clave rhythm", "You Can't Judge a Book by the Cover", "B. B. King", "Luca Bercovici", "George Benson", "Blues Hall of Fame", "Hurricane Wilma", "hoodoo (spirituality)", "Ned Sublette", "George Thorogood", "Omaha, Nebraska", "the Moonglows", "Robert Randolph and the Family Band", "washtub bass", "Motown Records", "Old MacDonald", "Clave (rhythm)", "Fingerstyle guitar" ]
5,034	Bela Lugosi	Blaskó Béla Ferenc Dezső (; October 20, 1882 – August 16, 1956), better known by the stage name Bela Lugosi ( ; ), was a Hungarian–American actor. He was best remembered for portraying Count Dracula in the horror film classic Dracula (1931), Ygor in Son of Frankenstein (1939) and his roles in many other horror films from 1931 through 1956. He later starred in the 1931 film version of Dracula directed by Tod Browning and produced by Universal Pictures. Through the 1930s, he occupied an important niche in horror films, but his notoriety as Dracula and thick Hungarian accent greatly limited the roles offered to him, and he unsuccessfully tried for years to avoid typecasting. He co-starred in a number of films with Boris Karloff, who was able to demand top billing for his status a horror icon and had portrayed characters such as Frankenstein's monster in the horror film Frankenstein (1931). Lugosi, a charter member of the American Screen Actors Guild, was frustrated over increasingly being restricted to mad scientist roles because of his inability to speak English more clearly. He was kept employed by the studios principally so that they could put his name on the posters and prevent others from doing so. Among his teamings with Karloff, he performed major roles only in The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), and Son of Frankenstein (1939); even in The Raven, Karloff received top billing despite Lugosi performing the lead role. By this time, Lugosi had been receiving regular medication for sciatic neuritis, and he became addicted to doctor-prescribed morphine and methadone. This drug dependence (and his gradually worsening alcoholism) was becoming apparent to producers, and after 1948's Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein, the offers dwindled to parts in low-budget films; some of these were directed by Ed Wood, including a brief appearance in Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space (released posthumously in 1957). Lugosi married five times and had one son, Bela G. Lugosi (with his fourth wife, Lillian). was born Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó in 1882 in Lugos, Kingdom of Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania) to Hungarian father István Blaskó, a baker who later became a banker, and Serbian-born mother Paula de Vojnich. He was raised in a Catholic family. At the age of 12, Lugosi dropped out of school and left home to work at a succession of manual labor jobs. His earliest known performances are from provincial theatres in the 1903–04 season, playing small roles in several plays and operettas. and went on to perform in Shakespearean plays. After moving to Budapest in 1911, he played dozens of roles with the National Theatre of Hungary between 1913 and 1919. Although Lugosi would later claim that he "became the leading actor of Hungary's Royal National Theatre", many of his roles there were small or supporting parts, which led him to enter the Hungarian film industry. During World War I, he served as an infantry officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army Imperial and Royal 43rd Infantry Regiment from 1914 to 1916, with the rank of lieutenant. He was awarded the Wound Medal for wounds he sustained while serving on the Russian front. he was forced to flee his homeland when the government changed hands, initially accompanied by his first wife Ilona Szmik. after which she left Lugosi and returned home to her parents where she filed for divorce, and soon after remarried. He later moved to California in 1928 to tour in the Dracula stage play, and his Hollywood film career took off. Lugosi claimed he performed the Dracula play around 1,000 times during his lifetime. He eventually became a U.S. citizen in 1931, soon after the release of his film version of Dracula. Lugosi made at least 10 films in Hungary between 1917 and 1918 before leaving for Germany. Following the collapse of Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, leftists and trade unionists became vulnerable, some being imprisoned or executed in public. Lugosi was proscribed from acting due to his participation in the formation of an actors' union. Exiled in Weimar-era Germany, he co-starred in at least 14 German silent films in 1920, among them Hypnose: Sklaven fremden Willens (1920), Der Januskopf (1920) and an adaptation of the Karl May novel Caravan of Death (1920). In October 1920, Lugosi left Germany for the United States and entered the country at New Orleans in December. He made his way to New York and was inspected by immigration officers at Ellis Island in March 1921. He only declared his intention to become a US citizen in 1928; on June 26, 1931, he was naturalized. On his arrival in America, the , Three more parts came in 1925–26, including a five-month run in the comedy-fantasy The Devil in the Cheese. In 1925, he played an Arab Sheik in Arabesque which premiered in Buffalo, New York at the Teck Theatre before moving to Broadway. His first American film role was in the silent melodrama The Silent Command (1923) which was filmed in New York. Four other silent roles followed, villains and continental types, all in productions made in the New York area. A rumor has circulated for decades among film historians that Lugosi played an uncredited bit part as a clown in the first film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, He Who Gets Slapped (1924) starring Lon Chaney, but this has been heavily disputed. The rumor originated from the discovery of a publicity still from this film found posthumously in Lugosi's scrapbook, which showed an unidentified clown in heavy makeup standing near Lon Chaney in one scene. It was thought to be evidence that Lugosi appeared in the film, but historians all agree that is very unlikely, since Lugosi was in both Chicago (appearing in a play called The Werewolf) and New York at the time that film was in production in Hollywood. === Dracula === Lugosi was approached in the summer of 1927 to star in a Broadway theatre production of Dracula, which had been adapted by Hamilton Deane and John L. Balderston from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel. The Horace Liveright production was successful, running in New York City for 261 performances before touring the United States to much fanfare and critical acclaim throughout 1928 and 1929. In 1928, Lugosi decided to stay in California when the play ended its first West Coast run. His performance had piqued the interest of Fox Film, and he was cast in the Hollywood studio's silent film The Veiled Woman (1929). He also appeared in the film Prisoners (also 1929), believed lost, which was released in both a silent and partial talkie version. In 1929, with no other film roles in sight, he returned to the stage as Dracula for a short West Coast tour of the play. Lugosi remained in California where he resumed his film work under contract with Fox, appearing in early talkies often as a heavy or an "exotic sheik". He also continued to lobby for his prized role in the film version of Dracula. Despite his critically acclaimed performance on stage, Lugosi was not Universal Pictures' first choice for the role of Dracula when the company optioned the rights to the Deane play and began production in 1930. Different prominent actors, such as Paul Muni, Chester Morris, Ian Keith, John Wray, Joseph Schildkraut, Arthur Edmund Carewe, William Courtenay, John Carradine, and Conrad Veidt were considered. Lew Ayres was eventually hired to play Jonathan Harker, only to be replaced by Robert Ames after being cast in a different role in a different Universal Pictures film. Ames was in turn replaced with David Manners. Lugosi had played the role on Broadway, and was considered before director Tod Browning cast him in the role. The film was a major hit, but Lugosi was paid a salary of only $3,500, since he had too eagerly accepted the role. === Typecasting === Through his association with Dracula (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a horror villain in films such as Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932), The Black Cat (1934) and The Raven (1935) for Universal, and the independent White Zombie (1932). His accent, while a part of his image, limited the type of role he could play. Lugosi did attempt to break type by auditioning for other roles. He lost out to Lionel Barrymore for the role of Grigori Rasputin in Rasputin and the Empress (also 1932); C. Henry Gordon for the role of Surat Khan in Charge of the Light Brigade (1936), and Basil Rathbone for the role of Commissar Dimitri Gorotchenko in Tovarich (1937), a role Lugosi had played on stage. He played the elegant, somewhat hot-tempered General Nicholas Strenovsky-Petronovich in International House (1933). Regardless of controversy, five films at Universal – The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), The Invisible Ray (1936), Son of Frankenstein (1939), Black Friday (1940), plus minor cameo performances in Gift of Gab (1934) and two at RKO Pictures, You'll Find Out (1940) and The Body Snatcher (1945) – paired Lugosi with Boris Karloff. Despite the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably received second billing, below Karloff. There are contradictory reports of Lugosi's attitude toward Karloff, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to gain good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were – for a time, at least – amicable. Karloff himself in interviews suggested that Lugosi was initially mistrustful of him when they acted together, believing that the Englishman would attempt to upstage him. When this proved not to be the case, according to Karloff, Lugosi settled down and they worked together amicably (though some have further commented that the English Karloff's on-set demand to break from filming for mid-afternoon tea annoyed Lugosi). Lugosi did get a few heroic leads, as in Universal's The Black Cat after Karloff had been accorded the more colorful role of the villain, The Invisible Ray, and a romantic role in producer Sol Lesser's adventure serial The Return of Chandu (1934), but his typecasting problem appears to have been too entrenched to be alleviated by those films. Lugosi addressed his plea to be cast in non-horror roles directly to casting directors through his listing in the 1937 Players Directory, published by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, in which he (or his agent) calls the idea that he is only fit for horror films "an error." === Career decline === Lugosi developed severe, chronic sciatica, ostensibly aggravated by injuries received during his military service. Though at first he was treated with benign pain remedies such as asparagus juice, doctors increased the medication to opiates. The growth of his dependence on opiates, particularly morphine and (after 1947, when it became available in America) methadone, was directly proportional to the dwindling of Lugosi's screen offers. The problem first manifested itself in 1937, when Lugosi was forced to withdraw from a leading role in a serial production, The Secret of Treasure Island, due to constant back pain. Historian John McElwee reports, in his 2013 book Showmen, Sell It Hot!, that Bela Lugosi's popularity received a much-needed boost in August 1938, when California theater owner Emil Umann revived Dracula and Frankenstein as a special double feature. The combination was so successful that Umann scheduled extra shows to accommodate the capacity crowds, and invited Lugosi to appear in person, which thrilled new audiences that had never seen Lugosi's classic performance. "I owe it all to that little man at the Regina Theatre," said Lugosi of exhibitor Umann. "I was dead, and he brought me back to life." Universal took notice of the tremendous business and launched its own national re-release of the same two horror favorites. The studio then rehired Lugosi to star in new films, fortunately just as Lugosi's fourth wife had given birth to a son. Universal cast Lugosi in Son of Frankenstein (1939), appearing in the character role of Ygor, a mad blacksmith with a broken neck, in heavy makeup and beard. Lugosi was third-billed with his name above the title alongside Basil Rathbone as Dr. Frankenstein's son and Boris Karloff reprising his role as Frankenstein's monster. Regarding Son of Frankenstein, the film's director Rowland V. Lee said his crew let Lugosi "work on the characterization; the interpretation he gave us was imaginative and totally unexpected ... when we finished shooting, there was no doubt in anyone's mind that he stole the show. Karloff's monster was weak by comparison." Also in 1939, Lugosi made a rare appearance in an A-list motion picture as a stern Soviet commissar in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer romantic comedy Ninotchka, starring Greta Garbo and directed by Ernst Lubitsch. Lugosi was quite effective in this small but prestigious character part and he even received top billing among the film's supporting cast, all of whom had significantly larger roles. It might have been a turning point for the actor, but within the year he was back on Hollywood's Poverty Row, playing leads for Sam Katzman at Monogram Pictures. At Universal, Bela Lugosi was usually cast for his name value; he often received star billing for what amounted to a supporting part. Lugosi went to 20th Century-Fox for The Gorilla (1939), which had him playing straight man (a butler) to Patsy Kelly and the Ritz Brothers. When Lugosi's Black Friday premiered in 1940 on a double bill with the Vincent Price film The House of the Seven Gables, Lugosi and Price both appeared in person at the Chicago Theatre where it opened on Feb. 29, 1940 and remained for four performances. He was finally cast in the role of Frankenstein's monster for Universal's Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1943). (At the end of the previous film in the series, The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942), Lugosi's voice had been dubbed over that of Lon Chaney Jr. since Ygor's brain was now in the Monster's skull.) But at the last minute, Lugosi's heavily accented dialogue was edited out after the film was completed, along with the idea of the Monster being blind, leaving his performance featuring groping, outstretched arms and moving lips seeming enigmatic (and funny) to audiences. Lugosi kept busy during the 1940s as a screen menace. In addition to his nine Monogram features, he worked in three features for RKO and one for Columbia (The Return of the Vampire, 1943). He also accepted the lead in an experimental, economical feature, shot in the semi-professional 16mm film format and blown up to 35mm for theatrical release, Scared to Death (completed April 1946, released June 1947). The feature is noteworthy as being Bela Lugosi's only color film. Lugosi played Dracula for a second and final time on film in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948), which was his last "A" movie. For the remainder of his life, he appeared – less and less frequently – in obscure, forgettable, low-budget B features. From 1947 to 1950, he performed in summer stock, often in productions of Dracula or Arsenic and Old Lace, and during the rest of the year, made personal appearances in a touring "spook show", and on early commercial television. In September 1949, Milton Berle invited Lugosi to appear in a sketch on Texaco Star Theatre. Lugosi memorized the script for the skit, but became confused on the air when Berle began to ad lib. He also appeared on the anthology series Suspense on October 11, 1949, in a live adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado". In 1951, while in England to play a six-month tour of Dracula, Lugosi co-starred in a lowbrow film comedy, Mother Riley Meets the Vampire (also known as Vampire Over London and My Son, the Vampire), released the following year. Following his return to the United States, he was interviewed for television, and reflected wistfully on his typecasting in horror parts: "Now I am the boogie man". In the same interview, he expressed a desire to play more comedy, as he had in the Mother Riley farce. Independent producer Jack Broder took Lugosi at his word, casting him in a jungle-themed comedy, Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla (1952), starring nightclub comedians Duke Mitchell and Jerry Lewis look-alike Sammy Petrillo, whose act closely resembled that of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis (Martin and Lewis). Hal B. Wallis, Martin and Lewis's producer, unsuccessfully sued Broder. === Stage and personal appearances === Lugosi enjoyed a lively career on stage, with plenty of personal appearances. As film offers declined, he became more and more dependent on live venues to support his family. Lugosi took over the role of Jonathan Brewster from Boris Karloff for Arsenic and Old Lace. Lugosi had also expressed interest in playing Elwood P. Dowd in Harvey to help himself professionally. He also made plenty of personal live appearances to promote his horror image or an accompanying film. The Vincent Price film, House of Wax premiered in Los Angeles at the Paramount Theatre on April 16, 1953. The film played at midnight with a number of celebrities in the audience that night (Judy Garland, Ginger Rogers, Rock Hudson, Broderick Crawford, Gracie Allen, Eddie Cantor, Shelley Winters and others). Producer Alex Gordon, knowing Lugosi was in dire need of cash, arranged for the actor to stand outside the theater wearing a cape and dark glasses, holding a man costumed as a gorilla on a leash. He later allowed himself to be photographed drinking a glass of milk at a Red Cross booth there. When Lugosi playfully attempted to bite the "nurse" in attendance, she overreacted and spilled a glass of milk all over his shirt and cape. Afterward, Lugosi was interviewed by a reporter who botched the interview by asking the prearranged questions out of order, thoroughly confusing the aging star. Embarrassed, Lugosi left abruptly, without attending the screening. === Ed Wood and final projects === Late in his life, Bela Lugosi again received star billing in films when the ambitious but financially limited filmmaker Ed Wood, a fan of Lugosi, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as an anonymous narrator in Glen or Glenda (1953) and a mad scientist in Bride of the Monster (1955). During post-production of the latter, Lugosi decided to seek treatment for his drug addiction, and the film's premiere was arranged to raise money for Lugosi's hospital expenses (resulting in a paltry amount of money). According to Kitty Kelley's biography of Frank Sinatra, when the entertainer heard of Lugosi's problems, he visited Lugosi at the hospital and gave him a $1,000 check. Sinatra would recall Lugosi's amazement at his visit, since the two men had never met before. During an impromptu interview upon his release from the treatment center in 1955, Lugosi stated that he was about to begin work on a new Ed Wood film called The Ghoul Goes West. This was one of several projects proposed by Wood, including The Phantom Ghoul and Dr. Acula. With Lugosi in his Dracula cape, Wood shot impromptu test footage, with no particular storyline in mind, in front of Tor Johnson's home, at a suburban graveyard, and in front of Lugosi's apartment building on Carlton Way. This footage ended up posthumously in Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957), which was filmed in 1956 soon after Lugosi died. Wood hired Tom Mason, his wife's chiropractor, to double for Lugosi in additional shots. Mason was noticeably taller and thinner than Lugosi, and had the lower half of his face covered with his cape in every shot, as Lugosi sometimes did in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, The Black Sleep, for Bel-Air Pictures, which was released in the summer of 1956 through United Artists with a promotional campaign that included several personal appearances by Lugosi and his co-stars, as well as Maila Nurmi (TV's horror host "Vampira"). To Lugosi's disappointment, however, his role in this film was that of a mute butler with no dialogue. Lugosi was intoxicated and very ill during the film's promotional campaign and had to return to L.A. earlier than planned. He never got to see the finished film. Tor Johnson said in interviews that Lugosi kept screaming that he wanted to die the night they shared a hotel room together. In 1959, a British film called Lock Up Your Daughters was theatrically released (in the U.K.), composed of clips from Bela Lugosi's Monogram pictures from the 1940s. The film is lost today, but a March 16, 1959, critical review in the Kinematograph Weekly mentioned that the movie contained new Lugosi footage (intriguing since Lugosi had died in 1956). Back in 1950 however, Lugosi had appeared on a one-hour TV program called Murder and Bela Lugosi (which WPIX-TV broadcast on Sept. 18, 1950) in which Lugosi was interviewed and provided commentary about a number of his old horror films while clips from the films were being shown; historian Gary Rhodes thinks some of this Lugosi TV production found its way into the 1959 British film, which would finally explain the mystery. == Personal life == Lugosi was married five times. In June 1917, Lugosi married 19-year-old Ilona Szmik (1898–1991) in Hungary. The couple divorced after Lugosi was forced to flee his homeland for political reasons (risking execution if he stayed) and Ilona did not wish to leave her parents. The divorce became final on July 17, 1920, and was uncontested as Lugosi could not show up for the proceedings. After living briefly in Germany, Lugosi left Europe by ship and arrived in New Orleans on October 27, 1920, and, after making his way north, underwent his primary alien inspection at Ellis Island, N.Y. on March 23, 1921. In September 1921, he married Hungarian actress Ilona von Montagh in New York City, and she filed for divorce on November 11, 1924, charging him with adultery and complaining that he wanted her to abandon her acting career to keep house for him. The divorce became final in October, 1925. (Lugosi learned in 1935 that von Montagh and a female friend were both arrested for shoplifting in New York City, which was the last he heard of her.). Lugosi took his place in Hollywood society and scandal when he married wealthy San Francisco resident Beatrice Woodruff Weeks (1897–1931), widow of architect Charles Peter Weeks, on July 27, 1929. Weeks subsequently filed for divorce on November 4, 1929, accusing Lugosi of infidelity, citing actress Clara Bow as the "other woman", and claimed Lugosi tried to take her checkbook and the key to her safe deposit box away from her. Lugosi complained of her excessive drinking and dancing with other men at social gatherings. The divorce became official on December 9, 1929. (Weeks died 17 months later (at age 34) from alcoholism in Panama, Lugosi never receiving a penny from her fortune.) On June 26, 1931, Lugosi became a naturalized United States citizen. They remained married for 20 years and they had a child, Bela G. Lugosi, in 1938. (Lugosi eventually had four grandchildren (Greg, Jeff, Tim, and Lynne) and seven great-grandchildren, although he did not live long enough to meet any of them.) Lillian and Bela vacationed on their lakeshore property in Lake Elsinore, California (then called Elsinore), on several lots between 1944 and 1953. Lillian's parents lived on one of their properties, and Lugosi frequented the health spa there. Bela Lugosi Jr. was boarded at the Elsinore Naval and Military School in Lake Elsinore, and also lived with Lillian's parents while she and Bela were touring. After almost breaking up their marriage in 1944, Lillian and Bela finally divorced on July 17, 1953, at least partially because of Bela's excessive drinking Lugosi called the police one night after Lillian left him and threatened to commit suicide, but when the police showed up at his apartment, he denied making the call.(Lillian eventually did marry Brian Donlevy in 1966, by which time he had also become an alcoholic, and she died in 1981.) Lugosi married Hope Lininger, his fifth wife, in 1955; she was 37 years his junior. She had been a fan, writing letters to him when he was in the hospital recovering from his drug addiction. She would sign her letters "A dash of Hope". They remained married until his death in 1956. However Bela and Hope were actually discussing getting divorced before he died. == Death == Lugosi died of a heart attack on August 16, 1956, in the bedroom of his Los Angeles apartment while taking a nap. His wife, Hope, discovered him when she came home from work that evening, apparently having died peacefully in his sleep around 6:45 p.m. according to the medical examiner The rumor that Lugosi was clutching the script for The Final Curtain, a planned Ed Wood project, at the time of his death is not true. Lugosi was buried wearing one of the "Dracula" capes and his full costume as well as his Dracula ring in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Contrary to popular belief, Lugosi never requested to be buried in his cloak; Bela G. Lugosi confirmed on numerous occasions that he and his mother, Lillian, made the decision but believed that it is what his father would have wanted. The funeral was held on Saturday, August 18 at the Utter-McKinley funeral home in Hollywood. Attendees in addition to immediate family included former wife of 20 years Lillian, Forrest J. Ackerman, Ed Wood (pall bearer), Tor Johnson, Conrad Brooks, Richard Sheffield, Norma McCarty, Loretta King, Paul Marco and actor George Becwar. Bela's fourth wife Lillian paid for the cemetery plot and stone (which was inscribed "Beloved Father"), while Hope Lugosi paid for the coffin and the funeral service. Lugosi's will left several inexpensive pieces of real estate in Elsinore and only $1,000 cash to his son, but since the will had been written on Jan. 12, 1954 (before Lugosi's fifth marriage), Bela Jr. had to share the thousand dollars evenly with Hope Lugosi. Hope later gave most of Lugosi's personal belongings and memorabilia to Bela's young neighborhood friend Richard Sheffield, who gave Lugosi's duplicate Dracula cape to Bela Jr. and sold some of the other items to Forrest J. Ackerman. Hope told Sheffield she had searched the apartment for several days looking for $3,000 she suspected Lugosi had hidden there, but she never found it. Sheffield said years later "Lugosi had probably spent it all on alcohol." Hope later moved to Hawaii, where she worked for many years as a caregiver in a leper colony. Hope died in Hawaii in 1997, at age 78, having never remarried. Before her death, she gave several interviews to the fan press. == California Supreme Court decision on personality rights == In 1979, the Lugosi v. Universal Pictures decision by the California Supreme Court held that Lugosi's personality rights could not pass to his heirs, as a copyright would have. The court ruled that under California law, any rights of publicity, including the right to his image, terminated with Lugosi's death. Six years later the law was changed by the California Celebrities Rights Act. == Legacy == The cape Lugosi wore in Dracula (1931) was in the possession of his son until it was put up for auction in 2011. It was expected to sell for up to $2 million, but has since been listed again by Bonhams in 2018. In 2019, the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures announced acquisition of the cape via partial donation from the Lugosi family. In 2019 it was announced that the cape would be on display the following year. Andy Warhol's 1963 silkscreen The Kiss depicts Lugosi from Dracula about to bite into the neck of co-star Helen Chandler, who played Mina Harker. A copy sold for $798,000 at Christie's in May 2000. Lugosi was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960. His star is mentioned in "Celluloid Heroes", a song performed by The Kinks and written by their lead vocalist and principal songwriter, Ray Davies. It appeared on their 1972 album Everybody's in Show-Biz. In 1979, a song called "Bela Lugosi's Dead" was released by UK post-punk band Bauhaus and is a pioneering song in the gothic rock genre. On choosing the topic of the song, the band's bassist David J remarked "There was a season of old horror films on TV and I was telling Daniel about how much I loved them. The one that had been on the night before was Dracula [1931]. I was saying how Bela Lugosi was the quintessential Dracula, the elegant depiction of the character." An episode of Sledge Hammer! titled "Last of the Red Hot Vampires" was an homage to Bela Lugosi; at the end of the episode, it was dedicated to "Mr. Blasko". Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff are referenced in the Curtis Stigers' song "Sleeping with the Lights On", from the 1991 album Curtis Stigers. In Tim Burton's Ed Wood, Bela Lugosi is portrayed by Martin Landau, who received the 1994 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the performance. According to Bela G. Lugosi (his son), Forrest Ackerman, Dolores Fuller and Richard Sheffield, the film's portrayal of Lugosi is inaccurate: In real life, he never used profanity, did not hate Karloff, owned no small dogs, nor did he sleep in a coffin. Also Ed Wood did not meet Lugosi in a funeral parlor, but rather through his roommate Alex Gordon. Péter Müller's 1998 theatrical play Lugosi – the Shadow of the Vampire () is based on Lugosi's life, telling the story of his life as he became typecast as Dracula and as his drug addiction worsened. In the Hungarian production, directed by István Szabó, Lugosi was played by Ivan Darvas. In 2001, BBC Radio 4 broadcast There Are Such Things by Steven McNicoll and Mark McDonnell. Focusing on Lugosi and his well-documented struggle to escape from the role that had typecast him, the play went on to receive the Hamilton Deane Award for best dramatic presentation from the Dracula Society in 2002. On July 19, 2003, German artist Hartmut Zech erected a bust of Lugosi on one of the corners of Vajdahunyad Castle in Budapest. The Ellis Island Immigration Museum in New York City features a live 30-minute play that focuses on Lugosi's illegal entry into the country via New Orleans and his arrival at Ellis Island months later to enter the country legally. In 2013 the Hungarian electronic music band Žagar recorded a song entitled "Mr. Lugosi", which contains a recording of the voice of Bela Lugosi. The song was a part of the Light Leaks record. According to Paru Itagaki, the creator of the Japanese manga/anime Beastars, the main character Legoshi was inspired by Bela Lugosi (regarding the similar-sounding names). In 2020, Legendary Comics published an adaptation of Bram Stoker's 1897 Dracula novel, which used the likeness of Lugosi. A 2021 hardcover graphic novel depicting the life of Bela Lugosi was written and drawn by Koren Shadmi, entitled Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula.	[ "You'll Find Out", "Arthur Edmund Carewe", "personality rights", "Catholic Church", "House of Wax (1953 film)", "New Orleans", "Wound Medal (Austria-Hungary)", "operetta", "Caravan of Death (film)", "Chester Morris", "Sol Lesser", "Hungarian–American", "trade union", "John Carradine", "RKO Pictures", "Hal B. 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Lugosi", "Jerry Lewis", "The Body Snatcher (1945 film)", "Milton Berle", "Black Friday (1940 film)", "Tod Browning", "The Return of Chandu", "Grigori Rasputin", "commissar", "Rowland V. Lee", "California Celebrities Rights Act", "World War I", "William Courtenay (actor)", "Sheikh", "Tom Mason (actor, born 1920)", "Weimar Germany", "Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City", "Conrad Brooks", "Universal Pictures", "Ninotchka", "Broderick Crawford", "The Raven (1935 film)", "Bogeyman", "Horace Liveright", "Ed Wood", "Starburst (magazine)", "farce", "Dolores Fuller", "Monogram Pictures", "Andy Warhol", "charter member", "Dangerous Assignment", "Suspense (U.S. TV series)", "Sammy Petrillo", "Harvey (play)", "Final Curtain (film)", "gothic rock", "Robert Ames (actor)", "The Return of the Vampire", "Ian Keith", "Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor", "BBC Radio 4", "Buffalo, New York", "opiate", "Everybody's in Show-Biz", "David J", "The Invisible Ray (1936 film)", "The Black Sleep", "Brian Donlevy", "Lost film", "Tovarich (film)", "Fox Film", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer", "Google Books", "Celluloid Heroes", "England", "Karl May", "United Artists", "Dean Martin", "Rock Hudson", "Greta Garbo", "Scared to Death (1947 film)", "The Black Camel (film)", "Hamilton Deane", "Gift of Gab (1934 film)", "Glen or Glenda", "morphine", "Muteness", "Paru Itagaki", "Bauhaus (band)", "look-alike", "copyright", "Citizenship of the United States", "C. Henry Gordon", "Weimar Republic", "Vincent Price", "Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)", "asparagus", "chiropractor", "horror films", "Vajdahunyad Castle", "drug addiction", "The Ghost of Frankenstein", "political left", "Plan 9 from Outer Space", "Lew Ayres", "Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)", "Alex Gordon (writer-producer)", "Sledge Hammer!", "Lugoj", "Steven McNicoll", "Der Januskopf", "The Gorilla (1939 film)", "Arsenic and Old Lace (play)", "Tor Johnson", "Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla", "The Kinks", "The Veiled Woman", "Ed Wood (film)", "Austria-Hungary", "Berlin", "Merchant vessel", "Mother Riley Meets the Vampire", "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein", "Basil Rathbone", "Broadway theatre", "Summer stock theatre", "Dracula", "Jack Broder", "Judy Garland", "He Who Gets Slapped (film)", "RKO Radio Pictures", "Forrest Ackerman", "Paul Muni", "Chicago Theatre", "Patsy Kelly", "Villain", "Marvel UK", "Christie's", "Bela Lugosi's Dead", "Sam Katzman", "Dracula (1931 English-language film)", "Ritz Brothers", "White Zombie (film)", "Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man", "naturalization", "Paul Leni", "Bride of the Monster", "Sound film", "New Orleans, Louisiana", "Cinema of Hungary", "The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936 film)", "Time (magazine)", "Ray Davies", "/Film", "Lon Chaney, Sr.", "Legoshi", "methadone", "Joseph Schildkraut", "The Secret of Treasure Island", "The Werewolf (play)", "Lugosi v. Universal Pictures", "Martin and Lewis", "István Szabó", "labor union", "International House (1933 film)", "Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences", "villain", "infantry", "Texaco Star Theatre", "Igor (character)", "Paul Marco", "The House of the Seven Gables (film)", "Béla Kun", "Rasputin and the Empress", "Legendary Comics", "John L. Balderston", "IMDb", "Lionel Barrymore", "Ginger Rogers", "The Silent Command", "The New York Times", "Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932 film)", "Red Cross", "horror film", "Leoni Leo", "John Wray (actor)", "Kitty Kelley", "Lake Elsinore, California", "California Supreme Court", "Duke Mitchell", "mad scientist", "Frankenstein (1931 film)", "Low culture", "Boris Karloff", "The Black Cat (1934 film)", "Forrest J. Ackerman", "post-production", "Frank Sinatra", "Count Dracula", "Ellis Island", "Vienna" ]
5,035	Bride of the Monster	Bride of the Monster is a 1955 American independent science fiction horror film, co-written, produced and directed by Edward D. Wood Jr., and starring Bela Lugosi and Tor Johnson with a supporting cast featuring Tony McCoy and Loretta King. The film is considered to have Wood's biggest budget ($70,000). Production commenced in 1954 but, due to further financial problems, was not completed until 1955. It was released in May 1955, initially on a double bill with Macumba. ==Plot== In a stretch of woods, two hunters are caught in a thunderstorm. They decide to seek refuge in Willows House, supposedly abandoned and haunted. They find Willows House occupied, and the current owner, scientist Dr. Eric Vornoff, denies them hospitality. They attempt to force their entry into the house, but a giant octopus is released from its tank and sent after them. The octopus kills one of the hunters while Vornoff's mute assistant Lobo captures the other. Vornoff experiments on the unwilling hunter, who dies on the operating table. There are now twelve missing victims. Reporter Janet Lawton vows to go to Lake Marsh to investigate. Officer Tom Robbins and Lieutenant Dick Craig, Janet's fiancé, talk to Professor Vladimir Strowski, an intellectual from Europe who agrees to assist in investigating the Marsh but not at night. That night, another storm begins. Janet drives alone to Lake Marsh, but visibility is poor, and she drives off the road and into a ravine. Lobo rescues her. Production resumed in 1955 at Centaur Studios. Actor George Becwar, who played the bearded Russian agent Strowski, after getting paid for his one day of work on the film, complained that he had been underpaid to the Screen Actors Guild and caused the production to be temporarily shut down for an investigation. Wood as a result had to raise more money from backers and lost another piece of the ownership of the film as a result. An actor friend of Wood's, John Andrews, said in an interview: "Eddie hated, loathed, despised, wanted murdered, George Becwar ....I'm not overdoin' it man, I'm telling you straight. He hated George Becwar to the day he deceased, and I mean with a passion!" The film premiered at Hollywood's Paramount theater on May 11, 1955, under the title Bride of the Atom. Wood related the story of how, after the film played, he asked the theater's manager what he thought of the picture, to which the manager replied "Stinks". Wood took scissors and physically cut the man out of an 8 X 10 group shot that was taken that night after the premiere as a publicity photo. When asked "Who was that you cut out?", Wood replied "Well, he's not there any more, so it doesn't matter". The film was reportedly completed and released through a deal with attorney Samuel Z. Arkoff. Arkoff profited from the film more than Wood, and his earnings contributed to the funding of his American International Pictures. Wood had oversold shares in the picture and wound up owning none of it himself. The ending credits identify the copyright holder of the film as "Filmakers Releasing Organization". Distribution rights were held by Banner Films in the United States, and by Exclusive in the United Kingdom. Lock Up Your Daughters (1959) recycled footage from Lugosi's earlier films, possibly mixed with some new material. In both movies, each bride at her wedding was given an orchid, which she sniffed before passing out. In The Corpse Vanishes, Lugosi played a doctor who captured the brides and took some kind of liquid from each bride's body and injected it into his wife to make her temporarily young again. Characters included his wife, an old woman, the old woman's grown son, and a dwarf. In Bride of the Monster, Lugosi again plays a doctor doing experiments, but his only housemate/assistant is Lobo, and when his experiment fails to turn someone into an "atomic-powered superman", he throws the dead subject to an octopus or an alligator, similar to Lugosi throwing a body into a river in Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932). The hunters of the opening scenes, Jake Long and Blake "Mac" McCreigh, were played by John Warren and Bud Osborne. The phrases could well apply to the fates of avant-garde artists and thinkers. The character of Lobo appeared again in Wood's Night of the Ghouls, horribly burned but still alive. This film serves as a sequel of sorts to Bride. Vornoff is absent from the later film, but there are references to the activities of "the mad doctor". This film is part of what Wood aficionados refer to as "The Kelton Trilogy", a trio of films featuring Paul Marco as Officer Kelton, a whining, reluctant policeman. The other two films are Plan 9 from Outer Space and Night of the Ghouls. Kelton is the only character to appear in all three films. ==Critical reception== Writing for Famous Monsters in 1962, Joe Dante, Jr. included Bride of the Monster on his list of the worst horror films of all time. Dante declared it as "definitely one of the most inexpensive thrillers ever. The sets were cardboard, and the direction card-boring." Film critic Glenn Erickson wrote in DVD Talk that "nearly every dialogue exchange is an embarrassment and every camera setup somehow wrong," but noted that Lugosi's performance "is better than okay, rising to the demands of the awful script," and that the film is "too endearing to hate." A review by Bruce Eder in AllMovie noted that the film "is ineptly made and it has seams - including mismatched interior and exterior sets and scenery that shakes during the fight scenes," that it has "some of the strangest incidental dialogue that anyone had ever heard," and that "there is a lot to laugh at in the movie, most of it unintentional." A review of the film in TV Guide described it as a "masterpiece of involuntary farce," that the "marvelously idiotic dialog keeps things moving along without stopping for breath [or] logic," and that the "final images of poor old decrepit Lugosi struggling in the arms of a motionless rubber octopus are incomparably bathetic." ==Legacy== In 1986, the film was featured in the syndicated series the Canned Film Festival, and was later featured on the comedy series, Mystery Science Theater 3000. The episode also features a musical parody of the Jam Handy short film "Hired!", with Joel Robinson, Crow T. Robot, Tom Servo and Gypsy performing "Hired! The Musical". The late 1990s dream trance track "Alright", by DJ Taucher, sampled a monologue from Bela Lugosi during the interlude of the song. In 2005, The Devil's Rejects footage of the film was played in the movie. In 2008, a colorized version was released by Legend Films. This version was also released on Amazon Video on Demand. In 2010, a retrospective on the movie entitled Citizen Wood: Making 'The Bride', Unmaking the Legend was included in the Mystery Science Theater 3000 Volume 19 DVD set as a bonus feature for said episode featuring the movie. Horror host Mr. Lobo is among the interviewees of the 27 minute documentary. However, a viewing of the film itself reveals that Lugosi said this line correctly, the exact words being, "Don't be afraid of Lobo; he's as gentle as a kitten." The easier explanation would be that authors Michael Medved and Harry Medved saw the film in a theater setting with inferior sound quality, or viewed a damaged print. A single viewing in such conditions could result in mishearing some lines of dialogue. The inaccurate claim managed to achieve urban legend status, and continues circulating. To remedy the lack of movement from the octopus prop, whenever someone was killed by the monster in the film, they simply flailed around in the shallow water while holding the tentacles around themselves to imitate its movements. Rudolph Grey's book Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr. contains anecdotes regarding the making of this film. Grey notes that participants in the original events sometimes contradict one another, but he relates each person's information for posterity. He also includes Ed Wood's claim that only one of his films made a profit and surmises that it was most likely Bride of the Monster, but that Wood had oversold the film and could not reimburse all of the backers afterward. Most biographies mention The Violent Years as being Wood's most profitable film.	[ "American International Pictures", "Transylvania 6-5000 (1963 film)", "Amazon Video on Demand", "Horror host", "Nazism", "angora wool", "AllMovie", "Frank Worth", "Mystery Science Theater 3000", "nuclear power", "McFarland & Company", "The Corpse Vanishes", "Jam Handy", "Cold War", "Canned Film Festival", "close-up", "The Beast with a Million Eyes", "Griffith Park", "Night of the Ghouls", "Wake of the Red Witch", "Engagement", "nuclear weapons testing", "telepathy", "Nazi Germany", "Soviet Union", "The Golden Turkey Awards", "Tibet", "List of American films of 1955", "DVD Talk", "climate change", "William Benedict", "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "Science fiction film", "Glenn Erickson", "Ed Wood", "Dolores Fuller", "Loretta King", "The Black Sleep", "deadpan", "Republic Pictures", "Loretta King Hadler", "intellectual disability", "GPC (Mystery Science Theater 3000)", "William C. Thompson (cinematographer)", "urban legend", "horror fiction", "avant-garde", "Joe Dante", "Glen or Glenda", "octopus", "Michael Medved", "Poverty Row", "Ted Allan", "Joel Robinson", "superhuman", "propaganda film", "Atomic Age", "Famous Monsters of Filmland", "Bud Osborne", "Legend Films", "Plan 9 from Outer Space", "Samuel Z. Arkoff", "Alex Gordon (writer-producer)", "Mr. Lobo", "body double", "Tor Johnson", "Ed Wood (film)", "Lock Up Your Daughters (1959 film)", "science fiction", "Harvey B. Dunn", "TV Guide", "El Capitan Theatre", "Eddie Parker (actor)", "White Zombie (film)", "Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man", "The Unearthly", "Genesis flood narrative", "Rudolph Grey", "atomic energy", "Independent film", "Lulu (company)", "hypnosis", "William \"Billy\" Benedict", "villain", "Jail Bait (1954 film)", "Haunted house", "The Devil's Rejects", "The Bowery Boys", "Film colorization", "Paul Marco", "Crow T. Robot", "Tom Servo", "Bride of Frankenstein", "Film Threat", "Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932 film)", "The New York Times", "horror film", "Bela Lugosi", "Ed Wood filmography", "Conchita and the Engineer", "Mad scientist", "mushroom cloud", "List of killer octopus films" ]
5,036	Berry paradox	The Berry paradox is a self-referential paradox arising from an expression like "The smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters" (a phrase with fifty-seven letters). Bertrand Russell, the first to discuss the paradox in print, attributed it to G. G. Berry (1867–1928), a junior librarian at Oxford's Bodleian Library. Russell called Berry "the only person in Oxford who understood mathematical logic". The paradox was called "Richard's paradox" by Jean-Yves Girard. == Overview == Consider the expression: Since there are only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet, there are finitely many phrases of under sixty letters, and hence finitely many positive integers that are defined by phrases of under sixty letters. Since there are infinitely many positive integers, this means that there are positive integers that cannot be defined by phrases of under sixty letters. If there are positive integers that satisfy a given property, then there is a smallest positive integer that satisfies that property; therefore, there is a smallest positive integer satisfying the property "not definable in under sixty letters". This is the integer to which the above expression refers. But the above expression is only fifty-seven letters long, therefore it is definable in under sixty letters, and is not the smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters, and is not defined by this expression. This is a paradox: there must be an integer defined by this expression, but since the expression is self-contradictory (any integer it defines is definable in under sixty letters), there cannot be any integer defined by it. Mathematician and computer scientist Gregory Chaitin in The Unknowable (1999) adds this comment: "Well, the Mexican mathematical historian Alejandro Garcidiego has taken the trouble to find that letter [of Berry's from which Russell penned his remarks], and it is rather a different paradox. Berry’s letter actually talks about the first ordinal that can’t be named in a finite number of words. According to Cantor’s theory such an ordinal must exist, but we’ve just named it in a finite number of words, which is a contradiction." == Resolution == The Berry paradox as formulated above arises because of systematic ambiguity in the word "definable". In other formulations of the Berry paradox, such as one that instead reads: "...not nameable in less..." the term "nameable" is also one that has this systematic ambiguity. Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. To resolve one of these paradoxes means to pinpoint exactly where our use of language went wrong and to provide restrictions on the use of language which may avoid them. This family of paradoxes can be resolved by incorporating stratifications of meaning in language. Terms with systematic ambiguity may be written with subscripts denoting that one level of meaning is considered a higher priority than another in their interpretation. "The number not nameable0 in less than eleven words" may be nameable1 in less than eleven words under this scheme. However, one can read Alfred Tarski's contributions to the Liar Paradox to find how this resolution in languages falls short. Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in languages that are "semantically closed", by which he meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in the same language (or even of itself). To avoid self-contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth values to envision levels of languages, each of which can predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower level. So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of another, it is semantically higher. The sentence referred to is part of the "object language", while the referring sentence is considered to be a part of a "meta-language" with respect to the object language. It is legitimate for sentences in "languages" higher on the semantic hierarchy to refer to sentences lower in the "language" hierarchy, but not the other way around. This prevents a system from becoming self-referential. However, this system is incomplete. One would like to be able to make statements such as "For every statement in level α of the hierarchy, there is a statement at level α+1 which asserts that the first statement is false." This is a true, meaningful statement about the hierarchy that Tarski defines, but it refers to statements at every level of the hierarchy, so it must be above every level of the hierarchy, and is therefore not possible within the hierarchy (although bounded versions of the sentence are possible). Saul Kripke is credited with identifying this incompleteness in Tarski's hierarchy in his highly cited paper "Outline of a theory of truth," and it is recognized as a general problem in hierarchical languages. == Formal analogues == Using programs or proofs of bounded lengths, it is possible to construct an analogue of the Berry expression in a formal mathematical language, as has been done by Gregory Chaitin. Though the formal analogue does not lead to a logical contradiction, it does prove certain impossibility results. built on a formalized version of Berry's paradox to prove Gödel's incompleteness theorem in a new and much simpler way. The basic idea of his proof is that a proposition that holds of x if and only if x = n for some natural number n can be called a definition for n, and that the set {(n, k): n has a definition that is k symbols long} can be shown to be representable (using Gödel numbers). Then the proposition "m is the first number not definable in less than k symbols" can be formalized and shown to be a definition in the sense just stated. ==Relationship with Kolmogorov complexity== It is not possible in general to unambiguously define what is the minimal number of symbols required to describe a given string (given a specific description mechanism). In this context, the terms string and number may be used interchangeably, since a number is actually a string of symbols, e.g. an English word (like the word "eleven" used in the paradox) while, on the other hand, it is possible to refer to any word with a number, e.g. by the number of its position in a given dictionary or by suitable encoding. Some long strings can be described exactly using fewer symbols than those required by their full representation, as is often achieved using data compression. The complexity of a given string is then defined as the minimal length that a description requires in order to (unambiguously) refer to the full representation of that string. The Kolmogorov complexity is defined using formal languages, or Turing machines which avoids ambiguities about which string results from a given description. It can be proven that the Kolmogorov complexity is not computable. The proof by contradiction shows that if it were possible to compute the Kolmogorov complexity, then it would also be possible to systematically generate paradoxes similar to this one, i.e. descriptions shorter than what the complexity of the described string implies. That is to say, the definition of the Berry number is paradoxical because it is not actually possible to compute how many words are required to define a number, and we know that such computation is not possible because of the paradox.	[ "Alfred Tarski", "integer", "data compression", "Notices of the American Mathematical Society", "Richard's paradox", "Saul Kripke", "mathematical logic", "Harvard University Press", "formal language", "List of self–referential paradoxes", "librarian", "paradox", "vicious circle principle", "Gödel's incompleteness theorem", "University of Oxford", "Liar Paradox", "Gregory Chaitin", "ambiguity", "proposition", "Gödel number", "self-referential", "Jean-Yves Girard", "Self-reference", "Bodleian Library", "Positive number", "name", "Turing machines", "Bertrand Russell" ]
5,038	List of Olympic medalists in biathlon	This is the complete list of Olympic medalists in biathlon. Medalists in military patrol, a precursor to biathlon, are listed separately. ==Men== The numbers in brackets denotes biathletes who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time. Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines. ===Individual (20 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Sprint (10 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Pursuit (12.5 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Mass start (15 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Relay (4×7.5 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ==Women== The numbers in brackets denotes biathletes who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time. Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines. ===Individual (15 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Sprint (7.5 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Pursuit (10 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Mass start (12.5 km)=== ==== Medals ==== ===Relay (4×6 km)=== The women's relay event has been competed over three different distances: 3×7.5 km — 1992 4×7.5 km — 1994–2002 4×6 km — 2006–2018 ==== Medals ==== == Mixed== ===Relay=== ==== Medals ==== ==Statistics== ===Medal table=== Note This table includes 1924 military patrol medals. ===Biathlete medal leaders=== Men Women * denotes all Olympics in which mentioned biathletes took part. Boldface denotes latest Olympics. ===Biathletes with most victories=== Top 10 biathletes who won more gold medals at the Winter Olympics are listed below. Boldface denotes active biathletes and highest medal count among all biathletes (including those not in the tables) per type. ====Men==== ====Women==== * denotes only those Olympics at which mentioned biathletes won at least one medal ==Medals per year== bolded numbers indicate the highest medal count at that year's Olympic Games.	[ "Vladimir Alikin", "Svetlana Sleptsova", "Frank Luck", "Mauri Röppänen", "Said Karimulla Khalili", "Linda Tjørhom", "Pieralberto Carrara", "Gerhard Winkler (biathlete)", "Gilles Marguet", "Tore Eriksson", "Denise Herrmann", "Biathlon World Cup", "Simon Schempp", "Karin Oberhofer", "Michal Krčmář", "Yuliia Dzhima", "Fabien Claude", "Delphyne Peretto", "Nikolay Kruglov", "Sergei Bulygin", "Christoph Sumann", "Sergey Novikov (biathlete)", "Dominik Windisch", "Olle Petrusson", "Delphyne Heymann", "Tora Berger", "Arnd Peiffer", "Anfisa Reztsova", "Franziska Preuß", "Björn Ferry", "Walter Pichler (biathlete)", "Frank Ullrich", "Lukas Hofer", "biathlon", "Wolfgang Perner", "Biathlon at the 2022 Winter Olympics", "Sergei Tarasov (biathlete)", "Raphaël Poirée", "Sturla Holm Lægreid", "Ivan Tcherezov", "Esko Saira", "Dag Bjørndalen", "Harri Eloranta", "Johannes Thingnes Bø", "Dmitry Vasilyev (biathlete)", "Anastasiya Kuzmina", "Joachim Meischner", "Stefan Höck", "Corinne Niogret", "military patrol", "Uschi Disl", "Karl-Heinz Menz", "Ville Räikkönen", "Ann Kristin Flatland", "Svetlana Petcherskaia", "Klas Lestander", "Aleksandr Elizarov", "Marie Dorin", "Irina Kazakevich", "Nikolay Kruglov, Jr.", "Lars-Göran Arwidson", "Annette Sikveland", "Gunn Margit Andreassen", "Biathlon at the 2014 Winter Olympics", "Katrin Apel", "Magdalena Neuner", "Vanessa Hinz", "Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm", "Valeri Kiriyenko", "Viktor Maigourov", "Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen", "Biathlon at the 2018 Winter Olympics", "Heikki Ikola", "Galina Kukleva", "Albina Akhatova", "Werner Kiem", "Ekaterina Dafovska", "Peter Angerer", "Laura Dahlmeier", "Antti Tyrväinen", "Kati Wilhelm", "Lilia Vaygina-Efremova", "Viktor Mamatov", "Dieter Speer", "Ricco Groß", "Dorothea Wierer", "Peter Sendel", "Jean-Guillaume Béatrix", "Simone Hauswald", "Mark Kirchner", "Ivan Biakov", "Alexander Loginov (biathlon)", "Magdalena Forsberg", "Ola Wærhaug", "Vita Semerenko", "Jon Istad", "Juri Kashkarov", "Maxim Chudov", "Anatoly Alyabyev", "Sebastian Samuelsson", "Émilien Jacquelin", "Martina Beck", "Olga Medvedtseva", "Tiril Eckhoff", "Natalya Snytina", "Matthias Jacob", "Daniel Mesotitsch", "Algimantas Šalna", "Andrea Henkel", "Gottlieb Taschler", "Biathlon at the 2010 Winter Olympics", "Hans Estner", "Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée", "Hansjörg Knauthe", "Biathlon at the 1992 Winter Olympics", "Julia Simon (biathlete)", "Frode Andresen", "Biathlon at the 1960 Winter Olympics", "Eva Puskarčíková", "Biathlon at the 1976 Winter Olympics", "Hervé Flandin", "Biathlon at the 1980 Winter Olympics", "Ondřej Moravec", "Juhani Suutarinen", "Veronika Vítková", "Irina Nikulchina", "Sergei Tchepikov", "Valentyna Semerenko", "Biathlon at the 1988 Winter Olympics", "Martin Fourcade", "Olga Zaitseva", "Alexey Volkov (biathlete)", "Halvard Hanevold", "Biathlon at the 1984 Winter Olympics", "Emil Hegle Svendsen", "Benedikt Doll", "Ferréol Cannard", "Aleksandr Privalov", "Peppe Femling", "Magnar Solberg", "Ole Einar Bjørndalen", "Julien Robert", "Marte Olsbu Røiseland", "Linn Persson", "Petra Behle", "Simon Eder", "Fanny Horn Birkeland", "Vincent Defrasne", "Yelena Belova (biathlete)", "Erik Lesser", "Marte Olsbu", "Yelena Melnikova", "Evgeny Redkin", "Svetlana Mironova (biathlete)", "Evgeny Ustyugov", "Olena Petrova", "Lionel Laurent", "Anaïs Chevalier-Bouchet", "Vincent Jay", "Eirik Kvalfoss", "Odd Lirhus", "Anton Smolski", "Anaïs Chevalier", "Manfred Beer", "Valentina Tserbe-Nessina", "Selina Gasparin", "Vladimir Melanin", "Pavel Muslimov", "Nadezhda Skardino", "Svetlana Paramygina", "Gabriela Soukalová", "Frank-Peter Roetsch", "Marie Dorin Habert", "Evgeniy Garanichev", "Nikolay Puzanov", "Elvira Öberg", "Anna Carin Olofsson-Zidek", "Vanessa Voigt", "Alexander Tikhonov", "Daniel Böhm", "Svetlana Ishmouratova", "Egil Gjelland", "Sylvie Becaert", "Liv Grete Skjelbreid", "Iryna Kryuko", "Eduard Latypov", "Jens Steinigen", "Tord Wiksten", "Klaus Siebert", "Olga Vilukhina", "Olga Romasko", "Maxim Tsvetkov", "Mona Brorsson", "Olga Melnik", "Biathlon at the 1964 Winter Olympics", "Anna Bogaliy-Titovets", "Myriam Bédard", "Sandrine Bailly", "Jitka Landová", "Biathlon at the 2006 Winter Olympics", "Lisa Vittozzi", "Michael Greis", "Fritz Fischer (biathlete)", "Pavol Hurajt", "Elena Khrustaleva", "Jesper Nelin", "Uliana Nigmatullina", "Martin Ponsiluoma", "Jakov Fak", "Olav Jordet", "Vladimir Barnashov", "Olena Pidhrushna", "Anton Shipulin", "Ernst Reiter", "Hanna Öberg", "Alexandr Popov (biathlete)", "Anne Briand", "Manfred Geyer", "Lars Helge Birkeland", "Luiza Noskova", "Kristina Reztsova", "Dominik Landertinger", "Tarjei Bø", "Justine Braisaz", "Horst Koschka", "Florence Baverel-Robert", "Alexei Aidarov", "Vladimir Drachev", "Biathlon at the 1968 Winter Olympics", "Dmitry Malyshko", "Antje Harvey", "Michael Rösch", "Anaïs Bescond", "Rolf Storsveen", "Kjell Søbak", "Véronique Claudel", "Leif Andersson (biathlete)", "Anna Magnusson", "Ulf Johansson", "Military patrol at the 1924 Winter Olympics", "Justine Braisaz-Bouchet", "Biathlon at the 1998 Winter Olympics", "Pavel Rostovtsev", "Russian Olympic Committee at the Olympics", "Biathlon at the 2002 Winter Olympics", "Fredrik Lindström (biathlete)", "Simon Desthieux", "Eberhard Rösch", "Nadezhda Talanova", "Martina Zellner", "Mathias Jung", "Mikael Löfgren", "Vladimir Gundartsev", "Biathlon at the 1972 Winter Olympics", "Biathlon at the 1994 Winter Olympics", "Patrice Bailly-Salins", "Ann-Elen Skjelbreid", "Marie-Laure Brunet", "Teja Gregorin", "Quentin Fillon Maillet", "Andreas Zingerle", "Henrik Flöjt", "List of IOC country codes", "Franz Bernreiter", "Thierry Dusserre", "Rinnat Safin", "Sven Fischer", "Darya Domracheva", "Biathlon World Championships", "Dzinara Alimbekava", "Jaroslav Soukup", "Valeriy Medvedtsev", "Holmfrid Olsson", "Tomasz Sikora", "Johann Passler" ]
5,039	Biathlon World Championships	The first Biathlon World Championships (BWCH) was held in 1958, with individual and team contests for men. The original team event, Team (time), was held for the last time in 1965, to be replaced in 1966 by the team event, Relay (4 × 7.5 km), which we know today. The number of events has grown significantly over the years. Beginning in 1984, women biathletes had their own World Championships, and finally, from 1989, both genders have been participating in joint Biathlon World Championships. In 1978 the development was enhanced by the change from the large army rifle calibre to a small bore rifle, while the range to the target was reduced from 150 to 50 meters. ==Venues== The Biathlon World Championships of the season takes place during February or March. Some years it has been necessary to schedule parts of the Championships at other than the main venue because of weather and/or snow conditions. Full, joint Biathlon World Championships have never been held in Olympic Winter Games seasons. Biathlon World Championships in non-IOC events, however, have been held in Olympic seasons. In 2005, the then new event of Mixed Relay (two legs done by women, two legs by men) was arranged separately from the ordinary Championships. Past Championships: 1958 Saalfelden, Austria 1959 Courmayeur, Italy 1961 Umeå, Sweden 1962 Hämeenlinna, Finland 1963 Seefeld, Austria 1965 Elverum, Norway 1966 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, West Germany 1967 Altenberg, East Germany (first event in East Europe) 1969 Zakopane, Poland 1970 Östersund, Sweden 1971 Hämeenlinna, Finland 1973 Lake Placid, New York, United States (first event outside Europe and in the Americas) 1974 Minsk, USSR 1975 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 1976 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy (Sprint) 1977 Vingrom, Norway 1978 Hochfilzen, Austria 1979 Ruhpolding, West Germany 1981 Lahti, Finland 1982 Minsk, USSR 1983 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 1984 Chamonix, France (Women) 1985 Ruhpolding, West Germany (Men) and Egg am Etzel (near Einsiedeln), Switzerland (Women) 1986 Oslo, Norway (Men) and Falun, Sweden (Women) 1987 Lake Placid, New York, United States (Men) and Lahti, Finland (Women) 1988 Chamonix, France (Women) 1989 Feistritz an der Drau, Austria (first joint Biathlon World Championships) 1990 Minsk, USSR; Oslo, Norway and Kontiolahti, Finland 1991 Lahti, Finland 1992 Novosibirsk, Russia (Team) 1993 Borovets, Bulgaria 1994 Canmore, Canada (Team) 1995 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 1996 Ruhpolding, Germany 1997 Brezno-Osrblie, Slovakia 1998 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Pursuit) and Hochfilzen, Austria (Team) 1999 Kontiolahti, Finland and Oslo, Norway 2000 Oslo, Norway and Lahti, Finland 2001 Pokljuka, Slovenia 2002 Oslo, Norway (Mass start) 2003 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia 2004 Oberhof, Germany 2005 Hochfilzen, Austria and Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed relay) 2006 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Mixed relay) 2007 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 2008 Östersund, Sweden 2009 Pyeongchang, South Korea (first event in Asia) 2010 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed relay) 2011 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia 2012 Ruhpolding, Germany 2013 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech Republic 2015 Kontiolahti, Finland 2016 Oslo, Norway 2017 Hochfilzen, Austria 2019 Östersund, Sweden 2020 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy 2021 Pokljuka, Slovenia 2023 Oberhof, Germany 2024 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech Republic 2025 Lenzerheide, Switzerland Upcoming: 2027 Otepää, Estonia 2028 Hochfilzen, Austria 2029 Oslo, Norway ==Men== Numbers in brackets denotes number of victories in corresponding disciplines. Boldface denotes record number of victories. ===Individual (20 km)=== This event was first held in 1958. Medal table ===Sprint (10 km)=== This event was first held in 1974. Medal table ===Pursuit (12.5 km)=== This event was first held in 1997. Medal table ===Mass start (15 km)=== This event was first held in 1999. Medal table ===Relay (4 × 7.5 km)=== This event was first held unofficially in 1965. It was a success, and replaced the team competition as an official event in 1966. Medal table ===Team (time)=== This event was held from 1958 to 1965. The times of the top 3 athletes from each country in the 20 km individual were added together (in 1958 the top 4). Medal table ===Team=== This event, a patrol race, was held from 1989 to 1998. 1989–93: 20 km. 1994–98: 10 km. Medal table ==Women== Numbers in brackets denotes number of victories in corresponding disciplines. Boldface denotes record number of victories. ===Individual (15 km)=== This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988 the distance was 10 km. Medal table ===Sprint (7.5 km)=== This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988 the distance was 5 km. Medal table ===Pursuit (10 km)=== This event was first held in 1997. Medal table ===Mass start (12.5 km)=== This event was first held in 1999. Medal table ===Relay (4 × 6 km)=== This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988, the event was 3 × 5 km. 1989–91: 3 × 7.5 km. 1993–2001: 4 × 7.5 km. In 2003, the leg distance was set to 6 km. Medal table ===Team=== This event, a patrol race, was held from 1989 to 1998. 1989–93: 15 km. 1994–98: 7.5 km. Medal table ==Mixed== Numbers in brackets denotes number of victories in corresponding disciplines. Boldface denotes record number of victories. ===Mixed relay=== This event was first held in 2005, at the Biathlon World Cup finals in Khanty-Mansiysk. In 2005–20, the women biathletes did the first two legs and the men did the following two (except 2006 when sequence was woman–man–woman–man), the women's ski legs were 6 km each while men ski legs were 7.5 km each (except 2005, 2006 and 2020 when ski legs were 6 km each for all relay members). In 2021, the starting gender became the result of an alternation: for the first time, men opened the relay and women closed it. Since then, this sequence alternates for each following edition. The distance skied became the same for all genders and depending on the one running the first leg (7.5 km if men run first, 6 km if women do), but in 2024 it became 6 km for every relay member no matter who runs first leg. Medal table ===Single mixed relay=== This event was first held in 2019. Each team consists of two members - man and woman. The first of the team members runs the first and third legs (3 km each), the other team member – the second and fourth legs (3 km and 4.5 km respectively). In 2019 and 2020 the women biathletes started single mixed relay and the men biathletes finished it, in 2021 this order was reversed. Since then, this order alternates for each following edition. Medal table ==Total medals by country== Updated after the 2025 Championships. ==Multiple medalists== Boldface denotes active biathletes and highest medal count among all biathletes (including these who not included in these tables) per type. ===Men=== ====All events==== ====Individual events==== ===Women=== ====All events==== ====Individual events====	[ "Biathlon", "Pieralberto Carrara", "Franck Perrot", "Gilles Marguet", "Pyeongchang County", "Jan Szpunar", "Simon Schempp", "Biathlon World Cup", "Anne Elvebakk", "Enora Latuillière", "Fabien Claude", "Christoph Sumann", "Ivan Masařík", "Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva", "Natalia Ryzhenkova", "Biathlon World Championships 1983", "Sylfest Glimsdal", "Arnd Peiffer", "Anfisa Reztsova", "Biathlon World Championships 1963", "Franziska Preuß", "Sergei Novikov (biathlete)", "Poland", "Björn Ferry", "Walter Pichler (biathlete)", "Helena Mikołajczyk", "Sturla Holm Lægreid", "Ivan Tcherezov", "Rune Brattsveen", "Herbert Fritzenwenger", "Yvon Mougel", "Johannes Thingnes Bø", "Natalia Permiakova", "Wilfried Pallhuber", "Biathlon World Championships 1958", "Anton Babikov", "Svetlana Petcherskaia", "Magdalena Neuner", "Biathlon World Championships 1959", "Vladimir Gavrikov", "Lahti", "Wojciech Truchan", "Alfred Eder", "Alexis Bœuf", "Vanessa Hinz", "Werner Kiem", "Sergei Loschkin", "Biathlon World Championships 1971", "Dorothea Wierer", "Erkki Antila", "Mark Kirchner", "Jan Ziemianin", "Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold", "Biathlon World Championships 2006", "Vita Semerenko", "Anna Frolina", "Canada", "Maxim Chudov", "Daniel Mesotitsch", "Biathlon World Championships 1965", "Kateřina Holubcová", "Jon Åge Tyldum", "Helena Ekholm", "Biathlon World Championships 2010", "Egg am Etzel", "Maxim Maksimov", "Gabriela Suvová", "Christian Gow", "Czech Republic", "Sergei Tchepikov", "Biathlon World Championships 2005", "Martin Fourcade", "Sanna-Leena Perunka", "Alexey Volkov (biathlete)", "Emil Hegle Svendsen", "Christian Dumont", "Biathlon World Championships 1977", "Ole Einar Bjørndalen", "Natalia Guseva", "Vassiliy Makarov", "Marte Olsbu Røiseland", "Günther Bartnick", "Éric Perrot", "Biathlon World Championships 1976", "Hannu Posti", "Stig Andersson (biathlete)", "Jana Vápeníková", "Vincent Defrasne", "Terje Hanssen", "Terje Krokstad", "Iva Karagiozova-Shkodreva", "Evgeny Ustyugov", "Olena Petrova", "Odd Lirhus", "Kathy Schwaab", "Ekaterina Yurlova-Percht", "Johannes Kühn", "Valentina Tserbe-Nessina", "Simon Fourcade", "Maren Kirkeeide", "Paavo Puurunen", "André Sehmisch", "Tetyana Vodopyanova", "Alexander Ushakov (Biathlete)", "Ivar Michal Ulekleiv", "Elvira Öberg", "Zakopane", "Alexander Tikhonov", "Egil Gjelland", "Océane Michelon", "Liv Grete Skjelbreid", "Canmore, Alberta", "Irina Kokoueva", "Raimo Seppänen", "Elise Ringen", "Sandrine Bailly", "Irina Malgina", "Myriam Bédard", "Simo Halonen", "Nathalie Beausire", "Rustam Valiullin", "Scott Gow", "Raik Dittrich", "Biathlon World Championships 2019", "Biathlon World Championships 1970", "Aleksey Kobelev", "Russia", "Jakov Fak", "Ernst Reiter", "Tina Bachmann", "Anne Briand", "Biathlon World Championships 1984", "Lars Helge Birkeland", "Arvid Nyberg (biathlete)", "Khanty-Mansiysk", "Biathlon World Championships 1973", "Oslo", "Franziska Hildebrand", "Krystyna Liberda", "Biathlon World Championships 2000", "Émilien Claude", "Jiřína Adamičková-Pelcová", "Nikolay Meshcheryakov", "Biathlon World Championships 1982", "Michela Ponza", "Brendan Green", "Suvi Minkkinen", "Kari Swenson", "Lisa Theresa Hauser", "Olexander Bilanenko", "Mauno Peltonen", "Martina Zellner", "Olle Gunneriusson", "Mia Stadig", "Gennady Kovalev (biathlete)", "Patrice Bailly-Salins", "Marco Morgenstern", "Dunja Zdouc", "Nadezhda Aleksieva", "Venera Chernyshova", "Sanna Grønlid", "Samuela Comola", "Sven Fischer", "2011–12 Biathlon World Cup", "Biathlon World Championships 1966", "Josh Thompson (biathlete)", "Alexander Wolf", "Svetlana Sleptsova", "Frank Luck", "Novosibirsk", "Mauri Röppänen", "Norway", "Zvetana Krasteva", "Tore Eriksson", "Aivo Udras", "Yuliia Dzhima", "Biathlon World Championships 1990", "Nikolay Kruglov", "Darya Blashko", "Olle Petrusson", "Carl Johan Bergman", "Miriam Neureuther", "Viktor Butakov", "Delphyne Heymann", "Martina Halinárová", "Ella Halvarsson", "Stanisław Szczepaniak", "Lukas Hofer", "Bernd Helmich", "Biathlon World Championships 1979", "Esko Saira", "Biathlon World Championships 2008", "Maren Hammerschmidt", "Corinne Niogret", "Falun", "Ann Kristin Flatland", "Nina Lemesh", "Aleksandr Elizarov", "Nazim Mukhitov", "Kalevi Vähäkylä", "Tage Lundin", "Annette Sikveland", "Katrin Apel", "Józef Roczak", "Biathlon World Championships 1994", "Henrik L'Abée-Lund", "Soviet Union", "Emmanuelle Claret", "Wojciech Kozub", "Biathlon World Championships 1975", "Geir Einang", "Natalia Prikazchikova", "Nikolay Kruglov Jr.", "Andrei Senkov", "Laura Dahlmeier", "Ekaterina Dafovska", "Peter Angerer", "Igor Khokhriakov", "Kati Wilhelm", "Åse Idland", "Nikita Porshnev", "Dieter Speer", "Biathlon World Championships 1961", "Peter Sendel", "Jean-Guillaume Béatrix", "Alexander Loginov (biathlon)", "Magdalena Forsberg", "Ola Wærhaug", "Jon Istad", "Émilien Jacquelin", "Sebastian Samuelsson", "Olga Medvedtseva", "Sophie Boilley", "Tiril Eckhoff", "Teija Nieminen", "Algimantas Šalna", "Andreas Heymann", "Biathlon World Championships 1993", "Irene Schroll", "Gottlieb Taschler", "Östersund", "Urmas Kaldvee", "Hansjörg Knauthe", "Biathlon World Championships 2001", "Ivar Nordkild", "Christoph Stephan", "Frode Andresen", "Dorina Pieper", "Biathlon World Championships 2009", "Umeå", "Ondřej Moravec", "Veronika Vítková", "Lars Berger", "Biathlon World Championships 2013", "Anna Sprung", "David Komatz", "Aleksandr Privalov", "Biathlon World Championships 1962", "Hillar Zahkna", "Heinrich Mehringer", "Otepää", "Mari Lampinen", "Kontiolahti", "Alexander Syman", "Anna Stera", "Evgeny Redkin", "Aleksander Klima", "Jiří Holubec", "Eirik Kvalfoss", "Hans-Günther Jahn", "Manfred Beer", "Peter Schweiger", "Pavel Muslimov", "Holly Beatie", "Nicole Gontier", "Gabriela Soukalová", "Marie Dorin Habert", "Olga Nazarova (biathlete)", "Vanessa Voigt", "Ekaterina Iourieva", "Sylvie Becaert", "Biathlon World Championships 2027", "Synnøve Thoresen", "Klaus Siebert", "Petra Bauer (biathlete)", "Rasen-Antholz", "Olga Romasko", "Inna Sheshkil", "Switzerland", "Lisa Vittozzi", "Anna Bogaliy-Titovets", "Markéta Davidová", "Michael Greis", "Fritz Fischer (biathlete)", "Vladimir Barnashov", "Olav Jordet", "Delphine Peretto", "Egil Nygård", "Célia Aymonier", "Tommaso Giacomel", "Kalju Ojaste", "Unni Kristiansen", "East Germany", "Delphyne Heymann-Burlet", "Vladimir Drachev", "Elena Batsevich", "Antje Harvey", "Biathlon World Championships 1996", "Andrejs Rastorgujevs", "Anaïs Bescond", "Biathlon World Championships 1974", "Rolf Storsveen", "Anna Magnusson", "Biathlon World Championships 2020", "Lake Placid, New York", "Pavel Rostovtsev", "Sven Agge", "Denise Herrmann-Wick", "Fredrik Lindström (biathlete)", "Eberhard Rösch", "Gisle Fenne", "Nadiya Billova", "Steffen Hoos", "Tomáš Kos", "Hildegunn Fossen", "Vladimir Gundartsev", "Danilo Riethmüller", "Austria", "Saalfelden", "Thierry Dusserre", "Alexander Gubin", "Rinnat Safin", "Darya Domracheva", "Hanna Kebinger", "Biathlon World Championships 2002", "Holmfrid Olsson", "Tomasz Sikora", "Jessica Jislová", "Johann Passler", "Vladimir Alikin", "Said Karimulla Khalili", "Daniela Hörburger", "Gerhard Winkler (biathlete)", "Karin Oberhofer", "Sven Nilsson (biathlete)", "Winter Olympic Games", "Janina Hettich-Walz", "France", "Susan Dunklee", "Oksana Neupokoeva", "Michal Krčmář", "Sabine Karlsson", "Petr Ivashko", "Tora Berger", "Matvey Eliseev", "Biathlon World Championships 1981", "Birk Anders", "Zofia Kiełpińska", "Antonin Guigonnat", "Elin Kristiansen", "Tapio Piipponen", "Biathlon World Championships 1967", "Alexia Runggaldier", "Biathlon World Championships 1995", "Alexander Tropnikov", "Biathlon World Championships 2028", "Dmitry Vasilyev (biathlete)", "Olena Zubrilova", "Anastasiya Kuzmina", "Sophia Schneider", "Kaija Parve", "Philipp Nawrath", "Gunn Margit Andreassen", "Øivind Nerhagen", "Altenberg, Saxony", "Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm", "Viktor Maigourov", "Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen", "Maria Manolova", "North Karelia", "Svetlana Tchernousova", "Oksana Yakovleva", "Gro Marit Istad Kristiansen", "Ferreol Cannard", "Galina Kukleva", "Linda Grubben", "Summer Biathlon World Championships", "Tuija Vuoksiala", "Iryna Merkushina", "Estonia", "Garmisch-Partenkirchen", "Campbell Wright", "Eva Burešová", "Anatoly Alyabyev", "Julian Eberhard", "Karoline Offigstad Knotten", "United States", "Alexander Os", "Andreas Birnbacher", "Andreas Schweiger", "Ragnhild Femsteinevik", "Eva Puskarčíková", "Biathlon World Championships 2011", "Hervé Flandin", "Inga Kesper", "Olga Podchufarova", "Valentyna Semerenko", "Pokljuka", "Weronika Nowakowska", "Halvard Hanevold", "Benedikt Doll", "Magnar Solberg", "Sergei Rozhkov", "Gry Østvik", "Frode Løberg", "Julien Robert", "David Ekholm", "Linn Persson", "Petra Behle", "Stian Eckhoff", "Simon Eder", "Tim Burke (biathlete)", "Herbert Wiegand", "Seefeld, Tirol", "Fanny Horn Birkeland", "Eva Háková", "Lionel Laurent", "Anaïs Chevalier-Bouchet", "Stéphane Bouthiaux", "Feistritz an der Drau", "Anna Carin Zidek", "Nadezhda Skardino", "Vingrom", "Biathlon World Championships 1992", "René Cattarinussi", "Andriy Deryzemlya", "Svetlana Paramygina", "Anastasiya Merkushyna", "Inger Björkbom", "Biathlon World Championships 2017", "Valentin Pshenitsyn", "Patrick Favre", "Hannah Auchentaller", "Tiina Mikkola", "Justus Strelow", "Eduard Latypov", "Jaroslav Soukup", "Olga Simushina", "Chamonix", "Dmitri Sokolov (biathlete)", "Maxim Tsvetkov", "Ilmārs Bricis", "Mona Brorsson", "Olga Melnik", "Endre Strømsheim", "Klemen Bauer", "Courmayeur", "Iryna Varvynets", "Roar Nilsen", "Iveta Knížková", "Jesper Nelin", "Martin Ponsiluoma", "Philipp Horn", "Roman Dostál", "Georg Fischer (skier)", "Olena Pidhrushna", "Anton Shipulin", "Lucie Charvátová", "West Germany", "Minsk", "Monika Hojnisz", "Luiza Noskova", "Jori Mørkve", "Tarjei Bø", "Elena Belova (biathlete)", "Tatiana Brylina", "Horst Koschka", "Florence Baverel-Robert", "Józef Gąsienica Sobczak", "Biathlon World Championships 1998", "Biathlon World Championships 2012", "Andrzej Rapacz", "Elena Golovina", "Oksana Khvostenko", "Pirjo Mattila", "Michael Rösch", "Biathlon World Championships 2007", "Nové Město na Moravě", "Asbjørn Bakken", "Torsten Wadman", "Sergei Konovalov (biathlete)", "Silvana Blogoeva", "Oleg Ryzhenkov", "Petr Miloradov", "Biathlon World Championships 2016", "Mathias Jung", "Biathlon World Championships 1978", "Hochfilzen", "Ruhpolding", "Nathan Smith (biathlete)", "Biathlon World Championships 1988", "Ragnar Tveiten", "Sweden", "Anatoly Zhdanovich", "Ann-Elen Skjelbreid", "Andreja Mali", "Valeriy Medvedtsev", "Viktor Semyonov", "Sture Ohlin", "Andreas Zingerle", "Biathlon World Championships 2023", "Renata Novotná", "Johannes Dale-Skjevdal", "Hansi Estner", "Tereza Voborníková", "Siv Bråten Lunde", "Vadim Sashurin", "Sun Ribo", "Delphyne Peretto", "Ida Lien", "Sergei Bulygin", "Dominik Windisch", "Biathlon World Championships 1985", "Natalia Sulzheva", "International Biathlon Union", "Michal Šlesingr", "Carsten Heymann", "Paavo Repo", "Frank Ullrich", "Sergei Tarasov (biathlete)", "Bulgaria", "Raphaël Poirée", "Dmytro Pidruchnyi", "Gheorghe Gârniță", "Biathlon World Championships 2004", "Dag Bjørndalen", "Viktor Brandt", "Uschi Disl", "Klas Lestander", "Sigleif Johansen", "Lenzerheide", "Józef Rubiś", "Xavier Blond (biathlete)", "Valeri Kiriyenko", "Kaisa Mäkäräinen", "Pavel Mouslimov", "Heikki Ikola", "Sophie Chauveau", "Esko Marttinen", "Albina Akhatova", "Kalevi Huuskonen", "Kerstin Moring", "Vítězslav Hornig", "Antti Tyrväinen", "Germany", "Viktor Mamatov", "Juri Kolmakov", "Dmitri Yaroshenko", "Wiesław Ziemianin", "Ricco Groß", "Didier Bionaz", "Simone Hauswald", "Petr Garabík", "Stanisław Łukaszczyk", "Ivar Skogsrud", "Juri Kashkarov", "Biathlon World Championships 1969", "Martina Beck", "Matthias Jacob", "Veikko Hakulinen", "Andrea Henkel", "Julie Newman", "Julia Simon (biathlete)", "Slovenia", "Andrea Grossegger", "Biathlon World Championships 2029", "Biathlon World Championships 1986", "Henry Hermansen", "Juhani Suutarinen", "Slovakia", "Olga Zaitseva", "Seija Hyytiäinen", "Peppe Femling", "Liudmila Kalinchik", "Rustam Valliulin", "Rolf Gråtrud", "Esten Gjelten", "Serhiy Semenov", "Svetlana Paniutina", "South Korea", "Biathlon World Championships 2021", "Kjell Hovda", "Biathlon World Championships 2025", "Erik Lesser", "Biathlon World Championships 1989", "Biathlon World Championships 1991", "Sverre Istad", "Biathlon World Championships 2015", "Vladimir Melanin", "Liudmila Zabolotnaya", "Ekaterina Ivanova (biathlete)", "Frank-Peter Roetsch", "Nikolay Puzanov", "Biathlon World Championships 2003", "Oberhof, Germany", "Italy", "Biathlon World Championships 1997", "Signe Trosten", "Franz Schuler", "Daniel Böhm", "Svetlana Ishmouratova", "Karolin Horchler", "Elverum", "Lou Jeanmonnot", "Jens Steinigen", "Krystyna Guzik", "Biathlon Junior World Championships", "Olga Vilukhina", "Friedrich Pinter", "Zdeněk Vítek", "Wolfgang Rottmann", "Biathlon World Championships 1987", "Knut Wold", "Christelle Gros", "Yu Shumei", "Biathlon World Championships 2024", "Tor Svendsberget", "Mona Bollerud", "Ralf Göthel", "Kåre Hovda", "Nadzeya Pisareva", "Tatiana Akimova", "Hanna Öberg", "Manfred Geyer", "Simon Demetz", "Katja Holanti", "Dominik Landertinger", "Synnøve Solemdal", "Hilde Fenne", "Józef Stopka", "Ludwig Zięba", "Alexei Aidarov", "Eva Korpela", "Dmitry Malyshko", "Jürgen Wirth", "Selina Grotian", "Brezno", "Adolf Wiklund (biathlete)", "Kjell Søbak", "Serhiy Sednev", "Hubert Leitgeb (biathlete)", "Véronique Claudel", "Roman Rees", "Finland", "Thierry Gerbier", "Justine Braisaz-Bouchet", "Hanna Sola", "Jan Matouš", "Hämeenlinna", "Simon Desthieux", "Nadezhda Talanova", "Liu Xianying", "Liudmilla Ananko", "Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo", "Luigi Weiss", "Sabrina Buchholz", "Vladimir Iliev", "Aleksandr Popov (biathlete)", "Vesa Hietalahti", "Borovets", "Teja Gregorin", "Biathlon World Championships 1999", "Quentin Fillon Maillet", "Henrik Flöjt", "Marie-Laure Brunet", "Franz Bernreiter", "Nadezda Aleksieva", "List of Olympic medalists in biathlon", "Franz Wudy", "Einsiedeln, Switzerland", "Lowell Bailey", "Ludwig Gredler" ]
5,040	Inedia	Inedia (Latin for 'fasting') or breatharianism ( ) is the claimed ability for a person to live without consuming food, and in some cases water. It is a pseudoscientific practice, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation or dehydration. ==Scientific assessment== Documented studies on the physiological effects of food restriction clearly show that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting. Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days. However, the hospital Jani attended has not published official documentation about the event. In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight. In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. ==Alleged practitioners== ===Rosicrucianism=== The 1670 Rosicrucian text Comte de Gabalis attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived "several years by taking only one-half scrupule of Solar Quintessence". In this book, it is also stated that "Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever." ===Ram Bahadur Bomjon ("Bakji")=== Ram Bahadur Bomjon is a Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal. Bomjon appears to go for long periods of time without ingesting either food or water. One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled The Boy With Divine Powers, which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming. The documentary makers were, however, prevented from filming Bomjon continuously for that period of time. His claims have never been objectively verified. ===Prahlad Jani ("Mataji")=== Prahlad Jani was an Indian sadhu who claimed to have lived without food and water for more than 70 years. Doctors at Sterling Hospital investigated his claims in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, in 2003 and 2010. The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for ten days without food and water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis. Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras. Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests. The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades. The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests. Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees, and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe. Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored and accused Jani of having had some "influential protectors" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation. ===Jasmuheen=== Jasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s. She said, "I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment." Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program 60 Minutes for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air. "I asked for fresh air. Seventy per cent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe," she said. On the third day, the test was moved to a mountainside retreat, where her condition continued to deteriorate. After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test. According to Wink, Jasmuheen's pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was "quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%". Towards the end of the test, she said, "Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. 60 Minutes would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now." The test was stopped. Wink said, "Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health." Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 ("presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for Living on Light. Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and "more recent channelled material" from St. Germain. She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to "absorb more hydrogen". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she did not understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself. , five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications. Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for three of the deaths. ===Wiley Brooks=== Wiley Brooks (1936–2016) was the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America. He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show That's Incredible! Brooks stopped teaching shortly before his death in 2016 to "devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely". Brooks claims to have found "four major deterrents" which prevented him from living without food: "people pollution", "food pollution", "air pollution", and "electro pollution". He told Colors magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance. Brooks later claimed that "All McDonalds are constructed on properties that are protected by 5th Dimensional high energy/spiritual portals", encouraging the consumption of Diet Coke and McDonald's Double-Quarter-Pounder/with cheese meal ("It is also acceptable to combine 2 quarter-pounder with cheese burgers to make one double-quarter pounder if you can't get the double-quarter-pounder with cheese where you live"), and discouraging the consumption of "water of any kind". The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds was a major part of Brooks' ideology, and Brooks encouraged his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as to meditate on a set of magical 5D words. Brooks's institute has set various prices for prospective clients wishing to learn how to live without food, ranging from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000, to fifty billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called an "Immortality workshop". A payment plan was also offered. These charges were typically presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires. ===Hira Ratan Manek=== Hira Ratan Manek (1937–2022) claimed that since 18 June 1995, he lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk. Manek stated that sungazing was the key to his health, citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayas, and Native Americans as practitioners of the art. While he and his proponents stated that medical experts confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the Sun, a method which came to be known as "HRM phenomenon" (by his initials), he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary Eat the Sun. ===Ray Maor=== In a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show The Real Face (פנים אמיתיות), hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of inedia Ray Maor (ריי מאור) appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights. According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing. The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment; that he lost after eight days; that blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment; and that cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was "baffled". ==Mythology and religion== ===Hinduism=== Some Hindu religious texts contain accounts of saints and hermits practising what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms. In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage. These included, among others, the "...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give" and "those ... whose food the wave of air supplies". In Canto XI of the same book, a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: "For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed..." (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation). Paramahansa Yogananda's 1946 book Autobiography of a Yogi details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Bala and Therese Neumann. There are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food. Some breatharians claim that humans can be sustained solely by prana, the vital life force in Hinduism. According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of prana, and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. ===Taoism=== Bigu (grain avoidance) is a fasting technique with various different interpretations, from simply avoiding eating specific grains, to avoiding all grains, to eating no food at all, and drawing sustenance from gulps of air. === Jainism === There are varying types of fasts practised by followers of Jainism. Some Jain monks and laities continuously fast for months. These fasts last six months or even longer. A Jain monk, Sahaj Muni Maharaj, is said to have completed his 365-day fast on 1 May 1998. Another Jain monk Hansaratna Vijayji was said to have completed 423-day fast in 494 days in 2015. He had previously claimed to have fasted for 108 days in 2013 and for 180 days in 2014. Several others have claimed to have fasted for six months. == Works == In the Beginning There Was Light, a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism Inedia, a 2024 drama film directed by Liz Cairns	[ "Prahlad Jani", "Bent Spoon Award", "Inedia (film)", "Sungazing", "Colors (magazine)", "sungazing", "Ramayana", "Australian Medical Association", "physical body", "Buddhism in Nepal", "ABC News (United States)", "BBC News", "Ram Bahadur Bomjon", "Twinkie", "Rosicrucianism", "Māṇḍakarṇi", "cheeseburger", "wire transfer", "Herald Sun", "buttermilk", "stress (medicine)", "In the Beginning There Was Light", "glycogen", "List of diets", "Diet Coke", "junk food", "Quarter Pounder", "Liz Cairns", "Comte de Gabalis", "Therese Neumann", "Adobe Flash", "Rama", "Bigu (grain avoidance)", "Subtle body", "The New Zealand Herald", "University of Massachusetts Press", "Hinduism", "DNA", "Google Videos", "Starvation diet", "Devraha Baba", "Ahmedabad Mirror", "CNN", "sadhu", "starvation", "Indian Rationalist Association", "Aztec", "Yahoo News", "WP:SEEALSO", "Ahmedabad", "Maya peoples", "Closed-circuit television", "British Dietetic Association", "7-Eleven", "pollution", "dehydration", "60 Minutes (Australian TV program)", "Kidney dialysis", "Slurpee", "cardiologist", "Asceticism", "Anorexia mirabilis", "hot dog", "St. Germain (Theosophy)", "Ralph T. H. Griffith", "Sanal Edamaruku", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "The Sunday Times (UK)", "McDonald's", "The Hindu", "Ayurveda", "feces", "Associated Press", "Autobiography of a Yogi", "channelling (mediumistic)", "prana", "Fasting girls", "That's Incredible!", "urine", "Jasmuheen", "Jainism", "Nepal", "Investigative journalism", "Paramahansa Yogananda", "The Times of India", "Australian Skeptics", "Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center", "Kumbhaka", "Ig Nobel Prize", "Paracelsus", "Ancient Egypt", "cola", "fasting", "yogi", "pseudoscience", "Śarabhanga", "sunlight", "Scientific skepticism", "Santa Cruz, California" ]
5,041	Bihar (disambiguation)	Bihar is a state in India. Bihar may also refer to: ==Places== ===India=== Bihar Province, former colonial province in British India Bihar Subah, a Bihar-based Mughal imperial province Bihar Sharif, headquarters of Nalanda district, Bihar, India Bihar Circuit, a Hindi film distribution circuit comprising Bihar, Jharkhand and Nepal Bihar River, a border river of Palamu district, Jharkhand, India Bihar, Unnao, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India ===Elsewhere=== Bihar County, a historic county of the Kingdom of Hungary Bihor County (Bihar County in Hungarian), a county of current-day Romania Bihar, the Hungarian name for Biharia Commune, Bihor County, Romania ==People== Bihar (king), a khagan of the Khazars	[ "Bihar", "Bihar River", "Hajdú-Bihar", "Bihar Sharif", "Behar (disambiguation)", "Bihar Province", "Cooch Behar State", "Bihar County", "Bihar (king)", "Bihar al-Anwar", "Bihari (disambiguation)", "Bihar, Unnao", "Biharia", "Bihor County", "Palamu district", "Bihar Subah", "Cooch Behar (disambiguation)", "Bihor (disambiguation)", "Bihar Circuit" ]
5,046	Belfast	{{Infobox settlement \| name = City of Belfast \| native_name = \| settlement_type = Capital city, district, and borough \| image_skyline = \| imagesize = \| image_alt = \| image_caption = \| image_flag = \| flag_alt = \| image_shield = Coat of Arms of Belfast.png \| shield_alt = \| shield_link = Coat of arms of Belfast \| image_blank_emblem = \| blank_emblem_size = \| blank_emblem_type = \| blank_emblem_link = \| etymology = \| nickname = \| motto = \| image_map = \| map_alt = \| map_caption = Belfast district \| pushpin_map = Northern Ireland#United Kingdom \| pushpin_relief = yes \| coordinates = \| subdivision_type = Sovereign state \| subdivision_name = United Kingdom \| subdivision_type1 = Country \| subdivision_name1 = Northern Ireland \| subdivision_type2 = \| subdivision_name2 = \| subdivision_type3 = \| subdivision_name3 = \| subdivision_type4 = \| subdivision_name4 = \| established_title = Incorporated \| established_date = 1 April 2015 \| established_title1 = \| established_date1 = \| named_for = \| seat_type = AdministrativeHQ \| seat = City Hall \| government_footnotes = \| government_type = District council \| governing_body = Belfast City Council \| leader_title = Executive \| leader_name = Committee system \| leader_title1 = Control \| leader_name1 = \| leader_title2 = \| leader_name2 = \| leader_title3 = MPs \| leader_name3 = \| leader_title4 = MLAs \| leader_name4 = \| area_footnotes = \| area_total_km2 = \| area_land_km2 = \| area_water_km2 = \| area_rank = Local government in Northern Ireland#Local government districts\| \| population_footnotes = First chartered as an English settlement in 1613, the town's early growth was driven by an influx of Scottish Presbyterians. Their descendants' disaffection with Ireland's Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain in 1800—later regarded as a key to the town's industrial transformation. When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the world's largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage. Sectarian tensions existed with the Irish Catholic population that was drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts. Heightened by division over Ireland's future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets. A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts. Since the Good Friday Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists. At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions. Belfast has seen significant services sector growth, with important contributions from financial technology (fintech), from tourism and, with facilities in the redeveloped Harbour Estate, from film. It retains a port with commercial and industrial docks, including a reduced Harland & Wolff shipyard and aerospace and defence contractors. Post Brexit, Belfast and Northern Ireland remain, uniquely, within both the British domestic and European Single trading areas for goods. The city is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, located on the Lough shore, and Belfast International Airport (also known as Aldergrove), located west of the city. It supports two universities: on the north-side of the city centre, Ulster University, and on the southside the longer established Queens University. Since 2021, Belfast has been a UNESCO designated City of Music. == History == === Name === The name Belfast derives from the Irish (), "Mouth of the Farset", a river whose name in the Irish, Feirste, refers to a sandbar or tidal ford. This was formed where the river ran—until culverted late in the 18th century, down High Street— into the Lagan. It was at this crossing, located under or close to the current Queen's Bridge, that the early settlement developed. The compilers of Ulster-Scots use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of "Belfast" (with which they sometimes are also content) including Bilfawst, Bilfaust or Baelfawst. As a legacy of emigration, Belfast has lent its name to more than a dozen settlements in the United States, of which the largest is Belfast, Maine, and to one each in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. === Early settlements === The site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. At the beginning of the 14th century, Papal tax rolls record two churches: the "Chapel of Dundela" at Knock (Irish: , meaning "hill") in the east, connected by some accounts to the 7th-century evangelist St. Colmcille,and, the "Chapel of the Ford", which may have been a successor to a much older parish church on the present Shankill (Seanchill, "Old Church") Road, and possibly to St. Patrick in the mid 5th, century. A Norman settlement at the ford, comprising the parish church (now St. George's), a watermill, and a small fort, was an outpost of Carrickfergus Castle. Established in the late 12th century, out along the north shore of the Lough, Carrickfergus was to remain the principal English foothold in the north-east until the scorched- earth Nine Years' War at the end of the 16th century broke the remaining Irish power, the O'Neills. === Developing port, radical politics === With a commission from King James VI and I, in 1613 Sir Arthur Chichester undertook the Plantation of Belfast and the surrounding area, attracting mainly English and Manx settlers. The subsequent arrival of Scottish Presbyterians embroiled Belfast in its only recorded siege: denounced from London by John Milton as "ungrateful and treacherous guests", in 1649 the newcomers were temporarily expelled by an English Parliamentarian army. In 1689, Catholic Jacobite forces, briefly in command of the town, abandoned it in advance of the landing at Carrickfergus of William, Prince of Orange, who proceeded through Belfast to his celebrated victory on 12 July 1690 at the Boyne. Together with French Huguenots, the Scots introduced the production of linen, a flax-spinning industry that in the 18th century carried Belfast trade to the Americas. Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York City; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed and tobacco from the colonies. From the 1760s, profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the Lagan Canal, new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through Dublin. Abolitionist sentiment, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, Cunningham and Greg, in 1786 to commission ships for the Middle Passage.As "Dissenters" from the established Anglican church (with its episcopacy and ritual), Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament. Belfast's two MPs remained nominees of the Chichesters (Marquesses of Donegall). With their emigrant kinsmen in America, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from the Crown. When early in the American War of Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled their own Volunteer militia. Formed ostensibly for defence of the Kingdom, Volunteer corps were soon pressing their own protest against "taxation without representation". Further emboldened by the French Revolution, a more radical element in the town, the Society of United Irishmen, called for Catholic emancipation and a representative national government. In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection. The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the Battle of Antrim and to the south at the Battle of Ballynahinch. Britain seized on the rebellion to abolish the Irish Parliament, unlamented in Belfast, and to incorporate Ireland in a United Kingdom. In 1832, British parliamentary reform permitted the town its first electoral contest – an occasion for an early and lethal sectarian riot. === Industrial expansion, sectarian division === While other Irish towns experienced a loss of manufacturing, from the 1820s Belfast underwent rapid industrial expansion. After a cotton boom and bust, the town emerged as the global leader in the production of linen goods (mill, and finishing, work largely employing women and children), winning the moniker "Linenopolis". Shipbuilding led the development of heavier industry. By the 1900s, her shipyards were building up to a quarter of the total United Kingdom tonnage, and on the eve of the Great War, in 1914, close one eighth of world production.'' Other major export industries included textile machinery, rope, tobacco and mineral waters. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised and dominated the apprenticed trades and gave a new lease of life to the once largely rural Orange Order. Sectarian tensions, which frequently broke out in riots and workplace expulsions, were also driven by the "constitutional question": the prospect of a restored Irish parliament in which Protestants (and northern industry) feared being a minority interest. This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000-strong Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The immediate crisis was averted by the onset of the Great War. The UVF formed the 36th (Ulster) Division whose sacrifices in the Battle of the Somme continue to be commemorated in the city by unionist and loyalist organisations. In 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six counties remaining as Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, there was widespread violence. 8,000 "disloyal" workers were driven from their jobs in the shipyards: in addition to Catholics, "rotten Prods" – Protestants whose labour politics disregarded sectarian distinctions. Gun battles, grenade attacks and house burnings contributed to as many as 500 deaths. A curfew remained in force until 1924. Industry had been paralysed by strikes in 1907 and again in 1919 (when the city was effectively policed by strikers). Until "troubles" returned at the end of the 1960s, it was not uncommon in Belfast for the Ulster Unionist Party to have its council and parliamentary candidates returned unopposed. In 1932, the opening of the new buildings for Northern Ireland's devolved Parliament at Stormont was overshadowed by the protests of the unemployed and ten days of running street battles with the police. The government conceded increases in Outdoor Relief, but labour unity was short lived. characterised as another instance of No-Popery. In 1938, nearly a third of industrial workers were unemployed, malnutrition was a major issue, and at 9.6% the city's infant mortality rate (compared with 5.9% in Sheffield, England) was among the highest in United Kingdom. === The Blitz and post-war development === In the spring of 1941, the German Luftwaffe appeared twice over Belfast. In addition to the shipyards and the Short & Harland aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, and devastated the old town centre around High Street. In the greatest loss of life in any air raid outside of London, more than a thousand people were killed. At the end of the Second World War, the Unionist government undertook programmes of "slum clearance" (the Blitz had exposed the "uninhabitable" condition of much of the city's housing) which involved decanting populations out of mill and factory built red-brick terraces and into new peripheral housing estates. At the same time, a British-funded welfare state "revolutionised access" to education and health care. The resulting rise in expectations; together with the uncertainty caused by the decline of the city's Victorian-era industries, contributed to growing protest, and counter protest, in the 1960s over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights. === The Troubles === For reasons that nationalists and unionists dispute, the public protests of the late 1960s soon gave way to communal violence (in which as many as 60,000 people were intimidated from their homes) and to loyalist and republican paramilitarism. Introduced onto the streets in August 1969, the British Army committed to the longest continuous deployment in its history, Operation Banner. Beginning in 1970 with the Falls curfew, and followed in 1971 by internment, this included counterinsurgency measures directed chiefly at the Provisional Irish Republican Army. The PIRA characterised their operations, including the bombing of Belfast's commercial centre, as a struggle against British occupation. Preceded by loyalist and republican ceasefires, the 1998 "Good Friday" Belfast Agreement returned a new power-sharing legislative assembly and executive to Stormont. In the intervening years in Belfast, some 20,000 people had been injured, and 1,500 killed. Eighty-five percent of the conflict-related deaths had occurred within 1,000 metres of the communal interfaces, largely in the north and west of the city. The 14 neighbourhoods they separate are among the 20 most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all peace lines by mutual consent. The target date of 2023 was passed with only a small number dismantled. The more affluent districts escaped the worst of the violence, but the city centre was a major target. This was especially so during the first phase of the PIRA campaign in the early 1970s, when the organisation hoped to secure quick political results through maximum destruction. === 21st century === Since the turn of the century, the loss of employment and population in the city centre has been reversed. This reflects the growth of the service economy, for which a new district has been developed on former dockland, the Titanic Quarter. The growing tourism sector paradoxically lists as attractions the murals and peace walls that echo the violence of the past. The demographic balance of some areas has been changed by immigration (according to the 2021 census just under 10% of the city's population was born outside the British Isles), by local differences in births and deaths between Catholics and Protestants, and by a growing number of, particularly younger, people no longer willing to self-identify on traditional lines. In the 2016 Brexit referendum, Belfast's four parliamentary constituencies returned a substantial majority (60 percent) for remaining within the European Union, as did Northern Ireland as a whole (55.8), the only UK region outside London and Scotland to do so. In February 2022, the Democratic Unionist Party, which had actively campaigned for Brexit, withdrew from the power-sharing executive and collapsed the Stormont institutions to protest the 2020 UK-EU Northern Ireland Protocol. With the promise of equal access to the British and European markets, this designates Belfast as a point of entry to the European Single Market within whose regulatory framework local producers will continue to operate. After two years, the standoff was resolved with an agreement to eliminate routine checks on UK-destined goods. == Cityscape == === Location and topography === Belfast is at the mouth of the River Lagan at the head of Belfast Lough open through the North Channel to the Irish Sea and to the North Atlantic. In the course of the 19th century, the location's estuarine features were re-engineered. With dredging and reclamation, the lough was made to accommodate a deep sea port, and extensive shipyards. The Lagan was banked (in 1994 a weir raised its water level to cover what remained of the tidal mud flats) and its various tributaries were culverted On the model pioneered in 2008 by the Connswater Community Greenway some, including the course of the Farset, are now being considered for "daylighting". It remains the case that much of the city centre is built on an estuarine bed of "sleech": silt, peat, mud and—a source the city's ubiquitous red brick— soft clay, that presents a challenge for high-rise construction. (In 2007 this unstable foundation persuaded St Anne's Cathedral to abandon plans for a bell tower and substitute a lightweight steel spire). The city centre is also subject to tidal flood risk. Rising sea levels could mean, that without significant investment, flooding in the coming decades will be persistent. The city is overlooked on the County Antrim side (to the north and northwest) by a precipitous basalt escarpment—the near continuous line of Divis Mountain (478 m), Black Mountain (389 m) and Cavehill (368 m)—whose "heathery slopes and hanging fields are visible from almost any part of the city". Together with areas of more substantial housing in the Oldpark district, these are wedged between Protestant working-class housing stretching from Tiger's Bay out the Shore Road on one side, and up the Shankill (the original Antrim Road) on the other. The Greater Shankill area, including Crumlin and Woodvale, is over the line from the Belfast North parliamentary/assembly constituency, but is physically separated from the rest of Belfast West by an extensive series of separation barriers—peace walls—owned (together with five daytime gates into the Falls area) by the Department of Justice. These include Cupar Way where tourists are informed that, at 45 feet, the barrier is "three times higher than the Berlin Wall and has been in place for twice as long". With other working-class districts, Shankill suffered from the "collapse of old industrial Belfast". But it was also greatly affected from the 1960s by the city's most ambitious programme of "slum clearance". Red-brick, "two up, two down" terraced streets, typical of 19th century working-class housing, were replaced with flats, maisonettes, and car parks but few facilities. In a period of twenty years, due largely to redevelopment, 50,000 residents left the area leaving an aging population of 26,000 Meanwhile, road schemes, including the terminus of the M1 motorway and the Westlink, demolished a mixed dockland community, Sailortown, and severed the streets linking the Shankill area and the rest of both north and west Belfast to the city centre. New "green field" housing estates were built on the outer edges of the city. The onset of the Troubles overwhelmed attempts to promote these as "mixed" neighbourhoods so that the largest of these developments on the city's northern edge, Rathcoole, rapidly solidified as a loyalist community. In 2004, it was estimated that 98% of public housing in Belfast was divided along religious lines. Among the principal landmarks of north Belfast are the Crumlin Road Gaol (1845) now a major visitor attraction, Belfast Royal Academy (1785) - the oldest school in the city, St Malachy's College (1833), Holy Cross Church, Ardoyne (1902), Waterworks Park (1889), and Belfast Zoo (1934). === West Belfast === In the mid-19th century rural poverty and famine drove large numbers of Catholic tenant farmers, landless labourers and their families toward Belfast. Their route brought them down the Falls Road and into what are now remnants of an older Catholic enclave around St Mary's Church, the town's first Catholic chapel (opened in 1784 with Presbyterian subscriptions), and Smithfield Market. Extensively redeveloped and expanded, the hospital has a staff of more than 8,500. Landmarks in the area include the Gothic-revival St Peter's Cathedral (1866, signature twin spires added in 1886); Clonard Monastery (1911), the Conway Mill (1853/1901, re-developed as a community enterprise, arts and education centre in 1983); Belfast City Cemetery (1869) and, best known for its republican graves, Milltown Cemetery (1869). The area's greatest visitor attractions are its wall and gable-end murals. In contrast to those in loyalist areas, where Israel is typically the only outside reference, these range more freely beyond the local conflict frequently expressing solidarity with Palestinians, with Cuba, and with Basque and Catalan separatists. === South Belfast === West Belfast is separated from South Belfast, and from the otherwise abutting loyalist districts of Sandy Row and the Donegall Road, by rail lines, the M1 Motorway (to Dublin and the west); industrial and retail parks, and the remnants of the Blackstaff (Owenvarra) bog meadows. Belfast began stretching up-river in the 1840s and 50s: out the Ormeau and Lisburn roads and, between them, running along a ridge of higher ground, the Malone Road. From "leafy" avenues of increasingly substantial (and in the course of time "mixed") housing, the Upper Malone broadened out into areas of parkland and villas. Further out still, where they did not survive as public parks, from the 1960s the great-house demesnes of the city's former mill-owners and industrialists were developed for public housing: loyalist estates such as Seymour Hill and Belvoir. Meanwhile, in Malone and along the river embankments, new houses and apartment blocks have been squeezed in, increasing the general housing density. Beyond the Queen's University area the area's principal landmarks are the 15-storey tower block of Belfast City Hospital (1986) on the Lisburn Road, and the Lagan Valley Regional Park through which a towpath extends from the City-centre quayside to Lisburn. Northern Ireland's three permanent diplomatic missions are situated on the Malone Road, the consulates of China, Poland and the United States. === East Belfast === The first district on the right bank of the Lagan (the County Down side) to be incorporated in Belfast was Ballymacarrett in 1853. Harland & Wolff, whose gantry cranes, Samson & Goliath, tower over the area, was long the mainstay of employment — although less securely so for the townland's Catholics (In 1970, when the yard still had a workforce of 10,000, only 400 Catholics were employed). Home to around 2,500 people, it is the only distinctly nationalist area in the east of the river. East Belfast developed from the Queens Bridge (1843), through Ballymacarrett, east along the Newtownards Road and north (along the east shore of the Lough) up the Holywood Road; and from the Albert Bridge (1890) south east out the Cregagh and Castlereagh roads. The further out, the more substantial, and less religiously segregated, the housing until again encountering the city's outer ring of public housing estates: loyalist Knocknagoney, Lisnasharragh, and Tullycarnet. This century, efforts have been made to add to East Belfast's two obvious visitor attractions: Samson & Goliath (the "banana yellow" Harland & Wolff cranes date only from the early 1970s) Next to the former the Harland & Wolff Drawing Offices (now an hotel), stands the "cultural nucleus to Titanic Quarter", Titanic Belfast (2012) whose interactive galleries tell the liner's ill-fated story. In 2015, the Orange Order opened the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road with the aim of educating the wider public about "the origins, traditions and continued relevance" of the parading institution. now a food and craft market popular with visitors to the city. ==== Architectural heritage ==== Among surviving elements of the pre-Victorian town are the Belfast Entries, 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the elliptical First Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing) Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham); the Assembly Rooms (1769, 1776, 1845) on Bridge Street; St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church; St Mary's Church (1782) in Chapel Lane, which is the oldest Catholic church in the city. The oldest public building in Belfast, Clifton House (1771–74), the Belfast Charitable Society poorhouse, is on North Queen Street. It is now partly cut off from the city centre by arterial roads. In addition there are small sets of city-centre Georgian terraces. Of the much larger Victorian city a substantial legacy has survived the Blitz, The Troubles and planning and development. Among the more notable examples are St Malachy's Roman Catholic Church (1844) and the original college building of Queen's University Belfast (1849), both in a Tudor style; the Palm House in the Botanic Gardens (1852); the Renaissance revival Union Theological College (1853) and Ulster Bank (now Merchant Hotel) (1860); the Italianate Ulster Hall (1862), and the National Trust restored ornate Crown Liquor Saloon (1885, 1898) (a setting for the classic film, Odd Man Out, starring James Mason); the oriental-themed Grand Opera House (1895) (bombed several times during the Troubles), and the Romanesque revival St. Patrick's Catholic Church in Donegall Street (1877). The dome is high and figures above the door state "Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City". Nearby is the Renaissance and Baroque revival Scottish Provident Institution (1902). Opposite is a branch of the Ulster Bank which is built behind the classical facade of a former Methodist church dating from 1846. Built in the Romanesque-style on the site of an earlier neo-classical church, St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral was consecrated in 1904. The north transept, featuring on its exterior "the largest Celtic cross in Ireland", was completed in 1981, and a final addition, a 40-metre stainless steel "Spire of Hope" was installed in 2007. The neoclassical Royal Courts of Justice were opened on Oxford Street in 1933. ==== Redevelopment ==== The opening Victoria Square Shopping Centre in 2008 was to symbolise the rebound of the city centre since its days as a restricted security zone during the Troubles. But retail footfall in the centre is limited by competition with out-of-town shopping centres and with internet retailing. As of November 2023, footfall had not recovered pre-COVID pandemic levels. There are compensating trends: the growth in tourism and hospitality which has included a sustained boom in hotel construction. The City Council also talks of a "residential-led regeneration". New townhouse and apartments schemes are being developed for the city's quays, and for Titanic Quarter. The completion in 2023 of Ulster University's enhanced Belfast campus (in "one of the largest higher education capital builds in Europe") and the determination of Queen's University to compete with the private sector in the provision of student housing, has fostered the construction downtown of multiple new student residences. ==== Rough sleeping and homelessness ==== People can be found sleeping rough on the streets of the city centre. Numbers, while growing, may be comparatively small for a city of its size in the British Isles. In 2022, counts and estimates by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive identified a total of 26 rough sleepers in Belfast. This is against a background (in 2023) of 2,317 people (0.67% of residents) presenting as homeless, many of whom are in temporary accommodation and shelters. Such figures, however, do not include all those living in severely overcrowded conditions, involuntarily sharing with other households on a long-term basis, or sleeping rough in hidden locations. === The "Quarters" === Since 2001, buoyed by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has promoted a number of cultural quarters. The Cathedral Quarter comprises much of Belfast's old trade and warehousing district in the narrow streets and entries around St Anne's Cathedral, with a concentration of bars, beer gardens, clubs and restaurants (including two establishments claiming descent from the early town, White's and The Duke of York) and performance spaces (most notably the Black Box and Oh Yeah). It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival. The adjoining Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. Without defined geographical boundaries, the Gaeltacht Quarter encompasses Irish-speaking Belfast. (According to the 2021 census, 15.5% of people in the city have some knowledge of Irish, 4% speak it daily). It can be said to include, at the Skainos Centre in unionist east Belfast, Turas, a project that promotes Irish through night classes and cultural events in the belief that "the language belongs to all". The Linen Quarter', an area south of City Hall once dominated by linen warehouses, now includes, in addition to cafés, bars and restaurants, a dozen hotels (including the 23-storey Grand Central Hotel), and the city's two principal Victorian-era cultural venues, the Grand Opera House and the Ulster Hall. Moving further south along the so-called "Golden Mile" of bars and clubs through Shaftesbury Square, there is the [[Queen's Quarter, Belfast\|Queen's [University] Quarter]]. In addition to the university (spread over 250 buildings, of which 120 are listed as being of architectural merit), it is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum. Finally, the Titanic Quarter covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as Queen's Island. Named after RMS Titanic, launched here in 1911, work began in 2003 to transform some former shipyard land into "one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe". The current area houses Titanic Belfast, the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), two hotels, and multiple condo towers and shops, and the Titanic [film] Studios. == Culture == === Arts venues and festivals === From Georgian Belfast, the city retains a civic legacy. In addition to Clifton House (Belfast Charitable Society, 1774), this includes the Linen Hall Library (Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge, 1788), the Ulster Museum (founded in 1833 by the Belfast Natural History Society as the Belfast Municipal Museum and Art Gallery), and the Botanic Gardens (established in 1828 by the Belfast Botanic and Horticultural Society). Of the many stage venues built in the nineteenth century, and film theatres built in the twentieth, there remains the Ulster Hall (1862), which hosts concerts (including those of the Ulster Orchestra), classical recitals and party-political meetings; the Grand Opera House (1895) badly damaged in bomb blasts in the early 1990s, restored and enlarged 2020; the Strand Cinema (1935) now being developed as an arts centre; and the Queens Film Theatre (QFT) (1968) focussed on art house and world cinema. The two independent cinemas offer their screens for the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast International Arts Festival. The principal stage for drama remains the Lyric Theatre (1951, 2011), the largest employer of actors and other theatre professionals in the region. At Queens University, drama students stage their productions at the Brian Friel Theatre, a 120-seat studio space (named after the renowned playwright). In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was made possible by the 11,000-seat Odyssey Arena (today the SSE Arena) which opened in 2000 at the entrance to the Titanic Quarter A further large-scale venue is the Waterfront Hall, a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre that first opened in 1997. The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is modelled on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall. In 2012, the Metropolitan Arts Centre, the "MAC", was opened in the Cathedral Quarter, offering a performance mix of music, theatre, dance and visual art. The city has a number of community arts, and arts education, centres, among them the Crescent Arts Centre in south Belfast, the Irish-language Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich in west Belfast, The Duncairn in north Belfast and, in the east of the city, EastSide Arts. Féile an Phobail, a community arts organisation born out of the Internment Commemorations in the west of the city, stages one of the largest community festivals in Europe. It has grown from its original August Féile on the Falls Road, to a year-round programme with a broad range of arts events, talks and discussions. === UNESCO City of Music === In November 2021, Belfast became the third city in the British Isles to be designated by UNESCO as City of Music (after Glasgow in 2008 and Liverpool in 2016) and is one of 59 cities worldwide participating in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network. The greater part of Belfast's music scene is accommodated in the city's pubs and clubs. Irish traditional music ("trad") is a staple, and is supported, along with Ulster-Scots snare drum and pipe music, by the city's TradFest summer school. Music offerings also draw on the legacy of the punk and the underground club scene that developed during The Troubles (associated with the groups Stiff Little Fingers and The Undertones, and celebrated in the award-winning 2013 film, Good Vibrations). Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody led a line up of private donors that together with public funders established the Oh Yeah music centre in 2008. The Cathedral Quarter non-profit supports young musicians and these have engaged with a range of genres including Alternative rock, Indie rock, Electronica, Post rock, Post punk, Crossover, and Experimental rock. Queens University hosts the Sonic Arts Research Centre (SARC), an institute for music-based practice and research. Its purpose designed building, Sonic Laboratory and multichannel studios were opened by Karlheinz Stockhausen, the German composer and "father of electronic music", in 2004. === Media === Belfast is the home of the Belfast Telegraph, Irish News and, first printed in 1737,The News Letter, the oldest English-language daily newspaper in the world still in publication. The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, and ITV station UTV. The Irish public service broadcaster, RTÉ has a studio in the city. The national radio station is BBC Radio Ulster with commercial radio stations such as Q Radio, U105, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte. Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations. === Parades === Since the lifting in 1872 of a twenty-year party processions ban, Orange parades in celebration of "the Twelfth" [of July] and the bonfires of the previous evening, the eleventh, have been a fixed fixture of the Belfast calendar. On what became a public holiday in 1926, Belfast and guest Orange lodges (from both across Ulster and Scotland) with their pipe, flute, drum and accordion bands muster at Carlisle Circus, and parade through the city centre past the City Hall and out the Lisburn Road to a gathering in "the field" at Barnett Demesne. While some local feeder and return marches have a history of sectarian disturbance, in recent years, events have generally passed off without serious incident. The tradition is documented and celebrated in the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road in East Belfast. What is sometimes referred to as the Catholic equivalent of the Orangemen, the much smaller Ancient Order of Hibernians, confines its parades to nationalist areas in west and north Belfast, as do republicans commemorating the Easter Rising. In August 1993, in a break with a history of nationalist exclusion from the city centre, a parade marking the introduction of internment in the 1971 proceeded up Royal Avenue toward the City Hall, where it was addressed by Sinn Féin president, Gerry Adams, in front of the statue of Queen Victoria. Since 1998, the Belfast City Council has funded a city-centre St. Patrick's Day (17 March) celebration. It is organised by Féile an Phobail as a "carnival" complete with a parade featuring dancers, circus entertainers, floats, and giant puppets. Critical of what they perceive as an evolving nationalist festival, unionists on the City Council observe that "a lot of the Protestant Unionist Loyalist (PUL) community will stay away from the city centre on St Patrick's Day, the same as some stay away on the Twelfth of July". In 1991, Belfast hosted its first gay pride event. Belfast Pride, culminating in a city-centre parade at the end of July, is now one of the biggest annual festivals in the city and, according to its organisers, the largest LGBT+ festival in Ireland. The Irish Congress of Trade Unions organises an annual city-centre May Day march and rally. The International Workers Day has been a public holiday since 1978. == Demography == In 2021, there were 345,418 residents within the expanded 2015 Belfast local government boundary and 634,600 in the Belfast Metropolitan Area, approximately one third of Northern Ireland's 1.9 million population. As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. Deprivation levels are notable in the inner parts of the north and the west of the city. The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) experience some of the highest levels of social deprivation including higher levels of ill health and poor access to services. These areas remain firmly segregated, with 80 to 90 percent of residents being of the one religious designation. Consistent with the trend across all of Northern Ireland, the Protestant population within the city has been in decline, while the non-religious, other religious and Catholic population has risen. The 2021 census recorded the following: 43% of residents as Catholic, 12% as Presbyterian, 8% as Church of Ireland, 3% as Methodist, 6% as belonging to other Christian denominations, 3% to other religions and 24% as having either no religion or no declared religion. In terms of community background, 47.93% were deemed to belong to, or to have been brought up in, the Catholic faith and 36.45% in a Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. The comparable figures in 2011 were 48.60% Catholic and 42.28% Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. With respondents free to indicate more than one national identity, in 2021 the largest national identity group was "Irish only" with 35% of the population, followed by "British only" 27%, "Northern Irish only" 17%, "British and Northern Irish only" 7%, "Irish and Northern Irish only" 2%, "British, Irish and Northern Irish only" 2%, British and Irish less than 1% and Other identities with 10%. 3.74% (10,963) of residents claimed to use Irish daily and 0.75% (2,192) claimed Irish is their main language. 7.17% (21,025) of people in the city claimed to have some knowledge of Ulster Scots, whilst 0.75% (2,207) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Ulster Scots. 0.83% (2,430) claimed to use Ulster Scots daily. From the mid to late 19th century, there was a community of central European Jews (among its distinguished members, Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff of Harland & Wolff) and of Italians in Belfast. Today, the largest immigrant groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians. The 2011 census figures recorded a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the British Isles lived in south Belfast, where they comprised 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland resided in the Greater Belfast area. In the 2021 census the percentage of the city's residents born outside the United Kingdom had risen to 9.8. In recent years, unemployment has been comparatively low (under 3% in the summer of 2023) for the UK. On the other hand, Belfast has a high rate of people economically inactive (close to 30%). It is a group, encompassing homemakers, full-time carers, students and retirees, that in Belfast has been swollen by the exceptionally large proportion of the population (27%) with long-term health problems or disabilities (and who, in Northern Ireland generally, are less likely to be employed than in other UK regions). An early report on the post-Belfast Agreement prospects for the city economy underscored another distinctive feature of its working-age population. While it appeared well qualified, with 24 per cent educated to degree level, at "the other end of the educational spectrum", 26 per cent had no qualifications at all, a much higher share than in English cities. In recent years Harland & Wolff, which at peak production in the Second World War had employed around 35,000 people, has had a workforce of no more than two or three hundred refurbishing oil rigs and fabricating off-shore wind turbines. A £1.6 billion Royal Navy contract has offered the yard a new lease, returning it to shipbuilding in 2025, a prospect secured by the purchase of insolvent yard by Spain's state-owned shipbuilder, Navantia. In 1936, Short & Harland Ltd, a joint venture of Short Brothers and Harland & Wolff, began the manufacture of aircraft in the docks area. In 1989, the British government, which had nationalised the company during the Second World War, sold it to the Canadian aerospace company Bombardier. In 2020, it was sold on to the American aerostructure company Spirit AeroSystems. Producing aircraft components, it remains the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland. Originating in the Short Brothers' missile division, since 2001 the Thales Group (owned by the French defense contractor Thales Air Defence Limited) has been producing short range air defence and anti-tank missiles including the NLAW shoulder-launched system and, from 2025, lightweight multirole missiles (LMMs), deployed against the Russian invasion by Ukraine.. === Fintech and cybersecurity === From the 1990s, Belfast established itself as a significant location for call centres and for other back-office services. Attracting U.S. operators such as Citi, Allstate, Liberty Mutual, Aflac and FD Technologies (Kx Systems), it as since been identified by the UK Treasury as "key fintech [financial technology] hub". Fintech's key areas (its "ABCD") are artificial intelligence, blockchain, cloud computing, and big data. The sector's principal constraint, cyber security, has been addressed since 2004 by the Queens University Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology (IECIT), and its Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT). The IECIT is the anchor tenant at Catalyst (science park) in the Titanic Quarter, which hosts a cluster of companies seeking to offer innovative cyber-security solutions. === Film === Between 2018 and 2023, film and television production based largely in Belfast, and occupying significant new studio capacity in the ports area, contributed £330m to Northern Ireland's economy. There are two 8-acre media complexes (serviced by the adjacent City Airport): the Titanic Studios on Queen's Island (the Titanic Quarter) and across the Victoria Channel in Giant's Park on the Lough's north foreshore, the Belfast Harbour Studios. Together they offer 226,000 ft2 of studio space, plus offices and workshops, and have attracted U.S. production companies such as Amazon, HBO (including all eight series of its fantasy drama Game of Thrones), Paramount, Playtone, Universal, and Warner Bros. Additional studio space is available at Loop Studios (formerly Britvic) on the Castlereagh Road in East Belfast. === Tourism and hospitality === Northern Ireland's peace dividend since the 1990s, which includes a marked increase in inward investment, has contributed to a large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Significant projects included Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall, the new Titanic Quarter with its Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, and the development of the original Short's harbour airfield as George Best Belfast City Airport. These developments reflect a boom in tourism (32 million visitors between 2011 and 2018), In 2023, Belfast welcomed 153 calls, 8% up from the pre-pandemic record set in 2019. Ship from 32 different countries landed 320,000 passengers. Belfast has also seen growth of "conflict tourism". Tourist bosses and guides, however, are satisfied that the greater draw is city's other "must-see attractions", and its "convivial food and nightlife scene". === EU/GB Trade === Invest NI, Northern Ireland's economic development agency is pitching Belfast and its hinterland to foreign investors as "only region in the world able to trade goods freely with both GB and EU markets". This follows the 2020 Northern Ireland Protocol and the 2023 Windsor Framework, agreements between the British government and European Union, whereby, post-Brexit, Northern Ireland would effectively remain within the European Single Market for goods while, in principle, retaining unfettered access to the British domestic market. Despite the DUP's derailment of devolved government in protest, local business leaders largely welcomed the new trade regime, hailing the promise of dual EU-GB access as a critical opportunity. In February 2024, the DUP consented to a return of the devolved Assembly and Executive on the understanding that neither the EU nor the British government would defend the integrity of their respective internal markets by conducting routine checks on the bulk of goods passing through Belfast, or other Northern Ireland, ports. == Education == === Primary and secondary education === Children from Catholic and Protestant homes in Belfast are taught, for the most part, separately on a pattern that, by the mid-nineteenth century, had been established throughout Ireland. Primary and secondary education is divided between (Catholic) Maintained Schools and (non-Catholic/ "Protestant") Controlled Schools. They are bound by the same curriculum, but their teaching staff are trained separately (in the university colleges of St Mary's and Stranmillis). Since the 1980s, two smaller school sectors have emerged: grant-maintained Integrated schools, which by design bring together children and staff from both communities, and Irish language medium schools The principle was not embraced by the town's middle-classes: in practice "Inst" provided a grammar education to the town's Presbyterian families while Anglicans favoured the older Royal Belfast Academy (1785); Catholics, St Malachy's diocesan college (1833) and Wesleyans, Methodist College Belfast (1865). Denominational lines have since blurred, with Catholics in particular moving into the controlled grammars. But the presence of 18 selective grammar schools in Belfast is a further feature of post-primary education in Belfast that distinguishes it from that of comparable cities in Great Britain where academic selection was abandoned in the 1960s and 70s. Partly prompted by the COVID disruption of external testing in 2021/22, some the city's grammars have begun to review and amend the practice. It is not clear that this will be on terms that reduce the degree of social segregation they have represented within the system. In 2006, the Belfast Education and Library Board became part of the consolidated Education Authority for Northern Ireland. In Belfast, the Authority has responsibility for 156 primary, and 48 secondary schools (including the 18 grammars). The system is marked by stark inequalities in outcome. Around 30% of school leavers in the city do not attain 5 GCSEs, A* - C (including Maths and English). For those in receipt of free school meals, the figure rises to over 50%. === Further and Higher education === Belfast Metropolitan College ("Belfast Met") is a further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland. Belfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded as a college in 1845. In 1908, the Catholic bishops lifted their ban on attendance and Queen's was granted university status. and is one of the largest universities in the UK with over 25,000 students – among them over 4,000 international students. Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus on the edge of the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. Since 2021, this original "Arts College" campus has undergone a £1.4bn expansion to accommodate offerings across all departments. The project promises to bring 15,500 staff and students into the city, and to generate 5,000 new jobs. == Governance == Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast has been represented in the British House of Commons since 1801, and in Northern Ireland Assembly, as presently constituted, since 1998. === Local government === Belfast City Council is responsible for a range of powers and services, including land-use and community planning, parks and recreation, building control, arts and cultural heritage. The city's principal offices are those of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff. Like other elected positions within the Council such as Committee chairs, these are filled since 1998 using the D'Hondt system so that in recent years the position has rotated between councillors from the three largest factions, Sinn Féin, the DUP and the Alliance Party. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast in 1892, Daniel Dixon, like every mayor but one until 1997 (Alliance in 1979), was a unionist. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in 1997. The current Lord Mayor is Micky Murray of the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, who has been in the position of Lord Mayor since 3 June 2024. His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage. In addition to the 11 Alliance members there are four other councillors, 3 Green and 1 People Before Profit, who refuse a nationalist/unionist designation. === Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster elections === As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Mid Down and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Antrim and Newtownabbey and Lisburn and Castlereagh districts. In United Kingdom elections, each constituency returns one MP, on a "first past the post" basis to Westminster. In NI Assembly elections each returns, on the basis of proportional representation, five MLAs to Stormont. In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2022, Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 5 Alliance Party, 1 SDLP, 1 UUP and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP won all but the Sinn Féin stronghold of Belfast West. In the 2019 and 2024 UK general elections, they retained only Belfast East, losing Belfast North to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the SDLP. == Infrastructure == === Hospitals === The Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Hospitals site in west Belfast (junction of Grosvenor and Falls roads) contains two hospitals. The Royal Victoria Hospital (its origins in a number of successive institutions, beginning in 1797 with The Belfast Fever Hospital) provides both local and regional services. Specialist services include cardiac surgery, critical care and the Regional Trauma Centre. The Children's Hospital (Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children) provides general hospital care for children in Belfast and provides most of the paediatric regional specialities. The Belfast City Hospital (evolved from the 1841 Belfast Union Workhouse and infirmary) on the Lisburn Road is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a major cancer centre. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland. Musgrave Park Hospital (1920) in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit. The Mater Hospital (founded in 1883 by the Sisters of Mercy) on the Crumlin Road provides a wide range of services, including acute inpatient, emergency and maternity services, to north Belfast and the surrounding areas. The Ulster Hospital, Upper Newtownards Road, Dundonald, on the eastern edge of the city, first founded as the Ulster Hospital for Women and Sick Children in 1872, is the major acute hospital for the South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust. It delivers a full range of outpatient, inpatient and daycare medical and surgical services. === Transport === Belfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route. Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads, More distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called Enterprise operated jointly by NIR and the Irish rail company Iarnród Éireann. In 2024, the city's Europa Bus Centre and Great Victoria Street rail station, was replaced by a new Belfast Central Station. It is "the largest integrated transport facility on the island of Ireland" with bus stands, railway platforms, and facilities for taxis and bicycles. The city has two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, close to the city centre on the eastern shore of Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport 30–40 minutes to the west on the shore of Lough Neagh. Both operate UK domestic and European flights. The city is also served by Dublin Airport, two hours to the south, with direct inter-continental connections. In addition to its extensive freight business, the Belfast Port offers car-ferry sailings, operated by Stena Line, to Cairnryan in Scotland (5 Sailings Daily. 2 hours 22 minutes) and to Liverpool-Birkenhead (14 sailings weekly. 8 hours). The Isle of Man Steam Packet Company provides a seasonal connection to Douglas, Isle of Man. The Glider bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast. Introduced in 2018, it is a bus rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre. Using articulated buses, the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week. The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport. National Cycle Route 9 to Newry, which will eventually connect with Dublin, starts in Belfast. === Utilities === Half of Belfast's water is supplied via the Aquarius pipeline from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The other half is now supplied from Lough Neagh via Dunore Water Treatment Works in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs were deferred by devolution in May 2007. Power is provided from a number of power stations via NIE Networks Limited transmission lines. (Just under a half of electricity consumption in Northern Ireland is generated from renewable sources). Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. == Recreation and sports == === Leisure centres === Belfast City Council owns and maintains 17 leisure centres across the city, run on its behalf by the non-profit social enterprise GLL under the 'Better' brand. These include eight large multipurposed centres complete with swimming pools: Ballysillan Leisure Centre and Grove Wellbeing Centre in North Belfast; the Andersonstown, Falls, Shankill and Whiterock leisure centres in West Belfast; Templemore Baths and Lisnasharragh Leisure Centre in East Belfast, and close to the city centre in South Belfast, the Olympia Leisure Centre and Spa, === Parks and gardens === Belfast has over forty parks. The oldest (1828) and one of the most popular parks Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, its Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the recently restored Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts. The largest municipal park in the city, and closest to the city centre, lies on the right bank of Lagan. The 100-acres of Ormeau Park were opened to the public in 1871 on what was the last demesne of the town's former proprietors, the Chichesters, Marquesses of Donegall. In north Belfast, the Waterworks, two reservoirs to which the public have had access since 1897, are features of a park supporting angling and waterfowl. In 1906, a further water park, Victoria, opened behind industrial dockland on what had been the eastern shore of the Lough. It is now connected through east Belfast by the Connswater Community Greenway which offers 16 km of continuous cycle and walkway through east Belfast. The largest green conservation area within the city's boundaries is a 2,116 hectares patchwork of "parks, demesnes, woodland and meadows" stretching upriver along the banks of the Lagan river and canal; and Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, whose International Rose Garden attracts thousands of visitors each July. Colin Glenn Forest Park, the National Trust Divis and the Black Mountain Ridge Trail, and Cave Hill Country Park. offer panoramic views over Belfast and beyond from the west. Below Cave Hill, the council maintains one of the few local government-funded zoos in the British Isles. The Belfast Zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. It carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat. === Sports === Belfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, The 41st Marathon in 2023, with related events (Wheelchair Race, Team Relay and 8 Mile Walk) attracted 15,000 participants. The Northern Ireland national football team plays its home matches at Windsor Park. Football clubs with stadia and training grounds in the city include: Linfield, Glentoran, Crusaders, Cliftonville, Donegal Celtic, Harland & Wolff Welders, Dundela, Knockbreda, PSNI, Newington, Sport & Leisure and Brantwood. Belfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, had a capacity of 31,500 making it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. Listed as one of the venues for the UK and Ireland's successful UEFA Euro 2028 bid, with co-funding from the Irish government there are plans for a complete rebuild. In May 2020, the foundation of East Belfast GAA returned Gaelic Games to East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area. The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast Linda Ervine who comes from a unionist background in the area. The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League. The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at Ravenhill Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A. Belfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever One Day International against England in 2006. The 9,500 capacity SSE Arena accommodates the Belfast Giants, one of the biggest ice hockey clubs in the UK. Featuring Canadian, ex-NHL players, the club competes the British Elite Ice Hockey League. Belfast was the home town of former Manchester United player George Best, the 1968 European Footballer of the Year, who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre. Other sportspeople celebrated in the city include double world snooker champion Alex "Hurricane" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough, Rinty Monaghan and Carl Frampton. == Climate == At , its northern latitude is characterised by short winter days and long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. At the summer solstice in June, the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00. For this northern latitude, thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, Belfast has a comparatively mild climate. In summer the temperatures rarely range above or dip in winter below . The maritime influence, also ensures that the city gets significant precipitation. On 157 days in an average year, rainfall is greater than 1 mm. Average annual rainfall is , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland. With its moderate temperatures and abundant rainfall, Belfast's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification system), a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe. == In fiction == John Greer Ervine, The Wayward Man (1927) F. L. Green, Odd Man Out (1945), basis of Odd Man Out, a 1947 British film noir directed by Carol Reed, and starring James Mason, Robert Newton. Brian Moore, The Emperor of Ice Cream (1965). Maurice Leitch, Silver's City (1981) Bernard MacLaverty, Cal (1983) Robert McLiam Wilson, Eureka Street (1996) Lucy Caldwell, Where They Were Missed (2005) Anna Burns, Milkman (2018) Louise Kennedy, Trespasses (2022) Michael Magee, Close to Home (2023) == Notable people == === Georgian Belfast === Edward Bunting (1773–1843), Irish folklorist, organiser of the 1792 Belfast Harp Festival Henry Cooke (1788–1868), Presbyterian Moderator, evangelist, proponent of "Protestant unity", commemorated in Cooke Memorial Church, May Street, and by the "Black Man" statue in College Square East Waddell Cunningham (1729–1797), Trans-Atlantic trader, West-Indian slaveholder, Irish Volunteer, liberal patron William Drennan (1754–1820), United Irishman, founder of the Royal Belfast Academical Institution (RBAI) Mary Ann McCracken (1766–1866), United Irishwoman, social activist, abolitionist, sister of Henry Joy McCracken hanged 1798, statue at City Hall James MacDonnell (1763–1845), physician, polymath patron of institutions since developed as the Royal Victoria Hospital, RBAI and the Linen Hall Library Martha McTier (1742–1837), United Irishwoman, advocate for women's health and education David Manson, (1726–1792), schoolmaster, pioneer of play and peer tutoring. Freedom of the Borough 1779 Samuel Neilson (1761–1803), woollen merchant, publisher of the Northern Star, United Irishman John Templeton (1766–1825), "Father of Irish Botany", patron of the town's scientific and literary societies === Victorian Belfast === Thomas Andrews (1873–1912), chief naval architect at Harland & Wolff, went down with RMS Titanic Joseph Biggar (1828–1890),"obstructionist" Irish nationalist MP, women's suffragist Margaret Byers (1832–1912), educator, activist, social reformer, missionary, founder of Victoria College Hugh "Roaring" Hanna (1821–1892), Protestant evangelist associated with sectarian riot, commemorated, until targeted and destroyed in the Troubles, by his statue and church at Carlisle Circus Edward Harland (1831–1895) and Gustave Wolff (1834–1913), partners in the world's largest shipyard. Statue at City Hall Bernard "Barney" Hughes (1808–1878), Ireland's largest miller and baker (producer of the Belfast bap), first elected Catholic town councillor Otto Jaffe (1846–1929), business, and Jewish community, leader, twice Mayor of Belfast William Johnston (1829–1902), Orangeman celebrated for breaking the Party Processions Act, Belfast MP, women's suffragist Richard Rutledge Kane (1841–1898), Orange Order Grand Master, patron of the first Belfast branch of the Gaelic League Charles Lanyon (1813–1889), architect of main ("Lanyon") building of Queens University, the Palm House, Botanic Gardens, Linenhall Library, Belfast Castle and Crumlin Road Goal and Courthouse Robert Shipboy MacAdam (1808–1895), Irish folklorist and linguist, honoured with Cardinal Ó Fiaich in Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich John Mulholland (1819–1895), established the world's largest flax-spinning operation, York Street Mill; MP William Pirrie (1847–1924), Chairman of Harland & Wolff, Mayor of Belfast; Freedom of the city, 1898. Statue at City Hall. William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), physicist renowned for his work on mechanical energy and heat; memorial statue stands before the Ulster Museum Isabella Tod (1836–1896), suffragist, with William Johnston secured the municipal vote for women, 1888 === Early 20th century === Winifred Carney (1887–1943), suffragist, rebel 1916, labour activist, statue at City Hall Thomas Carnduff (1886–1956), shipyard poet, playwright, trade unionist, Independent Orangeman. Edward Carson (1854–1935), leader of Ulster Unionism in the Home Rule Crisis; memorial statue stands before Parliament Buildings at Stormont William Conor (1881–1968), painter renowned for his sympathetic portrayals of working-class life William Conway (1913–1977), Cardinal and All--Ireland Primate, co-founder of Trócaire James Craig (1871–1940), Ulster Unionist, first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland Joseph Devlin (1871–1934), journalist, Irish nationalist Westminster and Stormont MP, President of the Ancient Order of Hibernians Harry Ferguson (1884–1960), developer of the modern agricultural tractor, first person in Ireland to build and fly an aeroplane John Hewitt (1907–1987), poet ("The Bloody Brae"). Freedom of the City 1983 C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), writer and Anglican lay theologian; honoured as author of The Chronicles of Narnia in C. S. Lewis Square, East Belfast Margaret McCoubrey (1880–1955), militant WPSU suffragette, peace campaigner, Labour City Councillor Harry Midgley (1893–1957), labour union and party organiser, post-war Unionist Minister for Education Cathal O'Byrne (1876-1957), writer, actor, journalist. Alexander "Buck Alec" Robinson (1901–1995), docklands streetfighter and loyalist gunman. Kept lions in his Sailortown home Betty Sinclair (1910–1981), Communist party activist, 1932 Outdoor Relief protest, Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association chair Joseph Tomelty (1911–1995), stage and screen (Odd Man Out) actor, writer and broadcaster William Walker (1871–1918), unionist labour organiser and vice-chair of the British Labour Party Ernest Walton (1903–95), with John Cockcroft Nobel Prize for splitting the atom === Late 20th century === Gerry Adams (born 1948), reputed republican paramilitary (PIRA) leader, president of Sinn Féin; MP Belfast West. rtd. Derek Bell (1935–2002), harpist, musicologist and composer, The Chieftains George Best (1946–2005), football international, iconic sports figure, City Airport named in his honour May Blood (1938–2022), shop steward in one of the city's last linen mills, community worker, co-founder Northern Ireland Women's Coalition John Boyd (1912-2002), playwright, broadcaster Ciaran Carson (1948–2019), writer, poet (Belfast Confetti) George Cassidy (1936–2023), jazz musician and music teacher Mairéad Corrigan (born 1944), with Betty Williams awarded the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize, as co-founder of Women for Peace / the Peace People, critic of US and UK foreign policy David Ervine (1953–2007), loyalist paramilitary (UVF) veteran, leader of the pro-Agreement Progressive Unionist Party; MLA Gerry Fitt (1926–2005), Republican Labour/SDLP MP. Deputy Chief of the first NI power-sharing executive, 1974 David Hammond (1928–2008), teacher, singer, broadcaster, and film-maker who documented the culture of the city's shipyards and streets Terri Hooley (born 1948), key figure in the Belfast punk scene, celebrated in the 2013 biopic Good Vibrations Brian Keenan (1942–2008), directed PIRA bombing in the city, interlocutor for arms decommissioning Helen Lewis (née Katz; 1916–2009), Holocaust survivor, teacher and choreographer, pioneer in Northern Ireland of modern dance Brian Moore (1921–1999), novelist (The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne, The Emperor of Ice Cream) Van Morrison (born 1945), singer-songwriter and musician Ian Paisley (1926–2014), Protestant evangelist (Martyrs Memorial Church, Belfast), founder of the DUP, NI First Minister Saidie Patterson (1906–1985), feminist, trade unionist, peace activist. Fr Alec Reid (1931–2013), Catholic priest, mediator in the Hume–Adams talks, Northern Ireland peace process David Trimble (1944–2022), Ulster Unionist leader, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, NI First Minister Andy Tyrie (born 1940), loyalist paramilitary (UDA) leader (rtd), Ulster Workers' Council strike, NI peace process advocate Fr. Des Wilson (1925–2019), dissident Catholic priest, west Belfast community activist, republican-loyalist mediator == Twin towns – sister cities == Belfast City Council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with the following sister cities: Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994) Hefei, Anhui, China (since 2005) Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014) Shenyang, Liaoning, China (since 2016) Melbourne, Victoria, Australia == Freedom of the City == Those who have received the Freedom of the City Sir Kenneth Branagh: 30 January 2018. Andrew Carnegie: 28 September 1910. Sir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955. Bill Clinton, 9 April 2018 Sir Robert Hart, 1 July 1908 John Hewitt: 26 May 1983 Sir John Jordan: 28 September 1910. Michael Longley: 23 March 2015 George J. Mitchell, 9 April 2018 Nurses of Belfast, 1 December 2015 Royal Ulster Constabulary and Reserve: 30 May 1980 William Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie: 1898, the first person to be awarded Freedom Of The City of Belfast.	[ "Interface area", "Holy Cross Church, Ardoyne", "hurling", "Harry Midgley", "Titanic Quarter", "Odyssey (Belfast)", "Peace lines", "poorhouse", "Glentoran F.C.", "Good Friday Agreement", "Gaeltacht Quarter, Belfast", "Liverpool", "European classical music", "Des Wilson (Irish Catholic priest)", "Amazon Prime Video", "Department of Justice (Northern Ireland)", "Normans in Ireland", "Tomás Ó Fiaich", "Lisburn and Castlereagh", "Elections in the United Kingdom", "Belfast Charitable Society", "peace dividend", "Lord Mayor of Belfast", "Acts of Union 1800", "Thirteen Colonies", "Northern Ireland Labour Party", "Hefei", "Larne", "James VI and I", "Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association", "James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon", "Charles Lanyon", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Royal Ulster Constabulary", "Northern Star (newspaper of the Society of United Irishmen)", "British House of Commons", "River Lagan", "gay pride", "Melā", "Blast 106", "Ulster loyalism", "Gaelic League", "Huguenots", "Cregagh", "Silver's City (novel)", "Belfast Health and Social Care Trust", "Provisional Irish Republican Army", "Irish Sea", "James Mason", "European Footballer of the Year", "St Malachy's Church, Belfast", "Cathedral Quarter, Belfast", "Lucy Caldwell", "towpath", "National Hockey League", "Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich", "Disability in Northern Ireland", "Queen's Film Theatre", "Stranmillis University College", "film noir", "Belfast City Hall", "Ulster Museum", "M22 motorway (Northern Ireland)", "fintech", "Ulster Scots people", "Belfast-Derry railway line", "Tudor style architecture", "Northern Ireland Courts and Tribunals Service", "COVID-19", "Greenwich Mean Time", "Wayne McCullough", "Abolitionism", "Northern Ireland Protocol", "privateer", "Sandy Row", "red panda", "Twin towns and sister cities", "Irish Rebellion of 1798", "car bomb", "European single market", "F. L. Green", "David Manson (schoolmaster)", "Catholic emancipation", "Heineken Cup", "Malone RFC", "British Army", "O'Neill dynasty", "New Lodge, Belfast", "winter solstice", "Clifton House, Belfast", "Reform of local government in Northern Ireland", "Margaret Byers", "Cathedral Quarter Arts Festival", "U105", "Gerry Adams", "Neoclassical architecture", "Scottish people", "Mourne Mountains", "cloud computing", "Great Britain", "Sonic Arts Research Centre", "Presbyterian Church in Ireland", "infant mortality", "Social Democratic and Labour Party", "Parliament of Ireland", "Georgian architecture", "Ulster Bank", "short range air defence", "Ian Paisley", "Belfast City Centre", "Anti-clericalism", "William Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie", "Blackstaff River", "Outdoor relief", "Belfast East (Assembly constituency)", "Irish Congress of Trade Unions", "Ormeau Park", "Met Office", "Linenhall Library", "Grand Opera House (Belfast)", "Donegall Road", "Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline", "articulated 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College Belfast", "Ernest Walton", "Thomas Andrews", "car dependency", "Member of the Legislative Assembly (Northern Ireland)", "Navantia", "Marquess of Donegall", "Helen Lewis (choreographer)", "Lisburn Road", "townland", "Victoria Square Shopping Centre", "Isabella Tod", "Greenhouse", "Oh Yeah (music centre)", "Ormeau Road", "Eureka Street (novel)", "Belfast Metropolitan College", "Linfield F.C.", "Operation Demetrius", "Ulster Rugby", "escarpment", "Gustav Wilhelm Wolff", "Milkman (novel)", "Margaret McCoubrey", "Northern Ireland", "Donegal Celtic", "James MacDonnell (physician)", "Catalyst (science park)", "Waddell Cunningham", "Joseph Devlin", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Strand Cinema", "St George's Church, Belfast", "quality bus corridor", "Hume–Adams dialogue", "Clarendon Press", "hill fort", "Belfast Suburban Rail", "Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland", "Ancient Order of Hibernians", "Belfast Union Workhouse", "Ulster Hall", "Motte-and-bailey castle", "Public Record Office of Northern Ireland", "South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust", "Gaelic football", "Belfast Castle", "Q Radio Belfast", "Portadown railway station", "Mourne Conduit", "temperate", "Kolkata", "RMS Titanic", "Sailortown (Belfast)", "Gary Lightbody", "Republican Labour Party", "Mayor of Belfast", "List of parks and gardens in Belfast", "Postcodes in the United Kingdom", "Irish Volunteers (18th century)", "Society of United Irishmen", "Lyric Theatre, Belfast", "service economy", "Iron Age", "Russell Group", "Women's suffrage", "snare drum", "William Conor", "Sectarianism", "Share taxi", "Renewable resource", "Alec Reid", "French Revolution", "Union Theological College", "Ravenhill Stadium", "Belfast Confetti (poem)", "Elite Ice Hockey League", "Asian elephant", "Nashville", "UNESCO", "National Trust", "Creative Cities Network", "Royal Belfast Academical Institution", "Northern Ireland Railways", "John Milton", "World War I", "Victoria College, Belfast", "Member of parliament", "The Daily Telegraph", "Smithfield Market and Library Quarter, Belfast", "BT postcode area", "The Chronicles of Narnia", "Belfast Harp Festival", "John Hewitt (poet)", "Bronze Age", "Battle of Antrim", "List of diplomatic missions in Northern Ireland", "Tullycarnet", "UK regions", "Newington Youth F.C.", "Belfast Education and Library Board", "Poleglass", "Golden Mile (Belfast)", "St Mary's University College, Belfast", "Queen's University Belfast Students' Union", "Papacy", "Crescent Arts Centre", "Northern Ireland peace process", "Irish News", "Jacobitism", "Antrim GAA", "bus rapid transit", "blockchain", "Short Strand", "Black Mountain (Belfast)", "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum", "Malone Road", "2022 Northern Ireland Assembly election", "Cardinal (Catholic Church)", "Joseph Tomelty", "common chimpanzee", "Boston", "Lagan Weir", "Phoenix Natural Gas", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Northern Ireland Electricity", "Category:General elections to the Parliament of Northern Ireland", "Parliament of Northern Ireland", "Northern Ireland Screen", "People Before Profit Alliance", "Andrew Carnegie", "Belfast bap", "Carrickfergus", "power-sharing", "Edwardian Baroque architecture", "Progressive Unionist Party", "Irish language", "Ulster Unionist Party", "Second Spanish Republic", "Green Party Northern Ireland", "Instonians", "Andy Tyrie", "Ulster Defence Association", "abolitionism", "Bangor, County Down", "Ulster Covenant", "Sovereign state", "Sir Daniel Dixon, 1st Baronet", "D'Hondt system", "Newtownards Road", "Féile an Phobail", "NLAW", "Sustrans", "Stormont (cricket ground)", "The Guardian", "Belfast Blitz", "Belfast South and Mid Down (UK Parliament constituency)", "William Conway (cardinal)", "Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children", "Divis", "Murals in Northern Ireland", "Metro (Belfast)", "Merchant Hotel (Belfast)", "Shenyang", "Rates (tax)", "NvTv", "Robert McLiam Wilson", "Metropolitan Arts Centre", "Paramilitary", "Anti-tank guided missile", "36th (Ulster) Division", "Milltown Cemetery", "Plantations of Ireland", "Silent Valley Reservoir", "Diocese", "American Revolutionary War", "slave plantation", "Titanic Belfast", "Bombardier Inc.", "HBO", "Richard Rutledge Kane (senior)", "Integrated education in Northern Ireland", "Solstice", "Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency", "Oldpark (District Electoral Area)", "Queen's Bridge, Belfast", "Ulster Volunteer Force", "Popery", "County Antrim", "Ciaran Carson", "Post rock", "Irish traditional music", "Irish cricket team", "GSS coding system", "Samson and Goliath (cranes)", "County Down", "Malayan sun bear", "Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland)", "Belfast metropolitan area", "henge", "Countries of the United Kingdom", "2011 MTV Europe Music Awards", "Trócaire", "The Emperor of Ice-Cream (novel)", "George J. Mitchell", "missile", "Ulster Volunteers", "Belfast South (UK Parliament constituency)", "St Patrick's Church, Belfast", "The Chieftains", "Orange Order", "Trespasses (novel)", "obstructionism", "Belfast City Cemetery", "sports medicine", "PSNI F.C.", "England cricket team", "Belfast Festival at Queen's", "Windsor Framework", "Royal Avenue, Belfast", "Edward VII", "Democratic Unionist Party", "Belfast West (Assembly constituency)", "Taxicabs of the United Kingdom", "Luftwaffe", "Rathcoole (Newtownabbey)", "Alternative rock", "Indie rock", "Manchester United F.C.", "Otto Jaffe", "William Johnston (Irish politician)", "Köppen climate classification", "Martha McTier", "Raidió Fáilte", "Francois' langur", "Carol Reed", "Northern Ireland Executive", "vocational education", "Joseph Biggar", "malnutrition", "Celtic cross", "Belfast Giants", "Comhairle na Gaelscolaíochta", "Greater Belfast", "Belfast North (Assembly constituency)", "Baltimore", "Lough Neagh", "Great Famine (Ireland)", "William Walker (trade unionist)", "welfare state", "episcopacy", "Italianate architecture", "Mater Infirmorum Hospital", "Warner Bros.", "Experimental rock", "Shore Road, Belfast", "Belfast, Maine", "UEFA Euro 2028", "Northern Ireland Women's Coalition", "Thales Air Defence", "Harry Ferguson", "First Minister of Northern Ireland", "List of power stations in Northern Ireland", "counterinsurgency", "Mary Ann McCracken", "Communist Party of Ireland", "BBC", "Queen's Radio", "association football", "Michael Magee (writer)", "Sir Robert Hart, 1st Baronet", "St Malachy's College", "List of Moderators of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland", "Bernard Hughes", "Belfast Labour Party", "Victoria Park, Belfast", "Irish Parliamentary Party", "Custom House, Belfast", "Middle Passage", "social enterprise", "Party Processions Act 1850", "Enterprise (train)", "East Belfast GAA", "North Atlantic Current", "Derek Bell (musician)", "David Hammond (broadcaster)", "Cliftonville F.C.", "Universal Pictures", "Alban Maginness", "Crumlin Road Courthouse", "Lagan Canal", "Oxford University Press", "Citigroup", "Louise Kennedy (writer)", "Lisnasharragh (District Electoral Area)", "Cairnryan", "artificial intelligence", "Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast", "lay theologian", "Victoria Square, Belfast", "Battle of the Somme", "Ulster Orchestra", "Government of Northern Ireland (1921–1972)", "Category:Grammar schools in Belfast", "Executive of the 1974 Northern Ireland Assembly", "1998 Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum", "The Troubles", "Edward Bunting", "All-Ireland League (rugby union)", "Home Rule", "Georgian era", "Category:Belfast City Council elections", "Giant's Park", "One Day International", "The Undertones", "High Sheriff", "Anglicanism", "Isle of Man Steam Packet", "St. John Greer Ervine", "Berlin Wall", "Short and Harland", "Winifred Carney", "2019 UK General Election", "Queen's Quarter, Belfast", "Sport & Leisure Swifts F.C.", "George Best Belfast City Airport", "The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)", "David Trimble, Baron Trimble", "SSE Arena, Belfast", "Crossover (music)", "Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster", "Gerry Fitt", "St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast", "basalt", "BBC Radio Ulster", "George Best", "Belfast, Mpumalanga", "Northern Ireland Assembly", "Belfast Urban Motorway", "West Indies", "Ulster Workers' Council strike", "Victoria Memorial (India)", "Working class", "Odd Man Out", "International Workers' Day", "Tertiary sector of the economy", "Belfast Royal Academy", "Paramount Pictures", "John Boyd", "Church of Ireland", "Belfast Botanic Gardens", "Stormont Buildings", "National Cycle Route 9", "Prime Minister of Northern Ireland", "Belfast Marathon", "Queen Victoria", "Victoria (state)", "Belfast City Hospital", "Karlheinz Stockhausen", "Battle of the Boyne", "Northern Ireland national football team", "Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom", "C. S. Lewis", "Thales Group", "Northern Ireland Housing Executive", "John Mulholland, 1st Baron Dunleath", "Crusaders F.C.", "Israeli–Palestinian conflict", "John Templeton (Botanist)", "Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester", "David Ervine", "Irish nationalism", "Tennessee", "wikt:cnoc", "Linen Hall Library", "Derry ~ Londonderry railway station", "Sheffield", "Conspiracy (political)", "Union representative", "ice hockey", "North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland)", "inward investment", "Power sharing", "Belfast Harbour", "Gaelic games", "Mary O'Hara", "Linen Quarter, Belfast", "Kingdom of Ireland", "Harland & Wolff Welders F.C.", "Operation Banner", "Cuba", "Greenwich Leisure Limited", "John Paul Jones", "Waterfront Hall", "Brian Moore (novelist)", "William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin", "Unionism in Ireland", "Melbourne", "GCSE", "Port of Belfast", "Wesleyans", "further education", "Botanic Gardens (Belfast)", "LGBT", "Gothic Revival architecture", "Hibernia", "Titanic Quarter, Belfast", "British Summer Time", "Clonard Monastery", "Ulster Scots dialect", "Romanesque architecture", "world cinema", "Capital (economics)", "Dominican Order", "Barbary lion", "Assembly Rooms, Belfast", "Partition of Ireland", "Belfast Film Festival", "Sinn Féin", "Queen's University Belfast", "pub", "Slum clearance in the United Kingdom", "Albert Bridge, Belfast", "Ulster Television", "Snow Patrol", "William Drennan", "Queen's University RFC", "Translink (Northern Ireland)", "River Farset", "Roundhead", "ATQ Stewart", "Terri Hooley", "Lisburn", "Durban", "Michael Longley", "Mairead Maguire", "Concert", "May Blood, Baroness Blood", "Titanic", "Turas", "Easter Rising", "Hugh Hanna", "2017 United Kingdom general election", "Betty Williams", "Navvy", "ISO 3166-2:GB", "cricket", "Education Authority", "Linda Ervine", "Edward Harland", "The British Crown", "Tied cottage", "Crumlin Road", "Stena Line", "Russian invasion of Ukraine", "Sisters of Mercy", "Palestinians", "Devolution", "Cal (novel)", "polymath", "Kenneth Branagh", "Holywood, County Down", "Dundela F.C.", "Carrickfergus Castle", "BBC Northern Ireland", "Ulster", "Belfast South (Assembly constituency)", "Nine Years' War (Ireland)", "Basque Country (autonomous community)", "Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety", "Springfield Road", "Independent Orange Order", "No Pasaran", "Reform Act 1832", "Political make-up of local councils in the United Kingdom", "Women's Social and Political Union", "Ulster Hospital", "Edward Carson", "Windsor Park", "Cavehill", "Invest Northern Ireland", "Ukraine", "Casement Park", "Northern Ireland Troubles", "Northern Ireland Tourist Board", "Dublin Airport", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh", "Laganside", "Decommissioning in Northern Ireland", "Glider (Belfast)", "Samuel Neilson", "Ulster University", "oceanic climate", "Berliner Philharmonie", "Bernard MacLaverty", "Irish republicanism", "List of mayors of Belfast", "linen", "Bagpipes", "European Union", "The Belfast 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"Cathal O'Byrne", "Belfast Lough", "Antrim and Newtownabbey Borough Council", "Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo", "Catholic Church in Ireland", "Grand Central Hotel Belfast", "M2 motorway (Northern Ireland)", "Belfast International Airport", "St George's Market", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Rehabilitation psychology", "Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park", "Borough status in the United Kingdom", "John Cockcroft", "George Cassidy (jazz musician)", "English language", "Van Morrison", "Protestant Ascendancy", "Maurice Leitch", "Protestantism in Ireland", "Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)", "Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education", "Belfast East (UK Parliament constituency)", "Post punk", "Home Rule Crisis", "Belfast West (UK Parliament constituency)", "First-past-the-post voting", "Birkenhead", "Water Works, Belfast", "western lowland gorilla", "Coleraine railway station", "Shaftesbury Square", "Irish language in Northern Ireland", "Orthopedic surgery", "liberation theology", "Second World War", "Game of Thrones", "People Before Profit", "Bill Clinton", "Falls Curfew", "Larne Harbour railway station", "St Peter's Cathedral, Belfast", "Newry", "proportional representation", "Hindu", "Grammar school", "Battle of Ballynahinch", "Crown Liquor Saloon", "Lord Mayor", "Saidie Patterson", "M3 motorway (Northern Ireland)", "Brian Friel", "Alex Higgins", "Harland & Wolff", "Gulf Stream", "scorched earth", "City of Music (UNESCO)", "Henry Cooke (minister)", "Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast", "Robert Shipboy MacAdam", "Belfast City Council", "Ireland", "Belfast, Victoria", "The News Letter", "Short Brothers", "Liberty Mutual", "Good Vibrations (film)", "2024 United Kingdom general election", "Belfast North (UK Parliament constituency)", "Belfast, New Zealand", "Giants Ring, Belfast", "Saint Patrick", "Brantwood F.C.", "Portrush railway station", "Carl Frampton", "Where They Were Missed" ]
5,047	Biotite	Biotite is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula . It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron-endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more aluminous end-members include siderophyllite and eastonite. Biotite was regarded as a mineral species by the International Mineralogical Association until 1998, when its status was changed to a mineral group. The term biotite is still used to describe unanalysed dark micas in the field. Biotite was named by J.F.L. Hausmann in 1847 in honor of the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot, who performed early research into the many optical properties of mica. Members of the biotite group are sheet silicates. Iron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen form sheets that are weakly bound together by potassium ions. The term "iron mica" is sometimes used for iron-rich biotite, but the term also refers to a flaky micaceous form of haematite, and the field term Lepidomelane for unanalysed iron-rich Biotite avoids this ambiguity. Biotite is also sometimes called "black mica" as opposed to "white mica" (muscovite) – both may form in the same rocks, and in some instances side by side. ==Properties== Like other mica minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, and consists of flexible sheets, or lamellae, which easily flake off. It has a monoclinic crystal system, with tabular to prismatic crystals with an obvious pinacoid termination. It has four prism faces and two pinacoid faces to form a pseudohexagonal crystal. Although not easily seen because of the cleavage and sheets, fracture is uneven. It appears greenish to brown or black, and even yellow when weathered. It can be transparent to opaque, has a vitreous to pearly luster, and a grey-white streak. When biotite crystals are found in large chunks, they are called "books" because they resemble books with pages of many sheets. The color of biotite is usually black and the mineral has a hardness of 2.5–3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Biotite dissolves in both acid and alkaline aqueous solutions, with the highest dissolution rates at low pH. However, biotite dissolution is highly anisotropic with crystal edge surfaces (h k0) reacting 45 to 132 times faster than basal surfaces (001). File:Biotite mica 2 (31739438210).jpg\|Flaky biotite sheets. File:BiotitaEZ.jpg\|Thick biotite sample featuring many sheets. File:Biotite1.jpg\|Biotite crystal exhibiting pseudohexagonal shape. ===Optical properties=== In thin section, biotite exhibits moderate relief and a pale to deep greenish brown or brown color, with moderate to strong pleochroism. Biotite has a high birefringence which can be partially masked by its deep intrinsic color. Under cross-polarized light, biotite exhibits extinction approximately parallel to cleavage lines, and can have characteristic bird's eye maple extinction, a mottled appearance caused by the distortion of the mineral's flexible lamellae during grinding of the thin section. Basal sections of biotite in thin section are typically approximately hexagonal in shape and usually appear isotropic under cross-polarized light. File:Muscovite and Biotite2a.jpg\|Biotite (in brown) and muscovite in an orthogneiss thin section under plane-polarized light. File:Thin Section of Biotite (test) (cropped to Biotite).jpg\|Biotite in thin section under cross-polarized light. File:Sagenitic biotite.JPG\|Basal section of biotite, with needle-like rutile inclusions, in thin section under plane-polarized light. ===Structure=== Like other micas, biotite has a crystal structure described as TOT-c, meaning that it is composed of parallel TOT layers weakly bonded to each other by cations (c). The TOT layers in turn consist of two tetrahedral sheets (T) strongly bonded to the two faces of a single octahedral sheet (O). It is the relatively weak ionic bonding between TOT layers that gives biotite its perfect basal cleavage. The tetrahedral sheets consist of silica tetrahedra, which are silicon ions surrounded by four oxygen ions. In biotite, one in four silicon ions is replaced by an aluminium ion. The tetrahedra each share three of their four oxygen ions with neighboring tetrahedra to produce a hexagonal sheet. The remaining oxygen ion (the apical oxygen ion) is available to bond with the octahedral sheet. The octahedral sheet in biotite is a trioctahedral sheet having the structure of a sheet of the mineral brucite, with magnesium or ferrous iron being the usual cations. Apical oxygens take the place of some of the hydroxyl ions that would be present in a brucite sheet, bonding the tetrahedral sheets tightly to the octahedral sheet. Tetrahedral sheets have a strong negative charge, since their bulk composition is AlSi3O105-. The trioctahedral sheet has a positive charge, since its bulk composition is M3(OH)24+ (M represents a divalent ion such as ferrous iron or magnesium) The combined TOT layer has a residual negative charge, since its bulk composition is M3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2−. The remaining negative charge of the TOT layer is neutralized by the interlayer potassium ions. Because the hexagons in the T and O sheets are slightly different in size, the sheets are slightly distorted when they bond into a TOT layer. This breaks the hexagonal symmetry and reduces it to monoclinic symmetry. However, the original hexahedral symmetry is discernible in the pseudohexagonal character of biotite crystals. File:Mica T.png\|View of tetrahedral sheet structure of biotite. The apical oxygen ions are tinted pink. File:Mica tO.png\|View of trioctahedral sheet structure of biotite. The binding sites for apical oxygen are shown as white spheres. Red spheres are hydroxide ions. File:Mica tOs.png\|View of trioctahedral sheet structure of mica emphasizing magnesium or iron sites File:Mica tri.png\|View of biotite structure looking at surface of a single layer File:Mica tri side.png\|View of biotite structure looking along sheets ==Occurrence== Members of the biotite group are found in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. For instance, biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius and in the Monzoni intrusive complex of the western Dolomites. Biotite in granite tends to be poorer in magnesium than the biotite found in its volcanic equivalent, rhyolite. Biotite is an essential phenocryst in some varieties of lamprophyre. Biotite is occasionally found in large cleavable crystals, especially in pegmatite veins, as in New England, Virginia and North Carolina USA. Other notable occurrences include Bancroft and Sudbury, Ontario Canada. It is an essential constituent of many metamorphic schists, and it forms in suitable compositions over a wide range of pressure and temperature. It has been estimated that biotite comprises up to 7% of the exposed continental crust. An igneous rock composed almost entirely of dark mica (biotite or phlogopite) is known as a glimmerite or biotitite. Biotite may be found in association with its common alteration product chlorite. File:Biotite Granite student sample.jpg\|Biotite-bearing granite samples (small black minerals). File:Biotite Gneiss.JPG\|Biotite-bearing gneiss sample. File:Biotite and chlorite gneiss mg 7971.jpg\|Gneiss sample bearing biotite and chlorite (green), a common alteration product of biotite. File:Sheet mica, Namibia.jpg\|Glimmerite from Namibia. ==Uses== Biotite is used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon–argon dating. Because argon escapes readily from the biotite crystal structure at high temperatures, these methods may provide only minimum ages for many rocks. Biotite is also useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the partitioning of iron and magnesium between biotite and garnet is sensitive to temperature.	[ "haematite", "tabular habit", "New England", "Phyllosilicate", "orthogneiss", "Silicate minerals", "Streak (mineralogy)", "potassium-argon dating", "glimmerite", "pleochroism", "Namibia", "iron", "hydrogen", "eastonite", "aqueous solution", "pH", "Anisotropy", "Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann", "Monoclinic", "muscovite", "lava", "Miller index", "Lamellae (materials)", "isotropic", "phlogopite", "silicon", "cation", "North Carolina", "basal cleavage", "metamorphic rocks", "Virginia", "Aluminium", "Mount Vesuvius", "Mohs scale of mineral hardness", "mineral", "Iron", "potassium", "physicist", "ion", "igneous rock", "Optical relief", "H-M symbol", "lamprophyre", "Mineral group", "Dolomites", "pegmatite", "schist", "oxygen", "Ontario", "thin section", "Field research", "International Mineralogical Association", "minerals", "rutile", "mica", "Greater Sudbury", "garnet", "chemical formula", "phenocryst", "Chlorite group", "Lustre (mineralogy)", "aluminium", "birefringence", "temperature", "argon–argon dating", "Polarized light microscopy", "weathering", "siderophyllite", "Bancroft, Ontario", "Prism (geometry)", "Hexagonal (crystal system)", "acid", "Optical mineralogy", "magnesium", "Rock (geology)", "wikt:pinacoid", "Solvation", "monoclinic crystal system", "pressure", "sheet silicate", "endmember", "Iveland", "Dissolution (chemistry)", "brucite", "Base (chemistry)", "granite", "Bird's eye maple (mineral property)", "argon", "rhyolite", "solid solution", "annite", "Jean-Baptiste Biot" ]
5,048	Brigham Young	{{Infobox Latter Day Saint biography \| name = Brigham Young \| image = Brigham Young by Charles William Carter (3x4 cropped).jpg \| caption = Young 1870 \| alt = Black-and-white head shot of Young facing left \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Whitingham, Vermont, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, U.S. \| death_cause = Ruptured appendix \| resting_place = Brigham Young Cemetery \| resting_place_coordinates = \| boards = \| spouse = 56 (See List of Brigham Young's wives){{efn\|name=WiveEstimates\|Estimates vary, and researchers state that not all of the fifty-six marriages were sexual relationships. was an American religious leader and politician. He was the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death in 1877. He also served as the first governor of the Utah Territory from 1851 until his resignation in 1858. Young was born in 1801 in Vermont and raised in Upstate New York. After working as a painter and carpenter, he became a full-time LDS Church leader in 1835. Following a short period of service as a missionary, he moved to Missouri in 1838. Later that year, Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs signed the Mormon Extermination Order and Young organized the migration of the Latter Day Saints from Missouri to Illinois, where he became an inaugural member of the Council of Fifty. In 1844, while he was traveling to gain support for Joseph Smith's presidential campaign, Smith was assassinated; igniting the Illinois Mormon War and triggering a succession crisis in the Latter Day Saint movement. After negotiating a ceasefire, Young was unanimously elected as the second president of the church in 1847. During the Mormon exodus, Young led his followers west from Nauvoo, Illinois, via the Mormon Trail, to the Salt Lake Valley. Once settled in Utah, he ordered the construction of numerous temples, including the Salt Lake Temple. He also formalized the prohibition of black men attaining priesthood and directed the Mormon Reformation. A supporter of education, Young worked to establish the learning institutions that would later become the University of Utah and Brigham Young University. After arriving in Utah, Young founded Salt Lake City and established the State of Deseret before being appointed Utah's first territorial governor by President Millard Fillmore in 1850. As governor, Young allowed polygamy, supported slavery and its expansion into Utah, and led the efforts to legalize and regulate slavery in the 1852 Act in Relation to Service, based on his beliefs on slavery. He exerted considerable power over the territory through his semi-theocratic political system, theodemocracy. After President James Buchanan appointed a new governor of the territory, Young declared martial law and re-activated the Nauvoo Legion; beginning the Utah War. During the conflict, the Utah Territorial Militia committed a series of attacks that resulted in the mass murder of at least 120 members of the Baker–Fancher immigrant wagon train, known as the Mountain Meadows Massacre. The following month, the Aiken massacre was perpetrated on Young's orders. In 1858, the war ended when Young agreed to resign as governor and allow federal troops to enter the Utah Territory in exchange for a pardon granted to Mormon settlers from President Buchanan. A polygamist, Young had 56 wives and 57 children. His teachings are contained in the 19 volumes of transcribed and edited sermons in the Journal of Discourses. His legacy and impact are seen throughout the American West, including numerous memorials, temples, and schools named in his honor. In 2016, Young was estimated to have around 30,000 descendants. ==Early life== Young was born on June 1, 1801, in Whitingham, Vermont. He was the ninth child of John Young and Abigail "Nabby" Howe. Young's father was a farmer, and when Young was three years old his family moved to upstate New York, settling in Chenango County. Young received little formal education, but his mother taught him how to read and write. At age twelve, he moved with his parents to the township of Genoa, close to Cayuga Lake. His mother died of tuberculosis in June 1815. Following her death, he moved with his father to Tyrone, New York. While there, Young's father remarried to a widow named Hannah Brown and sent Young off to learn a trade. Young moved to Auburn, New York, where he was an apprentice to John C. Jeffries. He worked as a carpenter, glazier, and painter. One of the homes that Young helped paint in Auburn belonged to Elijah Miller and later to William Seward, and is now a local museum. With the onset of the Panic of 1819, Jeffries dismissed Young from his apprenticeship, and Young moved to Port Byron, which was then called Bucksville. Young reported having a strict Puritan-style Christian upbringing. He used tobacco but did not drink alcohol. He refused to sign a temperance pledge, however, stating that "if I sign the temperance pledge I feel that I am bound, and I wish to do just right, without being bound to do it; I want my liberty." Young married Miriam Angeline Works, whom he had met in Port Byron in October 1824. They first resided in a small house adjacent to a pail factory, which was Young's main place of employment at the time. Their daughter, Elizabeth, was born on September 26, 1825. According to William Hayden, Young participated in the Bucksville Forensic and Oratorical Society. Young converted to the Reformed Methodist Church in 1824 after studying the Bible. Upon joining the Methodists, he insisted on being baptized by immersion rather than by their normal practice of sprinkling. In 1828, the family moved briefly to Oswego, New York, on the shore of Lake Ontario, and in 1828 to Mendon, New York. Young's father, two brothers, and sister had already moved to Mendon. In Mendon, Young first became acquainted with Heber C. Kimball, an early member of the LDS Church. Young worked as a carpenter and joiner, and built and operated a saw mill. === Latter Day Saint conversion === By the time Young moved to Mendon in 1828, he had effectively left the Reformed Methodist Church and become a Christian seeker, unconvinced that he had found a church possessing the true authority of Jesus Christ. Sometime in 1830, Young was introduced to the Book of Mormon by way of a copy that his brother, Phineas Howe, had obtained from Samuel H. Smith. Young did not immediately accept the divine claims of the Book of Mormon. In 1831, five missionaries of the Latter Day Saint movement—Eleazer Miller, Elial Strong, Alpheus Gifford, Enos Curtis, and Daniel Bowen—came from the branch of the church in Columbia, Pennsylvania, to preach in Mendon. A key element of the teachings of this group in Young's eyes was their practicing of spiritual gifts like speaking in tongues and prophecy. This was partly experienced when Young traveled with his wife, Miriam, and Heber C. Kimball to visit the branch of the church in Columbia. After meeting Joseph Smith, Young joined the Church of Christ in April 9, 1832. He was baptized by Eleazer Miller. Young's siblings and their spouses were baptized that year or the year afterwards. In April 1832, a branch of the church was organized in Mendon; eight of the fifteen families were Youngs. There, Young saw Alpheus Gifford speak in tongues, and in response, Young also spoke in tongues. Young and Kimball spent the summer following their baptism conducting missionary work in western New York, while Vilate Kimball cared for Young's family. After Miriam died of consumption, Vilate continued to care for Brigham's children while he, Heber, and Joseph Young traveled to visit Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Ohio. During the visit, Brigham spoke in a tongue that Smith identified as the "Adamic language". After visiting Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Brigham set out to preach with his brother Joseph in the winter of 1832–1833. Joseph had been a Reformed Methodist preacher and the two made a similar "preaching circuit" in eastern Canada. They described the Book of Mormon as the "stick of Joseph", mentioned in Ezekiel 37. Young continued to preach in eastern Canada in the spring and accompanied two Canadian converts to Kirtland in July 1833. Young and his two daughters moved to Kirtland along with the Kimball family later that summer. Here he became acquainted with Mary Ann Angell, a convert to the faith from Rhode Island, and the two were married in February 1834 and obtained a marriage certificate on March 31, 1834.{{efn\|Sources list February 18 as the marriage date, while another lists it as February 10. Young also served a year-long mission to the United Kingdom. There, he showed a talent for organizing the church's work and maintaining good relationships with Joseph Smith and the other apostles. Under his leadership, members in the United Kingdom began publishing Millennial Star, a hymnal, and a new edition of the Book of Mormon. Young also served in various leadership and community organization roles among church members in Nauvoo. He joined the Nauvoo city council in 1841 and oversaw the first baptisms for the dead in the unfinished Nauvoo temple. He joined the Masons in Nauvoo on April 7, 1842, and participated in an early endowment ritual led by Joseph Smith that May and became part of the Anointed Quorum. Young and the other apostles directed the church's missionary work and the immigration of new converts from this point forward. Young served another mission to the Eastern seaboard. During his time in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith introduced the doctrine of plural marriage among church leaders. Young performed the sealing ordinances for two of Joseph Smith's plural wives in early 1842. Young proposed marriage to Martha Brotherton, who was seventeen years old at the time and had recently immigrated from Manchester, England. Brotherton signed an affidavit saying that she had been pressured by Young and then Smith to accept polygamy. The affidavit was created at John C. Bennett's request, after his excommunication and in conjunction with his distribution of false information combined with true information about the church's practice of polygamy. Brigham Young and William Smith discredited Brotherton's character, and Brotherton herself did not associate with the church afterwards. Young campaigned against Bennett's allegations that Joseph Smith practiced "spiritual wifery"; Young knew of Smith's hidden practice of polygamy. He also helped to convince Hyrum to accept polygamy. Young married Lucy Ann Decker in June 1842, making her his first plural wife. Young knew her father, Isaac Decker, in New York. Lucy was still married to William Seeley when Young married her. Young supported her and her two children while they lived in their own home in Nauvoo. Lucy and Young had seven children together. Young was one of the first men in Nauvoo to practice polygamy, and he married more women than any other polygamist while in Nauvoo. While in Nauvoo, he married Clarissa Decker, Clarissa Ross, Emily Dow Partidge, Louisa Beaman, Margaret Maria Alley, Emmeline Free, Margaret Piece, and Zina Diantha Huntington. These wives bore him children after they moved to Utah. He also married in Nauvoo, but did not have children with Augusta Adams Cobb, Susannah Snively, Eliza Bowker, Ellen A. Rockwood, and Namah K. J. Carter. Eight of Young's plural marriages in Nauvoo were to Joseph Smith's widows. Young traveled east with Wilford Woodruff and George A. Smith from July to October 1843 on a mission to raise funds for the Nauvoo temple and its guesthouse. Young's six-year-old daughter Mary Ann died while he was on this mission. On November 22, 1843, Young and his wife Mary Ann received the second anointing, a ritual that assured them that their salvation and exaltation would occur. In March 1844, Brigham Young was an inaugural member of the Council of Fifty, which later organized the Mormon exodus from Nauvoo. In 1844, Young traveled east again to solicit votes for Joseph Smith in his presidential campaign. In June 1844, while Young was away, Joseph Smith was killed by an armed mob who stormed the jail where he was awaiting trial for the charge of treason. Young did not learn of the assassination until early July. Several claimants to fill the leadership vacuum emerged during the succession crisis that ensued. Church members gathered at a meeting on August 8, 1844, with the intent to choose between two claimants, Young and Sidney Rigdon, the senior surviving member of the church's First Presidency. At the meeting, Rigdon argued no one could succeed Smith and that he (Rigdon) should become Smith's "spokesman" and guardian of the church. Young argued that the church needed more than a spokesman and that the twelve apostles, not Rigdon, had "the fullness of the priesthood" necessary to succeed Smith's leadership. Young claimed access to revelation to know God's choice of successor because of his position as an apostle. The majority of attendants voted that the Quorum of the Twelve was to lead the church. Many of Young's followers stated in reminiscent accounts (the earliest in 1850 and the latest in 1920) that when Young spoke to the congregation, he miraculously looked or sounded exactly like Smith, which they attributed to the power of God.{{efn\|Historians have come to different conclusions on whether contemporary records support this "transfiguration of Brigham Young" (also sometimes called the "mantle phenomenon") as an authentic experience, whatever its causation. One source is skeptical of the "mantle phenomenon" as historically authentic. Another church source considers the "mantle phenomenon" historically authentic. Among Young's first acts upon arriving in the valley were the naming of the city as "The City of the Great Salt Lake" and its organization into blocks of ten acres, each divided into eight equal-sized lots. On August 7, Young suggested that the members of the camp be re-baptized to signify a re-dedication to their beliefs and covenants. Young spent just over a month in the Valley recovering from mountain fever before returning to Winter Quarters on August 31. Young's expedition was one of the largest and one of the best organized westward treks, and he made various trips back and forth between the Salt Lake Valley and Winter Quarters to assist other companies in their journeys. After three years of leading the church as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was sustained as the second president of the church on December 27, 1847, at Winter Quarters. Young named Heber C. Kimball as his first counselor and Willard Richards as his second. Young and his counselors were again sustained unanimously by church members at a church conference in Salt Lake City in September 1850. ==Governor of Utah Territory== The Utah Territory was created by Congress as part of the Compromise of 1850. As founder of Salt Lake City, Young was appointed the territory's first governor and superintendent of American Indian affairs by President Millard Fillmore on February 3, 1851. He was sworn in by Justice Daniel H. Wells for a salary of $1,500 a year and named as superintendent of Indian Affairs for an additional $1,000. During his time as governor, Young directed the establishment of settlements throughout present-day Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, California, and parts of southern Colorado and northern Mexico. Under his direction, the Mormons built roads, bridges, forts, and irrigation projects; established public welfare; organized a militia; issued a "selective extermination" order against male Timpanogos; and after a series of wars, eventually made peace with the Native Americans. Young was also one of the first to subscribe to Union Pacific stock, for the construction of the First transcontinental railroad. He also authorized the construction of the Utah Central railroad line, which connected Salt Lake City to the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad. Young organized the first Utah Territorial Legislature and established Fillmore as the territory's first capital. Young established a gold mint in 1849 and called for the minting of coins using gold dust that had been accumulated from travelers during the Gold Rush. The mint was closed in 1861 by Alfred Cumming, gubernatorial successor to Young. Young also organized a board of regents to establish a university in the Salt Lake Valley. It was established on February 28, 1850, as the University of Deseret; its name was eventually changed to the University of Utah. In 1849, Young arranged for a printing press to be brought to the Salt Lake Valley, which was later used to print the Deseret News periodical. In 1851, Young and several federal officials—including territorial Secretary Broughton Harris—became unable to work cooperatively. Within months, Harris and the others departed their Utah appointments without replacements being named, and their posts remained unfilled for the next two years. These individuals later became known as the Runaway Officials of 1851. Young supported slavery and its expansion into Utah and led the efforts to legalize and regulate slavery in the 1852 Act in Relation to Service, based on his beliefs on slavery. Young said in an 1852 speech, "In as much as we believe in the Bible... we must believe in slavery. This colored race have been subjected to severe curses... which they have brought upon themselves." Seven years later in 1859, Young stated in an interview with the New York Tribune that he considered slavery a "divine institution... not to be abolished". In 1856, Young organized an efficient mail service known as the Brigham Young Express and Carrying Company, which transported mail and passengers between Missouri and California. In 1858, following the events of the Utah War and Mountain Meadows Massacre, he stepped down to his gubernatorial successor, Alfred Cumming. ==LDS Church president== Young served for 29 years as the LDS Church president and is the longest-serving in that role. ===Educational endeavors=== During time as prophet and governor, Young encouraged bishops to establish grade schools for their congregations, which would be supported by volunteer work and tithing payments. Young viewed education as a process of learning how to make the Kingdom of God a reality on earth, and at the core of his "philosophy of education" was the belief that the church had within itself all that was necessary to save mankind materially, spiritually, and intellectually. On October 16, 1875, Young deeded buildings and land in Provo, Utah, to a board of trustees for establishing an institution of learning, ostensibly as part of the University of Deseret. Young said, "I hope to see an Academy established in Provo ... at which the children of the Latter-day Saints can receive a good education unmixed with the pernicious atheistic influences that are found in so many of the higher schools of the country." and was the precursor to Brigham Young University. Within the church, Young reorganized the Relief Society for women in 1867 and created organizations for young women in 1869 and young men in 1875. The Young Women organization was first called the Retrenchment Association and was intended to promote the turning of young girls away from the costly and extravagant ways of the world. It later became known as the Young Ladies Mutual Improvement Association and was a charter member of the National Council of Women and International Council of Women. Young also organized a committee to refine the Deseret alphabet—a phonetic alphabet that had been developed sometime between 1847 and 1854. At its prime, the alphabet was used in two Deseret News articles, two elementary readers, and in a translation of the Book of Mormon. By 1870, it had all but disappeared from use. ===Temple building=== Young was involved in temple building throughout his membership in the LDS Church, making it a priority during his time as church president. Under Smith's leadership, Young participated in the building of the Kirtland and Nauvoo temples. Just four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Young designated the location for the Salt Lake Temple; he presided over its groundbreaking years later on April 6, 1853. During his tenure, Young oversaw construction of the Salt Lake Tabernacle and announced plans to build the St. George (1871), Manti (1875), and Logan (1877) temples. He also provisioned the building of the Endowment House, a "temporary temple", which began to be used in 1855 to provide temple ordinances to church members while the Salt Lake Temple was under construction. ===Teachings=== The majority of Young's teachings are contained in the 19 volumes of transcribed and edited sermons in the Journal of Discourses. The LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants contains one section from Young that has been canonized as scripture, added in 1876. ==== Polygamy ==== Though polygamy was practiced by Young's predecessor, Joseph Smith, the practice is often associated with Young. Some Latter Day Saint denominations, such as the Community of Christ, consider Young the "Father of Mormon Polygamy". In 1853, Young made the church's first official statement on the subject since the church had arrived in Utah. Young acknowledged that the doctrine was challenging for many women, but stated its necessity for creating large families, proclaiming: "But the first wife will say, 'It is hard, for I have lived with my husband twenty years, or thirty, and have raised a family of children for him, and it is a great trial to me for him to have more women;' then I say it is time that you gave him up to other women who will bear children." Young believed that sexual desire was given by God to ensure the perpetuation of humankind and believed sex should be confined to marriage. ==== Adam-God doctrine and blood atonement ==== One of the more controversial teachings of Young during the Mormon Reformation was the Adam–God doctrine. According to Young, he was taught by Smith that Adam is "our Father and our God, and the only God with whom we have to do". According to the doctrine, Adam was once a mortal man who became resurrected and exalted. From another planet, Adam brought Eve, one of his wives, with him to the earth, where they became mortal by eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. After bearing mortal children and establishing the human race, Adam and Eve returned to their heavenly thrones where Adam acts as the god of this world. Later, as Young is generally understood to have taught, Adam returned to the earth to become the biological father of Jesus. The LDS Church has since repudiated the Adam–God doctrine. Young also taught the doctrine of blood atonement, in which the atonement of Jesus cannot redeem an eternal sin, which included apostasy, theft, fornication (but not sodomy), or adultery. Instead, those who committed such sins could partially atone for their sin by sacrificing their life in a way that sheds blood. The LDS Church has formally repudiated the doctrine as early as 1889 and multiple times since the days of Young. ==== Race restrictions on temples, priesthood, and interracial marriage ==== Young is generally considered to have instituted a church ban against conferring the priesthood on men of black African descent, who had generally been treated equally to white men in this respect under Smith's presidency. After settling in Utah in 1848, Young announced the ban, In 1863, Young stated: "Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race? If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so." Young was also a vocal opponent of theories of human polygenesis, being a firm voice for stating that all humans were the product of one creation. Throughout his time as prophet, Young went to great lengths to deny the assumption that he was the author of the practice of priesthood denial to black men, asserting instead that the Lord was. According to Young, the matter was beyond his personal control and was divinely determined rather than historically or personally as many assumed. Young taught that the day would come when black men would again have the priesthood, saying that after "all the other children of Adam have the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of God, and of being redeemed from the four-quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity." These racial restrictions remained in place until 1978, when the policy was rescinded by church president Spencer W. Kimball, and the church subsequently "disavow[ed] theories advanced in the past" to explain this ban, essentially attributing the origins of the ban solely to Young. === Mormon Reformation === During 1856 and 1857, a period of renewed emphasis on spirituality within the church known as the Mormon Reformation took place under Young's direction. The Mormon Reformation called for a spiritual reawakening among members of the church and took place largely in the Utah Territory. Jedediah M. Grant, one of the key figures of the Reformation and one of Young's counselors, traveled throughout the Territory, preaching to Latter-day Saint communities and settlements with the goal of inspiring them to reject sin and turn towards spiritual things. As part of the Reformation, almost all "active" or involved LDS Church members were rebaptized as a symbol of their commitment. At a church meeting on September 21, 1856, Brigham Young stated: "We need a reformation in the midst of this people; we need a thorough reform." Large gatherings and meetings during this period were conducted by Young and Grant, and Young played a key role in the circulation of the Mormon Reformation with his emphasis on plural marriage, rebaptism, and passionate preaching and oration. It was during this period that the controversial doctrine of blood atonement was occasionally preached by Young, though it was repudiated in 1889 and never practiced by members of the church. ===Conflicts=== Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Latter-day Saint colonies were incorporated into the United States through the Mexican Cession. Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the State of Deseret. The Compromise of 1850 instead carved out Utah Territory, and Young was appointed governor. As governor and church president, Young directed both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Young's leadership style has been viewed as autocratic. ==== Utah War ==== When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obstruction of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), U.S. President James Buchanan decided in early 1857 to install a non-Mormon governor. Buchanan accepted the reports of the Runaway Officials without any further investigation, and the new non-sectarian governor was appointed and sent to the new territory accompanied by 2,500 soldiers. When Young received word in July that federal troops were headed to Utah with his replacement, he called out his militia to ambush the federal force using delaying tactics. During the defense of Utah, now called the Utah War, Young held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter by taking their cattle and burning supply wagons. Young eventually reached a settlement with the aid of a peace commission and agreed to step down as governor. Buchanan later pardoned Young. ==== Mountain Meadows Massacre ==== The degree of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows Massacre, which took place in Washington County in 1857, is disputed. Leonard J. Arrington reports that Young received a rider at his office on the day of the massacre, and that when he learned of the contemplated attack by members of the church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter directing that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested. Young's letter reportedly arrived on September 13, 1857, two days after the massacre. As governor, Young had promised the federal government he would protect migrants passing through Utah Territory, but over 120 men, women, and children were killed in this incident. There is no debate concerning the involvement of individual Mormons from the surrounding communities by scholars. Only children under the age of seven, who were cared for by local Mormon families, survived, and the murdered members of the wagon train were left unburied. The remains of about 40 people were later found and buried, and U.S. Army officer James Henry Carleton had a large cross made from local trees, the transverse beam bearing the engraving, "Vengeance Is Mine, Saith The Lord: I Will Repay" and erected a cairn of rocks at the site. A large slab of granite was put up on which he had the following words engraved: "Here 120 men, women and children were massacred in cold blood early in September, 1857. They were from Arkansas." For two years, the monument stood as a memorial to those traveling the Spanish Trail through Mountain Meadow. According to Wilford Woodruff, Young brought an entourage to Mountain Meadows in 1861 and suggested that the monument instead read "Vengeance is mine and I have taken a little". ==Death== Before his death in Salt Lake City on August 29, 1877, Young suffered from cholera morbus and inflammation of the bowels. It is believed that he died of peritonitis from a ruptured appendix. His last words were "Joseph! Joseph! Joseph!", invoking the name of the late Joseph Smith Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. On September 2, 1877, Young's funeral was held in the Tabernacle with an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 people in attendance. He is buried on the grounds of the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument in the heart of Salt Lake City. A bronze marker was placed at the grave site June 10, 1938, by members of the Young Men and Young Women organizations, which he founded. ==Business ventures and wealth== Young engaged in a vast assortment of commercial ventures by himself and in partnership with others. These included a wagon express company, a ferryboat company, a railroad, and the manufacturing of processed lumber, wool, sugar beets, iron, and liquor. Young achieved greatest success in real estate. He also tried to promote Mormon self-sufficiency by establishing collectivist communities, known as the United Order of Enoch. Young was also involved in the organization of the Salt Lake Gas Works, the Salt Lake Water Works, an insurance company, a bank, and the ZCMI store in downtown Salt Lake City. In 1873, he announced that he would step down as president of the Deseret National Bank and of ZCMI, as well as from his role as trustee-in-trust for the church. He cited as his reason for this that he was ready to relieve himself from the burden of "secular affairs". At the time of his death, Young was the wealthiest man in Utah, with an estimated personal fortune of $600,000 (alternatively, "Modern Moses" or "Mormon Moses"), because, like the biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was dubbed by his followers the "Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality and commonly was called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. A century after Young's death, historian Rodman W. Paul wrote, He credited Young's leadership with helping to settle much of the American West: Memorials to Young include a bronze statue in front of the Abraham O. Smoot Administration Building, Brigham Young University; a marble statue in the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United States Capitol, donated by the State of Utah in 1950; and a statue atop the This is the Place Monument in Salt Lake City. === Views of race and slavery === Young believed in the racial superiority of white men. His manuscript history from January 5, 1852, which was published in the Deseret News, reads:The negro … should serve the seed of Abraham; he should not be a ruler, nor vote for men to rule over me nor my brethren. The Constitution of Deseret is silent upon this, we meant it should be so. The seed of Canaan cannot hold any office, civil or ecclesiastical. … The decree of God that Canaan should be a servant of servants unto his brethren (i.e., Shem and Japhet [sic]) is in full force. The day will come when the seed of Canaan will be redeemed and have all the blessings their brethren enjoy. Any person that mingles his seed with the seed of Canaan forfeits the right to rule and all the blessings of the Priesthood of God; and unless his blood were spilled and that of his offspring he nor they could not be saved until the posterity of Canaan are redeemed. Young adopted the idea of the Curse of Ham—a racist interpretation of Genesis 9 which white proponents of slavery in antebellum America used to justify enslaving black people of African descent—and applied it liberally and literally. Young also predicted a future in which Chinese and Japanese people would immigrate to America. He averred that Chinese and Japanese immigrants would need to be governed by white men as they would have no understanding of government. Young had a somewhat mixed view of slavery which historian John G. Turner called a "bundle of contradictions". In the 1840s, Young strove to keep aloof from nationwide political debates over slavery, avoiding committing to either antislavery or proslavery positions. In the early 1850s, he expressed some support for the antislavery "free soil" position in American politics, and in January 1852, he declared in a speech that "no property can or should be recognized as existing in slaves", suggesting opposition to the existence of slavery. However, two weeks later Young declared himself a "firm believer in slavery". By the time of his death, Young had fifty-seven children by sixteen of his wives; forty-six of his children reached adulthood. There were fifty-six women who Young was sealed to during his lifetime. While the majority of the sealings were "for eternity", some were "for time only", meaning that Young was sealed to these women as a proxy for their previous husbands who had died. Researchers state that not all of the fifty-six marriages were conjugal. Of Young's fifty-six wives, twenty-one had never been married before; seventeen were widows; six were divorced; six had living husbands; and the marital status of six others is unknown. At the time of Young's death, nineteen of his wives had predeceased him; he was divorced from ten, and twenty-three survived him. The status of four was unknown. Some of Young's descendants have become leaders in the LDS Church, as well as prominent political and cultural figures. ==In culture== ===In comics=== Florence Claxton's The Adventures of a Woman in Search of Her Rights (1872), satirizes a would-be emancipated woman whose failure to establish an independent career results in her marriage to Young before she wakes to discover she's been dreaming. Brigham Young appears at the end of the bande dessinée Le Fil qui chante, the last in the Lucky Luke series by René Goscinny. ===In literature=== The Scottish poet John Lyon, who was an intimate friend of Young, wrote Brigham the Bold in tribute to him after his death. Arthur Conan Doyle gave Brigham Young a minor but pivotal in-person role in the Sherlock Holmes short novel A Study in Scarlet. Young appears here in a scene set in 1860, some time before the novel's publication in 1887. Doyle had based this work, the first Holmes story, in part on Mormon history and portrays the Mormons and Young unsympathetically. When asked to comment, Doyle responded that he "provoked the animosity of the Mormon faithful" and that "all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history." Doyle's daughter stated that, "You know father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons." Mark Twain devoted a chapter and much of two appendices to Young in Roughing It. In the appendix, Twain describes Young as a theocratic "absolute monarch" defying the will of the U.S. government, and alleges using a dubious source that Young had ordered the Mountain Meadows massacre. Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., talking about his fondness of trees, joked in his The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table: "I call all trees mine that I have put my wedding-ring on, and I have as many tree-wives as Brigham Young has human ones." In Fitz-James O'Brien's 1857 short story, "My Wife's Tempter", Brigham Young is depicted as an "apostle of hell", whose villainous disciple compels the hero's wife to annul her marriage and marry a Mormon. ===In film and television=== Young has appeared in a number of films. Dean Jagger played him of the eponymous 1940 film Brigham Young. In The Avenging Angel (1995), he is played by Charlton Heston. Terence Stamp plays him in the 2007 film September Dawn. In Hell on Wheels (2011–2016), he is portayed by Gregg Henry. He is played by Kim Coates in the Netflix miniseries American Primeval (2025). ===In theater=== In the 2011 satirical musical The Book of Mormon, Young is portrayed as a tyrannical American regional warlord, cursed by God to have a clitoris for a nose—a parable cautioning against female genital mutilation. ==Literary works== Since Young's death, a number of works have published collections of his discourses and sayings. LDS Church publication number 35554	[ "Salt Lake Valley", "fornication", "President of the Church (LDS Church)", "Book of Mormon", "Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Deseret Book", "Smithsonian Institution", "University of Oklahoma Press", "Church History Library", "John Lyon (poet)", "Terence Stamp", "Brigham Young (Mahonri Young statue)", "Millard Filmore", "Deseret Digital Media", "Colorado tick fever", "Jesus in Christianity", "Brigham Young Winter Home and Office", "Brigham Young Academy", "Smithsonian American Art Museum", "Roughing It", "List of governors of Utah", "Pittsburgh", "Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.", "Leonard J. Arrington", "sealing (Latter Day Saints)", "Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)", "Encarta", "Brigham Young (film)", "Mormon History Association", "Fancher party", "Relief Society", "Will (law)", "Oswego, New York", "Eve", "Brigham Young Monument", "President of the United States", "Joseph Smith III", "Anointed Quorum", "Jesus Christ", "Heber C. Kimball", "Mormon Trail", "Macmillan Publishing", "Rigdonite", "theft", "Provo, Utah", "Le Fil qui chante", "Doctrine and Covenants", "BYU Studies", "First Presidency (LDS Church)", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Nauvoo Legion", "John Henry Smith", "Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought", "Associated Press", "President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)", "Tithing in Mormonism", "Hell on Wheels (TV series)", "Runaway Officials of 1851", "Substitutionary atonement", "Logan Utah Temple", "Orson Pratt", "Council of Fifty", "George Teasdale", "Pioneer Day (Utah)", "Ann Eliza Young", "PBS", "Aiken massacre", "James Strang", "Rodman W. Paul", "Gardo House", "Jedediah M. Grant", "The New York Times", "René Goscinny", "Lion House (Salt Lake City)", "James Henry Carleton", "A Study in Scarlet", "Illinois Mormon War", "Princeton University Press", "Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints)", "plural marriage", "Willard Richards", "Moses", "Deseret alphabet", "Panic of 1819", "clitoris", "Alfred A. Knopf", "Deseret News", "Stephen A. Douglas", "David W. Patten", "Utah War", "aspersion", "Signature Books", "theocratic", "National Review", "Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies", "U.S. Army", "Lilburn Boggs", "Mendon, New York", "Bible", "Joseph Smith 1844 presidential campaign", "The Mormons (miniseries)", "Emigration", "Ordinance room", "Utah Territory", "Collectivism and individualism", "This is the Place Monument", "State of Deseret", "First transcontinental railroad", "State of Utah", "Kirtland Safety Society", "Elijah Miller", "Kirtland Temple", "Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)", "Brigham Young Forest Farmhouse", "Andrew Carnegie", "The Avenging Angel", "Baker–Fancher party", "Brigham Young University", "Daniel H. Wells", "NewsBank", "List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States", "adultery", "immersion baptism", "female genital mutilation", "Battle of Crooked River", "First Presidency", "History of slavery in Utah", "Sunstone (magazine)", "William Seward", "Moses Thatcher", "Intermountain West", "Salt Lake Tabernacle", "second anointing", "missionary", "Washington County, Utah", "Brigham Young Cemetery", "Black people and early Mormonism", "ordinance (Latter Day Saints)", "Three Witnesses", "Mary Ann Angell", "Adam", "Common consent", "National Statuary Hall Collection", "Dean C. Jessee", "House painter and decorator", "Mormon Extermination Order", "Community of Christ", "September Dawn", "Dean Jagger", "Cayuga Lake", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "William Bickerton", "Black people and Mormonism", "Fitz James O'Brien", "religious leader", "Mexican Cession", "William Seward House", "Fillmore, Utah", "Mormon Reformation", "Gregg Henry", "Winter Quarters, Nebraska", "University of Utah", "Quorum of the Twelve", "Thomas B. Marsh", "Harvard University Press", "James Buchanan", "Architect of the Capitol", "Black people and Mormon priesthood", "The Universe (BYU)", "United Order", "carpenter", "John Taylor (Mormon)", "Utah State Historical Society", "Union Pacific Railroad", "Internet Archive", "self-published", "Adam–God doctrine", "Speaking in tongues", "exaltation (Latter Day Saints)", "Brigham Young (1940 film)", "Brigham Young: American Moses", "Oxford University Press", "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "Port Byron, New York", "Ensign (LDS magazine)", "Orson Hyde", "martial law", "Arthur Gary Bishop", "theodemocracy", "John C. Bennett", "eternal sin", "Polygamy and the Latter Day Saint movement", "Battle at Fort Utah", "Smithsonian (magazine)", "Broughton Harris", "Old Spanish Trail (trade route)", "Greenwood Press", "The Mormon Prophet and His Harem", "U.S. Congress", "1st Utah Territorial Legislature", "John Taylor (Latter Day Saint)", "Smyrna, New York", "Beehive House", "Eliza R. Snow", "Act in Relation to Service", "Far West, Missouri", "John D. Rockefeller", "Alfred Cumming (governor)", "Kim Coates", "Mark Twain", "Temple (LDS Church)", "Dublin, Indiana", "Young Women (organization)", "Zina D. H. Young", "Tyrone, New York", "Brigham Young University Press", "short novel", "This Is the Place Monument", "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo", "glazier", "Heber J. Grant", "Lucky Luke", "California Institute of Technology", "Zion's Camp", "Endowment House", "Danite Band", "The Salt Lake Tribune", "Rhode Island", "Salt Lake City", "Auburn, New York", "Mexican–American War", "Adamic language", "Assassination of Joseph Smith", "Spencer W. Kimball", "Arthur Conan Doyle", "St. George Utah Temple", "Rebaptism (Mormonism)", "Samuel H. Smith (Latter Day Saints)", "Florence Claxton", "Latter-day Saint", "Utah Historical Quarterly", "cairn", "Yale University Press", "Endowment (Latter Day Saints)", "Mormon exodus", "Joseph Young", "Joseph A. Young", "Mountain Meadows Massacre", "Descendants of Brigham Young", "Baptism in Mormonism", "Vermiform appendix", "American West", "Upstate New York", "List of Governors of Utah", "apostasy", "University of Illinois Press", "Salt Lake Temple", "Puritans", "Celestial marriage", "Charlton Heston", "peritonitis", "Richard Van Wagoner", "List of Brigham Young's wives", "Google Books", "Routledge", "Millard Fillmore", "Sidney Rigdon", "The Book of Mormon (musical)", "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)", "Journal of Discourses", "Duell, Sloan and Pearce", "Curse of Ham", "Francis M. Lyman", "Latter Day Saint movement", "Utah Territorial Militia", "Nauvoo Temple", "Whitingham, Vermont", "Manti Utah Temple", "Jason W. Briggs", "Compromise of 1850", "pardon", "Karl G. Maeser", "bande dessinée", "This Is The Place Heritage Park", "HuffPost", "Utah Central Railroad (1869–1881)", "Mormonism and slavery", "captain of industry", "Marriage", "Baptism for the dead", "blood atonement", "Columbia, Pennsylvania", "United States Capitol", "Sherlock Holmes", "miscegenation", "Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument", "American Primeval", "sodomy", "Colorado River", "Mormonism and polygamy", "Mormon pioneers", "Joseph Smith", "Young Men (organization)", "Freemasonry", "Death of Joseph Smith", "John A. Widtsoe", "Genoa, New York", "Nauvoo, Illinois", "Polygenism", "The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table" ]
5,049	Burns supper	A Burns supper is a celebration of the life and poetry of the poet Robert Burns (25 January 175921 July 1796), the author of many Scots poems. The suppers are usually held on or near the poet's birthday, 25 January, known as Burns Night (; ) also called Robert Burns Day or Rabbie Burns Day (or Robbie Burns Day in Canada). Sometimes, celebrations are also held at other times of the year. Burns suppers are held all around the world. ==History== The first supper was held in memoriam at Burns Cottage in Ayrshire by Burns's friends, on 21 July 1801, the fifth anniversary of his death. The first still extant Burns Club was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants who were born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns. They held the first Burns supper on what they thought was his birthday, 29 January 1802, but in 1803, they discovered the Ayr parish records that noted his date of birth was actually 25 January 1759. Since then, suppers have been held on or about 25 January. The Scottish Parliament considers the celebration of Burns Night each year to be a key cultural heritage event.The Parliament welcomes the annual celebration of Scotland’s national poet, Robert Burns, which is held on 25 January each year to mark the Bard’s birthday; considers that Burns was one of the greatest poets and that his work has influenced thinkers across the world; notes that Burns' first published collection, Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, also known as the "Kilmarnock Edition", published in 1786, did much to popularise and champion the Scots language, and considers that this is one of his most important legacies; believes that the celebration of Burns Night is an opportunity to raise awareness of the cultural significance of Scots and its status as one of the indigenous languages of Scotland, and further believes in the importance of the writing down of the Scots language to ensure its continuation through written documentation, as well as oral tradition. Burns suppers can be formal or informal. Both typically include haggis (a traditional Scottish dish celebrated by Burns in Address to a Haggis), Scotch whisky and the recitation of Burns's poetry. Formal dinners are hosted by organisations such as universities, sporting clubs, Burns Clubs, the Freemasons or St. Andrew's Societies; they occasionally end with dancing or a cèilidh. During the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, Burns Night celebrations moved online and were popular amongst families eating at home. Formal suppers follow a standard order. == Standard order == ===Piping in guests=== A bagpiper sometimes greets the guests, who gather and mix as at any informal party. === Host's welcoming speech === The host welcomes the guests to the supper and states the occasion. Sometimes, the song "O Flower of Scotland" is sung at the beginning. All the guests are then seated and grace is said, usually using the "", a thanksgiving said before meals that uses the Scots language. Although attributed to Burns, the Selkirk Grace was already known in the 17th century as the "Galloway Grace" or the "Covenanters' Grace". It came to be called the Selkirk Grace because Burns was said to have delivered it at a dinner given by the 4th Earl of Selkirk. ==== Selkirk Grace ==== but in recent decades, a vegetarian alternative is often available. It is usually brought in by the cook on a large dish, generally while a bagpiper leads the way to the host's table, where the haggis is laid down. "A Man's A Man for A' That", "Robbie Burns Medley" or "The Star O' Robbie Burns" can be played. The host or a guest then recites the Address to a Haggis. ==== "Address to a Haggis" ==== At the line ', the speaker normally draws and sharpens a knife. At the line ', he plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end. When done properly, the "ceremony" is a highlight of the evening. === Main course === At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis, and the company will sit down to the meal. The haggis is traditionally served with mashed potatoes (tatties) and mashed swede turnip (neeps). ===Other courses=== A dessert course, cheese courses, and coffee may also be part of the meal. The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes. For instance, dessert may be cranachan or tipsy laird (whisky trifle), followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with the "water of life" (), Scotch whisky. ===Toasts=== When the meal reaches the coffee stage, speeches and toasts are given. ==== Immortal memory ==== The main speaker gives a speech remembering some aspect of Burns's life or poetry. It may be either light-hearted or serious, and may include the recitation of a poem or a song by Burns. A toast to the Immortal Memory of Robert Burns then follows. ====Address to the Lassies ==== This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to the women who had prepared the meal. However, it is now much more wide-ranging and generally covers the male speaker's view on women. The men drink a toast to the women's health. ==== Reply to the Laddies ==== This is occasionally (and humorously) called the "Toast to the Laddies". Like the previous toast, it is generally now quite wide-ranging. A female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker. Quite often, the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other. === Works by Burns === After the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns (such as "Ae Fond Kiss", "Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation", and "A Man's A Man for A' That") and more poetry (such as "To a Mouse", "To a Louse", "Tam o' Shanter", "The Twa Dogs", and "Holy Willie's Prayer"). That may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts. It may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots. === Closing === Finally, the host will call on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks. Then, everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing "".	[ "cèilidh", "Greenock", "Scots language", "Grace (prayer)", "tatties", "Robert Burns", "Modern Scots", "Great Highland bagpipe", "Holy Willie's Prayer", "Covenanters", "coffee", "Burns' Day storm", "Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation", "Irvine Burns Club", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Ayrshire", "VisitScotland", "oatcakes", "Ae Fond Kiss (song)", "Master of ceremonies", "Scotch whisky", "Freemason", "Saint Andrew's Society", "To a Louse", "To a Mouse", "Tam o' Shanter (poem)", "cheese", "tipsy laird", "Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect", "Scotch broth", "Ayr", "Scottish Parliament", "Address to a Haggis", "List of dining events", "neeps", "A Man's A Man for A' That", "Burns Cottage", "Scottish music", "mashed potatoes", "cullen skink", "rutabaga", "Dunbar Douglas, 4th Earl of Selkirk", "cranachan", "Galloway", "haggis", "Burns Clubs", "Scottish cuisine", "Auld Lang Syne", "cock-a-leekie" ]
5,050	Bill Bryson	William McGuire Bryson ( ; born 8 December 1951) is an American-British journalist and author. Bryson has written a number of nonfiction books on topics including travel, the English language, and science. Born in the United States, he has been a resident of Britain for most of his adult life, returning to the U.S. between 1995 and 2003, and holds dual American and British citizenship. He served as the chancellor of Durham University from 2005 to 2011. In 1995, while in the United Kingdom, Bryson authored Notes from a Small Island, an exploration of Britain. In 2003, he authored A Short History of Nearly Everything. In October 2020, he announced that he had retired from writing books. In 2022, he recorded an audiobook for Audible, The Secret History of Christmas. He has sold over 16 million books worldwide. ==Early life and education== Bryson was born and raised in Des Moines, Iowa, the son of Bill Bryson Sr., a sports journalist who worked for 50 years at The Des Moines Register, and Agnes Mary (née McGuire), the home furnishings editor at the same newspaper. His mother was of Irish descent. He had an older brother, Michael (1942–2012), and a sister, Mary Jane Elizabeth. In 2006, Bryson published The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid, a humorous account of his childhood years in Des Moines. Bryson attended Drake University for two years before dropping out in 1972, deciding instead to backpack around Europe for four months. He returned to Europe the following year with a high school friend, Matt Angerer (the pseudonymous Stephen Katz). Bryson wrote about some of his experiences from the trip in his book Neither Here nor There: Travels in Europe. ==Career== Bryson first visited Great Britain in 1973 and decided to stay after securing a job working in a psychiatric hospital, the now-defunct Holloway Sanatorium in Virginia Water, Surrey. He met a nurse there, Cynthia Billen, whom he married in 1975. He worked as a journalist, first for the Bournemouth Evening Echo, eventually becoming chief copy editor of the business section of The Times and deputy national news editor of the business section of The Independent. The Brysons moved around the United Kingdom, living in Virginia Water (Surrey), Purewell (Dorset), Burton (Dorset), Kirkby Malham, and the Old Rectory in Wramplingham, Norfolk (2003–2013). They currently live in rural Hampshire and maintain a small flat in South Kensington, London. Although able to apply for British citizenship, Bryson said in 2010 that he had declined a citizenship test, declaring himself "too cowardly" to take it. In 2014, he said that he was preparing to take it and in the prologue to his 2015 book The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes From a Small Island he describes doing so, in Eastleigh. His citizenship ceremony took place in Winchester and he now holds dual citizenship. In 2003, in conjunction with World Book Day, British voters chose Bryson's book Notes from a Small Island as that which best summed up British identity and the state of the nation. Also in 2003, he was appointed a Commissioner for English Heritage. His popular science book, the 500-page A Short History of Nearly Everything, explores not only the histories and current statuses of the sciences, but also their humble and often humorous beginnings. Although one "top scientist" is alleged to have jokingly described the book as "annoyingly free of mistakes", Bryson makes no such claim, and a list of some of its reported errors is available online. In November 2006, Bryson interviewed the prime minister, Tony Blair, on the state of science and education. Bryson also wrote two popular works on the history of the English language, The Mother Tongue and Made in America—and, more recently, an update of his guide to usage, Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words (first published as The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words in 1983). He also released a podcast, Bill Bryson's Appliance of Science, in 2017. ===Litigation=== In 2012, Bryson sued his agent, Jed Mattes Inc., (which had been taken over by a man named Fred Morris upon Mattes death in 2003) in New York County Supreme Court, claiming it had "failed to perform some of the most fundamental duties of an agent". The case was settled out of court with confidential terms. In 2013, Bryson claimed copyright on an interview he had given nearly 20 years previously, after the interviewer republished it as an 8,000-word e-book. Amazon removed the e-book from publication. ===Awards, positions and honours=== In 2004, he won the Aventis Prize for best general science book that year, with A Short History of Nearly Everything. In 2005, the book won the European Union's Descartes Prize for science communication. He had praised Durham as "a perfect little city" in Notes from a Small Island. With the Royal Society of Chemistry, the Bill Bryson Prize for Science Communication was established in 2005. The competition engages students from around the world in explaining science to non-experts. As part of its 350th anniversary celebrations in 2010 the Royal Society commissioned Bryson to edit a collection of essays by scientists and science writers about the history of science and the Royal Society over the previous three and a half centuries entitled Seeing Further. He was made an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his contribution to literature on 13 December 2006. In 2007, he was awarded the James Joyce Award by the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. After he received British citizenship, his OBE was made substantive. In May 2007, he became the president of the Campaign to Protect Rural England. His first focus in this role was the establishment of an anti-littering campaign across England. He discussed the future of the countryside with Richard Mabey, Sue Clifford, Nicholas Crane, and Richard Girling at CPRE's Volunteer Conference in November 2007. In October 2010, it was announced that Bryson would step down as chancellor of Durham University at the end of 2011. In 2012, he received the Kenneth B. Myer Award, from the Florey Institute of Neuroscience, in Melbourne, Australia. On 22 November 2012, Durham University officially renamed the Main Library the Bill Bryson Library for his contributions as the university's 11th chancellor (2005–2011). The library also has a cafe named after Bryson's book Notes from a Small Island. Bryson was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2013, becoming the first non-Briton to receive this honour. His biography at the Society reads, Bill Bryson is a popular author who is driven by a deep curiosity for the world we live in. Bill's books and lectures demonstrate an abiding love for science and an appreciation for its social importance. His international bestseller, A Short History of Nearly Everything (2003), is widely acclaimed for its accessible communication of science and has since been adapted for children. He is a Vice President of the National Churches Trust. In January 2007, Bryson was the Schwartz Visiting Fellow at the Pomfret School in Connecticut. ===Honorary doctorates=== Honorary Doctorate, The Open University, 2002 Honorary Doctor of Civil Law, Durham University, 2004 Honorary Doctorate, Bournemouth University, 2005 Honorary Doctorate, University of St Andrews, 2005 DLitt, University of Leeds, 2005 Honorary Doctorate, University of Leicester, 2009 Doctor of Humane Letters, Drake University, 2009 Honorary Doctorate, King's College London, 13 November 2012 Honorary Doctorate, University of Westminster, 2015 Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters, University of Iowa, May 2016 Honorary Doctorate for services to literature, University of Winchester, October 2016	[ "The Sydney Morning Herald", "Drake University", "The Mother Tongue", "University of Westminster", "Kirkby Malham", "Academy Award", "The Times", "Aventis Prize", "Richard Girling", "Burton, Dorset", "Robert Redford", "durham21", "Hampshire", "The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes from a Small Island", "Chancellor of Durham University", "Tony Blair", "Michael Bryson", "The Body: A Guide for Occupants", "chancellor (education)", "The Independent", "Notes from a Big Country", "A Short History of Nearly Everything", "Hanover, New Hampshire", "Shakespeare: The World as Stage", "Peter Ustinov", "Eastleigh", "repatriation", "A Walk in the Woods: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail", "Multiple citizenship", "CARE International", "Thomas Allen (baritone)", "The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America", "Notes from a Small Island", "British citizenship", "Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words", "The Des Moines Register", "World Book Day", "Sue Clifford", "University of St Andrews", "University of Leicester", "BBC Radio 4", "Nick Nolte", "Literary and Historical Society (University College Dublin)", "A Walk in the Woods (film)", "Royal Society", "Bachelor of Arts", "University of Iowa", "travel", "King's College London", "science", "Frank Cownie", "At Home: A Short History of Private Life", "Boston", "Winchester", "popular science", "University College Dublin", "Bournemouth University", "Andrew Motion", "author", "Great Britain", "One Summer: America, 1927", "Outdoor Writers and Photographers Guild", "The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes From a Small Island", "copyright", "Richard Mabey", "Durham University Library", "Neither Here nor There: Travels in Europe", "List of vice-chancellors and wardens of Durham University", "In a Sunburned Country", "Belfast Telegraph", "omnibus edition", "Bill Bryson's African Diary", "journalist", "Open University", "National Churches Trust", "Chancellor (education)", "Bournemouth Daily Echo", "New York County Supreme Court", "Connecticut", "settled out of court", "University of Leeds", "Max Hastings", "Backpacking (hiking)", "The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid", "Bill Bryson Sr.", "English language", "Made in America (book)", "Officer of the Order of the British Empire", "Freedom of the City", "Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health", "University of Winchester", "Down Under (book)", "Descartes Prize", "Appalachian Trail", "Usage (language)", "Des Moines, Iowa", "American-British", "Durham University", "Pomfret School", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "Techdirt", "Campaign to Protect Rural England", "Virginia Water", "Chris Higgins (academic)", "Nicholas Crane", "Kenneth Calman", "Ames Tribune", "Amazon (company)", "A Walk in the Woods (book)", "Holloway Sanatorium", "Wramplingham", "James Joyce Award", "USA Today", "Iowa Now", "List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 2013", "Newsweek", "English Heritage", "column (periodical)", "Open Library", "Carlton Television" ]
5,051	Big Audio Dynamite	Big Audio Dynamite (later known as Big Audio Dynamite II and Big Audio, and often abbreviated BAD) were an English band, formed in London in 1984 by Mick Jones, former lead guitarist and co-lead vocalist of the Clash. The band mixed various musical styles, incorporating elements of punk rock, dance music, hip hop, reggae, and funk. After releasing a number of well-received studio albums and touring extensively throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Big Audio Dynamite broke up in 1997. In 2011, the band embarked on a reunion tour. ==History== ===T.R.A.C. (1984)=== After being fired from the Clash in 1983 and following a brief stint with new wave band General Public, Mick Jones formed a new band called Top Risk Action Company (T.R.A.C.). He recruited bassist Leo "E-Zee Kill" Williams, saxophonist John "Boy" Lennard (from post-punk band Theatre of Hate), and former Clash drummer Topper Headon. Headon was quickly fired for his heroin addiction and Lennard either left or was fired and the band folded. Although the band released no material (only demos were recorded, which have yet to be officially released), T.R.A.C. can be seen as a forerunner to Big Audio Dynamite in much the same way that London SS can be seen as an early incarnation of the Clash. ===Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990)=== Jones then formed Big Audio Dynamite with film director Don Letts (maker of 1978 film The Punk Rock Movie, various Clash music videos, and later the Clash documentary Westway to the World in 2000), bassist Leo Williams (from T.R.A.C.), drummer Greg Roberts, and keyboardist Dan Donovan. In November 1985 the band's debut studio album, This Is Big Audio Dynamite, was released. The album's cover shows the band as a four-piece, minus Donovan who took and designed the photograph. 1986's No. 10, Upping St. reunited Jones for one last album with former Clash lyricist and lead vocalist Joe Strummer, who was credited with co-producing the album and co-writing five of its nine tracks. BAD supported Irish rock band U2 on their Joshua Tree Tour on certain dates, then released 1988's Tighten Up Vol. 88 and 1989's Megatop Phoenix. Tighten Up, Vol. 88 contained "Just Play Music!", which was the second No. 1 single on Billboards Modern Rock Tracks chart. In 1990, the original line-up wrote and recorded the song "Free" for the soundtrack to the adventure comedy film Flashback, starring Dennis Hopper and Kiefer Sutherland. This would be the final song written with the original line-up, as the band would break-up shortly after. "The Bottom Line" from the band's first album was remixed and used as the title track for Flashback (1990). However, this track was not included on the film's official soundtrack. It can be found on the 12" or by download. Later in 1990, Jones debuted Big Audio Dynamite II and released the UK only studio album Kool-Aid. Keyboardist Dan Donovan remained in BAD II for one song, a re-working of the final BAD track "Free" renamed "Kickin' In". ===Big Audio Dynamite II (1991–1993)=== For 1991's The Globe, only Jones remained from the original incarnation of Big Audio Dynamite, and the band was now called "Big Audio Dynamite II". This new line-up featured two guitarists. The album sleeve was designed by Shawn Stussy. The Globe (1991) featured the band's most commercially successful single, "Rush", which hit No. 1 on both the US Modern Rock Tracks chart and the Australian National ARIA Chart. "Rush" was also released in the United Kingdom with the 1991 re-release of the Clash's "Should I Stay or Should I Go". The sleeve art for the 7-inch and CD singles displayed the Clash on the front, and BAD II on the rear with the record label displaying "Should I Stay or Should I Go" as side "A" and "Rush" as side "AA". Even though it was effectively a double A-side release, the Chart Information Network/Gallup decided that only the Clash would be credited with a number one hit. "Innocent Child" and "The Globe" were also released as singles. BAD supported U2 on their Zoo TV Tour, headlined the MTV 120 Minutes tour which also featured Public Image Ltd, Live, and Blind Melon, and released the live EP "On the Road Live '92". In 1991, while Jones formed Big Audio Dynamite II, the rest of the original line-up briefly formed a band called Screaming Target. They released one studio album Hometown Hi-Fi and two singles "Who Killed King Tubby?" and "Knowledge N Numbers" before disbanding. The title and album cover art were purposely meant as a tribute to Jamaican reggae deejay Big Youth's debut studio album Screaming Target (1972). In 1993, Greg Roberts formed the electronic band Dreadzone with Tim Bran, with the name suggested to them by Don Letts. Bassist Leo Williams and keyboardist Dan Donovan joined the band before their second studio album Second Light and the single "Little Britain" in 1995. Dreadzone is still active, with Roberts and Williams remaining members. ===Big Audio (1994)=== The band later recruited keyboardist Andre Shapps (co-producer of The Globe, brother of MP Grant Shapps and Mick Jones's cousin) and DJ Michael "Lord Zonka" Custance as DJ and vocalist. Both appeared on the band's seventh studio album Higher Power (1994), which was released under the shortened name "Big Audio". ===Final years and subsequent activities (1995–2010)=== After signing a recording contract with Gary Kurfirst's Radioactive Records in 1995, the band reverted to the original "Big Audio Dynamite" moniker and released their least successful studio album to date, F-Punk (1995). Radioactive Records refused to release the next proposed BAD studio album, Entering a New Ride. The line-up contained MC vocals by Joe Attard of Punks Jump Up, Ranking Roger of the Beat and General Public and drummer Bob Wond of Under Two Flags. In 1998, the band launched a new website, primarily intended as a means to distribute songs from the Entering a New Ride album. In 2001, after having only released 6 songs from the album, the website went down and Big Audio Dynamite disbanded. Their final studio album was never properly released in its entirety, but it has been heavily leaked online for fans who wished to hear it. Since 2005, Jones has been working on a project with Tony James (formerly of Generation X and Sigue Sigue Sputnik) called Carbon/Silicon. In early 2007, a live, eight-song DVD from BAD II was released; it is entitled Big Audio Dynamite Live: E=MC². ===2011 reunion=== In 2010, Don Letts revealed to Billboard.com that he and Mick Jones broached the idea of a Big Audio Dynamite reunion in 2011. He explained, "I could lie to you and say 'Not in a million years', but... if Mick wasn't tied up with Gorillaz it might happen this year. (Jones) has looked at me and said, 'Maybe next year', but who knows. I've got to admit that in the past I'm not a great one for reformations; I always think if you're lucky in life, you get a window of opportunity, use it to the best of your ability and then fuck off and let someone else have their turn. But here I am 25 years down the line considering the thing". Besides a Big Audio Dynamite reunion, Letts said he was also hopeful for more Legacy Editions of the band's studio albums after finding more unreleased material—including live recordings—in the vaults. "There's definitely more stuff; whether Sony thinks it's worthwhile, that's another matter. But there seems to be a lot of respect for Big Audio Dynamite. Time has shown that a lot of the things we were dabbling in back then have come to manifest themselves today...so hopefully we'll get to do some more". The reformation of the original line-up of BAD was confirmed on 25 January 2011 with the announcement of a UK tour. The 9-date tour was a commercial and critical success. The first of their two sold out Shepherd's Bush Empire shows received a 4-star review in The Times ('Not just a reformation - this is their time'), The Observer welcomed BAD's return with a glowing review declaring, 'they remain a joy'. Their headline slot at Beautiful Days festival was favourably reviewed on the Louder Than War music website. Big Audio Dynamite played sets at the 2011 Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Glastonbury Festival 2011, Rock en Seine and Lollapalooza. ==Members== ===Timeline=== Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990, 2011) Mick Jones – vocals, guitar Don Letts – vocals, samples Dan Donovan – keyboards, backing vocals Leo Williams – bass, backing vocals Greg Roberts – drums, backing vocals Big Audio Dynamite II (1990–1993) Mick Jones – vocals, guitar Nick Hawkins – guitar, backing vocals Gary Stonadge – bass, backing vocals Chris Kavanagh – drums, backing vocals Big Audio (1994–1995) Mick Jones – vocals, guitar Nick Hawkins – guitar, backing vocals Gary Stonadge – bass, backing vocals Chris Kavanagh – drums, backing vocals Andre Shapps – keyboards, programming, samples, percussion Michael 'Zonka' Custance – DJ, keyboards, samples, percussion, backing vocals Big Audio Dynamite (1996–1998) Mick Jones – vocals, guitar Nick Hawkins – guitar Andre Shapps – keyboards, programming, samples, percussion Michael 'Zonka' Custance – DJ, keyboards, samples, percussion, gang vocals Daryl Fulstow – bass Bob Wond – drums Joe Attard – MC Ranking Roger – vocals ==Discography== This Is Big Audio Dynamite (1985) No. 10, Upping St. (1986) Tighten Up Vol. 88 (1988) Megatop Phoenix (1989) Kool-Aid (1990) The Globe (1991) Higher Power (1994) F-Punk (1995) Entering a New Ride (1997)	[ "London SS", "Grant Park (Chicago)", "MTV", "Tighten Up Vol. 88", "Beautiful Days (festival)", "recording contract", "The Times", "hip hop", "The Globe (song)", "Columbia Records", "hip hop music", "Radioactive Records", "Joe Strummer", "Rush (Big Audio Dynamite II song)", "Gary Stonadge", "Post-punk", "Screaming Target", "New wave music", "Megatop Phoenix", "Los Angeles Times", "Leo Williams (musician)", "Billboard (magazine)", "Second Light", "Mick Jones (The Clash guitarist)", "Shawn Stussy", "Entering a New Ride", "Carbon/Silicon", "post-punk", "Dreadzone", "Blind Melon", "Generation X (band)", "punk rock", "U2", "Tighten Up, Vol. 88", "Sigue Sigue Sputnik", "music video", "Gary Kurfirst", "reggae fusion", "The Clash: Westway to the World", "The Bottom Line (Big Audio Dynamite song)", "alternative dance", "Big Youth", "No. 10, Upping St.", "General Public", "The Globe (album)", "Topper Headon", "This Is Big Audio Dynamite", "Higher Power (Big Audio Dynamite album)", "Tony James (musician)", "Glastonbury Festival 2011", "Disc jockey", "Greg Roberts (musician)", "funk rock", "Zoo TV Tour", "Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival", "Sampling (music)", "Dan Donovan (keyboardist)", "Ranking Roger", "Live (band)", "Nick Hawkins (musician)", "funk", "Toasting (Jamaican music)", "MCA Records", "dance-punk", "the Clash", "Theatre of Hate", "F-Punk", "Gorillaz", "Just Play Music!", "Don Letts", "Kiefer Sutherland", "Rock en Seine", "Sony Music", "Lollapalooza", "Chris Kavanagh (musician)", "heroin", "Shepherd's Bush Empire", "The Punk Rock Movie", "Grant Shapps", "ARIA Charts", "reggae", "Flashback (1990 film)", "The Observer", "Public Image Ltd", "dance music", "The Joshua Tree Tour", "Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival", "120 Minutes", "Alternative Songs", "Dennis Hopper", "Kool-Aid (album)", "Louder Than War", "The Beat (British band)", "Percussion instrument", "Should I Stay or Should I Go", "dance-rock" ]
5,052	Bentley	Bentley Motors Limited is a British designer, manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs. Headquartered in Crewe, England, the company was founded by W. O. Bentley (1888–1971) in 1919 in Cricklewood, North London, and became widely known for winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1924, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930 and 2003. Bentley has been a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group since 1998 and consolidated under VW's premium brand arm Audi since 2022. Prominent models extend from the historic sports-racing Bentley 4½ Litre and Bentley Speed Six; the more recent Bentley R Type Continental, Bentley Turbo R, and Bentley Arnage; to its current model line, including the Flying Spur, Continental GT and Bentayga which are marketed worldwide, with China as its largest market as of November 2012. Today most Bentley models are assembled at the company's Crewe factory, with a small number assembled at Volkswagen's Dresden factory, Germany, and with bodies for the Continental manufactured in Zwickau and for the Bentayga manufactured at the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant. The joining and eventual separation of Bentley and Rolls-Royce followed a series of mergers and acquisitions, beginning with the 1931 purchase by Rolls-Royce of Bentley, then in receivership. In 1971, Rolls-Royce itself was forced into receivership and the UK government nationalised the company—splitting it into an aerospace company (Rolls-Royce Plc) and an automotive company (Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, including Bentley). Rolls-Royce Motors was subsequently sold to engineering conglomerate Vickers, and in 1998 Vickers sold Rolls-Royce to Volkswagen AG, including Bentley with its name and logos (but not the name "Rolls Royce"). ==History== ===Cricklewood (1919–1931)=== Before World War I, Walter Owen Bentley and his brother, Horace Millner Bentley, sold French DFP cars in Cricklewood, North London, but W.O, as Walter was known, always wanted to design and build his own cars. At the DFP factory, in 1913, he noticed an aluminium paperweight and thought that aluminium might be a suitable replacement for cast iron to fabricate lighter pistons. The first Bentley aluminium pistons were fitted to Sopwith Camel aero engines during the First World War. The same day that the Paris Peace Conference to end World War I started, Walter Owen ("W.O.") Bentley founded Bentley Motors Limited, on 18 January 1919 and registered Bentley Motors Ltd. in August 1919. In October he exhibited a car chassis (with a dummy engine) at the London Motor Show. Ex–Royal Flying Corps officer Clive Gallop designed an innovative four-valves-per-cylinder engine for the chassis. By December the engine was built and running. Delivery of the first cars was scheduled for June 1920, but development took longer than estimated so the date was extended to September 1921. Bentley's first major event was the 1922 Indianapolis 500, a race dominated by specialized cars with Duesenberg racing chassis. They entered a modified road car driven by works driver Douglas Hawkes, accompanied by riding mechanic H. S. "Bertie" Browning. Hawkes completed the full and finished 13th with an average speed of after starting in 19th position. The team was then rushed back to England to compete in the 1922 RAC Tourist Trophy. ====Captain Woolf Barnato==== In an ironic reference to his heavyweight boxer's stature, Captain Woolf Barnato was nicknamed "Babe". In 1925, he acquired his first Bentley, a 3-litre. With this car, he won numerous Brooklands races. Just a year later, he acquired the Bentley business itself. The Bentley enterprise was always underfunded, but inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato agreed to finance Bentley's business. Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which existed as his finance and investment vehicle. Via Baromans, Barnato initially invested in excess of £100,000, saving the business and its workforce. A financial reorganisation of the original Bentley company was carried out and all existing creditors paid off for £75,000. Existing shares were devalued from £1 each to just 1 shilling, or 5% of their original value. Barnato held 149,500 of the new shares giving him control of the company and he became chairman. Barnato injected further cash into the business: £35,000 secured by debenture in July 1927; £40,000 in 1928; £25,000 in 1929. With renewed financial input, W. O. Bentley was able to design another generation of cars. ====The Bentley Boys==== The Bentley Boys were a group of British motoring enthusiasts that included Barnato, Sir Henry "Tim" Birkin, steeple chaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, automotive journalist S.C.H. "Sammy" Davis, and Dudley Benjafield. The Bentley Boys favoured Bentley cars. Many were independently wealthy and many had a military background. They kept the marque's reputation for high performance alive; Bentley was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, from 1927 to 1930. Birkin developed the 4½-litre, lightweight Blower Bentley at Welwyn Garden City in 1929 and produced five racing specials, starting with Bentley Blower No.1 which was optimised for the Brooklands racing circuit. Birkin overruled Bentley and put the model on the market before it was fully developed. As a result, it was unreliable. During the March 1930 Blue Train Races, Barnato raised the stakes on Rover and its Rover Light Six, having raced and beaten Le Train Bleu for the first time, to better that record with his 6½-litre Bentley Speed Six on a bet of £100. He drove against the train from Cannes to Calais, then by ferry to Dover, and finally London, travelling on public highways, and won. Barnato drove his H.J. Mulliner–bodied formal saloon in the race against the Blue Train. Two months later, on 21 May 1930, he took delivery of a Speed Six with streamlined fastback "sportsman coupé" by Gurney Nutting. Both cars became known as the "Blue Train Bentleys"; the latter is regularly mistaken for, or erroneously referred to as being, the car that raced the Blue Train, while in fact Barnato named it in memory of his race. A painting by Terence Cuneo depicts the Gurney Nutting coupé racing along a road parallel to the Blue Train, which scenario never occurred as the road and railway did not follow the same route. ====Cricklewood Bentleys==== 1921–1929 3-litre 1926–1930 4½-litre & "Blower Bentley" 1926–1930 6½-litre 1928–1930 6½-litre Speed Six 1930–1931 8-litre 1931 4-litre The original model was the three-litre, but as customers put heavier bodies on the chassis, a larger 4½-litre model followed. Perhaps the most iconic model of the period is the 4½-litre "Blower Bentley", with its distinctive supercharger projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley it was not the racing workhorse the 6½-litre was, though in 1930 Birkin remarkably finished second in the French Grand Prix at Pau in a stripped-down racing version of the Blower Bentley, behind Philippe Etancelin in a Bugatti Type 35. The 4½-litre model later became famous in popular media as the vehicle of choice of James Bond in the original novels, but this has been seen only briefly in the films. John Steed in the television series The Avengers also drove a Bentley. The new eight-litre was such a success that when Barnato's money seemed to run out in 1931 and Napier was planning to buy Bentley's business, Rolls-Royce purchased Bentley Motors to prevent it from competing with their most expensive model, the Phantom II. ====Performance at Le Mans==== ====24 hours of Le Mans Grand Prix d'Endurance==== 1923 4th (private entry) (3-Litre) 1924 1st (3-Litre) 1925 did not finish 1926 did not finish 1927 1st 15th 17th (3-Litre) 1928 1st 5th (4½-litre) 1929 1st (Speed Six); 2nd 3rd 4th: (4½-litre) 1930 1st 2nd (Speed Six) Bentley withdrew from motor racing just after winning at Le Mans in 1930, claiming that they had learned enough about speed and reliability. ====Liquidation==== The Wall Street crash of 1929 and the resulting Great Depression throttled the demand for Bentley's expensive motor cars. In July 1931 two mortgage payments were due which neither the company nor Barnato, the guarantor, were able to meet. On 10 July 1931 a receiver was appointed. Napier offered to buy Bentley with the purchase to be final in November 1931. Instead, British Central Equitable Trust made a winning sealed bid of £125,000. British Central Equitable Trust later proved to be a front for Rolls-Royce Limited. Not even Bentley himself knew the identity of the purchaser until the deal was completed. before resuming at the Rolls-Royce works in Derby. Unhappy with his role at Rolls-Royce, when his contract expired at the end of April 1935 W. O. Bentley left to join Lagonda. When the new Bentley 3½ litre appeared in 1933, it was a sporting variant of the Rolls-Royce 20/25, which disappointed some traditional customers yet was well received by many others. W. O. Bentley was reported as saying, "Taking all things into consideration, I would rather own this Bentley than any other car produced under that name". a slogan Rolls-Royce continued to use for Bentley cars until the 1950s. All Bentleys produced from 1931 to 2004 used inherited or shared Rolls-Royce chassis, and adapted Rolls-Royce engines, and are described by critics as badge-engineered Rolls-Royces. =====Derby Bentleys===== 1933–1937 3½-litre 1936–1939 4¼-litre 1939–1941 Mark V 1939 Mark V ====Crewe==== In preparation for war, Rolls-Royce and the British Government searched for a location for a shadow factory to ensure production of aero-engines. Crewe, with its excellent road and rail links, as well as being located in the northwest away from the aerial bombing starting in mainland Europe, was a logical choice. Crewe also had extensive open farming land. Construction of the factory started on a 60-acre area on the potato fields of Merrill's Farm in July 1938, with the first Rolls-Royce Merlin aero-engine rolling off the production line five months later. 25,000 Merlin engines With the war in Europe over and the general move towards the then new jet engines, Rolls-Royce concentrated its aero-engine operations at Derby and moved motor car operations to Crewe. Some years later, initially only for export, the Rolls-Royce Silver Dawn was introduced, a standard steel Bentley but with a Rolls-Royce radiator grille for a small extra charge, and this convention continued. Chassis remained available to coachbuilders until the end of production of the Bentley S3, which was replaced for October 1965 by the chassis-less monocoque construction T series. =====Bentley Continental===== The Continental fastback coupé was aimed at the UK market, most cars, 164 plus a prototype, being right-hand drive. The chassis was produced at the Crewe factory and shared many components with the standard R type. Other than the R-Type standard steel saloon, R-Type Continentals were delivered as rolling chassis to the coachbuilder of choice. Coachwork for most of these cars was completed by H. J. Mulliner & Co. who mainly built them in fastback coupe form. Other coachwork came from Park Ward (London) who built six, later including a drophead coupe version. Franay (Paris) built five, Graber (Wichtrach, Switzerland) built three, one of them later altered by Köng (Basel, Switzerland), and Pininfarina made one. James Young (London) built in 1954 a Sports Saloon for the owner of James Young's, James Barclay. The early R Type Continental has essentially the same engine as the standard R Type, but with modified carburation, induction and exhaust manifolds along with higher gear ratios. After July 1954 the car was fitted with an engine, having now a larger bore of with a total displacement of . The compression ratio was raised to 7.25:1. =====Crewe Rolls-Royce Bentleys===== File:1951 Bentley MK VI HJM 2-door saloon 8160965887.jpg \|"The silent sports car"1952 4¼-litre 2-door by H J Mulliner File:Bentley S2.JPG \|Bentley S-series Standard Saloon File:Bentley T2 reg 1977 6750 cc.JPG\|Bentley T-series Standard Saloon (l.w.b.) Standard-steel saloon 1946–1952 Mark VI 1952–1955 R Type Continental 1952–1955 R Type Continental S-series 1955–1959 S1 and Continental 1959–1962 S2 and Continental 1962–1965 S3 and Continental T-series 1965–1977 T1 1977–1980 T2 1971–1984 Corniche 1975–1986 Camargue ===Vickers (1970–1998)=== The problems of Bentley's owner with Rolls-Royce aero engine development, the RB211, brought about the financial collapse of its business in 1970. The motorcar division was made a separate business, Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, which remained independent until bought by Vickers plc in August 1980. By the 1970s and early 1980s Bentley sales had fallen badly; at one point less than 5% of combined production carried the Bentley badge. As of early 2010, there are about 3,500 working at Crewe, compared with about 1,500 in 1998 before being taken over by Volkswagen. It was reported that Volkswagen invested a total of nearly US$2 billion in Bentley and its revival. As a result of upgrading facilities at Crewe the bodywork now arrives fully painted at the Crewe facility for final assembly, with the parts coming from Germany—similarly Rolls-Royce body shells are painted and shipped to the UK for assembly only. Demand had been so great that the factory at Crewe was unable to meet orders despite an installed capacity of approximately 9,500 vehicles per year; there was a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently, part of the production of the new Flying Spur, a four-door version of the Continental GT, was assigned to the Transparent Factory (Germany), where the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury car was also assembled. This arrangement ceased at the end of 2006 after around 1,000 cars, with all car production reverting to the Crewe plant. Bentley presented Queen Elizabeth II with an official State Limousine in 2002 to celebrate her Golden Jubilee. Production of the two-door convertible Bentley Azure finished in 2003. It was replaced by a large luxury coupé powered by a W12 engine built in Crewe and named Bentley Continental GT. It was confirmed in April 2005 a four-seat convertible Azure derived from the Arnage Drophead Coupé prototype would begin at Crewe in 2006. By the autumn of 2005, a convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the Continental GTC, was also presented in the autumn of 2005. These two models were launched in late 2006. A limited run of a Zagato modified GT was also announced in March 2008, dubbed "GTZ". A new version of the Bentley Continental was introduced at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show: The Continental Supersports. This new Bentley is a supercar combining extreme power with environmentally friendly FlexFuel technology, capable of using petrol (gasoline) and biofuel (E85 ethanol). Bentley sales continued to increase, and in 2005 8,627 were sold worldwide, 3,654 in the United States. In 2007, the 10,000 cars-per-year threshold was broken for the first time with sales of 10,014. For 2007, a record profit of €155 million was also announced. Bentley reported a sale of about 7,600 units in 2008. However, its global sales plunged 50 percent to 4,616 vehicles in 2009 (with the U.S. deliveries dropped 49% to 1,433 vehicles) and it suffered an operating loss of €194 million, compared with an operating profit of €10 million in 2008. As a result of the slump in sales, production at Crewe was shut down during March and April 2009. Though vehicle sales increased by 11% to 5,117 in 2010, operating loss grew by 26% to €245 million. In Autumn 2010, workers at Crewe staged a series of protests over proposal of compulsory work on Fridays and mandatory overtime during the week. Vehicle sales in 2011 rose 37% to 7,003 vehicles, with the new Continental GT accounting for over one-third of total sales. The current workforce is about 4,000 people. The business earned a profit in 2011 after two years of losses as a result of the following sales results: On 23 March 2020, Bentley announced to halt production due to COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2020, Bentley announced that it will cut around 1,000 (one quarter of 4,200) job places in the UK as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 3 November 2020, Bentley announced that all new cars sold will be electric by 2030. This announcement also follows after the United Kingdom Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced in February 2020 that he approved legislation that will ban and phase out non-electric vehicles (including Hybrid and Plug-in Hybrid vehicles) from the UK by 2030 with hybrids being banned by 2035. =====Deliveries, profits and staff===== Sources Volkswagen AG Annual Reports and press releases Bentley recorded a 31% rise in global sales in FY21 despite shutdowns caused by the global coronavirus pandemic. =====Production===== Sources Volkswagen AG Annual Reports ==List of Bentley vehicles== === Crewe Volkswagen Bentleys === ==== Car models in current production ==== 2016–present: Bentayga 2024–present: Continental GT (Gen 4) 2019–present: Flying Spur (Gen 3) ==== Car models formerly in production ==== 1998–2009: Arnage 2003–2011: Continental GT 2005–2013: Continental Flying Spur (Gen 1) 2006–2009: Azure (Gen 2) 2008–2011: Bentley Brooklands (Gen 2) 2010–2020: Mulsanne 2011–2018: Continental GT (Gen 2) 2013–2019: Flying Spur (Gen 2) 2018–2024: Continental GT (Gen 3) ==== Special edition car models ==== 1999: Hunaudières Concept 2002: State Limousine === Motorsport === A Bentley Continental GT3 entered by the M-Sport factory team won the Silverstone round of the 2014 Blancpain Endurance Series. This was Bentley's first official entry in a British race since the 1930 RAC Tourist Trophy.	[ "Rolls-Royce Corniche", "2003 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Great Depression", "Dresden", "Bentley S1", "Bentley Hunaudières", "The Avengers (TV series)", "Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph", "COVID-19 pandemic", "Royal Flying Corps", "1926 24 Hours of Le Mans", "The Herald (Glasgow)", "Frank Clement (racing driver)", "Franay", "Bentley Turbo RT", "W12 engine", "Bentayga", "24 Hours of Le Mans", "Bentley S3", "Bentley Turbo R", "Blancpain Endurance Series", "jet engine", "Bentley 3 Litre", "Pressed Steel Company", "Blower Bentley", "Derby", "Bentley R Type", "Ian Fleming", "BBC News", "Subsidiary", "aviator", "Rover Company", "RB211", "monocoque", "Bentley Continental Flying Spur (2005)", "Douglas Hawkes", "Lagonda", "Front organization", "Blue Train Bentley", "Geneva Motor Show", "John Steed", "Northwest England", "Golden Jubilee", "M-Sport", "Le Train Bleu", "List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom", "1922 Indianapolis 500", "World War II", "Bentley Continental GT", "Rolls-Royce 20/25", "Boris Johnson", "1924 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Volkswagen Phaeton", "Badge engineering", "British International Motor Show", "Rolls-Royce Silver Dawn", "Luxury vehicle", "World War I", "1930 French Grand Prix", "Bugatti Type 35", "Companies House", "Autocar (magazine)", "Bentley Mark V", "PistonHeads", "Bentley 3.5 Litre", "1930 24 Hours of Le Mans", "James Bond", "Pininfarina", "Doriot, Flandrin & Parant", "1928 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Calais", "coachbuilder", "Bentley Mulsanne (1980–92)", "operating profit", "1925 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Park Ward", "Bentley Mulsanne (1980–1992)", "Clive Gallop", "Bentley Boys", "Bentley Bentayga", "1929 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Rolls-Royce Merlin", "prototype", "Bentley Continental T", "Pound sterling", "Routledge", "Sport utility vehicle", "Philippe Etancelin", "steeplechase (horse racing)", "Bentley Brooklands", "Cannes", "Bentley 4½ Litre", "D. Napier & Son", "Paris Motor Show", "potato", "Bentley 4 Litre", "Bentley S2", "heavyweight boxer", "shadow factory", "MSN", "W. O. Bentley", "receivership", "supercharger", "Volkswagen Bratislava Plant", "Henry Birkin", "James Bond film series", "Bentley 8 Litre", "RAC Tourist Trophy", "Euro", "Bentley Azure", "Bentley Mulsanne (2010)", "Goodwood plant", "Bentley Turbo RL", "BMW", "World War I", "Bentley Continental", "The Wall Street Journal", "Bentley Continental S", "Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)", "Bentley Blower No.1", "Automotive industry", "Glen Kidston", "1927 24 Hours of Le Mans", "Blue Train Races", "Brooklands", "Dover", "Duesenberg", "World War II", "Bentley Mark VI", "Bentley Continental R", "Elizabeth II", "aluminium", "James Young (coachbuilder)", "John Duff", "Geneva International Motor Show", "Volkswagen Group", "Woolf Barnato", "British Government", "H. J. Mulliner & Co.", "chairman", "turbocharger", "S.C.H. \"Sammy\" Davis", "Bentley Flying Spur (2005)", "Bentley State Limousine", "Bentley T-series", "Vickers plc", "Bentley Crewe", "Chief executive officer", "Wall Street crash of 1929", "Cricklewood", "wheelbase", "Haymarket Group", "rolling chassis", "Terence Cuneo", "V12 engine", "Bentley Eight", "debenture", "intercooler", "1923 24 Hours of Le Mans", "MotorBooks International", "multi-valve", "Rolls-Royce Camargue", "Rover Light Six", "Zagato", "Bentley Continental Supersports", "H.J. Mulliner & Co.", "V8 engine", "Crewe", "Bentley Turbo S", "J Gurney Nutting & Co Limited", "Carrosserie Hermann Graber", "Financial Times", "Airstrike", "Sopwith Camel", "Zwickau", "sedan (automobile)", "24 hours of Le Mans", "Dudley Benjafield", "Audi", "Rolls-Royce plc", "Bentley Speed Six", "Bentley Arnage", "Bloomberg Businessweek", "Rolls-Royce Limited", "Transparent Factory" ]
5,131	Chordate	}} }} }} }} }} }} }} ==Closest non-chordate relatives== The closest relatives of the chordates are believed to be the hemichordates and Echinodermata, which together form the Ambulacraria. The Chordata and Ambulacraria together form the superphylum Deuterostomia. ===Hemichordates=== Hemichordates ("half chordates") have some features similar to those of chordates: branchial openings that open into the pharynx and look rather like gill slits; stomochords, similar in composition to notochords, but running in a circle round the "collar", which is ahead of the mouth; and a dorsal nerve cord—but also a smaller ventral nerve cord. There are two living groups of hemichordates. The solitary enteropneusts, commonly known as "acorn worms", have long proboscises and worm-like bodies with up to 200 branchial slits, are up to long, and burrow though seafloor sediments. Pterobranchs are colonial animals, often less than long individually, whose dwellings are interconnected. Each filter feeds by means of a pair of branched tentacles, and has a short, shield-shaped proboscis. The extinct graptolites, colonial animals whose fossils look like tiny hacksaw blades, lived in tubes similar to those of pterobranchs. ===Echinoderms=== Echinoderms differ from chordates and their other relatives in three conspicuous ways: they possess bilateral symmetry only as larvae – in adulthood they have radial symmetry, meaning that their body pattern is shaped like a wheel; they have tube feet; and their bodies are supported by dermal skeletons made of calcite, a material not used by chordates. Their hard, calcified shells keep their bodies well protected from the environment, and these skeletons enclose their bodies, but are also covered by thin skins. The feet are powered by another unique feature of echinoderms, a water vascular system of canals that also functions as a "lung" and surrounded by muscles that act as pumps. Crinoids are typically sessile and look rather like flowers (hence the common name "sea lilies"), and use their feather-like arms to filter food particles out of the water; most live anchored to rocks, but a few species can move very slowly. Other echinoderms are mobile and take a variety of body shapes, for example starfish and brittle stars, sea urchins and sea cucumbers.	[ "Acanthodii", "Holostei", "Circulatory system", "Notochord", "deuterostome", "Amphibian", "Kunming", "Amniota", "Vertebrate", "cyclophilin", "Northern and southern China", "International Code of Zoological Nomenclature", "water vascular system", "protostome", "Metaspriggina", "hyaline cartilage", "pharynx", "Sarcopterygii", "clade", "jaw", "atriopore", "pharyngeal slit", "Jane Reece", "Anaspidomorphi", "mouth", "lobe-finned fish", "RNA", "axial skeleton", "Chondrostei", "salp", "nervous system", "Vertebral column", "sea squirt", "Deuterostome", "glycoprotein", "Xenacoelomorpha", "embryonic development", "mammal", "cladogram", "Namibia", "braincase", "proboscis", "colony (biology)", "sessility (motility)", "Vestibule of mouth", "Burgess Shale", "sea urchin", "vertebra", "Shankouclava", "Larvacean", "Cladistia", "cnidarians", "Taxonomy of invertebrates (Brusca & Brusca, 2003)", "Pterobranch", "Yarnemia", "brain vesicle", "Yunnanozoon", "Hyperoartia", "subphylum", "Neil A. Campbell", "metamerism (biology)", "William Bateson", "Apomorphy and synapomorphy", "Sauropsida", "gill", "Myllokunmingiida", "Hemichordate", "Tetrapoda", "larva", "Vetulicolia", "starfish", "Paraphyly", "Stolidobranchia", "skull", "Agnatha", "body cavity", "Maotianshan Shale", "Ernst Haeckel", "Lancelet", "acorn worm", "Tunicata", "Branchiostoma lanceolatum", "Haikouella lanceolata", "mucus", "hacksaw", "sea cucumber", "Fishes of the World", "Amphibia", "DNA", "mesoderm", "Cephalochordate", "ovary", "coelom", "rostral (anatomical term)", "brain", "Dipnoi", "anus", "Conodont", "throat", "Pteraspidomorphi", "phylogenetic tree", "jawless fish", "Linnaean taxonomy", "Rhabdotubus johanssoni", "brittle star", "Cambrian explosion", "osseous tissue", "Olfactores", "vertebrate", "Paraphyletic", "syphon", "Nuucichthys", "phylum", "notochord", "inner mitochondrial membrane", "Holocephali", "Batoidea", "Mollusca", "crinoid", "ribosome", "Chondrichthyes", "tetrapod", "bilateria", "terrestrial animal", "neural arch", "Pituriaspida", "sea lilies", "kingdom (biology)", "graptolite", "Gill slit", "hepatic caecum", "jellyfish", "cartilaginous", "hemichordate", "Pikaia", "filter-feeding", "extinct", "Cathaymyrus", "cilium", "Petromyzontida", "lamprey", "Caudata", "protease", "molecular phylogenetics", "neural tube", "asterozoa", "tail", "Leptocardii", "iodine", "Galeaspida", "Thaliacea", "Craniata", "Ambulacraria", "class (biology)", "tadpole", "Vetulocystidae", "Anaspida", "thyroid", "plankton", "lung", "endoskeleton", "fish", "Teleostei", "Deuterostomia", "cladistics", "Pharynx", "Kimberella", "animal", "evolution", "Arthropoda", "Elasmobranchii", "dorsa", "Colony (biology)", "phylogenetics", "Symmetry in biology", "mesothelium", "paraphyletic", "alimentary canal", "calcite", "filter feeding", "amphibian", "Haikouichthys", "body plan", "embryology", "extant taxa", "Aplousobranchia", "Cambrian Stage 3", "spinal cord", "Cirrus (biology)", "Urochordata", "Rhipidistia", "thyroid gland", "collagen", "Gonad", "dorsal nerve cord", "larvacean", "Actinopteri", "common name", "bilateral symmetry", "University of California, Santa Cruz", "reptile", "cephalochordate", "Echinoderm", "Neopterygii", "Actinistia", "skeleton", "Russia", "Myxini", "Holocene", "Cephalaspidomorphi", "Emmonsaspis", "conserved signature indels", "Tetrapod", "head", "Osteichthyes", "Ausia (animal)", "metapleural fold", "bone", "protostoma", "Ediacaran", "Echinodermata", "tube feet", "nerves", "Tunicate", "pterobranch", "fish locomotion", "Cambrian", "BioEssays", "endostyle", "molecular clock", "coelomate", "testicle", "liver", "ray-finned fish", "Sessility (motility)", "Myllokunmingia", "Myxinoidea", "Pharyngeal slit", "Thelodonti", "tunicates", "vertebral column", "radial symmetry", "Crinoid", "echinoderm", "monophyletic", "ventral", "esophagus", "Dagger (mark)", "Esophagus", "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", "Craniate", "lancelet", "hominid", "Vertebrate Palaeontology (Benton)", "Actinopterygii", "Taxon", "Tunica (biology)", "conodont", "Osteostraci", "Placodermi", "serosa", "Michael Benton", "cylinder", "Synapsida", "dermal", "Cephalochordata", "tunicate", "fossil", "circulatory system", "intervertebral disc", "Gnathostomata", "Chengjiang fauna", "Myllokunmingiidae", "Vertebrata", "Burykhia", "Ascidiacea", "seafloor sediment", "Selachimorpha", "Cyclostomata", "Conodonta", "gonad", "bird", "Cyclostomi", "Phlebobranchia", "hagfish", "enteropneust" ]
5,132	Charlize Theron	Charlize Theron ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a South African and American actress and producer. One of the world's highest-paid actresses, she is the recipient of various accolades, including an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award. She is the only child of road constructionists She grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg. On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, Theron's mother retrieved her own handgun, shot back and killed him. Theron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not "fitting in". She was frequently unwell with jaundice throughout childhood and the antibiotics she was administered made her upper incisor milk teeth rot; they had to be surgically removed. Theron's permanent teeth did not grow until she was roughly ten years old. At 13, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg. About her early life in her home country, Theron has said: “I grew up as an only child in South Africa, and there was turmoil in my family, but the surroundings were so great. I was usually barefoot in the dirt: no Game Boys, no computers, and we had sanctions, so there were no concerts. This meant you had to entertain yourself.” ==Career== ===1991–2002: Early work and breakthrough=== Although she saw herself as a dancer, and moved with her mother to Milan, Italy. After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the United States; they resided in New York City and Miami. Theron flew to Los Angeles on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her; she intended to work in the film industry. Theron stole bread from a basket in a restaurant to survive. One day, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a few cheques, including one her mother had sent to help with the rent; however; the check from her mother was rejected because it was out-of-state and she was not an American citizen. In 1995, she played her first non-speaking film role in the horror film Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest. Theron feared being typecast as characters similar to Helga and recalled being asked to repeat her performance in the film during auditions: When auditioning for Showgirls, Theron was introduced to talent agent J. J. Harris by co-casting director Johanna Ray. She recalled being surprised at how much faith Harris had in her potential. Theron has referred to Harris as her mentor. Harris found scripts and films for Theron in a variety of genres and encouraged her to become a producer. She served as Theron's agent for over 15 years. Theron's career expanded by the end of the 1990s. In the horror drama The Devil's Advocate (1997), which is credited as her break-out film, Theron starred alongside Keanu Reeves and Al Pacino as the haunted wife of an unusually successful lawyer. She subsequently starred in the adventure film Mighty Joe Young (1998) as the friend and protector of a giant mountain gorilla, and in the drama The Cider House Rules (1999), as a woman who seeks an abortion in World War II-era Maine. The Devil's Advocate and The Cider House Rules were commercially successful. She appeared on the cover of the January 1999 issue of Vanity Fair as the "White Hot Venus". The May 1999 issue of Playboy magazine also featured Theron on its cover; the photos of Theron used by Playboy had been taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model, and Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent. By the early 2000s, Theron continued to steadily take on roles in films such as Reindeer Games (2000), The Yards (2000), The Legend of Bagger Vance (2000), Men of Honor (2000), Sweet November (2001), The Curse of the Jade Scorpion (2001), and Trapped (2002), all of which, despite achieving only limited commercial success, helped to establish her as an actress. On this period in her career, Theron remarked: "I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't. [I began] a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired. I found myself making really bad movies, too. Reindeer Games was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved [director] John Frankenheimer". ===2003–2010: Rise to prominence=== Theron starred as a safe and vault technician in the 2003 heist film The Italian Job, an American homage/remake of the 1969 British film of the same name, directed by F. Gary Gray and opposite Mark Wahlberg, Edward Norton, Jason Statham, Seth Green, and Donald Sutherland. The film was a box office success, grossing US$176 million worldwide. In Monster (2003), Theron portrayed serial killer Aileen Wuornos, a former prostitute who was executed in Florida in 2002 for killing six men (she was not tried for a seventh murder) in the late 1980s and early 1990s; For her portrayal, she was awarded the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award. She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress. AskMen named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003. For her role as Swedish actress and singer Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, Theron garnered Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations. In 2005, she portrayed Rita, the mentally challenged love interest of Michael Bluth (Jason Bateman), on the third season of Fox's television series Arrested Development, and starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller Æon Flux; for her voice-over work in the Aeon Flux video game, she received a Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female. In the critically acclaimed drama North Country (2005), Theron played a single mother and an iron mine worker experiencing sexual harassment. David Rooney of Variety wrote: "The film represents a confident next step for lead Charlize Theron. Though the challenges of following a career-redefining Oscar role have stymied actresses, Theron segues from Monster to a performance in many ways more accomplished [...] The strength of both the performance and character anchor the film firmly in the tradition of other dramas about working-class women leading the fight over industrial workplace issues, such as Norma Rae or Silkwood." Roger Ebert echoed the same sentiment, calling her "an actress who has the beauty of a fashion model but has found resources within herself for these powerful roles about unglamorous women in the world of men." For her performance, she received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress. Ms. magazine honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue. On 30 September 2005, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2007, Theron played a police detective in the critically acclaimed crime film In the Valley of Elah, and produced and starred as a reckless, slatternly mother in the drama film Sleepwalking, alongside Nick Stahl and AnnaSophia Robb. The Christian Science Monitor praised the latter film, commenting that "Despite its deficiencies, and the inadequate screen time allotted to Theron (who's quite good), Sleepwalking has a core of feeling". In 2008, Theron starred as a woman who faced a traumatic childhood in the drama The Burning Plain, directed by Guillermo Arriaga and opposite Jennifer Lawrence and Kim Basinger, and played the ex-wife of an alcoholic superhero alongside Will Smith in the superhero film Hancock. The Burning Plain found a limited release in US theatres, but grossed $5,267,917 outside the US. Hancock made US$624.3 million worldwide. Also in 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year, and was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Her film releases in 2009 were the post-apocalyptic drama The Road, in which she briefly appears in flashbacks, and the animated film Astro Boy, providing her voice for a character. On 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry. During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland. The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience. ===2011–2019: Established actress=== Following a two-year hiatus from films, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with the black comedy Young Adult. Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, particularly for her performance as a depressed, divorced, alcoholic 37-year-old ghostwriter. Richard Roeper awarded the film an A grade, stating "Charlize Theron delivers one of the most impressive performances of the year". She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards. Roger Ebert called her one of the best actors working today. In 2012, Theron took on the role of villain in two big-budgeted films. She played Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in Snow White and the Huntsman, opposite Kristen Stewart and Chris Hemsworth, and appeared as a crew member with a hidden agenda in Ridley Scott's Prometheus. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle found Snow White and the Huntsman to be "[a] slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron's truly evil queen", while The Hollywood Reporter writer Todd McCarthy, describing her role in Prometheus, asserted: "Theron is in ice goddess mode here, with the emphasis on ice [...] but perfect for the role all the same". Both films were major box office hits, grossing around US$400 million internationally each. The following year, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: "We're just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn't come out with anything [...] any actress who's got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood". On 10 May 2014, Theron hosted Saturday Night Live on NBC. In 2014, Theron took on the role of the wife of an infamous outlaw in the western comedy film A Million Ways to Die in the West, directed by Seth MacFarlane, which was met with mediocre reviews and moderate box office returns. In 2015, Theron played the sole survivor of the massacre of her family in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel Dark Places, directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner, in which she had a producer credit, and starred as Imperator Furiosa in Mad Max: Fury Road (2015), opposite Tom Hardy. Mad Max received widespread critical acclaim, with praise going towards Theron for the dominant nature taken by her character. The film made US$378.4 million worldwide. She next reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the 2016 film The Huntsman: Winter's War, a sequel to Snow White and the Huntsman, which was a critical and commercial failure. In 2016, Theron starred as a physician and activist working in West Africa in the little-seen romantic drama The Last Face, with Sean Penn, provided her voice for the 3D stop-motion fantasy film Kubo and the Two Strings, and produced the independent drama Brain on Fire. That year, Time named her in the Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. In 2017, Theron starred in The Fate of the Furious as the cyberterrorist Cipher, the main antagonist of the entire franchise, and played a spy on the eve of the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 in Atomic Blonde, an adaptation of the graphic novel The Coldest City, directed by David Leitch. The Fate of The Furious had a worldwide gross of US$1.2 billion. and Atomic Blonde was described by Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times as "a slick vehicle for the magnetic, badass charms of Charlize Theron, who is now officially an A-list action star on the strength of this film and Mad Max: Fury Road". In the black comedy Tully (2018), directed by Jason Reitman and written by Diablo Cody, Theron played an overwhelmed mother of three. The film was acclaimed by critics, who concluded it "delves into the modern parenthood experience with an admirably deft blend of humor and raw honesty, brought to life by an outstanding performance by Charlize Theron". She played the president of a pharmaceutical corporation in the crime film Gringo and produced the biographical war drama film A Private War, both released in 2018. In 2019, Theron produced and starred in the romantic comedy film Long Shot, opposite Seth Rogen and directed by Jonathan Levine, portraying a U.S. Secretary of State who reconnects with a journalist she used to babysit. The film had its world premiere at South by Southwest in March, and was released on 3 May to positive reviews from film critics. Theron next starred as Megyn Kelly in the drama Bombshell, which she co-produced. Directed by Jay Roach, the film revolves around the sexual harassment allegations made against Fox News CEO Roger Ailes by former female employees. For her work in the film, Theron was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress, Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress, Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, and BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. That year, Forbes ranked her as the ninth highest-paid actress in the world, with an annual income of $23 million. ===2020–present: Continued success=== In 2020, she produced and starred opposite KiKi Layne in the superhero film The Old Guard, directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood. The following year, she reprised her role as Cipher in F9, originally set for release on 22 May 2020, before its delay to June 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, Theron appeared in several projects. Upon the film's release in May, it was revealed that Theron would portray the character Clea in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), beginning with her debut in the mid-credits scene of the superhero film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness. She played Lady Lesso in the fantasy Netflix film The School for Good and Evil and filmed a cameo in the third season opener of The Boys as an actress playing Stormfront. In 2023, Theron reprised her role as Cipher in Fast X and executive produced the HBO documentary series Last Call: When a Serial Killer Stalked Queer New York about a serial killer preying on gay men. In 2024, she was cast in Christopher Nolan upcoming epic film The Odyssey (2026). ==Other ventures== ===Activism=== The Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS. By November 2017, CTAOP had raised more than $6.3 million to support African organizations working on the ground. In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. In his citation, Ban Ki-moon said of Theron: "You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls." She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of the UN's "Stop Rape Now" program. In December 2009, CTAOP and Toms Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe. The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas. Ten thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP. In 2020, CTAOP partnered with Parfums Christian Dior to create Dior Stands With Women, an initiative that includes Cara Delevingne, Yalitza Aparicio, Paloma Elsesser, and others, to encourage women to be assertive by documenting their journey, challenges and accomplishments. Theron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies. Theron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009. She publicly stated that she refused to get married until same sex marriage became legal in the United States, saying: "I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights. I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself". Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on Piers Morgan Tonight. She stated: "I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make [gay marriage] legal. I think everybody has that right". In March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards. Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron. In 2015, Theron signed an open letter which One Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation. In August 2017, she visited South Africa with Trevor Noah and made a donation to the South African charity Life Choices. In 2018, she gave a speech about AIDS prevention at the 22nd International AIDS Conference in Amsterdam, organized by the International AIDS Society. On 22 June 2022, it was announced that Theron and Sheryl Lee Ralph would receive the Elizabeth Taylor Commitment to End AIDS Award for their commitment to raising awareness of HIV at the Elizabeth Taylor Ball to End AIDS fundraising gala. ===Endorsements=== Having signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the J'Adore advertisements by Christian Dior. In June 2024, Dior announced Theron will no longer be the face of J'Adore and be replaced by Barbadian singer and businesswoman Rihanna. In 2018, she appeared in a new advertisement for Dior J'adore. From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches. In February 2006, she and her production company were sued by Weil for breach of contract. The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008. In 2018, Theron joined Brad Pitt, Daniel Wu and Adam Driver as brand ambassadors for Breitling, dubbed the Breitling Cinema Squad. ==Personal life== In 2007, Theron became a naturalised citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship. Theron has adopted two children: a daughter in March 2012 and another daughter in July 2015. She has been interested in adoption since childhood, when she became aware of orphanages and the overflowing numbers of children in them. She is inspired by actresses Susan Sarandon and Sigourney Weaver. After filming for That Thing You Do! finished, Theron got Hanks' autograph on her script. She later presented him his Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2020, in which Hanks revealed that he had a mutual admiration for Theron's career since the day he met her. Theron said in 2018 that she went to therapy in her thirties because of anger, discovering that it was due to her frustration growing up during South Africa's apartheid, which ended when she was 15. Theron is a longtime fan of the English band Depeche Mode and was the presenter for their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction in 2020. ===Relationships=== Theron's first public relationship was with actor Craig Bierko, whom she dated from 1995 to 1997. Theron was in a three-year relationship with singer Stephan Jenkins until October 2001. Some of Third Eye Blind's third album, Out of the Vein, explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup. Theron began a relationship with Irish actor Stuart Townsend in 2001 after meeting him on the set of Trapped. The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland. The couple split up in late 2009. In December 2013, Theron began dating American actor Sean Penn. The relationship ended in June 2015. There were reports they were engaged, which Theron strongly denied, adding that the relationship had ended before it ever became serious. Theron starred in Penn's film The Last Face (2016), which they filmed while still a couple. ===Health concerns=== Theron often quips that she has more injuries on sets that are not action films; however, while filming Æon Flux in Berlin, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings. It required her to wear a neck brace for a month. Her thumb ligament tore during filming of The Old Guard when her thumb caught in another actor's jacket during a fight scene, which required three operations and six months in a thumb brace. During the filming of Atomic Blonde she broke teeth from clenching her jaw, and had dental surgery to remove them: "I had the removal and I had to put a donor bone in there to heal until I came back, and then I had another surgery to put a metal screw in there." In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas. While filming The Road, Theron injured her vocal cords while screaming during the labour scenes. When promoting Long Shot, she revealed that she laughed so hard at Borat that her neck locked for five days. She added that on the set of Long Shot she "ended up in the ER" after knocking her head against a bench behind her when she was putting on knee pads. ==Filmography and accolades== Theron has appeared in over 50 films. She has received an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and nominations for three British Academy Film Awards and an Emmy Award.	[ "Imperator Furiosa", "F9 (film)", "Christopher Nolan", "pro-choice", "Parfums Christian Dior", "knee pad", "Thierry Henry", "Brain on Fire (film)", "Reindeer Games", "Bravo (American TV network)", "Academy Award", "The Huntsman: Winter's War", "The Road (2009 film)", "A Private War", "COVID-19 pandemic", "serial killer", "Last Call: When a Serial Killer Stalked Queer New York", "Lynn Hirschberg", "Chicago Sun-Times", "Rotten Tomatoes", "France vs Republic of Ireland (2010 FIFA World Cup Play-Off)", "The Harvard Crimson", "British Academy Film Awards", "France national football team", "Astro Boy (film)", "CBS News", "South African nationality law", "Reelz Channel", "Game Boy", "ligament", "Rolling Stone", "AnnaSophia Robb", "Daniel Wu", "Depeche Mode", "Third Eye Blind", "List of Arrested Development minor characters", "Warner Bros. Discovery", "Kubo and the Two Strings", "Susan Sarandon", "San Francisco Chronicle", "milk teeth", "Toms Shoes", "née", "emergency room", "Charlize Theron filmography", "The Italian Job (2003 film)", "Hollywood Boulevard", "Netflix", "Joffrey Ballet School", "Saturday Night Live", "Adam Driver", "vocal cords", "The Independent", "cervical collar", "Alcoholism", "76th Academy Awards", "Second Boer War", "first language", "Los Angeles Times", "Rihanna", "Johannesburg", "Major depressive disorder", "In the Valley of Elah", "The Courier-Mail", "Slant Magazine", "Dior", "Box Office Mojo", "Hollywood Walk of Fame", "Britt Ekland", "Academy Award for Best Actress", "Fresno, California", "United Nations Messenger of Peace", "Cinema of the United States", "Deadline Hollywood", "Los Angeles", "Mick LaSalle", "Donald Sutherland", "autograph", "hitwoman", "International AIDS Society", "Ms. (magazine)", "Monster (2003 film)", "The Irish Independent", "Snow White and the Huntsman", "The Boys (TV series)", "Gauteng Province", "Wired (magazine)", "incisor", "The School for Good and Evil (film)", "Adansonia digitata", "antibiotics", "John Frankenheimer", "Jason Reitman", "Breitling SA", "Cameo appearance", "Tiiu Kuik", "Good Morning America", "Primetime Emmy Awards", "Jason Bateman", "Yalitza Aparicio", "Screen Actors Guild Awards", "Roger Ebert", "Today.com", "Norma Rae", "flashback (narrative)", "Tom Hardy", "trans woman", "Yahoo News", "Reader's Digest", "Brad Pitt", "Men of Honor", "F. Gary Gray", "Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma", "Sweet November (2001 film)", "Ban Ki-moon", "Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama", "86th Academy Awards", "Jennifer Lawrence", "Primetime Emmy Award", "Angela Merkel", "That Thing You Do!", "The Last Face", "Gina Prince-Bythewood", "The Fate of the Furious", "Sean Penn", "South by Southwest", "post-natal", "Dark Places (2015 film)", "Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year", "Miami", "Benoni, South Africa", "Access Hollywood", "2 Days in the Valley", "Megyn Kelly", "Richard Roeper", "Gastroenteritis", "Milan", "remake", "United Nations Messengers of Peace", "Chris Hemsworth", "Out of the Vein", "Silver Bear for Best Actress", "mid-credits scene", "One Campaign", "Bombshell (2019 film)", "Denver and Delilah Productions", "Paloma Elsesser", "Tom Hanks", "Showgirls", "The Christian Science Monitor", "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame", "Jason Statham", "Barbados", "Citizenship of the United States", "Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness", "BBC America", "Fast & Furious", "The Curse of the Jade Scorpion", "Jonathan Levine", "HIV/AIDS", "Cara Delevingne", "The Hollywood Reporter", "United States Secretary of State", "The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)", "Nick Stahl", "Gillian Flynn", "Afrikaans", "W (magazine)", "Roger Ailes", "Academy Awards", "A Million Ways to Die in the West", "Seth MacFarlane", "People (American magazine)", "talent agent", "African Union", "Apartheid in South Africa", "YouTube", "Variety (magazine)", "Jay Roach", "Ridley Scott", "IGN", "Borat", "North Country (film)", "Aileen Wuornos", "The Graham Norton Show", "Vanity Fair (magazine)", "Dark Places (Flynn novel)", "The South African", "Benoni, Gauteng", "KiKi Layne", "Craig Bierko", "Screen Actors Guild Award", "The Guardian", "Fandango (website)", "Kristen Stewart", "James Cameron", "Al Pacino", "women's rights", "Marvel Cinematic Universe", "Mad Max: Fury Road", "Entertainment Weekly", "typecast", "HuffPost", "Piers Morgan Tonight", "Berlin", "childbirth", "Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest", "Transvaal Province", "Guillermo Arriaga", "Clea Strange", "Keanu Reeves", "spinal disc herniation", "The Devil's Advocate (1997 film)", "WonderCon", "Stephan Jenkins", "bank teller", "2010 FIFA World Cup", "Maine", "Sleepwalking (film)", "G7", "Michael Bluth", "Seth Green", "Hancock (film)", "Sigourney Weaver", "Fox News", "The Old Guard (2020 film)", "E!", "Dotdash", "Playboy (magazine)", "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers", "Cape Town", "List of accolades received by Charlize Theron", "Gringo (2018 film)", "J'Adore (fragrance)", "The Cider House Rules (film)", "The Yards", "Inquisitr", "John Galliano", "Trevor Noah", "Tully (2018 film)", "processed food", "SAG-AFTRA", "Long Shot (2019 film)", "Kim Basinger", "road construction", "HBO", "Queen (Snow White)", "Time (magazine)", "Will Smith", "same-sex marriage", "Huguenots in South Africa", "Stuart Townsend", "Prometheus (2012 film)", "Biography Channel", "2005 Toronto International Film Festival", "Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role", "Salerno", "BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role", "People Magazine", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "superhero film", "Gilles Paquet-Brenner", "W magazine", "Hasty Pudding Theatricals", "Seth Rogen", "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", "Vulture.com", "Daniel Theron", "Mark Wahlberg", "Æon Flux (film)", "Arrested Development (TV series)", "Silkwood", "Haute Living", "Fame and Philanthropy", "jaundice", "Golden Globe Award", "Trapped (2002 film)", "Handspring (gymnastics)", "Afrikaner", "ghostwriter", "The Odyssey (2026 film)", "Cecil B. DeMille Award", "Fandango Media", "Edward Norton", "Metacritic", "USA Today", "The New York Times", "Apple Podcasts", "horror film", "Spike Video Game Awards", "Atomic Blonde", "Young Adult (film)", "Fast X", "The Italian Job", "Time 100", "NBC", "The Burning Plain", "David Leitch (director)", "Republic of Ireland national football team", "Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress", "The Legend of Bagger Vance", "Us Weekly", "Mighty Joe Young (1998 film)", "Teri Hatcher" ]
5,134	Chess	Chess is an abstract strategy board game for two players which involves no hidden information and no elements of chance. It is played on a square game board called a chessboard containing 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. The players, referred to as "White" and "Black", each control sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns; each type of piece has a different pattern of movement. An enemy piece may be "captured" (removed from the board) by moving one's own piece onto the square it occupies; the object of the game is to "checkmate" (threaten with inescapable capture) the enemy king. There are also several ways a game can end in a draw. The recorded history of chess goes back at least to the emergence of chaturanga—also thought to be an ancestor to similar games like and —in seventh-century India. After its introduction in Persia, it spread to the Arab world and then to Europe. The modern rules of chess emerged in Europe at the end of the 15th century, with standardization and universal acceptance by the end of the 19th century. Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, with millions of players worldwide. Organized chess arose in the 19th century. Chess competition today is governed internationally by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; the International Chess Federation). The first universally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; Gukesh Dommaraju is the current World Champion, having won the title in 2024. A huge body of chess theory has developed since the game's inception. Aspects of art are found in chess composition, and chess in its turn influenced Western culture and the arts, and has connections with other fields such as mathematics, computer science, and psychology. One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat a reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. Today's chess engines are significantly stronger than the best human players and have deeply influenced the development of chess theory; however, chess is not a solved game. ==Rules== The rules of chess are published by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; "International Chess Federation"), chess's world governing body, in its Handbook. Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ in some details. FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2023. ===Setup=== Chess sets come in a wide variety of styles. The Staunton pattern is the most common, and is usually required for competition. Chess sets come with pieces in two colors, referred to as white and black, regardless of their actual color; the players controlling the color sets are referred to as White and Black, respectively. Each set comes with at least the following 16 pieces in both colors: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. In competition, the piece colors are allocated to players by the organizers. In informal games, colors may be decided either by mutual agreement, or randomly, for example by a coin toss, or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other and having the opponent choose. ===Movement=== White moves first, after which players alternate turns. One piece is moved per turn (except when castling, during which two pieces are moved). In the diagrams, dots mark the squares to which each type of piece can move if unoccupied by friendly pieces and there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except the knight, which leaps over any intervening pieces). With the sole exception of en passant, a piece captures an enemy piece by moving to the square it occupies, removing it from play and taking its place. The pawn is the only piece that does not capture the way it moves, and it is the only piece that moves and captures in only one direction (forwards from the player's perspective). A piece is said to control empty squares on which it could capture, attack squares with enemy pieces it could capture, and defend squares with pieces of the same color on which it could recapture. Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a turn, even when having to move is detrimental. The king moves one square in any direction. There is also a special move called castling which moves the king and a rook. The king is the most valuable piece—it is illegal to play any move that puts one's king under attack by an opponent piece. A move that attacks the king must be parried immediately; if this cannot be done, the game is lost. (See .) A rook can move any number of squares along a rank or file. A rook is involved in the king's castling move. A bishop can move any number of squares diagonally. A queen combines the power of a rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along a rank, file, or diagonal. A knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal. (Thus the move forms an "L"-shape: two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or two squares horizontally and one square vertically.) The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces. A pawn can move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file, or on its first move it can optionally advance two squares along the same file, provided both squares are unoccupied (diagram dots). A pawn can capture an opponent's piece on a square diagonally in front of it by moving to that square (diagram crosses). It capture a piece while advancing along the same file, nor can it move to either square diagonally in front without capturing. Pawns have two special moves: the en passant capture and promotion. ====Check and checkmate==== When a king is under immediate attack, it is in check. A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position in which the king is no longer in check. There are three ways to counter a check: Capture the checking piece. Interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king (possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and there is a square between it and the king). Move the king to a square where it is not under attack. The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check. In casual games, it is common to announce "check" when putting the opponent's king in check, but this is not required by the rules of chess and is usually not done in tournaments. ====Castling==== Kings can castle once per game. Castling consists of moving the king two squares toward either rook of the same color, and then placing the rook on the square that the king crossed. Castling is possible only if the following conditions are met: If, however, the opponent has no way of checkmating the resigned player, this is a draw under FIDE Laws. Win on time: In games with a time control, a player wins if the opponent runs out of time, even if the opponent has a superior position, as long as the player has a theoretical possibility to checkmate the opponent were the game to continue. Forfeit: A player who cheats, violates the rules, or violates the rules of conduct specified for the particular tournament can be forfeited. Occasionally, both players are forfeited.\|group=note}} Draw on time: In games with a time control, the game is drawn if a player is out of time and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate the player. Moves are written as white/black pairs, preceded by the move number and a period. Individual white moves are also recorded this way, while black moves are rendered with an ellipsis after the move number. For example, one variation of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can be recorded: 1. e4 e5 2. Qh5 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6 4. Qxf7 The move 3... Nf6?? is recorded as a blunder, as it allows 4. Qxf7# checkmate. Games or sequences may be recorded in Portable Game Notation (PGN), a text-based file format with support for annotative symbols, commentary, and background information, such as player names. It is based on short form English algebraic notation incorporating markup language. PGN transcripts, stored digitally as PGN (.pgn) files can be processed by most chess software and are easily readable by humans. Variants of algebraic notation include long algebraic, in which both the departure and destination square are indicated; abbreviated algebraic, in which capture signs, check signs, and ranks of pawn captures may be omitted; and figurine algebraic notation, used in chess books and magazines, which uses graphic symbols instead of initials to indicate pieces for readability regardless of language. Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first rank at the beginning of the game. In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is rendered as "1.P-K4" ("pawn to king four"). Another system is ICCF numeric notation, recognized by the International Correspondence Chess Federation though its use is in decline. In tournament games, players are normally required to keep a (written record of the game). This is a requirement in all FIDE-sanctioned games played at classical time controls. B.H. Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows how many have been printed." and the Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the Netherlands, with about 30,000 books. ===Strategy=== Chess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares). The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides. The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens about nine points. The king is more valuable than all of the other pieces combined, since its checkmate loses the game, but is still capable as a fighting piece; in the endgame, the king is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook. These basic values are then modified by other factors like position of the piece (e.g. advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (e.g. a pair of bishops usually coordinate better than a bishop and a knight), or the type of position (e.g. knights are generally better in with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in ). Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is pawn structure (sometimes known as the pawn skeleton): the configuration of pawns on the chessboard. Since pawns are the least mobile of the pieces, pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in pawn structure include isolated, doubled, or backward pawns and ; once created, they are often permanent. Care must therefore be taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility of developing an attack). ===Tactics=== In chess, tactics generally refer to short-term maneuvers – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves. Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example: pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences. Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of , and double attacks – can be combined into longer sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players. A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination. Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' tactical skills, is a position where a combination is available and the challenge is to find it. Such positions are usually taken from actual games or from analysis of actual games. Solutions usually result in checkmate, decisive advantage, or successful defense. Tactical exercises are commonly found in instructional books, chess magazines, newspaper chess columns, and internet chess sites. ===Phases=== Chess theory divides chess games into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, the middlegame, and lastly the endgame. There is no universally accepted way to delineate the three phases of the game; the middlegame is typically considered to have begun after 10–20 moves, and the endgame when only a few pieces remain. ====Opening==== Competitive players typically learn, memorize, and play well-documented sequences of opening moves. The most common starting moves for White are 1.e4 and 1.d4, which usually lead to substantially different types of positions, and Black has multiple viable responses to both. Sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and are catalogued in reference works, such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are thousands of openings, though only a small fraction of them are commonly played; variations of openings may also be given names. Openings vary widely in character from quiet (for example, the Réti Opening) to aggressive play (like the Latvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves. The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar: Development: moving pieces (particularly bishops and knights) forward to squares on which they are useful (defending, attacking, and controlling important squares) and/or have the potential to take part in future plans and ideas. Control of the : control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can inhibit the mobility of the opponent's pieces. King safety: typically secured by castling; incorrectly timed castling can be wasteful or even harmful, however. Pawn structure: players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled, or backward pawns – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position. Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the initiative granted from moving first, begins the game with a small advantage. Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve , or to develop in an unbalanced position. ====Middlegame==== The middlegame is the part of the game that starts after the opening. Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position. The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer combination. Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings that result in a specific type of pawn structure. An example is the , which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames. Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame (i.e. ). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn advantage. ====Endgame==== The endgame (also end game or ending) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and the endgame: Pawns become more important. Endgames often revolve around endeavors to promote a pawn by advancing it to the furthest . The king, which requires safeguarding from attack during the middlegame, emerges as a strong piece in the endgame. It is often used to protect its own pawns, attack enemy pawns, and hinder moves of the opponent's king. Zugzwang, a situation in which the player who is to move is forced to incur a disadvantage, is often a factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the game. In the example diagram, either side having the move is in zugzwang: Black to move must play 1...Kb7 allowing White to promote the pawn after 2.Kd7; White to move must permit a draw, either by 1.Kc6 stalemate or by losing the pawn after any other legal move. Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king. For example, king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides, and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endings are classified according to pieces on the board other than kings, such as "rook and pawn versus rook" endgames. ==Problems and studies== Chess problems (also called chess compositions) are composed positions, usually created for artistic effect rather than practical application. The creator is known as a chess composer. There are many types of chess problems, the most common being , in which White is required to move and checkmate Black within a specified number of moves, usually two or three, against any defense. These are commonly referred to as "two-movers", "three-movers", or "more-movers". "Many-movers" (also known as "long-range problems") of over 100 moves have been composed, the current record standing at over 200; these usually require repetitions of the same manoeuvre in order to produce a repeated zugzwang and force detrimental pawn advances. Directmates usually consist of positions unlikely to occur in an actual game, and are intended to illustrate a particular ', usually requiring a surprising or counterintuitive ' move. Themes associated with chess problems occasionally appear in actual games, when they are referred to as "problem-like" moves. Other common types of problems include: Helpmates, in which Black moves first and cooperates with White to get Black's king checkmated Selfmates, in which White moves first and forces Black to checkmate White Retrograde analysis problems, in which the solver is required to work out what has previously occurred in the game, for example to prove that castling is illegal in the current position The above type of problems are usually considered orthodox, in the sense that the standard rules of chess are observed. Fairy chess problems, also called heterodox problems, involve altered rules, such as the use of unconventional pieces or boards, or stipulations that contradict the standard rules of chess such as reflexmates or seriesmovers. Studies are usually considered distinct from problems, although there is some overlap. In a study, the stipulation is that White to play must win or draw, without specifying any particular number of moves. The majority of studies are endgame positions, with varying degrees of realism or practical application. Tournaments for composition and solving of chess problems and studies are organized by the World Federation for Chess Composition (WFCC), which works cooperatively with but independent of FIDE. The WFCC awards titles for composing and solving chess problems. ==Chess in public spaces== Chess is often played in public spaces such as parks and town squares. Although the nature of these games is often , the chess hustling scene has seen growth in urban areas such as New York City. ==Organized competition== ===Tournaments and matches=== Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses. Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and festivals are held around the world every year catering to players of all levels. Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every player plays one game against every other player. For a large number of players, the Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as possible) score in each round. In either case, a player's score is usually calculated as 1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn. Variations such as "football scoring" (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament organizers, but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard scoring. A player's score may be reported as total score out of games played (e.g. 5½/8), points for versus points against (e.g. 5½–2½), or by number of wins, losses and draws (e.g. +4−1=3). The term "match" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a player of the other team. ===Governance=== Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced FEE-day) (French: Fédération Internationale des Échecs), or International Chess Federation. FIDE's membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there are also several associate members, including various supra-national organizations, the International Braille Chess Association (IBCA), International Chess Committee of the Deaf (ICCD), and the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA). FIDE is recognized as a sports governing body by the International Olympic Committee, but chess has never been part of the Olympic Games. FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship, a role it assumed in 1948. The current World Champion is Gukesh Dommaraju of India. The reigning Women's World Champion is Ju Wenjun from China. Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship, the tournaments for the World Championship qualification cycle, and the various national championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players. Examples include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament. Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship. The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championship include both team and individual events. These are held independently of FIDE by, respectively, the World Federation for Chess Composition (WFCC), and the International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF). ===Titles and rankings=== In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo. An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest FIDE rating of all time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list. Players may be awarded lifetime titles by FIDE: Grandmaster (GM) is the highest title a chess player can attain. For the GM title, a player must have had an Elo rating of 2500 or more at least once and must achieve three results of a prescribed standard (called norms) in tournaments involving other grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's. There are other milestones that can substitute for norms, such as winning the World Junior Championship. International Master (IM). The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400. FIDE Master (FM). The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of 2300 or more. Candidate Master (CM). Similar to FM, but with a FIDE rating of at least 2200. The above titles are known as "open" titles, obtainable by both men and women. There are also separate women-only titles; Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE Master (WFM) and Woman Candidate Master (WCM). These require a performance level approximately 200 rating points below their respective open titles, and their continued existence has sometimes been controversial. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the open GM title: 40 . FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers.{{refn\|Section "06. Regulations for the Titles of Arbiters" in FIDE Handbook]] Texts referring to the origins of chess date from the beginning of the seventh century. Three are written in Pahlavi (Middle Persian) and one, the Harshacharita, is in Sanskrit. One of these texts, the Chatrang-namak, represents one of the earliest written accounts of chess. The narrator Bozorgmehr explains that Chatrang, "Chess" in Pahlavi, was introduced to Persia by 'Dewasarm, a great ruler of India' during the reign of Khosrow I: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to about 840, written by al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (The Book of Chess). This is a lost manuscript, but is referenced in later works. Here also, al-Adli attributes the origins of Persian chess to India, along with the eighth-century collection of fables Kalīla wa-Dimna. By the 20th century, a substantial consensus developed regarding chess's origins in northwest India in the early seventh century. More recently, this consensus has been the subject of further scrutiny. The early forms of chess in India were known as chaturaṅga (), literally "four divisions" [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by pieces that would later evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called ashtāpada. Thence it spread eastward and westward along the Silk Road. The earliest evidence of chess is found in nearby Sasanian Persia around 600 A.D., where the game came to be known by the name chatrang (). Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–51), where it was then named shatranj (; ), with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish, "shatranj" was rendered as ajedrez ("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as xadrez, and in Greek as ζατρίκιον (zatrikion, which comes directly from the Persian chatrang), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"), from which the English words "check" and "chess" descend. The word "checkmate" is derived from the Persian shāh māt ("the king is dead"). Xiangqi is the form of chess best known in China. The eastern migration of chess, into China and Southeast Asia, has even less documentation than its migration west, making it largely conjectured. The word xiàngqí () was used in China to refer to a game from 569 A.D. at the latest, but it has not been proven that this game was directly related to chess. The first reference to Chinese chess appears in a book entitled Xuánguaì Lù (; "Record of the Mysterious and Strange"), dating to about 800. A minority view holds that Western chess arose from xiàngqí or one of its predecessors. Chess historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton contend that xiangqi's intrinsic characteristics make it easier to construct an evolutionary path from China to India/Persia than the opposite direction. The oldest archaeological chess artifacts – ivory pieces – were excavated in ancient Afrasiab, today's Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, and date to about 760, with some of them possibly being older. Remarkably, almost all findings of the oldest pieces come from along the Silk Road, from the former regions of the Tarim Basin (today's Xinjiang in China), Transoxiana, Sogdiana, Bactria, Gandhara, to Iran on one end and to India through Kashmir on the other. The game reached Western Europe and Russia via at least three routes, the earliest being in the ninth century. By the year 1000, it had spread throughout both the Muslim Iberia and Latin Europe. A Latin poem called Versus de scachis ("Verses on Chess") dated to the late 10th century, has been preserved at Einsiedeln Abbey in Switzerland. ===1200–1700: Origins of the modern game=== The game of chess was then played and known in all European countries. A famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice is known as the , which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European tables games. The rules were fundamentally similar to those of the Arabic shatranj. The differences were mostly in the use of a checkered board instead of a plain monochrome board used by Arabs and the habit of allowing some or all pawns to make an initial double step. In some regions, the queen, which had replaced the wazir, or the king could also make an initial two-square leap under some conditions. Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in Europe, culminating, several major changes later, in the emergence of modern chess practically as it is known today. A major change was the modern piece movement rules, which began to appear in intellectual circles in Valencia, Spain, around 1475, which established the foundations and brought it very close to current chess. These new rules then were quickly adopted in Italy and Southern France before diffusing into the rest of Europe. Pawns gained the ability to advance two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern movement powers. The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece toward the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the most powerful piece; in light of that, modern chess was often referred to at the time as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess". Castling, derived from the "king's leap", usually in combination with a pawn or rook move to bring the king to safety, was introduced. These new rules quickly spread throughout Western Europe. Writings about chess theory began to appear in the late 15th century. An anonymous treatise on chess of 1490 with the first part containing some openings and the second 30 endgames is deposited in the library of the University of Göttingen. The book El Libro dels jochs partitis dels schachs en nombre de 100 was written by Francesc Vicent in Segorbe in 1495, but no copy of this work has survived. Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in major European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson's Divan in London. At the same time, the Romantic intellectual movement had had a far-reaching impact on chess, with aesthetics and tactical beauty being held in higher regard than objective soundness and strategic planning. As a result, virtually all games began with the Open Game, and it was considered unsportsmanlike to decline gambits that invited tactical play such as the King's Gambit and the Evans Gambit. This chess philosophy is known as Romantic chess, and its sharp, tactical style of play was predominant until the late 19th century. The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first). Finally, the rules around castling and en passant captures were standardized – variations in these rules persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as Western chess or international chess, particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are prevalent. Since the 19th century, the only rule changes, such as the establishment of the correct procedure for claiming a draw by repetition, have been technical in nature. As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example, the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824. Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory. The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton, a leading English chess player, and was held in London in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, who was hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant, energetic attacking style was typical for the time. Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal Game and Evergreen Game or Morphy's "Opera Game" were regarded as the highest possible summit of the art of chess. Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy. Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to play), including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks. ===1873–1945: Birth of a sport=== Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz laid the foundations for a scientific approach to the game, the art of breaking a position down into components and preparing correct plans. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. This win marked a stylistic transition at the highest levels of chess from an attacking, tactical style predominant in the Romantic era to a more positional, strategic style introduced to the chess world by Steinitz. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player, the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of any world champion. After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournaments and matches held annually quickly grew. The first Olympiad was held in Paris in 1924, and FIDE was founded initially for the purpose of organizing that event. In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold the title was Czech-English master Vera Menchik. A prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca, known for his skill in endgames, won the World Championship from Lasker in 1921. Capablanca was undefeated in tournament play for eight years, from 1916 to 1924. His successor (1927) was the Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player who died as the world champion in 1946. Alekhine briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regained it two years later. In the interwar period, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns, which become objects of attack. Among the innovations popularized by hypermodernists was the fianchetto: the development of bishops away from, rather than towards, the center, onto the b- and g-files. ===1945–1990: Post-World War II era=== After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the title since then, ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948 tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. In 1950, FIDE established a system of titles, conferring the title of Grandmaster on 27 players. (Some sources state that, in 1914, the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim.) Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world, which mainly through the Soviet government's politically inspired efforts to demonstrate intellectual superiority over the West stood almost uninterrupted for more than a half-century. Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975). Botvinnik also revolutionized opening theory. Previously, Black strove for equality, attempting to neutralize White's first-move advantage. As Black, Botvinnik strove for the initiative from the beginning. In the previous informal system of World Championships, the current champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into Interzonal tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualified from Zonal tournaments. The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go through the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, and later a series of knockout matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system operated on a three-year cycle. Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the 23-year-old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player who is widely regarded as one of the most creative players ever, hence his nickname "the magician from Riga". Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961. Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a player renowned for his defensive and positional skills, held the title for two cycles, 1963–1969. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (champion 1969–1972), won games in both positional and sharp tactical style. The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer. Fischer defeated his opponents in the Candidates matches by unheard-of margins, and convincingly defeated Spassky for the world championship. The match was followed closely by news media of the day, leading to a surge in popularity for chess; it also held significant political importance at the height of the Cold War, with the match being seen by both sides as a microcosm of the conflict between East and West. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when he was unable to reach agreement on conditions with FIDE, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Fischer modernized many aspects of chess, especially by extensively preparing openings. Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes. In the 1984 World Chess Championship, Karpov faced his toughest challenge to date, the young Garry Kasparov from Baku, Soviet Azerbaijan. The match was aborted in controversial circumstances after 5 months and 48 games with Karpov leading by 5 wins to 3, but evidently exhausted; many commentators believed Kasparov, who had won the last two games, would have won the match had it continued. Kasparov won the 1985 rematch. Kasparov and Karpov contested three further closely fought matches in 1986, 1987 and 1990, Kasparov winning them all. Kasparov became the dominant figure of world chess from the mid-1980s until his retirement from competition in 2005. ====Beginnings of chess technology==== Chess-playing computer programs (later known as chess engines) began to appear in the 1960s. In 1970, the first major computer chess tournament, the North American Computer Chess Championship, was held, followed in 1974 by the first World Computer Chess Championship. In the late 1970s, dedicated home chess computers such as Fidelity Electronics' Chess Challenger became commercially available, as well as software to run on home computers. The overall standard of computer chess was low, however, until the 1990s. The first endgame tablebases, which provided perfect play for relatively simple endgames such as king and rook versus king and bishop, appeared in the late 1970s. This set a precedent to the complete six- and seven-piece tablebases that became available in the 2000s and 2010s respectively. The first commercial chess database, a collection of chess games searchable by move and position, was introduced by the German company ChessBase in 1987. Databases containing millions of chess games have since had a profound effect on opening theory and other areas of chess research. Digital chess clocks were invented in 1973, though they did not become commonplace until the 1990s. Digital clocks allow for time controls involving increments and delays. ===1990–present: Rise of computers and online chess=== ====Technology==== The Internet enabled online chess as a new medium of playing, with chess servers allowing users to play other people from different parts of the world in real time. The first such server, known as Internet Chess Server (ICS), was developed at the University of Utah in 1992. ICS formed the basis for the first commercial chess server, the Internet Chess Club, which was launched in 1995, and for other early chess servers such as Free Internet Chess Server (FICS). Since then, many other platforms have appeared, and online chess began to rival over-the-board chess in popularity. During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the isolation ensuing from quarantines imposed in many places around the world, combined with the success of the popular Netflix show The Queen's Gambit and other factors such as the popularity of online tournaments (notably PogChamps) and chess Twitch streamers, resulted in a surge of popularity not only for online chess, but for the game of chess in general; this phenomenon has been referred to in the media as the 2020 online chess boom. Computer chess has also seen major advances. By the 1990s, chess engines could consistently defeat most amateurs, and in 1997 Deep Blue defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match, starting an era of computer dominance at the highest level of chess. In the 2010s, engines significantly stronger than even the best human players became accessible for free on a number of PC and mobile platforms, and free engine analysis became a commonplace feature on internet chess servers. An adverse effect of the easy availability of engine analysis on hand-held devices and personal computers has been the rise of computer cheating, which has grown to be a major concern in both over-the-board and online chess. In 2017, AlphaZero – a neural network also capable of playing shogi and Go – was introduced. Since then, many chess engines based on neural network evaluation have been written, the best of which have surpassed the traditional "brute-force" engines. AlphaZero also introduced many novel ideas and ways of playing the game, which affected the style of play at the top level. As endgame tablebases developed, they began to provide perfect play in endgame positions in which the game-theoretical outcome was previously unknown, such as positions with king, queen and pawn against king and queen. In 1991, Lewis Stiller published a tablebase for select six-piece endgames, and by 2005, following the publication of Nalimov tablebases, all six-piece endgame positions were solved. In 2012, Lomonosov tablebases were published which solved all seven-piece endgame positions. Use of tablebases enhances the performance of chess engines by providing definitive results in some branches of analysis. Technological progress made in the 1990s and the 21st century has influenced the way that chess is studied at all levels, as well as the state of chess as a spectator sport. Previously, preparation at the professional level required an extensive chess library and several subscriptions to publications such as Chess Informant to keep up with opening developments and study opponents' games. Today, preparation at the professional level involves the use of databases containing millions of games, and engines to analyze different opening variations and prepare novelties. A number of online learning resources are also available for players of all levels, such as online courses, tactics trainers, and video lessons. Since the late 1990s, it has been possible to follow major international chess events online, the players' moves being relayed in real time. Sensory boards have been developed to enable automatic transmission of moves. Chess players will frequently run engines while watching these games, allowing them to quickly identify mistakes by the players and spot tactical opportunities. While in the past the moves have been relayed live, today chess organizers will often impose a half-hour delay as an anti-cheating measure. In the mid-to-late 2010s – and especially following the 2020 online boom – it became commonplace for supergrandmasters, such as Hikaru Nakamura and Magnus Carlsen, to livestream chess content on platforms such as Twitch. Also following the boom, online chess started being viewed as an esport, with esport teams signing chess players for the first time in 2020. The number of esport teams signing chess players rose considerably in 2025, after chess was added to Saudi Arabia's Esports World Cup. ====Growth==== Organized chess even for young children has become common. FIDE holds world championships for age levels down to 8 years old. The largest tournaments, in number of players, are those held for children. The number of grandmasters and other chess professionals has also grown in the modern era. Kenneth Regan and Guy Haworth conducted research involving comparison of move choices by players of different levels and from different periods with the analysis of strong chess engines. They concluded that the increase in the number of grandmasters and higher Elo ratings of the top players reflect an actual increase in the average standard of play, rather than "rating inflation" or "title inflation". ====Professional chess==== In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the World Championship and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Championships and respective World Champions: the PCA or "classical" champions extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of games, and the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a large knockout tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his PCA title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia. Due to the complicated state of world chess politics and difficulties obtaining commercial sponsorships, Kasparov was never able to challenge for the title again. Despite this, he continued to dominate in top level tournaments and remained the world's highest rated player until his retirement from competitive chess in 2005. The World Chess Championship 2006, in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov, reunified the titles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion. In September 2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India. Anand defended his title in the revenge match of 2008, 2010 and 2012. Magnus Carlsen defeated Anand in 2013, defending his title in 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2021, whereafter he announced that he would not defend his title a fifth time. The 2023 championship was played between the winner and runner-up of the Candidates Tournament 2022: Ian Nepomniachtchi of Russia and Ding Liren of China. Ding beat Nepomniachtchi, making him the world champion. Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains it further: Some of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy at least partially survive, such as the Lewis chessmen. Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. An example is Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican friar Jacobus de Cessolis . This book was one of the most popular of the Middle Ages. The work was translated into many other languages (the first printed edition was published at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first books printed in English. Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces: Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of the Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with the names of chess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina... The game of chess, at times, has been discouraged by various religious authorities in Middle Ages: Jewish, Catholic and Orthodox. Some Muslim authorities prohibited it even recently, for example Ruhollah Khomeini in 1979 and Abdul-Aziz ash-Sheikh even later. During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1786), wrote: Chess was occasionally criticized in the 19th century as a waste of time. Chess is taught to children in schools around the world today. Many schools host chess clubs, and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. Tournaments are held regularly in many countries, hosted by organizations such as the United States Chess Federation and the National Scholastic Chess Foundation. Chess is many times depicted in the arts; significant works where chess plays a key role range from Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess to Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll, to Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense, to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig. Chess has also featured in film classics such as Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal, Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players, and Powell and Pressburger's A Matter of Life and Death. Chess is also present in contemporary popular culture. For example, the characters in Star Trek play a futuristic version of the game called "Federation Tri-Dimensional Chess", and "Wizard's Chess" is played in J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter. ===Mathematics=== The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics. Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess, such as the knight's tour and the eight queens puzzle, have been known for hundreds of years. The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be with a 95% confidence level, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10123. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a number known as the Shannon number. An average position typically has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or (in a constructed position) as many as 218. In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered one of the predecessors of game theory. Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game (either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both sides can force at least a draw). With 1043 legal positions in chess, however, it will take an impossibly long time to compute a perfect strategy with any feasible technology. ====Applied mathematics==== A novel methodology in steganography explores the use of chess-based covers (such as puzzles, chess problems, game reports, training documents, news articles, etc.) for concealing data within a selection of , each hiding some bits. Several proof-of-concept projects have been developed that convert text or files into binary code, which is then converted into a series of legal chess moves, that can then be decrypted and downloaded. Correspondence chess has been historically suspected of being a potential steganographic medium. Melville Davisson Post documented a chess problem that was used to create a pictorial cipher during World War I. During World War II, extensive postal censorship was imposed on military personnel from the United States and Canada that made playing correspondence chess impossible, arising from suspicion that chess could be used to send secret messages to the enemies. ===Psychology=== There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology. Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise. In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position. According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall. More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to much empirical investigation. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess. Recent research, however, fails to replicate their results and indicates that factors other than practice are also important. For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring. Compared to the general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill. Although one meta-analysis and most children studies find a positive correlation between general cognitive ability and chess skill, adult studies show mixed results. ==Online chess== Online chess is chess played over the internet. This is done through the use of internet chess platforms, which use Elo ratings or similar systems to pair up individual players. Online chess saw a spike in growth during the quarantines of the COVID-19 pandemic. This can be attributed to both isolation and the popularity of Netflix miniseries The Queen's Gambit, which was released in October 2020. Chess.com saw more than twice as many account registrations in November as it had in previous months, and the number of games played monthly on Lichess doubled as well. There was also a demographic shift in players, with female registration on Chess.com shifting from 22% to 27% of new players. GM Maurice Ashley said "A boom is taking place in chess like we have never seen maybe since the Bobby Fischer days", attributing the growth to an increased desire to do something constructive during the pandemic. USCF Women's Program Director Jennifer Shahade stated that chess works well on the internet, since pieces do not need to be reset and matchmaking is virtually instant. ==Computer chess== The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Serious trials based on automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers, and computer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Claude Shannon. He wrote: The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for computers, the North American Computer Chess Championship, in September 1970. CHESS 3.0, a chess program from Northwestern University, won the championship. The first World Computer Chess Championship, held in 1974, was won by the Soviet program Kaissa. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs have become extremely strong. In 1997, a computer won a chess match using classical time controls against a reigning World Champion for the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½ (it scored two wins, one loss, and three draws). There was some controversy over the match, and human–computer matches were relatively close over the next few years, until convincing computer victories in 2005 and in 2006. In 2009, a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating of 2898: chess engine Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur tournament with nine wins and one draw. The best chess programs are now able to consistently beat the strongest human players, to the extent that human–computer matches no longer attract interest from chess players or the media. While the World Computer Chess Championship still exists, the Top Chess Engine Championship (TCEC) is widely regarded as the unofficial world championship for chess engines. The current champion is Stockfish. With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to learn chess and prepare for matches. Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents worldwide. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regarding cheating during games. ==Related games== Related games include: direct predecessors of chess, such as chaturanga and shatranj; traditional national or regional games that share common ancestors with Western chess such as xiangqi (Chinese chess), shogi (Japanese chess), janggi (Korean chess), ouk chatrang (Cambodian chess), makruk (Thai chess), sittuyin (Burmese chess), and shatar (Mongolian chess); In the comparison of chess with games often referred to as national forms of chess, chess may be referred to as Western chess or international chess. ===Chess variants=== There are more than two thousand published chess variants, games with similar but different rules. Most of them are of relatively recent origin. They include modern variations employing different rules (e.g. losing chess and Chess960), different forces (e.g. Dunsany's chess), non-standard pieces (e.g. Grand Chess), and different board geometries (e.g. hexagonal chess and infinite chess); In the context of chess variants, chess is commonly referred to as orthodox chess, orthochess, and classic chess.	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5,142	Charlie Chaplin	Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin (16 April 188925 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, the Tramp, and is considered one of the film industry's most important figures. His career spanned more than 75 years, from his childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both accolade and controversy. Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. His father was absent and his mother struggled financiallyhe was sent to a workhouse twice before the age of nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19, he was signed to the Fred Karno company, which took him to the United States. He was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon introduced and adopted the Tramp as his screen persona. He directed his own films and continued to hone his craft as he moved to Essanay Studios, where the Tramp persona was developed emotionally in The Tramp (1915). He then attracted a large fanbase and demanded more money as he moved to Mutual and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the world's best-paid and best-known figures. In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length film was The Kid (1921), followed by A Woman of Paris (1923), The Gold Rush (1925), and The Circus (1928). He initially refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) without dialogue. His first sound film was The Great Dictator (1940), which satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, and some members of the press and public were scandalised by his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the U.S. in 1952 and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include Monsieur Verdoux (1947), Limelight (1952), A King in New York (1957), and A Countess from Hong Kong (1967). Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. He received an Honorary Academy Award for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century" in 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work. He continues to be held in high regard, with The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times, and The Great Dictator often ranked on lists of the greatest films. ==Biography== ===1889–1913: early years=== ====Background and childhood hardship==== Charles Spencer Chaplin Jr. was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (née Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. His paternal grandmother came from the Smith family, who belonged to Romani people. There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London. His parents had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal guardian of Hannah's first son, Sydney John Hill. At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers. Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer. Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891. The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son, George Wheeler Dryden, fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for thirty years. Chaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory "the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson. Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington. Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support. As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old. The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as "a forlorn existence". He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, but Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children. In September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum; she had developed psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition. For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew. Charles Sr. was by then severely alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver. Hannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill. He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydneywho had joined the Navy two years earlierreturned. Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently. "There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928. ====Young performer==== Between his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage. He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot. This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing. He later wrote: "[she] imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent". Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900. Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act. In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by the age of 13, he had abandoned education. He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor. At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's Jim, a Romance of Cockayne. It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews. Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of Sherlock Holmes, where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours. His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes. "It was like tidings from heaven", Chaplin recalled. At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905. He completed one final tour of Sherlock Holmes in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years. ====Stage comedy and vaudeville==== Chaplin soon found work with a new company and went on tour with his brother, who was also pursuing an acting career, in a comedy sketch called Repairs. In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act Casey's Circus, where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show. By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer. He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure. Meanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers. In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a "pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster" who "looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre". However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract. Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909. In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, Jimmy the Fearless. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention. Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company that toured North America's vaudeville circuit, a section which also included Stan Laurel. The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as "one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here". His most successful role was a drunk called the "Inebriate Swell", which drew him significant recognition. The role was in the play titled Mumming Birds, known as A Night in an English Music Hall when Chaplin performed it on tour, which was the longest-running sketch the music halls produced, and included throwing pies at the players among other innovations. The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912. Chaplin recalled that he "had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October. ===1914–1917: entering films=== ====Keystone==== Six months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company. A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave. Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies "a crude mélange of rough and rumble", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: "Besides, it would mean a new life." He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week contract in September 1913. Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles in early December, and began working for the Keystone studio on 5January 1914. Chaplin's boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking. The one-reeler Making a Living marked his film acting debut and was released on 2February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as "a comedian of the first water". For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography: The film was Mabel's Strange Predicament, but "the Tramp" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in Kid Auto Races at Veniceshot later than Mabel's Strange Predicament but released two days earlier on 7February 1914. Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors. During the filming of his 11th picture, Mabel at the Wheel, he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films. Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful. Caught in the Rain, issued on 4May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful. Thereafter he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career. Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base. In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, Tillie's Punctured Romance, directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity. When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week, an amount Sennett refused, as he thought it was too large. ====Essanay==== The Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250 a week, with a signing bonus of $10,000. He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, actors he worked with again and again, including Ben Turpin, Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire, Fred Goodwins and Billy Armstrong. Chaplin soon recruited a leading lady, Edna Purviance, whom he met in a café and hired on account of her beauty. She went on to appear in 35 films with him over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted until 1917. Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film. There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, A Night Out, and his third, The Champion. The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace. Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its "mean, crude, and brutish" nature. The character became more gentle and romantic; The Tramp (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development. The use of pathos was developed further with The Bank, in which Chaplin created a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work. At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin "found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world". During 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him. In July, a journalist for Motion Picture wrote that "Chaplinitis" had spread across America. As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star. In September 1915, Chaplin topped a poll held by Pictures and the Picturegoer of the greatest British film actors, receiving 142,920 votes from readers. The classic music hall sketch, A Night in an English Music Hall, would be the basis for his 12th Essanay film, A Night in the Show, released in November 1915. which Robinson says made Chaplinat 26 years oldone of the highest-paid people in the world. The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press. John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: "We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him." Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916. He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: The Floorwalker, The Fireman, The Vagabond, One A.M. and The Count. For The Pawnshop, he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years. Behind the Screen and The Rink completed Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time. He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: Easy Street, The Cure, The Immigrant and The Adventurer. With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work. Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career. However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract, and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that. Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War. He defended himself, claiming that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country. Despite this criticism, Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. Harper's Weekly reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was "a part of the common language of almost every country", and that the Tramp image was "universally familiar". In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties, did so dressed as the Tramp. The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was "an American obsession". The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that "a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius". ===1918–1922: First National=== In January 1918, Chaplin was visited by leading British singer and comedian Harry Lauder, and the two acted in a short film together. Mutual was patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press: "Charlie [must] be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing [films] the way he wants... It is quality, not quantity, we are after." In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1million. He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order. Charlie Chaplin Studios was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures. A Dog's Life, released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as "a sort of Pierrot". The film was described by Louis Delluc as "cinema's first total work of art". Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War. He also produced a short propaganda film at his own expense, donated to the government for fund-raising, called The Bond. Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for Shoulder Arms. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: "Dangerous or not, the idea excited me." He spent four months filming the picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success. ====United Artists, Mildred Harris, and The Kid==== After the release of Shoulder Arms, Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused. Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players–Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company, United Artists, in January 1919. The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partnersall creative artiststo personally fund their pictures and have complete control. Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National. They refused and insisted that he complete the final six films owed. Before the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time. The 16-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy. Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be false. Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film Sunnyside. Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7July 1919, gave birth to a son. Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later. The marriage ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were "irreconcilably mismated". Losing the child, plus his own childhood experiences, are thought to have influenced Chaplin's next film, which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy. Ultimately work on the film resumed, and following its September 1921 release, Chaplin chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade. He wrote a book about his journey, titled My Wonderful Visit. He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing Pay Day in February 1922. The Pilgrim, his final short film, was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio and released a year later. ===1923–1938: silent features=== ====A Woman of Paris and The Gold Rush==== Having fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer. In November 1922, he began filming A Woman of Paris, a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers. Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo. He wished the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances. In real life, he explained, "men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them". A Woman of Paris premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its innovative, subtle approach. The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without Chaplin, and it was a box office disappointment. The filmmaker was hurt by this failurehe had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the resultand soon withdrew A Woman of Paris from circulation. Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project. Setting his standards high, he told himself "This next film must be an epic! The Greatest!" Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–1847, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls "an epic comedy out of grim subject matter". In The Gold Rush, the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love. With Georgia Hale as his leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924. Its elaborate production, costing almost $1million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains in Nevada with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects. The last scene was shot in May 1925 after 15 months of filming. Chaplin felt The Gold Rush was the best film he had made. It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era, with a U.S. box-office of $5million. The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the "Dance of the Rolls". Macnab has called it "the quintessential Chaplin film". Chaplin stated at its release: "This is the picture that I want to be remembered by". ====Lita Grey and The Circus==== While making The Gold Rush, Chaplin married for the second time. Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage. She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law. He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924. They originally met during her childhood and she had previously appeared in his works The Kid and The Idle Class. Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin III, was born on 5May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926. On 6 July 1925, Chaplin became the first movie star to be featured on a Time cover. It was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife. In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home. A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's applicationaccusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse and of harbouring "perverted sexual desires"was leaked to the press. Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned. Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000the largest awarded by American courts at that time. His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it. Less than five months after the divorce, Grey's former butler Don Solovich was murdered in Utah, and articles speculated about connections between Chaplin and the murder. Before the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, The Circus. He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus. Filming was suspended for ten months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production. Finally completed in October 1927, The Circus was released in January 1928 to a positive reception. At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy "For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing The Circus". Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted The Circus from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years. ====City Lights==== By the time The Circus was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films. Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that "talkies" lacked the artistry of silent films. He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal. He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film. Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production. When filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year. City Lights followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation. It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he "had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection". One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself. Chaplin finished editing City Lights in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism. A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews. One journalist wrote: "Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it. He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk." Given its general release in January 1931, City Lights proved to be a popular and financial success, eventually grossing over $3million. The British Film Institute called it Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as "the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies". City Lights became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life. ==== Travels, Paulette Goddard and Modern Times ==== City Lights had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue. He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also "obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned". In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months. He spent months travelling Western Europe, including extended stays in France and Switzerland, and spontaneously decided to visit Japan. The day after he arrived in Japan, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated by ultra-nationalists in the May 15 Incident. The group's original plan had been to provoke a war with the United States by assassinating Chaplin at a welcome reception organised by the prime minister, but the plan had been foiled due to delayed public announcement of the event's date. In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, "I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness". He briefly considered retiring and moving to China. Chaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a relationship. He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in Woman's Home Companion). The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs. The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels. It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film. Modern Times was announced by Chaplin as "a satire on certain phases of our industrial life". Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film. Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals. Like its predecessor, Modern Times employed sound effects but almost no speaking. Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film. After recording the music, Chaplin released Modern Times in February 1936. It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue. The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising. Today, Modern Times is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's "great features", They then visited Phnom Penh to view Angkor Wat, and Da Lat, followed by Huế, arriving in Đà Nẵng where he visited the Marble Mountains and the Henri Parmentier Museum. In a dual performance, he also played the dictator "Adenoid Hynkel", a parody of Hitler. The Great Dictator spent a year in production and was released in October 1940. The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for The New York Times calling it "the most eagerly awaited picture of the year", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era. The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy. Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism. Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes: "Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from [his] star image". Nevertheless, both Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt liked the film, which they saw at private screenings before its release. Roosevelt subsequently invited Chaplin to read the film's final speech over the radio during his January 1941 inauguration, with the speech becoming a "hit" of the celebration. Chaplin was often invited to other patriotic functions to read the speech to audiences during the years of the war. The Great Dictator received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor. ====Legal troubles and Oona O'Neill==== In the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image. The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspiring actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942. Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated, reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child. As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him. The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him. As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case. Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes. Historian Otto Friedrich called this an "absurd prosecution" of an "ancient statute", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in prison. Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began on 21 March 1944. Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later, on4 April. The case was frequently headline news, with Newsweek calling it the "biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921". Barry's child, Carol Ann, was born in October 1943, and the paternity suit went to court in December 1944. After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of "moral turpitude", Chaplin was declared to be the father. Evidence from blood tests that indicated otherwise were not admissible, and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carol Ann turned 21. Media coverage of the suit was influenced by the FBI, which fed information to gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light. The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased whentwo weeks after the paternity suit was filedit was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill, the daughter of American playwright Eugene O'Neill. Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier. In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as "the happiest event of my life", and claimed to have found "perfect love". Chaplin's son, Charles III, reported that Oona "worshipped" his father. The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b. March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b. March 1949), Victoria Agnes (b. May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b. May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962). ====Monsieur Verdoux and communist accusations==== Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had "crippled [his] creativeness", and it was some time before he began working again. In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942. Monsieur Verdoux was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family. Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru. Chaplin decided that the concept would "make a wonderful comedy", and paid Welles $5,000 for the idea. Chaplin again vocalised his political views in Monsieur Verdoux, criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction. Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott. Monsieur Verdoux was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States. It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards. He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, "Monsieur Verdoux is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made." The negative reaction to Monsieur Verdoux was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image. Along with the damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist. His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles. In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, "dangerously progressive and amoral". The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947. Chaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a "peacemonger", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties. Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify. As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship. Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: "[Chaplin's] very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America. [If he is deported]... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth. He should be deported and gotten rid of at once." In 2003, declassified British archives belonging to the British Foreign Office revealed that author and social critic George Orwell secretly accused Chaplin of being a secret communist and a friend of the USSR in the 1949 Orwell's list document. Chaplin's name was one of 35 that Orwell gave to the Information Research Department (IRD), a secret British Cold War propaganda department which worked closely with the CIA. overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey. Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April. The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen. Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s. Chaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev. He began developing his first European film, A King in New York, in 1954. Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay. His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism. The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s cultureincluding consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema. In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's "most bitter" and "most openly personal" film. In a 1957 interview, when asked to clarify his political views, Chaplin stated "As for politics, I am an anarchist. I hate government and rulesand fetters... People must be free." Chaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting. Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time. According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film. A King in New York was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews. Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States. This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe. A King in New York was not shown in America until 1973. ====Final works and renewed appreciation==== In the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights. In an interview he gave in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still "room for the Little Man in the atomic age". The first of these re-releases was The Chaplin Revue (1959), which included new versions of A Dog's Life, Shoulder Arms, and The Pilgrim. In America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views. In July 1962, the New York Times published an editorial stating, "We do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port". The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including Monsieur Verdoux and Limelight, which gained excellent reviews from American critics. September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoir, My Autobiography, which he had been working on since 1957. The 500-page book became a worldwide best-seller. It focused on his early years and personal life, and was criticised for lacking information on his film career. Shortly after the publication of his memoir, Chaplin began work on A Countess from Hong Kong (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s. Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin. The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects. It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward. He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer. Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts. A Countess from Hong Kong premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure. Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last. Chaplin had a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health. Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, The Freak, a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria. His fragile health prevented the project from being realised. In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including The Kid and The Circus. In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival. The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival. In 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America "wanted to make amends". Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years. The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a 12-minute standing ovation, the longest in the academy's history. Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century". Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail. He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair. His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, My Life in Pictures (1974) and scoring A Woman of Paris for re-release in 1976. He also appeared in a documentary about his life, The Gentleman Tramp (1975), directed by Richard Patterson. In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair. ====Death==== By October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care. In the early morning of Christmas Day 1977, Chaplin died at home after having a stroke in his sleep. On 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by Roman Wardas and Gantcho Ganev. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from his widow, Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville. It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery in a reinforced concrete vault. ==Filmmaking== ===Influences=== Chaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: "it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people." Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno. Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker. Simon Louvish writes that the company was his "training ground", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy. The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno, who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags. From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired. In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common. ===Method=== Chaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historiansparticularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary Unknown Chaplin (1983)has since revealed his unique working method. Until he began making spoken dialogue films with The Great Dictator (1940), Chaplin never shot from a completed script. Many of his early films began with only a vague premise, for example "Charlie enters a health spa" or "Charlie works in a pawn shop". He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and "business" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. From A Woman of Paris (1923) onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to Modern Times (1936) "went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form". Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time. If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned. Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism. According to his friend Ivor Montagu, "nothing but perfection would be right" for the filmmaker. Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished. The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in The Kid (1921). For The Immigrant (1917), a 20-minute short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of filmenough for a feature-length. Describing his working method as "sheer perseverance to the point of madness", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture. Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued "to take precedence over everything and everyone else". The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionismwhich resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expenseoften proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew. Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly. He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted. As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers. Chaplin did receive help from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner. ===Style and themes=== While Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of "deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags". Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters. Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology. Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's "quirky mannerisms" and "serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features. His signature style consisted of gestural idiosyncrasies like askew derby hat, drooping shoulders, deflated chest and dangling arms and tilted back pelvis to enrich the comic persona of his 'tramp' character. His shabby but neat clothing and incessant grooming behaviour along with his geometrical walk and movement gave his onscreen characters a puppet-like quality. Chaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world. The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman. As Chaplin said in 1925, "The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity." The Tramp defies authority figures and "gives as good as he gets", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivilegedan "everyman turned heroic saviour". Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with "the homeless and lonely Tramp [walking] optimistically... into the sunset... to continue his journey." The infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for "[inducing] laughter and tears". Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing "personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements". Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of The Gold Rush (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party. Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (The Gold Rush) and loss (The Kid). Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (The Immigrant, 1917); illegitimacy (The Kid, 1921); and drug use (Easy Street, 1917). He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering. Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor. Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films. Modern Times (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, The Great Dictator (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, Monsieur Verdoux (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and A King in New York (1957) attacked McCarthyism. Several of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin "always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth". The Kid is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in Limelight (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and A King in New York references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States. Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up. Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them. Regarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline. Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage. His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: "Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting. He believed that action is the main thing. The camera is there to photograph the actors". In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, "Simplicity is best... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant... The camera should not intrude." This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being "old fashioned", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium. Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an "ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium". ===Composing=== Chaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello. He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from A Woman of Paris onwards he took an increasing interest in this area. With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrackcomposed by himselffor City Lights (1931). He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films. As Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores. Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for City Lights. Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksinwho worked with Chaplin on Modern Timesstressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process. This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano. These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin. According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, "although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent." Chaplin's compositions produced three popular songs. "Smile", composed originally for Modern Times (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954. Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the Limelight theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.}} ==Filmography== Directed features: The Kid (1921) A Woman of Paris (1923) The Gold Rush (1925) The Circus (1928) City Lights (1931) Modern Times (1936) The Great Dictator (1940) Monsieur Verdoux (1947) Limelight (1952) A King in New York (1957) A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) ==Awards and nominations== Chaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life. In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE). He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962. In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government. From the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year. The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award. Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs. Chaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for "versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing The Circus" in 1929, In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA). Six of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: The Immigrant (1917), The Kid (1921), The Gold Rush (1925), City Lights (1931), Modern Times (1936), and The Great Dictator (1940). ==Legacy== === Recognition === In 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin "arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon". He is described by the British Film Institute as "a towering figure in world culture", and was included in Time magazine's list of the "100 Most Important People of the 20th Century" for the "laughter [he brought] to millions" and because he "more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art". In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Chaplin as the 10th greatest male star of Classic Hollywood Cinema. The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown. The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the "unique" and "indelible" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his "worldwide impact". Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most "eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit" in movie history. Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction. As a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century. He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists. Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin "changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama. He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it. Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama A Woman of Paris (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film The Marriage Circle (1924) and thus played a part in the development of "sophisticated comedy". According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were "rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft". Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin "a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended"), Jacques Tati ("Without him I would never have made a film"), René Clair ("He inspired practically every filmmaker"), François Truffaut ("My religion is cinema. I believe in Charlie Chaplin…"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough. Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as "the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt. The films he left behind can never grow old." Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray said about Chaplin "If there is any name which can be said to symbolise cinemait is Charlie Chaplin… I am sure Chaplin's name will survive even if the cinema ceases to exist as a medium of artistic expression. Chaplin is truly immortal." French auteur Jean Renoir's favourite filmmaker was Chaplin. Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians. Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, In the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made. The 2012 Sight & Sound poll, which compiles "top ten" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films, saw City Lights rank among the critics' top 50, Modern Times inside the top 100, and The Great Dictator and The Gold Rush placed in the top 250. The top 100 films as voted on by directors included Modern Times at number 22, City Lights at number 30, and The Gold Rush at number 91. Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote. Chaplin was ranked at No. 35 on Empire magazine's "Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time" list in 2005. In 2007, the American Film Institute named City Lights the 11th greatest American film of all time, while The Gold Rush and Modern Times again ranked in the top 100. Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists. Many of Chaplin's films have had a DVD and Blu-ray release. Chaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris. The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children "to protect the name, image and moral rights" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name. Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna. The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland. The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005. Elements for many of Chaplin's films are held by the Academy Film Archive as part of the Roy Export Chaplin Collection. ===Commemoration and tributes=== Chaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named "Chaplin's World". It opened on 17 April 2016 after fifteen years of development, and is described by Reuters as "an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin". On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum. Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988. The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called Charlie ChaplinThe Great Londoner, from 2010 until 2013. In London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square. The city also includes a road named after him in central London, "Charlie Chaplin Walk", which is the location of the BFI IMAX. There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire. In Canning Town, East London, the Gandhi Chaplin Memorial Garden, opened by Chaplin's granddaughter Oona Chaplin in 2015, commemorates the meeting between Chaplin and Mahatma Gandhi at a local house in 1931. The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982. In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey. Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s. A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent. In other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin (discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981) is named after him. Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers. Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages. ===Characterisations=== Chaplin is the subject of a biographical film, Chaplin (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role, with Geraldine Chaplin playing Hannah Chaplin. He is also a character in the historical drama film The Cat's Meow (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie The Scarlett O'Hara War (1980), played by Clive Revill. A television series about Chaplin's childhood, Young Charlie Chaplin, ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program. The French film The Price of Fame (2014) is a fictionalised account of the robbery of Chaplin's grave. Tommy Steele in Search of Charlie Chaplin investigated Chaplin's roots in south-east London. Chaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions. Two musicals, Little Tramp and Chaplin, were produced in the early 1990s. In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin, which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010. It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ChaplinA Musical. Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions. In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: Chaplin at the Svenska Teatern, and Kulkuri (The Tramp) at the Tampere Workers' Theatre. Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction. He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story "Charlie in the House of Rue" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection A Night at the Movies), and of Glen David Gold's Sunnyside (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period. A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter titled "Modern Times" in Alan Moore's Jerusalem (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England. In Gorman Bechard's debut novel The Second Greatest Story Ever Told, Chaplin is named as the second coming of Jesus Christ. Matthew Finlan portrays Chaplin in episode 1 of season 14 "Murdoch and the Tramp" (4 January 2021) of the Canadian television period detective series Murdoch Mysteries. ===Legal precedent=== A lawsuit brought by Chaplin, Chaplin v. Amador, 93 Cal. App. 358 (1928), set an important legal precedentthat a performer's persona and style, in this case Chaplin's "particular kind or type of mustache, old and threadbare hat, clothes and shoes, a decrepit derby, ill-fitting vest, tight-fitting coat, and trousers and shoes much too large for him, and with this attire, a flexible cane usually carried, swung and bent as he performs his part", is entitled to legal protection from those unfairly mimicking those traits in order to deceive the public. 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Lynn", "A Woman of Paris", "feature length", "Charles Reisner", "Otto Friedrich" ]
5,163	The World Factbook	The World Factbook, also known as the CIA World Factbook, is a reference resource produced by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the Government Publishing Office. The Factbook is available in website and downloadable formats. It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of 266 international entities, including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world. The World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. It is also frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles. As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States.	[ "Midway Atoll", "Norway", "United States Department of State", "France", "countries of the world", "Naval Facilities Engineering Command", "Western Sahara", "Howland Island", "Johnston Atoll", "Denmark", "Kosovo", "United States Government Publishing Office", "Serbia and Montenegro", "Iles Eparses", "Central Intelligence Agency", "American English", "government", "United States Department of the Interior", "United States Maritime Administration", "General knowledge", "demography", "British Indian Ocean Territory", "First presidency of Donald Trump", "Diego Garcia", "Jarvis Island", "Defense Intelligence Agency", "Netherlands", "Scholars", "Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs", "National Public Radio", "Classified information", "Kashmir", "National Science Foundation", "economy", "Beijing", "magnetic tape", "Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949", "2008 Kosovo declaration of independence", "Mauritius", "Taiwan", "Baker Island", "Government Publishing Office", "Office of Naval Intelligence", "The TIME Almanac", "United States Department of Transportation", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "East Timor", "United Nations General Assembly resolution", "Europa World Year Book", "microfiche", "The World Almanac", "U.S. state", "United States Fish and Wildlife Service", "5th October (Serbia)", "World Leaders", "New Zealand", "Israel–Morocco normalization agreement", "United States", "Aksai Chin", "French Southern and Antarctic Lands", "University of Missouri–St. Louis", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Paracel Islands", "Glorioso Islands", "floppy disk", "European Union", "metric system", "World", "One-China policy", "European integration", "National Security Agency", "Slobodan Milošević", "United Kingdom", "copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States", "Europa Island", "Badimo", "island of Taiwan", "Burma", "Martinique", "North Macedonia", "Expulsion of the Chagossians", "Bureau of Labor Statistics", "Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center", "Indo-Pakistani border", "Palmyra Atoll", "French Guiana", "Tromelin Island", "geography", "almanac", "military", "Political status of Kosovo", "Chagossians", "National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency", "China", "National Technical Information Service", "Mayotte", "Réunion", "successor state", "List of countries by date of recognition of the United States", "ocean", "Antarctica", "Federal government of the United States", "CD-ROM", "United States Department of Energy", "United States Board on Geographic Names", "Bassas da India", "Line of Control", "Office of Insular Affairs", "Oil & Gas Journal", "Provinces and territories of Canada", "Citation", "East Jerusalem", "Spratly Islands", "Whitaker's Almanack", "Israeli Jews", "Chagos Archipelago", "Camp Thunder Cove", "United States Department of Defense", "State Peace and Development Council", "World Wide Web", "Almanac", "United States Department of Commerce", "Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute", "Australia", "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Juan de Nova Island", "overseas region", "International Court of Justice", "The New York Times Almanac", "public domain", "Journal for the Study of the New Testament", "Northern Cyprus", "Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem", "UK", "Guadeloupe", "United States Transportation Command", "Macedonia naming dispute", "public domain in the United States", "United States Department of Labor", "Skyhorse Publishing", "Seychelles", "Reference work", "Cyprus", "United States Census Bureau", "Kingman Reef", "United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges", "overseas department", "Israeli settlement", "Botswana", "West Bank" ]
5,165	Country	A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, state with limited recognition, constituent country, or dependent territory. Most sovereign states, but not all countries, are members of the United Nations. There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world, since several states have disputed sovereignty status or limited recognition, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly considered countries. Areas much smaller than a political entity may be referred to as a "country", such as the West Country in England, "big sky country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used to describe coal-mining regions), or simply "the country" (used to describe a rural area). The term "country" is also used as a qualifier descriptively, such as country music or country living. ==Etymology== The word country comes from Old French , which derives from Vulgar Latin () ("(land) lying opposite"; "(land) spread before"), derived from ("against, opposite"). It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. == Definition of a country == In English, the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article – "a country" – is now frequently applied as a synonym for a state or a former sovereign state. It may also be used as a synonym for "nation". Taking as examples Canada, Sri Lanka, and Yugoslavia, cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote in 1997 that "it is clear that the relationships between 'country' and 'nation' are so different from one [place] to the next as to be impossible to fold into a dichotomous opposition as they are into a promiscuous fusion." Areas much smaller than a political state may be referred to as countries, such as the West Country in England, "big sky country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used to describe coal-mining regions in several sovereign states) and many other terms. The word "country" is also used for the sense of native sovereign territory, such as the widespread use of Indian country in the United States. The term "country" in English may also be wielded to describe rural areas, or used in the form "countryside." Raymond Williams, a Welsh scholar, wrote in 1975: The unclear definition of "country" in modern English was further commented upon by philosopher Simon Keller: Melissa Lucashenko, an Aboriginal Australian writer, expressed the difficulty of defining "country" in a 2005 essay, "Unsettlement": == Statehood== When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, state with limited recognition, constituent country, or dependent territory. A sovereign state is a political entity that has supreme legitimate authority over a part of the world. There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly called countries. No definition is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. International law defines sovereign states as not under another. The declarative theory outlined in the 1933 Montevideo Convention describes a state in Article 1: Having a permanent population Having a defined territory Having a government Having the ability to enter into relations with other states The Montevideo Convention in Article 3 implies that a sovereign state can exist even if no other countries recognise it. As a restatement of customary international law, the Montevideo Convention merely codified existing legal norms and its principles, and therefore does not apply merely to the signatories of international organizations (such as the United Nations), A similar opinion has been expressed by the European Economic Community, reiterated by the European Union, in the principal statement of its Badinter Committee, and by Judge Challis Professor, James Crawford. According to the constitutive theory, a state is a legal entity of international law if, and only if, it is recognised as sovereign by at least one other country. Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognised nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them. In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim said the following, regarding constitutive theory: In 1976 the Organisation of African Unity define state recognition as: Some countries, such as Taiwan, Sahrawi Republic and Kosovo, have limited recognition or actively disputed sovereignty from sovereign states. Some sovereign states are unions of separate polities, each of which may also be considered a country in its own right, called constituent countries. The Danish Realm consists of Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland. The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Netherlands proper, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Dependent territories are the territories of a sovereign state that are outside of its proper territory. These include the overseas territories of New Zealand, the dependencies of Norway, the British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies, the territories of the United States, the external territories of Australia, the special administrative regions of China, the autonomous regions of the Danish Realm, Åland, Overseas France, and the Caribbean Netherlands. Some dependent territories are treated as a separate "country of origin" in international trade, such as Hong Kong, Greenland, and Macau. === Identification === Symbols of a country may incorporate cultural, religious or political symbols of any nation that the country includes. Many categories of symbols can be seen in flags, coats of arms, or seals. === Name === Most countries have a long name and a short name. The long name is typically used in formal contexts and often describes the country's form of government. The short name is the country's common name by which it is typically identified. The International Organization for Standardization maintains a list of country codes as part of ISO 3166 to designate each country with a two-letter country code. The name of a country can hold cultural and diplomatic significance. Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso to reflect the end of French colonization, and the name of North Macedonia was disputed for years due to a conflict with the similarly named Macedonia region in Greece. The ISO 3166-1 standard currently comprises 249 countries, 193 of which are sovereign states that are members of the United Nations. === Flags === Originally, flags representing a country would generally be the personal flag of its rulers; however, over time, the practice of using personal banners as flags of places was abandoned in favor of flags that had some significance to the nation, often its patron saint. Early examples of these were the maritime republics such as Genoa which could be said to have a national flag as early as the 12th century. However, these were still mostly used in the context of marine identification. Although some flags date back earlier, widespread use of flags outside of military or naval context begins only with the rise of the idea of the nation state at the end of the 18th century and particularly are a product of the Age of Revolution. Revolutions such as those in France and America called for people to begin thinking of themselves as citizens as opposed to subjects under a king, and thus necessitated flags that represented the collective citizenry, not just the power and right of a ruling family. With nationalism becoming common across Europe in the 19th century, national flags came to represent most of the states of Europe. Flags also began fostering a sense of unity between different peoples, such as the Union Jack representing a union between England and Scotland, or began to represent unity between nations in a perceived shared struggle, for example, the Pan-Slavic colors or later Pan-Arab colors. As Europeans colonized significant portions of the world, they exported ideas of nationhood and national symbols, including flags, with the adoption of a flag becoming seen as integral to the nation-building process. Political change, social reform, and revolutions combined with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the birth of new nations and flags around the globe. With so many flags being created, interest in these designs began to develop and the study of flags, vexillology, at both professional and amateur levels, emerged. After World War II, Western vexillology went through a phase of rapid development, with many research facilities and publications being established. === National anthems === A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. Though the custom of an officially adopted national anthem became popular only in the 19th century, some national anthems predate this period, often existing as patriotic songs long before designation as national anthem. Several countries remain without an official national anthem. In these cases, there are established de facto anthems played at sporting events or diplomatic receptions. These include the United Kingdom ("God Save the King") and Sweden (). Some sovereign states that are made up of multiple countries or constituencies have associated musical compositions for each of them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russia, and the Soviet Union). These are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states (for example, "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" is used for Wales, part of the United Kingdom). === Other symbols === Coats of arms or national emblems Seals or stamps National mottos National colors == Patriotism == A positive emotional connection to a country a person belongs to is called patriotism. Patriotism is a sense of love for, devotion to, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, and language relating to one's homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political, or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism, mostly civic nationalism and sometimes cultural nationalism. ==Economy== Several organizations seek to identify trends to produce economy country classifications. Countries are often distinguished as developing countries or developed countries. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs annually produces the World Economic Situation and Prospects Report classifing states as developed countries, economies in transition, or developing countries. The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI) and identifies subgroups within broad categories based on geographical location or ad hoc criteria. Geographic regions with developing economies are Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Economies in transition are in the former Soviet Union and South-Eastern Europe. Regions with developed countries are in Northern America, Europe, and Asia and the Pacific. The majority of economies in transition and developing countries are found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The World Bank also classifies countries based on GNI per capita. The World Bank Atlas method classifies countries as low-income economies, lower-middle-income economies, upper-middle-income economies, or high-income economies. For the 2020 fiscal year, the World Bank defines low-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $1,025 or less in 2018; lower-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $3,995; upper-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $3,996 and $12,375; high-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $12,376 or more..	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5,166	Copenhagen	Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the Øresund strait. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road. Originally a Viking fishing village established in the 10th century in the vicinity of what is now Gammel Strand, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. During the 16th century, the city served as the de facto capital of the Kalmar Union and the seat of the Union's monarchy, which governed most of the modern-day Nordic region as part of a Danish confederation with Sweden and Norway. The city flourished as the cultural and economic centre of Scandinavia during the Renaissance. By the 17th century, it had become a regional centre of power, serving as the heart of the Danish government and military. During the 18th century, Copenhagen suffered from a devastating plague outbreak and urban conflagrations. Major redevelopment efforts included the construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and the establishment of cultural institutions such as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. The city also became the centre of the Danish slave trade during this period. In 1807, the city was bombarded by a British fleet during the Napoleonic Wars, before the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. After World War II, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes emanating from the city centre. Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Copenhagen's economy has developed rapidly in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region. With several bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterised by parks, promenades, and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, The Little Mermaid statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle, Frederik's Church, Børsen and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen Business School, and the IT University of Copenhagen. The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the football clubs F.C. Copenhagen and Brøndby IF. The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. Movia is the public mass transit company serving all of eastern Denmark, except Bornholm. The Copenhagen Metro, launched in 2002, serves central Copenhagen. Additionally, the Copenhagen S-train, the Lokaltog (private railway), and the Coast Line network serve and connect central Copenhagen to outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2.5 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries. ==Etymology== Copenhagen's name ( in Danish), reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation in Old Norse, from which Danish descends, was ' (cf. modern Icelandic: , ), meaning 'merchants' harbour'. By the time Old Danish was spoken, the capital was called ', with the current name deriving from centuries of subsequent regular sound change. The English cognates of the original name would be "chapman's haven". The English chapman, German , Dutch , Swedish , Danish , and Icelandic share a derivation from Latin , meaning 'tradesman'. However, the English term for the city was adapted from its Low German name, . Copenhagen's Swedish name is , a direct translation of the mutually intelligible Danish name. The city's Latin name, , is the namesake of the element hafnium. ==History== ===Early history=== Although the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from . Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century. The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen. These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century. Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age. Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard. The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally 'old shore') in the 11th century or even earlier. The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as , meaning 'Merchants' Harbour' or, in the Danish of the time, . Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed, and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Wends continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle. ===Middle Ages=== In 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of Hafn (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde (1158–1191) and Archbishop of Lund (1177–1201), by King Valdemar I. Upon Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde. who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published. With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV. This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe. Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s. Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn. In 1658–1659, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault. ===18th century=== Copenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires that destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless. No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost. Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city. A substantial amount of rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace, which was completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. During the 18th century, the Danish slave trade, which began during the 17th century, underwent a rapid expansion. Between 1660 and 1806, Danish merchants, many of them based out of Copenhagen, transported approximately 120,000 enslaved Africans to the Danish West Indies. These merchants were mostly affiliated with the slave-trading Danish West India Company and Danish Asiatic Company, both of which were headquartered in Copenhagen. Many buildings in Copenhagen, such as the Moltke Mansion, Yellow Palace and the Vestindisk Pakhus were funded with profits made from the Danish slave trade. In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefited from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged. In 1807, as a result of continued British fears that Denmark would ally with France, another British fleet led by Admiral James Gambier was dispatched to Copenhagen with orders to seize or destroy the Dano-Norwegian navy. The British published a proclamation demanding the surrender of the Dano-Norwegian fleet, and the Danish responded with "what amounted to a declaration of war". Gambier's forces responded by carrying out a naval bombardment of Copenhagen from 2 to 5 September. The bombardment, which saw the deployment of Congreve rockets, killed 195 civilians and wounded 768, along with burning approximately 1,000 structures, including the Church of Our Lady. Copenhagen's defenders were unable to respond to the bombardment effectively due to relying on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery. A British landing force of 30,000 men entered and occupied Copenhagen; during the battle, the British suffered almost 200 casualties, while the Danish suffered 3,000. Virtually the entire Dano-Norwegian fleet was surrendered to the British, who either burnt them or brought them back to Britain. Denmark declared war on Britain, leading to the outbreak of the Gunboat War, which lasted until the 1814 Treaty of Kiel. Despite the turmoil the Napoleonic Wars brought to the city, Copenhagen soon experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02. As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war. In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolition of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade to build five large blocks of flats. ====World War II==== In Denmark during World War II, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be "a model protectorate" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden. In 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, air vice-marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company. Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building. The attack, known as "Operation Carthage", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash, four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target and aimed their bombs at the school, leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). ====Post-war decades==== Shortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five "fingers" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971. Motor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen Naval Base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries. In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realised in the harbour area and in the west of Amager. === Gallery === File:The Black Diamond, Copenhagen 2017-08-16.jpg\|The Black Diamond File:Christiania in.jpg\|Freetown Christiania – entrance File:Øresund Bridge from the air in September 2015.jpg\|Øresund Bridge ===21st century=== Since the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager. An important development for the city has been the opening of the Copenhagen Metro railway system in 2002. The Copenhagen Metro was extended until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011. The Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P. Møller foundation, was completed in 2004. In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15. In 2019 Copenhagen was crowned the best swimming city by CNN and Copenhagen harbour now has 13 official swimming zones and three harbour baths. Illegal bathers are fined by the police. On 3 July 2022, three people were killed in a shooting at Field's mall in Copenhagen. Police chief inspector Søren Thomassen announced the arrest of a 22-year-old man and said that the police cannot rule out an act of terrorism. Also, on 17 April 2025, a man was knifed in the street. ==Geography== Copenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. The Swedish city of Malmö and the town of Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde. The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (Fæstningsringen) and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late-19th- and early-20th-century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro. The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery. Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick. Geologically, Copenhagen lies in the northern part of Denmark where the land is rising because of post-glacial rebound. ===Beaches=== Amager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg, about from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach. It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach. The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge, literally meaning Iceland's Quay, and has won international acclaim for its design. ==Climate== Copenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: Cfb). Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point. June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of . Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices. ==Administration== According to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand. They are located in the Capital Region (). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive. Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (), which is situated on City Hall Square. The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality. Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (bydele): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest. Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Sydhavn, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev. ===Law and order=== Most of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern-style court of justice, Hof- og Stadsretten, was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby. With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen. Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court () also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court (), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal. Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases. The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–1924 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen. The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices. The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention. The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right. The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892. === Environmental planning === Copenhagen is recognised as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI). In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden. It produces about 4% of the city's energy. Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the Inner Harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations. Copenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025. Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 per cent and 10 per cent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 per cent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds. The city's urban planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions. In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving. ==Demographics== Copenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries. For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen () to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities: Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby. Their combined population stands at 763,908 (). Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area. Known as the Øresund Region, it has 4.1 million inhabitants—of whom 2.7 million (August 2021) live in the Danish part of the region. ===Religion=== A majority (56.9%) of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 0.6% lower than one year earlier according to 2019 figures. The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen. There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic. Foreign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014. Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population. While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen. There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues. It has a membership of 1,800 members. There is a long history of Jews in the city, and the first synagogue in Copenhagen was built in 1684. Today, the history of the Jews of Denmark can be explored at the Danish Jewish Museum in Copenhagen. ===Quality of living=== For a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life. Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike. Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies. In elevating Copenhagen to "most liveable city" in 2013, Monocle pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine. The city is voted 2024 second most liveable city by Economist Intelligence Unit. Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning. However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012. Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability. ==Economy== Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark. The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce. Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries. The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare. From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark. In 2017, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €120 billion, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union. As of Copenhagen Green Economy Leader Report made by London School of Economics and Political Science – Copenhagen is widely recognised as a leader in the global green economy. The Copenhagen region accounts for almost 40% of Denmark's output and has enjoyed long-term stable growth. At a national level, Danish GDP per capita is ranked among the top 10 countries in the world. At the same time, the city's growth has been delivered while improving environmental performance and transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Several financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm. Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark. The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P. Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes. City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions. Life science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region. Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia. Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster. Shipping is another important sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen. The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port. Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour. Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP). The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries. CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012. Copenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world. High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction. A beneficial researcher scheme with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour. It is, however, also among the most expensive cities in Europe. Denmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen. In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate. The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities. ===Tourism=== Tourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants. Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe. Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly. From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors. 680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015. In 2019 Copenhagen was ranked first among Lonely Planet's top ten cities to visit. In October 2021, Copenhagen was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Dublin, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia. ==Cityscape== The city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries. Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period. Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets. ===Architecture=== The oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as (the medieval city). However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions. The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals. Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen. Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century. They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications. Sometimes referred to as "the City of Spires", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles. Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top. Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue. Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the "dragon spire" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons. Copenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning. Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity. These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century. Recent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects. For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects. British design magazine Monocle named Copenhagen the World's best design city 2008. Copenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation. After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication. Copenhagen's spatial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses. The boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline. A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development. Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development. Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school. ===Parks, gardens and zoo=== Copenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small. King's Garden (), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all. It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606. Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers. It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months. Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen. It is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars. A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park. Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park. It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl. The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo. Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue. In Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation. Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution. The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features. It is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes. In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces. ===Landmarks by district=== ====Indre By==== The historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions. The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre. Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the 21st-century Copenhagen Opera House stands on the island of Holmen. To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars. The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670. Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755. Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory. There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, one of the world's oldest and longest pedestrian streets, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv. With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain. Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style. It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War. ====Christianshavn==== Christianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour. The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century. Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today. Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971. Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy. The inhabitants openly sell drugs on "Pusher Street" as well as their arts and crafts. Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church. Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine. ====Vesterbro==== Vesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants. The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse. The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt. Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes. Halmtorvet, the old hay market behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants. The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography. Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969. Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country. ====Nørrebro==== Nørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, non-Danish food stores and restaurants. Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv and around Rantzausgade. Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area. ====Østerbro==== Just north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies. The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where The Little Mermaid statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie. Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913. Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (Kastellet) can be seen. Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications. There is also a windmill in the area. The large Gefion Fountain () designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet. Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend. ====Frederiksberg==== Frederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro. Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Frederick IV who was inspired by Italian architecture. Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings. The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment. While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active. ====Amagerbro==== Amagerbro (also known as Sønderbro) is the district located immediately south-east of Christianshavn at northernmost Amager. The old city moats and their surrounding parks constitute a clear border between these districts. The main street is Amagerbrogade which after the harbour bridge Langebro, is an extension of H. C. Andersens Boulevard and has a number of various stores and shops as well as restaurants and pubs. Amagerbro was built up during the two first decades of the twentieth century and is the city's southernmost block built area with typically 4–7 floors. Further south follows the Sundbyøster and Sundbyvester districts. ====Other districts==== Not far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium. With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia. Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V. Jensen Klint and completed in 1940. A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ. ==Culture== Apart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and one of the major hubs in wider Scandinavia. Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal, in the same league as cities such as Barcelona and Amsterdam. This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs. Copenhagen Fashion Week takes place every year in February and August. ===Museums=== Copenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing. The National Museum, , is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike. Denmark's National Gallery () is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present. In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen & Dragset, Superflex, and Jens Haaning. Another important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections. Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France. Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters. Louisiana is a Museum of Modern Art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen. It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund. Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet. The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts. Other museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum, an exhibition space for contemporary art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin. ===Entertainment and performing arts=== The new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009. Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people. It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built. Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens. Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House () opened in 2005. It is among the most modern opera houses in the world. The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions. It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet. Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet. Copenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years. It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s. Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival. One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world. The largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district. It was chosen as "best concert venue in Europe" by international music magazine Live. The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250. Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen. This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions. For free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers. ===Literature=== Most of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen. These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books). Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen. Novels set in Copenhagen include Baby (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, The Copenhagen Connection (1982) by Barbara Mertz, Number the Stars (1989) by Lois Lowry, Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow (1992) and Borderliners (1993) by Peter Høeg, Music and Silence (1999) by Rose Tremain, The Danish Girl (2000) by David Ebershoff, and Sharpe's Prey (2001) by Bernard Cornwell. Michael Frayn's 1998 play Copenhagen about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city. On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. The Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482. Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront. Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library () on Krystalgade in the inner city. ===Art=== Copenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions. They include , i.e. the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century. Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art. Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities. The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj. Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934). A number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city. In addition to The Little Mermaid on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's Frederik V on Horseback (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris. Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie. Copenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989. ===Cuisine=== , Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city. The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination. These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC with two Stars, and Noma (short for mad, English: Nordic food) as well as Geranium with three. Noma was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by Restaurant in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine. Apart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants. It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes. Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city. The Copenhagen Bakers' Association (Danish: ) dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, Conditori La Glace, was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg. Copenhagen has long been associated with beer. Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production. However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen. Some like Nørrebro Bryghus also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises. ===Nightlife and festivals=== Copenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world. The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer. Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously. Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife. Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub and Culture Box. Copenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer. Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators. Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival. Copenhagen Pride is a LGBT pride festival taking place every year in August. The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place. During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square. Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100,000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year. ===Amusement parks=== Copenhagen has the oldest and third-oldest amusement parks in the world. Dyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven. Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world. The Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station. It opened in 1843, making it the third-oldest amusement park in the world, the second being Wurstelprater in Vienna. Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943. Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen. ==Education== Copenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (20,000 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and the Copenhagen campus of Aalborg University (2,300 students). The University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479. It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016. The Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen. In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe. The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology. The Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years. It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation. Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg. There are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen. ==Sport== The city has a variety of sporting teams. The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby. FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro. Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg). Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester. BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby). Other teams of more significant stature are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF. Copenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark. Of clubs playing in the "highest" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup). Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs. Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league. Rugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed. Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion. The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world. Copenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980. Round Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August. This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship. In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning. Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure. It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen. ==Transport== ===Airport=== The greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe. Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager. It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services. October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average. ===Road, rail and ferry=== Copenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge. The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled. This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic. The Øresund train links Copenhagen with Malmö 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Copenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway. In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers. The Copenhagen Metro expanded radically with the opening of the City Circle Line (M3) on 29 September 2019. The new line connects all inner boroughs of the city by metro, including the Central Station, and opens up 17 new stations for Copenhageners. On 28 March 2020, the Nordhavn extension of the Harbour Line (M4) opened. Running from Copenhagen Central Station, the new extension is a branch line of M3 Cityring to Østerport. The new metro lines are part of the city's strategy to transform mobility towards sustainable modes of transport such as public transport and cycling as opposed to automobility. Copenhagen is cited by urban planners for its exemplary integration of public transport and urban development. In implementing its Finger Plan, Copenhagen is considered the world's first example of a transit metropolis, and areas around S-Train stations like Ballerup and Brøndby Strand are among the earliest examples of transit-oriented development. ===Cycling=== Copenhagen has been rated as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world since 2015, with bicycles outnumbering its inhabitants. In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university. With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year. The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate. ==Healthcare== Promoting health is an important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities. Central to its sustainability mission is its "Long Live Copenhagen" () scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities. The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol. In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions. It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants. The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series The Kingdom. Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees. Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927). ==Media== Many Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen. DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation consolidated its activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007. Similarly TV2, which is based in Odense, has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen. The two national daily newspapers Politiken and Berlingske and the two tabloids and BT are based in Copenhagen. Kristeligt Dagblad is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week. Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books. Copenhagen has a large film and television industry. Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world. CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old NatFilm Festival and the four-year-old CIFF. The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April. CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November. In addition to a documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town. ==Twin towns – sister cities== Copenhagen is twinned with: Beijing, China Marseille, France Kyiv, Ukraine ==Honorary citizens== People awarded the honorary citizenship of Copenhagen are: While honorary citizenship is no longer granted in Copenhagen, three people have been awarded the title of honorary Copenhageners (æreskøbenhavnere).	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(tabloid)", "Kalmar Union", "Frederiksberg", "bicycle-friendly", "CSR-Nanok", "Hanseatic League", "ice hockey", "WP:PLACE", "French First Republic", "English-speaking world", "Baroque", "Tårnby", "service sector", "Danish Meteorological Institute", "Racial policy of Nazi Germany", "Kunsthal Charlottenborg", "Barcelona", "Rådhuspladsen", "Sweden", "Noma (restaurant)", "Gentofte Hospital", "waterfowl", "Church of Our Lady (Copenhagen)", "Pantomimeteatret", "Royal Air Force", "research and development", "Jacques Saly", "Assistens Cemetery (Copenhagen)", "Catholic Church", "Baltic countries", "team handball", "Frederiksberg Gardens", "Scania", "open sandwich", "urban area of Copenhagen", "Danish language", "City Hall Square, Copenhagen", "Aller Media", "amusement parks", "Danian", "modern architecture", "Islam", "Nordea Bank Danmark", "ferris wheel", "Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse", "City Circle Line", "protectorate", "Economy of Denmark", "Whitsun", "RK Speed", "Halmtorvet", "The Little Mermaid (statue)", "Danish War Museum", "Church of Our Lady, Copenhagen", "Copenhagen Castle", "Biology", "Nicolai Eigtved", "circus", "Nordhavnen", "Copenhagen Port", "sewage treatment", "S-train", "jazz", "Vallensbæk Municipality", "Vincent van Gogh", "Filmbyen", "Sixtus IV", "Herlev Municipality", "foreign direct investment", "sculpture garden", "Louisiana Museum of Modern Art", "Henning Larsen", "sustainable drainage system", "Furesø Municipality", "Barbara Mertz", "Akademisk Boldklub", "archaeology", "Danish National Police", "Range of a projectile", "Aarhus", "Hvidovre IF", "Viking Age", "Gesta Danorum", "Børsen", "Fordism", "Peter Høeg", "København Håndbold", "Radisson Blu Royal Hotel", "Kastrup", "Rødovre Mighty Bulls", "Glostrup Municipality", "Victor Borge", "Kyiv", "Werner Heisenberg", "Danish pastry", "Pope Urban III", "Freetown Christiania", "Hyde Parker (admiral)", "Øster Voldgade", "Elmgreen & Dragset", "Black Diamond (library)", "oceanic climate", "The plague during the Great Northern War", "Church of Our Saviour, Copenhagen", "film director", "Christian II of Denmark", "waste management", "Dansk Industri", "Berlingske", "Den Frie Udstilling", "Christian III of Denmark", "Christian's Church, Copenhagen", "Novo Nordisk", "physicist", "Scandinavian Airlines System", "Landskrona", "Expressionist architecture", "Claude Monet", "Jan Gehl", "military camp", "Museum of Modern Art", "Royal Danish Theatre", "Selandian", "Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec", "Refshaleøen", "hafnium", "Hirschsprung Collection", "Dexter Gordon", "Stone Age", "Lübeck", "Vestre Cemetery", "St. Nicholas' Church, Copenhagen", "programme (booklet)", "CPH:PIX", "Old Norse", "Indre By", "Tivoli Gardens", "Bernard Cornwell", "Dublin", "JP/Politikens Hus", "Copenhagen Police Headquarters", "Lyngby Boldklub", "Monocle (media company)", "Hof- og Stadsretten", "Tivolis Koncertsal", "green roof", "Fortification Ring, Copenhagen", "Supreme Court of Denmark", "Copenhagen Distortion", "Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary", "Royal Navy", "Copenhagen International Documentary Festival", "Water conservation", "Christian IV of Denmark", "Vestindisk Pakhus", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Kongens Lyngby", "Shell Oil Company", "World War II", "Denmark in World War II", "Lolland-Falster", "Scandinavia", "Diocese of Roskilde (Roman-Catholic)", "Christoffer Valkendorff", "antique car", "Post-Impressionism", "Church of the Holy Ghost, Copenhagen", "Culture of Denmark", "Dutch Renaissance", "Fremad Amager", "DR Byen", "Low-energy house", "Danish Museum of Art & Design", "Christian V of Denmark", "Amalienborg Palace", "Copenhagen Opera House", "University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden", "Yellow Palace, Copenhagen", "Langebro", "2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "Grand Mosque of Copenhagen", "Statens Museum for Kunst", "Vega, Copenhagen", "Exiles RUFC", "Metropolitan University College", "Frederik V on Horseback", "Ferring Pharmaceuticals", "Øresund Bridge", "Danish West Indies", "Danish East India Company", "Frederiksstaden", "Bernard Montgomery", "City of Copenhagen", "Ancient Egypt", "Central European Summer Time", "Economist Intelligence Unit", "cultural history", "Dogme 95", "Rembrandt", "Maritime and Commercial Court (Denmark)", "Frederiksberg RK", "Bertel Thorvaldsen", "Alberto Giacometti", "Gottlieb Bindesbøll", "Kongens Enghave", "post-glacial rebound", "Otto Bache", "Baby (Thorup novel)", "grey heron", "Copenhagen Central Fire Station", "Kunstakademiets Arkitektskole", "rampart (fortification)", "Lokaltog", "Work of art", "public service" ]
5,170	Combinatorics	Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and as an end to obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science. Combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles. Combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics, notably in algebra, probability theory, topology, and geometry, as well as in its many application areas. Many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation, giving an ad hoc solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context. In the later twentieth century, however, powerful and general theoretical methods were developed, making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right. One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas. Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms. == Definition == The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon. According to H.J. Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions. Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with: the enumeration (counting) of specified structures, sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense, associated with finite systems, the existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria, the construction of these structures, perhaps in many ways, and optimization: finding the "best" structure or solution among several possibilities, be it the "largest", "smallest" or satisfying some other optimality criterion. Leon Mirsky has said: "combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives, their methods, and the degree of coherence they have attained." One way to define combinatorics is, perhaps, to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques. This is the approach that is used below. However, there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella. Although primarily concerned with finite systems, some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite (specifically, countable) but discrete setting. == History == Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world.The earliest recorded use of combinatorial techniques comes from problem 79 of the Rhind papyrus, which dates to the 16th century BC. The problem concerns a certain geometric series, and has similarities to Fibonacci's problem of counting the number of compositions of 1s and 2s that sum to a given total. Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities. Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers. Earlier, in the Ostomachion, Archimedes (3rd century BCE) may have considered the number of configurations of a tiling puzzle, while combinatorial interests possibly were present in lost works by Apollonius. In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra () provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations, and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE. The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra () established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321. The arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations. During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an increase of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem. In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject. In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc. These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field. == Approaches and subfields of combinatorics == ===Enumerative combinatorics=== Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. ===Analytic combinatorics=== Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae. === Partition theory === Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics. Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general. ===Graph theory=== Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics. Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on n vertices with k edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph G and two numbers x and y, does the Tutte polynomial TG(x,y) have a combinatorial interpretation?). Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects. While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems. ===Design theory=== Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics. Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments. Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments. Modern applications are also found in a wide gamut of areas including finite geometry, tournament scheduling, lotteries, mathematical chemistry, mathematical biology, algorithm design and analysis, networking, group testing and cryptography. ===Finite geometry=== Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points. Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.) but defined combinatorially are the main items studied. This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory. It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry). === Order theory === Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. It provides a formal framework for describing statements such as "this is less than that" or "this precedes that". Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras. ===Matroid theory=== Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics. ===Extremal combinatorics=== Extremal combinatorics studies how large or how small a collection of finite objects (numbers, graphs, vectors, sets, etc.) can be, if it has to satisfy certain restrictions. Much of extremal combinatorics concerns classes of set systems; this is called extremal set theory. For instance, in an n-element set, what is the largest number of k-element subsets that can pairwise intersect one another? What is the largest number of subsets of which none contains any other? The latter question is answered by Sperner's theorem, which gave rise to much of extremal set theory. The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on 2n vertices is a complete bipartite graph Kn,n. Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer f(n) exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate. Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle. ===Probabilistic combinatorics=== In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph? For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find) by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach (often referred to as the probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time. Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. The area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics. ===Algebraic combinatorics=== Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Algebraic combinatorics has come to be seen more expansively as an area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant. Thus the combinatorial topics may be enumerative in nature or involve matroids, polytopes, partially ordered sets, or finite geometries. On the algebraic side, besides group and representation theory, lattice theory and commutative algebra are common. ===Combinatorics on words=== Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field. ===Geometric combinatorics=== Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry. It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes. Combinatorial geometry is a historical name for discrete geometry. It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry. The study of regular polytopes, Archimedean solids, and kissing numbers is also a part of geometric combinatorics. Special polytopes are also considered, such as the permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope. ===Topological combinatorics=== Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology. ===Arithmetic combinatorics=== Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems. ===Infinitary combinatorics=== Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensions of Ramsey's theorem, and Martin's axiom. Recent developments concern combinatorics of the continuum and combinatorics on successors of singular cardinals. Gian-Carlo Rota used the name continuous combinatorics to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between counting and measure. == Related fields == === Combinatorial optimization === Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory. === Coding theory === Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory. === Discrete and computational geometry === Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry. ===Combinatorics and dynamical systems=== Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example graph dynamical system. ===Combinatorics and physics=== There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand.	[ "Richard P. Stanley", "combination", "Vertex (graph theory)", "physics", "Young diagram", "analysis", "graph dynamical system", "abstract algebra", "Culture of Europe", "Tree (set theory)", "Partition of a set", "four color problem", "Kirkman's schoolgirl problem", "astronomer", "Ferrers diagram", "necklace problem", "Matthew Foreman", "logic", "computational complexity theory", "Catalan number", "Analytic combinatorics", "generating functions", "convex polytope", "evolutionary biology", "H.J. 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5,176	Calculus	Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", it has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus. The former concerns instantaneous rates of change, and the slopes of curves, while the latter concerns accumulation of quantities, and areas under or between curves. These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. They make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit. It is the "mathematical backbone" for dealing with problems where variables change with time or another reference variable. Infinitesimal calculus was formulated separately in the late 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Later work, including codifying the idea of limits, put these developments on a more solid conceptual footing. Today, calculus is widely used in science, engineering, biology, and even has applications in social science and other branches of math. ==Etymology== In mathematics education, calculus is an abbreviation of both infinitesimal calculus and integral calculus, which denotes courses of elementary mathematical analysis. In Latin, the word calculus means “small pebble”, (the diminutive of calx, meaning "stone"), a meaning which still persists in medicine. Because such pebbles were used for counting out distances, tallying votes, and doing abacus arithmetic, the word came to be the Latin word for calculation. In this sense, it was used in English at least as early as 1672, several years before the publications of Leibniz and Newton, who wrote their mathematical texts in Latin. In addition to differential calculus and integral calculus, the term is also used for naming specific methods of computation or theories that imply some sort of computation. Examples of this usage include propositional calculus, Ricci calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, sequent calculus, and process calculus. Furthermore, the term "calculus" has variously been applied in ethics and philosophy, for such systems as Bentham's felicific calculus, and the ethical calculus. == History == Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it first appeared in ancient Egypt and later Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval Europe and India. === Ancient precursors === ==== Egypt ==== Calculations of volume and area, one goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow papyrus (), but the formulae are simple instructions, with no indication as to how they were obtained. ==== Greece ==== Laying the foundations for integral calculus and foreshadowing the concept of the limit, ancient Greek mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus () developed the method of exhaustion to prove the formulas for cone and pyramid volumes. During the Hellenistic period, this method was further developed by Archimedes (BC), who combined it with a concept of the indivisibles—a precursor to infinitesimals—allowing him to solve several problems now treated by integral calculus. In The Method of Mechanical Theorems he describes, for example, calculating the center of gravity of a solid hemisphere, the center of gravity of a frustum of a circular paraboloid, and the area of a region bounded by a parabola and one of its secant lines. ==== China ==== The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD to find the area of a circle. that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere. === Medieval === ==== Middle East ==== In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. He determined the equations to calculate the area enclosed by the curve represented by y=x^k (which translates to the integral \int x^k \, dx in contemporary notation), for any given non-negative integer value of k.He used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid. ====India==== Bhāskara II () was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus and suggested that the "differential coefficient" vanishes at an extremum value of the function. In his astronomical work, he gave a procedure that looked like a precursor to infinitesimal methods. Namely, if x \approx y then \sin(y) - \sin(x) \approx (y - x)\cos(y). This can be interpreted as the discovery that cosine is the derivative of sine. In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method, resembling differentiation, applicable to some trigonometric functions. Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics stated components of calculus. They studied series equivalent to the Maclaurin expansions of , , and more than two hundred years before their introduction in Europe. According to Victor J. Katz they were not able to "combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today". Kepler developed a method to calculate the area of an ellipse by adding up the lengths of many radii drawn from a focus of the ellipse. Significant work was a treatise, the origin being Kepler's methods, The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, the latter two proving predecessors to the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1670. The product rule and chain rule, the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series, and of analytic functions were used by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he applied to solve problems of mathematical physics. In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his Principia Mathematica (1687). In other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were still considered disreputable. He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz put painstaking effort into his choices of notation. Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics. Leibniz developed much of the notation used in calculus today. A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton with differentiation. It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his calculus "the science of fluxions", a term that endured in English schools into the 19th century. The first complete treatise on calculus to be written in English and use the Leibniz notation was not published until 1815. Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing development of calculus. One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and integral calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi. === Foundations === In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of the subject from axioms and definitions. In early calculus, the use of infinitesimal quantities was thought unrigorous and was fiercely criticized by several authors, most notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley. Berkeley famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book The Analyst in 1734. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some extent an active area of research today. Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals, but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a way was finally found to avoid mere "notions" of infinitely small quantities. The foundations of differential and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy's Cours d'Analyse, we find a broad range of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a (somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation. In his work, Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his definition can validate nilsquare infinitesimals). Following the work of Weierstrass, it eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the subject is still occasionally called "infinitesimal calculus". Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to give a precise definition of the integral. It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were generalized to the complex plane with the development of complex analysis. In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been greatly extended. Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory, based on earlier developments by Émile Borel, and used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions. Laurent Schwartz introduced distributions, which can be used to take the derivative of any function whatsoever. Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to use Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s, uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of the usual rules of calculus. There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher-power infinitesimals during derivations. The Hungarian polymath John von Neumann wrote of this work, Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of a curve, and optimization. == Principles == === Limits and infinitesimals === Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method of doing so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which are, in some sense, "infinitely small". For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0, but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number. From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. The symbols dx and dy were taken to be infinitesimal, and the derivative dy/dx was their ratio. In more explicit terms the "doubling function" may be denoted by and the "squaring function" by . The "derivative" now takes the function , defined by the expression "", as an input, that is all the information—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to output another function, the function , as will turn out. In Lagrange's notation, the symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called a prime. Thus, the derivative of a function called is denoted by , pronounced "f prime" or "f dash". For instance, if is the squaring function, then is its derivative (the doubling function from above). If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change concerning time. For example, if is a function that takes time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output, then the derivative of is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball. If the graph of the function is not a straight line, however, then the change in divided by the change in varies. Derivatives give an exact meaning to the notion of change in output concerning change in input. To be concrete, let be a function, and fix a point in the domain of . is a point on the graph of the function. If is a number close to zero, then is a number close to . Therefore, is close to . The slope between these two points is m = \frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{(a+h) - a} = \frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{h}. This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called a secant line, so is the slope of the secant line between and . The second line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the point because it does not account for what happens between and . It is not possible to discover the behavior at by setting to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is undefined. The derivative is defined by taking the limit as tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of for all small values of and extracts a consistent value for the case when equals zero: \lim_{h \to 0}{f(a+h) - f(a)\over{h}}. Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of at . The tangent line is a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function . The indefinite integral, also known as the antiderivative, is the inverse operation to the derivative. A motivating example is the distance traveled in a given time. === Fundamental theorem === The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations.) The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing limit processes—by finding formulae for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a differential equation. Differential equations relate an unknown function to its derivatives and are ubiquitous in the sciences. == Applications == Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. It allows one to go from (non-constant) rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a problem we know one and are trying to find the other. Calculus can be used in conjunction with other mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used with linear algebra to find the "best fit" linear approximation for a set of points in a domain. Or, it can be used in probability theory to determine the expectation value of a continuous random variable given a probability density function. In analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low points (maxima and minima), slope, concavity and inflection points. Calculus is also used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice, it is the standard way to solve differential equations and do root finding in most applications. Examples are methods such as Newton's method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler method to approximate curved courses within zero-gravity environments. Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are related through calculus. The mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, and the potential energies due to gravitational and electromagnetic forces can all be found by the use of calculus. An example of the use of calculus in mechanics is Newton's second law of motion, which states that the derivative of an object's momentum concerning time equals the net force upon it. Alternatively, Newton's second law can be expressed by saying that the net force equals the object's mass times its acceleration, which is the time derivative of velocity and thus the second time derivative of spatial position. Starting from knowing how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path. Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed in the language of differential calculus. Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and in studying radioactive decay. Green's theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter, which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing. For example, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when designing the layout of a piece of property. In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel to maximize flow. Calculus can be applied to understand how quickly a drug is eliminated from a body or how quickly a cancerous tumor grows. In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue.	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5,177	Communication	Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not only transmits meaning but also creates it. Models of communication are simplified overviews of its main components and their interactions. Many models include the idea that a source uses a coding system to express information in the form of a message. The message is sent through a channel to a receiver who has to decode it to understand it. The main field of inquiry investigating communication is called communication studies. A common way to classify communication is by whether information is exchanged between humans, members of other species, or non-living entities such as computers. For human communication, a central contrast is between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication involves the exchange of messages in linguistic form, including spoken and written messages as well as sign language. Non-verbal communication happens without the use of a linguistic system, for example, using body language, touch, and facial expressions. Another distinction is between interpersonal communication, which happens between distinct persons, and intrapersonal communication, which is communication with oneself. Communicative competence is the ability to communicate well and applies to the skills of formulating messages and understanding them. Non-human forms of communication include animal and plant communication. Researchers in this field often refine their definition of communicative behavior by including the criteria that observable responses are present and that the participants benefit from the exchange. Animal communication is used in areas like courtship and mating, parent–offspring relations, navigation, and self-defense. Communication through chemicals is particularly important for the relatively immobile plants. For example, maple trees release so-called volatile organic compounds into the air to warn other plants of a herbivore attack. Most communication takes place between members of the same species. The reason is that its purpose is usually some form of cooperation, which is not as common between different species. Interspecies communication happens mainly in cases of symbiotic relationships. For instance, many flowers use symmetrical shapes and distinctive colors to signal to insects where nectar is located. Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals. Human communication has a long history and how people exchange information has changed over time. These changes were usually triggered by the development of new communication technologies. Examples are the invention of writing systems, the development of mass printing, the use of radio and television, and the invention of the internet. The technological advances also led to new forms of communication, such as the exchange of data between computers. == Definitions == The word has its root in the Latin verb , which means or . Communication is usually understood as the transmission of information: a message is conveyed from a sender to a receiver using some medium, such as sound, written signs, bodily movements, or electricity. Sender and receiver are often distinct individuals but it is also possible for an individual to communicate with themselves. In some cases, sender and receiver are not individuals but groups like organizations, social classes, or nations. In a different sense, the term communication refers to the message that is being communicated or to the field of inquiry studying communicational phenomena. The precise characterization of communication is disputed. Many scholars have raised doubts that any single definition can capture the term accurately. These difficulties come from the fact that the term is applied to diverse phenomena in different contexts, often with slightly different meanings. The issue of the right definition affects the research process on many levels. This includes issues like which empirical phenomena are observed, how they are categorized, which hypotheses and laws are formulated as well as how systematic theories based on these steps are articulated. Some definitions are broad and encompass unconscious and non-human behavior. Under a broad definition, many animals communicate within their own species and flowers communicate by signaling the location of nectar to bees through their colors and shapes. Other definitions restrict communication to conscious interactions among human beings. Some approaches focus on the use of symbols and signs while others stress the role of understanding, interaction, power, or transmission of ideas. Various characterizations see the communicator's intent to send a message as a central component. In this view, the transmission of information is not sufficient for communication if it happens unintentionally. A version of this view is given by philosopher Paul Grice, who identifies communication with actions that aim to make the recipient aware of the communicator's intention. One question in this regard is whether only successful transmissions of information should be regarded as communication. For example, distortion may interfere with and change the actual message from what was originally intended. A closely related problem is whether acts of deliberate deception constitute communication. According to a broad definition by literary critic I. A. Richards, communication happens when one mind acts upon its environment to transmit its own experience to another mind. Another interpretation is given by communication theorists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, who characterize communication as a transmission of information brought about by the interaction of several components, such as a source, a message, an encoder, a channel, a decoder, and a receiver. The transmission view is rejected by transactional and constitutive views, which hold that communication is not just about the transmission of information but also about the creation of meaning. Transactional and constitutive perspectives hold that communication shapes the participant's experience by conceptualizing the world and making sense of their environment and themselves. Researchers studying animal and plant communication focus less on meaning-making. Instead, they often define communicative behavior as having other features, such as playing a beneficial role in survival and reproduction, or having an observable response. ==Models of communication== Models of communication are conceptual representations of the process of communication. Their goal is to provide a simplified overview of its main components. This makes it easier for researchers to formulate hypotheses, apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test predictions. Due to their simplified presentation, they may lack the conceptual complexity needed for a comprehensive understanding of all the essential aspects of communication. They are usually presented visually in the form of diagrams showing the basic components and their interaction. Models of communication are often categorized based on their intended applications and how they conceptualize communication. Some models are general in the sense that they are intended for all forms of communication. Specialized models aim to describe specific forms, such as models of mass communication. One influential way to classify communication is to distinguish between linear transmission, interaction, and transaction models. Linear transmission models focus on how a sender transmits information to a receiver. They are linear because this flow of information only goes in a single direction. This view is rejected by interaction models, which include a feedback loop. Feedback is needed to describe many forms of communication, such as a conversation, where the listener may respond to a speaker by expressing their opinion or by asking for clarification. Interaction models represent the process as a form of two-way communication in which the communicators take turns sending and receiving messages. Transaction models further refine this picture by allowing representations of sending and responding at the same time. This modification is needed to describe how the listener can give feedback in a face-to-face conversation while the other person is talking. Examples are non-verbal feedback through body posture and facial expression. Transaction models also hold that meaning is produced during communication and does not exist independently of it. All the early models, developed in the middle of the 20th century, are linear transmission models. Lasswell's model, for example, is based on five fundamental questions: "Who?", "Says what?", "In which channel?", "To whom?", and "With what effect?". The goal of these questions is to identify the basic components involved in the communicative process: the sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, and the effect. Lasswell's model was initially only conceived as a model of mass communication, but it has been applied to other fields as well. Some communication theorists, like Richard Braddock, have expanded it by including additional questions, like "Under what circumstances?" and "For what purpose?". The Shannon–Weaver model is another influential linear transmission model. It is based on the idea that a source creates a message, which is then translated into a signal by a transmitter. Noise may interfere with and distort the signal. Once the signal reaches the receiver, it is translated back into a message and made available to the destination. For a landline telephone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter. The transmitter translates the message into an electrical signal that travels through the wire, which acts as the channel. The person taking the call is the destination and their telephone is the receiver. The Shannon–Weaver model includes an in-depth discussion of how noise can distort the signal and how successful communication can be achieved despite noise. This can happen by making the message partially redundant so that decoding is possible nonetheless. Other influential linear transmission models include Gerbner's model and Berlo's model. The earliest interaction model was developed by communication theorist Wilbur Schramm. He states that communication starts when a source has an idea and expresses it in the form of a message. This process is called encoding and happens using a code, i.e. a sign system that is able to express the idea, for instance, through visual or auditory signs. The message is sent to a destination, who has to decode and interpret it to understand it. In response, they formulate their own idea, encode it into a message, and send it back as a form of feedback. Another innovation of Schramm's model is that previous experience is necessary to be able to encode and decode messages. For communication to be successful, the fields of experience of source and destination have to overlap. The first transactional model was proposed by communication theorist Dean Barnlund in 1970. He understands communication as "the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages". Its goal is to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding. This happens in response to external and internal cues. Decoding is the process of ascribing meaning to them and encoding consists in producing new behavioral cues as a response. ==Human== There are many forms of human communication. A central distinction is whether language is used, as in the contrast between verbal and non-verbal communication. A further distinction concerns whether one communicates with others or with oneself, as in the contrast between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication. Forms of human communication are also categorized by their channel or the medium used to transmit messages. The field studying human communication is known as anthroposemiotics. === Verbal === Verbal communication is the exchange of messages in linguistic form, i.e., by means of language. In colloquial usage, verbal communication is sometimes restricted to oral communication and may exclude writing and sign language. However, in academic discourse, the term is usually used in a wider sense, encompassing any form of linguistic communication, whether through speech, writing, or gestures. Some of the challenges in distinguishing verbal from non-verbal communication come from the difficulties in defining what exactly language means. Language is usually understood as a conventional system of symbols and rules used for communication. Such systems are based on a set of simple units of meaning that can be combined to express more complex ideas. The rules for combining the units into compound expressions are called grammar. Words are combined to form sentences. One hallmark of human language, in contrast to animal communication, lies in its complexity and expressive power. Human language can be used to refer not just to concrete objects in the here-and-now but also to spatially and temporally distant objects and to abstract ideas. Humans have a natural tendency to acquire their native language in childhood. They are also able to learn other languages later in life as second languages. However, this process is less intuitive and often does not result in the same level of linguistic competence. The academic discipline studying language is called linguistics. Its subfields include semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of word formation), syntax (the study of sentence structure), pragmatics (the study of language use), and phonetics (the study of basic sounds). A central contrast among languages is between natural and artificial or constructed languages. Natural languages, like English, Spanish, and Japanese, developed naturally and for the most part unplanned in the course of history. Artificial languages, like Esperanto, Quenya, C++, and the language of first-order logic, are purposefully designed from the ground up. Most everyday verbal communication happens using natural languages. Central forms of verbal communication are speech and writing together with their counterparts of listening and reading. Spoken languages use sounds to produce signs and transmit meaning while for writing, the signs are physically inscribed on a surface. Sign languages, like American Sign Language and Nicaraguan Sign Language, are another form of verbal communication. They rely on visual means, mostly by using gestures with hands and arms, to form sentences and convey meaning. Verbal communication serves various functions. One key function is to exchange information, i.e. an attempt by the speaker to make the audience aware of something, usually of an external event. But language can also be used to express the speaker's feelings and attitudes. A closely related role is to establish and maintain social relations with other people. Verbal communication is also utilized to coordinate one's behavior with others and influence them. In some cases, language is not employed for an external purpose but only for entertainment or personal enjoyment. Verbal communication further helps individuals conceptualize the world around them and themselves. This affects how perceptions of external events are interpreted, how things are categorized, and how ideas are organized and related to each other. === Non-verbal === Non-verbal communication is the exchange of information through non-linguistic modes, like facial expressions, gestures, and postures. However, not every form of non-verbal behavior constitutes non-verbal communication. Some theorists, like Judee Burgoon, hold that it depends on the existence of a socially shared coding system that is used to interpret the meaning of non-verbal behavior. Non-verbal communication has many functions. It frequently contains information about emotions, attitudes, personality, interpersonal relations, and private thoughts. Non-verbal communication often happens unintentionally and unconsciously, like sweating or blushing, but there are also conscious intentional forms, like shaking hands or raising a thumb. It often happens simultaneously with verbal communication and helps optimize the exchange through emphasis and illustration or by adding additional information. Non-verbal cues can clarify the intent behind a verbal message. Using multiple modalities of communication in this way usually makes communication more effective if the messages of each modality are consistent. However, in some cases different modalities can contain conflicting messages. For example, a person may verbally agree with a statement but press their lips together, thereby indicating disagreement non-verbally. There are many forms of non-verbal communication. They include kinesics, proxemics, haptics, paralanguage, chronemics, and physical appearance. Kinesics studies the role of bodily behavior in conveying information. It is commonly referred to as body language, even though it is, strictly speaking, not a language but rather non-verbal communication. It includes many forms, like gestures, postures, walking styles, and dance. Facial expressions, like laughing, smiling, and frowning, all belong to kinesics and are expressive and flexible forms of communication. Oculesics is another subcategory of kinesics in regard to the eyes. It covers questions like how eye contact, gaze, blink rate, and pupil dilation form part of communication. Some kinesic patterns are inborn and involuntary, like blinking, while others are learned and voluntary, like giving a military salute. Proxemics studies how personal space is used in communication. The distance between the speakers reflects their degree of familiarity and intimacy with each other as well as their social status. Haptics examines how information is conveyed using touching behavior, like handshakes, holding hands, kissing, or slapping. Meanings linked to haptics include care, concern, anger, and violence. For instance, handshaking is often seen as a symbol of equality and fairness, while refusing to shake hands can indicate aggressiveness. Kissing is another form often used to show affection and erotic closeness. Paralanguage, also known as vocalics, encompasses non-verbal elements in speech that convey information. Paralanguage is often used to express the feelings and emotions that the speaker has but does not explicitly stated in the verbal part of the message. It is not concerned with the words used but with how they are expressed. This includes elements like articulation, lip control, rhythm, intensity, pitch, fluency, and loudness. For example, saying something loudly and in a high pitch conveys a different meaning on the non-verbal level than whispering the same words. Paralanguage is mainly concerned with spoken language but also includes aspects of written language, like the use of colors and fonts as well as spatial arrangement in paragraphs and tables. Non-linguistic sounds may also convey information; crying indicates that an infant is distressed, and babbling conveys information about infant health and well-being. Chronemics concerns the use of time, such as what messages are sent by being on time versus late for a meeting. The physical appearance of the communicator, such as height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, clothing, tattooing, and piercing, also carries information. Appearance is an important factor for first impressions but is more limited as a mode of communication since it is less changeable. Some forms of non-verbal communication happen using such artifacts as drums, smoke, batons, traffic lights, and flags. Non-verbal communication can also happen through visual media like paintings and drawings. They can express what a person or an object looks like and can also convey other ideas and emotions. In some cases, this type of non-verbal communication is used in combination with verbal communication, for example, when diagrams or maps employ labels to include additional linguistic information. Traditionally, most research focused on verbal communication. However, this paradigm began to shift in the 1950s when research interest in non-verbal communication increased and emphasized its influence. For example, many judgments about the nature and behavior of other people are based on non-verbal cues. It is further present in almost every communicative act to some extent and certain parts of it are universally understood. These considerations have prompted some communication theorists, like Ray Birdwhistell, to claim that the majority of ideas and information is conveyed this way. It has also been suggested that human communication is at its core non-verbal and that words can only acquire meaning because of non-verbal communication. The earliest forms of human communication, such as crying and babbling, are non-verbal. Some basic forms of communication happen even before birth between mother and embryo and include information about nutrition and emotions. Non-verbal communication is studied in various fields besides communication studies, like linguistics, semiotics, anthropology, and social psychology. === Interpersonal === Interpersonal communication is communication between distinct people. Its typical form is dyadic communication, i.e. between two people, but it can also refer to communication within groups. It can be planned or unplanned and occurs in many forms, like when greeting someone, during salary negotiations, or when making a phone call. Some communication theorists, like Virginia M. McDermott, understand interpersonal communication as a fuzzy concept that manifests in degrees. In this view, an exchange varies in how interpersonal it is based on several factors. It depends on how many people are present, and whether it happens face-to-face rather than through telephone or email. A further factor concerns the relation between the communicators: group communication and mass communication are less typical forms of interpersonal communication and some theorists treat them as distinct types. Interpersonal communication can be synchronous or asynchronous. For asynchronous communication, the parties take turns in sending and receiving messages. This occurs when exchanging letters or emails. For synchronous communication, both parties send messages at the same time. This happens when one person is talking while the other person sends non-verbal messages in response signaling whether they agree with what is being said. Some communication theorists, like Sarah Trenholm and Arthur Jensen, distinguish between content messages and relational messages. Content messages express the speaker's feelings toward the topic of discussion. Relational messages, on the other hand, demonstrate the speaker's feelings toward their relation with the other participants. Various theories of the function of interpersonal communication have been proposed. Some focus on how it helps people make sense of their world and create society. Others hold that its primary purpose is to understand why other people act the way they do and to adjust one's behavior accordingly. A closely related approach is to focus on information and see interpersonal communication as an attempt to reduce uncertainty about others and external events. Other explanations understand it in terms of the needs it satisfies. This includes the needs of belonging somewhere, being included, being liked, maintaining relationships, and influencing the behavior of others. On a practical level, interpersonal communication is used to coordinate one's actions with the actions of others to get things done. Research on interpersonal communication includes topics like how people build, maintain, and dissolve relationships through communication. Other questions are why people choose one message rather than another and what effects these messages have on the communicators and their relation. A further topic is how to predict whether two people would like each other. === Intrapersonal === Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself. In some cases this manifests externally, such as when engaged in a monologue, taking notes, highlighting a passage, and writing a diary or a shopping list. But many forms of intrapersonal communication happen internally in the form of an inner exchange with oneself, as when thinking about something or daydreaming. Closely related to intrapersonal communication is communication that takes place within an organism below the personal level, such as exchange of information between organs or cells. Intrapersonal communication can be triggered by internal and external stimuli. It may happen in the form of articulating a phrase before expressing it externally. Other forms are to make plans for the future and to attempt to process emotions to calm oneself down in stressful situations. It can help regulate one's own mental activity and outward behavior as well as internalize cultural norms and ways of thinking. External forms of intrapersonal communication can aid one's memory. This happens, for example, when making a shopping list. Another use is to unravel difficult problems, as when solving a complex mathematical equation line by line. New knowledge can also be internalized this way, such as when repeating new vocabulary to oneself. Because of these functions, intrapersonal communication can be understood as "an exceptionally powerful and pervasive tool for thinking." Based on its role in self-regulation, some theorists have suggested that intrapersonal communication is more basic than interpersonal communication. Young children sometimes use egocentric speech while playing in an attempt to direct their own behavior. In this view, interpersonal communication only develops later when the child moves from their early egocentric perspective to a more social perspective. A different explanation holds that interpersonal communication is more basic since it is first used by parents to regulate what their child does. Once the child has learned this, they can apply the same technique to themselves to get more control over their own behavior. === Channels === For communication to be successful, the message has to travel from the sender to the receiver. The channel is the way this is accomplished. It is not concerned with the meaning of the message but only with the technical means of how the meaning is conveyed. Channels are often understood in terms of the senses used to perceive the message, i.e. hearing, seeing, smelling, touching, and tasting. But in the widest sense, channels encompass any form of transmission, including technological means like books, cables, radio waves, telephones, or television. Naturally transmitted messages usually fade rapidly whereas some messages using artificial channels have a much longer lifespan, as in the case of books or sculptures. The physical characteristics of a channel have an impact on the code and cues that can be used to express information. For example, typical telephone calls are restricted to the use of verbal language and paralanguage but exclude facial expressions. It is often possible to translate messages from one code into another to make them available to a different channel. An example is writing down a spoken message or expressing it using sign language. The transmission of information can occur through multiple channels at once. For example, face-to-face communication often combines the auditory channel to convey verbal information with the visual channel to transmit non-verbal information using gestures and facial expressions. Employing multiple channels can enhance the effectiveness of communication by helping the receiver better understand the subject matter. The choice of channels often matters since the receiver's ability to understand may vary depending on the chosen channel. For instance, a teacher may decide to present some information orally and other information visually, depending on the content and the student's preferred learning style. This underlines the role of a media-adequate approach. === Communicative competence === Communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively or to choose the appropriate communicative behavior in a given situation. It concerns what to say, when to say it, and how to say it. It further includes the ability to receive and understand messages. Competence is often contrasted with performance since competence can be present even if it is not exercised, while performance consists in the realization of this competence. However, some theorists reject a stark contrast and hold that performance is the observable part and is used to infer competence in relation to future performances. Two central components of communicative competence are effectiveness and appropriateness. Effectiveness is the degree to which the speaker achieves their desired outcomes or the degree to which preferred alternatives are realized. This means that whether a communicative behavior is effective does not just depend on the actual outcome but also on the speaker's intention, i.e. whether this outcome was what they intended to achieve. Because of this, some theorists additionally require that the speaker be able to give an explanation of why they engaged in one behavior rather than another. Effectiveness is closely related to efficiency, the difference being that effectiveness is about achieving goals while efficiency is about using few resources (such as time, effort, and money) in the process. Appropriateness means that the communicative behavior meets social standards and expectations. Communication theorist Brian H. Spitzberg defines it as "the perceived legitimacy or acceptability of behavior or enactments in a given context". This means that the speaker is aware of the social and cultural context in order to adapt and express the message in a way that is considered acceptable in the given situation. For example, to bid farewell to their teacher, a student may use the expression "Goodbye, sir" but not the expression "I gotta split, man", which they may use when talking to a peer. To be both effective and appropriate means to achieve one's preferred outcomes in a way that follows social standards and expectations. Some definitions of communicative competence put their main emphasis on either effectiveness or appropriateness while others combine both features. Many additional components of communicative competence have been suggested, such as empathy, control, flexibility, sensitivity, and knowledge. It is often discussed in terms of the individual skills employed in the process, i.e. the specific behavioral components that make up communicative competence. Message production skills include reading and writing. They are correlated with the reception skills of listening and reading. There are both verbal and non-verbal communication skills. For example, verbal communication skills involve the proper understanding of a language, including its phonology, orthography, syntax, lexicon, and semantics. Many aspects of human life depend on successful communication, from ensuring basic necessities of survival to building and maintaining relationships. Communicative competence is a key factor regarding whether a person is able to reach their goals in social life, like having a successful career and finding a suitable spouse. Because of this, it can have a large impact on the individual's well-being. The lack of communicative competence can cause problems both on the individual and the societal level, including professional, academic, and health problems. Barriers to effective communication can distort the message. They may result in failed communication and cause undesirable effects. This can happen if the message is poorly expressed because it uses terms with which the receiver is not familiar, or because it is not relevant to the receiver's needs, or because it contains too little or too much information. Distraction, selective perception, and lack of attention to feedback may also be responsible. Noise is another negative factor. It concerns influences that interfere with the message on its way to the receiver and distort it. Crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise. Ambiguous expressions can also inhibit effective communication and make it necessary to disambiguate between possible interpretations to discern the sender's intention. These interpretations depend also on the cultural background of the participants. Significant cultural differences constitute an additional obstacle and make it more likely that messages are misinterpreted. ==Other species== Besides human communication, there are many other forms of communication found in the animal kingdom and among plants. They are studied in fields like biocommunication and biosemiotics. There are additional obstacles in this area for judging whether communication has taken place between two individuals. Acoustic signals are often easy to notice and analyze for scientists, but it is more difficult to judge whether tactile or chemical changes should be understood as communicative signals rather than as other biological processes. For this reason, researchers often use slightly altered definitions of communication to facilitate their work. A common assumption in this regard comes from evolutionary biology and holds that communication should somehow benefit the communicators in terms of natural selection. The biologists Rumsaïs Blatrix and Veronika Mayer define communication as "the exchange of information between individuals, wherein both the signaller and receiver may expect to benefit from the exchange". According to this view, the sender benefits by influencing the receiver's behavior and the receiver benefits by responding to the signal. These benefits should exist on average but not necessarily in every single case. This way, deceptive signaling can also be understood as a form of communication. One problem with the evolutionary approach is that it is often difficult to assess the impact of such behavior on natural selection. Another common pragmatic constraint is to hold that it is necessary to observe a response by the receiver following the signal when judging whether communication has occurred. ===Animals=== Animal communication is the process of giving and taking information among animals. The field studying animal communication is called zoosemiotics. There are many parallels to human communication. One is that humans and many animals express sympathy by synchronizing their movements and postures. Nonetheless, there are also significant differences, like the fact that humans also engage in verbal communication, which uses language, while animal communication is restricted to non-verbal (i.e. non-linguistic) communication. Some theorists have tried to distinguish human from animal communication based on the claim that animal communication lacks a referential function and is thus not able to refer to external phenomena. However, various observations seem to contradict this view, such as the warning signals in response to different types of predators used by vervet monkeys, Gunnison's prairie dogs, and red squirrels. A further approach is to draw the distinction based on the complexity of human language, especially its almost limitless ability to combine basic units of meaning into more complex meaning structures. One view states that recursion sets human language apart from all non-human communicative systems. Another difference is that human communication is frequently linked to the conscious intention to send information, which is often not discernable for animal communication. Despite these differences, some theorists use the term "animal language" to refer to certain communicative patterns in animal behavior that have similarities with human language. Animal communication can take a variety of forms, including visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory communication. Visual communication happens in the form of movements, gestures, facial expressions, and colors. Examples are movements seen during mating rituals, the colors of birds, and the rhythmic light of fireflies. Auditory communication takes place through vocalizations by species like birds, primates, and dogs. Auditory signals are frequently used to alert and warn. Lower-order living systems often have simple response patterns to auditory messages, reacting either by approach or avoidance. More complex response patterns are observed for higher animals, which may use different signals for different types of predators and responses. For example, some primates use one set of signals for airborne predators and another for land predators. Tactile communication occurs through touch, vibration, stroking, rubbing, and pressure. It is especially relevant for parent-young relations, courtship, social greetings, and defense. Olfactory and gustatory communication happen chemically through smells and tastes, respectively. There are large differences between species concerning what functions communication plays, how much it is realized, and the behavior used to communicate. Common functions include the fields of courtship and mating, parent-offspring relations, social relations, navigation, self-defense, and territoriality. One part of courtship and mating consists in identifying and attracting potential mates. This can happen through various means. Grasshoppers and crickets communicate acoustically by using songs, moths rely on chemical means by releasing pheromones, and fireflies send visual messages by flashing light. For some species, the offspring depends on the parent for its survival. One central function of parent-offspring communication is to recognize each other. In some cases, the parents are also able to guide the offspring's behavior. Social animals, like chimpanzees, bonobos, wolves, and dogs, engage in various forms of communication to express their feelings and build relations. Communication can aid navigation by helping animals move through their environment in a purposeful way, e.g. to locate food, avoid enemies, and follow other animals. In bats, this happens through echolocation, i.e. by sending auditory signals and processing the information from the echoes. Bees are another often-discussed case in this respect since they perform a type of dance to indicate to other bees where flowers are located. In regard to self-defense, communication is used to warn others and to assess whether a costly fight can be avoided. Another function of communication is to mark and claim territories used for food and mating. For example, some male birds claim a hedge or part of a meadow by using songs to keep other males away and attract females. Two competing theories in the study of animal communication are nature theory and nurture theory. Their conflict concerns to what extent animal communication is programmed into the genes as a form of adaptation rather than learned from previous experience as a form of conditioning. To the degree that it is learned, it usually happens through imprinting, i.e. as a form of learning that only occurs in a certain phase and is then mostly irreversible. ===Plants, fungi, and bacteria=== Plant communication refers to plant processes involving the sending and receiving of information. The field studying plant communication is called phytosemiotics. This field poses additional difficulties for researchers since plants are different from humans and other animals in that they lack a central nervous system and have rigid cell walls. These walls restrict movement and usually prevent plants from sending and receiving signals that depend on rapid movement. However, there are some similarities since plants face many of the same challenges as animals. For example, they need to find resources, avoid predators and pathogens, find mates, and ensure that their offspring survive. Many of the evolutionary responses to these challenges are analogous to those in animals but are implemented using different means. One crucial difference is that chemical communication is much more prominent in the plant kingdom in contrast to the importance of visual and auditory communication for animals. In plants, the term behavior is usually not defined in terms of physical movement, as is the case for animals, but as a biochemical response to a stimulus. This response has to be short relative to the plant's lifespan. Communication is a special form of behavior that involves conveying information from a sender to a receiver. It is distinguished from other types of behavior, like defensive reactions and mere sensing. Like in the field of animal communication, plant communication researchers often require as additional criteria that there is some form of response in the receiver and that the communicative behavior is beneficial to sender and receiver. Biologist Richard Karban distinguishes three steps of plant communication: the emission of a cue by a sender, the perception of the cue by a receiver, and the receiver's response. For plant communication, it is not relevant to what extent the emission of a cue is intentional. However, it should be possible for the receiver to ignore the signal. This criterion can be used to distinguish a response to a signal from a defense mechanism against an unwanted change like intense heat. Plant communication happens in various forms. It includes communication within plants, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. A prominent form of communication is airborne and happens through volatile organic compounds (VOCs). For example, maple trees release VOCs when they are attacked by a herbivore to warn neighboring plants, which then react accordingly by adjusting their defenses. Another form of plant-to-plant communication happens through mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi form underground networks, colloquially referred to as the Wood-Wide Web, and connect the roots of different plants. The plants use the network to send messages to each other, specifically to warn other plants of a pest attack and to help prepare their defenses. Communication can also be observed for fungi and bacteria. Some fungal species communicate by releasing pheromones into the external environment. For instance, they are used to promote sexual interaction in several aquatic fungal species. One form of communication between bacteria is called quorum sensing. It happens by releasing hormone-like molecules, which other bacteria detect and respond to. This process is used to monitor the environment for other bacteria and to coordinate population-wide responses, for example, by sensing the density of bacteria and regulating gene expression accordingly. Other possible responses include the induction of bioluminescence and the formation of biofilms. === Interspecies === Most communication happens between members within a species as intraspecies communication. This is because the purpose of communication is usually some form of cooperation. Cooperation happens mostly within a species while different species are often in conflict with each other by competing over resources. However, there are also some forms of interspecies communication. This occurs especially for symbiotic relations and significantly less for parasitic or predator-prey relations. Interspecies communication plays a key role for plants that depend on external agents for reproduction. For example, flowers need insects for pollination and provide resources like nectar and other rewards in return. They use communication to signal their benefits and attract visitors by using distinctive colors and symmetrical shapes to stand out from their surroundings. This form of advertisement is necessary since flowers compete with each other for visitors. Many fruit-bearing plants rely on plant-to-animal communication to disperse their seeds and move them to a favorable location. This happens by providing nutritious fruits to animals. The seeds are eaten together with the fruit and are later excreted at a different location. Communication makes animals aware of where the fruits are and whether they are ripe. For many fruits, this happens through their color: they have an inconspicuous green color until they ripen and take on a new color that stands in visual contrast to the environment. Another example of interspecies communication is found in the ant-plant relation. It concerns, for instance, the selection of seeds by ants for their ant gardens and the pruning of exogenous vegetation as well as plant protection by ants. Some animal species also engage in interspecies communication, like apes, whales, dolphins, elephants, and dogs. For example, different species of monkeys use common signals to cooperate when threatened by a common predator. Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals. For instance, acoustic signals play a central role in communication with dogs. Dogs can learn to react to various commands, like "sit" and "come". They can even be trained to respond to short syntactic combinations, like "bring X" or "put X in a box". They also react to the pitch and frequency of the human voice to detect emotions, dominance, and uncertainty. Dogs use a range of behavioral patterns to convey their emotions to humans, for example, in regard to aggressiveness, fearfulness, and playfulness. == Computer == Computer communication concerns the exchange of data between computers and similar devices. For this to be possible, the devices have to be connected through a transmission system that forms a network between them. A transmitter is needed to send messages and a receiver is needed to receive them. A personal computer may use a modem as a transmitter to send information to a server through the public telephone network as the transmission system. The server may use a modem as its receiver. To transmit the data, it has to be converted into an electric signal. Communication channels used for transmission are either analog or digital and are characterized by features like bandwidth and latency. There are many forms of computer networks. The most commonly discussed ones are LANs and WANs. LAN stands for local area network, which is a computer network within a limited area, usually with a distance of less than one kilometer. This is the case when connecting two computers within a home or an office building. LANs can be set up using a wired connection, like Ethernet, or a wireless connection, like Wi-Fi. WANs, on the other hand, are wide area networks that span large geographical regions, like the internet. Their networks are more complex and may use several intermediate connection nodes to transfer information between endpoints. Further types of computer networks include PANs (personal area networks), CANs (campus area networks), and MANs (metropolitan area networks). For computer communication to be successful, the involved devices have to follow a common set of conventions governing their exchange. These conventions are known as the communication protocol. They concern various aspects of the exchange, like the format of messages and how to respond to transmission errors. They also cover how the two systems are synchronized, for example, how the receiver identifies the start and end of a signal. Based on the flow of informations, systems are categorized as simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. For simplex systems, signals flow only in one direction from the sender to the receiver, like in radio, cable television, and screens displaying arrivals and departures at airports. Half-duplex systems allow two-way exchanges but signals can only flow in one direction at a time, like walkie-talkies and police radios. In the case of full-duplex systems, signals can flow in both directions at the same time, like regular telephone and internet. In either case, it is often important for successful communication that the connection is secure to ensure that the transmitted data reaches only the intended destination and is not intercepted by an unauthorized third party. This can be achieved by using cryptography, which changes the format of the transmitted information to make it unintelligible to potential interceptors. Human-computer communication is a closely related field that concerns topics like how humans interact with computers and how data in the form of inputs and outputs is exchanged. This happens through a user interface, which includes the hardware used to interact with the computer, like a mouse, a keyboard, and a monitor, as well as the software used in the process. On the software side, most early user interfaces were command-line interfaces in which the user must type a command to interact with the computer. Most modern user interfaces are graphical user interfaces, like Microsoft Windows and macOS, which are usually much easier to use for non-experts. They involve graphical elements through which the user can interact with the computer, commonly using a design concept known as skeumorphism to make a new concept feel familiar and speed up understanding by mimicking the real-world equivalent of the interface object. Examples include the typical computer folder icon and recycle bin used for discarding files. One aim when designing user interfaces is to simplify the interaction with computers. This helps make them more user-friendly and accessible to a wider audience while also increasing productivity. ==Communication studies== Communication studies, also referred to as communication science, is the academic discipline studying communication. It is closely related to semiotics, with one difference being that communication studies focuses more on technical questions of how messages are sent, received, and processed. Semiotics, on the other hand, tackles more abstract questions in relation to meaning and how signs acquire it. Communication studies covers a wide area overlapping with many other disciplines, such as biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, linguistics, media studies, and journalism. Many contributions in the field of communication studies focus on developing models and theories of communication. Models of communication aim to give a simplified overview of the main components involved in communication. Theories of communication try to provide conceptual frameworks to accurately present communication in all its complexity. Some theories focus on communication as a practical art of discourse while others explore the roles of signs, experience, information processing, and the goal of building a social order through coordinated interaction. Communication studies is also interested in the functions and effects of communication. It covers issues like how communication satisfies physiological and psychological needs, helps build relationships, and assists in gathering information about the environment, other individuals, and oneself. A further topic concerns the question of how communication systems change over time and how these changes correlate with other societal changes. A related topic focuses on psychological principles underlying those changes and the effects they have on how people exchange ideas. Communication was studied as early as Ancient Greece. Early influential theories were created by Plato and Aristotle, who stressed public speaking and the understanding of rhetoric. According to Aristotle, for example, the goal of communication is to persuade the audience. The field of communication studies only became a separate research discipline in the 20th century, especially starting in the 1940s. The development of new communication technologies, such as telephone, radio, newspapers, television, and the internet, has had a big impact on communication and communication studies. Today, communication studies is a wide discipline. Some works in it try to provide a general characterization of communication in the widest sense. Others attempt to give a precise analysis of one specific form of communication. Communication studies includes many subfields. Some focus on wide topics like interpersonal communication, intrapersonal communication, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication. Others investigate communication within a specific area. Organizational communication concerns communication between members of organizations such as corporations, nonprofits, or small businesses. Central in this regard is the coordination of the behavior of the different members as well as the interaction with customers and the general public. Closely related terms are business communication, corporate communication, and professional communication. The main element of marketing communication is advertising but it also encompasses other communication activities aimed at advancing the organization's objective to its audiences, like public relations. Political communication covers topics like electoral campaigns to influence voters and legislative communication, like letters to a congress or committee documents. Specific emphasis is often given to propaganda and the role of mass media. Intercultural communication is relevant to both organizational and political communication since they often involve attempts to exchange messages between communicators from different cultural backgrounds. The cultural background affects how messages are formulated and interpreted and can be the cause of misunderstandings. It is also relevant for development communication, which is about the use of communication for assisting in development, like aid given by first-world countries to third-world countries. Health communication concerns communication in the field of healthcare and health promotion efforts. One of its topics is how healthcare providers, like doctors and nurses, should communicate with their patients. == History == Communication history studies how communicative processes evolved and interacted with society, culture, and technology. Human communication has a long history and the way people communicate has changed considerably over time. Many of these changes were triggered by the development of new communication technologies and had various effects on how people exchanged ideas. New communication technologies usually require new skills that people need to learn to use them effectively. In the academic literature, the history of communication is usually divided into ages based on the dominant form of communication in that age. The number of ages and the precise periodization are disputed. They usually include ages for speaking, writing, and print as well as electronic mass communication and the internet. According to communication theorist Marshall Poe, the dominant media for each age can be characterized in relation to several factors. They include the amount of information a medium can store, how long it persists, how much time it takes to transmit it, and how costly it is to use the medium. Poe argues that subsequent ages usually involve some form of improvement of one or more of the factors. According to some scientific estimates, language developed around 40,000 years ago while others consider it to be much older. Before this development, human communication resembled animal communication and happened through a combination of grunts, cries, gestures, and facial expressions. Language helped early humans to organize themselves and plan ahead more efficiently. In early societies, spoken language was the primary form of communication. Most knowledge was passed on through it, often in the form of stories or wise sayings. This form does not produce stable knowledge since it depends on imperfect human memory. Because of this, many details differ from one telling to the next and are presented differently by distinct storytellers. As people started to settle and form agricultural communities, societies grew and there was an increased need for stable records of ownership of land and commercial transactions. This triggered the invention of writing, which is able to solve many problems that arose from using exclusively oral communication. It is much more efficient at preserving knowledge and passing it on between generations since it does not depend on human memory. Before the invention of writing, certain forms of proto-writing had already developed. Proto-writing encompasses long-lasting visible marks used to store information, like decorations on pottery items, knots in a cord to track goods, or seals to mark property. Most early written communication happened through pictograms. Pictograms are graphical symbols that convey meaning by visually resembling real-world objects. The use of basic pictographic symbols to represent things like farming produce was common in ancient cultures and began around 9000 BCE. The first complex writing system including pictograms was developed around 3500 BCE by the Sumerians and is called cuneiform. Pictograms are still in use today, like no-smoking signs and the symbols of male and female figures on bathroom doors. A significant disadvantage of pictographic writing systems is that they need a large amount of symbols to refer to all the objects one wants to talk about. This problem was solved by the development of other writing systems. For example, the symbols of alphabetic writing systems do not stand for regular objects. Instead, they relate to the sounds used in spoken language. Other types of early writing systems include logographic and ideographic writing systems. A drawback of many early forms of writing, like the clay tablets used for cuneiform, was that they were not very portable. This made it difficult to transport the texts from one location to another to share information. This changed with the invention of papyrus by the Egyptians around 2500 BCE and was further improved later by the development of parchment and paper. Until the 1400s, almost all written communication was hand-written, which limited the spread of written media within society since copying texts by hand was costly. The introduction and popularization of mass printing in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg resulted in rapid changes. Mass printing quickly increased the circulation of written media and also led to the dissemination of new forms of written documents, like newspapers and pamphlets. One side effect was that the augmented availability of written documents significantly improved the general literacy of the population. This development served as the foundation for revolutions in various fields, including science, politics, and religion. Scientific discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries caused many further developments in the history of communication. They include the invention of telegraphs and telephones, which made it even easier and faster to transmit information from one location to another without the need to transport written documents. These communication forms were initially limited to cable connections, which had to be established first. Later developments found ways of wireless transmission using radio signals. They made it possible to reach wide audiences and radio soon became one of the central forms of mass communication. Various innovations in the field of photography enabled the recording of images on film, which led to the development of cinema and television. The reach of wireless communication was further enhanced with the development of satellites, which made it possible to broadcast radio and television signals to stations all over the world. This way, information could be shared almost instantly everywhere around the globe. The development of the internet constitutes a further milestone in the history of communication. It made it easier than ever before for people to exchange ideas, collaborate, and access information from anywhere in the world by using a variety of means, such as websites, e-mail, social media, and video conferences.	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Richards", "body language", "transmission system", "quorum sensing", "daydreaming", "Sign languages", "natural selection", "animal language", "Information engineering", "language", "efficiency", "kinesics", "Metropolitan area network", "communication protocol", "mass communication", "Proactive communications", "Japanese language", "pet", "media studies", "message", "Verbal communication", "proxemics", "Organizational communication", "dyadic communication", "corporate communication", "dog communication", "Communication studies", "Risk communication", "first-order logic", "Bias-free communication", "red squirrel", "senses", "Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication", "recursion", "propaganda", "zoosemiotics", "Visual communication", "bioluminescence", "Local area network", "Media adequacy", "sign", "Paul Grice", "congress", "gesture", "lexicon", "corporations", "biology", "Telegraphy", "professional communication", "primates", "phonetics", "Private speech", "Language", "Empirical evidence", "military salute", "Action (philosophy)", "skeumorphism", "monologue", "Cell wall", "Ancient Greek", "Communicative competence", "territoriality", "Linguistic performance", "pragmatics", "journalism", "moths", "parchment", "fuzzy concept", "Linguistic rights", "healthcare", "two-way communication", "sign language", "computer network", "fireflies", "nectar", "concept", "Lasswell's model", "linguistic system", "conscious", "well-being", "prediction", "Duplex (telecommunications)", "body posture", "bonobos", "Interspecies communication", "behavior", "Interdepartmental communication", "cuneiform", "signal", "maple", "Animal communication", "marketing communication", "business communication", "Upward communication", "conceptualize", "literacy", "deception", "ant garden", "linguistic competence", "Imprinting (psychology)", "needs", "Word", "Schramm's model", "chemical communication", "understanding", "Intercultural communication", "chronemics", "Data transmission", "phonology", "Computer monitor", "sociology", "babbling", "sweating", "extraterrestrial life", "Bandwidth (computing)", "Sense of touch", "user interface", "Alice Guérin", "olfactic communication", "courtship", "Waggle dance", "Human behavior", "Communication channel", "rhetoric", "Animal echolocation", "diagram", "Critical period hypothesis", "advertising", "Intention", "Plant communication", "Judee K. Burgoon", "nonprofits", "paper", "Reference", "blushing", "Military communication", "police radio", "crickets", "alphabetic", "ideographic", "Human-computer interaction", "paralanguage", "gene expression", "psychology", "Grasshoppers", "Abstract object", "models of communication", "empathy", "howling", "Nicaraguan Sign Language", "Courtship display", "communication technology", "experience", "modem", "Augmentative and alternative communication", "human communication", "map", "Digital signal", "Social animal", "Small talk", "Computer keyboard", "Memory", "Self-control", "information", "Quenya", "Computer mouse", "Network latency", "Health communication", "proto-writing", "pictogram", "Writing system", "Warren Weaver", "chimpanzees", "central nervous system", "effectiveness", "Cyber security", "drawing", "Aviation communication", "First world", "Morphology (linguistics)", "code", "disambiguate", "pathogen", "syntax", "semantics", "Media (communication)", "transmitter", "plant cells", "macOS", "Receiver (information theory)", "Environmental communication", "Human position", "graphical user interfaces", "semiotics", "C++", "grammar", "Competence (polyseme)", "communication studies", "facial expression", "Ray Birdwhistell", "Plato", "biofilm", "Shannon–Weaver model", "Agricultural communication", "Nature versus nurture", "command-line interface", "Cross-cultural communication", "hormone", "plant communication", "Personal area network", "papyrus", "vervet monkeys", "selective perception", "Noise", "concrete object", "Bees", "Defensive communication", "sign system", "volatile organic compound", "internet", "intrapersonal communication", "Political communication", "feedback", "working animals", "Spanish language", "Classical conditioning", "Claude Shannon", "third-world countries", "pheromone", "Wood-Wide Web", "Non-verbal communication", "Bird song", "human language", "linguistics", "phytosemiotics", "Modality (semiotics)", "English language", "painting", "Gunnison's prairie dog", "Latin", "Analog signal", "Wilbur Schramm", "Barnlund's model of communication", "Simplex communication", "Haptic communication", "mass media", "anthropology", "Communication theory", "hypotheses", "constructed language", "Human communication", "Computer network", "electoral campaigns", "Scientific communication", "pheromones", "cryptography", "herbivore" ]
5,178	Classics	Classics, also classical studies or Ancient Greek and Roman studies, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek and Roman literature and their original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics may also include as secondary subjects Greco-Roman philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, art, mythology, and society. In Western civilization, the study of the Ancient Greek and Roman classics was considered the foundation of the humanities, and they traditionally have been the cornerstone of an elite higher education. ==Etymology== The word classics is derived from the Latin adjective classicus, meaning "belonging to the highest class of citizens." The word was originally used to describe the members of the Patricians, the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality. For example, Aulus Gellius, in his Attic Nights, contrasts "classicus" and "proletarius" writers. By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a second meaning, referring to pupils at a school. Medieval education taught students to imitate earlier classical models, and Latin continued to be the language of scholarship and culture, despite the increasing difference between literary Latin and the vernacular languages of Europe during the period. Greek was rarely studied in the West, and Greek literature was known almost solely in Latin translation. The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, along with most of Plato, were unavailable in Christian Europe. developed. Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe. This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch (1304–1374) and Boccaccio (1313–1375) who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems. This humanist educational reform spread from Italy, in Catholic countries as it was adopted by the Jesuits, and in countries that became Protestant such as England, Germany, and the Low Countries, in order to ensure that future clerics were able to study the New Testament in the original language. ===Neoclassicism=== The late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models. Classical models were so highly prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines, and these "improved" versions were performed throughout the 18th century. In the United States, the nation's Founders were strongly influenced by the classics, and they looked in particular to the Roman Republic for their form of government. From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin. In this period Johann Winckelmann's claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G. E. Lessing "returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement". In the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have been one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School. In the United States, philhellenism began to emerge in the 1830s, with a turn "from a love of Rome and a focus on classical grammar to a new focus on Greece and the totality of its society, art, and culture." ===19th century=== The 19th century saw the influence of the classical world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the United States, where the subject was often criticised for its elitism. By the 19th century, little new literature was still being written in Latin – a practice which had continued as late as the 18th century – and a command of Latin declined in importance. In the same decade came the first challenges to the requirement of Greek at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, though it would not be finally abolished for another 50 years. Though the influence of classics as the dominant mode of education in Europe and North America was in decline in the 19th century, the discipline was rapidly evolving in the same period. Classical scholarship was becoming more systematic and scientific, especially with the "new philology" created at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. Its scope was also broadening: it was during the 19th century that ancient history and classical archaeology began to be seen as part of classics, rather than separate disciplines. When the National Curriculum was introduced in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1988, it did not mention the classics. In 2016, AQA, the largest exam board for A-Levels and GCSEs in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, announced that it would be scrapping A-Level subjects in Classical Civilisation, Archaeology, and Art History. This left just one out of five exam boards in England which still offered Classical Civilisation as a subject. The decision was immediately denounced by archaeologists and historians, with Natalie Haynes of The Guardian stating that the loss of the A-Level would deprive state school students, 93% of all students, the opportunity to study classics while making it once again the exclusive purview of wealthy private-school students. However, the study of classics has not declined as fast elsewhere in Europe. In 2009, a review of Meeting the Challenge, a collection of conference papers about the teaching of Latin in Europe, noted that though there is opposition to the teaching of Latin in Italy, it is nonetheless still compulsory in most secondary schools. The same may also be said in the case of France or Greece. Indeed, Ancient Greek is one of the compulsory subjects in Greek secondary education, whereas in France, Latin is one of the optional subjects that can be chosen in a majority of middle schools and high schools. Ancient Greek is also still being taught, but not as much as Latin. ==Subdisciplines== One of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field. Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding the studies to Northern Africa and parts of the Middle East. ===Philology=== Philology is the study of language preserved in written sources; classical philology is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek. The roots of classical philology lie in the Renaissance, as humanist intellectuals attempted to return to the Latin of the classical period, especially of Cicero, and as scholars attempted to produce more accurate editions of ancient texts. Some of the principles of philology still used today were developed during this period; for instance, the observation that if a manuscript could be shown to be a copy of an earlier extant manuscript, then it provides no further evidence of the original text, was made as early as 1489 by Angelo Poliziano. Other philological tools took longer to be developed: the first statement, for instance, of the principle that a more difficult reading should be preferred over a simpler one, was in 1697 by Jean Le Clerc. The modern discipline of classical philology began in Germany at the turn of the nineteenth century. in order to provide a set of rules by which scholars could determine which manuscripts were most accurate. This "new philology", as it was known, centered around the construction of a genealogy of manuscripts, with which a hypothetical common ancestor, closer to the original text than any existing manuscript, could be reconstructed. ===Archaeology=== Classical archaeology is the oldest branch of archaeology, with its roots going back to J. J. Winckelmann's work on Herculaneum in the 1760s. It was not until the last decades of the 19th century, however, that classical archaeology became part of the tradition of Western classical scholarship. This period also saw the foundation of important archaeological associations (e.g. the Archaeological Institute of America in 1879), including many foreign archaeological institutes in Athens and Rome (the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in 1881, British School at Athens in 1886, American Academy in Rome in 1895, and British School at Rome in 1900). More recently, classical archaeology has taken little part in the theoretical changes in the rest of the discipline, largely ignoring the popularity of "New Archaeology", which emphasized the development of general laws derived from studying material culture, in the 1960s. New Archaeology is still criticized by traditional minded scholars of classical archaeology despite a wide acceptance of its basic techniques. ===Art history=== Some art historians focus their study on the development of art in the classical world. Indeed, the art and architecture of ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today. For example, ancient Greek architecture gave us the classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Parthenon is still the architectural symbol of the classical world. Greek sculpture is well known and we know the names of several ancient Greek artists: for example, Phidias. ===Ancient history=== With philology, archaeology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilization, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples. The task is difficult due to a dearth of physical evidence: for example, Sparta was a leading Greek city-state, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from Athens, Sparta's principal rival; likewise, the Roman Empire destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the Etruscans. ===Philosophy=== The English word philosophy comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία, meaning "love of wisdom", probably coined by Pythagoras. Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in ancient Greek thought, and according to Martin West "philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation". Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics. However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches. For instance, Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetics have been traditionally classified in the West as "ethics", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category. Previously, works on ancient philosophy had been unconcerned with chronological sequence and with reconstructing the reasoning of ancient thinkers; with what Wolfgang-Ranier Mann calls "New Philosophy", this changed. ===Reception studies=== Another discipline within the classics is "reception studies", which developed in the 1960s at the University of Konstanz. Reception studies is concerned with how students of classical texts have understood and interpreted them. Though the idea of an "aesthetics of reception" was first put forward by Hans Robert Jauss in 1967, the principles of reception theory go back much earlier than this. As early as 1920, T. S. Eliot wrote that "the past [is] altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past"; Charles Martindale describes this as a "cardinal principle" for many versions of modern reception theory. The Classical period of Greek history is generally considered to have begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece at the start of the Greco-Persian wars, and to have ended with the death of Alexander the Great. Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe; thus Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization. ===Language=== Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic ( to 6th centuries BC), Classical ( to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic ( century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine ("common") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects. Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology. ===Literature=== The earliest surviving works of Greek literature are epic poetry. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey are the earliest to survive to us today, probably composed in the eighth century BC. These early epics were oral compositions, created without the use of writing. Around the same time that the Homeric epics were composed, the Greek alphabet was introduced; the earliest surviving inscriptions date from around 750 BC. European drama was invented in ancient Greece. Traditionally this was attributed to Thespis, around the middle of the sixth century BC, though the earliest surviving work of Greek drama is Aeschylus' tragedy The Persians, which dates to 472 BC. Early Greek tragedy was performed by a chorus and two actors, but by the end of Aeschylus' life, a third actor had been introduced, either by him or by Sophocles. Surviving Greek comedy begins later than tragedy; the earliest surviving work, Aristophanes' Acharnians, comes from 425 BC. However, comedy dates back as early as 486 BC, when the Dionysia added a competition for comedy to the much earlier competition for tragedy. ===Mythology and religion=== Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself. Greek religion encompassed the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or "cults" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities. Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to neighbouring islands. Many Greek people recognized the major gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Ares, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, Hestia and Hera; though philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to posit a transcendent single deity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature. ===Philosophy=== The earliest surviving philosophy from ancient Greece dates back to the 6th century BC, when according to Aristotle Thales of Miletus was considered to have been the first Greek philosopher. Other influential pre-Socratic philosophers include Pythagoras and Heraclitus. The most famous and significant figures in classical Athenian philosophy, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BC, are Socrates, his student Plato, and Aristotle, who studied at Plato's Academy before founding his own school, known as the Lyceum. Later Greek schools of philosophy, including the Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans, continued to be influential after the Roman annexation of Greece, and into the post-Classical world. Greek philosophy dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, and logic, as well as disciplines which are not today thought of as part of philosophy, such as biology and rhetoric. ==Classical Rome== ===Language=== The language of ancient Rome was Latin, a member of the Italic family of languages. The earliest surviving inscription in Latin comes from the 7th century BC, on a brooch from Palestrina. Latin from between this point and the early 1st century BC is known as Old Latin. Most surviving Latin literature is Classical Latin, from the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD. Latin then evolved into Late Latin, in use during the late antique period. Late Latin survived long after the end of classical antiquity, and was finally replaced by written Romance languages around the 9th century AD. Along with literary forms of Latin, there existed various vernacular dialects, generally known as Vulgar Latin, in use throughout antiquity. These are mainly preserved in sources such as graffiti and the Vindolanda tablets. ===Literature=== Latin literature seems to have started in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a play adapted from the Greek by Livius Andronicus. Andronicus also translated Homer's Odyssey into Saturnian verse. The poets Ennius, Accius, and Patruvius followed. Their work survives only in fragments; the earliest Latin authors whose work we have full examples of are the playwrights Plautus and Terence. Much of the best known and most highly thought of Latin literature comes from the classical period, with poets such as Virgil, Horace, and Ovid; historians such as Julius Caesar and Tacitus; orators such as Cicero; and philosophers such as Seneca the Younger and Lucretius. Late Latin authors include many Christian writers such as Lactantius, Tertullian and Ambrose; non-Christian authors, such as the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, are also preserved. ===History=== According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC; in reality, there had been a settlement on the site since around 1000 BC, when the Palatine Hill was settled. The city was originally ruled by kings, first Roman, and then Etruscanaccording to Roman tradition, the first Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, ruled from 616 BC. Over the course of the 6th century BC, the city expanded its influence over the entirety of Latium. Around the end of the 6th century – traditionally in 510 BCthe kings of Rome were driven out, and the city became a republic. Around 387 BC, Rome was sacked by the Gauls following the Battle of the Allia. It soon recovered from this humiliating defeat, however, and in 381 the inhabitants of Tusculum in Latium were made Roman citizens. This was the first time Roman citizenship was extended in this way. Rome went on to expand its area of influence, until by 269 the entirety of the Italian peninsula was under Roman rule. Soon afterwards, in 264, the First Punic War began; it lasted until 241. The Second Punic War began in 218, and by the end of that year, the Carthaginian general Hannibal had invaded Italy. The war saw Rome's worst defeat to that point at Cannae; the largest army Rome had yet put into the field was wiped out, and one of the two consuls leading it was killed. However, Rome continued to fight, annexing much of Spain and eventually defeating Carthage, ending her position as a major power and securing Roman preeminence in the Western Mediterranean. ==Legacy of the classical world== The classical languages of the ancient Mediterranean world influenced every European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application. Thus, Latin grew from a highly developed cultural product of the Golden and Silver eras of Latin literature to become the international lingua franca in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic and religious, until the 17th century. Long before this, Latin had evolved into the Romance languages and Ancient Greek into Modern Greek and its dialects. In the specialised science and technology vocabularies, the influence of Latin and Greek is notable. Ecclesiastical Latin, the Roman Catholic Church's official language, remains a living legacy of the classical world in the contemporary world. Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman Empire. The modern Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Galician, Catalan) all derive from Latin. Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture. The legacy of the classical world is not confined to the influence of classical languages. The Roman Empire was taken as a model by later European empires, such as the Spanish and British empires. Classical art has been taken as a model in later periods – medieval Romanesque architecture and Enlightenment-era neoclassical literature	[ "Ionic order", "Western culture", "Catholic Church", "Athens", "University of Konstanz", "Spanish Empire", "Corinthian order", "Stoicism", "Renaissance Latin", "Walter Savage Landor", "Northern Ireland", "France", "English words of Greek origin", "Latium", "Tacitus", "Herculaneum", "University of North Carolina Press", "Bacchae", "Vindolanda tablets", "Lucretius", "Hannibal", "Olympia, Greece", "Tusculum", "city-state", "Rugby School", "logic", "Sophocles", "Pythagoras", "Homer", "Harvard University Press", "Western Europe", "Mycenae", "Europe", "Ancient Greek philosophy", "ancient Rome", "Ammianus Marcellinus", "ancient history", "Aristotle", "Plautus", "Archilochus", "the Renaissance", "State school", "Middle East", "Mediterranean Basin", "Toledo School of Translators", "Modern Greek", "Thales of Miletus", "visual arts", "Deity", "Citizenship", "Greek language", "Acharnians", "Carolingian Renaissance", "Africa", "Renaissance humanism", "Plato", "Italic languages", "A-Levels", "classical archaeology", "Greece", "Classical tradition", "Outline of ancient Greece", "Palatine Hill", "Christian Europe", "Menander", "Western world", "Founding Fathers of the United States", "Second Persian invasion of Greece", "William Shakespeare", "archaeology", "Germany", "Alexander the Great", "higher education", "Aristophanes", "Classical Greece", "Quintilian", "humanities", "Seneca the Younger", "First Persian invasion of Greece", "ethics", "classical world", "Roman literature", "Renaissance Humanism", "ontology", "Calabria", "Low Countries", "Education reform", "Outline of ancient Rome", "elitism", "United States", "Old Comedy", "New Testament", "Late Latin", "Dionysia", "Platonism", "Composition (language)", "Angelo Poliziano", "Knossos", "Oxford University Press", "Classical mythology", "Sparta", "Ancient Greek", "Roman Empire", "Archaic Greece", "Battle of Corinth (146 BC)", "Arthur Evans", "Late antiquity", "Heraclitus", "Protestantism", "ancient literature", "Literae Humaniores", "Alpheios Project", "Education in ancient Rome", "Thespis", "metaphysics", "Outline of classical studies", "United Kingdom", "Battle of the Allia", "Secondary school", "Latin Christendom", "Lyceum (classical)", "Virgil", "England", "T. S. Eliot", "Iliad", "literary criticism", "Roman Republic", "Troy", "philology", "Ancient art", "Ancient history", "Johann Joachim Winckelmann", "Modern Greek dialects", "Classical antiquity", "philosophy", "Johann Winckelmann", "Jan M. Ziolkowski", "American Academy in Rome", "Natalie Haynes", "Stoics", "Renaissance", "Latin influence in English", "Plato's Academy", "Etruscans", "Hans Robert Jauss", "wikt:proletarius", "vernacular", "Ecclesiastical Latin", "Catullus", "The Persians", "University of Oxford", "Italy", "Terence", "Heinrich Schliemann", "Linguistics", "Praeneste fibula", "The Guardian", "Wales", "Great Books of the Western World", "Hesiod", "Doric order", "Cambridge University Press", "Science", "Philology", "Parthenon", "Middle school", "wikt:classicus", "Clergy", "Ancient Greek literature", "Archaeological Institute of America", "Roman conquest of Greece", "drama", "Second Punic War", "Arabic", "Perseus Project", "Latin", "Socrates", "National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)", "G. E. Lessing", "Hebrew language", "Romance languages", "James Joyce", "AQA", "curriculum", "New Comedy", "Aeschylus", "Art history", "Battle of Cannae", "Delos", "University of Cambridge", "Ancient Greek sculpture", "First Punic War", "Lactantius", "Ovid", "Greek literature", "hero", "British School at Rome", "epic poetry", "Patrician (ancient Rome)", "Epicureans", "Odyssey", "Archaeology", "Phidias", "British Empire", "Tertullian", "Oedipus at Colonus", "Horace", "American School of Classical Studies at Athens", "Cicero", "Vulgar Latin", "Society of Jesus", "Ulysses (novel)", "Roger Bacon", "philhellenism", "Ancient philosophy", "classical education", "Classical Latin", "British School at Athens", "Julius Caesar", "anthropology", "Neoclassicism", "Classical Tripos", "Ambrose", "Aesthetics", "Homeric poems", "Latin adjective", "Jean Leclerc (theologian)", "GCSE", "Greek alphabet", "Old Latin", "Petrarch", "secondary education", "Aulus Gellius", "classical antiquity", "North America", "Cynicism (philosophy)", "Western canon", "Toledo, Spain", "Euripides", "Latin literature", "Boccaccio", "Middle Ages", "New Archaeology" ]
5,180	Chemistry	Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances. Chemistry also addresses the nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds. In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology. It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the Moon (cosmochemistry), how medications work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics). Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the chemical industry. ==Etymology== The word chemistry comes from a modification during the Renaissance of the word alchemy, which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism, and medicine. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though alchemists were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry. The modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word (). This may have Egyptian origins since is derived from the Ancient Greek , which is in turn derived from the word , which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language. Alternately, may derive from 'cast together'. ==Modern principles== The current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma states, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory. The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it. A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay.) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws. Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as well as their chemical compositions. They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are: ===Matter=== In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of particles. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances. ====Atom==== The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space occupied by an electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus. The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent). ====Element==== A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol Z. The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13. The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends. ====Compound==== A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system. The names for inorganic compounds are created according to the inorganic nomenclature system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components. In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its CAS registry number. ====Molecule==== A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs. Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating radicals. Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable. The "inert" or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals. However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite. One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. ====Substance and mixture==== A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties. A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air and alloys. ====Mole and amount of substance==== The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance (also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly particles (atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons), where the number of particles per mole is known as the Avogadro constant. Molar concentration is the amount of a particular substance per volume of solution, and is commonly reported in mol/dm3. ===Phase=== In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature. Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary; in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water). Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology. ===Bonding=== Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. The chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition. An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na+ cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl−. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed. In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. ===Energy=== In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor e^{-E/kT} – that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound. A related concept free energy, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, \Delta G \le 0 \,; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium. There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions. The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H2O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds. Whereas hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole–dipole interactions. The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy. The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g. IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra. The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances. ===Reaction=== When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware. Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid–base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some examples of common chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons. The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the Woodward–Hoffmann rules often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction. According to the IUPAC gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events'). ===Ions and salts=== An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na+ and Cl− ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid–base reactions are hydroxide (OH−) and phosphate (PO43−). Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature. ===Acidity and basicity=== A substance can often be classified as an acid or a base. There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which states that an acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. According to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion. A third common theory is Lewis acid–base theory, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept. Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant (Ka), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher Ka are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower Ka values. ===Redox=== Redox (-) reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers. A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. ===Equilibrium=== Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase. A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not static; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time. ===Chemical laws=== Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are: Avogadro's law Beer–Lambert law Boyle's law (1662, relating pressure and volume) Charles's law (1787, relating volume and temperature) Fick's laws of diffusion Gay-Lussac's law (1809, relating pressure and temperature) Le Chatelier's principle Henry's law Hess's law Law of conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics. Law of conservation of mass continues to be conserved in isolated systems, even in modern physics. However, special relativity shows that due to mass–energy equivalence, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear chemistry. Law of definite composition, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Law of multiple proportions Raoult's law ==History== The history of chemistry spans a period from the ancient past to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, alchemy, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results. Robert Boyle, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work The Sceptical Chymist (1661). While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the scientific method that chemists employed in their work. Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed a law of conservation of mass that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. ===Definition=== The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, the chemist Christopher Glaser described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection. The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances—a characterization accepted by Linus Pauling. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. ===Background=== Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Indians, amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory. A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his poem De rerum natura (On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. An early form of the idea of conservation of mass is the notion that "Nothing comes from nothing" in Ancient Greek philosophy, which can be found in Empedocles (approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." and Epicurus (3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be". In the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the Arab world after the Muslim conquests, and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and Renaissance Europe through Latin translations. The Arabic works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the Latinized name "Geber", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as pseudo-Geber, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Avicenna disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals. thumb\|upright=0.8\|[[Georgius Agricola, author of De re metallica, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article al-, exclusively writing chymia and chymista, giving chemistry its modern name. Under the influence of the new empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and others, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and John Mayow began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused in The Sceptical Chemyst. In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Flemish Jan Baptist van Helmont discovered carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its properties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen. The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics. Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of conservation of mass and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day. English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights. The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular, Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current. British William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. J.A.R. Newlands devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elements in the 1860s by Dmitri Mendeleev and independently by several other scientists including Julius Lothar Meyer. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea. Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante Arrhenius in the 1870s). At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897, J.J. Thomson of the University of Cambridge discovered the electron and soon after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of radioactivity. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles. His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, the Englishman Henry Moseley and the German Otto Hahn, who went on to father the emerging nuclear chemistry and discovered nuclear fission. The electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals was developed by the American scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis. The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities. ==Practice== In the practice of chemistry, pure chemistry is the study of the fundamental principles of chemistry, while applied chemistry applies that knowledge to develop technology and solve real-world problems. ===Subdisciplines=== Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and interactions that take place at a molecular level in living organisms. Biochemistry is highly interdisciplinary, covering medicinal chemistry, neurochemistry, molecular biology, forensics, plant science and genetics. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds, such as metals and minerals. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of solid state components or devices with a useful current or future function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry like organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and crystallography with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases. Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. In addition to medical applications, nuclear chemistry encompasses nuclear engineering which explores the topic of using nuclear power sources for generating energy. Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Organic compounds can be classified, organized and understood in reactions by their functional groups, unit atoms or molecules that show characteristic chemical properties in a compound. Physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. Other subdivisions include electrochemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, immunohistochemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, mathematical chemistry, molecular mechanics, natural product chemistry, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, synthetic chemistry, and many others. === Interdisciplinary === Interdisciplinary fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, environmental chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, nanotechnology, oenology, pharmacology, phytochemistry, solid-state chemistry, surface science, thermochemistry, and many others. ===Industry=== The chemical industry represents an important economic activity worldwide. The global top 50 chemical producers in 2013 had sales of US$980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%. ===Professional societies=== American Chemical Society American Society for Neurochemistry Chemical Institute of Canada Chemical Society of Peru International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Royal Australian Chemical Institute Royal Netherlands Chemical Society Royal Society of Chemistry Society of Chemical Industry World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists	[ "physics", "phytochemistry", "Law of definite composition", "phosphate", "classical physics", "Lucretius", "Nuclear fission", "Earth's atmosphere", "nuclear power", "International Year of Chemistry", "table of nuclides", "Charles's law", "sodium", "Julius Lothar Meyer", "botany", "CAS registry number", "plasma (physics)", "Aristotle", "chemists", "Alcohol (chemistry)", "polypropylene", "pH", "Christopher Glaser", "chemical engineering", "isolated system", "Marie Curie", "history of thermodynamics", "natural product chemistry", "Redox", "infrared spectroscopy", "Robert Boyle", "quantization (physics)", "Royal Australian Chemical Institute", "Nuclear chemistry", "allotrope", "Henry Cavendish", "Inorganic chemistry", "carbon dioxide", "Gold Book", "organic nomenclature", "spectral lines", "Chemistry (word)", "triple point", "Avogadro constant", "cyclopentadiene", "Royal Netherlands Chemical Society", "University of Manchester", "geochemistry", "chemist", "chlorine", "organism", "chemical law", "computer program", "Physical chemistry", "Conservation of energy", "List of chemists", "lithium", "Glossary of chemistry terms", "femtochemistry", "Basic research", "Chemical structure", "Forensic science", "oxygen", "sodium chloride", "philosophy", "photons", "Renaissance", "salt (chemistry)", "Friedrich Wöhler", "Amorphous solid", "chemo-informatics", "ionic compounds", "environmental chemistry", "covalent bond", "logarithm", "Primo Levi", "plant science", "radioactive decay", "Dmitri Mendeleev", "spectroscopy", "decimetre", "refractive index", "William Prout", "chemical substance", "alchemy", "volume", "NMR", "oxidation state", "Humphry Davy", "Society of Chemical Industry", "Joseph Black", "alpha particle", "Conformational isomerism", "liquid", "amount of substance", "chemical element", "pharmacology", "Spectrophotometry", "Chloride", "proton", "IUPAC", "physical organic chemistry", "formula unit", "Lord Rayleigh", "radiochemistry", "quantum", "Georg Ernst Stahl", "Noble gas", "forensic", "special relativity", "valence electron", "Zosimos of Panopolis", "John Mayow", "Alessandro Volta", "Ancient Rome", "List of compounds", "Philosophy of chemistry", "Hess's law", "De rerum natura", "plum pudding model", "Alchemy and chemistry in Islam", "immunochemistry", "stepwise reaction", "activation energy", "molecular biology", "Solution (chemistry)", "Karl Alfred von Zittel", "invariant mass", "geology", "Gibbs free energy", "chemical equilibrium", "Law of multiple proportions", "hydroxide ion", "mass number", "Justus von Liebig", "chemical analysis", "Ancient Greek philosophy", "neon", "iron", "hydrogen", "Ancient Greece", "Avicenna", "aqueous solution", "chemical bond", "tacticity", "Chemical compound", "Periodic systems of small molecules", "atomism", "base (chemistry)", "atom", "force", "Arab world", "John Dalton", "University of Sheffield", "biology", "The Sceptical Chymist", "pseudo-Geber", "Robert Hooke", "List of unsolved problems in chemistry", "Mesopotamia", "unit cell", "electron cloud", "alchemists", "density", "Robert Briffault", "DNA", "network solids", "J.J. Thomson", "laboratory", "ore", "metallurgy", "Ancient Greek", "Molar concentration", "Raymond Chang (chemist)", "ion", "Chemical Society of Peru", "chemical equation", "Joseph Priestley", "neutrons", "diatomic", "neurochemistry", "Jan Baptist van Helmont", "soap", "dissociation (chemistry)", "marine chemistry", "ecology", "periodic table", "nuclear fission", "thermochemistry", "static equilibrium", "plasma physics", "Early Muslim conquests", "alkali metals", "Chemical Institute of Canada", "concept", "nanotechnology", "University of Cologne", "phonons", "polymers", "Gilbert N. Lewis", "Outline of chemistry", "medicine", "phlogiston", "diamond", "Radical (chemistry)", "Le Chatelier's principle", "cosmochemistry", "xenon", "Nuclear medicine", "intermolecular force", "radioactivity", "silica", "mass–energy equivalence", "elementary reaction", "temperature", "Organic chemistry", "Ernest Rutherford", "sonochemistry", "air (classical element)", "nuclear chemistry", "University of Cambridge", "Jöns Jacob Berzelius", "chemical biology", "chemical thermodynamics", "particle number", "quantum mechanics", "dynamic equilibrium", "quantum mechanical model", "covalent", "entropy", "Antoine Lavoisier", "computational chemistry", "chemical structure", "acid dissociation constant", "atomic theory", "Henry Moseley", "crystal structure", "nuclear engineering", "astrochemistry", "argon", "thermodynamic free energy", "polyatomic ion", "sodium bicarbonate", "carbon", "distillation", "hydrogen bonds", "oxidation number", "Philosopher's stone", "protons", "electronegativity", "Willard Gibbs", "zirconium", "Lewis acids and bases", "electron spin resonance", "Jean-Baptiste Dumas", "atomic number", "Chemical Abstracts Service", "valence bond theory", "Linus Pauling", "electrochemistry", "inorganic chemistry", "crystal", "four elements", "benzene", "Niels Bohr", "ferromagnetism", "nitrogen", "Materials Chemistry", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele", "Name of Egypt", "radon", "medicinal chemistry", "natural sciences", "Linear molecular geometry", "molecular orbital", "mass spectrometer", "chemical industry", "Pierre Curie", "Sir Francis Bacon", "Henry's law", "Epicurus", "atomic structure", "cation", "mechanochemistry", "mixture", "Atomic nucleus", "molecular physics", "List of largest chemical producers", "multipole", "phase transition", "organometallic chemistry", "Pressure law", "Oxford University Press", "ammonium chloride", "immunohistochemistry", "dipole–dipole interaction", "Interface (chemistry)", "Byzantine", "Pearson Education", "Edward Frankland", "Brooks/Cole", "sulfate", "exothermic reaction", "thermodynamics", "energy", "Svante Arrhenius", "materials science", "J. W. Gibbs", "earth (classical element)", "triatomic", "uranium-235", "quantum chemistry", "organic chemistry", "American Society for Neurochemistry", "chemical reaction", "photon", "electron", "Calculus", "nucleon", "helium", "sucrose", "ultrasound", "Creatio ex materia", "gas", "table salt", "glass", "Law of conservation of mass", "J.A.R. Newlands", "Reaction mechanism", "Van der Waals force", "chemical compound", "Marcelin Berthelot", "oenology", "Analytical chemistry", "green chemistry", "Biochemistry", "mathematical chemistry", "Cambridge University Press", "supercritical fluid", "pharmaceutical", "solid-state chemistry", "statistical mechanics", "the central science", "ligand", "material", "nitric acid", "gold", "Flavoring", "supercritical mass", "Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling", "oxide", "Energy", "noble gas", "hydrogen sulfide", "anion", "Democritus", "chemical kinetics", "pressure", "scientific method", "World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists", "paramagnetism", "Nuclear weapon", "Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory", "endothermic reaction", "Latinisation of names", "mysticism", "urea", "supramolecular chemistry", "Boyle's law", "Neurochemistry", "solid", "electricity", "condensed matter physics", "agrochemistry", "neurochemicals", "nitrate", "oxidizing agents", "hydrogen bond", "astrology", "polymer chemistry", "metal", "aldehyde", "Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī", "history of chemistry", "silicate minerals", "ultraviolet", "American Chemical Society", "Morris Kline", "endergonic reaction", "inorganic nomenclature", "Chemical substance", "De re metallica", "complex (chemistry)", "voltaic pile", "Arrhenius equation", "lone pair", "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry", "atmospheric chemistry", "Science tourism", "molecular ion", "exergonic reaction", "tin", "alloy", "Germany", "conservation of mass", "Beer–Lambert law", "period (periodic table)", "periodic trends", "krypton", "Classical Greece", "History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent", "hydrogenation", "Chemical equilibrium", "Jabir ibn Hayyan", "hydronium ion", "Applied science", "block (periodic table)", "Egyptian language", "microwave spectroscopy", "isotope", "Georg Agricola", "octet rule", "functional group", "Chemical reaction", "Hellenistic world", "molecular structure", "Avogadro's law", "Theoretical chemistry", "List of important publications in chemistry", "astronomy", "neutralization (chemistry)", "particle", "hafnium", "magnet", "inorganic compound", "nuclear reaction", "fermionic condensate", "Empedocles", "photochemistry", "atomic nucleus", "matter", "reducing agents", "Arrhenius acid", "rearrangement reaction", "flow chemistry", "scientific revolution", "chromatography", "ionic bond", "William Ramsay", "Oxford", "Nuclear transmutation", "elementary particles", "genetics", "laboratory glassware", "VSEPR", "chemical physics", "Bose–Einstein condensate", "petrochemistry", "World War II", "reaction intermediates", "Becquerel", "crystallography", "Organic compound", "Arabic", "fire (classical element)", "molecular mechanics", "synthetic chemistry", "surface science", "bronze", "Royal Society of Chemistry", "organic compound", "acid", "structure", "chemical properties", "sulfur", "water (classical element)", "United States dollar", "sal ammoniac", "ionization potential", "Ancient Egypt", "coordination number", "molecule", "nitric oxide", "Otto Hahn", "chemical composition", "iarchive:collectiondesanc01bert", "states of matter", "Periodic table group", "Woodward–Hoffmann rules", "physical science", "hydroxide", "Interdisciplinarity", "Fick's laws of diffusion", "acid–base reaction", "Raoult's law", "mathematics" ]
5,184	Cytoplasm	The cytoplasm describes all the material within a eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, including the organelles and excluding the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. The material inside the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The main components of the cytoplasm are the cytosol (a gel-like substance), the cell's internal sub-structures, and various cytoplasmic inclusions. In eukaryotes the cytoplasm also includes the nucleus, and other membrane-bound organelles.The cytoplasm is about 80% water and is usually colorless. The submicroscopic ground cell substance, or cytoplasmic matrix, that remains after the exclusion of the cell organelles and particles is groundplasm. It is the hyaloplasm of light microscopy, a highly complex, polyphasic system in which all resolvable cytoplasmic elements are suspended, including the larger organelles such as the ribosomes, mitochondria, plant plastids, lipid droplets, and vacuoles. Many cellular activities take place within the cytoplasm, such as many metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, photosynthesis, and processes such as cell division. The concentrated inner area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell cortex, or ectoplasm. Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is a signaling activity for metabolic processes. In plants, movement of the cytoplasm around vacuoles is known as cytoplasmic streaming. ==History== The term was introduced by Rudolf von Kölliker in 1863, originally as a synonym for protoplasm, but later it has come to mean the cell substance and organelles outside the nucleus. There has been certain disagreement on the definition of cytoplasm, as some authors prefer to exclude from it some organelles, especially the vacuoles and sometimes the plastids. ==Physical nature== It remains uncertain how the various components of the cytoplasm interact to allow movement of organelles while maintaining the cell's structure. The flow of cytoplasmic components plays an important role in many cellular functions which are dependent on the permeability of the cytoplasm. An example of such function is cell signalling, a process which is dependent on the manner in which signaling molecules are allowed to diffuse across the cell. While small signaling molecules like calcium ions are able to diffuse with ease, larger molecules and subcellular structures often require aid in moving through the cytoplasm. The irregular dynamics of such particles have given rise to various theories on the nature of the cytoplasm. ===As a sol-gel=== There has long been evidence that the cytoplasm behaves like a sol-gel. It is thought that the component molecules and structures of the cytoplasm behave at times like a disordered colloidal solution (sol) and at other times like an integrated network, forming a solid mass (gel). This theory thus proposes that the cytoplasm exists in distinct fluid and solid phases depending on the level of interaction between cytoplasmic components, which may explain the differential dynamics of different particles observed moving through the cytoplasm. A papers suggested that at length scale smaller than 100 nm, the cytoplasm acts like a liquid, while in a larger length scale, it acts like a gel. ===As a glass=== It has been proposed that the cytoplasm behaves like a glass-forming liquid approaching the glass transition. ==Constituents== The three major elements of the cytoplasm are the cytosol, organelles and inclusions. ===Cytosol=== The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water. The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes. The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm. Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other. ===Organelles=== Organelles (literally "little organs") are usually membrane-bound structures inside the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts. ===Cytoplasmic inclusions=== The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types. ===Controversy and research=== The cytoplasm, mitochondria, and most organelles are contributions to the cell from the maternal gamete. Contrary to the older information that disregards any notion of the cytoplasm being active, new research has shown it to be in control of movement and flow of nutrients in and out of the cell by viscoplastic behavior and a measure of the reciprocal rate of bond breakage within the cytoplasmic network. The material properties of the cytoplasm remain an ongoing investigation. A method of determining the mechanical behaviour of living cell mammalian cytoplasm with the aid of optical tweezers has been described.	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5,185	Christ (title)	Christ, used by Christians as both a name and a title, unambiguously refers to Jesus. It is also used as a title, in the reciprocal usage "Christ Jesus", meaning "the Messiah Jesus" or "Jesus the Anointed", and independently as "the Christ". often call Jesus "Christ Jesus" or just "Christ". The concept of the Christ in Christianity originated from the concept of the messiah in Judaism. Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah foretold in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Although the conceptions of the messiah in each religion are similar, for the most part they are distinct from one another due to the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the 1st century. Although the original followers of Jesus believed Jesus to be the Jewish messiah, e.g. in the Confession of Peter, he was usually called "Jesus of Nazareth" or "Jesus, son of Joseph". Jesus came to be called "Jesus Christ" (meaning "Jesus the Khristós", i.e. "Jesus the Messiah" or "Jesus the Anointed") by Christians, who believe that his crucifixion and resurrection fulfill the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament, especially the prophecies outlined in Isaiah 53 and Psalm 22. ==Etymology== Christ derives from the Greek word (), meaning "anointed one". The word is derived from the Greek verb (), meaning "to anoint." In the Greek Septuagint, χριστός was a semantic loan used to translate the Hebrew (, messiah), meaning "[one who is] anointed". ==Usage== The word Christ (and similar spellings) appears in English and in most European languages. English speakers now often use "Christ" as if it were a name, one part of the name "Jesus Christ", though it was originally a title ("the Messiah"). Its usage in "Christ Jesus" emphasizes its nature as a title. Compare the usage "the Christ". In modern and ancient usage, even in secular terminology, "Christ" usually refers to Jesus, based on the centuries-old tradition of such usage. Since the Apostolic Age, the use of the definite article before the word Christ and its gradual development into a proper name show the Christians identified the bearer with the promised messiah of the Jews. ==Background and New Testament references== === Pre–New-Testament references === In the Old Testament, anointing was a ceremonial ritual reserved to: the Kings of Israel (1 Kings 19:16; 24:7, Psalms 17 (18):51); Cyrus the Great (Isaiah 45:1); the High Priest of Israel; the patriarchs (Psalms 104(105):15); and the prophets. (referring to the anointed High Priest of Israel) and in the Book of Sirach 46:19, in relation to Samuel, prophet and institutor of the kingdom under Saul. At the time of Jesus, there was no single form of Second Temple Judaism, and there were significant political, social, and religious differences among the various Jewish groups. But for centuries the Jews had used the term moshiach ("anointed") to refer to their expected deliverer. === Sanhedrin trial of Jesus (Matthew, Mark and Luke) === During the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, it might appear from the narrative of Matthew that Jesus at first refused a direct reply to the high priest Caiaphas's question: "Are you the Messiah, the Son of God?", where his answer is given merely as Σὺ εἶπας (Su eipas, "You [singular] have said it"). Similarly but differently in Luke, all those present are said to ask Jesus: 'Are you then the Son of God?', to which Jesus reportedly answered: Ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι (Hymeis legete hoti ego eimi, "You [plural] say that I am". In the Gospel of Mark, however, when asked by Caiaphas 'Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?', Jesus tells the Sanhedrin: Ἐγώ εἰμι (ego eimi, "I am"). There are instances from Jewish literature in which the expression "you have said it" is equivalent to "you are right". === Pauline epistles === The word "Christ" is closely associated with Jesus in the Pauline epistles, which suggests that there was no need for the early Christians to claim that Jesus is Christ because it was considered widely accepted among them. Hence Paul can use the term Khristós with no confusion as to whom it refers, and he can use expressions such as "in Christ" to refer to the followers of Jesus, as in and . Paul proclaimed him as the Last Adam, who restored through obedience what Adam lost through disobedience. The Pauline epistles are a source of some key Christological connections; e.g., relates the love of Christ to the knowledge of Christ, and considers the love of Christ as a necessity for knowing him. There are also implicit claims to him being the Christ in the words and actions of Jesus. ==Christology== Christology, literally "the understanding of Christ", is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus in Christianity. It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and the relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation. From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism. According to the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, in the singular case of Jesus, the word Christ has a twofold meaning, which stands for "both the Godhead anointing and the manhood anointed". It derives from the twofold human-divine nature of Christ (dyophysitism): the Son of man is anointed in consequence of His incarnated flesh, as well as the Son of God is anointing in consequence of the "Godhead which He has with the Father" (ST III, q. 16, a. 5). ==Symbols== The use of "Χ" as an abbreviation for "Christ" derives from the Greek letter Chi (χ), in the word (). An early Christogram is the Chi Rho symbol, formed by superimposing the first two Greek letters in Christ, chi (Χ) and rho (Ρ), to produce ☧. The centuries-old English word Χmas (or, in earlier form, XPmas) is an English form of χ-mas, itself an abbreviation for Christ-mas. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and the OED Supplement have cited usages of "X-" or "Xp-" for "Christ-" as early as 1485. The terms "Xpian" and "Xren" have been used for "Christian", "Xst" for "Christ's" "Xρofer" for (Saint) Christopher and Xmas, Xstmas, and Xtmas for Christmas. The OED further cites usage of "Xtianity" for "Christianity" from 1634. According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, most of the evidence for these words comes from "educated Englishmen who knew their Greek". The December 1957 News and Views published by the Church League of America, a conservative organization founded in 1937, attacked the use of "Xmas" in an article titled "X=The Unknown Quantity". Gerald L. K. Smith picked up the statements later, in December 1966, saying that Xmas was a "blasphemous omission of the name of Christ" and that "'X' is referred to as being symbolical of the unknown quantity." More recently, American evangelist Franklin Graham and former CNN contributor Roland S. Martin publicly raised concerns. Graham stated in an interview that the use of "Xmas" is taking "Christ out of Christmas" and called it a "war against the name of Jesus Christ." Roland Martin relates the use of "Xmas" to his growing concerns of increasing commercialization and secularization of what he says is one of Christianity's highest holy days.	[ "Saint Joseph", "Saint Catherine's Monastery", "Son of God (Christianity)", "Christianity and Judaism", "Hebrew Bible", "Benziger Bros", "Godhead in Christianity", "Synoptic Gospels", "High Priest of Israel", "Camden Society", "title", "Hypostatic union", "Gospel of Matthew", "Christ's College, Cambridge", "messiah", "Isaiah 53", "Messiah", "Greek language", "Viz.", "Rolls of Parliament", "List of Latin phrases (S)", "Sargis Pitsak", "dyophysitism", "first seven ecumenical councils", "Books of Kings", "biblical prophets", "Last Adam", "Jesus in Christianity", "Pauline epistles", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "Christians", "Halo (religious iconography)", "Confession of Peter", "Paul the Apostle", "Jewish literature", "John Milton", "Romanization of Greek", "New Testament", "Saint Peter", "CNN", "Oxford University Press", "Article (grammar)", "Kingship and kingdom of God", "Council of Chalcedon", "Brief Lives", "William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company", "Gospel of Mark", "Church League of America", "John Aubrey", "Redeemer (Christianity)", "semantic loan", "Caiaphas", "Septuagint", "Masih (title)", "Logos (Christianity)", "knowledge of Christ", "Sirach", "Franklin Graham", "2 Maccabees", "Kerigma", "Old Testament", "Gerald L. K. Smith", "split of early Christianity and Judaism", "love of Christ", "rabbis", "Folio", "miaphysitism", "Chrism", "hypostatic union", "John Baret", "Chi Rho", "Crucifixion of Jesus", "Christian messianic prophecies", "Book of Isaiah", "Andrew the Apostle", "deuterocanonical books", "anointing", "Jesus", "Age of Enlightenment", "Christmas", "raising of Lazarus", "Manuscript", "Thomas Aquinas", "Early centers of Christianity", "Χmas", "Cyrus the Great", "Pilate's court", "John 1:41", "Resurrection of Jesus", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Dyophysitism", "Old English", "Salvation in Christianity", "Knowledge of Christ", "Church of the Holy Sepulchre", "Latin", "Hebrew language", "Christianity in the 1st century", "Hellenization", "Summa Theologica", "blasphemy", "Anointed", "Adam", "Sanhedrin trial of Jesus", "Oriental Orthodox Churches", "early Christians", "Second Temple Judaism", "Perfection of Christ", "Ichthys", "Kings of Israel and Judah", "Names and titles of Jesus in the Quran", "Samuel", "Pope Leo I", "Apostolic Age", "Patriarchs (Bible)", "Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament", "Son of man (Christianity)", "You are Christ", "Chi (letter)", "Psalm 22", "Roland S. Martin", "Saint Christopher", "St Katherine Cree", "messiah in Judaism", "rho", "William Prynne", "Disciple (Christianity)", "Middle English", "Samaritan woman at the well", "Psalms", "Samuel Rowlands" ]
5,187	Capital	Capital and its variations may refer to: == Common uses == Capital city, a municipality of primary status Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital List of national capitals Capital letter, an upper-case letter == Economics and social sciences == Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used for further production Capital (Marxism), a central concept in Marxian critique of political economy Economic capital Financial capital, an economic resource measured in terms of money Capital good Human capital Natural capital Public capital Social capital == Architecture and buildings== Capital (architecture), the topmost member of a column or pilaster The Capital (building), a commercial building in Mumbai, India Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion == Arts, entertainment and media == === Literature === ==== Books ==== Capital (novel), by John Lanchester, 2012 Das Kapital ('Capital: Critique of Political Economy'), a foundational theoretical text by Karl Marx Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, 2013 Capital: The Eruption of Delhi, a 2014 book by Rana Dasgupta ==== Periodicals ==== Capital (French magazine), a French-language magazine Capital (German magazine), a German-language magazine Kapital (magazine), in Norway Capital (Bulgarian newspaper), in Bulgaria Kapital (newspaper), in North Macedonia Capital (Romanian newspaper) Capital (Ukrainian newspaper) Capital (Ethiopia), a newspaper A Capital, a defunct daily newspaper in Lisbon, Portugal Capital New York, an online news site owned by Politico The Capital, a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, U.S. La Capital, a daily newspaper based in Rosario, Argentina La Capital (Mar del Plata), a daily newspaper based in Mar del Plata, Argentina La Capitale, a daily newspaper based in Brussels, Belgium === Film, television, radio === Capital (radio network), a group of radio stations operating across the United Kingdom Capital (film) (), a 2012 French drama film directed by Costa-Gavras Capital (British TV series), a 2015 adaptation of Lanchester's novel Capital (Iranian TV series), 2011–2020 Capital TV, a former British rolling-music TV channel Capital TV (Belarus), a TV channel Capital TV (Cardiff), a former TV channel in Wales CTC (TV station), formerly called Capital Television, Ten Capital and Capital 7 Capital Television (New Zealand), a former television channel in Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, operated by TVNZ Capital TV (Nigeria), a Nigerian news channel Capital TV (Malaysia), a defunct Malaysian television channel Capital FM 88.9, a defunct Malaysian radio station YLE Capital FM, a defunct Finnish radio station DWFT, an FM radio station in Metro Manila, Philippines known as 104.3 The Capital === Music === Capital (album), by Mick Softley, 1976 Capital (band), a British band "Capital (It Fails Us Now)", a song by Gang of Four from the 1982 album Another Day/Another Dollar == Education == Capital College (disambiguation), the name of several institutions Capital Community College, in Hartford, Connecticut, U.S. Capital University, in Bexley, Ohio, U.S. Capital University, Jharkhand, in India == Places == La Capital Department, Santa Fe, Argentina La Capital Department, San Luis, Argentina City of Capitals, Moscow, Russia; an office complex == Sports == Capital CF, a Brazilian football club Albany Capitals, an American professional soccer team Atlanta Capitals, an American ice hockey team Baton Rouge Capitals, an American soccer team Bonn Capitals, a German baseball/softball team Brampton Capitals, a Canadian Junior-A ice hockey team Bratislava Capitals, a Slovakian professional ice hockey team Brisbane Capitals, an Australian basketball team Central Penn Capitals, an American indoor American gridiron football team based in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Columbus Capitals, an American indoor soccer team Cowichan Valley Capitals, a Canadian junior ice hockey team Delhi Capitals, an Indian cricket team Delhi Capitals (basketball), an Indian basketball team Delhi Capitals (WPL), an Indian women's cricket team Dubai Capitals, an Emirati cricket team Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team Edmonton Capitals, a Canadian baseball team India Capitals, an Indian professional cricket team from New Delhi Indianapolis Capitals, an American professional ice hockey team in the American Hockey League (AHL) Indianapolis Capitals, former name of the Cincinnati Wings, an American professional ice hockey team in the Central Professional Hockey League (CPHL) Ottawa Capitals, a Canadian multi-sport team sports club Québec Capitales, a Canadian professional baseball team based in Quebec City, nicknamed "The Caps" Quezon City Capitals, a Philippine professional basketball team Pretoria Capitals, a South African professional cricket team Puerto Rico Capitals, an American women's soccer team Raleigh Capitals, an American minor-league professional baseball team Regina Capitals, a Canadian professional ice hockey team Rouyn-Noranda Capitales, a Canadian Junior-A ice hockey team Sacramento Capitals, an American tennis team Salem Capitals, an American professional basketball team St. John's Capitals, a Canadian senior ice hockey team Springfield Capitals, an American independent baseball team Summerside Western Capitals, a Canadian Junior-A ice hockey team Tallahassee Capitals, an American minor league baseball team Topeka Capitals (disambiguation) University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team Victoria Capitals, a Canadian baseball team Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team Walkerton Capitals, a Canadian senior ice hockey team Walkerton Capitals (PJHL), a Canadian junior ice hockey team Washington Capitals, an American professional ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL) == Transportation and vehicular == Capital (sidewheeler), a 19th-century American steamboat Capital Airlines (disambiguation), several uses Capitals Limited, a British passenger train Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel == Other uses == Capitals (typeface), a serif font composed entirely of capital letters Gaisano Capital, a shopping mall based in the Philippines La Capitale (company), a financial company based in Quebec Studio Capitale, a post-production studio owned by Stéphane Meer	[ "Capital (architecture)", "Capital (radio network)", "Québec Capitales", "Walkerton Capitals", "Gaisano Capital", "Public capital", "Capital (Ukrainian newspaper)", "Summerside Western Capitals", "Ottawa Capitals", "TVNZ", "Capital Community College", "Raleigh Capitals", "Capital in the Twenty-First Century", "Sacramento Capitals", "Financial capital", "CTC (TV station)", "Capitals (typeface)", "YLE Capital FM", "Capital (band)", "Vienna Capitals", "Tallahassee Capitals", "Capital CF", "Capital (album)", "Pretoria Capitals", "University of Canberra Capitals", "Capital FM 88.9", "Springfield Capitals", "Capital (Romanian magazine)", "Stéphane Meer", "La Capital Department, Santa Fe", "Atlanta Capitals", "Cap (disambiguation)", "Dubai Capitals", "Walkerton Capitals (PJHL)", "Delhi Capitals", "La Capital (Mar del Plata)", "Salem Capitals", "Capitals Limited", "Capital (Marxism)", "Edinburgh Capitals", "Baton Rouge Capitals", "Cowichan Valley Capitals", "Capital (film)", "Old capital (disambiguation)", "Capital region", "Capital City (disambiguation)", "Capitalization (disambiguation)", "Cincinnati Wings", "Washington Capitals", "Delhi Capitals (basketball)", "Economic capital", "City of Capitals", "The Capital (building)", "List of national capitals", "Capital (Iranian TV series)", "Human capital", "Capital TV", "Capital Airlines (disambiguation)", "Regina Capitals", "Capital New York", "Capital TV (Nigeria)", "Capital city", "Kapital (magazine)", "Natural capital", "Quezon City Capitals", "Rouyn-Noranda Capitales", "Bonn Capitals", "Capital (sidewheeler)", "Capital TV (Cardiff)", "Capital University", "Capital (Bulgarian newspaper)", "Central Penn Capitals", "Another Day/Another Dollar", "Channel W", "Captal", "Capital Television (New Zealand)", "Capital: The Eruption of Delhi", "Capital (French magazine)", "India Capitals", "Indianapolis Capitals", "La Capital", "Puerto Rico Capitals", "Columbus Capitals", "Capital University, Jharkhand", "Bratislava Capitals", "Edmonton Capitals", "Capital College (disambiguation)", "Brampton Capitals", "A Capital", "La Capitale (company)", "Wellington", "DWFT", "Capital (novel)", "Victoria Capitals", "Capital region (disambiguation)", "Capital TV (Belarus)", "La Capital Department, San Luis", "Brisbane Capitals", "Capital (fortification)", "Capital (British TV series)", "Capital (Ethiopia)", "Topeka Capitals (disambiguation)", "Kapital (newspaper)", "La Capitale", "Capital good", "St. John's Capitals", "Delhi Capitals (WPL)", "Das Kapital", "Capital letter", "Capital (German magazine)", "Social capital", "Capital ship", "Capitalism (disambiguation)", "Albany Capitals", "Capital (economics)", "Capital Radio (disambiguation)", "The Capital" ]
5,188	Central Europe	Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe. Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in this region also share some historical and cultural similarities. Whilst the region is variously defined, it often includes Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Transylvania in Romania and Vojvodina in Serbia. until the early 18th century, parts of Croatia, Hungary and Transylvania were ruled by the Turkish Empire. During the 17th century, the empire also occupied southern parts of present-day Slovakia. During the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Meanwhile, the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech Republic), the Duchy of Carniola (part of present-day Slovenia), the various German Principalities and the Old Swiss Confederacy were within the Holy Roman Empire. By the end of the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy, a prominent power within the Holy Roman Empire, came to reign over the territories of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts of Serbia, Germany, Italy, Poland and Switzerland. Between the early 18th and early 20th centuries, Central Europe had a substantial Jewish population. divided into either Eastern or Western Europe. After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the socialist Eastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia (encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various other Balkan nations) declared neutrality. The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division. Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe. Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st century, with initiatives such as the Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group. This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression. ==Historical perspective== ===Middle Ages and early modern period=== In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, while Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east. However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities. From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the Carpathian Basin was part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of the Pannonian Avars. While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively. Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of the Merovingian dynasty, and later the Carolingian dynasty. Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. The territory of Lithuania was inhabited by Baltic tribes. Amongst them were the Samogitians, Lithuanians and Curonians. The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating in parts of Asia along the east Eurasian Steppe, settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary. The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by Alcuin of York in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance, limited to the territories that practised Western Christianity at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include much of the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century. Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe remained Eastern Orthodox, and was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence. After the East–West Schism in 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet. Francia 814.svg\|Frankish Empire and its tributaries in 814 East Francia 843.svg\|East Francia in 843 Great moravia svatopluk.png\|Possible furthest extent of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (870–894) Duchy of Poland 1000.svg\|Duchy of Poland under the Piast dynasty in 1000 Duchy of Bohemia 1000.svg\|Duchy of Bohemia (Czech Duchy) in 1000 Kingdom of Germany 1004.svg\|Kingdom of Germany in 1004 Kingdom of Hungary 1190.svg\|Kingdom of Hungary in 1190 Croatia 1260.png\|Kingdom of Croatia in 1260 Holy Roman Empire (c. 1600).svg\|Holy Roman Empire in 1600 Map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1619–1621).png\|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefs in 1619 According to historian Jenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe. These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties. In 1335, the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary and Croatia met in the castle of Visegrád In 1386, Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Christianity (specifically Catholicism) and subsequently became King of Poland through marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland. This initiated the Christianization of Lithuania. It also resulted in the Union of Krewo, signifying a personal union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The union commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities and laid the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, which was at the time in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean. The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time. ]] Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the first concept mixed science, politics, and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the mitteleuropäische Lösung (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea of Mitteleuropa also became popular in the German Empire established in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-day Central European Time. The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans. An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch's book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann's book Mitteleuropa in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's proposed a federation with Germany and the Habsburg empire as its centre, eventually uniting all external European nations through economic prosperity. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. ===Interwar period=== {{multiple image \| direction = vertical \| width = 220 \| image1 = Central Europe (Geographie universelle, 1927).svg \| caption1 = Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de Martonne (1927) \| image2 = Avantgarde CE.svg \| caption2 = CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art) The events preceding World War II in Europe—including the so-called Western betrayal/ Munich Agreement were very much enabled by the rising nationalism and ethnocentrism that typified that period. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, with non-German speaking territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership was to be the 'natural' result of economic dominance. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927, Central Europe encompassed Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, northern Italy and northern Yugoslavia. The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, but he doesn't take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, and infrastructural developments in these countries. The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland (including western parts of present-day Belarus and Ukraine, and southern parts of Lithuania), Czechoslovakia (including the Czech Republic and Slovakia), Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia (including present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia) from 1910 to 1930. ===Mitteleuropa=== With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire around 1800, there was a consolidation of power among the Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns as the two major states in the area. They had much in common and occasionally cooperated in various channels, but more often competed. One approach in the various attempts at cooperation, was the conception of a set of supposed common features and interests, and this idea led to the first discussions of a Mitteleuropa in the mid-nineteenth century, as espoused by Friedrich List and Karl Ludwig Bruck. These were mostly based on economic issues. Mitteleuropa may refer to a historical concept or a contemporary German definition of Central Europe. As a historical concept, the German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe) is an ambiguous German concept. According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus. Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being. In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line. The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region. Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century. Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy this culture. The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa". ===Central Europe during World War II=== During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe. There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria. There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued this goal. The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the USA. Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from Nazi German, and Soviet, influence and control. There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff. As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control. ===Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain=== Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain. Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia remained neutral. The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe. Following the Fall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research. According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term) most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet satellites. Besides Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, only the marginal European states of Cyprus, Finland, Malta and Sweden preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe. The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism. ===Roles=== According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Czechoslovak, Hungarian and Polish presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished. American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways. According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. He argued that there is no precise way to define Central Europe and that the region may even include Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Serbia. ==Definitions== The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions. In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I. The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s. For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia. West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950, distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: the German West-Centre and the East-Centre covered by a variety of nations from Finland to Greece, placed between the great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union. Central Europe as a region comprising countries in mainland Europe speaking West Germanic (Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland) and West Slavic languages (the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland). Central Europe as the area of the cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of this concept. Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg Empire – a concept which is popular in large parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by Russian historiographers. A concept putting the accent on links with the West, especially from the 19th century and the grand period of liberation and formation of Nation-states – this idea is represented by the South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the "East Centre" expressing their links with Western culture. Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe: One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between Catholic Western and Central Europe and Orthodox Eastern Europe. Following this criterion, the pagans of Central Europe were converted to Catholicism while in Eastern and Southeastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share of Belarus and Right-bank Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but years ago they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur, this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history). === Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries === The World Factbook Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate. The German (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, the Kaliningrad Oblast and parts of Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France. Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France. === Geographical === There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically. At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine and usually also Germany. === Governmental and standards organisations === The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia. The EU-funded Interreg region "Central Europe" includes the following countries and regions: Austria Croatia Czechia Germany: Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony, Thuringia, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Hungary Italy: Lombardy, Trentino - Alto Adige, Aosta Valley, Veneto, Emiglia Romagna, Liguria, Friuli - Venezia Giulia Poland Slovakia Slovenia The Central European Free Trade Agreement includes the following countries: Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Kosovo Moldova Montenegro North Macedonia Serbia === Map gallery === File:Central Europe Katzenstein.png\|Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997): File:Visegrad group countries.png\|According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky, a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group. File:Central Europe (Lonnie R. Johnson)2.PNG\|Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011): File:Central Europe (by A.Mutton).PNG\|Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961) File:Central Europe (Larousse).PNG\|Central Europe, as defined in the French Encylopédie Larousse (2009) File:Europe médiane, Czesław Miłosz.png\|Central Europe, as defined by Czesław Miłosz (1983) File:Europe centrale, Castellan.png\|Central Europe, as defined by Georges Castellan (1994) File:Central Europe (by E. Schenk).PNG\|Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950) File:Central-Europe-Encarta.png\|Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009): File:Central Europe (Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon).PNG\|The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999): File:Central Europe (Brockhaus).PNG\|Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998) File:Central-Europe-SwanseaUniv.png\|Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998) File:Central Europe (Mayers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon).PNG\|Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980) ==States== The choice of states that make up Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy. Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below: Austria Croatia Czech Republic Germany Hungary Liechtenstein Lithuania Poland Slovakia Slovenia Switzerland Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries. Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe. Additionally, Hungary and Sloveniathumb\|Regions used for statistical processing purposes by the [[United Nations Statistics Division{{legend\|#FF8080\|Eastern Europe Estonia (considered to have been part of extended definitions of 'Mitteleuropa', alternatively placed in Eastern, Northeastern or Northern Europe) Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and Gorizia, Friuli, Lombardy, and Veneto or all of Northern Italy) Latvia (considered to have been part of extended definitions of 'Mitteleuropa') Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș, Bukovina and Muntenia along with Oltenia) Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe) Ukraine (Transcarpathia, Galicia and Northern Bukovina The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states"). South of the Eastern Alps (spanning Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland), the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south. According to the Freie Universität Berlin, this mountain chain is classified as South Central European. The city of Trieste in this area, for example, expressly sees itself as a città mitteleuropea. This is particularly because it lies at the interface between the Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Greek and Jewish culture on the one hand and the geographical area of the Mediterranean and the Alps on the other. A geographical and cultural assignment is made. The Central European flora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to the Northern Balkans, Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia. ==Demography== Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 173 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany. Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents, Czech Republic at 10.5 million, Hungary at 10 million, Austria with 9.2 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million, Slovakia at 5.4 million, Croatia with 4.3 million, Lithuania with 2.9 million, Slovenia with 2.1 million and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000. If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Romania (20 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million) – this would contribute around an additional 30.4 million, although this figure would vary depending on whether a regional or integral approach is used. If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, a further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, surpassing a total of 200 million people. ==Economy== ===Currencies=== Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna, forint, Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu). ===Human Development Index=== In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world). ===Globalisation=== The index of globalization in Central European countries (2016 data): Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world). ===Prosperity Index=== Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data). Switzerland topped the index (#4 world). ===Corruption=== Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data), led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. ====Rail==== Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austrian, Czech, German, Hungarian and Swiss territories between 1860-1870s. By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, Zurich, Pest and Prague were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste). By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of Austria and Hungary reached . By 1936, 70% of the Swiss Federal Railway network had undergone electrification. Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density as of 2022, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, from highest to lowest is Switzerland (129.2), the Czech Republic (120.7), Germany (108.8), Hungary (85.0), Slovakia (74.0), Austria (66.5), Poland (61.9), Slovenia (59.6), Serbia (49.2), Croatia (46.3) and Lithuania (29.4). ====River transport and canals==== Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade. Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which connected Timișoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via the Danube. The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on the Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century. The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early beginning with Germany and the Czech lands near the end of the 18th century. The industrialization of the cities of Romania and Serbia started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era. ==== Agriculture ==== Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010, 3rd largest producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, and 5th largest potato producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, 2nd largest producer of raspberries, currants, 3rd largest of rye, the 5th apple and buckwheat producer, and 7th largest producer of potatoes. The Czech Republic is the world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Slovenia is one of the world's leading producers of honey and the world's 6th largest hops producer. Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer. Serbia is the world's 2nd largest producer of plums and 2nd largest producer of raspberries. ====Business==== Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background. ====Tourism==== Central European countries, especially Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations. ==Education== ===Languages=== ===Education performance=== Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied. ===Higher education=== ====Universities==== The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was in Prague in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The Charles University was modeled upon the University of Paris and initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology. ====Central European University==== In 1991, Ernest Gellner proposed the establishment of a truly Central European institution of higher learning in Prague (1991–1995). Eventually, the Central European University (CEU) project was taken on and financially supported by the Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who had provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe. Over its 30-year history CEU has become one of the most internationally diverse and recognisable universities in the world. For example, as of 2019, 1217 students were enrolled in the university, of which 962 were international students, making the student body the fourth most international in the world. CEU offers highly selective programs with a student to faculty ratio of 7:1. In 2021, the admission rate into its programs was 13%. CEU has thus become a leading global university in Europe promoting a distinctively Central European perspective while emphasizing academic rigor, applied research, and academic honesty and integrity. CEU is a founding member of CIVICCA, a group of prestigious European higher education institutions in the social sciences, humanities, business management and public policy, such as Sciences Po (France), The London School of Economics and Political Science (UK), Bocconi University (Italy) and the Stockholm School of Economics (Sweden). In 2019, Central European University leadership announced their preparatory work on moving CEU to Vienna due to legal constraints against academic freedom in Hungary. ==Culture and society== ===Research=== Research centres of Central European literature include Harvard University (Cambridge, MA), Purdue University, and Central European Studies Programme (CESP), Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. ===Architecture=== ===Religion=== Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia) or historically both Catholic and Protestant (the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Slovakia and Switzerland). Large Protestant groups include Lutheran, Calvinist, and the Unity of the Brethren affiliates. Significant populations of Eastern Catholicism and Old Catholicism are also prevalent throughout Central Europe. Orthodox Christianity is a minority denomination observed to varying extents across Central Europe. Central Europe has been the center of the Protestant movement for centuries, with the majority of Protestants suppressed and annihilated during the Counterreformation. Historically, people in Bohemia in today's Czech Republic were some of the first Protestants in Europe. As a result of the Thirty Years' War following the Bohemian Revolt, many Czechs were either killed, executed (see for Old Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated to Scandinavia and the Low Countries. In the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in the Kingdom of Bohemia decreased from three million to only 800,000 due to multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significant Battle of White Mountain and the Battle of Prague (1648). However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%). Before the Holocaust (1941–45), there was also a sizeable Ashkenazi Jewish community in the region, numbering approximately 16.7 million people. Poland, Lithuania and Hungary had the largest Jewish populations in Europe as a percentage of their total populations, with Jews constituting 9.5% of the Polish population in 1933. Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeable atheist and non-religious populations. In 2021, 48% of the Czech population declared that they had no religion. In 2022, 43.8% of the German population declared that they had no religion. Meanwhile, 33.5% of the Swiss population stated that they were not affiliated with any religion. ===Cuisine=== Central European cuisine has evolved over centuries due to social and political change and is generally diverse. However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe. Sausages, salamis and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyavia region, Poland). Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables. Schnitzel, goulash and cabbage rolls are popular in the region. Another common feature among Central European cuisines, particularly Austrian, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Swiss cuisine, is the use of wild ingredients in traditional dishes, spanning from wild herbs to mushrooms and berries. Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita globally, followed by Austria, with Germany coming 4th. The cuisines of Central European countries that are included in broader definitions of Eastern Europe share similarities and traditions with other Eastern European cuisines. This is particularly evident in the cuisines of Lithuania and Poland, which feature dishes like borscht, pierogi and sour rye soup. ===Human rights=== Generally, the countries in the region have been progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections. However, Central European countries are divided on the subject of same-sex marriage and abortion. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundations. ===Literature=== Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity. Its existence is sometimes challenged. Specific courses on Central European literature are taught at Stanford University, Harvard University and Jagiellonian University as well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature. Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region. Likewise, the Vilenica International Literary Prize is awarded to a Central European author for "outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing". ===Media=== ===Sport=== There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include: Central European Tour Miskolc GP (Hungary)* Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary) 2008 Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)* 2023 Central Europe Rally (Germany, Austria and Czech Republic) Central European Football League (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey) Central European International Cup (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927–1960) Central Europe Throwdown* Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions. Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and two UEFA European Championships (1988 and 2024). Yugoslavia hosted the UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition expanded to 8 teams. Recently, the 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively. ==Politics== ===Organisations=== Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations: Central European Defence Cooperation Central European Free Trade Agreement Central European Initiative Centrope Middleeuropean Initiative Three Seas Initiative Visegrád Group File:CEDC.svg\|Central European Defence Cooperation File:CEFTA 1992.PNG\|CEFTA founding states File:CEFTA 2003.PNG\|CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU File:Central European Free Trade Agreement.svg\|Current CEFTA members File:CEI members.svg\|Central European Initiative File:Three Seas Initiative.svg\|Three Seas Initiative File:Visegrad group countries.svg\|Visegrád Group ===Democracy Index=== Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarianism, particularly Fascism and Nazism. Germany and Italy occupied all Central European countries, except Switzerland. In all occupied countries, the Axis powers suspended democracy and installed puppet regimes loyal to the occupation forces. Also, they forced conquered countries to apply racial laws and formed military forces for helping German and Italian struggle against Communists. After World War II, almost the whole of Central Europe (the Eastern and Middle part) had been transformed into communist states, most of which had been occupied and later allied with the Soviet Union, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g., Polish people's referendum in 1946) or force (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia). Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index. ===Global Peace Index=== In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%. ==Central European Time== The time zone is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Countries using CET include: Albania Andorra Austria Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Czech Republic Denmark France Germany Hungary Italy Luxembourg Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland San Marino Slovakia Slovenia Serbia Sweden Switzerland Vatican City ==In popular culture== Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode of Lovejoy, entitled "The Prague Sun", filmed in 1992. While walking over the well-regarded and renowned Charles Bridge in Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: "I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'! The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as turnip heads." Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning film The Grand Budapest Hotel depicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe which is in actuality modeled on the Grandhotel Pupp in Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic. The film is a celebration of the 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities.	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League", "Adolf Hitler", "Central European University", "King of Bohemia", "Samogitians", "de:Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen", "Slavic peoples", "Montenegro", "World Bank", "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", "Interreg", "Charles University", "Cisleithania", "Moravian Church", "Alcuin of York", "Holocaust", "Jenő Szűcs", "Zakarpattia Oblast", "Paul Vidal de la Blache", "Calvinism", "The Economist", "pierogi", "Russia", "Charlemagne", "Culture", "UEFA Euro 2008", "same-sex marriage", "German revolutions of 1848–1849", "Axis powers", "new states of Germany", "dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire", "Polish złoty", "Cyprus", "fief", "List of early Slavic peoples", "Adriatic Sea", "Visegrád Group", "2008 Central Europe Rally", "Tiger tank", "Eastern Bloc", "Ulm", "Stanford University", "Holy Roman Empire", "University of South Carolina Press", "University of Paris", "Middleeuropean Initiative", "Moldova", "Kosovo", "Mediterranean", "Balkan peninsula", "Russian Empire", "Kingdom of Hungary", "Northern Italy", "Maramureș", "Schelde", "Swiss franc", "UEFA Euro 2024", "Union of German Railway Administrations", "Pannonian Avars", "Lexington Books", "Northern Europe", "Soviet Union", "Croatia in personal union with Hungary", "de:Rainer Lösch", "Little Entente", "Kingdom of Bohemia", "World War I", "Low Countries", "hops", "Begej", "Eurostat", "Central European Tour Budapest GP", "Hungary", "Battle of Prague (1648)", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Centrope", "The London School of Economics and Political Science", "OECD", "time zone", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Andrees Allgemeiner Handatlas", "Vilenica International Literary Festival", "Three Seas Initiative", "totalitarianism", "Habsburgs", "Baltic states", "Phytochorion", "Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development", "West Germanic languages", "buckwheat", "Rowman & Littlefield", "Lucien Gallois", "Bohemian Revolt", "Dnieper", "Byzantine Empire", "Charles Bridge", "Jerzy 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"France", "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth", "Vistula", "Nazism", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "Czech koruna", "Western Europe", "Habsburg monarchy", "Europe", "Central European Initiative", "Culture of German-speaking Europe", "Cold War", "Karl Ludwig Bruck", "Republic of Ragusa", "Counterreformation", "Magdeburg rights", "Joseph Partsch", "Fritz Fischer (historian)", "Netherlands", "cabbage roll", "Nazi Germany", "Brill Publishers", "Globalisation index", "Emmanuel de Martonne", "Sava", "Central European cuisine", "Szczecin", "barley", "Estonia", "1946 Polish people's referendum", "Serbia", "Karlovy Vary", "goulash", "Oxford University Press", "Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic", "list of countries by beer consumption per capita", "Masaryk University", "Kiel", "State socialism", "Zurich", "Foreign Affairs", "Charles I of Hungary", "Lovejoy", "Merovingian dynasty", "Vojvodina", "Lutheran", "Berlin Wall", "Ribes", "Eastern Europe", "Carpathian Mountains", "Croatia", "Grandhotel Pupp", "Slavs", "Protestant", "UEFA Euro 1976", "Legatum Prosperity Index", "Malta", "Central European Time", "Iron Curtain", "Yugoslavia", "Peter J. Katzenstein", "Hohenzollerns", "South Tyrol", "rye", "Council on Foreign Relations", "Czechs", "Jagiellonian University", "Ernest Gellner", "Erich Schenk", "American Jewish Committee", "Pope Leo III", "Die Zeit", "Gorizia", "Western Bloc", "Krka (Sava)", "Germanic peoples", "Piast dynasty", "interwar period", "Thirty Years' War", "Pan-European Picnic", "Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor", "Old Swiss Confederacy", "Western Christianity", "Non-Aligned Movement", "Fall of Communism", "Rijeka", "sour rye soup", "Corruption Perceptions Index", "Union of Krewo", "Oskar Halecki", "Franks", "Luxembourg", "Democracy Index", "Catholic Church", "Trieste", "Tributary state", "Joseph Stalin", "Zemun", "Ashkenazi Jewish", "Central European Free Trade Agreement", "Galicia (Eastern Europe)", "Gustav Stolper", "Bulgaria", "Prague", "Archduchy of Austria", "Grand Duke of Lithuania", "Budapest", "Mitteleuropa", "Life zones of central Europe", "Carolingian Renaissance", "Greece", "Romania", "Christianization of Lithuania", "Germany", "de:Wolfgang Frey", "Belgium", "Pest, Hungary", "Fairleigh Dickinson University Press", "Capitalism", "Ukraine", "East–West Schism", "List of countries by economic complexity", "Veneto", "George Soros", "Slovenia", "Jadwiga of Poland", "Stockholm School of Economics", "Slovakia", "Crișana", "History of Poland during the Piast dynasty", "North Macedonia", "Winston Churchill", "West Slavic languages", "The Grand Budapest Hotel", "Timișoara", "Liechtenstein", "communist state", "Jews", "Eurasian Steppe", "Magyar tribes", "Central European Tour Miskolc GP", "Pannonian Plain", "King of Poland", "Indiana University", "Magda Ádám", "Kuyavia", "Bocconi University", "Heinrich Maier", "Italy", "Brussels", "Massif Central", "Alemanni", "Right-bank Ukraine", "2023 Central Europe Rally", "Southern Europe", "Stalinist", "Svatopluk I", "atheist", "Berlin", "Hungarian forint", "Raspberry", "World War II", "Belarus", "Schnitzel", "Scandinavia", "Balkans", "Czechoslovakia", "Latin", "Cyrillic alphabet", "Brockhaus Enzyklopädie", "Romance languages", "Moravian Gate", "Black Sea", "Finland", "Maria Bucur", "Władysław II Jagiełło", "events preceding World War II in Europe", "Rhine", "Swiss Federal Railways", "Danube", "Międzymorze", "Novi Sad", "Soviet empire", "Encarta Encyclopedia", "Saxony", "Battle of White Mountain", "Old Catholic" ]

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