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The difference between Indian English and British English is observed in rare cases as Indian English has been derived from British English most of the times. British literature plays a major role to influence Indian English language. The difference appears most of the time in pronunciation, but spelling remains almost same as Indians still accept “organise” and “colour” instead of accepting the american influence of “organize” and “color”. But, there is a difference as some people find American language spellings with greatest priority due to the current use of Microsoft Office auto correction process.
So, its’s not always perfect to start searching for the points on the theme- Indian English vs British English, rather can note down the influential difference that Indian English received due course of our time.
Purpose of Language
The main purpose of any language is communication. Communication is a process which involves the participation of two the speaker as well as the listener. So what is important here is to know what is getting across to the listener and what is not. Hence, we strive to make our word symbols clear, so that other understand our feeling, opinions and thoughts. The language is a means through which a child contemplates the past, grasps the present and approaches the future. It goes without saying that the language plays an important role in the mental, emotional and social development of a person. Though English is a foreign language, it occupies a unique position in our country. Whether we are at home, in the state or out of it, in the country or away from it, English is important and it continues to hold a unique position in our lives.
Story of Indian English
The story of English in India goes back to Macaulay’s famous Minutes of 1835 which was the time when the foreign plant of English was sown in India’s soil. He wanted to create a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect. He said that English stood pre-eminent among the languages of the west. English soon became the official language of India and it enjoyed a very prominent and privileged position in Indian educational system and life till the attainment of independence. It was taught as the compulsory subject both at the school and college levels.
A reaction against the supremacy of English was noticed only after 1857, when India was swept by a violent anti-British feeling. This was the national awakening in the country, striving for independence. The first reaction of the people in independent India was to dethrone English from its exalted position that it had enjoyed during the British rule. Thus it received a hostile treatment not only at the hands of our political leaders but also some eminent scholars. The father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi was very critical of educating the Indians in English language because learning an alien language deprived them of their national respect and resulted in slavish behaviour.
Evolution of Indian English: Past to Present
The transmission of one language into another country usually happens as a result of contact and interference of two or more languages. In the case of “Indian English” the language contact based on the colonization of the British in India. The first contact between the English and the Indian language took place in the beginning of the early 16th century, when the British started to establish their trading posts in India and brought English “to a new territory”. Due to the massive influence of the English colonization in India, in the early 1800’s a large number of Christian schools were founded by English missionaries. This evolution has created the major difference between Indian English and British English. The steps of advanced communication has relevantly been derived from British Language
Interaction with Vernacular Languages
As the use of English penetrated the different sections of the educated Indians, a new variety of English emerged. This variety of English had a very distinct Indian flavour and a number of words of vernacular origin were absorbed in English, e.g., Brahmin, Coolie, jungle, gherao and so on.
Language studies were based on literature and grammar and the means of studies was the grammar-translation method. The spoken component of the language was not practiced. The emphasis was given on correctness and complete sentence construction. So, if you notice the content Indian English vs British English.
Influence of British English on Indian English
As English is now considered as the global language all over the universe, British English is the ideal prospectus followed by the world to learn English. Hence, English Communication is very important to be connected socially and globally, and also plays and vital role in English Business Communication.
The phonology of British English and Indian English encounter a huge difference during articulation of the language.
For Example: In Indian English the pronunciation of “r” is articulated giving strong stress to the alphabet, unlike in British English the letter “r” is not pronounced with high stress at the end of the word.
So, this slight change in the phonological aspect of the language, changes the pronunciation and the audibility becomes more elite and attractive, which attracts a mass of individuals and country towards British English.
Present Scenario of English Language
Twentieth century witnessed great advancements in science and technology and this enabled many new ways of sharing information and doing business. India’s international commercial activities led to the need for acquiring proficiency in English as an international language. Now, English was not just the language of the administrators and policy makers but also became the language of the business and professional class. Hence, British language also helped to get effective corporate communication skill.
In India, the English speaking population is only about 3-4%, but with India’s massive population, India is among the top three countries in the world with the highest number of English speakers. In terms of numbers of English speakers, the Indian subcontinent ranks third in the world, after the USA and UK. Most English speakers in India are second language speakers, in 1971, it was estimated that the rate of bilingualism in India was 13% and 99% of English speakers are second-language speakers. English is the most widely spoken second language, followed by Hindi. Most interactions in the spheres of life take place in English.
Conclusion
In the linguistically plural settings of India, English often acts as the link -language among people of different dialect. For many educated Indians English is virtually the first language. Thus in the present context English is playing a vital role in bringing together people from different regional languages for a closer exchange of social, educational and administrative network of India . It provides a linguistic tool for the administrative cohesiveness of a country.
These language proficiency is available in many of the online spoken English classes of India. | https://www.engconvo.com/blog/difference-between-indian-english-and-british-english/ |
CRIStAL UMR 9189
The defense will take place on November 5th at 10 am in the Auditorium of Building B.
Abstract: Programming languages need to evolve as software requirements change, but their prototyping and extension comes at the cost of great development efforts. The case of reflective languages is interesting because programs written in these languages are able to modify the implementation of the language in which they are written, providing high-level means for language evolution through self-modification operations.
The limitations of the self-modification approach for language evolution are overcame by Bootstrap, a technique used to support the evolution of a single reflective language or a family of similar languages. However, bootstrapping new languages is a challenging task due to the lack of proper abstractions for language specification, late manifestation of errors, and abstraction leaps during debugging tasks.
In this dissertation we study the design of a bootstrap based language development technique that supports the generation of multiple reflective languages with low efforts. For this we introduce MetaL, a bootstrapping framework where language specification is based on metamodels, model transformations, and reflective initialization instructions. Thanks to its Meta Object Protocol~(MOP), MetaL ensures model correctness and kernel health, detecting corruption early during the generation process.
To validate our approach, we report on the successful generation of seven object-oriented language kernels, plus an experiment by an external user. These experiments show that, in each study case, MetaL kept the abstraction level high from the user’s point of view, and that our solution is applicable in real world scenarios.
We are glad to announce the Ph.D. thesis defense of Benoît Verhaeghe. Benoît mainly worked on methods and tools to semi-automatically migrate front-end frameworks. His work particularly focused on the migration Google Web Toolkit to Angular environment. The defense will take place in Lille on October 21st, 2021.
Developers use GUI frameworks to design the graphical user interface of their applications. It allows them to reuse existing graphical components and build applications in a fast way. However, with the generalization of mobile devices and Web applications, GUI frameworks evolve at a fast pace: JavaFX replaced Java Swing, Angular 8 replaced Angular 1.4 which had replaced GWT (Google Web Toolkit). Moreover, former GUI frameworks are not supported anymore. This situation forces organizations to migrate their applications to modern frameworks regularly to avoid becoming obsolete.
To ease the migration of applications, previous research designed automatic approaches dedicated to migration projects. Whereas they provide good results, they are hard to adapt to other contexts than their original one. For instance, at Berger-Levrault, our industrial partner, applications are written in generic programming languages (Java/GWT), proprietary “4th generation” languages (VisualBasic 6, PowerBuilder), or markup languages (Silverlight). Thus, there is a need for a language-agnostic migration approach allowing one to migrate various GUI frameworks to the latest technologies. Moreover, when performing automatic migration with these approaches, part of the migrated application still needs to be manually fixed. This problem is even more important for large applications where this last step can last months. Thus, companies need to migrate their application incrementally to ensure end-user continuous delivery throughout the process.
In this thesis, we propose a new incremental migration approach. It aims to allow the migration of large applications while ensuring end-user delivery. It consists of migrating pages using our automatic GUI migration tool, fixing them, and integrating them in a hybrid application. To create our GUI migration tool, we designed a pivot meta-model composed of several packages representing the visual and the behavioral aspects of any GUI. We detailed multiple implementations of our GUI migration tool that extract and generate GUI using different frameworks.
We successfully applied our migration approach to a real industrial application at Berger-Levrault. The migrated application is now in production. We also validated our automatic GUI migration tool on several migration projects, including applications developed with programming and markup languages. The company is currently using our approach for other migration projects.
Here are the key features of Pharo 9:
These are just the more prominent highlights, but the details are just as important. We have closed a massive amount of issues: around 1400 issues and 2150 pull requests. | https://rmod.gitlabpages.inria.fr/website/news.html |
Language Development and the Effects of Geography on Human Communication
Tracing language development is a complicated process. Linguists continue to unravel mysteries such as who were the first humans to communicate using speech and how did they manage to spread their ancient mother tongue around the globe. But even if we haven’t figured it all out, we have learned a great deal about specific factors affecting how language spreads.
We know that languages from one region of the world tend to resemble each other. For example, the Romance languages (Italian, French, and Spanish) obviously have similar linguistic features. The reason for this is fairly simple, these languages all descended from Latin. But there are other more complex factors, besides what linguists call genetic relatedness, that also shape language development.
Non-genetic factors include borrowing between languages, retention of features when a population adopts a new language, or even chance. Languages within the same geographical location, for instance, Romanian, Bulgarian, Albanian, and modern Greek, share certain areal features because adults speaking different languages come into contact with one another and begin to share and borrow different linguistic features, much like they might trade goods and cultural artefacts.
This means that aspects of the physical world influence and constrain language, like all aspects of human culture. While there is some disagreement among linguists about the extent to which geography can directly affect the lexical or structural composition of language, it definitely plays an indirect role by constraining how humans come into contact with each other.
Indirect Effects of Geography on Language Development
Influence of geography on language development can be of many types:
1. The geography in a certain region might be a feature of the landscape that impedes movement of human populations. Typically, mountains and rivers have become barriers for human expansion in the past. For this reason, many language communities accumulate in small isolated places in such landscapes. Some notable examples include, the Himalayas, Caucasus, and Andean mountain chains.
By contrast, regions with flat, broad geography, such as the American Great Plains and Russian steppes have historically been classified as linguistic spread zones. In these areas, successive waves of language groups replaced each other over long periods of time.
2. The distribution of natural resources in a given part of the world also leads to the spread and development of different languages in the area. Agriculture is an important driver of complex civilizations and according to one theory, once determined which societies would come to dominate the world.
For example, Asia Minor happened to have species of plants and animals that were easily domesticable and a climate where surplus crops could be stored easily. These and other nonlinguistic facts shaped the societies in which they were found and indirectly led to certain languages spreading to different parts of the world as trade expanded.
3. As a corollary to the above, technologies available to a society are constrained by the geography they live in. Archeologists and linguists have worked together to show that the prehistoric peoples of central Eurasia’s steppe grasslands were the original speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language from which the world’s most popular languages were derived.
This language development theory suggests that these peoples’ innovative use of the ox wagon, horseback riding, and the chariot led to the Eurasian steppe becoming a thriving transcontinental corridor of communication, commerce, and cultural exchange. As their traditions spread, they gave rise to advances in copper mining, warfare, and patron-client political institutions, ushering in an era of vibrant social change. These innovations necessitated the spreading of the language.
4. Besides these effects, socially contingent barriers can also become linguistic barriers. Some geographical barriers are actually human-made. Religious and ethnic conflicts throughout the world have resulted in two populations becoming isolated to particular geographic locations within a single country or even to one population separating entirely and establishing their own country.
If such isolation persists, their use of language can also diverge. For example, some scholars believe some aspects of Yiddish arose because of this kind of ethnic conflict over the centuries in various parts of Europe.
The above four indirect effects of geography on the development of languages shows the complexity of explaining how particular features of different languages come to be. In the end, one thing is clear: languages are beautiful, living organisms whose development is as vulnerable to facts in the external world as the development of human psychology.
What About Direct Effects?
Now, while the indirect effects are clear, it is harder to tell whether geographic features directly affect language development. While some linguists have tried to argue, for example, that altitude affects humans’ ability to form certain types of sounds, others have questioned the research methodology behind these theories.
In fact, the only proven example of a direct effect on phonetics is whistled language. These languages where people use a system of whistled communication to transmit and comprehend messages across long distances, are rare compared to spoken language, but can be found in cultures around the world (e.g., in the Canary Islands, in the mountains of Turkey, and in a village on the Greek Island of Evia).
Whistled languages are different from codes used by herders or animal trainers to convey very simple, limited instructions. Similar to spoken languages, whistled languages involve intonation or vowel formants that allow for complex thoughts to be conveyed to fluent whistlers.
The existence of such whistled languages suggests that actual physical differences in the terrain can affect language development, but only under a very special set of circumstances.
Language Becomes Less Diverse
Looking at the development of different languages also gives us clues as to why language diversity is diminishing. As geography becomes less of a barrier to communicating with other cultures because of the Internet, it makes sense that dominant languages continue to spread around the world reaching even the most remote corners of globe.
The negative side of increased exposure to other cultures is that this brings some rare languages to the brink of extinction. At Alpha Omega Translations, we believe that to preserve an important aspect of these cultures, we need to actively protect these rare languages. So, we’re preparing an extensive report on Alpha Omega’s CEO, Dimitra Hengen’s, fascinating series of interviews with the last speakers of the whistled language of Antia. Stay tuned! | https://alphaomegatranslations.com/translation-services/language-development-effects-geography-human-communication/ |
"Living in a global community calls for an appreciation and understanding of foreign languages and cultures. Languages are the vehicles for culture and communication, and learning a foreign language promotes greater cultural understanding and appreciation."
There is so much more to studying a foreign language than just the language itself. Learning a foreign language gives you the opportunity to learn about the people who speak it, their histories, and most importantly, their stories. It is through studying a foreign language that you are able to understand another culture. Knowing the language is one thing, but to be able to understand the social contexts in which people come from is just as important.
Studying a foreign language has presented so many opportunities that I would have never been able to take advantage of if I had not known the language. I've been able to connect with people on a more intimate and personal level, building connections with communities all around the world. To this day, I've maintained these relationships with the people I have come in contact in different countries and I cherish these connections. I've been able to go back and visit my friends in Spain and Nicaragua after having been able to foster these relationships after all this time. Communicating with one another allows us to get to know one another, our different backgrounds, and our cultures. We help each other with our studies, helping each other to communicate in different languages, and it's truly a beautiful thing.
"Language is the road map of a culture; it tells you where its people come from and where they are going."
- Rita Mae Brown
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Language is a unifying human condition. Our understanding of language begins even before we say our first word with babies being able to distinguish different sounds and languages almost from birth. From a child's first word, language acquisition continues throughout their lives.
In this Series of Talks, we invited brilliant leaders in the language and linguistics field to share their knowledge and expertise with us and to answer our burning questions about how language and language learning evolves.
Read on to find out what we learned.
Professor Simon Kirby opened this series by taking us back to the origin and purpose of language. As Simon explained, understanding the evolution of language is at the heart of understanding human progress because being able to create complex societies, and ever more complex technologies, relies on our ability to network our intelligence - in other words, share knowledge and ideas about the world and learn from other people through language. All other species and living things communicate but with language we can communicate about anything in an open ended way; we aren’t limited in what we talk about or the ideas we share and consider. We are the only species on Earth that can do this.
Simon went on to explain that languages are made up patterns of words that our brains can learn to interpret. Each word that has meaning - a morpheme - creates a picture in our brain, and putting these morphemes together tells us something new or important about the world. Human brains have evolved to spot these patterns and we can interpret and use them to communicate with others and share knowledge.
In his Garden Talk, Simon showed that languages evolve in similar ways and by studying many languages and using computer algorithms to show language evolution in a lab environment, we can understand how human communication works at its most fundamental level. By applying these computer algorithms to the study of emerging languages, like new sign languages, we can show that even today, language develops using similar patterns and this is due to cultural transmission and the human need and desire to want to learn from each other.
But the question still remains, why are humans the only species to have developed the ability to use language?
Is language acquisition different for people learning a second language? Because it's not passed down from generation to generation but rather it's studied in classrooms. Are those people involved in language evolution?
What do you think of J.R.R. Tolkien's invented languages?
There is this notion that the language we speak has a direct impact on the way we perceive reality and the world, which is something I can relate with. What are your observations or your opinion about the idea that people speaking different languages perceive the world differently?
Is language evolution partially caused by mistakes/errors in original usage?
Does written language slow down or speed up the evolution of spoken language? In what ways does it affect evolution of language?
How can we be certain that for example wales or dolphins do not communicate stories?
Do languages become less complex or more complex over time? In what way are languages "complex"?
What was the thinking process for creating Esperanto and what did we learn from it?
John Gallagher loves to go back to the early modern period - the time of Shakespeare, global exploration, the Renaissance and the Reformation - to find out how the world we live in today was shaped by our past.
In this Garden Talk, /history/early-modern-english-and-migrationJohn painted a picture of a cosmopolitan, multilingual and international society in Elizabethan England and showed how migration and trade from the continent to the British Isles, created complexity and uncertainty around the use and development of the English language. English at the time was not the language we hear and read today and its evolution was shaped by words, phrases and dialects intermingling both at home and abroad.
John's talk focused on the role of refugees, from the Huguenots to the Dutch Protestants who fled religious persecution in their homelands, in shaping the language and society of their adopted homeland, as well as the role the government played in importing expert cloth craftspeople and their families to improve England’s failing cloth industry.
All this change in society’s make up, combined with the Reformation reducing the use of Latin as a shared language, created a moment of ‘linguistic anxiety’ for many in England. There was a question of whether English was up to the job of replacing Latin and what the boundaries of English were at a time when people were borrowing words from other languages.
Despite being a ‘linguistic golden age’, John reveals some of the challenges the English language faced as it evolved during the early modern age and the role migrants, refugees and local people had in shaping its evolution.
Nowadays in Italy, we are worried that we are using too many English terms in our language (e.g. terms like computer, meeting, webcam etc) just like what English people were worried about many years ago. Should we be worried about this or should we embrace these English language terms as our own?
How did these 16th century migrants use to communicate with locals at early stage? was there any sort of universal language
Given the attitude/sense that French and Italian were becoming prestigious language, what was the attitude of the English to those native speakers coming to England? Were they held in high esteem (dependent presumably on social class) or was it a feeling of suspicion or even jealousy?
What impact, if any, did the invention of the printing press have on the development of the English language?
Professor Antonella Sorace is perfectly positioned to talk about bilingualism. As a multilingual herself and an expert on language acquisition and bilingualism, she brings incredible insights from across neuroscience, sociology, linguistics and psychology to how people learn and communicate in multiple languages.
In this Garden Talk, Antonella bust some myths about language learning explaining that there is no such thing as being perfectly bilingual (or even monolingual) and that while it is true that children acquire language most easily, you can become bilingual even as an adult. The main reason it’s hard to become bilingual as an adult is because we are so busy and have other things to distract us from language learning, whereas a child can focus communication and language learning.
Being bilingual doesn’t make you more intelligent but it does create changes in your brain that can make it easier for you to put yourself in other people’s shoes (social cognition) and better focused attention.
Given almost half the world is bilingual, understanding the benefits of learning a second or third language has important consequences for individuals and society. Antonella’s insights into her research on bilingualism were completely fascinating and left us all considering adding learning another language to our plans for the coming year.
If parents speak different languages, should they be speaking consistently in their native language to their children?
What are the benefits and the challenges of knowing more than one language?
Is there any known difference in the structure of the brain between a bilingual and monolingual?
You mentioned that bilingual adults can better focus and switch from one task to another, do you think that they could use language learning as a way to treat adult attention disorders like ADHD?
Is the ability to learn a second language (as an adult) a function of intelligence, or are the two things unconnected?
I keep forgetting words and phrases in my native language after learning a second one. What could be the reason?
Does knowing more than one language have a benefit for preventing dementia?
How do languages evolve? From the origins of language to bilingualism, this series journeys into the mysteries of this uniquely human trait and the power it has to change our world.
Dr John Gallagher
Travel, mobility, and migration were instrumental in making Early modern England a multilingual landscape. But when did the English start speaking English and, how confident were early speakers in the scope of this fast-evolving language?
Professor Simon Kirby
Language sets humankind apart from other species. Even our closest primate relatives haven't developed the same ability to acquire & use language. Why are humans the only species with language and how did language evolve?
Prof. Shannon Murray
The modern world is increasingly polarised; we see things in black and white. How can Shakespeare teach us to hold two conflicting ideas in our heads simultaneously?
Antonella Sorace
More than half the world speaks two or more languages fluently. And yet being bilingual is a label often reserved for native speakers who learn multiple languages as children. Can you both 'be' and 'become' bilingual?
Professor Simon Kirby
What makes human speech miraculous is the fact that no other creature in history that we know of has evolved the skill. The origin of language is evolution’s greatest mystery, but how did language begin?
Dr Diane Nelson
It's thought there are more than 7,000 languages spoken across the world. Although this number seems vast, every month one of the world's languages disappears forever. How and why so many languages are dying?
Professor Simon Kirby
If a Martian linguist were to study the languages of the world, what would they conclude about how many we had? What forces shape our language? | https://onegarden.com/article/afterwords-evolution-of-language-series |
The Different Types of Linguistics
Linguistics is the study of human language. As such, the field requires a systematic, comprehensive, and precise analysis of language. Unlike many other scientific fields, linguistics allows researchers to conduct comparative studies among languages. There are many types of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Each has its own importance and merit, and this article will outline the different branches of linguistics.
Evolutionary linguistics
Evolutionary linguistics, also known as Darwinian linguistics, is the study of the origin and development of human languages. Evolutionary linguists consider linguistics a subfield of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. It is closely related to other fields such as biolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and evolutionary anthropology. It is a rapidly growing field, and it has many promising prospects for future research.
The theory of language evolution is based on the principle that biological and linguistic processes are linked. It is believed that languages evolve through two processes: natural selection and drift. In natural selection, an individual's ability to reproduce and survive is responsible for differential survival and reproduction. However, in evolution by drift, an individual's ability to survive and reproduce does not cause the difference in their offspring's language characteristics. This means that language evolution can be a complex process.
In biological evolution, random mutations introduce new variations that increase their reproductive potential. For example, a fish with a small body size will likely reproduce more often in an area with a heavy netting. On the other hand, in linguistic evolution, a word that is memorable and useful to its users is more likely to survive and spread. Both kinds of evolution are important, but not equivalent. In the long run, though, the goal is to create a language that is as unique as possible and as adaptable as possible.
Phonetics
The study of the sounds of language is called phonetics. It looks at the physical process that creates each sound, including the vocal organs' interactions and proximity. It also focuses on the concept of voicing, the way sound is produced by using the mouth, throat, nasal cavities, lungs, and muscles. For example, the letter "b" in the word bed is voiced, because when the lips are brought together, the resulting sound is voiced.
The two major areas of phonology and phonetics are related but different. Phonology studies the patterns of sounds and gestures and relates their concerns to other areas of language. Phonetics studies the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds. Phoneticians also look at social meanings of speech signals. However, a large part of phonetics does not deal with social meaning. Despite the close connection between language and speech, there are many important differences between the two fields.
Phonetics is an important branch of linguistics. It examines human speech sounds and their physical properties. Phonetics is derived from the principles of basic physics. Sound is a vibration of objects that cause it to resonate. Human vocal organs produce speech sounds that are distinguished from one another. Phonetics can be divided into articulatory, acoustic, and psychoacoustic phonetics. While these sub-fields have different purposes, they all study speech and its physical properties.
Phonology
The science of phonology in linguistics deals with the substance and shape of language's sounds. These sounds are perceptible, and are the basis of language's expressive system. Each of these sounds has a distinct meaning that distinguishes it from all other signifiers. To study this system, it is necessary to classify and order expressive matter according to its form of system. Language consists of a limited set of differentiated elements, or phonics, which distinguish the meaning of a word or phrase from all others.
These linguistic units are called phonemes. Phonological units are composed of underlying phonetic structure and a corresponding morpheme. The underlying representation is called a phonological unit, while the surface morpheme is a material symbol. Phonological rules transform these phonological units into the actual pronunciation. Phonology in Linguistics can be considered as a branch of linguistics.
Phonemes are the smallest units of meaningful speech. Phonemes are derived from minimal pairs, which are words with different meanings but differ only by a single sound. Phonology also deals with dialects and accents, which contrast in pronunciation and vocabulary. The study of phonological structures is also known as phononotactics. If you want to learn more about phonology, this article is for you!
Morphology
Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of words. It takes a systematic approach to words, examining the parts of the word: roots, stems, prefixes, and suffixes. Despite its wide-ranging application, morphology is particularly interesting to people who have an interest in language and its language. In this article, we will learn what morphology is and how it helps us learn the structure of words.
Language change is the result of migration, colonization, and invasion. Language changes in its basic aspects such as vocabulary, pronunciations, and sentence structure. These aspects can change rapidly as new words are borrowed, combined, or shortened. Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies these changes. It is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the scientific study of language. Those who study morphology will have a deeper understanding of the structure of language and how it develops over time.
The purpose of morphology is to understand the internal structure of lexicons. It also helps to understand the rules of word formation. The study of morphology can also reveal dramatic differences between languages. For example, some languages use prefixes to form plurals, while others use suffixes. For instance, morphology in English has a definite article, which means that the verb is a noun.
Syntagmatic plane
The grammatical elements and syntagmatic plane are related in a complex way. The former comprises the purely semantic elements in language, whereas the latter refers to material units that are used in the production of meanings. They are closely connected and constitute a unit of content and expression. The grammatical elements are similar to lingual lexical elements, but they differ in quality and quantity.
In linguistics, a syntagm is an ordered set of signs that form a meaningful whole within a text. These signs are formed within the framework of syntactic conventions and rules. Among these are sentences, paragraphs, and chapters. The relationships between these elements are called syntagms. In linguistics, syntagms are made of various types of elements that are spatial and part-to-whole.
One way to divide linguistic phenomena is according to the mode in which they are used. Some of the most common are sequential and others are spatial. Although Saussure stressed auditory signifiers, he also recognized that visual signifiers exploit more than one dimension simultaneously. Painting, photography, and drawing are examples of media containing spatial syntagms. Some of these types of syntagmatic relations are also found in many semiotic systems.
Paradigmatic plane
The syntagmatic plane in linguistics refers to the relationship between the linguistic units in a given context, as opposed to the paradigmatic plane, where meaning arises from differences between the two. The two are related to each other in various ways, and the syntagmatic plane, as its name implies, focuses on the relationship between linguistic units in syntagmatic relations. The syntagmatic plane identifies the three systemic relations that give rise to meaning.
According to the Paradigmatic Enhancement Hypothesis, words with high probability paradigms can be articulated with more confidence because they have received more motor practice. This results in enhanced kinematic skills that allow for more extreme articulatory positions and smoother gestural transitions. With greater motor practice, the articulatory precision of words with high probability paradigms is improved, and the articulatory velocity is greater.
The hypothesis that syntagmatic diversity causes learning of high-frequency words is controversial. It has not been proven yet if high-frequency words can be learned more efficiently when paradigmatic diversity is high. The most likely explanation for this is that a rich syntagmatic diversity reduces competition between paradigmatic words. However, this may not be the case because high-frequency words can be learned more easily if their syntagmatic diversity is low.
Recent examples of linguistics
In the field of linguistics, there are a few distinct branches that distinguish themselves from each other. There is theoretical linguistics, which studies language structure and function, and synchronic linguistics, which focuses on one point in time within a language. In both branches, the main focus is on the nature of language rather than its practical applications. For example, generative linguistics relies heavily on rules to describe the structure and content of sentences.
A recent example of this is sign language, which uses hand gestures to convey signals. Linguists have compared sign language to natural language because of its similarity to spoken languages used by deaf people. Another approach to linguistics is structuralism, which stresses the interconnectedness of all levels in a language. Introduced in the early 1900s as a reaction to historically oriented linguistics, structuralism became the standard paradigm for a long time, dominating until the 1950s, when it was finally replaced by generative grammar.
Another branch of linguistics is called applied linguistics, which applies insights from theoretical linguists to language teaching, remedial lingual therapy, and language planning. Another branch of linguistics is psycholinguistics, which studies the development of children's minds through the use of language. It is often used in conjunction with sociolinguistics and cognitive psychology, as well as in educational settings. This branch of linguistics is constantly evolving and changing, and advances in research and technology are making it possible to study it more thoroughly. | https://eu-artech.org/linguistics_3149/ |
When two languages come into contact, words are borrowed from one language to another. Lexical borrowings, or loanwords, are by far the most commonly attested language contact phenomenon. Thomason and Kaufman 1988 (cited under Borrowability) states that “[i]nvariably, in a borrowing situation the first foreign elements to enter the borrowing language are words,” and, based on a cross-linguistic survey of lexical borrowings in forty-one languages, Haspelmath and Tadmor 2009 (cited under Borrowability) states that “[n]o language in the sample—and probably no language in the world—is entirely devoid of loanwords” (p. 55). Loanwords are studied from many different perspectives, touching upon different subfields of linguistics, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, and semantics, as well as sociolinguistics and historical linguistics. Loanwords are not only recognized as the most common of language contact phenomena but also occupy an important position in general linguistics due to the evidence they bring to our understanding of the grammatical structure of language and to the theory of language change and historical linguistics. Some major questions that arise in the study of loanwords include: (1) Definition—what are loanwords? How are loanwords different from or similar to codeswitches? (2) Borrowability—why are words borrowed? Are certain types of words more likely to be borrowed than others? (3) Emergence and evolution—how are loanwords introduced? How do loanwords evolve over time? (4) Adaptation—why and how are loanwords adapted phonologically, morphologically, and semantically? (5) Lexical stratification—to what extent do loanwords adhere to the same types of restrictions as native words? What do loanwords tell us about the structure of the lexicon? (6) Role of extralinguistic factors: how do extralinguistic factors, such as orthography, sociopolitical context of borrowing, and language attitude affect loanwords?
Article. 7122 words.
Subjects: Linguistics ; Anthropological Linguistics ; Language Families ; Psycholinguistics ; Sociolinguistics
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Having emerged from the dialects and vocabulary of Germanic peoples—Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—who settled in Britain in the 5th century CE, English today is a constantly changing language that has been influenced by a plethora of different cultures and languages, such as Latin, French, Dutch, and Afrikaans.
What language was modern English influenced from?
The Modern English language has a rich history, it develops and changes like many other world languages. The English language has mainly been influenced by Latin, Germanic and French over a period of two thousand years.
What language has most influenced English?
English, having its major roots in Germanic languages, derives most of its grammar from Old English. As a result of the Norman Conquest, it has been heavily influenced, more than any other Germanic language, by French and Latin.
What languages make up the English language?
So, English is made of Old English, Danish, Norse, and French, and has been changed by Latin, Greek, Chinese, Hindi, Japanese, Dutch and Spanish, along with some words from other languages. English grammar has also changed, becoming simpler and less Germanic. The classic example is the loss of case in grammar.
What has caused the English spoken today to be different from the English spoken in earlier centuries?
Some of the main influences on the evolution of languages include: The movement of people across countries and continents, for example migration and, in previous centuries, colonisation. For example, English speakers today would probably be comfortable using the Spanish word “loco” to describe someone who is “crazy”.
How other languages contributed to the English language?
Languages grow, develop, and change. They are intertwined with other cultures and influenced by them. Consequently, new words appear, and old ones become obsolete. … English has adopted many words from Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, Chinese, Spanish, and even Persian.
How has English affected other languages?
One straightforward way to trace the growing influence of English is in the way its vocabulary has infiltrated so many other languages. For a millennium or more, English was a great importer of words, absorbing vocabulary from Latin, Greek, French, Hindi, Nahuatl and many others.
How has French influenced English?
The influence of French on English pertains mainly to its lexicon but also to its syntax, grammar, orthography, and pronunciation. … And according to the linguist Henriette Walter, words of French origin represent more than two-thirds of the English vocabulary.
How did the British Empire influence the English language?
By the late 18th century, the British Empire had spread English through its colonies and geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and technology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all contributed to English becoming the first truly global language. English also facilitated worldwide international communication.
What old languages make up English?
Scholars place Old English in the Anglo-Frisian group of West Germanic languages. Four dialects of the Old English language are known: Northumbrian in northern England and southeastern Scotland; Mercian in central England; Kentish in southeastern England; and West Saxon in southern and southwestern England.
How did the English language originated?
English is a West Germanic language that originated from Anglo-Frisian languages brought to Britain in the mid 5th to 7th centuries AD by Anglo-Saxon migrants from what is now northwest Germany, southern Denmark and the Netherlands. … The Late West Saxon dialect eventually became dominant.
Why did English change from old to Middle English?
The event that began the transition from Old English to Middle English was the Norman Conquest of 1066, when William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy and, later, William I of England) invaded the island of Britain from his home base in northern France, and settled in his new acquisition along with his nobles and court.
Why do we speak English differently?
Differences in accents reflect the cultural history of different people. These differences in pronunciation reflect differences in the cultural history, and thus language, spoken by our peers when we learn to speak.
What are the reasons for language change?
Why does language change over time?
- Trade and migration. As cultures interact, mix and trade, language shifts to accommodate these changes. …
- Technology and new inventions. New words and phrases are also invented to describe things that didn’t exist before. …
- Old words acquiring new meanings. | https://turfandgrain.com/great-britain/what-were-the-major-languages-that-influenced-the-english-language-today.html |
What is Renaissance in Slideshare?
What is Renaissance in Slideshare?
What is Renaissance in Slideshare?
RENAISSANCE • The word “Renaissance” is a French word which means “rebirth”. • It refers particularly to a renewed interest in classical learning – the writings of ancient Greece and Rome. 2. RENAISSANCE • The Renaissance was a cultural movement that started in Italy and spread all over Europe.
What are the 3 main ways the Renaissance spread through Europe?
The growth of cities and the support of monarchs contributed to the spread of Renaissance ideas. The Northern Renaissance produced many great artists, writers, and scholars. Printing and the use of the vernacular helped to spread Renaissance ideas and increase learning.
What are the 3 main movements of the Renaissance?
Charles Homer Haskins wrote in “The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century” (Harvard University Press, 1927) that there were three main periods that saw resurgences in the art and philosophy of antiquity: the Carolingian Renaissance, which occurred during the reign of Charlemagne, the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire …
What are the causes of Renaissance in Europe?
In conclusion, historians have identified several causes of the Renaissance in Europe, including: increased interaction between different cultures, the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts, the emergence of humanism, different artistic and technological innovations, and the impacts of conflict and death.
What are the characteristics of Renaissance?
Characteristics of the Renaissance include a renewed interest in classical antiquity; a rise in humanist philosophy (a belief in self, human worth, and individual dignity); and radical changes in ideas about religion, politics, and science.
What are the effects of Renaissance?
The Renaissance led to the Reformation Movement: The urge to know the unknown by questioning, observation, and experimentation brought an end to the supremacy and’ domination of the Church, which eventually led to Reformation. Great overflow of Vernacular Literature: The Renaissance helped in the growth of vernaculars.
What made it easier for Renaissance ideas to spread across Europe?
The invention and use of the printing press in Europe was important for the Renaissance because it allowed new ideas and worldviews to spread across the continent more easily.
What was one of the main factors that helped the Renaissance spread?
At its core, the Renaissance was about new ideas (such as humanism) overthrowing old views and customs (such as religious beliefs and practises and feudal traditions). Therefore, the invention of the printing press allowed these new ideas to spread and further enhance the overall Renaissance.
What was one important effect of the Renaissance on European culture?
Many became patrons and provided new buildings and art; they helped found universities. This led many city-states to become a flourishing educational and cultural center.
What was the impact of Renaissance on Europe?
The Renaissance led to the development of new forms of paintings, art, sculpture, and architecture. The decline in feudalism and the beginning of the Renaissance marked the rise of the middle class in Europe. The merchants, traders, and rich peasants constituted the new middle class. | https://www.comicsanscancer.com/what-is-renaissance-in-slideshare/ |
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Gutenberg, Johannes
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Autor: Gutenberg, Johannes
Rok: asi 1397-1468
Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (/joʊˌhɑːnɨs ˈɡuːtənbɛrɡ/ yoh-HAH-nəs GOO-tən-behrɡ; c. 1398 – February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His introduction of mechanical movable type printing to Europe started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period. It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Scientific revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use the printing press and movable type in Europe. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based ink for printing books; adjustable molds; mechanical movable type; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type. The alloy was a mixture of lead, tin, and antimony that melted at a relatively low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well, and created a durable type.In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass communication which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information—including revolutionary ideas—transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its people led to the rise of proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale, while Western-style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium for modern bulk printing.The use of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book-making. Gutenberg's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world.His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. | https://www.obalkyknih.cz/view_auth?auth_id=jn20000602739 |
In a short span of time, the world flourished. Rediscoveries of classical manuscripts lead to a new and improved period of art works. This period was responsible for the transformation between the medieval west and the modern western civilization, and in creating some of the greatest pieces of art that the world has ever witnessed. This period was known as The Renaissance, and as historian Paul Johnson explained it in his book Renaissance, A Short Hisotry, “The Renaissance was primarily a human event, propelled forward by a number of individuals of outstanding talent, in some cases amounting to genius.” From Dante, to Da Vinci, Gutenburg and others, they made The Renaissance a true historical phenomenon. The overwhelming emphasis on God started to deteriorate and people’s lives felt freer and less limited. Technology, education and expand of knowledge and ideas, medical science and the living environment excelled those of the Middle Ages. Life in The Renaissance thrived.
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In the Middle Ages, God and the church played a very important role in the medieval lives. God was the center of people’s lives, they worshipped him greatly. The pope was like God’s puppet, leading the church and running things through the ideas of God . The Church ran almost everything in the society and affected the way people lived. They believed God created the world and their main goal in life was to land in heaven. As the Middle Ages ended and The Renaissance began, importance started shifting from God to man and science, art, and humanism became the new main ideas. The Catholic Church’s influence and power over the people started to decline and individualism was emphasized. According to historian Jacob Burckhardt, the Middle Ages was a society where people were part of a class but the Renaissance saw a society change to one where individualism was stressed. He expresses this thought in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy where he stated:
“both sides of human consciousness – the side turned to the world and that turned inward – lay, as it were, beneath a common veil, dreaming or half awake. The veil was woven of faith, childlike prejudices, and illusion; seen through it, world and history appeared in strange hues; man recognized himself only as a member of a race, a nation, a party, a corporation, a family, or in some other general category. It was in Italy that this veil first melted into thin air, and awakened an objective perception and treatment of the state and all things of this world in general; but by its side, and with full power, there also arose the subjective; man becomes a self-aware individual and recognizes himself as such.”
He is basically saying that the idea of individualism started off in Italy, where The Renaissance began, and people started to view the world in a different way, while in the Middle Ages, everything was viewed ridiculously to him (childlike prejudices, illusion, world appearing in strange hues) and faith was very important. And it was, but as the Church’s importance faded, the lives of people saw more freedom in the centuries ahead.
An improvement of education, spread of Humanism, and expanding of knowledge took place in the Renaissance. Back in the Middle Ages, the Church played a major role in the education of the people. Boys were taught by Bishops and Monks, while girls were practically ignored when it came to education. The boys sat on the floor and scribbled notes onto wooden tablets. The teachings during the Middle Ages were based on scholasticism. They taught what the Church wanted them to teach (how the Church sees the world), it related to theories and faith, not by real facts or evidence. For example, they believed and taught that God created the world, and people’s ideas are born with their soul, it doesn’t come from anywhere else. When The Renaissance began, education became more important and popular. The opportunity for more to be educated was aided by the printing press. Education improved a little for girls, high class girls could go to school or they could receive some private tutoring. People started unearthing old manuscripts. People like Petrarch told that people shouldn’t be following Christ, they should be educated about the truth and facts written in the manuscripts. Humanism played an important role in the education of men, as opposed to the Middle Ages where the ideas of the Church did. It was the philosophical idea that concerned the life and values of human beings. Historian Bertrand Russell described this change of knowledge by saying “A good world needs knowledge, kindliness, and courage; it does not need a regretful hankering after the past or a fettering of the free intelligence by the words uttered long ago by ignorant men.” Math and accounting improved during the centuries, from children being able to learn the skills of being a merchant, to Fibonacci combining the rules of arithmetic and algebra in 1202. Not only that, knowledge of geography expanded more too during the Renaissance as America, the “New World” was discovered in 1492 by Columbus. Astronomy experienced some breakthroughs during the late Renaissance. In 1514, Nicolaus Copernicus discovered that the Earth revolved around the sun and published his idea of the solar system in his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Education and knowledge prospered in the minds of the Renaissance people.
The lives of The Renaissance civilians changed dramatically as new technologies were invented. There was an invention in The Renaissance that is considered the most significant. It was the printer press, which was invented in 1445 by Gutenburg. During the Middle Ages, monks had to copy the books by hand. It took months and years to complete a single book; as a result, books were really expensive back then. Most of the books were written in Latin and since most of the population wasn’t educated, they couldn’t read the books. Quantities of the Bible printed in The Renaissance were massive and it helped greatly in the spreading of religion. Middle class people could afford the books now, and they wanted them to be written in vernacular and with a more variety of topics. With increase of purchase in books, book trade and industries started to bloom, such as the paper making companies. With more people able to afford and acquire books, literacy rate increased gradually. Before The Renaissance, about 5-10% of the population could read or write, as The Renaissance progressed, the literacy rate went up to about 20-30%. The printing press helped tremendously in the spread of the new philosophical idea developed in The Renaissance, Humanism. The printing press was surely one of the biggest highlights of The Renaissance that leaves its mark here in the modern world still. Without it, writings weren’t able to be produced in such a short amount of time and money.
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Living life in both eras was a huge difference. The Middle Ages followed a system called Feudalism. It had a pyramid of power, which ranks from King all the way to the peasants. Life for the peasants were harsh, death was very common. A child who survived childhood was considered lucky and most parents were grateful to end up with one grown up child after many births. Children in the Middle Ages followed in their parent’s footsteps as soon as possible: peasant children doing labor, merchant children studying trade, and noble’s children training to be warriors or good wives. Feudalism started to decline in The Renaissance and cities and towns started to rise. This helped many merchants because as more products were demanded in shops, the product’s trade increased. For example, when the demand for expensive accessories increased, the trade increased too which made the merchants rich, and with their wealth, they buy other expensive accessories. During the Middle Ages, the Church adopted the ideas of Galen about the human body which were proved to be wrong in The Renaissance because dissecting human was banned during that time. Some of his errors were that he said the blood moved from the left side of the heart to the right by going through pores, when it is actually because of the pumping of the heart. He even said that the blood was produced from the liver. These theories and others he came up with were approved for over 1,400 years. It took centuries later in The Renaissance that his errors were corrected and medical science advanced. Understandings of the circulation of the blood in the body, invention of surgery equipments and the approval of dissecting bodies lead to new discoveries and treatments. From 1533-1536, Paré served as a French military surgeon, where he mastered surgery techniques, and he developed new treatments and equipments. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius’s book De Corporis Fabrica was published with accurate details of the human anatomy. And in 1628, William Harvey published his book De Mortu Cordis, explaining the circulation of the blood throughout the body. The church had trouble stopping these new discoveries (which disproved their beliefs) because of the printing press. Medically improved, The Renaissance provided a healthier and safer life for the people.
With all the developments, advances, and improvements, hardly anyone can deny The Renaissance wasn’t a better time to be living in than the Middle Ages. The 14th century just rocketed off from the centuries before, spiraling into a new universe with great educations, technologies, medicines, and lifestyles. The brilliant minds that made this era an era to remember will always be remembered. Their minds decorated and purified the world. They recovered the lost lives of people and left us to remember a rebirth that marked its place in history as one of the three greatest centuries of all time, The Renaissance.
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What Two Events Helped Bring About The Renaissance
The Renaissance was critical event in European history that stretched from the 14th century to the 17th century. The was came before by the Middle ages in Europe and also eventually brought about the major events of the period of Enlightenment. In historic terms the Renaissance is important due to the fact that it caused a major shift in european thought and also worldview. While the Renaissance is considered to have started in the city-states the the Italian peninsula in the 14th century, the main ideas of the movement ultimately spread to all of Europe by the 16th century. The most far-reaching changes that emerged as a result of the Renaissance deserve to be seen in european architecture, art, literature, mathematics, music, philosophy, politics, religion and science. Historians have figured out several causes for the emergence of the Renaissance adhering to the middle Ages, together as: raised interaction between different cultures, the rediscovery of ancient Greek and also Roman texts, the emergence of humanism, different imaginative and technical innovations, and the results of conflict and also death.
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The first main reason of the Renaissance to be the boosted interaction between different cultures and societies while before and also during the start of the Renaissance. This is important since at the moment Europe was in the middle of the middle Ages. The Middle periods (or medieval Period) had actually several an essential features such as:feudalismand devout religious faith in the type ofChristianity. These attributes (along with others) an unified to type a culture that was very rigid socially, religiously, and also politically. This method that European culture at the moment was no necessarily open to change. However, the significance of the Renaissance was the Europe competent a transition in worldview and perspective. This change was resulted in by new ideas, views and beliefs the Europe to be exposed to in the centuries prior to the begin of the Renaissance, which started in the 14th century.
First, large trade networks across Europe, Asia and also Africa led to increased interaction in between different societies which caused not only an exchange that goods, but also an exchange the people, beliefs, ideas and also values. The largest and most renowned of these trade networks was theSilk Road. The is perhaps among the earliest and also largest profession networks in human being history, and also played a vital role to plenty of different human beings throughout Eurasia from approximately 120 BCE come 1450 CE. In ~ its height, the Silk roadway stretched native Japan and also China in the east to the Mediterranean area consisting of Italy in the west, which to be a expectancy of end 4000 miles. Follow me the method it travelled through plenty of different regions including: India, Persia, the center East, Africa and Eastern Europe. There were plenty of different civilizations that participated in the Silk roadway over the century of that is existence. Obviously, Chinese and Mongol traders played an important role in the Silk Road, as countless of their products were highly preferred in faraway markets, such as Europe. Therefore, europe traders regularly travelled to locations in the Middle eastern to secure rare and desirable products, indigenous the far East. For your part, the traders that the middle Eastern people were essentially the middle men who traded items from both sides. When the Silk roadway is usually remembered because that the food and goods the were traded along the route, that is important to know that the Silk Road additionally involved the exchange of ideas. As mentioned earlier, the center Eastern people became significant centers of learning and knowledge throughout this timeframe. Because that example, mathematicians from the Middle eastern used understanding from eastern areas such together India to refine and improve mathematics, consisting of methods that room still used today.
Furthermore, spiritual and philosophical beliefs from the time period spread easily along the routes and had a profound affect on later occasions such together the Renaissance. For instance, ~ the Islamic faith originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century it quickly spread transparent the center East, Africa and even right into parts of Europe, as traders lugged their confidence with castle on the Silk Road. This influx of brand-new ideas inspired human being in Europe including artists, writers, philosophers and also more.
The second main interaction that arisen before that begin of the Renaissance to be the crusades. They to be a series of spiritual wars carried out by Christian crusaders from Europe throughout the timeframe of theMiddle Ages. Beginning in 1095 CE, the campaigns saw european knights and also noblemen travel to the Middle eastern in an effort to catch the holy Land away from Muslim human being that had controlled the an ar for the ahead centuries. In reality, over there were plenty of different crusades. Historians disagree on the specific number yet in general, there were nine key crusades and many other smaller people which occurred over a duration of 2 centuries.
The crusades were a major event in theMiddle Agesand had actually a profound affect on the civilization at the time. Because that example, one of the very first majorimpacts the the crusadeswas the it raised interaction in between different societies and groups the people. Because that instance, the crusades caused the faiths of Christianity, Judaism and also Islam come clash. In this conflict, human being of every faiths traveledvast ranges to fight over the city ofJerusalem, which each faith considered important to its spiritual heritage. This clash of spiritual ideals led to a sharing of ideas between the different spiritual groups and helped the values of each religious faith to spread into new areas. Arguably, the clash in between these 3 religions and also this area that the human being continues still today. Past religion, the interaction in between different teams of human being led to a spread of scientific and philosophical knowledge. The existence of the Silk road had already caused a substantial spread the ideas and knowledge across Eurasia, but the crusades continued and expanded the trend. At the outbreak the the campaigns in the 11th century, the Middle east was a significant center of learning and also knowledge. Because of its geographical location, the significant Middle Eastern human beings were at the crossroads of the Silk Road and also therefore benefitedgreatly native having access to both European and also Asian knowledge. As such, when European crusaders came into call with middle Eastern individuals they were exposed to brand-new ideas and also inventions which ultimately made their way back into European society. Because that example, the europeans learned new understandings around mathematics from center Eastern mathematicians that were by far the most advanced at the time. Likewise related to knowledge, the various societies connected in the crusades were exposed to every other’s culture. This intended that every side learned brand-new understandings about food, cultural practices and celebrations.
The following main cause of the Renaissance was the rediscovery by european thinkers of ancient Greek and also Roman ideas and also texts. For example, the term ‘renaissance’ in French method ‘rebirth’. This is in relationship to the idea the the intellectual culture of the Renaissance was sparked by the rediscovery of these ancient philosophies and ideas which had largely to be ignored in Europe throughout the center Ages. Plenty of of these old texts were preserved by Islamic and Jewish societies in the middle East and were not rediscovered by europe until the moment of the Renaissance.
More specifically, famous Italian Renaissance scholar and humanist Petrarch (also known as Francesco Petrarca) is remembered for rediscovering the earlier work the Roman thinker Cicero. Cicero to be born in Italy in 106 BC and also died in 43 BC. The is concerned as one of the most masterful authors of his time and also the Latin language. Petrarch’s rediscovery in the 14th century the Cicero’s letters is thought about to be the spark the the Italian Renaissance and also inspired other European scholars to perform the same and look to old texts. Petrarch taken into consideration the principles present in Cicero’s and also other ancient texts as exceptional to the principles present in Europe at the moment of the center Ages. As well, Petrarch is taken into consideration to it is in the founder of the humanist movement throughout the Renaissance.
In general, Renaissance Humanism to be the study of old Greek and Roman messages with the goal of promoting new norms and values in society. This norms and also views varied from those at the time because they focusedless heavily on a religious worldview. Instead, Renaissance humanists such as Petrarch use old texts to promote a worldview based on logic and reason. This was to be accomplished through the research of the‘studia humanitatis’, which now is known as thehumanities and includes topics together as:grammar,history,poetry, and philosophy. Renaissance humanists such together Petrarch (and others includingErasmus that Rotterdam) promoted the idea that citizens must be education in this topics in stimulate to enable them to take part in the social and political life of their society. This was a fundamental shift from the feudalistic and spiritual life the was the fact for most civilization in the Europe in the middle Ages. Together such, Petrarch’s actions are taken into consideration to be important to the emergence and growth the the in its entirety Renaissance.
The following main reason of the Renaissance in Europe was the various innovations the the time, specifically in publishing and also art. In regards to publishing, the printing push was one of the most significant innovations in every one of world history. German blacksmith, goldsmith and also printer john Gutenberg arisen the an initial printing push in the mid-1400s and also it conveniently had a profound influence on the events of the Renaissance (as well together later occasions such as the Enlightenment). Prior to the to press press, books and other literature were created through a varied assortment of approaches (woodblock press, etc.) which to be all job intensive and also slow. Gutenberg’s invention was the advance of a hand moldthat enabled for an accurate movable type. This supposed that he perfected the procedure of make movable kind pieces because that easily and also quickly creating type-font documents. This sped up the printing process and made it very affordable, which enabled for an explosion in the publishing and also printing that books. For example, the Gutenberg holy bible was the an initial book to be mass developed on the Gutenberg print press. The invention and also use of the printing press in Europe was vital for the Renaissance due to the fact that it allowed brand-new ideas and also worldviews to spread throughout the continent much more easily.
At the core, the Renaissance to be about new ideas (such ashumanism) overthrowing old views and customs (such as religious beliefs and practises and feudal traditions). Therefore, the invention of the to press press permitted these brand-new ideas come spread and also further boost the in its entirety Renaissance. One more important point around the printing push was the it tested long hosted literacy and educational standards. V the mass production of books and also other literature an ext poor and middle class people in Europe started to read. This allowed normal civilization to read and understand the brand-new ideas native the scholars, writers and also scientists the the Renaissance. Enhanced literacy challenged the strength of the wealthy, nobility and also the church, since they to be the traditionally the just educated citizens. Together well, the development of the printing press would at some point have a profound impact on spiritual beliefs across Europe. Since an ext and much more people might read castle no longer had actually to rely on local priests and also the Catholic Church for translate of the Bible. In fact, numerous people started to read and also interpret the bible for themselves. This ultimately led to the protestant Reformation and fundamentally altered spiritual life for people in Europe.
Another dramatic innovation that caused the Renaissance was in the imaginative styles and also methods offered by Renaissance painters. Today, the Renaissance is perhaps finest known for the famed artists and their famous works the art. Previous come the Renaissance, in the middle Ages, art was much much more stylized and focused on religious themes. This method that the art in the center Ages presented humans and also the world in a an ext unrealistic however stylized fashion. However, in the Renaissance, European artists were influenced to create paintings and also sculptures the focused more on the realities of day-to-day life and also real people. This was likely as result of the influence of humanism that aided spark the Renaissance. Also, just as scholar such as Petrarch were inspired by previously Greek and also Roman workers, so also were Renaissance artists. This expected realism and also the human type were necessary and central to the new styles that art.
"Mona Lisa" through Leonardo da Vinci from roughly between 1503 and 1517. Housed now in the Musée du Louvre in Paris, France.
Furthermore, Renaissance artists together asLeonardo da VinciandMichelangelopioneered brand-new skills and techniques, together as linear perspective, that allowed them come portray people and the civilization in news ways. Linear perspective was the method of giving realistic depth come an image. It involvedcreating the illusion of depth by using angled lines and also shadowing. Another method from the Renaissance was sfumato. This was a painting method whereby the painter would soften the lines and blend the various paints to produce blurred areas. This is likely best displayed in da Vinci’s renowned ‘Mona Lisa’. The masterful work-related of art does not emphasis on spiritual themes or stylized depictions that the world however rather shows an unknown woman in a reality fashion. In fact, throughout background the painting has actually been praised because that its usage of shading and also blending to boost the photograph realisticnature the the art. In addition, Michelangelo’s renowned sculpture ‘David’ shown the human kind in a realistic and proportional nature. Therefore, these advancements in art assisted spread the Renaissance principles as much more artists throughout Europe embraced the new techniques and also methods. Together well, the helped civilization view human being beings and also life in a lot different method than they had previously in the earlier centuries.
The final reason of the Renaissance to be the impact of theBlack Death. TheBlack Deathis among the most important events in Western history and is the most well known pandemic in every one of human history. A pandemic is the term provided to explain the spread out of an infectious condition over a large area including the entire planet. The black Death occurred during the 14th century and also ravaged human being populations transparent Asia and also Europe as it spread along profession routes and through trading ports. Throughout history it has also been described as the ‘Great Mortality’ and also ‘Great Pestilence’. The fatality toll the the Black fatality is a debated topic and different chroniclers have readily available different see on the issue. Regardless, the reported death tolls are huge with some saying that it brought about the deaths of between 75 and also 200 million civilization in Europe and also Asia. These high numbers imply that in between 30% and 60% of human being died because of the infectious disease. Some areas suffered an ext than others, however in general it is widely welcomed that approximately fifty percent of Europeans died as a an outcome of the disease. For example, it has been taped that both Paris, France and London, England saw fifty percent of their populaces succumb to the pandemic.
The black color Death also had disastrous results in the middle East and Asia with equally dramatic fatality tolls. If the Black death was a horrific occasion that resulted in widespread fatality there were also several significant developments during the time duration of the Late center Ages and just before the begin of the Renaissance. The Black death is critical cause of the Renaissance due to the fact that it caused civilization to inquiry and an obstacle their own spiritual beliefs. This to be because, in ~ the time, there to be no clear reasons for the spread out of the disease and civilization did not understand exactly how to protect against it. As a result, many people said that it was god’s will and also used their religious understanding to explain its spread. Together a result, this collection the stage for some people to concern the authority of the Catholic Church and permitted for new ideas and change to enter into europe society. Furthermore, the big death price of the Black fatality caused massive alters in the populace and riches of Europe. Many world migrated out of details areas as soon as the torment spread and also as a result, all of Europe was thrown into an upheaval. This at some point shifted the balance of power and also wealth in european societies and helped bring around the prominence of number of city-states in Italy, i beg your pardon is wherein the Renaissance very first began. Together a result, the black color Death and also its effects can be viewed as a cause of the overall Renaissance.
See more: Did South Africa Practiced Subjugation., Patterns Of Intergroup Relations Flashcards
In conclusion, historians have established several causes of the Renaissance in Europe, including: enhanced interaction in between different cultures, the rediscovery of old Greek and also Roman texts, the appearance of humanism, different imaginative and technological innovations, and also the impacts of conflict and death. | https://medtox.org/what-two-events-helped-bring-about-the-renaissance/ |
The Northern Renaissance refers to the Renaissance outside of Italy but within Europe. Typically the main centre's for art included the Netherlands, Germany and France and all of these countries have become known by the collective name of Northern (North of Italy). Northern Renaissance Art evolved simultaneously but independently from its Italian counterpart. In Italy patrons of the arts tended to be great, and very wealthy families, the Catholic church, or commissions from the many city-states who competed with each other for prestige and power.
The house of Burgundy was influential as a patron of the Northern Renaissance artists (Van Eyke is a good example), the fact is that we do not have as much information about the artists of the North, their work is wider spread and generally less well documented than that of their Italian counterparts. The artists of the North differed from their Italian counterparts in that the influence of Gothic art was much longer lasting than in Italy.
Although the precision of the early Northern works was much admired in Italy, Northern artists only absorbed Italian ideas at the end of the 15th century.
Technical differences between Italy and the North centred on the use of oil paint pioneered by Northern artists such as Jan van Eyck and Robert Campin. Also, the climate of the North did not lend itself to the fresco techniques of Italy, the drying times are just too great, as a result, the North produced very little great works using fresco. Unlike the Renaissance in Italy the artists of the North were less driven by the need to recapture the art of classical antiquity, (they did not share the Italian Mediterranean, Roman and Greek legacy), rather the upheaval in religious reform was the overriding factor in which intellectuals and artists immersed themselves.
The first great master of early Netherlands' painting was Robert Campin, also known as Master of Flémalle. A contemporary of Jan Van Eyke his work owes much to the illuminated manuscripts so painstakingly reproduced in books and paid for by wealthy patrons (this was before the invention of the printing press).
Masters of Northern Renaissance Art.
Man In a red turban.
Robert Campin, Portrait of a Woman.
Limbourg Brothers 1413/16 September. From theTrès Riches Heures. Illuminated manuscript.
Limbourg Brothers 1413-1416, from the Très Riches Heures. The purification of the Virgin.
Guttenberg's invention of the printing press in the 1440s resulted in an explosion of knowledge. The advent of the printed book, previously only available as a symbol of prestige to the elite, was to revolutionise the spread of information. This was vital to the development of the Renaissance in the North and in Italy.
The Limbourg brothers from the city of Nijmegen in Holland are perhaps the best-known exponents of the late medieval illuminated manuscript. Their Très Riches Heures created for the French prince Jean de Berry is a fine example of their work.
Hieronymus Bosch . (Detail). Garden of Earthly Delights.
Other notable artists of this early period are Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes. Van der Weyden had visited Italy but his art remained true to the Flemish style, he followed Van Eyke in the service of the Court of Burgundy. Van der Goes was also typically Northern in his approach to painting, however, his work was much admired in Italy.
The highly individual work of the artist Hieronymus Bosch, laden with twisted surreal imagery, perhaps set him apart from his contemporaries.
The Ambassadors (detail) (s) Hans Holbein.
Matthias Grunewald. Christ on the Cross.
The German artist Albrecht Durer was not only a painter but was also proficient in engraving, printmaking and mathematics. It was Durer who, more than any other Northern artist, was influenced and absorbed the lessons of the Italian Renaissance.
Germany was at the centre of what was in effect the High Renaissance period of Northern art. Two artists Albrecht Durer and Matthias Grunewald although contemporaries displayed differing styles in their work. Unlike Durer Grunewald's art remained essentially steeped in the late medieval period and was not influenced by Renaissance classicism. Another German artist of this later period, Hans Holbein the Younger, is famous for his work in the English Court of Henry VIII.
The Northern Renaissance was greatly influenced by the Reformation which questioned and weakened the power of the Catholic Church. New 15th and 16th-century ideas and discoveries changed the world forever. From the voyage of Columbus to America in 1492 and Magellan's first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519-22, proving that the Earth was round, to the previously mentioned invention of the printing press the Renaissance in Italy and in the North marked the passage from the medieval to the modern age. | https://www.italian-renaissance-art.com/Northern-Renaissance-Art.html |
Beyond the Costumes: History of The Renaissance
The word "renaissance" means "new birth." Near the end of the Middle Ages, a new sense of cultural and intellectual awareness developed in Europe that involved art and literature. Examining the Renaissance period fully should include a look at the culture that arose as people pursued new directions in education and religion. Even the clothing and costumes people wore were distinctive in this era. The plague played a contributing role in the birth of the Renaissance due to the significant disruptions and upheavals caused by what became known as the Black Death. Scholars during this period began exploring past the standard theological confines, which fueled the expansion of culture and the humanities.
The Plague
Expanding trade between the East and the West in the late Middle Ages is a possible cause of the initial spread of the plague. Trade routes traveled by merchants were infested by rodents, which carried parasites. Sometime during the mid-1300s, the plague arrived in Western Europe, where it soon moved into northern Africa and the Middle East. The disease spread quickly, with devastating results. Some historians estimate that as many as 25 million people perished of the Black Death between 1347 and 1352. Some estimates put the death count at 60 percent of the entire population of Europe throughout the 14th century.
Religion
With the vastness of devastation from the plague, important religious shifts occurred among the people. Many assumed that God was deaf to their suffering. Relative stability crumbled, and it was replaced with violence, confusion, and hostility. As time went on and recovery began, a new way of thinking became common for plague survivors. They began seeking new ways to enjoy life, and these pursuits centered around their human abilities. Instead of a single focus on church and religion, the people split their focus between worshiping God and an inward faith in the individual. People became excited about exploring their artistic capabilities, and they invested significant time in studying the arts.
Culture
New ways of thinking and broadened horizons led to significant cultural growth across Europe. Literature took voice as artists began composing music, poetry, and other works. After its inception in Italy, the Renaissance began spreading across Western Europe. Italians had a strong connection with ancient Rome and ancient Greece, which gave them an ideal position for pursuing new avenues of classical art and literature. Humanists of the era delved into expansive studies of the classical arts as they strove to share appreciation of this beauty with others. Furthering the work began by the classical artists became the trend of the Renaissance. The invention of the printing press was also a significant event during this era because it enabled faster and less expensive production of books. As more people had access to books, literacy rates grew and people's knowledge increased exponentially. This enlightenment served to empower the people, which in turn led to grand developments in architecture, painting, music, and literature.
Styles of Dress
New ways of dressing also accompanied the enlightenment. Costumes became ornate and excessive, involving padding, feathers, heavy fabrics, and headdresses. The people preferred dark colors such as black, gold, and burgundy. Men often wore their hair short, either curled or straight. Women usually styled their hair elaborately.
From Renaissance into Reformation
The ability to read gave people new courage and convictions. Instead of being told what to believe, the people could read their own Bibles and make their own interpretations. These new insights enabled the people to reject the all-powerful Catholic Church and its insidious corruption. Up until this time, the Catholic pope possessed power that even usurped that of the reigning monarchy, but the people would no longer accept this.
Martin Luther was instrumental in the Reformation and subsequent Protestantism movement. Luther's goals included purifying the church of corruption and focusing beliefs on the Bible instead of traditions. Luther used the new printing press to share his convictions, composing the "95 Theses," which was a list of questions meant to spark debate. What likely was created by Luther to open up a dialogue had a very different result within the Catholic Church. The pope rejected Luther's ideas and labeled them heresy. When Luther refused to recant his position, the pope excommunicated him from the Catholic Church. This event was influential in the Reformation.
- The Renaissance
- Renaissance Dress History
- Renaissance: Focus on Florence
- Renaissance Individualism
- Architecture in Renaissance Italy
- Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe (PDF)
- The Black Death
- The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever
- Renaissance Art and Literature
- Medieval Europe: The "Dark Ages" | https://www.halloweencostumes.com/beyond-the-costumes-history-of-the-renaissance.html |
Renaissance period ranging from AD 1300 to AD 1600 marks a period of human awakening in which the mankind leaped to the brighter modern era from the less bright middle ages. Inventions in the field of science and technology, developments in various art forms and formation of new faith, beliefs and practices in politics and religion during this period paved way for drastic changes in the intellectual, social and cultural perceptions of mankind. In this article we are going to explore the most important inventions during this period which have helped to change the destiny and progress of mankind.
The idea of steam engine was introduced in the first century by a Greek mathematician known as ‘Hero of Alexandria’.
Elementary steam engines were developed from sixteenth century onwards. Thomas Savery developed the first water pump powered by steam and this is considered as the first steam engine of the modern form.
Savery had spent much energy and time studying and planning how to construct a steam engine and operate it successfully. In 1698 he could successfully construct a steam engine which was called a ‘fire engine’ and a working model was given to ‘Royal Society of London’. He continued the experiments and spent much time in perfecting the engine and demonstrated the performance of the stream engine before King William III and secured a patent for his invention without much delay.
Even though the steam engine developed by Savery was a crude model and was not economical as large quantity of coal was needed for producing the steam, this was a great leap in the history of mankind. This invention helped to accelerate the industrial revolution which had already started taking shape. Further developments were introduced by Thomas Newcomen who developed an improved version known as ‘atmospheric engine’.
Another scientist James Watt modified the ‘atmospheric engine’ by attaching a separate condenser. By this improvement the use of coal was reduced by 75 % and steam engines became cheaper to operate.
Johannes Guttenberg, a German and a goldsmith by profession developed the first printing press. Guttenberg started the task of producing the printing press in AD 1436 with borrowed money and was completed successfully in AD 1440.
The printing press developed by Guttenberg used metal letters which can be replaced easily by other letters. The required metal letters are selected and attached in lines in their correct positions. Printing ink is applied to this plate and the plate is pressed with high pressure on the paper thereby creating the impression of the letters on the paper.
To demonstrate the effectiveness of the printing press, he printed the holy bible, which contained 42 lines per page. Some copies of the holy bible printed by Guttenberg are still available in archives.
The introduction of fast and easy printing technique was a curtain raiser for the spread of knowledge and culture across the world. The accumulated knowledge of the previous centuries was made available to everybody by the quick, cheap and easy printing system developed by Guttenberg.
The credit of invention of telescope goes to Galileo Galilei. This is a very interesting story. A Dutch lens maker offered a new instrument which can be used to see the distant objects magnified. As soon as Galilei came to know about this fact, he started constructing the device himself. In 1609 he began to use this instrument known as telescope to observe heavenly objects and became the first person to do so.
The first instrument developed by him was having a magnification power of three only. With hard work he could improve the magnification power to 30 and was able to conduct a detailed study about moon. He also discovered that stars are a part of the Milky Way and also found out that Jupiter has four moons.
It is believed that measurement of time was known to man even during the period around 4000 BC. In those days primitive form of clocks like sundials and water clocks were used to measure/know time. The development of mechanical clock was a gradual process which took several years to reach its present stage. In the earlier mechanical clocks mercury was allowed to pass through the holes on the drums. These drums had compartments which contained mercury. The movement of the drum was controlled by the flow of mercury. By the introduction of the mechanical clocks it became possible to measure the time period of a day as twenty four hours and its fractions. It is believed that Filippo Brunelleschi in Florence, Italy, invented mechanical clocks in 1410.
Leonardo Da Vinci, the famous artist and scientist does not hold the credit of inventing the mechanical clock, but had contributed considerably to the development of the modern mechanical clock.
Rockets were used in the second, third and fourth Mysore wars. After these wars some Mysore rockets were transported to England. William Congreve spearheaded the mission for the development of better rockets. In 1805 AD Royal Arsenal, the British armed force’s research and development center demonstrated the use of solid rockets by test firing them. William Congreve made use of launching tubes to improve the accuracy of the rockets.
Another important invention which helped in the growth of civilization was the magnetic compass. Though the compass was invented originally by Chinese during the regime of Qin dynasty during the second century BC, it was used as an instrument for navigation by Zheng He, the famous Chinese warrior and navigator. He conducted seven voyages through Indian Ocean with a fleet of ships which opened opportunities for trade with India, China and Africa. The magnetic compass was improved upon during early renaissance era.
Hans Janssen and Zacharias Janssen jointly hold the credit for the invention of the microscope. Hans Janssen is the father of Zacharias Janssen. Both of them were engaged in spectacle making and were interested in experimenting with lens. The first compound microscope is considered to be developed around 1590 and Zacharias Janssen was too young at that time. It is believed that the father invented the microscope and the son developed it, taking into account the age factor of both these persons. In the 17th century, Anthony van Leeuwenhoek made microscopes with magnification up to 270 times original size.
Flush toilets have been used since ancient BC; but the credit of introducing the flushing water closet of the renaissance era goes to John Harrington, who erected his first flushing water closet at Kelston which is near to Bath in England. The design had a flush valve to let water out of the tank, and a wash-down design to empty the bowl. Queen Elizabeth-I got interested in this new system and the same was erected in the Royal Palace also. The flushing water closet worked satisfactorily for some time. One of the inconveniences inherent with the system was that the ventilation of the system was not perfect. Because of this imperfection, sewer gases leaked to the Royal Palace also. Queen overcame this drawback by placing fragrances and herbs in the rooms of the palace.
Leonardo Da Vinci has developed the idea of a submarine. Like many of the other novel ideas put forward by him this also remained in paper till Cornelius Van Drebbel dared to take up the task and constructed a submarine. He successfully constructed the submarine and operated it at a depth between 12 to 15 feet under water. His submarine was made of wood and was covered with water proof leather. Oars protruded out of the submerged vessel and the power of oarsmen moved the submarine.
Robert Boyle the famous scientist was the first person on earth to produce fire by chemical action of two substances which paved the way for the modern match boxes. He found that if phosphorus and sulfur are rubbed together it would instantly burst into flame. He was convinced that the friction between the two substances is not the reason for the formation of the flames. The modern matches were developed as a result of further experimentation in 1827 by John Walker, an English chemist and apothecary. He used antimony sulfide, potassium chloride, gum and starch to create the first set of friction matches.
It is believed that the eye glasses were invented by Salvino D’Amate who lived in Florence. While D’Amate was experimenting with refraction of light he got injured in his eyes. During the earlier experiments he had found out a method to increase the image size of the objects by using two convex mirrors. He applied the above knowledge to improve the visibility of his own eyes and by continuous experimentation he could develop the first eye glass. | http://www.inventionware.com/renaissance-inventions/ |
Have you ever had that feeling where you wake up one morning and suddenly things feel different? The air feels electric. You see things in a different way. Some would say this is what happened during the 400-year Renaissance era. It was during this time that Europe ushered in a wave of artistic vitality, economic prosperity, scientific discovery, and innovative advancements in technology and medicine. So, what exactly was the Renaissance, and why was it important? When was the Renaissance and what were some of the big takeaways from the era? We’ll look at these questions and more in this post.
What was the Renaissance?
The Renaissance was a period of European history marking the transition between the middle ages and the modern era. Renaissance is a French word literally meaning “rebirth”.
During the middle ages, many influential leaders and cultural ambassadors noticed a decline in society’s intellect and progression, and the Renaissance has traditionally been viewed as a break from the past ways of thinking (hence the term, “rebirth”), with a new societal focus on intellect, art, philosophy, and other elements of classical antiquity.
A major element of the Renaissance with the re-emergence of the classical Greek philosophy of humanism. Humanists believed that all citizens should be able to speak and write and engage in civic life. They emphasized the importance of learning, especially the branch of academia today known as the humanities. The Renaissance in Europe lasted for nearly 400 years.
When Was the Renaissance?
The Renaissance spanned from the 14th to 17th centuries, but it is virtually impossible to give the era an exact start and end point. We do know that the Renaissance seemed to have emerged from Florence, Italy, and some have given the start date of 1401. But many scholars would be quick to point out that even in the late 13th century, works by authors like Dante Alighieri and Petrarch were already expressing Renaissance ideals.
Much like trying to find a starting point, there is also little consensus as to why and how the Renaissance started in Italy. There have been various theories to try and explain it, including the peculiarity of Florence at the time, Italy’s political structure, and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy. Whatever the direct cause, Renaissance ideals would soon spread elsewhere in Italy, especially in cities like Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, and Rome.
By the 15th century, the Renaissance had spread across Italy and was beginning to take hold in other parts of Europe. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg would vastly aid in the dissemination of these new ideas. As the Renaissance began to emerge in other countries, many of the ideas diversified and altered to adapt to cultures in other parts of the continent. Today, it is common to see the Renaissance broken down into more regional movements.
Why Was Renaissance Important?
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that affected intellectual life across multiple fields and areas of study. It was important historically because of all the changes it brought with it. A greater emphasis was placed on learning through studying classical sources. Paintings became more real and lifelike. Diplomacy became more modernized. The scientific method was brought back to the forefront. The arts flourished, as did polymaths, who would inspire the term “Renaissance man”. It was a time of great social and cultural change.
Many of the new ideas and thoughts from the Renaissance would inspire great artistic masterpieces by artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. It was also during this time we see an increase in exploration, and much of the world is mapped. We also start to see effects on theology, with humanists like Martin Luther seeking to reform the old ways of religion.
Everything changes over time, becoming new and different depending on various circumstances and situations. If we take anything from the Renaissance era, we can take comfort in the fact that we are meant to change and progress forward. This sometimes means losing parts of our self, but that’s okay. The discoveries and innovation on the other side are greater than that which we lost.
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Or, test your trivia knowledge with some fun history quizzes on Sporcle. You can start with the quiz below! | https://www.sporcle.com/blog/2019/02/when-was-the-renaissance/ |
Why is Business Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence Important?
Business intelligence — which is the ability to make better decisions on real-time, visual data — will be the reason for the next renaissance.
The last renaissance was after the printing press revolutionized humanity by causing literacy to increase after its invention in the 1440s. But literacy didn’t actually skyrocket until the Industrial Revolution made literacy economically valuable. Instruction manuals for machines became important to read during the Industrial Revolution. Books were cheaper and more subjects were available.
Are you managing your entire company from a spreadsheet? How are you going to grow with those document management tools? Does your SharePoint work the way you want it to? | https://www.hingepoint.com/blog/microsoft/why-is-business-intelligence-so-important/ |
The Renaissance was a period of European history that began in 14th-century Italy and spread to the rest of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. In this period, the feudal society of the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) was transformed into a society dominated by central political institutions, with an urban, commercial economy and patronage of education, the arts, and music. The term renaissance, literally meaning "rebirth," was first employed in 1855 by French historian Jules Michelet (Paolucci 14). Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt, in his classic work The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), defined the Renaissance as the period between Italian painters Giotto and Michelangelo (Paolucci 18). Burckhardt characterized it as the birth of modern humanity after a long period of decay, although modern scholars have since debunked the myth that the Middle Ages were dark and dominant (Paolucci 18).
The Italian Renaissance developed in cities such as Florence, Milan, and Venice, which had emerged during the 12th and 13th centuries as new commercial developments allowed them to expand (Paolucci 12). This mercantile society contrasted sharply with the rural, tradition bound society of medieval Europe. A significant break with tradition came in the field of history, as Renaissance historians rejected the medieval Christian views of history (Cole 40). Studies such as the Florentine History (1525) of Niccolo Machiavelli revealed a secular view of time and a critical attitude toward sources (Cole 44). This secular view was expressed by many Renaissance thinkers known as humanists. Humanism was another cultural break with medieval tradition; under its ideas scholars valued classical texts on their own terms, not merely as justifications of Christianity (Cole 56). The study of ancient literature, history, and moral philosophy was meant to produce free and educated citizens, rather than priests and monks (Cole 57). Classical manuscripts such as the dialogues of Greek philosopher Plato and the works of the Greek dramatists were rediscovered and critically edited for the first time. These activities and other humanistic studies and artistic endeavors were supported by leading families such as Medici of Florence, and also by papal Rome and the doges of Venice (Cole 60). From the mid-15th century on, classical form was rejoined with classical subject matter, and mythological scenes adorned palaces, walls, and plates (Cole 61). The Renaissance ideals of harmony and proportion culminated in the works of Italian artists Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo in the 16th century.
Progress was made in medicine, anatomy, mathematics, and especially astronomy, with the innovative work of Nicolaus Copernicus of Poland, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, Johannes Kepler of Germany, and Galileo of Italy (Gilbert 36). Geography was transformed by new knowledge derived from explorations. The invention of printing in the 15th... | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/renaissance-art-4 |
Europe in the Middle Ages(Medieval times, Middle Ages, Dark Ages) A prequel to Chapter 1
In the fifth century, the Roman Empire broke down. • Europe was politically fragmented, with Germanic kings ruling a number of dissimilar kingdoms. • Self-sufficient farming estates called manors were the primary centers of food production. • Manors grew from the need for self-sufficiency and self-defense. • The lord of a manor had almost unlimited power over his agricultural workers—the serfs.
During the early medieval period, a class of nobles emerged and developed into mounted knights. • Landholding and military service became almost inseparable.
The complex network of relationships between landholding and the obligation to provide military service to a lord is often referred to as feudalism. • Kings were weak because they depended on their vassals. • For most medieval people, the lord’s manor was the government. • Noble women were pawns in marriage politics. Women could own land, however, and non-noble women worked alongside the men. • The medieval diet in the north was based on beer, lard or butter, and bread. In the south, the staples were wheat, wine, and olive oil.
One of the most powerful institutions of the Middle Ages was the Catholic Church. • The Church owned large tracts of land • Monasteries were an escape for those that wanted out of the marriage plots and often unfair inheritance laws. • Most of the educated people of the time were members of the clergy. • The Church often offered relief in disasters and charity to the poor
No one could predict or protect you from the plague • Boils, pain, fever, swelling, black tongue… Not pretty. • Huge death tools all over Europe • Resulted in a new attitude about life • Led to higher wages and better living conditions.
Chapter 1: European Renaissance and Reformation, 1300-1600 Two movements, the Renaissance and the Reformation, usher in dramatic social and cultural changes in Europe.
Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance • The Italian Renaissance is a rebirth of learning that produces many great works of art and literature. • The “rebirth” refers to the Renaissance artists’, writers’, and philosophers’ focus on a return to classic Greek and Roman principles.
Why Italy? Italy had 3 major advantages: • thriving cities • a wealthy merchant class • the heritage of classical Greece and Rome.
City-States • Italy was not a united country, but instead a group of individual city-states • The Crusades spurred trade • Increased trade led to growth of the city-states in northern Italy and the growth of the merchant class • In 1300s bubonic plague killed 60% of population which disrupted the economy • Survivors then demanded higher wages
Wealthy merchant class • A wealthy merchant class develops • More emphasis on individual achievement • Wealthy merchant families begin to play a major role in governing the city-states • Banking family, the Medici, controls Florence • Wealthy merchants began to use art as a way to display their wealth and status.
The legacy of Greece and Rome • Rebirth of Greek and Roman art styles and philosophy, known as “classics” • Artists and scholars study ruins of Rome along with Latin and Greek manuscripts • Scholars move to Rome after fall of Constantinople in 1453
Worldly Values • Classics Lead to Humanism • Humanism—intellectual movement focused on human achievements • Humanists studied classical texts, history, literature, philosophy • Worldly Pleasures • Renaissance society was secular—worldly • Wealthy enjoyed fine food, homes, clothes
In the Middle Ages artists were not paid very well and gained very little fame, that changed in the Renaissance. Patrons of the Arts • Patron—a financial supporter of artists • Church leaders spend money on artworks to beautify cities • Wealthy merchants also patrons of the arts
The Renaissance Man • Excels in many fields: the classics, art, politics, combat • Baldassare Castiglione’s The Courtier (1528) • The book teaches how to become a “universal” person • Most famous example is probably Leonardo da Vinci • More on da Vinci later…
The Renaissance Woman • Upper-class, educated in classics, charming • Expected to inspire art but not create it • Isabella d’Este, patron of artists, wields power in Mantua
The Renaissance Revolutionized Art • Artistic Styles Change • Artists use realistic style copied from classical art, often to portray religious subjects • Painters use perspective—a way to show three dimensions on a canvas • Realistic Painting and Sculpture • Realistic portraits of prominent citizens • Sculpture shows natural postures and expressions • The biblical David is a favorite subject among sculptors
Michelangelo • Painter and sculptor • the Sistine Chapel • The David
Leonardo, Renaissance Man • Leonardo da Vinci—painter, sculptor, inventor, scientist • Paints one of the best-known portraits in the world: the Mona Lisa • Famous religious painting: The Last Supper
Leonardo da Vinci • Da Vinci was so much more than painter in the early 1500s, he was a sculptor, inventor, writer, anatomist, engineer, astronomer, and much more!
Raphael Advances Realism • Raphael Sanzio, famous for his use of perspective • Favorite subject: the Madonna and child • Famous painting: School of Athens
Anguissola and Gentileschi • Sofonisba Anguissola: first woman artist to gain world renown • Artemisia Gentileschi paints strong, heroic women
Renaissance Writers Change Literature • New Trends in Writing • Writers use the vernacular—their native language • Self-expression or to portray individuality of the subject • Machievelli Advises Rulers • NiccolòMachievelli, author of political guidebook, The Prince • The Prince examines how rulers can gain and keep power
In the 1400s, the ideas of the Italian Renaissance begin to spread to Northern Europe. Section 2: The northern Renaissance
Renaissance Ideas Spread • Spirit of Renaissance Italy impresses visitors from northern Europe • When Hundred Years’War ends (1453), cities grow rapidly • between England and France over who would rule France • Merchants in northern cities grow wealthy and sponsor artists • England and France unify under strong monarchs who are art patrons • Northern Renaissance artists interested in realism • Humanists interested in social reform based on Judeo-Christian values
Northern Artists • German Painters • Albrecht Dürer’s woodcuts and engravings emphasize realism • Hans Holbein the Younger paints portraits, often of English royalty • Flemish Painters • Flanders is the artistic center of northern Europe • Jan van Eyck, pioneer in oil-based painting, uses layers of paint • Van Eyck’s paintings are realistic and reveal subject’s personality • Pieter Bruegel captures scenes of peasant life with realistic details
Northern Humanists • Criticize the Catholic Church, start Christian humanism • Want to reform society and promote education, particularly for women • Christian Humanists • Desiderius Erasmus of Holland is best-known Christian humanist • His book, The Praise of Folly, pokes fun at merchants and priests • Thomas More of England creates a model society in his book Utopia
Queen Elizabeth I • Renaissance spreads to England in mid-1500s • Period known as the Elizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I • Elizabeth reigns from 1558 to 1603
William Shakespeare • Shakespeareis often regarded as the greatest playwright • Born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564 • Plays performed at London’s Globe Theater
Printing Changes the World! • Chinese and Korean Invention • Movable type, around 1000 • It uses a separate piece of type for each character • Gutenberg Improves the Printing Process • Around 1440 JohannGutenberg of Germany develops printing press • Printing press allows for quick, cheap book production • First book printed with movable type, Gutenberg Bible (1455)
Legacy and Lasting Impression of the Renaissance • Changes in the Arts • Art influenced by classical Greece and Rome • Realistic portrayals of individuals and nature • Art is both secular and religious • Writers use vernacular • Art praises individual achievement
Changes in Society • Printing makes information widely available • Illiterate people benefit by having books read to them • Published accounts of maps and charts lead to more discoveries • Published legal proceedings make rights clearer to people • Political structures and religious practices are questioned
The Protestant Reformation • 1517-Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the church door **Beginning of Protestant Reformation • Luther questioned the Catholic Church and its corruption and his followers became known as the Lutheran Church
Section 3: Luther Leads a Reformation • By 1500, Renaissance values emphasizing the individual and worldly life weakened the influence of the Church. • At the same time, many people sharply criticized the Church for some of its practices.
Popes seemed more concerned with luxury and political power than with spiritual matters. • Critics resented the fact that they paid taxes to support the Church in Rome. • The lower clergy had faults. Many local priests lacked education and couldn’t teach people. Others took actions that broke their vows as priests.
In the past, reformers had urged that the Church change its ways to become more spiritual and humble. Christian humanists such as Erasmus and More added their voices to calls for change. • In the early 1500s, the calls grew louder. • In 1517, a German monk and professor named Martin Luther protested some actions of a Church official.
That person was selling what were called indulgences. By paying money to the Church, people thought they could win salvation. Luther challenged this practice and others. • He posted a written protest on the door of a castle church. His words were quickly printed and began to spread throughout Germany.
Thus began the Reformation, the movement for reform that led to the founding of new Christian churches. • Soon Luther pushed for broader changes. He said that people could win salvation only through faith, not good works. He said that religious beliefs should be based on the Bible alone and that the pope had no real authority. • He said that each person was equal before God. He or she did not need a priest to explain the Bible to them. | https://www.slideserve.com/marly/sanzio-raphael-school-of-athenas |
Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (/ ˈ ɡ uː t ən b ɜːr ɡ /; c. 1400 – February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, inventor, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe with the printing press. His introduction of mechanical movable type printing to Europe started the Printing Revolution and is regarded as a milestone of the second millennium, ushering ...
revolutionarypeoplefromtherenaissance.weebly.com/johannes...
Johannes Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz in the year 1398. His father was Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mom was Elsgen Wyrich. Johannes is said to have adopted the last name “Gutenberg”, which was his birthplace. When he was young, he learned to read and write, but the books he read were different from what we have now.
www.mrdowling.com/704-gutenberg.html
Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press. A good cook can take leftovers and turn them into a delicious meal. Like a good cook, Johannes Gutenberg took what had already been discovered and created a small invention that had a large impact on history.
study.com/academy/lesson/johannes-gutenberg-inventions...
Johannes Gutenberg was a German blacksmith and inventor known for developing the first mechanical moveable type printing press. Gutenberg was born in Mainz, Germany, around 1400. Gutenberg was ...
www.thoughtco.com/johannes-gutenberg-and-the-printing...
Johannes Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg was born between 1394 and 1404 in Mainz, in what is today Germany.An "official birthday" of June 24, 1400, was chosen at the time of a 500th Anniversary Festival held in Mainz in 1900, but that is symbolic.
www.quora.com/What-did-Johannes-Gutenberg-contribute-to...
There were many other mini “Renaissances” that took place in Europe and particularly in Italy, from the 12th century to the one we commonly refer to as the Renaissance. Yet, it was only the one in the late 15th – early 16th century that we remember, and this is largely due to the efforts of one man — Johannes Gutenberg.
www.biography.com/people/johannes-gutenberg-9323828
Synopsis. Johannes Gutenberg was born circa 1395, in Mainz, Germany. He started experimenting with printing by 1438. In 1450 Gutenberg obtained backing from the financier, Johann Fust, whose ...
www.livescience.com/2569-gutenberg-changed-world.html
Gutenberg's printing press spread literature to the masses for the first time in an efficient, durable way, shoving Europe headlong into the original information age – the Renaissance. Perfect ...
www.ducksters.com/biography/johannes_gutenberg.php
Biography: Johannes Gutenberg introduced the concept of movable type and the printing press to Europe. While this may not sound like a big deal at first, the printing press is often considered as the most important invention in modern times. Think about how important information is today.
www.skwirk.com/.../renaissance-and-reformation/the-reformation
The impact of the printing press, The Reformation, Renaissance and Reformation, SOSE: History, Year 8, QLD Introduction The printing press was one of the most significant inventions of the Middle Ages. It was invented in the mid-15th century (during the Renaissance period) by a German goldsmith named Johannes Gutenberg. As it enabled the fast flow ... | https://www.reference.com/web?q=the+renaissance+johannes+gutenberg&qo=contentPageRelatedSearch&o=600605&l=dir |
Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg 1400 – 1468 was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, inventor, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe with the printing press. His introduction of mechanical movable type printing to Europe started the Printing Revolution and is regarded as a milestone of the second millennium, ushering in the modern period of human history.
It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.
Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use movable type. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based ink for printing books; adjustable molds; mechanical movable type; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. | https://feheribooks.com/shop/manuscript-from-1424/ |
Featured:
The phenomenon of the Printing Revolution refers to the social effects of the printing press. It can be approached from a quantitative perspective which has its focus on the printing output and the spread of the related technology. It can also be analysed in terms of how the wide circulation of information and ideas acted as an "agent of change" with regards to the democratization of knowledge and the scientific revolution in Europe and global society in general.
Contents
Mass production and spread of printed books
The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to an explosion of printing activities in Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than 236 cities in twelve European countries by the end of the 15th century. As early as 1480, there were printers active in 110 different places in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England, Bohemia and Poland.
In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known to be active. Despite this proliferation, printing centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published in Venice.
By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes. In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.
European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing 3,600 impressions per workday. By comparison, Far Eastern printing, which did not use presses and was solely done by manually rubbing the back of the paper to the page, did not exceed an output of forty pages per day.
The vast printing capacities meant that individual authors could now become true bestsellers: Of Erasmus's work, about 300,000 of the Novum Instrumentum omne and 750,000 copies of his other work was sold during his lifetime alone (1469−1536) (A history of Christianity, Paul Johnson). In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionary potential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of books in Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies.
The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers (see Relation) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.
A lasting legacy are the prized incunable, surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the most prestigious libraries in Europe and North America.
Circulation of information and ideas
The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution. Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.
Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading. The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.
The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge. Within fifty or sixty years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). Now that more people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the first copyright laws were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual property rights. A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe. | http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Printing_Revolution |
Circadian Rhythm in Design
Understanding what our internal circadian rhythm is and how it affects our wellbeing to know how we can incorporate circadian health within commercial interior design to maintain optimal levels of productivity.
2 minute read
26th October, 2021 | Remarcable
Our sleep-wake cycle is determined by our circadian rhythm, the body's internal 24-hour clock in our brain that regulates cycles of alertness and sleepiness by responding to light changes in our environment. The term circadian comes from the latin word 'circa diem' which means 'around a day' and exists in all types of organisms.
The circadian rhythms throughout the body are connected to a master clock, located in the brain. For all you science lovers, our body's internal clock is found in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. At different times of the day, clock genes in the SCN send signals to regulate activity throughout the body controlling sleep and wake cycles, productivity and alertness, body temperature and the digestive system. Light is the most powerful influence on circadian rhythms as the SCN is highly sensitive to different hues of light that coordinate internal clocks in the body. What this means is that during daylight hours the light exposure causes the master clock to send signals to generate alertness keeping us awake and active. As the light begins to fall and night starts approaching the master clock initiates the production of melatonin, a hormone produced that promotes sleep, transmitting signals that help us stay asleep during the night. If we throw our circadian rhythms off balance, by not being exposed to enough bright light during the day, for example, it may cause feelings of sleepiness and lethargy which is definitely not how you want to feel during office hours.
Our modern lives are spent mostly indoors, so it is imperative we keep close ties to the sun, and its daily cycle, to maintain overall wellness. In order to do this our circadian rhythm must be in sync with our built environment, which is where the importance of design comes in.
Designing with Circadian Health in Mind:
1. Maximise exposure to natural light:
Maximising our exposure indoors to natural light is one of the best ways to regulate our circadian rhythm. There are ways to enhance the exposure to natural light within a space through well-thought-out space planning. Using reflective surfaces and textures in the correct place in a room optimises natural light especially if they are positioned near a window to catch the angle of light and bounce it throughout the room. Designing open-plan spaces with the use of glass partitions is another great way to ensure natural light exposure from the building windows is able to beam through the entire space.
2. Using circadian electric lighting:
Circadian lighting is the concept that electric light can be used to support human health by minimizing the effect of electric light on the human circadian rhythm. Research has shown that long-term exposure to certain wavelengths of blue light at a specific intensity can have a negative impact on melatonin production. The circadian lighting system implements three approaches to best replicate the natural circadian.
Intensity tuning: This involves a fixed colour temperature that is adjusted through a controlled dimming system to match the time of day.
Colour tuning: This involves changing the light intensity to mimic day/night time hours experiencing cooler colours in the morning and warmer colours in the evening.
Stimulus tuning: More accurate matching of the daylight spectrum replacing 'bad blue' lighting with 'good blue' light wavelengths.
3. Understanding the occupant's schedule and use of room space:
Understanding the inhabitants' use within the space can largely benefit where it is crucial to have light exposure. To then design main work areas to be rich in natural light or blue-rich light to synchronise or provide an alerting effect.
Designing with circadian health in mind helps occupants maintain a normal sleep schedule and feel much happier and healthier. Read more about the importance of sleep for our overall well being. To find out what makes our designs 'Remarcable' check out our learn page where we highlight our expertise in designing for wellbeing including well thought out lighting systems that sync with our circadian rhythms. | https://remarcable.co.uk/blog/circadian-rhythm-in-design |
Trouble sleeping? Dust off your tent, a new study suggests that camping can help
A new study has found that camping may be beneficial when it comes to getting a good night’s sleep, as the environment can help synchronise the body’s internal time to the circadian rhythm dictated by the light-dark cycles of nature.
The research was published last week in Current Biology, and comes from an ongoing study by Kenneth Wright, a researcher from the University of Colorado in Boulder. It explores the impact of electrical lighting and how reduced exposure to sunlight can delay circadian timing in humans, which may contribute to late sleep schedules and disrupted cycles. As part of his early research in 2013, Wright had eight people take part in a two-week experiment in the Rocky Mountains in July to examine the internal circadian timing of participants after one week of outdoor camping in tents, with exposure to only natural light such as sunlight and campfires. This was compared to one week of modern living, where the routines of work, school, and social activities within the environment of electrical-lighting was examined.
The study found that participants’ average light exposure increased by more than four times during the week of camping, with results demonstrating that internal biological time under natural light-dark conditions can tightly synchronise to environmental time, promoting earlier bedtimes. When compared to environments with constructed lights, the study showed that melatonin onset was delayed, which could contribute to later bedtimes and disturbed sleep. In addition to this, Wright’s recent research compared a week of normal living with a week of winter camping, using wearable devices to monitor sleep times and light levels. The results showed that internal clocks were delayed during their normal schedules by two hours and thirty six minutes compared to the natural light experiment
The second part of the study compared weekend camping with a weekend at home. Most people that stayed home were shown to have stayed up later than usual and slept in. “The external lighting environment was dramatically altered in the 1930s when electrical power grids in North America and Europe provided electricity to power lighting for the masses. This ability to control our daily exposure to light with the flip of a switch has contributed to an increase in indoor activities and has expanded work and play hours far into the night,” the study said.
Light can also affect non-image-forming biological systems in humans and has been shown to enhance cognition and permit the synthesis of vitamin D. It is also used to treat conditions such as winter depression, jaundice and skin disorders. Wright said that similar results can be achieved without camping, such as exposing oneself to morning light, cutting down on electrical light from smartphone screens in the evening and dimming home lights.
Get the top travel news stories delivered straight to your inbox every weekday by signing up to our newsletter. | https://www.lonelyplanet.com/articles/new-study-suggests-camping-can-help-sleep |
(EN) Natural and artificial light have proven effects on our mental and physical health. Thanks to transdisciplinary research and innovative lighting technologies, the buildings we dwell and work in are finally catching up.
(EN) In 1943, while considering the repair of the bomb-ravaged House of Commons, Sir Winston Churchill famously said, “we shape our buildings and thereafter they shape us.” More than 70 years on, this statement still resonates because we instinctively know it to be true: entering a high-ceiling museum hall can feel uplifting, an office with a view inspires ideas, and a sunny roof-top terrace makes for a perfect place to relax. Our built environment has an enormous impact on how we feel and act. Famed architect Le Corbusier called architecture “the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light.” Light, however, not only determines architectural quality—it is, above all, what affects our moods, health, and our ability to thrive.
(EN) “People want to be where there is light, both light and space shape behavior.”
(EN) According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the average American spends 93% of their life indoors—be it at work, at home, at school, or in the car. The less time we spend outdoors, the more important the quality of indoor lighting—both natural and artificial—is for our wellbeing. This is particularly true for the workplace. A recent Gallup Report found that a shocking 85% of people are either not engaged or actively disengaged in their jobs—and not necessarily because of their commute, their boss, or their salary, but often due to their physical and sensory environment. More than indoor air quality or thermal comfort, notes a World Green Building Council report, it is the generous access to daylight and quality electrical lighting that determines how we feel. Exposure to the right amount of light at the right time of day, for example, is vital for our circadian rhythm—the natural cycle of sleeping and waking that relies on light amount and color to keep it on track. In a study published in The American Academy of Sleep Medicine, researcher Ivy Cheung examined the impacts of sitting next to a window at work and found that this kind of appropriate daytime light exposure can lead to an extra 46 minutes of sleep every night.
(EN) How to optimally combine natural and artificial light is being investigated in research and industry partnerships worldwide. Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering and lighting company Zumtobel, for example, studied how a group of employees perceived the light qualities in their office spaces and found preferences for light direction (people want both direct and indirect light), light colour (responses were mainly 4000 and 5000 Kelvin), and desired illuminance levels (800 lux or higher, which is way above what most offices are typically designed for). Based on this research, Zumtobel developed tunable lighting systems that simulate natural light and allow granular parameter changes at the push of a button. Impact studies developed together with neuro-scientists found that not only did employees prefer the new lighting system, but there were measurable improvements in productivity, and biometric data showed stress and agitation levels decreased.
The assessment of how people are impacted by the buildings they inhabit or work in is increasingly recognized as an important first step for improving health. Much like sustainability standards measure a building’s energy use, new metrics like the WELL Building Standard evaluate how it performs for the wellbeing of its inhabitants. Developed by American physicians, researchers, and designers and adopted by over 2,000 projects across more than 50 countries, WELL sets international standards for a variety of building parameters including air and water quality, acoustics, and—a core component—the use of light. For an office, a public building, or a private residence to qualify, it needs to meet WELL’s optimum for access to indoor light exposure, glare control, visual comfort, and overall quality of electrical lighting.
(EN) “Light is an essential nutrient—almost like food.”
(EN) Research into the links between the quantity and quality of light, and our physical and emotional health are not new in architecture. In the past, exposure to daylight and nature has been central to design for healing and even considered as a treatment for illness. Until antibiotics were widely available after World War II, the state-of-the-art treatments for tuberculosis were daylight and fresh air ‘treatments’ which involved relaxing outdoors. These sparked new health care typologies, like sanatoria (a notable example is Alvar Aalto’s Paimio Sanatorium built in 1933) and cure cottages (such as those at Saranac Lake in New York starting from the 1870s), where people recuperated on therapeutic architectural features such as roof decks and cure porches. Today, the benefits of daylight in health care settings are well studied: in 2006, the American Center for Health Design confirmed that exposure to natural light reduces depression among patients, decreases the length of hospital stays, and improves sleep rhythm. Focusing their attention on intensive care units where daylight is not an option, Berlin’s Charité hospital in Germany has been experimenting with how artificial light can reduce pain therapy medication, enable more restful sleep, and speed patient recovery. Their ambitious pilot project brought together an interdisciplinary group of doctors, architects, lighting designers, and sleep experts to design and test three intensive care hospital rooms that use immersive light screens to stimulate patients and reduce their pain. Inspired by a comforting cocoon, each bed features a room-sized media screen on the ceiling that displays a range of natural imagery like gently moving clouds, changing sky and weather conditions, and pulsing light. “Patients used to leave and say that they were grateful for the care but that they spent their time—days or even weeks—just looking at the acoustic ceiling tiles, counting the dots,” says Thomas Willemeit of GRAFT architects, who helped conceive the project. “It could not be more different now.”
But not all ills can be treated in light-optimized health care environments. In 2017, the World Health Organization reported that for the first time in history the leading cause of disability worldwide is not contagious diseases—it’s depression and related mental illnesses. Thankfully, there’s a burgeoning group of architecture and design offices carrying out their own research on how light impacts people and how to better design for it. Danish architecture office 3XN, for example, has created a research group dedicated to exploring green architecture and what they call ‘architectural psychology’ to better understand how their designs affect people. Like a growing number of architecture firms, they use digital design and simulation tools as a way to understand the interplay of natural and artificial light in their buildings. Daylight was a driving concept for 3XN’s recent Swedbank Headquarters in Stockholm; by using a zigzag floor plan to break up the building’s form into a triple-V shape they were able to create five internal courtyards and a dense variety of naturally lit workspaces. The articulated design with its multitude of surfaces maximized the light and fresh air entering the building, ultimately creating a much friendlier, healthier environment for Swedbank’s employees. “People want to be where there is light,” explains GXN’s Kasper Guldager Jensen, “both light and space shape behavior.”
(EN) Light can also create a sense of wonder. Danish architecture firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen, for example, enlisted famed American light artist James Turell for the new extension to the ARoS Aarhus Art Museum. Due to open in 2021, the extension fuses art and architecture to create a dramatic relationship between the spaces above and below ground. It will feature two subterranean gallery spaces, stretching 120 meters below the surface, and two semi-subterranean immersive light installations designed by Turell. The only above-ground structure, a monumental, 40 meter wide dome, will house one of the artist’s famous skyspaces. Something of a Turell trademark, the structure will open to the sky, creating a dramatic space for performance and live art. “I like to think of the museum as a mental fitness centre and this extension will expand upon this idea,” explains ARoS director Erlend G. Høyersten. More so than their intellect, the expansion, once completed, is posed to stimulate the visitors’ senses. Experiencing the wide range of sensations induced by natural and artificial light might just prompt a new appreciation for the mundane yet miraculous medium and its role for the human psyche. As Turrell himself once put it: “light is an essential nutrient—almost like food.”
(EN) This essay is part of our content collaboration with Austrian lighting design company Zumtobel that illuminates how light inspires art, design, and architecture. See our past explorations here and stay tuned for future ones. A long-standing Freunde von Freunden (FvF) partner, Zumtobel also contributed to the furnishing concept of the FvF Friends Space. | http://archive.freundevonfreunden.com/de/features/zumtobel-architecture-light |
If you’ve ever taught in front of a classroom packed with students, you know how easily distractions can happen. Everything from the layout of the space to the degree and timing of natural light can help or hinder learning.
The power of lighting
Neuroscientist Melina Uncapher delves into what environmental factors affect student learning and why. While it’s common wisdom that exposure to sunlight has positive effects for the body and mind, not all light is created equal. Uncapher cites a one-year study of 21,000 elementary school students which concluded that those with more exposure to sunlight had twenty-six percent higher reading outcomes and twenty percent higher math outcomes.
Daytime light wavelengths within the blue color range make people more alert and less sleepy by influencing hormonal secretion to a greater extent than other wavelengths. Even replacing more common artificial light sources with blue-light sources has increased student learning ability.
However, since daytime blue light has a more energizing effect, it’s also a growing concern that excellent blue light sources, like phones and computer screens, contribute to less functional sleep cycles when students look at them before bed.
Classroom layouts
In terms of seating, a well-known research paper showed that elementary school students arranged in a semicircle produced the best academic performance compared to sitting in rows or even small-group clusters. Another study revealed that arrangements should be based on the level of interactivity of the task at hand. While semicircles and clusters work best for collaboration, rows are best for independent study.
Noise has an extreme effect on learning outcomes as well. Younger children are much more susceptible to being distracted by noises because their executive functioning—the cognitive processes that allow us to stay focused on a specific task—aren’t as developed as older students’. It’s best to minimize environmental noise as much as possible. A study on temperature’s effect concluded that the optimal comfort range for student learning is between 68 and 74 degrees Fahrenheit, with about 50 percent humidity.
There are many ways that learning spaces influence learning outcomes in the classroom. Without paying attention to the best ways to help students stay comfortably engaged, even very good teachers might struggle more than they need to. | https://golrn.io/news/classroom-design-can-affect-learning-outcomes/ |
4 Productivity Hacks Based on Research
There’s an abundance of literature on increasing productivity. As daunting as some lists can get, know that you can start simple. Boost your productivity with these four science-based tips we curated:
Have natural light in your working space.
Ever wondered why it’s sometimes harder to focus on a task when it’s dark, dull, and gloomy? It turns out, the lighting around you can make a huge difference.
Research shows that working in natural light improves health and wellness, ultimately increasing your productivity. Natural light also makes you more alert and it enhances your individual performance. In addition, working in daylit offices also allows you to sleep better and increase your vitality.
These findings were surfaced by a study conducted by Alan Hedge, a professor in the Department of Design and Environmental Analysis at Cornell. He found that workers in daylit office environments reported an 84 percent drop in symptoms of eyestrain, headaches, and blurred vision symptoms, which can diminish productivity.
Meanwhile, a neuroscience study conducted by Mohamed Boubekri, Ivy Cheung, Kathryn Reid, Chia-Hui Wang, and Phyllis Zee at Northwestern University demonstrated a strong relationship between workplace daylight exposure and office workers’ sleep, activity, and quality of life.
The researchers compared office workers in windowless workplaces and workplaces with windows. The study concluded that workers in offices with natural light slept 46 minutes longer per night and have more energy for physical activity.
On the other hand, workers in offices without windows reported poorer scores than their counterparts on quality of life measures related to physical problems and vitality, poorer outcomes on measures of overall sleep quality, sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, and daytime dysfunction.
Go for a walk.
If you’re feeling stuck, take a quick stroll. A number of studies show the various benefits of walking.
A study published in the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports showed that people who walked three times a week during lunch felt a lot better after walking for just half an hour. They were less tense, more enthusiastic, more relaxed, and could better cope with their workload.
If you need more motivation to get off your seat, a Stanford research revealed that walking can boost creative inspiration up to 60% compared to sitting. It doesn’t even matter whether you walk indoors and outdoors. The researchers claim that the act of walking itself is the main factor for this boost of creative inspiration instead of the environment. They also note that “walking opens up the free flow of ideas, and it is a simple and robust solution to the goals of increasing creativity and increasing physical activity.”
A few companies have emphasized the importance of walking and have even gone as far as distributing a FitBit to their employees to monitor physical activity and overall health and wellness. Other believers of the power of the stroll include Steve Jobs and Mark Zuckerberg who were photographed conducting their own walking meetings with members of their teams.
Do not multitask.
The modern workplace has increased the convenience of communication and collaboration, and it makes other people - including yourself - more accessible. While this has sped up decision-making and churning out outputs, it’s not always an appreciated thing, wouldn’t you agree?
Try to avoid placing yourself in situations where you have to draft an e-mail, accommodate a phone call, and revise a Google Doc’s sharing settings all at the same time. As impressive as the juggling sounds, multitasking does you harm. Take it from MIT neuroscientist Earl Miller who insists that our brains are not wired to multitask. He further notes that what we know as multitasking is instead a very rapid switching from one task to another, which comes with a cognitive cost.
This cognitive cost is shown in a University of London study which claims that multitasking is known to lower IQ. The study found that those who multitasked during cognitive tasks experienced IQ score declines that were similar to what they would expect if they had smoked marijuana or stayed up all night.
Pro tip: List down your high priority tasks for the day. If you work with a team or clients, snooze or regulate notifications from your computer to give yourself the headspace you need to complete a high priority task.
Count down in days.
One thing all of us deal with is deadlines. It’s a common motivator (or challenge), whether you’re running a startup, providing consultancy services, building a product, delivering a service, managing a team, or simply paying bills.
One trick to try? Think of your deadlines in days instead of weeks or months to emphasize its imminence. Psychologists Neil Lewis and Daphna Oyserman conducted a series of studies about people’s perception of deadlines and they found that the studies’ participants perceive a far-off event as being closer when time was expressed in days rather than weeks and weeks or months.
Lewis and Oyserman claim that we have the tendency to attend to the present more than the future. This however becomes a challenge as some future events need immediate action. They concur that in order for the future to energize and motivate current action, the future should feel imminent or closer.
Sounds easy? If you think so, maybe today can be your fresh start and your chance to finally complete the to-do list that’s been gathering dust on your desk.
By the way, if you’re looking for a stroll-able place to work at - with natural light, reliable wi-fi, and unlimited coffee included - check out Impact Hub Manila. We offer friendly rates and packages perfect for an entrepreneur’s or a freelancer's needs. Find a space near you! | https://impacthub.ph/blog/4-productivity-hacks-based-on-research |
Chronobiol Int. 2017;34(3):303-317.
Acute effects of different light spectra on simulated night-shift work without circadian alignment
Markus Canazeia,b, Wilfried Pohla, Harald R. Bliemb, and Elisabeth M. Weissc
a Research Department, Bartenbach GmbH, Aldrans, Austria; b Department of Psychology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; c Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
ABSTRACT
Short-wavelength and short-wavelength-enhanced light have a strong impact on night-time working performance, subjective feelings of alertness and circadian physiology. In the present study, we investigated acute effects of white light sources with varied reduced portions of short wavelengths on cognitive and visual performance, mood and cardiac output. Thirty-one healthy subjects were investigated in a balanced cross-over design under three light spectra in a simulated night-shift paradigm without circadian adaptation. Exposure to the light spectrum with the largest attenuation of short wavelengths reduced heart rate and increased vagal cardiac parameters during the night compared to the other two light spectra without deleterious effects on sustained attention, working memory and subjective alertness. In addition, colour discrimination capability was significantly decreased under this light source. To our knowledge, the present study for the first time demonstrates that polychromatic white light with reduced short wavelengths, fulfilling current lighting standards for indoor illumination, may have a positive impact on cardiac physiology of night-shift workers without detrimental consequences for cognitive performance and alertness.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2016.1222414
Supplement:
Authors: Lisa-Marie Neier a, Wilfried Pohl a, Markus Canazei a
a Research Department, Bartenbach GmbH, Aldrans, Austria
The circadian system controls the timing of a variety of human’s behaviour e.g. sleep, appetite or alertness. Anatomically it is projected in a complex network of central nervous system structures including, amongst others, the anterior hypothalamus and the pineal gland. It processes information of darkness and light collected by specific retinal ganglion cells, known as intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). The central pacemaker of the circadian system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, which integrates incoming photic information to respond with a broad range of physiological reactions, e.g. melatonin release (in darkness) or suppression (in light), changes in core body temperature or variations in heart rate. Light is one of the most important “zeitgebers” for our circadian system and alterations in environmental light conditions strongly affect our circadian rhythms. It was shown that under continuous light conditions circadian rhythms begin to shift and oscillation prolongs to more than our entrained 24 hours [1, 2]. Furthermore, it was shown that very low intensities (~80 lx) of nocturnal light suppresses melatonin production when applied with a colour temperature of 4000 Kelvin, respectively, representing light with increased short wavelengths . This finding later finds expression in the spectral sensitivity curve of acute melatonin suppression in human beings, peaking close to 460 nm .
Melatonin is a hormone synthesized in the pineal gland that plays an important role in the regulation of sleep-wake cycle. Increasing melatonin levels in darkness and higher sleep pressure after increasing hours of wakefulness ease the transition from wakefulness to sleep. Beneath the melatonin suppressive effect of short wavelengths, it was shown that the circadian variation of heart rate and cardiac autonomic activity is also affected by increased light levels during the night . Variations in heart beats are usually quantified as heart rate variability (HRV) and while resting in dark conditions at night, HRV is usually lower than during active periods during the day. In comparison to research on melatonin cycle disruptions, research on effects of night-time light exposure on the cardiovascular system is sparse.
Rotating shift work plays an important role in industry and health care facilities, but for a long time this kind of work was fulfilled without being aware of possible risks on human’s health. Our circadian rhythms naturally evolved over a very long time span and are still adapted to light-dark cycles provided by the presence and absence of sunlight. Research has shown recently, that higher intensities as well as increased short-wavelength light during nightshifts lead to chronic disruptions of the circadian system in the long run. Today furthermore, there is great evidence of increased risks to develop diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, sleep disorders, gastrointestinal disorders and some types of cancer in regular shift workers [6, 7, 8, 9].
To understand which effects light may provoke during the night, it is important to consider two different photometrical characteristics of light:
- spectral distribution: describes the portion of different parts of the emitted light spectrum; for human beings, only a small part of the light spectrum is visible (380-780 nm) and even a much smaller part is highly effective in suppressing melatonin (short wavelengths: 460-480 nm); a proxy measure of the spectral distribution of light is given by its colour temperature [unit: Kelvin].
- light intensity: describes the perceived brightness of light [unit: lux]
Modifications in these photometrical characteristics are necessary to avoid harm and furthermore to provide positive effects on human’s health.
The night-shift study conducted at the research department of Bartenbach GmbH demonstrated that changes in the colour temperature of light, as a measure of proportion of shorter or longer wavelengths in its spectral distribution, greatly affects the physiological response of humans to light at night. Three colour temperatures varying from 2166 Kelvin (very low amount of short wavelengths) over 3366 Kelvin (moderate amount of short wavelengths) to 4667 Kelvin (high amount of short wavelengths) were tested while horizontal (501 lux; at desk level) and vertical (149 lux; at eye level) illuminance levels remained the same. All investigated lighting conditions were in line with current indoor lighting standards. Our findings showed that alerting effects can also be provoked in the absence of short wavelengths in light sources and that physiological parameters, i.e. heart rate and heart rate variability, are sensitive markers of light exposure with increased short wavelengths. Additionally, our results showed that colour discrimination performance seems to be decreased under light sources with reduced short wavelengths. Practically this means, that in workplaces, where high colour discrimination capabilities are needed, full spectrum light sources should be recommended. In contrast, in night shift workplaces with normal to reduced colour perception demands, light sources with reduced short wavelengths would provide advantages on employees’ health during night shifts.
Findings from this study have already found their implementation. Bartenbach successfully planned and installed lighting systems in three hospitals, that change colour temperatures and portions of short wavelengths: the psychiatric hospital in Hall, Austria, the psychiatric hospital in Slagelse, Denmark (Figure 1) and the Helmut-G.-Walther-Klinikum in Lichtenfels, Germany. Furthermore, in 2015 this lighting concept was implemented in the research & development office of Bartenbach itself (Figures 2). To provide a more natural lighting surrounding without disrupting the circadian system, it contains light with lower colour temperature (2200 Kelvin) and reduced portion of short wavelengths in the evening and during the night. In the early morning colour temperature and portion of short wavelengths unrecognizable change to higher levels (4000 Kelvin), remaining the same during the whole day. In the evening a reduction in colour temperature and portion of short wavelengths occurs again, closing the cycle. The provided rhythmicity, imitating natural lighting conditions, enables the entrainment of the circadian system. It is expected, that in the long term this lighting concept provokes positive effects on patients’ and staff’s health as well as on office workers. Analysis of current research projects as well as future projects are necessary to evaluate the expected health effects of this lighting design.
Figure 1. Short-wavelength reduced lighting (2200 Kelvin) at night in the psychiatric hospital in Slagelse, Denmark [Lead Consultant and Architect: Karlsson Arkitekter / VLA, Photographer: Jens Lindhe]
Figure 2. Short-wavelength reduced lighting (2200 Kelvin) during the evening and at night (left), full spectrum lighting containing short wavelengths (4000 Kelvin) during the day (right) in the R&D office, Bartenbach GmbH, Austria
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I´m a full Professor at Chemistry and Engineering School at the Universidad Autónoma de Baja California in Mexico. I teach computer sciences and software engineering in graduate and undergraduate academic programs.
The big picture question driving my research is how do complex systems of interactions among individuals / agents result in emergent properties and how do those emergent properties feedback to affect individual / agent decisions. I have explored this big picture question in a number of different contexts including the evolution of cooperation, suburban sprawl, traffic patterns, financial systems, land-use and land-change in urban systems, and most recently social media. For all of these explorations, I employ the tools of complex systems, most importantly agent-based modeling.
My current research focus is on understanding the dynamics of social media, examining how concepts like information, authority, influence and trust diffuse in these new media formats. This allows us to ask questions such as who do users trust to provide them with the information that they want? Which entities have the greatest influence on social media users? How do fads and fashions arise in social media? What happens when time is critical to the diffusion process such as an in a natural disaster? I have employed agent-based modeling, machine learning, geographic information systems, and network analysis to understand and start to answer these questions.
Sae Schatz, Ph.D., is an applied human–systems researcher, professional facilitator, and cognitive scientist. Her work focuses on human–systems integration (HSI), with an emphasis on human cognition and learning, instructional technologies, adaptive systems, human performance assessment, and modeling and simulation (M&S). Frequently, her work seeks to enhance individual’s higher-order cognitive skills (i.e., the mental, emotional, and relational skills associated with “cognitive readiness”).
I use agent-based systems, stochastic process, mass balance models and computational statistics in exploring human exposure assessment.
My primary research interests lie at the intersection of two fields: evolutionary computation and multi-agent systems. I am specifically interested in how evolutionary search algorithms can be used to help people understand and analyze agent-based models of complex systems (e.g., flocking birds, traffic jams, or how information diffuses across social networks). My secondary research interests broadly span the areas of artificial life, multi-agent robotics, cognitive/learning science, design of multi-agent modeling environments. I enjoy interdisciplinary research, and in pursuit of the aforementioned topics, I have been involved in application areas from archeology to zoology, from linguistics to marketing, and from urban growth patterns to materials science. I am also very interested in creative approaches to computer science and complex systems education, and have published work on the use of multi-agent simulation as a vehicle for introducing students to computer science.
It is my philosophy that theoretical research should be inspired by real-world problems, and conversely, that theoretical results should inform and enhance practice in the field. Accordingly, I view tool building as a vital practice that is complementary to theoretical and methodological research. Throughout my own work I have contributed to the research community by developing several practical software tools, including BehaviorSearch (http://www.behaviorsearch.org/)
Applications of agent-based modeling and complexity theory to real-world problems. I am particular interested in stigmergic polyagents, their relation to the path integral formalization of quantum physics, and their application to combinatorially explosive problems, but also work extensively in modeling social systems.
I am working on agent-based modeling, and more precisely on the development of tools to help people (in particular non computer scientists) to develop their own models. I am one of the main developer of the GAMA platform.
Arpan Jani received his PhD in Business Administration from the University of Minnesota in 2005. He is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Information Systems at the University of Wisconsin – River Falls. His current research interests include agent-based modeling, information systems and decision support, behavioral ethics, and judgment & decision making under conditions of risk and uncertainty.
agent-based modeling; behavioral ethics; information systems and decision support; project management; judgment & decision making under conditions of risk and uncertainty. | https://www.comses.net/users/?tags=computer+modeling&page=3 |
- PsychologyFront. Psychol.
- 2016
The results of the current study indicate that the type and difficulty of the task together modulate the effect of color on cognitive performances.
The Effec t of Color on Conscious and Unconscious Cognition
- Psychology
- 2010
Two experiments explored the hypothesis that colors produce different cognitive learning motivations: red produces an avoidance motivation and blue produces an approach motivation. The avoidance…
Ego Depletion in Color Priming Research
- PsychologyPersonality & social psychology bulletin
- 2015
The red effect depends on people’s momentary capacity to exert control over their prepotent responses (i.e., self-control) and it is proposed thatSelf-control strength moderated the red effect.
Examining the Effect of Illumination Color on Cognitive Performance
- Psychology
- 2012
This study investigated the effect of color illumination on human behavior, especially cognitive performance. A series of experiments examined the hypothesis proposed by Mehta and Zhu (2009). The…
Effects of Color Perception and Enacted Avoidance Behavior on Intellectual Task Performance in an Achievement Context
- Psychology
- 2012
Previous research has established performance impairment in intellectual tasks as a consequence of brief exposure to the color red. Furthermore, previous research has established a mediational…
IMPLICIT EFFECTS OF MOTIVATIONAL CUES AND COLOR STIMULI ON CREATIVITY.
- Psychology
- 2011
The present research explored the notion that the meaning of the color red varies depending on regulatory focus, with implicit effects on creative thinking in a Remote Association Test. Specifically,…
Fertile Green
- PsychologyPersonality & social psychology bulletin
- 2012
It is demonstrated that a brief glimpse of green prior to a creativity task enhances creative performance and indicates that green has implications beyond aesthetics and suggest the need for sustained empirical work on the functional meaning of green.
Running Head: FERTILE GREEN 1 Fertile green: Green facilitates creative performance
- Psychology
- 2018
The present research sought to extend the nascent literature on color and psychological functioning by examining whether perception of the color green facilitates creativity. In four experiments we…
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Exposure to artificial lighting could not only be making us all ill but susceptible to diseases, according to a new study.
The research by a team at the Leiden University Medical Centre concluded that long periods spent in artificial lighting is detrimental to health and causes problems normally associated with ageing.
Published in the journal Current Biology, the study reveals that disruption of the normal light-dark cycle (provided by the natural environment) has far-reaching consequences.
In tests, mice were subjected to constant light for 24 hours for a period of months.
This exposure to artificial light resulted in pro-inflammatory activation of the immune system, muscle loss and early signs of osteoporosis – all signs of frailty normally shown in older humans and animals.
Johanna Meijer, lead author on the paper, said: “Our study shows the environmental light-dark cycle is important for our health.”
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“We showed that the absence of environmental rhythms leads to severe disruption of a wide variety of health parameters.”
There is some good news though, the study also showed that these negative effects can be reversed with the light-dark cycle is reinstated.
Meijer says these findings should encourage people to think about how much exposure they are getting to natural light.
Particularly older people who are exposed to artificial light in nursing homes and intensive care units around the clock. | https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/exposure-to-artificial-light-making-us-ill_uk_5788b2f1e4b0f4bc5946fce2 |
Puschnig, J., Schwope, A., Posch, T., & Schwarz, R. (2014). The night sky brightness at Potsdam-Babelsberg including overcast and moonlit conditions. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 139, 76–81.
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Abstract: We analyze the results of 2 years (2011â2012) of night sky photometry performed at the Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics in Potsdam-Babelsberg. This institute is located 23 km to the southwest of the center of Berlin. Our measurements have been performed with a Sky Quality Meter. We find night sky brightness values ranging from 16.5 to 20.3 magSQM arcsec−2; the latter value corresponds to 4.8 times the natural zenithal night sky brightness. We focus on the influence of clouds and of the moon on the night sky brightness. It turns out that Potsdam-Babelsberg, despite its proximity to Berlin, still shows a significant correlation of the night sky brightness with the lunar phases. However, the light-pollution-enhancing effect of clouds dominates the night sky brightness by far: overcast nights (up to 16.5 magSQM arcsec−2) are much brighter than clear full moon nights (18â18.5 magSQM arcsec−2).
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Hanifin, J. P., Lockley, S. W., Cecil, K., West, K., Jablonski, M., Warfield, B., et al. (2018). Randomized trial of polychromatic blue-enriched light for circadian phase shifting, melatonin suppression, and alerting responses. Physiol Behav, in press.
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Abstract: Wavelength comparisons have indicated that circadian phase-shifting and enhancement of subjective and EEG-correlates of alertness have a higher sensitivity to short wavelength visible light. The aim of the current study was to test whether polychromatic light enriched in the blue portion of the spectrum (17,000K) has increased efficacy for melatonin suppression, circadian phase-shifting, and alertness as compared to an equal photon density exposure to a standard white polychromatic light (4000K). Twenty healthy participants were studied in a time-free environment for 7days. The protocol included two baseline days followed by a 26-h constant routine (CR1) to assess initial circadian phase. Following CR1, participants were exposed to a full-field fluorescent light (1x10(14) photons/cm(2)/s, 4000K or 17,000K, n=10/condition) for 6.5h during the biological night. Following an 8h recovery sleep, a second 30-h CR was performed. Melatonin suppression was assessed from the difference during the light exposure and the corresponding clock time 24h earlier during CR1. Phase-shifts were calculated from the clock time difference in dim light melatonin onset time (DLMO) between CR1 and CR2. Blue-enriched light caused significantly greater suppression of melatonin than standard light ((mean+/-SD) 70.9+/-19.6% and 42.8+/-29.1%, respectively, p<0.05). There was no significant difference in the magnitude of phase delay shifts. Blue-enriched light significantly improved subjective alertness (p<0.05) but no differences were found for objective alertness. These data contribute to the optimization of the short wavelength-enriched spectra and intensities needed for circadian, neuroendocrine and neurobehavioral regulation.
Keywords: Human Health
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van Schalkwyk, I., Venkataraman, N., Shankar, V., Milton, J., Bailey, T., & Calais, K. (2016). Evaluation of the Safety Performance of Continuous Mainline Roadway Lighting on Freeway Segments in Washington State. WSDOT Research Report. Washington State Department of Transportation.
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Abstract: Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) evaluated continuous roadway lighting on mainline freeway segments in Washington State. An extensive literature review on the safety performance of roadway lighting was completed. As part of this research effort WSDOT developed multivariate random parameter (RP) models with specific lighting variables for continuous lighting on mainline freeway segments. Roadway lighting is often used as a countermeasure to address nighttime crashes and this research evaluates common assumption related to roadway lighting. The models developed for this research use crashes from the end of civil dusk twilight to the start of civil dawn twilight since lighting systems are of limited value outside these timeframes. Natural light conditions were estimated for crashes based on location and time of the crash event. Based on the RP results, the research team concludes that the contribution of continuous illumination to nighttime crash reduction is negligible. In addition to the findings on safety performance, a pilot LED project on US101 demonstrated that LED roadway lighting can significantly increase energy efficiency and environmental stewardship (e.g., reducing greenhouse gas emissions) while maintaining safety performance outcomes. The research team recommended modification to WSDOT design policy, including removal of the requirement of continuous mainline lighting and reduction of lighting where segment specific analysis indicates appropriate.
Keywords: Public Safety; traffic; traffic safety; road safety; continuous roadway lighting; Washington; United States
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Andre, J., & Owens, D. A. (2001). The Twilight Envelope: A User-Centered Approach to Describing Roadway Illumination at Night. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 43(4), 620–630.
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Abstract: Visual recognition functions, such as acuity and contrast sensitivity, deteriorate rapidly over the declining luminances found during civil twilight. Thus civil twilight, a critical part of the transition between daylight and darkness, represents lighting conditions that may be useful to describe artificial illumination. Automotive headlamps project a three-dimensional beam that ranges from illumination levels comparable to daylight at the vehicle to the dark limit of civil twilight (3.3 1x) at some distance ahead. This twilight envelope is characterized as a distance beyond which foveal visual functions are severely impaired, and thus it provides a general, functional description of the useful extent of the headlamp beam. This user-centered approach to describing illumination is useful for characterizing visibility when driving at night or in other artificially lit environments. This paper discusses the twilight envelope approach and its application to intervehicle variations in headlamp systems. Actual or potential applications of this research include user-centered description of artificial illumination and driver/pedestrian safety education.
Keywords: Society
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Rea, M. (2018). The what and the where of vision lighting research. Lighting Research & Technology, 50(1), 14–37.
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Abstract: Vision neuroscience research and vision lighting research have historically run on parallel paths. The former discipline is primarily interested in understanding the basic neurophysiological and biophysical characteristics of the visual system, while the latter is primarily interested in understanding the best means for designing and engineering perceptions of architectural spaces and for improving safety and productivity of indoor and outdoor applications. This review frames vision lighting research conducted over the past century in terms of current vision neuroscience research, illustrating the similarities in the two research paths. It is also argued that visual lighting research could be more impactful on society at large if the basic framework established by vision neuroscience were considered in planning and conducting applications research. Specifically, studies aimed at understanding the luminous environment in terms of the what and the where of visual subsystems would provide the foundation for developing unique and highly valuable lighting applications and standards. | http://alandb.darksky.org/search.php?sqlQuery=SELECT%20author%2C%20title%2C%20type%2C%20year%2C%20publication%2C%20abbrev_journal%2C%20volume%2C%20issue%2C%20pages%2C%20keywords%2C%20abstract%2C%20thesis%2C%20editor%2C%20publisher%2C%20place%2C%20abbrev_series_title%2C%20series_title%2C%20series_editor%2C%20series_volume%2C%20series_issue%2C%20edition%2C%20language%2C%20author_count%2C%20online_publication%2C%20online_citation%2C%20doi%2C%20serial%2C%20area%20FROM%20refs%20WHERE%20serial%20RLIKE%20%22.%2B%22%20ORDER%20BY%20abstract%20DESC&submit=Cite&citeStyle=APA&citeOrder=&orderBy=abstract&headerMsg=&showQuery=0&showLinks=0&formType=sqlSearch&showRows=5&rowOffset=115&client=&viewType=Print |
Artist’s block may seem like a mere state of mind. Since creativity is intangible, it’s easy to assume that we just need to make some mental space for it to return. However, studies have shown that our ability to create is closely linked with our physical wellbeing.
While overworking may be common among dedicated artists, burnout is a major factor in feeling stuck, or uninspired. Abraham Lincoln’s sage advice, “If I only had an hour to chop down a tree, I would spend the first 45 minutes sharpening my axe,” reminds us how important it is to keep the physical body — our main artistic tool — in optimal condition for creating.
Artist’s block? Sleep it off
Sleep is the most effective thing we can do to naturally restore our body. In addition to helping the brain process information and store memories, sleep has been discovered to drain our brains of waste products that, when accumulated, can lead to mental illness.
Sleep can also improve productivity in a surprising way — not only can a good night’s rest rejuvenate us, it can also bring new ideas and solutions. In 1993, Harvard Medical School conducted a study in which participants were asked to think of a question or problem before going to bed every day for a week.
After recording their dreams each night, it was found that about half of the participants had dreams related to their problem, and most of them claimed to have found a solution in those dreams.
This suggests that our brains continue to process information during sleep, allowing new connections to be made and new perspectives to be formed.
Another study determined that creativity is linked to the duration and quality of our sleep. In assessing participants’ creative thinking ability, the researchers found that those who had been allowed to enter REM or rapid eye movement sleep — the final stage of the sleep cycle — scored better on a creativity test compared to those who only entered non-REM sleep — dreamless sleep.
Nurture creativity with your diet
Having a balanced diet and avoiding highly-processed foods is always recommended for maintaining good health. But did you know that there are some particular foods that can enhance our creative abilities?
Salmon, as a great source of omega 3 fatty acids, has been found to increase the volume of gray matter in areas of the brain related to memory and cognition. Gray matter is where information and brain signals are processed, an activity essential to creative work. Other foods rich in omega-3s include walnuts, flax seeds, and the wild edible, purslane.
Popcorn is a whole grain packed with important nutrients that help you stay focused longer, while regulating blood flow and blood-sugar levels. Air-popped and unadorned, popcorn is a light snack, rich in fiber and with higher antioxidant levels than some fruits and vegetables.
Berries are loaded with compounds that facilitate communication between neurons while helping to activate BDNF, a molecule that stimulates the growth of new neurons and is key to memory and learning. Studies have shown that consumption of blueberries — especially rich in antioxidants — can increase our concentration and memory for up to five hours by stimulating the flow of blood and oxygen to the brain.
Pumpkin seeds are an excellent source of magnesium, iron, zinc, iron and copper; all of which are essential to brain health. Magnesium is known for supporting brain development, memory and learning, while zinc can improve our critical thinking while helping us regulate our mood. Copper is used by essential enzymes to supply the brain with energy and iron plays a key role in the daily functions of the brain.
Green tea has long been valued for its medicinal properties. Our ancestors knew that drinking tea could control bleeding, facilitate digestion, regulate body temperature and much more. Besides the stimulant caffeine, green tea also provides l-theanine, a chemical compound which boosts dopamine (a neurotransmitter that benefits memory), and GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps reduce anxiety.
READ ALSO:
- Chinese Tea Culture: Origin, Development, and the Dao of Tea
- Years of Research Reveals the Effects of Alcohol and Tea on Long-Term Health
Take breaks to prevent burnout
Exhaustion is one of the main causes of artist’s block. According to science journalist Ferris Jabr, “Downtime replenishes the brain’s stores of attention and motivation, encourages productivity and creativity, and is essential to both achieve our highest levels of performance and simply form stable memories in everyday life.”
Author Cal Newport explains in his book Deep Work, that our brains can sustain a maximum of four hours of uninterrupted concentration per day. After that, our focused attention and productivity diminish. Taking breaks improves productivity by helping you maintain focus during your working time.
Italian entrepreneur Francesco Cirillo suggests breaking down big projects into their incremental components, and incorporating breaks in between. To stay on task, set a timer to 25 minutes as your break time. Take five — you deserve it — and repeat. After four sessions, take a longer break of up to 30 minutes.
Also, don’t neglect to give yourself a vacation — even if it’s just a few days — from your art. Becoming immersed in an entirely different setting does wonders for your work in the long run.
Stay close to nature
According to the Attention Restoration Theory (ART), when we expose ourselves to natural environments, our attention — a limited cognitive resource — is likely to be restored.
Natural light is key to a stimulating workspace because it changes throughout the day, with a glimpse of sky being even more engaging. If your workspace lacks a window, at least get some exposure to sunlight during breaks. Natural light is proven to restore your attention and improve your productivity.
Plants make cheerful, calming companions. A 2011 study published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology revealed that indoor plants can prevent fatigue during mentally-demanding work and increase our attention capacity. If your environment isn’t suitable for plants, having an outdoor view or even images of nature can also be beneficial.
The sound and color of water are also known to improve emotional well-being. You may not be able to work next to a waterfall; but it’s easy to play water sounds on electronic devices and incorporate some blue in your decor. If you have sufficient room on your desk, you might consider a tabletop fountain — a fun creative endeavor in itself!
Stay tuned for Part III, and more suggestions for overcoming artist’s block. | https://www.visiontimes.com/2022/09/14/overcoming-artists-block-2.html |
In functional cosmetics, vitamin C exists in three forms. The first is active vitamin C, L-ascorbic acid vitamin C, which is present in three forms in functional cosmetics such as creams, serums and masks. The first is active vitamin C, L-ascorbate vitamin C. It is extremely unstable and is easily oxidized by exposure to air to produce dehydroascorbic acid, thus often causing yellowing of the product. For this reason, many cosmetics have turned to more stable esterified derivatives, namely magnesium ascorbyl phosphate and ascorbyl palmitate. All comparative studies on the stability of these three compounds have demonstrated that magnesium ascorbyl phosphate (MAP) is the most stable in solution and emulsion.
Magnesium L - Ascorbic acid - 2 - Phosphate is essential for the synthesis of collagen, with deficiency resulting in scurvy.Notably, humans and other primates, guinea pigs, and certain other animals lack an enzyme necessary for vitamin C synthesis.1 L-Ascorbic acid 2-phosphate (AA2P) is a long-acting ascorbic acid derivative that stimulates collagen expression and formation and is used in human cell culture.It may be included in media to enhance the survival of human embryonic stem cells or increase the growth and replicative lifespan of human corneal endothelial cells.AA2P is also used to drive osteogenic differentiation in human adipose stem cells and in human mesenchymal stromal/stem cells.
Specification of Magnesium L-Ascorbic acid-2-Phosphate
TEST ITEMS
SPECIFICATION
TEST RESULTS
APPEARANCE
WHITE TO PALE YELLOW POWDER
COMPLIES
Assay
≥98.5%
99.26 %
PH(3% aq. sol.)
7.0~8.5
8.2
Free ascorbic acid
≤0.5%
0.30%
Color of Solution(APHA)
≤70
<70
State of solution(3% aq. sol.)
clear
clear
Loss on drying
≤20.0%
16.39%
Ketogulonic acid and its derivatives
≤2.5%
2.32%
Benefits & Applications of Magnesium L-Ascorbic acid-2-Phosphate
1. Anti-oxidation
Anti-aging studies have shown that when the skin is exposed to ultraviolet light, it produces reactive clusters (ROS) including peroxide ions, hydrogen peroxide, and atomic oxygen. These ROS are produced by causing direct chemical changes in DNA, cell membranes, and proteins, including collagen. Harmful effect. L-ascorbate Vitamin C is the most abundant antioxidant in human skin. This water-soluble vitamin has the effect of de-electronizing, neutralizing free radicals and protecting intracellular structures from oxidative stress.
2. The role of light protection:
MAP does not absorb ultraviolet light in the solar spectrum and does not act as an opacifier itself. However, it has a photoprotective function when used alone, and is more desirable when used in combination with vitamin E. Studies have shown that 15% L-vitamin C magnesium phosphate combined with 1% vitamin E has a better photoprotective effect. However, it is important to note that it must be used before UV exposure and reused 30 minutes after UV exposure.
3.Anti-inflammatory effect
MAP has an anti-inflammatory effect and has been used to treat various inflammatory skin diseases. Topical MAP on mouse skin has also been shown to be up to 30 times more potent than ascorbic acid as a tumor suppressor. Studies have also shown that MAP is effective in the treatment of acne, silver sputum and fat-free eczema. It has been reported that topical MAP can improve inflammatory rose acne, but no objective clinical research data have been found.
4.Anti-wrinkle, improve photoaging skin
MAP is generally used in cosmetics and is stable at pH neutral. It is a free radical scavenger and collagen-producing stimulator that can be converted to ascorbic acid across the epidermis. In in vitro studies using human fibroblasts, MAP and ascorbic acid have the same ability to stimulate collagen synthesis. A double-blind controlled trial of a 5% MAP cream applied to the neck and forearm of a moderately aging patient for 6 months was observed in the laboratory. It was observed that the deep wrinkles were significantly reduced, and the facial color and relaxation were also significantly improved.
5.Whitening effect
L-Vitamin C magnesium phosphate has the effect of helping to dilute pigmentation. Studies have shown that MAP can inhibit melanin formation by tyrosinase and melanoma cells, and topical MAP cream can significantly dilute chloasma and freckles.
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When taking photographs of subjects in nature, one of the most important factors which will impact the quality of an image is the photo lighting that is available. When taking photographs in a studio, you, as the photographer, are able to control the lighting and the shadows with which you are working. In a natural outdoor setting, lighting is something that you need to work with rather than try to control.
With time and practice, a photographer will understand how natural light will impact a photograph and be able to use a variety of types of light and angles effectively. Natural light can be used to create interest and specific colors in a picture. Light can enhance shadows, emphasize colors and highlight objects in a photograph. Landscape photography and shots that capture flowers and other objects in the environment can benefit from understanding how to make use of natural light.
Photo light can originate from a number of sources in nature. In the morning, there is the sunlight while in the evening, there is the moonlight. There is also natural light which is less direct than either the direct sun or moonlight. Each of these sources of light can be used effectively by a photographer. The trick is to know how to use it by angling the camera and the subject to achieve the exposure and effect that you want.
In order to use light and shadows effectively, a photographer needs to study the light and the shadows that correspond to the subject. Using shadows as a main source of light, rather than natural light, will increase its dramatic effect. | http://www.photographytipsandinfo.com/lighting-in-nature-photography/ |
Children learn from their social environment, for example by mimicking (or challenging) the social behaviour of their peers, and thus what they see in their day to day environment is likely to influence their social behaviour.
How does the environment affect behavior?
The environment can influence peoples’ behavior and motivation to act. … The environment can influence mood. For example, the results of several research studies reveal that rooms with bright light, both natural and artificial, can improve health outcomes such as depression, agitation, and sleep.
What are the environmental factors that influence child development?
In addition to learning at school, make sure that your home environment also stimulates your child’s mental development. This includes cognitive, linguistic, emotional, and motor skills. The best environment for this is a calm and loving home that allows your child to focus on improving his abilities.
What impact do children have on the environment?
Having children is the most destructive thing a person can to do to the environment, according to a new study. Researchers from Lund University in Sweden found having one fewer child per family can save “an average of 58.6 tonnes of CO2-equivalent emissions per year”.
Does environment affect personality?
It is true that environmental influences, including parenting, affect personality. Based on genetic data, researchers have concluded that environment accounts for approximately 50 to 70 percent of personality.
How does environment affect mental health?
Research has shown that children who grow up in areas that have higher levels of pollution are more likely to develop major depression by the time they reach the age of 18, for example. Pollution can also contribute to physical conditions, like asthma, which could, in turn, exacerbate mental health problems.
What are the 5 environmental factors?
They include:
- Exposure to hazardous substances in the air, water, soil, and food.
- Natural and technological disasters.
- Climate change.
- Occupational hazards.
- The built environment.
What are five factors that affect your development?
The result of this review and discussions are under the main five factors such as nutrition, parenting, parent behavior, environmental, and social and culture factors as shown in Figure 1. Nutrition is important before and during pregnancy and is most influential non-genetic factors in foetal development.
What are the environmental factors that influence learning?
There are many environmental factors that influence learning and student success so let’s take a look at the ones that matter most.
- Relationships. First, learning is about relationships. …
- Stress. …
- Sleep. …
- Exercise. …
- Nutrition. …
- Laughter.
How does a child’s physical environment affect their behavior?
Indeed, the physical environment profoundly influences developmental outcomes including academic achievement, cognitive, social and emotional development as well as parenting behavior. … Chronic and acute noise exposure also affects cognitive development, particularly long-term memory, especially if the task is complex.
How does the environment affect a child’s emotional development?
An enriching and stimulating home environment fosters healthy growth and brain development by providing a child with love, emotional support, and opportunities for learning and exploration. In families where only one parent is present, there are often fewer economic and emotional resources.
How do the family problems of early life affect a child’s personality?
Children who experience family disruptions between birth and age 16 score significantly lower in terms of self-esteem and internal locus of control. This is both observed when measured at age 10 or at age 16. They also score significantly higher on the Rutter index for behavioural problems at ages 5, 10, and 16.
How do experiences affect personality?
Because the recognition and memories of life experiences might influence our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and accordingly, personality traits (McAdams & Pals, 2006; Roberts & Wood, 2006), attachment security might function as a moderator of effects of life experiences.
How does environment affect success?
Sure you can improve your results through hard and smart work, but that’s just one factor in the formula of success. There are others factors such as environment and identity. Creating the right environment will increase your productivity, effectiveness, and even your motivation. It will result in improved results.
Is personality inherited?
Another way to put it is that there is always an interaction between the genes of a person and the person’s experience. While personalities are certainly inherited, the behavior of a child or teen is a result of how the child’s personality interacts with his or her daily experiences. | https://cpack.org/diseases/quick-answer-does-the-environment-affect-a-childs-behavior.html |
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Over the past decade there been economic and workplace changes. “The economic growth and correspondingly low unemployment that were hallmarks of the 1990s have begun to give way to an economic slowdown that has created layoffs and rising unemployment. 1 Many firms try to find the way to make “just-in-time workforce” to increase productivity; try to find the way to make employees happy and satisfied in limited work place to increase productivity. Physical work environment can influence internal effectiveness.
In the past employees regularly toiled under adverse conditions such as extreme temperatures, poor lighting, polluted air or cramped workspaces.
This has changed, in particularly by high-tech industries, such as dot-com companies, which have transformed the workplace in recent years, offering their employees signing bonuses, stock options. Nowadays companies have considered the effect of temperature, noise, lighting, air quality, workspace size, arrangement and privacy, to make employees feel safe, healthy and comfortable.
Generally, people who work or study in environment in which temperature is regulated within an individual’s acceptable range, the production level will be higher than those who work in uncomfortable temperature environment.
Same as noise, in particular, unpredictable noises which also tend to increase excitation and leading to reduce job satisfaction. “Physical working conditions and workspace design does not appear to have a substantial motivational impact on people. In other words, it does not induce people to engage in specific behaviors, but it can make certain behaviors easier or harder to perform.
In this way, the effectiveness of people may be enhanced or reduced”2 Office automation and a proper delegation system will positively affect work effectiveness.
An optimum workspace directly promotes employees’ satisfaction, and enhances employees’ attitude in work. Attitude affects job behavior, and therefore influence and promote employees’ creativity and productivity. A well-managed communication system can influence employees’ work, creativity and productivity. A good organization and an effective communication network can enhance productivity.
In an organization, employees may come from different backgrounds; for example, “the factory’s 350 employees include men and women from 44 countries who speak 19 languages. When plant management issues written announcements, they are printed in English, Chinese, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Vietnamese and Haitian Creole. “3 So, clear and unequivocal communication is central in determining an individuals’ degree of perception. Effective communication can directly increase job effectiveness. Most managers are more interested in making employees work harder, to increase productivity, then to enhance job satisfaction.
We can find a large number of employees who are not satisfied in their job. In other words, they do not show great energy and effort in their job. And yet, productivity for many firms has however, increased, as some of these employees are willing to go to extremes of sacrifice in order to keep their jobs. In fact, almost 20 percent of the white-collar workforce spends more than 49 hours a week at work. According to James E. Glassman, senior economist at J. P Morgan “What we’re discovering is that in this early stage of recovery, not only are companies making people work harder, but some people want to.
They’re trying to protect their jobs. “4 In an organization, we can find that more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than less satisfied employees. Job satisfaction can be influenced by remuneration, turnover, and sense of achievement. If you do a good job, you feel good about it, your productivity will increase, and then your pay level will be increased together with probability of a promotion. These rewards, in turn, increase your level of satisfaction with the job. The same is true on the other hand. Organization with rational and formal promotion policies will increase employees’ creativity and productivity.
Employees want fair pay systems and promotion policies, which are based on job demands. Not everyone puts money as his/her first priority. Many people are willing to accept less money to work in a preferred location or in a less demanding job. Finally, good physical working environment and well-managed working environment both influence employees’ performance and positively affect an employee’s motivation. Motivation will directly affect creativity and productivity. A well-motivated employee is a happy employee. So, happy workers are creative and productive workers.
👋 Hi! I’m your smart assistant Amy! | https://studymoose.com/happy-workers-are-creative-and-productive-workers-new-essay |
How many bits per pixel are needed to represent a black and white image?
A "black and white" image is generally actually a grayscale image, which is typically represented with 8 bits per pixel. However, you can make images that use only one bit per pixel, making each pixel either fully black or fully white. The images created by the early graphics software MacPaint used only one bit per pixel.
How is a pixel used to represent images?
Many pixels make up one image. A pixel is like one tiny piece of an image.
How an image is divided into number of shares in visual cryptography?
as a simple example assume you want divide a gray level secret image to two shares. Each pixel in the secret image is expanded to four subpixels in each share that consist of white and black so width and height of shares is twice of secret image. first share is an image wich has random pixels of black or white with equal probability. in second share, if corresponding pixel in main secret image is white… Read More
How many bits per pixel are needed to represent 256 colors?
To represent 256 colors it is needed 8 bit per pixel. 1 bit mean 2 colors, 2 bits mean 4 colors, 3 bits per pixel can represent 8 colors... 8 bits = 256 colors.
How many pixel 30 KB?
That depends on how many bits per pixel and how much the image is compressed. For example, a black-and-white (grayscale) image typically has 8 bits per pixel, but a full-color image may have 24 or 32 bits per pixel. JPEG compression may reduce the file size dramatically, sometimes by a factor of 50 or more.
What is the relationship between pixel to pixel in image processing?
Image processing involves various operations on images. An image is a collection of pixels. Each pixel has its position and resolution.
What are the types of images?
Types of images are: 1.Compressed image 2.RGB image (True Color Image & has 3 pixels ) 3.RGBA image (True Color Image & has 4 pixel or more ) 4.Grayscale image (Black & White) 5.Palette image (16 colors per pixel ) All i want is to " Like" ! Thanks !
What is a Bitmat image?
Bitmap image is raster or pixel based image. Bitmap image is made up of pixels, every pixel in grid have its own position and color. Pixels are mapped to the pixel grid, that's why its name is Bitmap.
What is a standard pixel?
A pixel is one dot in the image. A 10 megapixel camera will have 10 million pixels that make up the image.
What is pixel pitch?
Pixel Pitch is the measurement of the smallest bit of data in a video image. The smaller the size of the pixels in an image, the greater the resolution.
How can a black and white image be represented as a bitmap graphic?
The image is split into a two dimensional grid of pixels. If the brightness of the pixel is below a certain value, it is considered black, otherwise it is considered white. Each pixel is mapped onto 1 bit in memory, and if it is white, a 1 is stored, else a 0 is stored. (Sometimes it is the other way round)
How many shades can you represent using 8 bits per pixel?
Using 8 bits per pixel, how can represent 256, or 28 shades
What is the smallest element in an electronic image?
a pixel is the smallest element in an electronic image
What is image processing?
Image Processing is area in which image is processed based on pixel (spatial) and frequency methods. In spatial method pixel value are subject to change For more details on image processing research visit http://imageprocessing.webs.com/
If you was to cycle each pixel in an image through all its colors then shift it to black and increment the next pixel up one color as in binary would you end up with every picture possible?
yes and no not all pixals will be on there
What is the full meaning of pixel?
A pixel is a 'picture element' It's one single dot on the screen, or in an image
How do pixels make up a satellite image?
Each pixel is made up of 3 colors. Depending on the image is the amount of color is shown of pixel. hoped this helped
Is a mega pixel unit one inch by one inch?
A pixel is the smallest area in a digital image. It does not have a unique size, it depends on the amount of detail specified for that image.
What is image space and feature space in remote sensing?
The image space is the 2D plane of the image where pixels are located. It represents the spatial space of the image. In other words, when we talk about the location of each pixel in an image, we are talking about image space. On the other hand, feature space is about the radiometric values assigned to each pixel. In case of a grey-scale imagery, only one radiometric value is assigned to each pixel. When we… Read More
What is the smallest unit an image can be divided?
The smallest unit an image can be broken down into is a pixel.
What kind of a graphic image is a pixel?
It is a "picture element" which is a single dot of color in an image.
What is the difference between a 8.5 mega pixel and 10 mega pixel?
10 megapixel will have a larger image size and better image quality to a 8.5 megapixel. I hope this helps
What is the means of increasing resolution of an image mathematically?
Interpolation. Make a new pixel the average of its surrounding pixel colors.
What do you understand the term pixel to mean?
A pixel is a single dot on a screen or image, it's an abbreviation of picture element
How a monitor uses pixels to create an image?
Well acrecing to my calcutlations it uses many pixel a second at faster than light speed making a black hole Well acrecing to my calcutlations it uses many pixel a second at faster than light speed making a black hole Well acrecing to my calcutlations it uses many pixel a second at faster than light speed making a black hole
A cheap digital webcam has a 1000 x 2000 pixel image resolution for still images and uses a 24-bit colour scale for each pixel How many bytes of memory space would be needed to store a single image in?
1000 x 2000 x 3 = 6.0 million bytes, or 5.722 MB.
What are the disadvantages of bitmap?
When you enlarge the image, you can see alot of the pixels depending on the pixel count or resolution of the image. There is a definite pixel count that will not change when the image is enlarged or shrank so the pixels either squish together or become to large that they change the resolution and quality of the image.
What is the smallest computer screen?
the smallest computer screen is the pixel.On this pel(picture element or pixel) the image is divided into patrs which is displayed on it(only the portion of image assigned to that patricular pixel)
How can you define a Pixel?
a pixel is a tiny square of colour. a megapixel is a million tiny squares of colour that make up your image.
How do you find flat region in digital image processing?
You could calculate two perpendicular gradients to each image pixel point. If both gradient are small the pixel pertains to a flat region.
How is image quality measured in digital cameras?
Pixel density. The greater the density, the higher the quality of the image.
What is a pixel in photoshop?
Base unit of any digital image. All digital images are created from pixel grid. One pixel can have one color and one level of transparency at time.
How is clarity of an image related with pixel?
Any digital image is made of pixels - the more pixels in the image, the greater the detail and the greater the clarity.
What is meant by an indexed image?
Typical uncompressed colored images use 24 or 32-bits per pixel of an image (RGB 8-bits per color). After some basic math of lets say an 8 Megapixel image quickly becomes a very large file on a computer. A type of compression used is to select some colors (typically called a palette) and for every pixel in the original image select a color in the palette that is closest to it (some other techniques exist to… Read More
What does one pixel is represent?
A land area of 30 by 30 meters
What is an acronym for pixel?
The word "pixel" is itself a contraction of the words "picture element", the smallest individual part of a display image. (see related question)
What is a graphic image where each pixel is bit-mapped?
gigantic cows
What is luminosity in photography?
The brightness of the pixel within the image on a scale of 0 to 255
Megapixel full form?
Megapixel means one million pixel in a image.
What are the most important characteristics of an image?
Technical characteristics: - number of colors (how many bits per pixel are supported) - image size (width x height in pixels - also call image resolution horizontal, respectively vertical) - file size (size in bytes of the file where the image is saved) - display/print resolution, usually in dots per inch/cm (a description on how to output the image) Subjective impressions (for example when evaluating photographs) - subject of the image - background - type… Read More
What is px in gimp?
"Px" is an abbreviation used in many different places for "pixel." A pixel is the smallest element of a screen which when combined with others creates an image. Simply put, each tiny little pixel is a box filled with a certain color. Many hundreds or thousands of these pixels add up to create an image.
What are digital images?
A Digital image is a two dimensional array, or a matrix, of square pixels (picture elements) arranged in columns and rows. A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements called pixels (short for picture elements), each of which has a particular location and value. Each pixel represents the colour (or gray level for black and white photos) at a single point in the image, so a pixel is like a tiny dot… Read More
What is the photo size 3.5cm 4.5cm in piexels?
That depend on resolution. Open image in Photoshop and go to Image > Image Size. Pixel dimensions you can see on the top of Image Size window.
Do monochorme bitmaps require a lot of storage?
No - because the pixels making up the image are either on or off. With a colour bitmap - extra data space is needed to tell the computer what colour each pixel is.
What is the definition of pixel?
The term pixel is a short form of picture element (pix el) meaning the smallest part of an image that can be defined. For a CRT, TV, or monitor, the pixel is a single point of color combination (Red Green Blue) that can be separately determined and changed. Similarly, for bitmap images, a pixel can be made any color, but only one color per pixel. The concentration of separate pixels may be known as the… Read More
How do I enlarge pixel art without the result having any blur?
Depending on the original pixel size you can use the image , resize and then adjust the pixel resolution. Its always best to scan in or create in 300 and above DPI
What are two types of image management programs?
There are two types of images you can work with, vector images and pixel(raster or bitmap images).Vector based software are Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw and you can work both image types, but you have more capabilities to work with vector images, primer for pixel based software is Photoshop in which you can also work with both image types but you have more capabilities to work with pixel images.
What are the dots that make up a small image on a computer screen?
picture element = pixel
What is mask in image processing?
A mask is a black and white image of the same dimensions as the original image (or the region of interest you are working on). Each of the pixels in the mask can have therefore a value of 0 (black) or 1 (white). When executing operations on the image the mask is used to restrict the result to the pixels that are 1 (selected, active, white) in the mask. In this way the operation restricts… Read More
What is brightness in image processing?
For a grayscale image, brightness represents an image adjustment where a constant value is added to all pixel values shifting the grayscale curve on the y axis.
What is th difference from 720P and 1080P?
720p = 720 pixel of video quality 1080p = 1080 pixel of video quality 1080p image quality is better than 720p . | https://www.answers.com/Q/How_many_bits_per_pixel_are_needed_to_represent_a_black_and_white_image |
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(Redirected from Megapixel) This example shows an image with a portion greatly enlarged, in which the individual pixels are rendered as small squares and can easily be seen. A photograph of sub-pixel display elements on a laptop's LCD screen In digital imaging, a pixel, pel, dots, or picture element is a physical point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an all points addressable display device; so it is the smallest controllable element of a picture represented on the screen. The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a two-dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares, but CRT pixels correspond to their timing mechanisms . Each pixel is a sample of an original image; more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable. In color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. In some contexts (such as descriptions of camera sensors), the term pixel is used to refer to a single scalar element of a multi-component representation (more precisely called a photosite in the camera sensor context, although the neologism sensel is sometimes used to describe the elements of a digital camera's sensor), while in yet other contexts the term may be used to refer to the set of component intensities for a spatial position. Drawing a distinction between pixels, photosites, and samples may reduce confusion when describing color systems that use chroma subsampling or cameras that use Bayer filter to produce color components via upsampling. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix (from word "pictures", where it is shortened to "pics", and "cs" in "pics" sounds like "x") and el (for "element"); similar formations with 'el' include the words voxel and texel. The word "pixel" was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the picture elements of video images from space probes to the Moon and Mars. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, who in turn said he did not know where it originated. McFarland said simply it was "in use at the time" (circa 1963). The word is a combination of pix, for picture, and element. The word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies. By 1938, "pix" was being used in reference to still pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a "picture element" dates to the earliest days of television, for example as "Bildpunkt" (the German word for pixel, literally 'picture point') in the 1888 German patent of Paul Nipkow. According to various etymologies, the earliest publication of the term picture element itself was in Wireless World magazine in 1927, though it had been used earlier in various U.S. patents filed as early as 1911. Some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972. In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel. For example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC. Pixilation, spelled with a second i, is an unrelated filmmaking technique that dates to the beginnings of cinema, in which live actors are posed frame by frame and photographed to create stop-motion animation. An archaic British word meaning "possession by spirits (pixies)," the term has been used to describe the animation process since the early 1950s; various animators, including Norman McLaren and Grant Munro, are credited with popularizing it. A pixel does not need to be rendered as a small square. This image shows alternative ways of reconstructing an image from a set of pixel values, using dots, lines, or smooth filtering. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image. However, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be "printed pixels" in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera (photosensor elements). This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, and spot. Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as: 2400 pixels per inch, 640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. The measures dots per inch (dpi) and pixels per inch (ppi) are sometimes used interchangeably, but have distinct meanings, especially for printer devices, where dpi is a measure of the printer's density of dot (e.g. ink droplet) placement. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer. Even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original. The number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition. Pixel counts can be expressed as a single number, as in a "three-megapixel" digital camera, which has a nominal three million pixels, or as a pair of numbers, as in a "640 by 480 display", which has 640 pixels from side to side and 480 from top to bottom (as in a VGA display), and therefore has a total number of 640×480 = 307,200 pixels or 0.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form a digitized image (such as a JPEG file used on a web page) may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels, depending on how a computer displays an image. In computing, an image composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image. The word raster originates from television scanning patterns, and has been widely used to describe similar halftone printing and storage techniques. For convenience, pixels are normally arranged in a regular two-dimensional grid. By using this arrangement, many common operations can be implemented by uniformly applying the same operation to each pixel independently. Other arrangements of pixels are possible, with some sampling patterns even changing the shape (or kernel) of each pixel across the image. For this reason, care must be taken when acquiring an image on one device and displaying it on another, or when converting image data from one pixel format to another. For example: Text rendered using ClearType Computers can use pixels to display an image, often an abstract image that represents a GUI. The resolution of this image is called the display resolution and is determined by the video card of the computer. LCD monitors also use pixels to display an image, and have a native resolution. Each pixel is made up of triads, with the number of these triads determining the native resolution. On some CRT monitors, the beam sweep rate may be fixed, resulting in a fixed native resolution. Most CRT monitors do not have a fixed beam sweep rate, meaning they do not have a native resolution at all - instead they have a set of resolutions that are equally well supported. To produce the sharpest images possible on an LCD, the user must ensure the display resolution of the computer matches the native resolution of the monitor. The pixel scale used in astronomy is the angular distance between two objects on the sky that fall one pixel apart on the detector (CCD or infrared chip). The scale s measured in radians is the ratio of the pixel spacing p and focal length f of the preceding optics, s=p/f. (The focal length is the product of the focal ratio by the diameter of the associated lens or mirror.) Because p is usually expressed in units of arcseconds per pixel, because 1 radian equals 180/π*3600≈206,265 arcseconds, and because diameters are often given in millimeters and pixel sizes in micrometers which yields another factor of 1,000, the formula is often quoted as s=206p/f. Main article: Color depth The number of distinct colors that can be represented by a pixel depends on the number of bits per pixel (bpp). A 1 bpp image uses 1-bit for each pixel, so each pixel can be either on or off. Each additional bit doubles the number of colors available, so a 2 bpp image can have 4 colors, and a 3 bpp image can have 8 colors: ... For color depths of 15 or more bits per pixel, the depth is normally the sum of the bits allocated to each of the red, green, and blue components. Highcolor, usually meaning 16 bpp, normally has five bits for red and blue, and six bits for green, as the human eye is more sensitive to errors in green than in the other two primary colors. For applications involving transparency, the 16 bits may be divided into five bits each of red, green, and blue, with one bit left for transparency. A 24-bit depth allows 8 bits per component. On some systems, 32-bit depth is available: this means that each 24-bit pixel has an extra 8 bits to describe its opacity (for purposes of combining with another image). Geometry of color elements of various CRT and LCD displays; phosphor dots in a color CRTs display (top row) bear no relation to pixels or subpixels. Many display and image-acquisition systems are, for various reasons, not capable of displaying or sensing the different color channels at the same site. Therefore, the pixel grid is divided into single-color regions that contribute to the displayed or sensed color when viewed at a distance. In some displays, such as LCD, LED, and plasma displays, these single-color regions are separately addressable elements, which have come to be known as subpixels. For example, LCDs typically divide each pixel vertically into three subpixels. When the square pixel is divided into three subpixels, each subpixel is necessarily rectangular. In display industry terminology, subpixels are often referred to as pixels, as they are the basic addressable elements in a viewpoint of hardware, and hence pixel circuits rather than subpixel circuits is used. Most digital camera image sensors use single-color sensor regions, for example using the Bayer filter pattern, and in the camera industry these are known as pixels just like in the display industry, not subpixels. For systems with subpixels, two different approaches can be taken: This latter approach, referred to as subpixel rendering, uses knowledge of pixel geometry to manipulate the three colored subpixels separately, producing an increase in the apparent resolution of color displays. While CRT displays use red-green-blue-masked phosphor areas, dictated by a mesh grid called the shadow mask, it would require a difficult calibration step to be aligned with the displayed pixel raster, and so CRTs do not currently use subpixel rendering. The concept of subpixels is related to samples. Diagram of common sensor resolutions of digital cameras including megapixel values Marking on a camera phone that has about 2 million effective pixels. A megapixel (MP) is a million pixels; the term is used not only for the number of pixels in an image, but also to express the number of image sensor elements of digital cameras or the number of display elements of digital displays. For example, a camera that makes a 2048×1536 pixel image (3,145,728 finished image pixels) typically uses a few extra rows and columns of sensor elements and is commonly said to have "3.2 megapixels" or "3.4 megapixels", depending on whether the number reported is the "effective" or the "total" pixel count. Digital cameras use photosensitive electronics, either charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, consisting of a large number of single sensor elements, each of which records a measured intensity level. In most digital cameras, the sensor array is covered with a patterned color filter mosaic having red, green, and blue regions in the Bayer filter arrangement, so that each sensor element can record the intensity of a single primary color of light. The camera interpolates the color information of neighboring sensor elements, through a process called demosaicing, to create the final image. These sensor elements are often called "pixels", even though they only record 1 channel (only red, or green, or blue) of the final color image. Thus, two of the three color channels for each sensor must be interpolated and a so-called N-megapixel camera that produces an N-megapixel image provides only one-third of the information that an image of the same size could get from a scanner. Thus, certain color contrasts may look fuzzier than others, depending on the allocation of the primary colors (green has twice as many elements as red or blue in the Bayer arrangement). DxO Labs invented the Perceptual MegaPixel (P-MPix) to measure the sharpness that a camera produces when paired to a particular lens – as opposed to the MP a manufacturer states for a camera product which is based only on the camera's sensor. The new P-MPix claims to be a more accurate and relevant value for photographers to consider when weighing-up camera sharpness. As of mid-2013, the Sigma 35mm F1.4 DG HSM mounted on a Nikon D800 has the highest measured P-MPix. However, with a value of 23 MP, it still wipes-off more than one-third of the D800's 36.3 MP sensor. A camera with a full-frame image sensor, and a camera with an APS-C image sensor, may have the same pixel count (for example, 16 MP), but the full-frame camera may allow better dynamic range, less noise, and improved low-light shooting performance than an APS-C camera. This is because the full-frame camera has a larger image sensor than the APS-C camera, therefore more information can be captured per pixel. A full-frame camera that shoots photographs at 36 megapixels has roughly the same pixel size as an APS-C camera that shoots at 16 megapixels. One new method to add Megapixels has been introduced in a Micro Four Thirds System camera which only uses 16MP sensor, but can produce 64MP RAW (40MP JPEG) by expose-shift-expose-shift the sensor a half pixel each time to both directions. Using a tripod to take level multi-shots within an instance, the multiple 16MP images are then generated into a unified 64MP image. | http://www.colorcopiesmn.com/%EF%BB%BFminnesota/wayzata-mn-inexpensive-business-cards/ |
The term bit is common in any form of digital media. With respect to digital imaging, bit depth goes by many names like -pixel depth or color level. In digital photography, the discussion of 8-bit vs 16-bit files has been going on as much as Nikon vs Canon. This short article intends to give you a better understanding of what bit depth is certainly. It will also take you by means of whether we need 16-bit images or not, and if we perform, when we need them.
Desk of Contents
What is bit depth?
Many of us are aware of the fact that pixels are basic elements of any image. Specifically, any color within digital imaging is symbolized by a combination of red, green, and blue shades. One particular combination is used per pixel, and millions of pixels make an image. It is for this reason that bit depth is also called color depth. For example , 100 % pure red is represented using the numbers “255, 0, 0. ” Pure green is usually 0, 255, 0, plus pure blue is 0, 0, 255. In photography, each primary color (red, green or blue) is definitely represented by an integer between 0 and 255. Any non-primary colors are usually represented by a combination of the primary colors, such as “255, 100, 150” for a particular shade of pink.
Let us consider the largest quantity that represents red, which is 255. When I convert 255 into binary, I get 111111, which is eight numbers long. Now, when I try to convert the next decimal, 256, I would get 1000000, that is a 9 digit binary amount. That is why any integer in between 0-255 is considered “8 bit”; it can be represented within eight binary digits.
So , the definition of little bit depth is the number of bits used by each color component to represent a pixel. For instance , 8 bits can symbolize up to 256 shades (or, 2^8) of a given principal color.
Bit depth vs Color gamut
Some photographers confuse colour depth with color range. Color gamut is a selection of colors, usually used in the context of which range of shades a given device can display or printer can output. Electronics and printers are not able to display nearly as many colors since the human eye can see. The range of colours which they can display is usually restricted to a color gamut like sRGB or AdobeRGB, or a specific gamut based on the printer/ink/paper at hand. You can read more about color gamut at Spencer’s write-up on sRGB vs Adobe RGB compared to ProPhoto RGB .
Bit depth, however, can be visualized as the distance between colors within the gamut. In other words, you could have two pictures of rainbows that each go from red to violet – i. electronic., the same gamut. But the very first rainbow may be a gentle lean with many thousands of individual colours if you zoom in at the pixels, whereas the second range may be made up of just seven or eight colors and appear much blockier. In that illustration, the second rainbow would have a far smaller bit depth.
1-Bit pictures
In order to visualize bit depth easier, let us take a simple sort of a 1-bit image. As you may have gathered already, little bit depth is merely 2 to the power of that number. So , a 1-bit image might have only 2^1 values. Since 2^1 = 2, there are only two values accessible here: 0 and one – AKA black and white.
Take a look at the image below for the similar example. The left side of the image is usually 8-bit whereas the right part is 1-bit.
The right side of the image contains only black and white. A few areas of the particular 1-bit image might show up grey, but once bigger to pixel peep, the difference becomes apparent as observed below. The 8-bit picture can hold 256 shades of grey whereas the image on the right can only hold either black or white.
Bits vs Pieces per channel
In the above area, we saw that an 8-bit image can only hold 256 different shades of gray in total. But I described at the start of this article that 8-bit color images actually have 256 shades per principal color . So , a typical color image that we commonly call “8-bit” actually can fit well more than just 256 shades. It’s more accurate in order to call it an 8-bit per channel image. If your color image has 8 bits per channel, and there are 3 channels (red, green, plus blue), the overall image can actually fit a total of 256 × 256 × 256 shades, which equals 16, 777, 216 (or 2^24). That’s why you may from time to time hear an 8-bit per channel image referred to at a 24 bit image, despite the fact that this is not the most commonly used term for it.
Nevertheless confusing? Let me take the assist of Photoshop to make it crystal clear. Take a look at the illustrative image below.
In the Channels tabs, marked red in the picture above, you can see that although this is a greyscale image, they have four channels: one station each for red, green, and blue, and a good RGB channel for the entire picture. It’s not possible to know whether or not I can recover the color picture in this case (for all we know, I applied a B& W adjustment layer and flattened the image). Yet at least in some form, presently there remain three primary color channels here, and each one has eight bits of information.
As such, the entire picture here is technically still 24 bit. However , I could remove all color information by going to the top menu and selecting Image > Mode > Greyscale. Once I do, you will see that only one channel exists today, as shown in the image below:
The picture above is a true 8-bit image; there are only 256 shades associated with gray in this photo, and there is no way to get back the color version. This also reduced my quality to 1/3 of what it was before.
16-bits/channel or 48-bits RGB
Now that you understand bit depth, you can easily calculate the little bit depth of 16-bits per channel images. An image along with 16 bits per station will have up to 2^16 tones per channel, or 65536. If you have an RGB image where each of Red, Eco-friendly, and Blue has sixteen bits, you must multiply 65536 × 65536 × 65536 to see that the image holds up to 281 trillion colors in total.
Even though theoretically, 16-bits/channel bit level is supposed to hold 281 trillion colors, Photoshop’s 16-bit does not hold that much. As per description, the maximum possible tonal worth for each of the primary shades should be 65, 536. However the maximum possible number of tones in Photoshop’s 16-bit/channel RGB is (2^15)+1=32769. So when you are working with Photoshop in 16-bit mode, a pixel holds any of 35. 2 trillion colors instead of 281 trillion.
Will be 16-bits/channel really usable?
Even though Photoshop’s 16-bit/channel images can only hold 12. 5% of the theoretical maximum value, 35. two trillion colors is still a great deal. The million dollar question that will arises now is, can a persons eye resolve so many colours? The answer is NO. Research has demonstrated that the human eye can resolve a maximum of 10 million colors. Take a look at the image below.
Can you see any noticeable difference between the three rounded squares? Most of you might spot the tonal difference between the a single in the middle and the one in the right. But I certainly cannot find any visible difference between the left 1 and the middle one.
The leftmost sq . is 255, 0, 0, while the middle square can be 254, 0, 0. That is one step of difference in an 8-bit image, no place near even Photoshop’s 16-bit images! Had the above mentioned image been a 16-bits/channel image in Photoshop, you can fit more than 32, 500 tones between the left and center images.
Since 16-bits/channel images hold an exceptionally large number of colors, these people obviously are space consuming. For example , Nikon’s NX software program outputs 130 MB JPEG files when I choose to foreign trade it as 16-bit, while, the file size shrinks to about 70 MB after i choose 8-bit with one of my images.
In addition , very few output products – monitors, prints, and so forth – can display more than almost eight bits per channel anyway. But that doesn’t imply the higher bit depths are usually unimportant.
Where does 16-bits/channel really matter?
The section above might give an impression that nobody would ever need a lot more than 8 bits per route. Nevertheless, 16-bit images have their uses. Let us consider the picture below.
I have opened an image plus converted it into 8-bit by using the menu option Picture > Mode > 8-bits/channel. Now I apply two curves adjustment layers to the opened up image. In Curves one, I select input as 255 and change the output to 23. To put it simply, I have underexposed the picture. Using Figure 2, I have selected the particular input as 23 and changed the output to 255. This brings back the exposure to where it was before underexposing it – but at the expense of “crunching” plenty of colors. This leads to the banding effect that you can see above and clouds in the image above.
Once i do the same edit to some 16-bit image, there is no visible banding in the sky. You can see that will in the comparison below, exactly where I put both images through the same adjustments:
This is where 16-bit images find their make use of. The more drastic your modifying is, the more helpful it will be to have as many shades associated with color as possible.
You can still avoid banding on 8-bit images with careful processing – for example not doing the extreme curves adjustments I did above – but 16-bit images give you more room for mistake. That’s why, if you’re editing in software like Photoshop, it is good practice to work alongside 16-bit images. Only once the particular editing work is done could it be a good idea to convert it to an 8-bit image for result. (Although it’s still best to keep the 16 bit JPEG or PSD in your store, in case you decide to do more editing later. )
So , in general, the particular useful scope of 16-bit per channel images starts and ends with publish processing.
Conclusion
I hope this article gave the readers a basic understanding of exactly what bit depth is as well as the difference between 8-bit and 16-bit per channel pictures. Even though 16 bits might sound like overkill, we saw here that it finds the use in post-processing images. But 8-bit per channel pictures take up much less file space, so it’s worth exporting your images, especially for the web, to 8-bit per channel to save space.
Make sure you let me know in the comments area if you have questions or enhancements so that other readers can benefit from it. | https://photos-graphs.com/8-bit-vs-16-bit-images/ |
Welcome to the series of blogs on Digital Image Processing using MATLAB. If you are looking for a complete guidance in understanding the concepts of the digital images and image processing, you’re at the right place! In this series, we will discuss the concepts of Image Processing along with the implementation from scratch to the advanced level. So let’s start by first understanding the concepts of digital images.
Fundamentals of Digital Images
These days we encounter hundreds of digital images on a daily basis in our smartphones, laptops, i-pads, etc. But have you ever wondered how these images are generated, stored and transferred through various networks? Let’s explore this in the fundamentals of digital images by first addressing the most basic question: what actually constitutes a digital image?
What is a Digital Image?
A digital image, in its most basic form, is a collection of numbers arranged in two or three dimensions (called matrix). Each of these numbers is encoded into some shade of a color palette. These numbers are called the pixels of the image. So a 1 Megapixel image contains 1 million pixels. Each of them assumes a number varying within a certain range. To illustrate this, let’s analyze the following images carefully.
The left image is a typical black & white pixel image showing some structure. The grids on the image are just to illustrate the position of pixels. You can imagine it without the grids also for better visualization. But how your computer or phone stores this image? No, it does not remember the colors on the respective positions. They actually have a number (or a digit) for every position of the image as you can see on the right image next to it. These numbers represents the equivalent intensities of the pixels.
How pixel values are chosen?
Conventionally, the brightest pixel assumes the highest value while the lowest number represents the darkest pixel. In this example, since we have only two intensities, there are two numbers for pixel representation: 0 (for dark pixel) & 1 (for bright pixel).
Now you can have a close look at both the images (Fig. 1.1) to find out the respective coding of pixels. Electronic devices have registers which store these numbers serially or in parallel in binary form. When you click on the image to see it, image pixels appear on the screen after conversion from pixel values to the respective color intensities.
Before we go much into the details of a digital image structure, let’s quickly go through the types of digital images classified according to their color distribution. There are three classes of images based on color intensities:
Types of Images
Binary (B/W) image
As the name suggests, it assumes only two values 0 and 1 for each of their pixels (same as the example of Fig. 1.1). So you pick any pixel from the image and it will be either 0 (coded as pure black) or 1 (coded as pure white). Therefore one binary bit is sufficient to encode a pixel of the binary image. You barely see these images now as it’s almost obsolete in terms of usage because of its impoverished representation. You can find these images in some of the old newspapers, billboards or video games from the archive. The reason why they were used earlier is the only advantage they possess – low storage requirements. And the low memory consumption comes at the cost of image quality.
Till the early ’90s or before, storage cost for images were considerably high. That is why binary images were frequently seen at that time. One can easily relate this by observing the images from the famous childhood video game, Mario (Fig. 1.2). Fig. 1.2(a) shows the example of a binary image where each of the pixels are either pure black or pure white. There is no gray color present in the image.
Grayscale Image
In this class of image, pixels are encoded into a larger range of values. Therefore, we percieve more shades of gray instead of just two. To be precise, each pixel of a grayscale image has pixel values in the range 0-255. We have discussed earlier that computers store pixel values in binary numbers. So it is important to know that 1 pixel of an image is equivalent to how many binary bits?
Usually, the maximum possible value of the image pixels decides the number of binary bits for encoding an image pixel. The formula for obtaining this number is,Nb = log2(max_pix_val+1)
Where Nb is the number of binary bits and max_pix_val is the maximum pixel value. Since the maximum value of a grayscale image pixel is 255, one pixel requires Nb = log2(255+1) = 8 bits for storage.
You might see grayscale images somewhere these days but you may be familiar with this if you were a child in ’90s or earlier. Yes, you guessed it right: the ‘so-called’ black & white TV! Actually, you were referring a grayscale display television as B/W TV! So what is B/W image then? You’ve just learned a while ago, the binary image.
Therefore, the difference between a B/W image and the grayscale image is simple. The binary (B/W) image pixels assumes only two values (0 & 1). This makes the picture quality dull with just two intensities. While the grayscale image pixels assume 256 values (0-255) and therefore offers more shades of gray.
In terms of binary equivalent, each pixel of a B/W image requires only one binary bit for storage. In contrast, a grayscale image pixel requires 8 bits [log2(256)]. The example of grayscale image is shown in Fig. 1.2(b).
Color Image
Most of the images that we see today in our smartphones or computers, belong to this category. Fig. 1.2(c) is the example of a color image from the latest version of the game. Color images are predominantly used because of its pleasant appearance and detailed content. Before we delve into the details of the color digital images, you must be familiar with some of the basics of color theory. Let’s go through it quickly!
Color Models
Humans visualize colors through light waves. A few basic colors mix together to produce a broad range of colors. A Color Model is an abstract way of describing colors using some basic color components. Additive and Subtractive color model are two well-known schemes that describe the basic understanding of color theory.
Additive (or RGB) color mixing model allows producing of colors by mixing three fundamental colors: Red, Green, and Blue in an appropriate proportion. In Subtractive (CMYK) color model, mixture of Cyan, Magenta, and Yellow produces different colors. Fig. 1.3 depicts both the color models graphically.
Most of the electronic display gadgets like TVs, smartphones, projectors use the RGB color model to produce colors on the screen. On the other hand, devices like printers use the CMYK color model. Therefore, any color you perceive on a physical surface is based on the subtractive color model.
Now that we have an insight about the color theory and understood the fact that the digital digital images use RGB color model, we should concentrate on this model and forget the other one. Ok, we have now enough background to understand the concept of color images.
Color Images (cont..)
A color digital image consists of three grayscale planes: Red, Green and Blue making it a three-dimensional grid of pixels (Fig. 1.4). Looking at a color image two-dimensionally, each pixel consists of three numbers (or sub-pixels) carrying values for corresponding red, green and blue. Each plane is having pixel values in the range 0-255.
The lower pixel values for any of the (RGB) planes will lessen the impact of that particular color. Similarly, a higher pixel value would cause domination of that color. For example, you pick a pixel position in the image and you get three values corresponding to each R, G and B. If R pixel value is higher (close to 255) and the other two values are relatively less, you’ll get a reddish hue because of the red domination. Similar would be the case for the other two planes (Table 1.1).
Color Image Pixel Size
So how many binary bits a color image pixel comprises of? And what is the overall range of a color image pixel? It’s simple. Each of the color image planes would require exactly the same amount of memory as a grayscale image of the same dimension. Therefore, each pixel of a color image is comprised of 8×3=24 bits.
There is no overall pixel range for a color image pixel. Therefore, we consider the individual pixel range of each plane (0-255). However, for the purpose of the depiction, we usually normalize the pixel range between 0 and 1 corresponding to the darkest and the brightest pixel respectively (Fig. 1.2(c)).
Fig. 1.4(a) shows three grayscale planes with different pixel values (not visible). Combining these planes we get a nice looking color image (Fig. 1.4(b)). Fig. 1.4(c) depicts a small section of the image by zooming in the original image and showing the corresponding RGB values. Let’s take a few examples of RGB values and their equivalent pixel color in the image. You can observe the color of image pixels are in accordance with the RGB values of the primary color model.
How to implement?
Now that we have developed a sufficient background for the digital images, let’s move on to the next step. Here we’ll literally observe the image characteristics and various operations on them. For this, we need a software that can read, display and perform some basic operations on images. Your PC/smartphone has some basic software to read and display the images. But you can’t see the pixel values or number of planes of images or perform any operations on them. (Although there are few add-on software available to perform some of the operations like cropping and filtering on images.)
MATLAB is an excellent software that is used to read, display and perform a number of interesting operations. This includes conversion of images from one type to another, changing the shape of images, altering or modifying the geometry and intensities of the image, applying various filters, etc. Matlab’s Image Processing toolbox offers a vast variety of functions and commands to perform these operations . I’ll explain all these in the next sections of the blog. But before that, it is preferable to learn a little bit of mathematics behind the software in order to understand it effortlessly. And the topic to learn is “Matrix” as the abbreviation for MATLAB is Matrix Laboratory! Ok so we will learn the concepts of Matrix in the next blog.
Read the next section of the blog “Matrix: Basics and Usage in MATLAB” here.
Thank You.
For training, Research Assistance, and Consultancy Services on Computer Vision, Deep Learning, Signal Processing, Image Processing, and Medical Signal/Image Processing. | https://www.pirotechnologies.com/fundamentals-of-digital-images/ |
The normal formal for a bitmap image is. When pretty-printed, the contents list is oriented as the image will appear, giving a rough idea of what the real thing will look like. Vector images are made up of lines, polygons etc. A bitmap file can be opened with what program? A pixel map.
The term "pixmap" is short for "pixel map. A pixmap stores and displays a graphical image as a rectangular array of pixel color values.
Bitmaps and Pixmaps
while a. Key difference: The term bitmap essentially means a map of bits or specifically a ' spatially mapped array of bits'. Pixmap is very similar to bitmap. In fact, most. is that pixmap is (computer graphics) a grid of pixels while bitmap is (computing) a series of bits that represents a rasterized graphic image, each pixel being represented as a group of bits. * Whereas a bitmap is sometimes represented with 1 bit per pixel, allowing each dot in.
A bitmap graphic is also known as a raster image.
A Vector image just gives the coordinates of both ends of each line in the image. The type of package used depends on the type of image you're trying to work with.
Generally, both bitmaps and pixmaps together are referred to as raster images. What is pgm image?
BMP is a picture file that was created in Microsoft paint. While a pixmap internally includes a texture, using a pixmap does not require dealing with the texture object directly at all, since the information contained in the texture is available directly from the pixmap by using its contentsbits-per-pixelwidthand height properties.
Bitmap is also sometimes used to refer to any pixmap. Bitmap (or raster) images are stored as a series of tiny dots called pixels.
Difference between Bitmap and Pixmap Bitmap vs Pixmap
Each pixel is actually a very small square that is assigned a color, and then arranged in. The frame buffer used in the black and white system is known as bitmap which take one bit per pixel. For systems with multiple bits per pixel.
The terms are usually very generic, and should be accompanied by more descriptive terms such as "bitmap", "raster", or "vector" to avoid confusion. When you zoom in on a bitmap image you can see the individual pixels that make up that image.
What is the difference between bitmap and pixmap
Also, as a bitmap image is a pixel by pixel image, if one tries to zoom in or enhance a bitmap picture, the image seems pixilated. Replacing a pixmap's color with this palette vector can make it appear to be dimmed.
Bitmap usually refers to an uncompressed image. Hence, it is a simple format without many options available for the image, as in to apply filters or edit the images in many different ways. This property is handy in the inspector for jumping from a control to the pixmap that it displays.
Video: Bitmap pixmap difference Vector VS Bitmap
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|What is the difference between a Bitmap and a Vector image? Must be either 1, 4, 8, 16, or Sometimes Common Graphics automatically opens a pixmap handle for a pixmap, in particular if it is used by a control since controls tend to be small enough that we can assume that the extra space is not very significant.
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The handle can be destroyed later by calling close-pixmap-handle on the pixmap. Pixels of 8 bits and fewer can represent either grayscale or indexed color. In typical uncompressed bitmaps, image pixels are generally stored with a variable number of bits per pixel which identify its color, the color depth. | http://indonesischerecepten.com/unsorted/bitmap-pixmap-difference-196423.html |
Note that a digital image has a regular grid of picture elements (pixels) arrayed in columns and rows within a rectangular boundary. Each pixel has an associated color. The RGB model is commonly used to represent the intensity of each of the hues (or colors) red, green, and blue. In the RGB model, black and white are represented as the absence of intensity of R, G, and B, while white is represented by the greatest intensity of R, G, and B.
The BMP file format is somewhat of a “gold standard” of representing an image in the most basic manner, as no “gimmicks” are used in the coding which represents the colors of each pixel. It is a format which can serve as a starting point for deriving images of other file formats which may involve “compression,” a means for shrinking the required file size needed to present a good picture.
Often, 256 equal steps between no intensity and maximum intensity provide a fineness of intensity levels of each hue that is satisfactory for most work. In decimal (base 10) numbers, this represents 0 through 255. There are hexadecimal numbers (base 16) that correspond to each of the decimal values 0 through 255, and they are often used instead of decimal numbers to represent these intensities.
Hexadecimal representations are a natural outgrowth of working with binary (base 2) numbers, as they convey all necessary data elements that represent binary numerals 0 to 15, and do so in the most efficient way.
Here’s an example:
Take the decimal number 15.
In base 10, the numeral 1 and 5, when arranged as they are shown represent 1×101 + 5×100
In base 2, it is represented as 1×23 + 1×22 + 1×21 +1×20 OR 1111. Note that if the ordered sequence of these four representations of ON corresponds to four specific locations within the computer where the rightmost (least significant numeral) is defined as either 0 or 1, the numeral to its left as a 0 or a 2, next as a 0 or a 4, and the next as a 0 or an 8, we see that it takes exactly 4 bits of code to identify any decimal number between 0 and 16.
In base 16, the letter (alphanumeric symbol) f is defined as decimal 15, and hexadecimal values for 10 through 15 are assigned the letters a through f, respectively.
Because a computer handles binary information terms (bits) as the means of defining the state OFF=0, or ON=1 of any semiconductor or memory node, one can see that the binary (base 2) system is elemental and very efficient.
When representing any decimal value between 0 and 255, we can see that it takes only two hexadecimal symbols, while it would take exactly 8 bits, or a string of eight zeros or ones if represented as a binary (base 2) number.
Thus we find that it is convenient, conceptually as well as in digital coding, to represent any of the intensity levels by just two symbols, recognizing that these symbols are defined on the base 16 counting system.
It has become a standard practice to define a group of 8 bits as a Byte. It has become a common practice to use 256 gradations of intensity to give a good representation of the detail necessary for obtaining a good picture. Note that it takes 8 bits, or one byte, to represent each of the 256 intensity levels. In an RGB color system having 256 intensity levels, every color representation involves an 8-bit binary number (or a one byte number). Since each pixel requires an 8-bit number for each of the three R, G, and B colors, it is said to be a 24-bit color system. Although the coding of intensity of each of the three colors of each pixel can be measured in quantitative terms by the number of bits OR the number of Bytes which are involved, bits are most often used in reference to the definition of color of individual pixels, while Bytes are most often used as a measure of the data required for the whole image.
For example, a color photo which can be copied into the C:\Windows folder to serve as a “background” OR “wallpaper” must be introduced into that folder in BMP format if using a Windows 9x operating system. If such an image file is already of the size which will fill an 800 x 600 pixel screen without stretching, we can calculate how big that file must be if it has 24-bit color coding.
There are 480,000 pixels and 1,440,000 Bytes. This number is close to the maximum file size which may be copied onto a floppy disk. Let’s see if it will fit.
Remember that one Kilobyte is 1,024 (210) Bytes, not 1,000 (103) Bytes. This comparison recognizes that there is a different representation of the actual number of Bytes which are involved, and that there is a factor of 2.4% to account for when comparing the numeric values assigned to that file size if stated in Bytes or in Kilobytes. A bigger discrepancy is involved when numeric values are used to represent a file size in Megabytes vs. Bytes.
For the case shown above, divide 1.44 x 106 Bytes by 1.024 twice to get approximately 1.37 MB, which will fit on a floppy disk.
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This post explains how to implement bayer dithering for reducing an image to a lower bits per color format in a practical manner.
If you want a really theoretical explanation of dithering, just read the Wikipedia articles on dither and ordered dithering.
For the purpose of this explanation we will be assuming our input graphics are stored in an RGB888 format. In other words, eight bits per color per pixel. This gives is an input value range of 0..255.
If you would be, for example, converting a grayscale image into a 1 bit black and white image, the simplest method would just do a >>= 7 operation, meaning values < 128 would become 0 and all values >= 128 would become 1. This generates a high contrast black and white image.
In a color conversion from RGB888 to RGB555, when simply doing a >>=3 right shift, a lightmap used as example image ends up looking like this. The image contrast is enhanced here to better show the effect called banding.
Essentially, how dithering works, is that we simply add a pseudorandom value to every pixel before lowering the bits per color. This value is in the range equal to the loss of color precision, which causes a correctly proportioned amount of pixels to switch over to the next color value, resulting in a nice looking gradient.
In the case of a grayscale to 1bit conversion, we would add a value in range 1..255, and do a >>=8 right shift operation to select all the values >= 256 as black.
For a RGB888 to RGB555 conversion, we add a pseudorandom value to each pixel in the range 0..7 (where 7 is the masking value of the 3 lost bits), and do a >>=3 right shift. The example image is contrast enhanced to clearly demonstrate the effect.
Note, that for the 1bit conversion I use a range starting at 1 instead of 0 and that I use 255 rather than the masking value of the lost bits (which would be 127). Due to the simplification of division by right shifting, the upper value is not exactly represented, and the upper value ends up being clipped off. The 1 bit conversion thus ends up being a special case here. This behavior, however, is negligible, and is in any case preferred over having a value discontinuity anywhere else in the gradient caused by mathematically correct and slower division routines.
Now, to get a good quality dither, you cannot just use a random value. A common and simple method is to use a Bayer matrix as the source for your dither values. This is simply an infinitely repeating square lookup table, indexed by image coordinate.
A 2×2 Bayer matrix looks like this, and is constructed by starting anywhere, going to the furthest pixel from the starting point (which is a diagonal line), and then filling the remaining two pixels by the same logic.
Essentially, the numbers represent the order in which pixels will advance to the next color value depending on the value level. Imagine converting from a set of 2 by 2 pixel solid gray images in range 0..4 (so, a total of 5 shades) to the 1 bit range 0..1. Using the above matrix, an image with value 0 would be the leftmost non-filled, value 4 would be the rightmost filled result. The gray 2×2 pixel images with the remaining in-between values, would be one of the three in-between results respectively. A large 50% gray image would become the recognizable checkerboard pixel pattern.
The minimum and maximum values are decided by the required range for the pseudorandom number as previously explained, that is, the masking value of the lost bits. To increase the maximum value, a larger matrix can be constructed by following the same pattern in a recursive manner.
If you want to do some real fancy stuff, you could even follow the same patterns to generate a 3d bayer matrix. This can prove to be useful for procedurally generated 3d content using volumetric textures.
For converting RGB888 to RGB555, however, we need the highest value to be 7. Increasing the matrix size brings us from 3 straight to 15. To get to 7, simply >>=2 right shift the matrix.
This results in a matrix where the bottom two 2×2 blocks are the flipped over version of the top two 2×2 blocks.
The basic formula used in the example is OUT = (IN + Bayer[x & 7][y & 7]) >> 3, where IN is in range 0..255 and OUT is in range 0..32 (calculated by (255 + 7) >> 3). As previously stated, the top value needs to be clipped off, so that the resulting range is 0..31, in order to fit into the 5 bits of the color channel.
While this provides a pretty good result already, we can slightly improve the quality by using a separate matrix for the different color channel. A simple method is to simply use a negative X coordinate for the Bayer matrix of the Red channel, and a negative Y coordinate for the Bayer matrix of the Blue channel (and optionally use the negative of both coordinates for the Alpha channel). This separation of color channels results in a perceived smoother transition. Example image is enhanced in contrast to better show the effect. Notice an improved reduction of banding in the bright light in the bottom left, compared to the previous dithered image.
Here’s a side-by-side comparison of the full image, without contrast enhancement, to show the actual visual result. Leftmost is the banded conversion, center is the first version of the dithering, rightmost is dithering with separation of color channels.
One side effect, however, of separating the color channel, is that this causes pure gray colors to lose their color purity. This is generally not much of an issue, as some colorization noise does have a certain artistic value to it. And you should probably not be using color textures if you require pure grayscale.
A post about image processing would not be complete, however, without the classic Lenna image. So here’s an RGB555 conversion of a 256×256 Lenna source image using bayer matrix dithering with separated color channels. | https://kaetemi.blog/2015/04/01/practical-bayer-dithering/ |
Ensuring the continued availability of ecosystem services is important as climate change progresses
Our society is dependent on ecosystems and the ecosystem services that they provide. With climate change, ecosystems are facing many changes that also affect the commodities and other services that are important to humans. Biodiversity sustains a number of ecosystem services, and its appreciation may increase with climate change.
Table of Contents
- Significance of ecosystem services in Finland
- Relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem services
- Effect of climate change on ecosystem services
- Vital supporting ecosystem services
- Regulating ecosystem services and biodiversity
- Climate change affects the ability of ecosystems to function as carbon sinks
- Cultural services provided by ecosystems: recreational use of nature, berry picking, and mushrooming
Significance of ecosystem services in Finland
Humans and society are dependent on natural resources and processes. Ecosystem services are intangible and tangible benefits that humans gain from nature. These include nutrition, medicinal products, construction materials, and recreational opportunities, among others. Natural processes, such as ecological interaction between pollinators and plants, the natural purification and storage of groundwater, and the purification of air, also belong to ecosystem services.
The concept of ecosystem services has been developed to aid our understanding of the monetary value of nature to society. The freedom to make use of ecosystem services is considered an important right, and it has been included in the Constitution of Finland . Ecosystem services are nevertheless often taken for granted. Because they are often free of charge, they have not been taken into consideration in earlier economic calculations, in societal decision-making, or in plans concerning the use of natural resources. As opposed to the approach that emphasises the intrinsic value of nature, the economic valuation of ecosystem services is based on a human-centred perspective. It acts as a tool that allows us to promote economically, socially, and ecologically sustainable development.
Determining a price for predator-prey interactions, water purification, and the flood protection provided by wetlands, for example, is challenging. The value of ecosystem services is always dependent on the individuals involved in the valuation process, their living conditions, and their level of income.
A pollinator at work. Plant pollination is an important ecosystem service.
Ecosystem disservices are the reverse of ecosystem services. Some natural processes and phenomena, such as pollens that cause allergies, can be perceived as nuisances rather than services. Many ecosystem services have both positive and negative sides, and one of these sides may override the other depending on the circumstances or the individual.
Relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem services
Biodiversity supports the conservation of many ecosystem services. As biodiversity declines, the ability of ecosystems to produce ecosystem services may deteriorate. The ability of diverse biological communities to withstand and recover from disruptions is better than that of communities with fewer species, which supports the availability of ecosystem services. Some ecosystem services are also dependent on the continued diversity of habitats, species, and intraspecies genetic variation. The loss of biodiversity may affect the usability and availability of suitable crops, production animals, and medicinal products. Climate change is one of the factors affecting biodiversity.
Biodiversity affects the quantity of ecosystem processes; as each species has its own ecological niche and its role in a biological community, a more diverse ecosystem is also able to produce a higher number of ecosystem processes . The relationship between individual ecosystem services and biodiversity nevertheless varies. Some ecosystem services, such as erosion control or water purification, are mostly independent of biodiversity, and what is critical for these processes is the conservation of vegetation .
Effect of climate change on ecosystem services
Global warming and changes in rainfall, which are caused by climate change, shape ecosystems. They affect the quality of the habitats in which organisms live, and their ecological effects include changes in the geographic ranges of species, the annual biological rhythms of organisms, and the size of organisms in aquatic habitats . Changes in the services produced by ecosystems are expected, and they will affect both natural environments and different forms of land use from agriculture to forestry, fishing, infrastructure, and housing.
Vital supporting ecosystem services
Ecosystem services can be divided into supporting, regulating, provisioning, and cultural services . As their name suggests, supporting services, such as nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, or biodiversity, support several ecosystem processes. They can be affected by climate change, which will also have an indirect impact on many other ecosystem services. An increase in the levels of carbon dioxide in the air and in the speed of plant metabolic processes, for example, can accelerate photosynthesis. On the other hand, the availability of water may limit it in regions that are suffering from drought. In Finland, plant primary production is expected to increase as a result of climate change. This will be reflected in the volume of many provisioning services, such as nutrition and construction materials.
Regulating ecosystem services and biodiversity
Regulating ecosystem services include, among others, erosion control, purification of water and air, greenhouse gas sequestration, plant pollination, and the effect of predators on prey abundance . The purification of water and air, for instance, may be affected by changes in vegetation and in the speed of metabolic processes in organisms as a result of climate change . Many regulating ecosystem services are dependent on events in food webs and on biodiversity
Pest control provided by insects, birds, and other predators is an important ecosystem service in agriculture and forestry. By regulating the abundance of their prey species, they help to reduce damage to crops and forests, for example. Due to increasing asynchrony between the activity of predators and prey, which results from changes in biological rhythms at different levels of the food web, and the loss of habitats, many of the organisms that typically control the abundance of pests will, as climate change progresses, become unable to make use of their previous sources of nutrition or may even become extinct.
Pollination is an important ecosystem service from the perspective of plant reproduction and the production of nutrition. Interaction between pollinators and plants has affected the evolution of both, and certain species have become specialised in using and pollinating certain plants. If the diversity of pollinators declines or their numbers dwindle, or if asynchrony develops between plant blossoms and pollinator activity, the success of pollination is in danger. Many birds and insects also help to disperse seeds. If the overlap of the geographic ranges of species decreases or if the food web is compromised in some other way, this ecosystem service will also be in jeopardy.
The micro-organisms and invertebrates that help to break down soil provide important ecosystem services by maintaining nutrient and carbon recycling. With climate change, droughts, for example, can affect the functioning of these organisms, which could also have an impact on agriculture and forestry, for instance.
Climate change affects the ability of ecosystems to function as carbon sinks
The ability of ecosystems to function as carbon sinks is an especially important regulating service in terms of slowing down and adapting to climate change. Ecosystems, such as seas, forests, grassland plains, and bogs, sequester approximately half of the carbon dioxide emissions produced by humankind . Carbon is stored in living organisms, in organic matter in the soil, and dissolved in water. Carbon is released in the course of cellular respiration and the decomposition of organic matter, for example. The functioning of carbon sinks affects the ability of society to slow down climate change. The transformation of ecosystems from carbon sinks into sources of carbon would reinforce the greenhouse effect and global warming.
The most important carbon stores in Finland are trees and soil in the forests and peat in bogs . Lake sediments are the third largest carbon store . Carbon is also found dissolved in the water column of the Baltic Sea and sequestered in sediments on the seabed . The significance of carbon stores is illustrated, for example, by the fact that if the carbon sequestered in peat was to decrease by ten percent, the volume of carbon dioxide released into the air would be equivalent to Finland's emissions over a period of 30 years . With climate change, global warming, changes in rainfall, and the lengthening of the growing season can have an impact on the ability of bogs to store carbon. The use of peat for energy production is a provisioning service provided by bogs, which competes with the regulating service provided by bogs, i.e. carbon sequestration .
Cultural services provided by ecosystems: recreational use of nature, berry picking, and mushrooming
The value of cultural services, such as scenery or recreation, may decrease as a result of sudden changes in habitats or declining biodiversity. Climate change may affect the recreational use of nature, such as walking in the woods, berry picking, and mushrooming.
Berry picking offers an opportunity for recreation in nearby nature and is a common pastime among Finns. In addition to a cultural service, berry harvests provide a provisioning service. In 2005, which was an average harvest year, the harvests of the eight most important wild berries amounted to a total of approximately 686.7 million kilograms. Only some of this was gathered, and the harvested volume was worth 77.2 million euros.
A little blueberry picker.
Opportunities for berry picking may decrease with climate change. The reason for this is the potential decline in the prevalence of berry plants in the future. As the northern boreal ecoregion retreats further north to make way for temperate broadleaf forest, the prevalence of blueberries may decrease, as they are less often found in broadleaf-dominated forests than in coniferous forests . The success of pollination is important in terms of berry harvests . It is possible that, with climate change, asynchrony between pollinator activity and berry blossoms may increase.
The utilisation of berries may also become less safe than before. As small carnivorous mammals become more numerous, the Echinococcus multilocularis tapeworm that they carry is also feared to spread to Finland. Humans can become infected with the parasite by consuming meat or berries and mushrooms that have been in contact with the faeces of small carnivorous mammals. The risk of infection is a particularly big threat to economies such as the berry industry and tourism . In the future, potential summer droughts may affect the abundance of berry and mushroom harvests.
Some insects also attack humans in the woods. Deer flies have become more common in Finland in recent years, and the nuisance caused by them has increased. As the climate becomes warmer, deer flies are able to spread further and further north and, if the number of deer grows, deer flies may also become more numerous . Enjoyment derived from nature is also affected by the prevalence of castor bean ticks (Ixodes ricinus), which may grow as deer become more numerous. In Sweden, the range and prevalence of castor bean ticks have been found to be linked to mild winters as well as to certain species of plants, such as the European Alder (Alnus glutinosa). The prevalence of castor bean ticks and Lyme borreliosis, a common tick-borne disease (caused by Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria), is expected to increase throughout Scandinavia, with the exception of the highlands, by the end of the current century , and cases of tick-borne encephalitis are also expected to become more common .
References
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- Suomen perustuslaki 11.6.1999/731.
- TEEB 2009. TEEB Climate Issues Update. UNEP, Nairobi.
- Saarela, S.-R., & Söderman, T. 2008. Ekologisesti kestävät kaupunkiseudut ja niiden ekosysteemipalvelut. Suomen ympäristökeskuksen raportteja 33/2008.
- Perrings, C. 2010. Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and climate change - Economic problem. Environment department papers 120. The World Bank. s. 39.
- Montoya, J.M. & Raffaelli, D. 2010. Climate change, biotic interactions and ecosystem services. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010 365, 2013-2018.
- IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Climate Change 2007 (AR4): The Physical Science Basis. http://www.ipcc.ch/
- Pöyry, J. & Toivonen, H. 2005: Climate change adaptation and biological diversity. FINADAPT Working Paper 3, Finnish Environment Institute Mimeographs 333, Helsinki, s. 46.
- IPCC Third Assessment Report. Climate Change 2001 (TAR): Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
- Rantakari, M. 2010. The role of lakes for carbon cycling in boreal catchments. Monographs of the Boreal Environment Research no. 35, s. 37.
- The BACC Project 2008. Assesment of climate change for Baltic Sea basin, The BACC Author Team 2008.
- Tapio. Metsä vastaa. Hiilivarastojen suojelu. (18.6.2008) http://www.metsavastaa.net/hiilivarastojen_suojelu-1 Viitattu 17.1.2011
- Metsäntutkimuslaitos. Marjat – metsiemme arvotuotteet, JoHy/RVoi 2/2008. http://www.metla.fi/metla/esitteet/teemaesitteet/marjat-salo.pdf Viitattu 17.1.2011
- Kellomäki, S. (toim.). 1996. Metsät. Julk.: Kuusisto, E., Kauppi, L. & Heikinheimo, P. (toim.). Ilmastonmuutos ja Suomi. SILMU. Yliopistopaino, Helsinki. S. 71–106.
- Miina, J., Hotanen, J.-P. & Salo, K. 2009. Modelling the abundance and temporal variation in the production of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) in Finnish mineral soil forests. Silva Fennica 43(4): 577–593. http://www.metla.fi/silvafennica/full/sf43/sf434577.pdf
- Metsäntutkimuslaitos. Pölyttäjien merkitys hyvälle marjasadolle on suuri. Tiedote 8.4.2009. http://www.metla.fi/tiedotteet/2009/2009-04-08-marjat-ja-kimalaiset.htm Viitattu 17.1.2011
- Henttonen H. & Haukisalmi V., 2000. Echinococcus multilocularis -ihmisen vaarallisin loinen Euroopassa: elämänkierto ja levinneisyyden nykytilanne. Suomen Riista 46: 48-56.
- Kynkäänniemi, S-M., Kortet, R., Härkönen, L., Kaitala, A., Pääkkönen, T., Mustonen, A-M., Nieminen, P., Härkönen, S., Ylönen, H. & Laaksonen, S. 2010. Threat of an invasive parasitic fly, the deer ked (Lipoptena cervi), to the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus): experimental infection and treatment. Annales Zoologici Fennici 47: 28-36.
- Härkönen, L., Härkönen, S., Kaitala, A., Kaunisto, S., Kortet, R,. Laaksonen, S. & Ylönen, H. 2010. Predicting range expansion of an ectoparasite - the effect of spring and summer temperatures on deer ked (Lipoptena cervi , Diptera: Hippoboscidae) performance along a latitudinal gradient. Ecography 33(5): 906–912.
- Lindgren, E., Tälleklint, L. & Polfeldt, T. 2000. Impact of climatic change on the northern latitude limit and population density of the disease-transmitting European tick Ixodes ricinus. Environmental Health Perspectives 108(2): 119–123.
- Jaensona, T.G.T. & Lindgren, E. 2010. The range of Ixodes ricinus and the risk of contracting Lyme borreliosis will increase northwards when the vegetation period becomes longer. Ticks and Tick-borne diseases, in press.
- Lindgren, E. & Gustafson, R. 2001. Tick-borne encephalitis in Sweden and climate change. Lancet 358: 16–18. | https://ilmasto-opas.fi/en/ilmastonmuutos/vaikutukset/-/artikkeli/a2e371f2-3997-4e51-ac9c-93425ab90590/ekosysteemipalvelut.html |
Accurate spatial data on the status and trends of biodiversity, ecosystems and essential ecosystem services is of paramount importance for UNDP and the decision makers and governments it works with. Yet the ability of countries to access and use spatial data to develop plans, take actions and report results is extremely low. A recent study of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPS) and 5th National Reports (NR) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) from more than 110 countries shows that NBSAPs contain an average of fewer than four maps, and NRs fewer than five. Moreover, the study revealed critical gaps – less than 4% of all maps (and only 8 countries) included ecosystem services. These findings reflect similar results to a survey conducted 18 months ago for 100+ countries. Without accurate data on the status and trends of biodiversity, ecosystems and ecosystem services, decision makers will continue to be unable to fully understand the consequences of biodiversity loss to sustainable development. Therefore, their ability to achieve the 2030 Agenda and their national Sustainable Development Goals will be compromised. For example, countries may need support with geospatial data analyses to prepare a comprehensive, data-driven national report, or to determine where to implement a conservation strategy or action and assess its impact. We are seeking spatial data experts worldwide with knowledge of English, and French and/or Spanish languages to assist in addressing these gaps.
Duties and Responsibilities
The scope of work will vary depending on the assignment but would include one or various of the below services within national, regional and global programmes or projects led by the Istanbul Regional Hub (IRH), UNDP Headquarters in New York, and UNDP Country Offices:
The spatial data experts will provide assistance to countries in the collection and analysis of geospatial data related to biodiversity, natural resource management, and sustainable development. Tasks can include:
Competencies
Corporate
Technical skills:
Required Skills and Experience
Academic Qualifications/Education:
Minimum Bachelor Degree in a discipline related to the analysis of geospatial data for natural resource management or biodiversity conservation. Degrees could include natural resources management, biological sciences, forestry, agriculture, agro-economics, geography, climate sciences, international development, public policy, social sciences, economics, public administration, finance or other closely related fields. Master’s degree or higher is preferred.
Experience:
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Professor Emmett Duffy of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, is one of 17 prominent ecologists calling for renewed international efforts to curb the loss of biological diversity, which is compromising nature’s ability to provide goods and services essential for human well-being.
The researchers present their findings in the June 7 edition of the journal Nature, in an article titled “Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity.” The paper is a scientific consensus statement summarizing evidence that has emerged from more than 1,000 ecological studies in the 20 years since the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The Rio Summit resulted in 193 nations supporting the Convention on Biological Diversity and its goals of biodiversity conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources.
According to the international research team, led by the University of Michigan’s Bradley Cardinale, strong scientific evidence has emerged during the past two decades showing that loss of the world’s biological diversity reduces the productivity and sustainability of natural ecosystems and decreases their ability to provide society with goods and services like food, wood, fodder, fertile soils, and protection from pests and disease.
Duffy, whose research focuses on the role of biodiversity in marine ecosystems, adds “This new consensus confirms that losing wild species is not merely an aesthetic problem—it chips away the natural infrastructure that provides us with food security, pest control, and other key benefits we depend on."
Human actions are currently dismantling Earth’s natural ecosystems, resulting in species extinctions at rates several orders of magnitude faster than observed in the fossil record. Even so, says the team, there’s still time—if the nations of the world make biodiversity preservation an international priority—to conserve much of the remaining variety of life and to restore much of what’s been lost. An estimated 9 million species of plants, animals, protists, and fungi inhabit the Earth, sharing it with some 7 billion people—up from 5.2 billion people in 1992.
“We need to take biodiversity loss far more seriously—from individuals to international governing bodies—and take greater action to prevent further losses of species,” says Cardinale.
“Two decades of evidence make it clear that investing in biodiversity protection represents an insurance premium that pays back in food security and long-term prosperity,” says Duffy.
The call to action comes as international leaders prepare to gather in Rio de Janeiro on June 20-22 for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, known as the Rio+20 Conference.
The 1992 Earth Summit caused an explosion of interest in understanding how biodiversity loss might impact the dynamics and functioning of ecosystems, as well as the supply of goods and services of value to society. In the Nature paper, the research team reviews published studies on the topic and lists six consensus statements, four emerging trends, and four “balance of evidence” statements.
The balance of evidence shows, for example, that genetic diversity increases the yield of commercial crops, enhances the production of wood in tree plantations, improves the production of fodder in grasslands, and increases the stability of yields in fisheries. Increased plant diversity also results in greater resistance to invasion by exotic plants, inhibits plant pathogens such as fungal and viral infections, increases above-ground carbon sequestration through enhanced biomass, and increases nutrient remineralization and soil organic matter.
“No one can agree on what exactly will happen when an ecosystem loses a species, but most of us agree that it’s not going to be good. And we agree that if ecosystems lose most of their species, it will be a disaster,” says Shahid Naeem of Columbia University, another co-author.
“Twenty years and a thousand studies later, what the world thought was true in Rio in 1992 has finally been proven: Biodiversity underpins our ability to achieve sustainable development,” Naeem says.
Despite far-reaching support for the Convention on Biological Diversity, biodiversity loss has continued during the past two decades, often at increasing rates. In response, a new set of diversity-preservation goals for 2020, known as the Aichi targets, was recently formulated. Also, a new international body called the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services was formed in April 2012 to guide a global response toward sustainable management of the world’s biodiversity and ecosystems.
Significant gaps in the science behind biological diversity remain and must be addressed if the Aichi targets are to be met, Cardinale and his colleagues write in Nature.
Without an understanding of the fundamental ecological processes that link biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and services, attempts to forecast the societal consequences of diversity loss and meet policy objectives are likely to fail, the 17 ecologists write. “But with that fundamental understanding in hand, we may yet bring the modern era of biodiversity loss to a safe end for humanity,” they conclude.
In addition to Cardinale, Duffy, Naeem, and Hooper, co-authors of the Nature paper are Andrew Gonzalez of McGill University; Charles Perrings and Ann P. Kinzig of Arizona State University; Patrick Venail and Anita Narwani of the University of Michigan; Georgina M. Mace of Imperial College London; David Tilman of the University of Minnesota; David A. Wardle of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; Gretchen C. Daily of Stanford University; Michel Loreau of Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in Moulis, France; James B. Grace of the U.S. Geological Survey; Anne Larigauderie of the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle in Rue Cuvier, France; and Diane Srivastava of the University of British Columbia.
The work was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation and funding from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and the state of California.
“Water purity, food production and air quality are easy to take for granted, but all are largely provided by communities of organisms,” says George Gilchrist, program director in the National Science Foundation’s Division of Environmental Biology, which funded the research.
“This paper demonstrates that it is not simply the quantity of living things, but their species, genetic, and trait biodiversity, that influences the delivery of many essential ‘ecosystem services,’” Gilchrist says. | https://www.wm.edu/sites/ccee/news/archives/research/20-years-after-rio.php |
Biodiversity loss, also called loss of biodiversity, the decrease in the biodiversity within a species, an ecosystem, a given geographic area, or Earth as a whole. Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is a term that refers to the number of genes, species, individual organisms within a given species, and biological communities within a defined geographic area, ranging from the smallest ecosystem to the global biosphere. (A biological community is an interacting group of various species in a common location.) Likewise, biodiversity loss describes the decline in the number, genetic variability, and variety of species, and the biological communities in a given area. This loss in the variety of life can lead to a breakdown in the functioning of the ecosystem where the decline has happened.
The idea of biodiversity is most often associated with species richness (the count of species in an area), and thus biodiversity loss is often viewed as species loss from an ecosystem or even the entire biosphere (see also extinction). However, associating biodiversity loss with species loss alone overlooks other subtle phenomena that threaten long-term ecosystem health. Sudden population declines may upset social structures in some species, which may keep surviving males and females from finding mates, which may then produce further population declines. Declines in genetic diversity that accompany rapid falls in population may increase inbreeding (mating between closely related individuals), which could produce a further decline in genetic diversity.
Even though a species is not eliminated from the ecosystem or from the biosphere, its niche (the role the species play in the ecosystems it inhabits) diminishes as its numbers fall. If the niches filled by a single species or a group of species are critical to the proper functioning of the ecosystem, a sudden decline in numbers may produce significant changes in the ecosystem’s structure. For example, clearing trees from a forest eliminates the shading, temperature and moisture regulation, animal habitat, and nutrient transport services they provide to the ecosystem.
Natural biodiversity loss
An area’s biodiversity increases and decreases with natural cycles. Seasonal changes, such as the onset of spring, create opportunities for feeding and breeding, increasing biodiversity as the populations of many species rise. In contrast, the onset of winter temporarily decreases an area’s biodiversity, as warm-adapted insects die and migrating animals leave. In addition, the seasonal rise and fall of plant and invertebrate populations (such as insects and plankton), which serve as food for other forms of life, also determine an area’s biodiversity.
Biodiversity loss is typically associated with more permanent ecological changes in ecosystems, landscapes, and the global biosphere. Natural ecological disturbances, such as wildfire, floods, and volcanic eruptions, change ecosystems drastically by eliminating local populations of some species and transforming whole biological communities. Such disturbances are temporary, however, because natural disturbances are common and ecosystems have adapted to their challenges (see also ecological succession).
Human-driven biodiversity loss
In contrast, biodiversity losses from disturbances caused by humans tend to be more severe and longer-lasting. Humans (Homo sapiens), their crops, and their food animals take up an increasing share of Earth’s land area. Half of the world’s habitable land (some 51 million square km [19.7 million square miles]) has been converted to agriculture, and some 77 percent of agricultural land (some 40 million square km [15.4 million square miles]) is used for grazing by cattle, sheep, goats, and other livestock. This massive conversion of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other terrestrial ecosystems has produced a 60 percent decline (on average) in the number of vertebrates worldwide since 1970, with the greatest losses in vertebrate populations occurring in freshwater habitats (83 percent) and in South and Central America (89 percent). Between 1970 and 2014 the human population grew from about 3.7 billion to 7.3 billion people. By 2018 the biomass of humans and their livestock (0.16 gigaton) greatly outweighed the biomass of wild mammals (0.007 gigaton) and wild birds (0.002 gigaton). Researchers estimate that the current rate of species loss varies between 100 and 10,000 times the background extinction rate (which is roughly one to five species per year when the entire fossil record is considered).
Forest clearing, wetland filling, stream channeling and rerouting, and road and building construction are often part of a systematic effort that produces a substantial change in the ecological trajectory of a landscape or a region. As human populations grow, the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems they use may be transformed by the efforts of human beings to find and produce food, adapt the landscape to human settlement, and create opportunities for trading with other communities for the purposes of building wealth. Biodiversity losses typically accompany these processes.
Researchers have identified five important drivers of biodiversity loss:
1. Habitat loss and degradation—which is any thinning, fragmentation, or destruction of an existing natural habitat—reduces or eliminates the food resources and living space for most species. Species that cannot migrate are often wiped out.
2. Invasive species—which are non-native species that significantly modify or disrupt the ecosystems they colonize—may outcompete native species for food and habitat, which triggers population declines in native species. Invasive species may arrive in new areas through natural migration or through human introduction.
3. Overexploitation—which is the harvesting of game animals, fish, or other organisms beyond the capacity for surviving populations to replace their losses—results in some species being depleted to very low numbers and others being driven to extinction.
4. Pollution—which is the addition of any substance or any form of energy to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form—contributes to biodiversity loss by creating health problems in exposed organisms. In some cases, exposure may occur in doses high enough to kill outright or create reproductive problems that threaten the species’s survival.
5. Climate change associated with global warming—which is the modification of Earth’s climate caused by the burning of fossil fuels—is caused by industry and other human activities. Fossil fuel combustion produces greenhouse gases that enhance the atmospheric absorption of infrared radiation (heat energy) and trap the heat, influencing temperature and precipitation patterns.
Ecologists emphasize that habitat loss (typically from the conversion of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other natural areas to urban and agricultural uses) and invasive species are the primary drivers of biodiversity loss, but they acknowledge that climate change could become a primary driver as the 21st century progresses. In an ecosystem, species tolerance limits and nutrient cycling processes are adapted to existing temperature and precipitation patterns. Some species may not able to cope with environmental changes from global warming. These changes may also provide new opportunities for invasive species, which could further add to the stresses on species struggling to adapt to changing environmental conditions. All five drivers are strongly influenced by the continued growth of the human population and its consumption of natural resources.
Interactions between two or more of these drivers increase the pace of biodiversity loss. Fragmented ecosystems are generally not as resilient as contiguous ones, and areas clear-cut for farms, roads, and residences provide avenues for invasions by non-native species, which contribute to further declines in native species. Habitat loss combined with hunting pressure is hastening the decline of several well-known species, such as the Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), which could become extinct by the middle of the 21st century. Hunters killed 2,000–3,000 Bornean orangutans every year between 1971 and 2011, and the clearing of large areas of tropical forest in Indonesia and Malaysia for oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation became an additional obstacle to the species’ survival. Palm oil production increased 900 percent in Indonesia and Malaysia between 1980 and 2010, and, with large areas of Borneo’s tropical forests cut, the Bornean orangutan and hundreds to thousands of other species have been deprived of habitat.
Ecological effects
The weight of biodiversity loss is most pronounced on species whose populations are decreasing. The loss of genes and individuals threatens the long-term survival of a species, as mates become scarce and risks from inbreeding rise when closely related survivors mate. The wholesale loss of populations also increases the risk that a particular species will become extinct.
Biodiversity is critical for maintaining ecosystem health. Declining biodiversity lowers an ecosystem’s productivity (the amount of food energy that is converted into the biomass) and lowers the quality of the ecosystem’s services (which often include maintaining the soil, purifying water that runs through it, and supplying food and shade, etc.).
Biodiversity loss also threatens the structure and proper functioning of the ecosystem. Although all ecosystems are able to adapt to the stresses associated with reductions in biodiversity to some degree, biodiversity loss reduces an ecosystem’s complexity, as roles once played by multiple interacting species or multiple interacting individuals are played by fewer or none. As parts are lost, the ecosystem loses its ability to recover from a disturbance (see ecological resilience). Beyond a critical point of species removal or diminishment, the ecosystem can become destabilized and collapse. That is, it ceases to be what it was (e.g., a tropical forest, a temperate swamp, an Arctic meadow, etc.) and undergoes a rapid restructuring, becoming something else (e.g., cropland, a residential subdivision or other urban ecosystem, barren wasteland, etc.).
Reduced biodiversity also creates a kind of “ecosystem homogenization” across regions as well as throughout the biosphere. Specialist species (i.e., those adapted to narrow habitats, limited food resources, or other specific environmental conditions) are often the most vulnerable to dramatic population declines and extinction when conditions change. On the other hand, generalist species (those adapted to a wide variety of habitats, food resources, and environmental conditions) and species favoured by human beings (i.e., livestock, pets, crops, and ornamental plants) become the major players in ecosystems vacated by specialist species. As specialist species and unique species (as well as their interactions with other species) are lost across a broad area, each of the ecosystems in the area loses some amount of complexity and distinctiveness, as the structure of their food chains and nutrient-cycling processes become increasingly similar.
Economic and societal effects
Biodiversity loss affects economic systems and human society. Humans rely on various plants, animals, and other organisms for food, building materials, and medicines, and their availability as commodities is important to many cultures. The loss of biodiversity among these critical natural resources threatens global food security and the development of new pharmaceuticals to deal with future diseases. Simplified, homogenized ecosystems can also represent an aesthetic loss.
Economic scarcities among common food crops may be more noticeable than biodiversity losses of ecosystems and landscapes far from global markets. For example, Cavendish bananas are the most common variety imported to nontropical countries, but scientists note that the variety’s lack of genetic diversity makes it vulnerable to Tropical Race (TR) 4, a fusarium wilt fungus which blocks the flow of water and nutrients and kills the banana plant. Experts fear that TR4 may drive the Cavendish banana to extinction during future disease outbreaks. Some 75 percent of food crops have become extinct since 1900, largely because of an overreliance on a handful of high-producing crop varieties. This lack of biodiversity among crops threatens food security, because varieties may be vulnerable to disease and pests, invasive species, and climate change. Similar trends occur in livestock production, where high-producing breeds of cattle and poultry are favoured over lower-producing, wilder breeds.
Mainstream and traditional medicines can be derived from the chemicals in rare plants and animals, and thus lost species represent lost opportunities to treat and cure. For example, several species of fungi found on the hairs of three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegatus) produce medicines effective against the parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) as well as against human breast cancer.
Solutions to biodiversity loss
Dealing with biodiversity loss is tied directly to the conservation challenges posed by the underlying drivers. Conservation biologists note that these problems could be solved using a mix of public policy and economic solutions assisted by continued monitoring and education. Governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the scientific community must work together to create incentives to conserve natural habitats and protect the species within them from unnecessary harvesting, while disincentivizing behaviour that contributes to habitat loss and degradation. Sustainable development (economic planning that seeks to foster growth while preserving environmental quality) must be considered when creating new farmland and human living spaces. Laws that prevent poaching and the indiscriminate trade in wildlife must be improved and enforced. Shipping materials at ports must be inspected for stowaway organisms.
Developing and implementing solutions for each of these causes of biodiversity loss will relieve the pressure on species and ecosystems in their own way, but conservation biologists agree that the most effective way to prevent continued biodiversity loss is to protect the remaining species from overhunting and overfishing and to keep their habitats and the ecosystems they rely on intact and secure from species invasions and land use conversion. Efforts that monitor the status of individual species, such as the Red List of Threatened Species from the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the United States Endangered Species list remain critical tools that help decision makers prioritize conservation efforts. In addition, a number of areas rich in unique species that could serve as priorities for habitat protection have been identified. Such “hot spots” are regions of high endemism, meaning that the species found there are not found anywhere else on Earth. Ecological hot spots tend to occur in tropical environments where species richness and biodiversity are much higher than in ecosystems closer to the poles.
percent of the world’s oceans that are protected
percent of the world’s land areas that are protected
Concerted actions by the world’s governments are critical in protecting biodiversity. Numerous national governments have conserved portions of their territories under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). A list of 20 biodiversity goals, called the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, was unveiled at the CBD meeting held in Nagoya, Japan, in October 2010. The purpose of the list was to make issues of biodiversity mainstream in both economic markets and society at large and to increase biodiversity protection by 2020. Since 2010, 164 countries have developed plans to reach those targets. One of the more prominent targets on the list sought to protect 17 percent of terrestrial and inland waters or more and at least 10 percent of coastal and marine areas. By January 2019 some 7.5 percent of the world’s oceans (which included 17.3 percent of the marine environment in national waters) had been protected by various national governments in addition to 14.9 percent of land areas.
Written by John Rafferty, Editor, Earth and Life Sciences, Encyclopaedia Britannica. | https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/problem-biodiversity-loss |
How biodiversity loss affects the environment?
Loss of biodiversity undermines the ability of ecosystems to function effectively and efficiently and thus undermines nature’s ability to support a healthy environment. This is particularly important in a changing climate in which loss of biodiversity reduces nature’s resilience to change.
What is the biggest threat to the loss of biodiversity essay?
Habitat Fragmentation
Habitat loss from exploitation of resources, agricultural conversion, and urbanization is the largest factor contributing to the loss of biodiversity. The consequent fragmentation of habitat results in small isolated patches of land that cannot maintain populations of species into the future.
What are the effects of biodiversity?
These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases, aerosols and loss of land cover, and biological diversity, causing a rapid loss of biodiversity and extinctions of species and local populations.
What are the cause and effect of loss of biodiversity?
Habitat destruction is a major cause of biodiversity loss. Habitat loss is caused by deforestation, overpopulation, pollution, and global warming. Species that are physically large and those living in forests or oceans are more affected by habitat reduction.
Why biodiversity loss is an important global issue?
Biodiversity loss disrupts the functioning of ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to perturbations and less able to supply humans with needed services. … To stop ecosystem degradation, the full contribution made by ecosystems to both poverty alleviation efforts and to national economies must be clearly demonstrated.
What are the economic consequences of loss of biodiversity?
Whilst human-made changes to ecosystems have often generated large economic gains, biodiversity loss damages the functioning of ecosystems and leads to a decline in essential services, which may have severe economic consequences, particularly in the longer term.
What are the major threats to biodiversity loss?
Five main threats to biodiversity are commonly recognized in the programmes of work of the Convention: invasive alien species, climate change, nutrient loading and pollution, habitat change, and overexploitation.
What kind of threats to the biodiversity may lead to its loss?
The four main reasons responsible for the loss of biodiversity are loss of habitat, over-exploitation, the introduction of the co-extinction of species and exotic species.
What is the greatest cause of biodiversity loss today?
Habitat alteration-every human activity can alter the habitat of the organisms around us. Farming, grazing, agriculture, clearing of forests, etc. This is the greatest cause of biodiversity loss today. | https://climatebuddies.org/ecology/question-what-would-happen-due-to-loss-of-biodiversity.html |
We have much more to do and your continued support is needed now more than ever.
New Report on Climate Change and Wildlife
A new report that brings together recent research on how climate change is affecting plants, animals, and habitats in the United States confirms what we already suspected: the changes are happening faster than previously thought, with more compelling evidence of impacts piling up.
The new report Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity, Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services was produced as a technical input into the 2013 National Climate Assessment (NCA). My NWF colleague Bruce Stein and I served on the steering committee and helped author several chapters of the report.
More Evidence of How Climate Change Is Affecting Nature
The report focuses on new research contributions from the last 5 or so years, and there have been many. Among the major findings of the report:
- Climate change is causing many species to shift their ranges and distributions faster than previously thought. Terrestrial species are moving up in elevation 2 to 3 times faster than initial estimates;
- There is increased evidence of species population declines and localized extinctions that can be directly attributed to climate change. Species living at high altitudes and latitudes are especially vulnerable to climate change;
- Changes in precipitation and extreme weather events can increase transport of nutrients and pollutants downstream. Drinking water quality is very likely to be strained as higher rainfall and river discharge lead to more nitrogen in waters and greater risk of waterborne disease outbreak;
- Ecosystem services provided by coastal habitats are especially vulnerable to sea level rise and more severe storms. The Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts are the most vulnerable to the loss of coastal protection services provided by wetlands and coral reefs. Coastal communities on the Pacific coast are also vulnerable;
- Changes in winter can have big and surprising effects on ecosystems and their services, including impacting agricultural and forest production.
Climate Change Adaptation Gaining More Prominence
This report devotes a chapter to climate change adaptation, an area where there has also been significant progress made in the last five years. NWF’s contributions to advancing the conceptual framework and practice of adaptation are particularly featured.
With ecosystems facing the effects of climate change more rapidly than previously anticipated, the key findings of the adaptation chapter stress that our expectations of what can be accomplished with adaptation efforts and current conservation strategies will also need to be revisited:
- Adaptation can range from efforts to retain status quo conditions to actively managing system transitions; however, even the most aggressive adaptation strategies may be unable to prevent irreversible losses of biodiversity or serious degradation of ecosystems and their services.
- Static protected areas will not be sufficient to conserve biodiversity in a changing climate, requiring an emphasis on landscape-scale conservation, connectivity among protected habitats, and sustaining ecological functioning of working lands and waters.
Thus, the ongoing efforts of federal and state agencies to plan for and integrate climate change research into resource management and actions—many of which are cataloged in the report—are essential for safeguarding the future of wildlife. But, we will also need aggressive action to curb carbon pollution to avoid reaching the limits of what adaptation strategies can accomplish.
Next Stop: Public Review of Draft NCA Report
This technical input is already being considered by the authors of the next National Climate Assessment report, which will include a chapter on ecosystems, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. In addition, the chapters focused on individual regions of the nation will address the impacts on their ecosystems.
We will get our first look at the draft report this coming December when it will be released for a 3-month public comment period. The draft will undergo expert peer review, and the NCA is also seeking broad stakeholder review. They define stakeholders as “individuals and organizations whose activities, decisions, and policies are sensitive to or affected by climate.” In other words, everybody is a stakeholder. So, mark your calendars to set aside some time to provide your comments to the NCA when the draft is available this winter. | https://blog.nwf.org/2012/08/new-report-on-climate-change-and-wildlife/ |
Madeleine Rubenstein is a Biologist with the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Climate Adaptation Science Center. Her research examines how climate change affects migratory birds, with an emphasis on understanding and responding to the information needs of wildlife and habitat managers.
Biography
Madeleine earned a B.A. from Barnard College and a Master of Environmental Science from the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Prior to graduate school, she was the Research Coordinator with the Columbia Climate Center at the Earth Institute of Columbia University, and a research intern with the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center. In addition to studying the ecological impacts of global environmental change, Madeleine has also worked on issues of international sustainable development with the Frankfurt Zoological Society and the Women’s Environment and Development Organization.
Science and Products
Understanding Changing Climate Variables to Clarify Species’ Exposure and Responses to Changing Environments across North America
Species across North America are being impacted by changing climate conditions. Plants and animals can respond to these changes in a variety of ways, including by shifting their geographic distributions. Determining whether or not observed biological changes, such as range shifts, are indeed the result of climate change is a key challenge facing natural resource managers and requires...
Understanding Species' Range Shifts in Response to Climate Change: Results from a Systematic National Review
Climate change represents one of the foremost drivers of ecological change, yet its documented impacts on biodiversity remain uncertain and complex. Although there have been many published studies on species shifting their geographic ranges in response to climate change, it is still challenging to identify the specific mechanisms and conditions that facilitate range shifts in some species and...
Do empirical observations support commonly-held climate change range shift hypotheses? A systematic review protocol
Background Among the most widely anticipated climate-related impacts to biodiversity are geographic range shifts, whereby species shift their spatial distribution in response to changing climate conditions. In particular, a series of commonly articulated hypotheses have emerged: species are expected to shift their distributions to higher...Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Weiskopf, Sarah R.; Carter, Shawn; Eaton, Mitchell; Johnson, Ciara; Lynch, Abigail; Miller, Brian W.; Morelli, Toni Lyn; Rodriguez, Mari Angel; Terando, Adam; Thompson, Laura
Using value of information to prioritize research needs for migratory bird management under climate change: A case study using federal land acquisition in the United States
In response to global habitat loss, many governmental and non‐governmental organizations have implemented land acquisition programs to protect critical habitats permanently for priority species. The ability of these protected areas to meet future management objectives may be compromised if the effects of climate change are not considered in...Rushing, Clark S; Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Lyons, James E.; Runge, Michael C.
Climate change effects on biodiversity, ecosystems, ecosystem services, and natural resource management in the United States
Climate change is a pervasive and growing global threat to biodiversity and ecosystems. Here, we present the most up-to-date assessment of climate change impacts on biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem services in the U.S. and implications for natural resource management. We draw from the 4th National Climate Assessment to summarize observed...Weiskopf, Sarah R.; Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Crozier, Lisa; Gaichas, Sarah; Griffis, Roger; Halofsky, Jessica E.; Hyde, Kimberly J. W.; Morelli, Toni Lyn; Morisette, Jeffrey T.; Muñoz, Roldan C.; Pershing, Andrew J.; Peterson, David L.; Poudel, Rajendra; Staudinger, Michelle D.; Sutton-Grier, Ariana E.; Thompson, Laura; Vose, James; Weltzin, Jake F.; Whyte, Kyle Powys
Temporal changes in avian community composition in lowland conifer habitats at the southern edge of the boreal zone in the Adirondack Park, NY
Climate change represents one of the most significant threats to human and wildlife communities on the planet. Populations at range margins or transitions between biomes can be particularly instructive for observing changes in biological communities that may be driven by climate change. Avian communities in lowland boreal habitats in the...Glennon, Michale; Langdon, Stephen; Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Cross, Molly S.
Planning for ecological drought: Integrating ecosystem services and vulnerability assessment
As research recognizes the importance of ecological impacts of drought to natural and human communities, drought planning processes need to better incorporate ecological impacts. Drought planning currently recognizes the vulnerability of some ecological impacts from drought (e.g., loss of instream flow affecting fish populations). However,...Raheem, Nejem; Cravens, Amanda E.; Cross, Molly S.; Crausbay, Shelley D.; Ramirez, Aaron R.; McEvoy, Jamie; Zoanni, Dionne; Bathke, Deborah J.; Hayes, Michael; Carter, Shawn; Rubenstein, Madeleine; Schwend, Ann; Hall, Kimberly R.; Paul Suberu
Trophic implications of a phenological paradigm shift: Bald eagles and salmon in a changing climate
Climate change influences apex predators in complex ways, due to their important trophic position, capacity for resource plasticity, and sensitivity to numerous anthropogenic stressors. Bald eagles, an ecologically and culturally significant apex predator, congregate seasonally in high densities on salmon spawning rivers across the Pacific...Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Christophersen, Roger; Ransom, Jason I.
Hypotheses from recent assessments of climate impacts to biodiversity and ecosystems in the United States
Climate change poses multiple threats to biodiversity, and has already caused demonstrable impacts. We summarize key results from a recent national assessment of observed climate change impacts to terrestrial, marine, and freshwater ecosystems in the United States, and place results in the context of commonly articulated hypotheses about ecosystem...Filho, Walter Leal; Barbir, Jelena; Preziosi, Richard; Carter, Shawn L.; Lynch, Abigail J.; Myers, Bonnie; Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Thompson, Laura M.
Ecosystems, Ecosystem Services, and Biodiversity
Biodiversity—the variety of life on Earth—provides vital services that support and improve human health and well-being. Ecosystems, which are composed of living things that interact with the physical environment, provide numerous essential benefits to people. These benefits, termed ecosystem services, encompass four primary functions: provisioning...Reidmiller, David; Avery, C. W.; Easterling, D. R.; Kunkel, K. E.; Lewis, K. L. M.; Maycock, T. K.; Stewart, B. C.; Lipton, Douglas; Rubenstein, Madeleine A.; Weiskopf, Sarah R.; Carter, Shawn L.; Peterson, Jay; Crozier, Lisa; Fogarty, Michael; Gaichas, Sarah; Hyde, Kimberly J. W.; Morelli, Toni Lyn; Morisette, Jeffrey; Moustahfid, Hassan; Munoz, Roldan; Poudel, Rajendra; Staudinger, Michelle D.; Stock, Charles; Thompson, Laura; Waples, Robin S.; Weltzin, Jake F.
Pre-USGS Publications
New Paper Explores A New Method to Assess Population Change in Declining Songbirds
When Timing is Everything: Migratory Bird Phenology in a Changing Climate
Many ecological relationships, especially those of migratory birds, exist in a delicate synchronization that may be altered by climate change. | https://www.usgs.gov/staff-profiles/madeleine-rubenstein?qt-staff_profile_science_products=3 |
At Conservation International (CI), we like to say, “People need nature to thrive.” But behind that statement are countless questions revealing a more complicated reality: Where is the nature that people need? Which places are most important to protect? And how much can we chip away at various ecosystems before their value is compromised?
Take Cambodia, one of the poorest countries in Asia. The nation’s 15 million residents are directly dependent on nature for fish to eat, drinking water and meeting other basic needs. As the Cambodian government strives to develop the country’s economy and improve the lives of its people, it must balance development with the need to maintain the lifeline that nature provides for people.
If nature is not adequately protected, human well-being will ultimately decline. Figuring out which places and resources are most critical to conserve is the first step.
To help countries meet this challenge, a team of scientists at CI has developed a framework for mapping essential “natural capital” — the biodiversity and ecosystems that support human well-being. Cambodia was one of the first places we tested it out.
How do we map nature’s worth?
Here’s how it works.
First we hold a workshop with local experts and ask them: How exactly do people depend on nature in your region? Where do they get their food, drinking water and energy? What are their primary livelihoods? What are the most important “ecosystem services” — the goods and benefits provided by nature? Which ecosystems are most important for providing them?
CI’s strategy focuses on several key types of natural capital — components of nature that are important everywhere on Earth. These include areas that are essential for:
- biodiversity, such as areas important for threatened or endemic species;
- climate mitigation, such as forests and mangroves that absorb and store carbon;
- climate adaptation, such as coastal ecosystems that protect people from flooding and sea-level rise;
- fresh water, such as wetlands that filter sediments and pollutants out of drinking water; and
- food security, such as marine and coastal fisheries.
For example, Cambodia contains populations of unique, highly threatened species such as pangolins. Its forests contain stocks of carbon that, if conserved, help to reduce global climate change. Its forests and wetlands filter and regulate flows of fresh water, providing clean water for households, fisheries and rice agriculture that support millions of people. Its Tonle Sap Lake — the world’s fourth-largest inland fishery — provides the main source of protein for one-third of the country’s population.
Once we’ve identified these specific benefits from nature, our next step is to collect existing data. These can include maps of biodiversity priority areas, land cover, climate change models or other data on species and ecosystems. We also collect socioeconomic data on human populations and use of natural resources, such as household demand for water, fish, fuelwood or other products. Next, we conduct spatial analyses to link these data together using tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) and WaterWorld, a freshwater ecosystem services modeling tool.
To analyze the importance of ecosystems, we assess the magnitude of the benefits provided (measured in tons of carbon, cubic feet of fresh water, number of threatened species or other relevant units), the number of people who benefit, or other criteria. If an ecosystem scores above a certain threshold, it’s identified as “essential” natural capital.
Using this method, we were able to map which areas of Cambodia are most important for various ecosystem services (see below).
Cambodia’s “essential natural capital,” broken down into five categories. (© Conservation International 2015)
Once we have mapped the location of these most important natural areas, we investigate whether they have been “sustained,” by asking three questions.
1. Are these areas officially protected?
In Cambodia, we found that 39% of essential natural capital falls within nationally designated protected areas or community forests.
Some types of natural capital are better protected than others. For example, fisheries and coastal mangroves are relatively well protected (73% and 60%, respectively). Around 53% of biodiversity priority areas fall within protected areas. However, only 39% of areas with high forest carbon stocks are protected. In addition, around 37% of areas providing essential freshwater services are protected, and around only 34% of areas important for non-timber forest products, an element of food security.
Cambodia’s protected areas are outlined in black. (© Conservation International 2015)
2. Are these areas ecologically intact?
Just because a place is protected does not mean it is effectively conserved.
We measure “ecological intactness” by analyzing satellite images of forest cover. Widespread forest loss is occurring within Cambodia’s protected area system due to illegal logging, legal clearing for economic land concessions, and small-scale agricultural expansion.
Further reading
- Elephants with a trust fund? Endowment to protect future of a ‘magical’ forest
- 4 things conservation scientists sometimes forget
- A ‘Fitbit for the oceans’ aims to boost ailing seas
Our results indicate that some protected areas in Cambodia are losing between 5% and 10% of their forests each year. Even if forests remain intact, hunting and other pressures can lead to species loss, resulting in “empty forest syndrome” — a situation in which almost all wildlife has been wiped out, detracting from the forest’s ability to provide benefits.
Other threats, such as planned hydropower dams, may affect Cambodia’s freshwater biodiversity, as well as the fisheries and rice production areas that are so critical to the nation’s food security. Ideally, we would have data on the ecological intactness of other ecosystems such as wetlands and coral reefs, but unfortunately those data are not available at a national scale.
Forest loss within “essential natural capital” areas. (© Conservation International 2015
3. Are these areas effectively managed?
We measure effective management of protected areas using the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT), a scorecard developed by WWF and the World Bank. The METT includes a series of questions such as whether a management plan has been developed, and whether there is sufficient capacity and resources to manage a protected area effectively.
For Cambodia, data on management effectiveness were only available from three protected areas: the Veun Sai Siam Pang Conservation Area (56% management effectiveness), the Tonle Sap Kompong Prak Conservation Area (58%) and the Central Cardamom Protected Forest (66%). The good news is that all three protected areas increased their management effectiveness scores between 2013 and 2014, which means that they are making improvements.
All of these measurements can be used to track the status of Cambodia’s natural capital over time, and the effectiveness of efforts to conserve it.
A Cambodian farmer works on a rice field in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. In order to ensure that the country can continue to provide food for its people, identifying which natural areas are most important to protect in order to maintain ecosystem services like pollination and erosion prevention is an important step. (© EPA/How Hwee Young/Alamy Stock Photo)
How will these maps help?
It’s clear there is a lot more that could be done to conserve Cambodia’s essential natural capital and ensure sustainable economic growth. We’ve shared our maps with the national government, and are already seeing some promising signs.
For example, as part of an environmental assessment of Cambodia, the Asian Development Bank — a multilateral finance institution — has requested natural capital data to help inform a national environmental action plan they are preparing for the government. Our data can create a baseline of information from which to analyze the effects of future policy changes.
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) also requested natural capital data from CI as they set up a new ecosystem mapping and data center within Cambodia’s Ministry of Environment. Our data will provide a foundation for a larger database and information platform that UNDP will use to create their own analyses of where natural capital and biodiversity needs to be prioritized. We also hope they will use these data to create new maps for the protected area system, expanding protection and improving management and enforcement for areas that need it.
In addition to Cambodia, we recently mapped essential natural capital in Madagascar and the Amazon region of South America. Similarly, we hope to use the data we’ve gathered to bring about policy changes in those regions.
Protecting nature amid a growing, increasingly urbanized global population is no small feat — after all, we’re trying to fundamentally change how humans think about and value the Earth. But in order to implement the changes we need on this planet, it’s also essential.
As countries like Cambodia begin to take a closer look at their natural wealth, they will need data and tools to put sustainable development into action. Maps of essential natural capital can help paint a more sustainable picture, in which both people and nature thrive.
Rachel Neugarten is the senior manager for conservation priority-setting in CI’s Moore Center for Science. | https://www.conservation.org/blog/a-scientific-treasure-hunt-to-find-and-save-natures-capital |
One of the most prominent forms of environmental change in the modern era is the rapid loss in the diversity of genes, species, and biological traits in ecosystems. A consequence of this loss of biodiversity is that natural and managed ecosystems are less efficient in capturing biologically essential resources, which leads to a decline in ecosystem productivity and stability. Many have suggested that this loss of biodiversity may also compromise the goods and services that ecosystems provide to humanity, but direct evidence for this claim is scarce. This is in part due to a lack of clear, quantitative relationships that link biodiversity to services of direct value to society. This Venture team of ecologists and economists will work on a critical component needed for determining the consequences of biodiversity loss: the development of quantitative syntheses assessing the value of genes, species, and biological traits. The group will develop predictive models describing how changes in biodiversity influence five ecosystem services with quantifiable economic value.
Resources:
|Resource Title||Brief Summary|
|Simple-but-sound methods for estimating the value of changes in biodiversity for biological pest control in agriculture||
Nov 11, 2015
|
Article published in Ecological Economics.
|Frontiers in research on biodiversity and disease||
Oct 01, 2015
|
Article published in Ecology Letters.
|The economic value of grassland species for carbon storage||
Apr 05, 2017
|
Article published in Science Advances. | https://www.sesync.umd.edu/linking-biodiversity-and-ecosystem-services |
SWWW 2018 Session // Investing in Freshwater Ecosystems and Biodiversity: A Key Development Challenge
Conserving biodiversity and freshwater related ecosystem services is essential to help achieve the goals of Agenda 2030. Equally, ecosystems and the freshwater services they provide will be needed to achieve the Paris Agreement on Climate Change and the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Freshwater management is key for protecting and sustaining biodiversity. At the same time healthy ecosystems play a critical role in maintaining freshwater quantity and quality, and thereby support an array of productive uses essential for economic development.
This event is part of the Stockholm World Water Week 2018.
The negative impact of development activities on freshwater biodiversity has increased dramatically over the last 40 years. A range of dilemmas is apparent in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Achieving food security and reducing energy poverty is likely to create multiple trade-offs for freshwater management, biodiversity, and freshwater ecosystem services. Yet to achieve the ambition of the SDGs society must adopt wiser strategies for managing freshwater systems. | https://www.water-energy-food.org/events/swww-2018-session-investing-in-freshwater-ecosystems-and-biodiversity-a-key-development-challenge |
Marine pollution is widely recognised as one of the four major threats to the world’s oceans, along with habitat destruction, over-exploitation of living marine resources and invasive marine species. Spills of oil and other chemicals into the marine environment, both from ships and land-based sources, is a significant source of pollution.
Difficulties in scaling up theoretical and experimental results have raised controversy over the consequences of biodiversity loss for the functioning of natural ecosystems.
Biodiversity is suffering dramatic declines across the globe, threatening the ability of ecosystems to provide the services on which humanity depends. Mainstreaming biodiversity into the plans, strategies and policies of dif-different economic sectors is key to reversing these declines.
To formally launch the second phase of the Biodiversity and Protected Areas Management (BIOPAMA) programme, a regional inception workshop for the Pacific was held at the Tanoa Tusitala Hotel, Apia, Samoa from 11th to 15th June 2018. The aim of the inception workshop was to ensure that all 15 countries in the Pacific ACP Group of States were engaged for the second phase of BIOPAMA. The working title of the workshop was ‘Regional Workshop on Improving Information and Capacity for More Effective Protected Area Management and Governance in the Pacific’.
Stakeholder consultations were the most important aspect of achieving the marae moana legislation.
It is not difficult to be a cynic in this new century.
Larval dispersal is the key process by which populations of most marine fishes and invertebrates are connected and replenished.
This national ocean policy aims to protect and increase the value of resources of ocean and also the inherent value of the marine ecosystems and species upon which that wealth relies on.
Water lettuce is a free floating aquatic plant in rosettes of green leaves, rosettes occuring singly or connected to others by short stolons whose origins are uncertain. It forms large, dense floating mats. The plant can adapt to life in ponds, dams, lakes and quiet areas of rivers and streams, but cannot withstand salt water. Still continue with observation whether it is to survive in winter.
The Tokelau Islands consist of three atolls (Atafu, Nukunonu and Fakaofo) approximately 500 km north of Western Samoa. Their numerous islets are formed mainly of coral sand and rubble with no standing freshwater. Sixty-one plant species have been recorded, 13 of these being introduced and 10 being adventives. There are three vegetation zones, the beach, the beach-crest, and the interior coconut/fern zone with the physiognomy of a humid tropical forest. Marine invertebrates have not been studied. | https://piln.sprep.org/resource-search?f%5B0%5D=field_pein_tags%3A395&f%5B1%5D=field_pein_subject%3A3487&f%5B2%5D=field_pein_tags%3A381&f%5B3%5D=field_pein_tags%3A3492&f%5B4%5D=field_pein_subject%3A1260&%3Bf%5B1%5D=field_pein_publisher%3A28 |
KEYWORDS:
The urgency of concern over the earth’s biodiversity has increased over the last couple of decades. This has resulted in the formation of the Convention of Biodiversity which declared in 2002 that it would have achieved a ‘significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth’ by 2010.1 Consequently, 2010 celebrates the Year of Biodiversity culminating in the Nagoya World Summit on Biodiversity.
Biodiversity can be defined as ‘the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part, this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.2 The impact of biodiversity loss is only beginning to be fully understood now, however many scientists and researchers agree that biodiversity loss will have significant implications for the future well-being of the human society. A crucial factor underpinning biodiversity is the health and efficiency of global ecosystems and the services they provide. Ecosystem services can be defined as the direct or indirect contributions of ecosystems to human welfare.3
These services can be divided into four different categories: (1) Provisioning services that provide food, water, and building of material and pharmaceutical components; (2) Supporting services which enable the maintenance of ecosystems through soil formation, carbon storage and stability of biodiversity, these services also interact and underpin the provisioning services and are therefore indirectly essential to human welfare; (3) Regulating services control the physical and biological processes within an ecosystem that enhance human welfare by regulating climate and water, control soil erosion and contain natural hazards; (4) Finally, socio-cultural services that are the aesthetic, spiritual, recreational, traditional or intellectual services a specific community describe to a natural system. 4
In all these ways ecosystems provide real support and benefits to human society, which through these mechanisms draw food, shelter, clothing and medicine from the diversity of the biosphere. This is particularly true for the poor who draw up to 80 per cent of life support services directly from the biosphere for their day-to-day survival.5
However, the “flow“6 of these services is subject to the resilience of ecosystems and their capacity to adapt to change. Under too much pressure, the resilience of ecosystems is being degraded and their ability to function properly might be undermined. To illustrate, a,loss in marine biodiversity caused by too much pressure on marine ecosystems such as coral reefs is an example of loss in biodiversity as one of the effects of a damaged ecosystem.
Another aspect of biodiversity loss is the particular impact it has on women, their lives and social status in indigenous communities that are dependent on biodiversity. Professor Patricia Howard conducts research into biodiversity and gender studies. Her findings show that women sustain a specific relation to the biophysical environment and that they possess considerable amounts of valuable botanical knowledge. This comes through long traditions of feminine roles as gardeners, gatherers and seed breeders and custodians. As such, women play a significant role in preserving plant diversity This relation between botanical diversity and female access is also conditioned by social status; ‘in many regions, biological resources constitute the greatest part of women’s wealth, providing them with food, medicine, clothing, shelter, utensils and income.’7 Loss of plant diversity would mean a loss of place and “purpose” for women. As already “minor” social actors, it can only contribute to a further decrease in their status and social welfare. Furthermore, Howard claims that ‘the significance of gender relations [botany] not only has implications for research and practice concerned with conservation, but is also crucial to problems such as food security, health, poverty, agriculture, trade and technology development.’ 8
Population growth, market expansion, environmental degradation and rapid decline in foraging resources, endanger access to plant diversity and are increasing the time and labour invested in foraging activities, that are roles disproportionately taken by women. At the same time female foraging rights are being usurped. What is more, reduction of foraged foods in the diet is leading to poorer nutrition and is reducing emergency food supplies. This in turn increases reliance on food purchases that decreases management and erodes local botanical knowledge and use of plant life.9
Taken as “domestic roles”’, the labour of these women dosuffers from a perception of reduced significance, and women themselves as “minor actors”. This is compounded by the nature of the work as being non-monetary, making it all too easy to overlook the importance of biodiversity to sustaining communities and the role of these women in sustainably managing it as such. This important role of women is largely ignored in conservation practices and development projects.10 Howard scrutinises these “domestic” places, the kitchen and the house garden, and suggests that they contain significant plant diversity.11 These combined notions call for a reorientation of conservation policy towards “domestic” spaces of biodiversity.
The Convention on Biodiversity states that ‘biodiversity conservation and sustainable use with equitable sharing of benefits derived from its natural services are the basis of human well- being’.12
This goal can only be met by ‘giving serious attention to women’s knowledge, use, rights and needs with respect to local plant diversity ’.13
It is as such essential to give women a voice in biodiversity policy and decision-making. Such a move becomes essential to securing the future range of plant diversity.
Through women we can also see how biological diversity and cultural diversity come to be closely linked. In consequence, to conserve biodiversity must be taken in relation to culturally diverse practices. We see that, ‘the preservation of biological diversity must be instrumental to achieving human welfare, where “human welfare” is defined not only according to bio physical absolutes, but also to cultural values’.14
This linkage has given rise to a new conceptualization of biodiversity, that of “bio-cultural” diversity. It arises through recognition of this close link between biodiversity and the diversity of human cultural practices.15 This broader concept of diversity, maintains its urgent necessity whilst also urging a new way of conceptualizing these issues.16 The survival and wellbeing of indigenous people then becomes as essential as plant or species conservation. It is claimed that as indigenous societies have adapted to certain environments they have acquired an ‘in depth knowledge of species, their relationships, ecosystem functions and they have learnt how to tailor their practices to suit their ecological niches’,17 these communities possess the knowledge and skill to live without depleting natural resources and thereby preserving biodiversity.
If development or conservation projects come to threaten the survival of these communities, we also see a threat posed to the biodiversity that surrounds them. Full respect for these communities and their requirements will possibly prove one of the most valuable movements towards reversing the decline of biodiversity and ensuring its future preservation.
At the World Summit on Biodiversity in Nagoya, Japan, it was agreed to increase protected land and inland water to 17 per cent (compared to 13 %, now) and 10 per cent (compared with 1 % now) of coastal and marine waters by 2020.18 Nations also committed to a “broad mission” to take action to halt the loss of biodiversity. This manifests in the aim to halve the loss of habitats and the desire to see new national biodiversity plans to chart how each country plans to manage overfishing, control of invasive species and prevent the destruction of the natural world.19
Though a consensus was reached, little in terms of a binding agreement emerged. There also appears little readiness from developed countries to assist the developing world financially to implement the agreements. Representatives seemed more interested in ‘defending national interests than reversing the precipitous decline of animal and plant life on Earth’.
Whether the Nagoya Summit is strong enough to address the ‘the forces that are driving the loss of biological diversity as well as eroding the majority of human cultures’ remains to be seen.20 However it is apparent that a deeper appreciation of biodiversity and its value to the human society need characterize global policy and decision-making. There is also an urgent need to develop a broader understanding of diversity and its functions; one that includes cultural as well as ecological diversity and that gives greater credit to the unique contribution of actors such as women in the process.
Endnotes
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The ongoing loss of biodiversity has raised concerns that the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide to humans may be compromised (e.g., Millenium Ecosystem Assessment). To date, the majority of biodiversity-ecosystem functioning research has focused on experimental grassland systems and on a relatively small number of ecosystem processes. The European FP7 “FunDivEUROPE” project is the first that aims to quantify the effects of forest tree diversity on a broad spectrum of ecosystem functions and services on a large geographical scale. The project involves 24 scientific organisations from 15 different EU countries. Three scientific platforms (experiments, forest inventories and observational exploratories) will be established in the major European forest types (from Finland to southern Spain). The FORBIO experiment (http://forbio.biodiversity.be) will be included in the experimental platform. The Laboratory of Forestry coordinates the implementation of the different scientific platforms and takes care of the workpackage on the understorey plant diversity. | http://biobel.biodiversity.be/projects/3803 |
The crucial importance of data management and analysis in ecology and environmental sciences gave rise to ecoinformatics as a key sub-discipline. In vegetation science, ecoinformatics are essential for integrating, analyzing and disseminating information about the plant cover of natural and semi-natural ecosystems. In this Special Session, we aim at presenting the different ways in which vegetation ecoinformatics can support biodiversity research. Examples may include biodiversity studies based on vegetation databases, ways of collecting, exchanging, integrating or disseminating data on plant taxon or functional diversity, and methods concerning the analysis of vegetation and big data in biodiversity research.
(organized by Borja Jiménez-Alfaro, Sebastian Schmidtlein, Viktoria Wagner, Susan Wiser, Andrei Zverev & the IAVS Working Group for Ecoinformatics)
2) Remote sensing of vegetation for biodiversity research
Remote sensing represents a valuable complement to the field-based data collection in biodiversity research since it allows for a synoptic view of an area at a broad range of temporal, spectral and spatial resolutions. New methods and techniques enable us to assess vegetation properties with direct use for biodiversity research. This includes the mapping of plant traits, plant functional types and plant communities with their variability. The possibility to map vegetation properties as a continuum in space and time provides new insights into pattern and processes. Remote sensing of vegetation is increasingly relevant as a tool for habitat monitoring and hence supports countermeasures against the loss of biodiversity. Recently opened image archives, freely available satellite data and open source processing tools enable global and long-term studies, whereas recent developments in the field of unmanned aircraft provide extremely high spatial and temporal resolution ideal to study dynamic changes at the community level. The aim of this session is to give an overview on available methods and applications, and to discuss challenging aspects of the use of remote sensing for biodiversity research in vegetation science.
(organized by Sebastian Schmidtlein, Hannes Feilhauer, Jana Müllerová & Duccio Rocchini)
3) Plant phenology and plant traits
Phenology, reoccurring events in the life history of plants, is an important component of plant performance, as the timing of leaf-out, senescence, flowering and fruiting determine when plants begin photosynthesis, are productive and reproduce. The timing of these biological events is strongly linked to competitive interactions and fecundity, and phenological shifts may therefore have important implications for ecosystem functions, services, biodiversity and trophic interactions. In order to design management plans and conservation strategies that address the consequences of phenological shifts it is necessary to understand the varying responses of species to drivers of environmental change. Shifts in phenology are especially susceptible to climate, but are also affected by eutrophication and biotic interactions. The direction (advance or delay) and magnitude (number of days) of phenological response to environmental drivers is not uniform across species or growth forms and varies between habitats. However, plant traits provide a promising way to predict phenological response at varying temporal and spatial scales. This session will focus on improving our ability to predict phenological response to environmental change. We will bring together speakers who work on the phenology and traits of diverse taxa and habitats to advance this important field of research.
(organized by Christine Römermann & Emma Jardine)
4) Macroecological vegetation science: large grain patterns and processes of plant diversity
Vegetation can be studied at any spatial scale but vegetation science has traditionally looked at sample plots up to few hundred square meters within a limited region. Currently much effort is done to compile large data sets of vegetation plots to explore vegetation at large spatial extents, but large grain (> 1 km2) vegetation patterns have so far been studied mainly in the fields of biogeography and macroecology. With this session we aim to establish a mutual link between vegetation science and macroecology by exploring plant diversity patterns at large spatial grains (e.g. plant species recordings at grid cells of 10 x 10 km, analyses of local floras, compiling occurrence data, etc.). We aim to examine in how far we can apply concepts of vegetation science across spatial scales. We embrace taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity. We discuss challenges in data quality and analysis, and present both conceptual talks and case studies.
(organized by Meelis Pärtel)
5) Species-area relationships and other scaling laws in plant biodiversity
Plant biodiversity, its patterns and drivers are inherently scale-dependent. Species-area relationships (SARs) are the most prominent of such scale dependencies. While SARs have been a major topic of plant ecology for over one century, only recent advances in non-linear modeling and theory combined with large data sets could (largely) dissolve the long-lasting disputes over the nature of species-area relationships. However, there are many other manifestations of scale-dependencies in plant biodiversity, including the determination of biodiversity hotspots, diversity-environment relationships, the relative importance of environmental filtering vs. competitive exclusion, patterns of plant invasions, relationships to species-abundance distributions, impact of scaling laws on vegetation classification, etc. With this Special Session, we want to provide a platform for presenting and discussing new results and ideas on scaling laws in plant biodiversity at any spatial scale (from mm² to the surface of the Earth) and for any habitat or biome. We welcome empirical studies, simulations, conceptual-theoretical contributions, reports on software tools and databases as well as solutions how to account for scale-dependencies when analyzing large heterogeneous datasets. We will consider the option of a Special Issue in JVS based on session contributions, provided that the amount and quality of the contributions allow this and there is interest among the participants.
(organized by Alessandro Chiarucci, Iwona Dembicz & Jürgen Dengler)
6) Vegetation and plant diversity dynamics during the late Quaternary
We often ignore that vegetation has a history in which environmental changes may have played a significant role in determining vegetation composition, structure and diversity. To understand modern vegetation, palaeoecological background information is important. Palaeoecological data based on pollen, plant remains and other proxies of dated sedimentary archives provide essential information to help understand the history of modern vegetation. Further, to understand the dynamics and stability of modern ecosystems, especially in view of current global change concerns, long-term records on vegetation and plant diversity history are needed. The session will address the following questions: How stable are ecosystems in space and time? How has plant diversity changed during glacial and Holocene time periods? How strongly did environmental and human impacts change vegetation and its diversity during the past? What can we learn from the past for vegetation and biodiversity conservation and management? Interactions and contributions of palaeoecologists and modern vegetation scientists are very welcome in this session.
(organized by Hermann Behling, Thomas Giesecke, Lyudmila Shumilovskikh, Vincent Montade & Petr Kuneš)
7) The legacy of the past in the biodiversity of current vegetation
Past interactions between humans and vegetation are in the focus of the recently created Historical Vegetation Ecology working group. The history of anthropogenic changes in plant communities ranges from thousands of years before the present to the recent period of intense human pressure. Knowledge on long-term processes provides a baseline for the understanding of current global change issues. In the proposed special session, we would like to open the field for contributions encompassing various perspectives on the legacy of past human activities in the biodiversity of current vegetation. Contributions can feature conceptual views as well as case studies, preferably building on interdisciplinary collaborations.
(organized by Radim Hédl, Guillaume Decocq, Péter Szabó & Peter Poschlod)
8) Long-term studies in vegetation science
Most ecosystems show gradual reactions to various types of environmental changes. Short-term changes in the performance of plant individuals lead to mid-term changes in plant populations, eventually driving long-term changes in vegetation composition and diversity. The importance of long-term studies in vegetation science relies on their ability to identify the consequences of environmental changes on plant community composition and diversity, irrespective of short-term variations. The difficulty is to maintain such research for several decades, as funding is mostly limited to few year projects. The crucial factor is the frequency of observation, which in turn creates a trade-off with the ability to distinguish random variation from long-term trends. A special case are resurveys of historical vegetation data, which complement classic monitoring (repeated observations at defined time steps) and surpass it in terms of time span. For this special session, we welcome contributions from long-term experimental and observational studies (including resurvey studies), with study periods longer than 10 years. We are especially interested in studies focusing on the consequences of global change on ecosystem functioning and biodiversity.
(organized by Markus Bernhardt-Römermann & Radim Hédl)
9) Plant reproduction and dispersal: A trait-based approach
Traits related to dispersal processes in space and time (i.e., seed production, seed dispersal, persistence of generative propagules, dormancy and germination) are fundamental in determining how species pools assemble as a result of ecological filtering. Thus, studying these traits is crucial to understanding the maintenance of plant communities and biodiversity in general. There is a current trend of estimating / assessing the dispersal ability, persistence or germination characteristics of seeds based on functional traits such as seed size and shape, buoyancy, terminal velocity etc., but a clear link between the theoretical predictions / considerations and the results of experimental and observational studies is still missing. This special session aims at discussing the role of different functional traits in the dispersal, persistence and early establishment of plant species in various ecosystems, which provide important insights into vegetation dynamics and the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Thus, any trait-based analyses of processes related to plant reproduction, dispersal and regeneration are welcome in the session.
(organized by Leonid Rasran, Péter Török & Judit Sonkoly)
10) Patterns, drivers, and conservation opportunities of grassland biodiversity
Grasslands cover nearly 30% of all terrestrial surface, including diverse habitat types ranging from wet muddy slacks in lowlands to harsh rocky habitats in alpine environments. Grasslands harbor an extremely rich biodiversity, which is comparable at small scale to the richness of Atlantic rain forests. Grasslands provide essential ecosystem services and goods and, contributing with 70% to all agricultural land, sustain the livelihood of about 2 billion people worldwide. Grasslands face multiple threats, including area loss, altered management by intensification or the cessation of former management as the most important drivers of change. Describing biodiversity patterns and understanding key processes sustaining grassland biodiversity is essential for an effective conservation and restoration. The Eurasian Grassland Group (EDGG) is an official working group of the IAVS and aims to facilitate and coordinate grassland research and conservation in the Palaearctic Biogeographic Realm. With this special session we would like to draw attention to the latest advancements in grassland research, and facilitate the scientific communication of researchers working with different types of grasslands worldwide.
(organized by Didem Ambarlı, Riccardo Guarrino, Alla Aleksanyan & Péter Török)
11) Using plant traits for the recovery of ecosystem functions and services: Trait-based ecosystem engineering?
For an effective restoration it is vital to know which mechanisms govern compositional and functional changes during the restoration process. Thus, the greatest challenge of ecological restoration is to restore healthy and functioning ecosystems resembling the restoration target. Ecosystem functions are well reflected in changes of functional trait composition, and the application of trait-based ecological theories and models may be especially useful in supporting practical restoration. It is crucial to test the explanatory power of plant traits from the point of view of usefulness during restoration actions, and it is also necessary for the development of predictive and general plant trait models. The planned innovative session focuses on functional plant traits and the possibilities of its application in conservation and restoration practice. Trait-based conservation and restoration actions may increase the success of conservation projects, and trait-based ecology may enable improved predictions of how plant communities respond to altered environmental conditions. To develop functional ecosystems promoting biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services related to restoration actions, we need the support of trait-based ecological theory.
(organized by Béla Tóthmérész & Péter Török)
12) Global biodiversity of plant species, plant forms and plant communities
Biodiversity research is an important part of vegetation science and includes study of gradients in species richness, ecological plant types and plant characters across different biomes and habitat types. It also includes inventory of vegetation types and analysis of plant community-environment relationships, especially in less well-known regions. This session thus welcomes contributions that focus on broad-scale patterns of diversity of plant species, types and communities, based on continental or global data bases of sample plots of vegetation, or that describe the structure and species composition of vegetation in areas not yet represented in data bases. | http://iavs.org/2019-Annual-Symposium/Late-Breaking-Poster-Abstract-Submission.aspx |
The “fact” that biological diversity—biodiversity—is declining and that humanity is ultimately responsible has become common knowledge among scientists, citizens, and policymakers. Biodiversity loss is the mantra for conservation; we are exhausting biodiversity on the planet at a far greater rate than it can replenish itself (1). Furthermore, these losses could greatly reduce the benefits (ecosystem services) that humans obtain from nature, such as the pollination of crops, absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and provision of wild foods (2). However, is biodiversity truly declining? Remarkably, Vellend et al. (3) report that, on average, the local diversity of plants has not decreased in recent decades. If anything, it has increased.
Vellend et al. (3) searched the literature for studies that examined changes in local plant diversity. They found 168 studies from around the world, where the number of plant species had been counted, in over 16,000 plots in total, over periods of 5–50 or more years. They analyzed their global-scale dataset, finding an average 7.6% increase per decade in the number of species present in plots. This average was not significantly different from zero, so they concluded that there has been no overall change in local plant diversity, a finding that is extremely interesting.
The study by Vellend et al. (3) is not the only one to reveal stable or increasing diversity (Table 1). Although introduced animals and pathogens can eradicate native species (4, 5), far more plant species have been introduced to most regions of the world than native species have died out, resulting in net increases in the total number of species per region (6). Humans have also increased regional habitat diversity in some parts of the world by creating new types of anthropogenic habitats, and biological diversity increases with habitat diversity (7, 8). New species can live in the new habitats (9, 10), even though many of the previously native species would have declined as a result. Furthermore, despite the threat it poses to large numbers of individual species, climate change is expected to act as a driver of increasing diversity per unit area in regions where average temperatures and precipitation are increasing (11). Assessing changes in diversity requires proper accounting for these gains, as well as the losses (12).
Is biodiversity actually stable or increasing? The difficulty in obtaining an unambiguous answer arises because of the convenient but ultimately rather confusing adoption of one word “biodiversity” to summarize everything from the genetic differences between individuals and populations of a given species, right up to the number of ecosystems and species on Earth. Almost anything to do with life on Earth can be included within the term “biodiversity.” As Vellend et al. (3) point out, different metrics of biodiversity can change in opposite directions (Table 1), and, indeed, the same metric can change in different directions under different circumstances.
Vellend et al. (3) highlight that most of the plot data that they found in the literature comes from locations where the vegetation has remained moderately intact. Few ecologists continue to monitor vegetation plots once they have been converted into corn fields or concrete, and most such transitions would exhibit a steep loss of local diversity. If we were to calculate the average change in number of species over the entire land surface of the world, including areas of tropical forests that have been converted into oil palm plantations and soybean fields, we would presumably come to the conclusion that average local diversity has declined rather than remained stable in recent decades. The Living Planet Index shows an overall decline by around 28% between 1970 and 2008, based on the numbers of individuals of monitored populations of species across the world (13). These declines will incorporate some of the losses attributable to fundamental habitat destruction, as well as changes within surviving habitats. Given that humans appropriate approximately a quarter of the annual growth of vegetation on land for our own purposes (14) (as crops, plants consumed by livestock, wood, etc.), one might expect that the global “bottom-line” loss of wild animal and plant production will be of similar magnitude.
The estimated change in number of species also depends on the plot area used to measure diversity. The plots of Vellend et al. (3) had a median of 44 m2, and they found no overall average change in local diversity; invasive plants can reduce the diversity of other plant species in plots below 2,500 m2 in size (15); and the average number of plant species declined by 8% within 200-m2 plots monitored in Britain between 1978 and 2007 (16). In contrast, substantial increases (generally between ∼20% and 100%) in the number of plant species have been reported through time in “plots” that are as large as islands, countries, or states in the United States, mainly associated with the introduction of species to new regions (6). The total number of plant species in Britain has increased by well over a third through introductions (17), despite the losses observed at 200-m2 resolution (16). Increase the plot size to that of the entire Earth and diversity is going down again. Since 2000, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has added 46 plants to its list of species that are globally “extinct” or “extinct in the wild” and a further 1,920 plant species are classified as “critically endangered” (18). Overall, local diversity has increased in some locations and declined in others (usually declined where major land use changes occur), regional-scale diversity has usually increased, and global diversity has declined.
However, why are local and regional measures of diversity change not closely linked to each other and to changes in the number of species on Earth? The answer, it seems, stems from the fact that when a very rare species declines toward extinction, it only reduces the local diversity of those few places where it used to occur. In contrast, a species that is initially more widespread that either doubles or halves its distribution will alter the local diversity of many more places and, hence, have a much greater impact on local diversity when averaged over a large geographic region. For example, the number of butterfly species in 20 × 20 km grid squares in Britain increased by 7.6% from the period of 1970 to 1982 to the period of 1995 to 1999 in response to climate warming because a minority of species that were already reasonably common expanded their ranges, whereas most of the rarer species continued to decline because of habitat changes (19). At a larger scale, the total number of species has increased on most of the islands in the Pacific, but the additions are mainly of globally widespread species that have been introduced to many islands, whereas the extinctions have mainly been of native species that were restricted to one or a few islands (5, 6). The number of species per island has increased, but the number of species on Earth has decreased.
Vellend et al. (3) frame their paper in relation to the direct and indirect benefits we obtain from ecosystems—so called ecosystem goods and services, such as the provision of wood, erosion control, and our personal appreciation of nature (2). The authors provide a strong argument that major changes in land use, from one type of vegetation to another, or from vegetation to asphalt, are likely to make far greater differences to ecosystem services than are changes in diversity per se within existing types of vegetation. This argument appears robust, given that the authors did not find any overall change in the number of species per unit area. On the other hand, biodiversity loss could remain important to the loss of ecosystem services. The reason major land-use changes cause losses in ecosystem services could, at least in some cases, be because the new anthropogenic ecosystems lack sufficient biological diversity to provide them.
The overall conclusion that there is “no net change in local-scale plant biodiversity” is based on a global average (3), arising because local gains in some places are countered by local losses in others. These local changes may still matter to ecosystem services. The diversity of flower-visiting insects that benefit local people by pollinating their crops is linked to changes in the diversity of wild plant species nearby, not to the global average. Vellend et al. (3) report that there was a 20% or more decline in plant diversity (a level they regard as potentially damaging to ecosystem services) in 8% of studies, in just a decade. The inhabitants of those places may see a reduction in ecosystem services because of this. The corollary is that ecosystem services might be increasing elsewhere. Ecosystem services may also be affected by the changing identities and relative abundances of the species that are present in a plot, even if the plot still contains the same total number of species. Caution is needed to ensure that the impacts of biodiversity loss and gain are always reviewed (on the basis of evidence) at the spatial scale and in the place appropriate for the delivery of a given ecosystem service.
The study by Vellend et al. (3) is an excellent contribution toward achieving proper accounting for the changes to biodiversity, in which we recognize gains as well as losses, and where we are specific about the metric of biodiversity change that is being considered. In a world where almost all of our species and ecosystems are in flux, such documentation is essential to provide us with the information needed to develop rational, evidence-based strategies for the coexistence of nature and people. The biodiversity crisis has not gone away, but we definitely need to be considerably more precise in identifying which elements of biodiversity are in decline, where, whether and why such declines are concerning, and what we should and can do about it.
References
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- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
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- Vellend M,
- et al.
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- Duncan RP,
- Boyer AG,
- Blackburn TM
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- Rosenzweig ML
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- World Wildlife Fund International
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- Krausmann F,
- et al.
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- Powell KI,
- Chase JM,
- Knight TM
- ↵Carey PD, et al. (2008) Countryside Survey: UK Headline Messages from 2007 (Natural Environment Research Council/Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, UK).
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- Roy HE,
- et al.
- ↵The International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species (2013) Available at www.iucnredlist.org/search. Accessed October 18, 2013.
- ↵
- Menéndez R,
- et al.
- Hughes JB,
- Daily GC, | https://www.pnas.org/content/110/48/19187 |
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Thank you for all of your comments, ideas, photos and support!
By: Aileen Bailey, St. Mary’s College of Maryland
St. Mary’s City, MD –Dillon Waters, senior biology major, was recently awarded funds ($1,020) from Cove Point National Heritage to support his St. Mary’s Project titled, “Comparison of Traditional Freshwater Sampling Methods versus eDNA Water Sampling to Assess Aquatic Biodiversity in Maryland Streams.”
Dillon’s St. Mary’s Project under the mentorship of Sean Hitchman, visiting assistant professor in biology, will research more efficient ways to monitor changes in aquatic biodiversity. Conservative estimates indicate that freshwater environments provide habitat for at least 126,000 plant and animal species.
Unfortunately, freshwater ecosystems are experiencing declines in biodiversity. Continuous monitoring of species composition in freshwater habitats is essential for proper conservation practices. While there are many traditional freshwater monitoring methods for the biodiversity they tend to vary in efficiency, are time-consuming, and costly.
Dillion will specifically investigate and compare a more efficient method of aquatic biodiversity monitoring, environmental DNA (eDNA) collection. A comparison of a more efficient method will assist with future conservation efforts. | https://southernmarylandchronicle.com/2020/04/01/smcm-student-dillon-waters-awarded-funds-from-cove-point-national-heritage-to-support-st-marys-project/ |
A project "The missing link: unraveling the role of genetic variation of beneficial arthropods in agro-ecosystems" led by Trine Bilde from Aarhus University in collaboration with Philip Francis Thomsen from Aarhus University, Greta Bocedi from University of Aberdeen and Marjo Saastamoinen from University of Helsinki, receives an 8 Mio Euro research grant from The Novo Nordisk Foundation as part of their ‘Challenge Programme 2020 – Life Science Research (Biodiversity & productivity of managed ecosystems)’.
This six-year international research project will investigate the population genetic consequences of the dramatic declines observed in insect diversity and abundance, and the potential consequences for their ability to perform ecosystem services such as pollination and natural pest control.
Being the most species-rich group of organisms on Earth, insects are vital components of most terrestrial ecosystems. We are currently experiencing large population declines in insects due to anthropogenic causes, such as intensified land use, habitat loss and fragmentation, but we know very little about the implications for genetic diversity. Loss of genetic diversity can amplify population extinction and reduce the diversity and crucial ecosystem services and functions that insects perform. In this project, we will investigate the link between population size, genetic diversity, and the ability of insects to perform their natural important ecological roles.
The project will utilize cutting-edge methods such as large-scale whole genome sequencing and environmental DNA approaches, and performance assays to establish relationships between genetic diversity and functional responses. Integrative modelling approaches will be used to predict insects’ future distribution and performance, and maintenance of population genetic diversity, and will provide tools to develop effective management practices in the face of ongoing global change.
Insects have a long history of being utilized in ecological research and have been collected for centuries by citizens, resulting in tremendous knowledge and natural history collections world-wide. These museum samples will be utilized within the project to compare genetic diversity of historical and contemporary insect populations in relation to land use changes.
Co-PI
Genetics, Ecology & Evolution at the Biology Department, Aarhus University
is an associate professor in Molecular Ecology, and he is head of the environmental DNA (eDNA) group working on biodiversity studies using high-throughput sequencing.
Here is a link to his Profile and Publications.
Co-PI
is an associate professor at the Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE), Helsinki University
head of the Life-history Evolution Research Group, and PI at the Research Centre for Ecological Change (REC). Her group works on the processes that shape intraspecific life history variation in the wild.
Co-PI
Royal Society University Research Fellow, The School of Biological Sciences University of Aberdeen
has developed the eco-evolutionary modelling platform RangeShifter, aimed to link species’ ecological and evolutionary responses to environmental change.
Here is a link to her webpage and to RangeShifter. | https://bio.au.dk/forskning/forskningscentre/center-for-ecological-genetics/ |
SDG15 calls for rapid and full observance of all international agreements relating to conservation, restoration and sustainable use of land; sustainable forest management; and combatting desertification.
Land-based ecosystems and the related services they provide are thought to underpin 40 per cent of the world’s economy and 80 per cent of the needs of the poor. Forests cover 30 per cent of the Earth’s surface and are essential to combating climate change, protecting biodiversity and ensuring food security (especially for indigenous forest peoples). The livelihoods of 1.6 billion people depend on them (including 70 million Indigenous Peoples) and they are home to 80 per cent of the word’s land-based animal and plant life. Yet 13 million hectares of forests are lost every year (an area the size of England) while degradation of drylands has led to the desertification of 3.6 billion hectares. Land-based ecosystems are critical for carbon storage and sequestration and for the conservation of threatened species and their habitats. Since 1970 there has been a 52 per cent reduction of wildlife populations and of the 8,300 known animal species, 8 per cent are already extinct and 22 per cent are at risk of extinction.
Mining and its associated infrastructure can disrupt both the ecosystems that provide valuable services to society and the biodiversity on which these ecosystems depend. The mitigation hierarchy of avoid, minimise, restore, enhance and offset, provides a framework for mining and other companies to assess and determine measures to protect ecosystems and biodiversity. The mining sector is also a major manager of land as mining leases are usually much larger than the directly impacted footprint of mining activities. As a manager of large areas of land, mining companies have a potentially important role to play in biodiversity and conservation management.
what opportunities exist to strengthen biodiversity and ecosystems at an operational level in partnership with other local stakeholders.
offset biodiversity impacts where residual loss of biodiversity is unavoidable. | http://www.icmm.com/en-gb/metals-and-minerals/making-a-positive-contribution/life-on-land |
Preparation of user requirement specification of equipments and instrument used in pharmaceutical manufacturing and quality control.
User Requirement Specification (URS) is a list of all requirements of buyer regarding the equipment to be purchased. URS is prepared by the equipment user department. It is sent to equipment manufacturer to make it as desired criteria.
Following points should be included in a pharmaceutical user requirement specification.
1. Introduction: A brief introduction of the equipment should be written.
2.1 Intended Use: Write the use of the equipment in the manufacturing.
2.2 Capacity: Write the required capacity if the equipment in the liter or kgs.
2.3 Space Availability: Write the available space for installation of the equipment including height, width and height in mm.
2.4 Accuracy of Instrument: Write the desired accuracy of the instrument in decimal places if applicable.
2.5 Cleaning Requirements: Instrument should easy to clean. Write, if there is any specific cleaning requirement.
2.6.1 Required quality of Stainless Steel (SS) as SS-308, SS-316 or SS-316L if applicable.
2.6.2 Write the specific requirements of the instrument as number of baffles and revolutions per minute (RPM) in Blender and requirement of fix lid and hand wheel in Paste Kettle.
3.1 Functional Requirements: Specify all technical requirements for the equipment.
3.1.1 Operation: Write the operational requirements.
3.1.2 Control System: Specify ON, OFF or other specific equipment control requirements.
3.1.3 Power: Write the requirements on power failure as autostart or manual.
3.2 Environment: Temperature and humidity of the area where the equipment will be installed.
3.3 Other Requirements: Write the other requirements as the metal of construction (MOC) of non-contact parts and specific requirements of seals and tubing.
4.1 Utilities: Available power supply on which instrument shall be operated. The requirement of the uninterrupted power supply (UPS) and other specific utility requirements.
4.2 Availability: Continuous operating time of the equipment in hours or working shifts.
4.3 Supporting Documents: Requirements of operating manual, circuit diagrams, warranty letter, change part list, spare part list etc.
5. Abbreviations: List all abbreviations used in this user requirement specification document.
6. References: Write the title of reference books or guidelines. | https://www.pharmaguideline.com/2015/01/preparation-of-URS-for-pharmaceutical-equipments.html |
Watchful eyes over our planet
The Earth’s climate is changing because of man-made greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon dioxide and methane are the two main contributors to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Where are those gases emitted? Where do they go from there? How will these processes of emission and absorption be influenced in a changing climate? What is the role of various types of aerosols? We try to answer these scientific questions and address public health concerns such as air pollution.
So research of the Earth’s atmosphere is vitally important for society. As watchful eyes over the earth, Earth observation satellites provide detailed information from which scientists deduce the global distribution of sources and sinks of greenhouse and air-polluting gases. With the Dutch/ESA TROPOMI instrument on board the Sentinel-5 Precursor mission we have one of the most advanced space instruments for atmospheric composition measurements at our disposal.
Next to greenhouse gases aerosols - microscopically small, particles such as volcanic ash, sea salt, dust and soot - play a significant yet poorly known role both in climate and air quality. According to the IPCC 2013 the impact of aerosols constitutes one of the largest uncertainties in anthropogenic radiative forcing and consequently in predicting the Earth’s future climate. Moreover, aerosols directly influence human health. The main missing information is the detailed information on the optical and microphysical properties of aerosols and their distribution. The novel spectral modulation technology applied in the SPEX family of instrument prototypes developed at SRON features unprecedented polarimetric accuracy. This improved accuracy is needed to quantify the essential aerosol properties (optical thickness, absorption, size and type) with the accuracy needed to significantly advance our knowledge on the role of aerosols in climate change and air quality.
The Earth programme covers SRON’s activities for Earth-system science. Observing the Earth from space has a big advantage as compared to ground-based observations. It provides time series of measurements with global and homogeneous coverage. This has led to initiatives for international space research programmes in which Earth observation provides essential diagnostic tools for improving our understanding of the Earth.
SRON's Earth programme focuses on atmospheric measurements addressing the global carbon cycle (in particular the trace gases CH4, CO2, and CO) and aerosols, and the interpretation of the data in terms of processes fundamental for climate and air quality. Our activities cover contributions to the full project cycle of space-borne Earth observation:
- specification of science and high-level observation requirements
- development of enabling technologies and prototypes for future instruments
- scientific support to the industrial instrument development
- safeguarding the science requirements and calibration
- retrieval of the geophysical data products (trace gas concentrations and aerosol microphysical and optical properties) from the measurements
- scientific exploitation of the data products using atmospheric models and inversions.
The aim is to improve our understanding of planet Earth and the challenges we are faced with, like climate change and air quality.
Future
The international Earth observation community has expressed a clear need for observations with higher spatial and temporal resolution. The European Commission has responded with H2020 calls for new highly-miniaturized optical instrument concepts, to be deployed alongside the large long-term ESA/EC Sentinel series. In addition, the changing political national landscape implies that relatively large national instrument contributions such as SCIAMACHY and TROPOMI are not likely to happen again in the next decade. This calls for a partial revision of our strategy. The institute will, in collaboration with industry, focus on scientific performance assessment and prototyping of new instrument concepts, including characterisation and calibration. We will pursue options for dedicated measurements with (constellations of) small satellites. Our ambition is to put Dutch industry, supported by SRON, in a position where it can win international contracts for space instruments to advance Earth observation. SRON will benefit because of its involvement in the future mission, doing calibrations and developing and exploiting data products for science and society. | https://sron.nl/earth |
Passive microwave remote sensing offers the potential for measuring many parameters (soil moisture, sea surface temperature, precipitation, etc.) important for understanding and monitoring the environment. Remote sensing at frequencies in the microwave spectrum has the advantage that it can be done at night and in the presence of cloud cover, permitting measurements in regions inaccessible to visible and infrared sensors. For example, cloud cover in the Bering Straits may persist for weeks at a time, but a microwave radiometer with adequate resolution would be able to provide year-round mapping of sea ice concentration and sea ice/water boundary. Frequencies at the lower end of the microwave spectrum respond to the changes in the dielectric constant of the surface. This means a strong response to the presence of water in soils and vegetation, a response to the temperature and salinity of the ocean surface, and response to changes of state (e.g. frozen/thawed). At higher microwave frequencies resonance’s of oxygen and water in the atmosphere permit profiles of temperature, pressure and humidity to be measured.
Measurements from space offer the potential for global-scale observations necessary for understanding weather, climate and the global environment. However, microwave measurements from space have been limited by the large aperture antennas required to obtain reasonable spatial resolution. For example, the 10 km resolution at L-band (1.4 GHz) from an orbit of 800 km desired by hydrologists for the measurement of soil moisture would require an antenna in space of about 20 m x 20 m. For practical applications with periodic global coverage it would also be necessary to scan about 145 degrees with this aperture.
Aperture synthesis is a new technology that helps to overcome some of the limitations of size, weight, and scanning associated with real aperture antennas. Microwave imaging with fine spatial resolution is possible from space using aperture synthesis without the need to scan a large aperture.
II. Aperture Synthesis
Aperture synthesis is an interferometric technique in which the complex correlation of the output voltage from pairs of antennas is measured at different antenna spacings or baselines. The correlation measurement is proportional to the spatial Fourier transform of the intensity of a distant scene at a frequency that depends upon the antenna spacing. Each baseline measurement produces a sample point in the two-dimensional Fourier transform of the scene. By making measurements at many different spacings and selectively distributing the antenna elements so as to obtain optimum sampling in the Fourier domain, a set of Fourier samples suitable for inverting the transform may be obtained. High resolution maps of the source may be retrieved using a set of relatively small antennas without the need for scanning the antenna aperture. As in a conventional antenna array, resolution is determined by the maximum spacing (baseline) and the minimum spacing determines the location of grating lobes. However, in contrast to conventional arrays, each spacing needs to appear only once, and no mechanical scanning is necessary (it is done in software as part of the image reconstruction).
Aperture synthesis was first applied in radio astronomy as a means to achieve high resolving power with an antenna array using a limited number of (relatively) small, individual elements. More recently synthetic aperture radiometers have been developed for remote sensing of the earth. The first such instrument, the L-band Electronically Scanned Thinned Array Radiometer (ESTAR), was developed by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center and the University of Massachusetts. The objective of this research was to demonstrate the utility of aperture synthesis for remote sensing of the earth with specific application to the remote sensing of soil moisture and ocean salinity (two important observations made at L-band).
III. Technical Issues
The advantages gained from aperture synthesis comes at the expense of reduced sensitivity resulting from the corresponding reduction in physical aperture. Sensitivity is an especially critical issue for measurements made from low earth orbit because the high velocity of the platform (about 7 km/s) limits the integration time available for imaging a particular scene. The theoretical sensitivity of a synthetic aperture radiometer is given by dT = (A/na)*Tsys/Bt**0.5
where Tsys is the sum of the system and scene noise temperatures and Bt is the time bandwidth product, A is the effective area of a real aperture with the same spatial resolution as obtained with the synthesized antenna, a is the area of the individual real aperture antennas employed in the array, and n is the number of antennas in the array. The term, Tsys/Bt**0.5, is just the conventional formula for sensitivity for a real aperture (total power) radiometer. Since in a practical application na is less than A , the sensitivity of the synthesized beam will be poorer than a real aperture antenna; however, the synthetic aperture radiometer receives energy from all pixels in the field-of-view and as a result, its integration time can be larger than that of a comparable real aperture scanning radiometer.
There are many possible ways to implement aperture synthesis and each configuration must be evaluated for its performance (i.e. sensitivity, number of receivers, coverage in the Fourier space, etc). For example, ESTAR is a hybrid which employs real antennas (long stick arrays) to obtain resolution in the direction of motion (along-track) and uses aperture synthesis to obtain resolution cross-track. One could obtain equivalent resolution using aperture synthesis in two-dimensions, for example with an array of antenna elements along the arms of a cross (+), a tee (T) or (Y). It is also possible in some applications to have the antennas arranged around the circumference of a circle (e.g. a hoola hoop). Such arrays have been studied with application to profiling of atmospheric temperature at 50-60 GHz.
The experience with ESTAR has demonstrated the potential of aperture synthesis for remote sensing of soil moisture from space. However, the measurement of soil moisture requires moderate sensitivity. Applications which require greater sensitivity (e.g. ocean salinity measurement requires (DT0.02 K) or synthesis in two dimensions (necessary from geostationary orbit) will require research to improve the image reconstruction algorithm and calibration methods. Although, accomplished successfully with ESTAR at the level needed to measure soil moisture from an aircraft platform, calibration for applications which require greater sensitivity and autonomous calibration in space require additional work. The transfer of data between the individual antennas and central processor (interconnect problem) is another area requiring work. This includes both the transfer of data back from the individual antennas and the delivery of reference signal (e.g. the LO) to the individual antennas. Finally, advances in correlator technology are needed to reduce the power requirements of the processing unit.
IV. Current and Future Applications
ESTAR is unique in that it was the first radiometer built to test the concept of aperture synthesis for microwave remote sensing of the earth, and because it is a hybrid real-and-synthetic aperture combination. ESTAR has been successfully demonstrated in hydrology experiments at USDA research watersheds at Walnut Gulch, AZ (1991) and the Little Washita River Watershed in OK (1992). ESTAR continues to support hydrology research and studies at NASA’s GSFC are underway to implement an ESTAR-style instrument in space to provide measurement of soil moisture to complement NASA’s suite of EOS observations.
The potential for practical, high resolution microwave measurements from space has raised interest at other frequencies also. For example, studies are underway of a high resolution (1 km) instrument at 18 and 37 GHz to monitor thin ice and open water (leads) in the Arctic to support shipping along the Northern Sea Route. An instrument of the ESTAR-type (hybrid real-and-synthetic aperture) is being built at 37 GHz for the Department of Defense (Navy and Air Force) by Quadrant Engineering in Massachusetts. Research on aperture synthesis in two dimensions has also received much attention recently. In particular, ESA/ESTEC is studying the potential of aperture synthesis in two dimensions for remote sensing of soil moisture. An aircraft prototype is nearly complete (at L-band and using a Y-configuration) and studies are underway to define an instrument for monitoring soil moisture from space. Several laboratory instruments have also been developed for research on aperture synthesis in two dimensions. Instruments have been assembled in Denmark (TUD, N. Skou at 10 GHz), in Germany (DLR, Peichl and Seuss at 37 GHz), and in the U.S.A. at the Goddard Space Flight Center (12 GHz) and TRW (44 GHz, Pearlman and Davidhowser). Plans exist in France at CNES to build an instrument at C-band (6 GHz). A two dimensional instrument with a somewhat different configuration has been built in Japan (ETL, K. Komiyama at 10 GHz) and a related concept originally developed at Hughes (C. Wiley and Edelsohn, RADSAR) is continuing to receive attention.
V. Conclusion
Aperture synthesis is a new technique for microwave wave remote sensing of the environment. This technology could lead to a new generation of space-borne passive microwave sensors by helping to overcome limitations set by antenna aperture size. The advantage of aperture synthesis is that it can achieve spatial resolutions equivalent to a total power radiometer with a large effective collecting area using relatively small antennas. The reduction in sensitivity that this entails can be restored because the synthetic aperture system does not need to scan and collect energy from many independent antenna pair simultaneously.
FURTHER READING
"ESTAR: A Synthetic Aperture Microwave Radiometer for Remote Sensing Applications,” D.M. Le Vine, A. Griffis, C.T. Swift and T.J. Jackson, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 82 (#12), pp 1787-1801, December, 1994.
“The Sensitivity of Synthetic Aperture Radiometers for Remote Sensing of Applications from Space,” D.M. Le Vine, Radio Science, Volume 25, Number 4, pp 441-453, July 1990.
Interferometery and Synthesis in Radio Astronomy, A. Thompson, J. Moran and G. Swenson, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1986.
Proceedings IGARSS-94, Synthetic Aperture Radiometry for Earth Remote Sensing, Vol III, pp 1311-1331 (Lib Congress #: 93-80348; IEEE Cat #: 94CH3378-7). | http://www.grss-ieee.org/technology-for-spaceborne-microwave-radiometers-of-the-future/ |
Vanhamel, J.
Discipline
Physical sciences
Audience
Scientific
Date2020
MetadataShow full item record
Description
ALTIUS (Atmospheric Limb Tracker for the Investigation of the Upcoming Stratosphere) is a three-channel spaceborne spectral imager bound to fly aboard a PROBA satellite. The ALTIUS project (satellite and instrument) is developed under the supervision of the European Space Agency (ESA). The ALTIUS instrument will make hyperspectral images of the limb of the Earth. To do this, the instrument will use different techniques such as direct limb viewing, star occultation as well as sun occultation. It will measure in the visible, near-infrared and ultraviolet spectral domain. In the visible and near-infrared channel an AOTF (Acousto-Optical Tunable Filter) will be used for the selection of the appropriate optical wavelength. These AOTFs allow to scan at a fast rate through the complete spectral band. An AOTF is based on a birefringent crystal that gets an amplified Radio Frequency (RF) signal injected via a transducer. The latter converts the RF energy into soundwaves, creating an optical filter effect in the crystal. Based on different models found in literature, a theoretical transducer concept, together with a properly matched external impedance network, is calculated and simulated in this study. Also the relationship between the optical diffraction efficiency and electrical bandwidth of the impedance matching network is examined. Depending on the optical range (visible, near-infrared or ultraviolet), RF frequencies from 40 MHz up to 250 MHz are needed to drive the AOTFs. RF generation techniques available today for space applications, are not capable of generating frequencies exceeding 200 MHz. In this work, an in-depth trade-off study is performed of different RF generator techniques, taking into account the technical requirements for ALTIUS. A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) based analog solution, a Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS) integrated in an FPGA, and several others are discussed. The PLL-based RF generation technique is proposed for ALTIUS. It will be demonstrated that this technique is capable of generating the required high frequencies in a stable and accurate manner. For the visible and near-infrared channel, low-power space grade control electronics to drive the AOTFs are developed, each with their own specifications for resolution, sensitivity, frequency range, electrical and optical performance. For the ultraviolet channel a Fabry-Pérot system will be used to select the optical wavelengths instead of an AOTF. Nevertheless, the investigation on how to develop a high frequency RF chain in the ultraviolet for space flight is interesting as this could be useful for future (space) applications, and it is thus described in this work. All three RF systems are developed such that they can survive multiple years in a space environment (temperature, radiation, vibrations, EMI/EMC-demands). To achieve this, specific Electrical, Electronic and Electro-mechanical (EEE) components have been selected, the PCB-design was carried out in accordance to 'space qualified' ESA standards and extended test programs were executed. After the concept study and the design of the channels, also prototyping and on-ground testing were performed in preparation of building flight models and integration in the instrument in a later stage. During the design of the three RF chains, the focus was on low-power consumption, low-volume and survivability in space. The PLL RF generator module is first subjected to stand-alone tests, and is then used in integrated tests per channel (combination RF generator, RF amplifier and AOTF). All tests are discussed in this work. Besides ALTIUS, the designed PLL-based RF chains, and especially the UV RF chain, are also interesting for other (space) projects. In this work four additional applications are discussed, three of which can be transformed to space qualified instruments on short notice. The concept of using an AOTF in a spectrum imager in space applications is innovative. The development of suitable RF systems implies some technological challenges and/or difficulties such as high frequencies, broad frequency spectrum, limited power, stability and quality of the generated signal and temperature control. All these challenges have been tackled effectively and are discussed extensively in this work. | https://orfeo.belnet.be/handle/internal/7458 |
Sponsor:
National Science Foundation (NSF)
Summary:
The NSF Major Research Instrumentation (MRI) Program supports the acquisition or development of a multi-user research instrument that is, in general, too costly and/or not appropriate for support through other NSF programs. The MRI program focuses on multi-user/shared instrumentation that often supports research needs across disciplinary boundaries. An instrument acquired or developed with support from the MRI program is expected to be operational by the end of the award period to enable the research/research training activities committed to in the proposal.
IMPORTANT: Boise State is a PhD granting institution and must provide 30% cost share based on total project cost. The Office of Sponsored Programs Pre-Award staff is available to assist you with budget development, including guidance about allowable cost share expenses.
For more information, view the Major Research Instrumentation Program solicitation (NSF 18-513).
Award:
Track 1: at least $100,000 but less than $1M
Track 2: at least $1M but up to a maximum of $4M
Regardless of track, acquisition proposals may be funded for up to three (3) years and development proposals may be funded for up to five (5) years.
Limited Submission Requirements and Timeline:
Three (3) submissions per institution are allowed. This includes submission as a lead organization, non-lead organization, or subawardee on any proposal. Proposals may be for instrument acquisition or instrument development. Two (2) submissions are permitted for Track 1 and one (1) submission is permitted for Track 2.
Only proposals approved by the proposer’s Dean and the Division of Research and Economic Development may be submitted to this program. For such approval, Principal Investigators (PI) must first submit a Notice of Intent (NOI) to [email protected] by 5:00 PM on Monday, October 3, 2022.
NOI Instructions:
The NOI should include the following:
Draft Budget (Excel File, does not count toward 3 page limit):
- Budget for salaries and wages, fringe benefits, instrumentation, cost share, etc. Draft budgets must be submitted using the OSP Internal Budget Template. All NOI budgets will be reviewed by Pre-Award staff October 4 through October 11 prior to submitting the NOIs for committee review. This additional review is required to assure each NOI complies with NSF requirements and adequately identifies cost share sources. By submitting an NOI, you are agreeing to work with Pre-Award staff in revising your budget, if needed. If you have questions about the draft budget, please contact Pre-Award staff at [email protected] for assistance.
Cover Page (does not count toward 3 page limit):
- Title
- Key Personnel
- Track (track I or II)
- Acquisition or Development
Narrative (no more than 3 pages):
- Intellectual merit
- Broader impacts
- The extent to which the proposed project will make a substantial improvement in the organization’s capabilities to conduct leading-edge research, to provide research experiences for undergraduate students using leading-edge capabilities, and to broaden the participation in science and engineering research (especially as lead PIs) by women, underrepresented minorities, persons with disabilities and/or early-career investigators.
- A description of any space requirements or other university resources that may be associated with the proposed project
- For ACQUISITION proposals, the following is required:
- The extent to which the instrument is used for multi-user, shared-use research and/or research training.
- For instrument acquisition proposals of $1 million or above, the potential impact of the instrument on the research community of interest at the regional or national level, if appropriate.
- For DEVELOPMENT proposals, the following is required:
- The need for development of a new instrument. Will the proposed instrument enable enhanced performance over existing instruments, or new types of measurement or information gathering? Is there a strong need for the new instrument in the larger user community to advance new frontiers of research?
- The availability of appropriate technical expertise to design and construct the instrument.
If selected to submit a full proposal, PIs must ensure that proposals meet all requirements stated in the RFP, in the announcement, and in the implementing laws and regulations related to this grant program.
Key Submission Dates:
- 10/3/2022 at 5PM – NOI due to [email protected]. Please cc your Dean for visibility.
- 10/4/2022 through 10/11/2022 – Pre-Award staff will work with PIs to revise draft budgets.
- 10/21/2022 – Anticipated date by which Internal Awardees will be notified.
- 1/1/2023 through 1/19/2023 – Full proposal due to NSF. In accordance with Boise State University Policy 5030, final documentation will be due to OSP no later than five (5) University business days prior to the NSF due date.
Important Note on Cost Share:
- Section 10320 of Subtitle B of the CHIPS Act of 2022 includes a provision waiving the cost share requirements for the MRI program. However, the cost share requirement is still included in the solicitation for the MRI program. Until NSF has published updated guidance, we are following the official solicitation requirements for this program.
Did you find a limited submission opportunity? Email us at [email protected]. | https://www.boisestate.edu/research-osp/2022/09/08/limited-submission-notice-nsf-major-research-instrumentation-mri-program-fy23/ |
The inefficiencies associated with budget instability and continuing shifts in administration and congressional priorities warrant a more dynamic and robust approach to making progress on the 2007 Earth science and applications from space decadal survey vision and recommendations.1 NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS), conceived in the 1980s and implemented in the 1990s,2 benefited from structures that existed within the NASA program that enabled senior principal investigators and engineers associated with missions and instruments to meet frequently and provide day-to-day advice to NASA managers about, for example, changes in scope and plans, new technology options, and new mission architectures. The EOS Payload Panel and Interdisciplinary Science Principal Investigators were the most visible of such groups, and their experience was built on an overall philosophy of engaging the science community and mission and instrument engineers in a coordinated way, and then using their input as a major contribution to difficult operational decisions about missions and instruments. These working groups were outside the formal broad advisory structure of the NASA Advisory Committees and the National Academies but had the benefit that they were intimately familiar with the details and overall goals of the NASA program. This committee does not see that such management structures currently exist to provide an ongoing source of broad Earth science community involvement. As a result, difficult decisions are made largely without coordinated community input, because infrequent meetings with existing high-level oversight committees cannot delve into issues at the needed level of detail.
1The 2007 decadal survey recommended that NASA “[i]mplement a system-wide independent review process that permits decisions regarding technical capabilities, cost, and schedule to be made in the context of the overarching science objectives. Programmatic decisions on potential delays or reductions in the capabilities of a particular mission would be evaluated in light of the overall mission set and integrated requirements” (p. 11). This statement is reiterated here in the form of a recommendation. See National Research Council, Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond (The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2007), which included guidance in Box 3.4 for the case of budget shortfalls.
2See CIESIN, “EOS Program Chronology,” available at http://www.ciesin.org/docs/005-089/005-089art2.html, reproduced from NASA, Earth Observing System (EOS) Reference Handbook, G. Asrar and D.J. Dokken, eds., NASA Earth Science Support Office, Document Resource Facility, Washington, D.C., 1993.
An overarching cross-mission science and applications coordination effort would help ensure that programmatic decisions on potential delays or augmentations/reductions in the capabilities of a particular mission would be evaluated in light of the overall mission set and integrated requirements rather than as “one off” decisions.3 The science and applications coordination effort should include appropriate interaction with the already-established system engineering working group4 and mission system engineering teams to stay apprised of cross-mission areas of mutual interest5 and should be conducted in an ongoing manner as science requirements and mission designs and costs evolve—with the participation of other agencies and international partners/stakeholders when appropriate.
ESTABLISHING AND MANAGING MISSION COSTS
As discussed in Chapter 3, the 2007 decadal survey report put forth mission concept descriptions and notional costs that were intended mainly to set targets for each mission that are consistent with an overall program that is affordable while denoting the relative cost of one mission with respect to another, which factored into mission priority and phasing.6 After release of the survey, teams were formed by NASA to further develop each of the recommended mission concepts. Based on discussions with the director of the Earth Science Division (ESD) and individual mission team members, the committee learned that teams operated primarily in a “requirements-gathering” mode, unconstrained by even notional cost targets.7 Unfortunately, this approach created an atmosphere in which science requirements and scope tended to grow, as did cost estimates.8 Furthermore, there was apparently insufficient consideration given to the effect of individual mission cost growth on the entire queue of recommended missions.
3This cross-mission science and applications coordination effort could, for example, encourage studies and trades across missions where synergies anticipated in the survey report might not be readily realized in the mission concepts as presented, or within available resources. Indeed, the need for further optimization was recognized by the survey authors, who stated, “The selected missions reflect the panels’ prioritization of scientific observations but are not the result of an exhaustive examination of the trade-offs across the entire range of potential missions. Clearly, more detailed cost estimates are needed that examine the full range of mission tradeoffs….” (National Research Council, Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond, 2007, p. 43.)
4The Earth Systematic Missions Program Office has established a systems engineering working group with representatives from each center.
5Science stakeholder participation in the A-Train Constellation Mission Operations Working Group is an example of such effective interaction.
6The decadal survey cost estimation process and purpose are described further in Box 2.3 in the 2007 report: “Nevertheless, the estimates provided in this study set targets for each mission that are consistent with an overall program that is also affordable. The panels recognize that the missions afforded under the estimated costs will be ones that respond to the main scientific requirements articulated by the panels in Chapters 5 through 11, but not necessarily all of the desired requirements. The selected missions reflect the panels’ prioritization of scientific observations but are not the result of an exhaustive examination of the trade-offs across the entire range of potential missions. Clearly, more detailed cost estimates are needed that examine the full range of mission trade-offs. Where possible within budget constraints, augmentation of the specified set of science observations with additional desired observables should be considered; however, NASA and the scientific community must avoid ‘requirements creep’ and the consequent damaging cost growth” (National Research Council, Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond, 2007, p. 43).
7The discussion between the ESD director and the committee took place on April 28, 2011, during the committee’s first meeting in Washington, D.C. Discussions with mission team members took place during the committee’s first and second meetings, the latter of which was held on July 6-8, 2011.
8The bulk of early formulation funding went directly to the science community to support “requirements gathering.” Without pushback from engineering or cost experts, requirements can accumulate with minimal challenges or controversy. The sense is that the science is paramount and, as long as the mission is far in the future, anything is considered possible. However, this approach nurtures the development and maintenance of sometimes inappropriately high expectations and can result in untenably high costs and high cost risk.
The success of all missions is ultimately critically dependent on an end-to-end partnership between the science team and the engineering team to ensure that an iterative process emerges that continuously balances all of a mission’s constraints, both technical and programmatic. Instead of a process that starts with gathering science requirements and then determining the resulting cost of a derived mission, those with science, engineering, systems engineering, and cost expertise should all be involved from the beginning. By understanding the source of various requirements, their relative priorities, and the consequences of designing to satisfy the requirements, engineers are better able to push back if incremental science requirements will drive up a mission design’s cost or risk, identifying the “knees in the curves,” and interacting with the science stakeholder community in a productive and iterative fashion toward development of a truly optimized design.9 By fully sensitizing all involved to the factors associated with implementing and costing a mission, this interaction can help minimize the “sticker shock” associated with individual missions when they are handed off from the broader science community to the mission implementers.
Early establishment of cost and schedule constraints would allow an iterative process to emerge that could continuously balance all of the mission constraints within a known and achievable funding envelope, leading to a more robust yet affordable implementation. This way, the team can be focused on maximizing science return on investment rather than attempting to craft a “perfect” yet unaffordable mission. The committee found that process transparency is essential to ensure that the implementation of the decadal survey is regarded as a community-driven effort and not one driven by local or vested interests, and thus offers the following recommendation:
Recommendation:
• NASA’s Earth Science Division (ESD) should implement its missions via a cost-constrained approach, requiring that cost partially or fully constrain the scope of each mission such that realistic science and applications objectives can be accomplished within a reasonable and achievable future budget scenario.
Further, recognizing that survey-derived cost estimates are by necessity very approximate and that subsequent, more detailed analyses may determine that all of the desired science objectives of a particular mission cannot be achieved at the estimated cost,
• NASA’s ESD should interpret the 2007 decadal survey’s estimates of mission costs as an expression of the relative level of investment that the survey’s authoring committee believed appropriate to advance the intended science and should apportion funds accordingly, even if all desired science objectives for the mission might not be achieved.
To coordinate decisions regarding mission technical capabilities, cost, and schedule in the context of overarching Earth system science and applications objectives, the committee also recommends that
• NASA’s ESD should establish a cross-mission Earth system science and engineering team to advise NASA on execution of the broad suite of decadal survey missions within the interdisciplinary context advocated by the decadal survey. The advisory team would assist NASA in coordinating
9End-to-end system simulations performed prior to Preliminary Design Review can help to quantitatively identify the cost/benefit ratios for the baseline design, as well as a range of alternatives.
decisions regarding mission technical capabilities, cost, and schedule in the context of overarching Earth system science and applications objectives.10,11
The roots of international partnerships and joint missions to observe Earth from space come from the International Geophysical Year in the late 1950s. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s and peaking with the Global Weather Experiment (GWE) and the World Weather Watch in 1979, both bilateral and multinational space missions for weather, climate, and ocean observations became the norm. These international activities are fostered by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), the World Meteorological Organization of the United Nations, and others. NASA and other national space agencies, as well as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and other national weather/climate agencies, have decades of experience with joint space missions as well as hosting another nation’s instruments on their spacecraft.
On June 28, 2010, President Obama issued the new National Space Policy. One of the policy’s goals is expanded “international cooperation on mutually beneficial space activities to: broaden and extend the benefits of space; further the peaceful use of space; and enhance collection and partnership in sharing of space-derived information.”12 The policy further calls on departments and agencies to “identify potential areas for international cooperation that may include … Earth science and observation; environmental monitoring; … geospatial information products and services … disaster mitigation and relief ….”; and other areas, as well. It further looked to “promote appropriate cost- and risk-sharing among participating nations in international partnerships; and augment U.S. capabilities by leveraging existing and planned space capabilities of allies and space partners.” Clearly, this policy seeks to mitigate U.S. budget shortfalls through a non-zero-sum game, enabling increased accomplishment through international cooperation. International joint missions, hosted instruments, shared data, and coordinated satellite constellations are all becoming new realities. As such international cooperation spreads into all areas of Earth science it becomes natural and essential to include significant specific international partnerships in the planning and implementation of any Earth science and applications from space decadal survey. Several examples of international collaborations are provided below to illustrate the variety of scopes and scales such collaborations can involve.
• The successful June 10, 2011, launch and orbital insertion of the Aquarius/Satélite de Aplicaciones Científicas (SAC)-D mission to globally measure sea-surface salinity features an international partnership between NASA and Argentina’s space agency, Comision Nacional de Actividades Espaciales (CONAE).13 The 3-year mission (the fourth of this collaboration) includes a NASA instrument, an Argentine spacecraft, and a launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base on a Delta II launch vehicle.
10The team, similar to the Payload Advisory Panel established by NASA to assist in implementation of its Earth Observing System (EOS), would draw its membership from the scientists and engineers involved in the definition and execution of survey missions as well as the nation’s scientific and engineering talent more broadly. (The Payload Advisory Panel was composed of the EOS Interdisciplinary Science Investigation principal investigators and was formally charged with examining and recommending EOS payloads to NASA based on the science requirements and priorities established by the Earth science community at large.) See NASA, Earth Observing System (EOS) Reference Handbook, G. Asrar and D.J. Dokken, eds., NASA Earth Science Support Office, Document Resource Facility, Washington, D.C., 1993.
11The committee believes that NASA is best positioned to determine whether this advisory panel should be constituted as a Federal Advisory Committee Act-compliant advisory body.
12See http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf.
• FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC, the joint Taiwan/U.S. science mission for weather, climate, space weather, and geodetic research, was launched on April 14, 2006. The mission, which includes six identical microsatellites launched together on a Minotaur vehicle, currently provides thousands of daily radio occultation profiles that yield accurate and precise information on temperature, water vapor, and electron density.14 COSMIC (Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate) has contributed significantly to ionospheric, stratospheric, and tropospheric sciences and to applications for space weather, weather prediction, and climate science.15 The FORMOSAT-7/COSMIC-2 planned joint mission (Appendix D), however, is at risk because of a lack of NOAA funding commitment to match Taiwan’s $160 million commitment and a similar level of support from the U.S. Air Force.
• The joint Japanese-U.S. Global Precipitation Mission (GPM)—a joint NASA/JAXA mission—is to be launched in 2013 (Figure 4.1). For this mission Japan provides the Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR) instrument and HII-A launch vehicle, and the United States provides the GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) instrument, the spacecraft, and other system components. Major international partners also include France and Canada.
• NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) jointly developed the twin-satellite Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission (launched in March 2002) and are continuing to cooperate throughout its operational phase. NASA and DLR plan to fly a GRACE follow-on continuity mission to extend the measurement of changes in microgravity due to variability (e.g., depletion, recovery) in continental aquifers, polar ice mass changes, and so on.16
• The Initial Joint Polar System Agreement,17 made between NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) and the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) in 1998, created the framework for two polar-orbiting satellite systems and their respective ground systems. This agreement—whereby EUMETSAT flies the mid-morning weather and environmental platform, and NOAA flies in the early afternoon—continues to work exceedingly well to provide meteorological and environmental forecasting and global climate monitoring services worldwide.18 It is sustained through ongoing working groups, cross-participation in satellite meteorology, oceanography, and climate conferences, and the dedication of a small number of individuals in the United States and Europe. NOAA/NESDIS and EUMETSAT are working to establish the renewed Joint Polar System by 2018.19
Recent developments in bilateral and multilateral sharing of Earth remote sensing data have been encouraging. In a continuation of its policy of open access to science data, the United States has made Landsat data widely available, and the number of data downloads, users, and applications has increased from thousands to millions.20 Working through the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) and the Committee on Earth Observations Satellites (CEOS), NASA and NOAA coordinate activities to ensure international coordination of long-term mission planning activities and progress on issues of mutual interest. Several agreements between NASA and NOAA with international groups will bring Japanese Global Change
14See http://www.cosmic.ucar.edu/index.html.
15See http://www.atmos-meas-tech.net/4/1077/2011/amt-4-1077-2011.html.
16See http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/. The GRACE follow-on mission is a climate continuity mission called for in NASA, Responding to the Challenge of Climate and Environmental Change: NASA’s Plan for a Climate-Centric Architecture for Earth Observations and Applications from Space, June 2010, available at http://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2010/07/01/Climate_Architecture_Final.pdf.
17See http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/AboutEUMETSAT/InternationalRelations/KeyPartners/SP_1225965119191.
18See http://projects.osd.noaa.gov/IJPS/.
19See http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/AboutEUMETSAT/InternationalRelations/KeyPartners/SP_1225965119191.
20U.S. Geological Survey, “Free Landsat Scenes Go Public by the Million,” USGS Newsroom, August 20, 2009, available at http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=2293&from=rss_home.
FIGURE 4.1 The Dual Frequency Precipitation Radar instrument that will fly on the Global Precipitation Measurement mission. SOURCE: Copyright © Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.
Observation Mission-Climate (GCOM-C) and GCOM-W (water) data to the United States as well as the EUMETSAT MetOp data. In addition, the 2007 survey’s Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission is being considered as a multidisciplinary cooperative international effort that builds on a long-lived and successful U.S. and French partnership. The SWOT satellite mission will expand on previous altimetry flights (e.g., TOPEX/Poseidon) through wide-swath altimetry technology to achieve complete coverage of the world’s oceans and freshwater bodies with repeated high-resolution elevation measurements.21
International collaborations are well aligned with the first recommendation of the 2007 decadal survey that “the U.S. government, working in concert with … international partners, should renew its investment in Earth-observing systems and restore its leadership in Earth science and applications” (p. 2). As noted in the 2011 National Research Council (NRC) report Assessment of Impediments to Interagency Collaboration on Space and Earth Science Missions:22
21See http://swot.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/.
22National Research Council, Assessment of Impediments to Interagency Collaboration on Space and Earth Science Missions, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2011.
A prerequisite for a successful international collaboration is that all parties believe the collaboration is of mutual benefit.… agreements should not be entered into lightly and should be undertaken only with a full assessment of the inherent complexities and risks. (p. 2)
Current opportunities for new partnerships might be found, among others, with the European EarthCARE joint European-Japanese mission that observes the climate-related interactions among cloud, radiative, and aerosol processes; the Atmospheric Laser Doppler-Lidar Instrument (Aladin) on the Atmospheric Dynamics Mission-Aeolus (ADM-Aeolus), with DLR for a Tandem-L InSAR mission.
Finding: NASA has made considerable efforts to secure international partnerships to meet its science goals and operational requirements.
ALTERNATIVE PLATFORMS AND FLIGHT FORMATIONS
In addition to traditional launches on dedicated, large spacecraft, a number of promising alternative platforms and observing strategies are emerging and being proven. These include flights on piloted23 and/or unpiloted aircraft, hosted payloads on commercial satellites,24 small satellites, the International Space Station, and the flight of multiple sensors in formations rather on a single bus.25 These alternative mission concepts can offer considerable implementation flexibility.
Instrument accommodation on balloons, piloted aircraft, and unpiloted aerial vehicles (UAVs) provides a rapid and cost-effective means for proof-of-concept studies, technology maturation, or actual research/operational use. Their utility was recognized by NASA in the first Earth Venture (EV-1) announcement of opportunity, from which a diverse portfolio of five science investigations was selected.26
Also referred to as secondary payloads, hosted payloads take advantage of available capacity on commercial (e.g., communications) satellites to accommodate communications or science instruments. The Department of Defense (DOD) has been successful in using hosted payload concepts to lower program costs. NASA’s recently released draft solicitation for the first Earth Venture-Instruments (EV-I) calls for principal investigators to propose instruments for hosting on platforms of opportunity, which can include commercial satellites, opening the door to leveraging hosted payload capacity to advance NASA Earth science.27
Small satellites, notionally those with spacecraft masses less than 500 kg,28 can enable rapid development strategies (less than 36 months) that lower development costs. A 2000 NRC report, The Role of Small Satellites in NASA and NOAA Earth Observation Programs, provides an analysis of the role of small satel-
23See http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/icebridge/index.html.
24See http://hostedpayloadalliance.org/.
25See http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/a-train/a-train.html.
26See http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/may/Hq_10-127_Venture_Program.html.
27See http://essp.larc.nasa.gov/EV-I/.
28The ~450 kg OCO (and OCO-2) and the 70 kg COSMIC satellites are examples of small satellites.
lites in Earth observation, particularly in the context of complementing (not replacing) larger missions.29 Especially when configured with single sensors, small satellite missions can add significantly to architectural and programmatic flexibility. An emphasis on smaller platforms also potentially reduces cost through the use of smaller and cheaper launch vehicles, including opportunities for launching multiple payloads on a single launch vehicle, and “piggyback” launches, using excess capacity on larger launch vehicles.
In 2007, the Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean (HICO) was manifested for the Japanese Experiment Module-Exposed Facility (JEM-EF) on the International Space Station (ISS), and installed on orbit on September 24, 2009. HICO was sponsored by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) to “develop and operate the first Maritime Hyperspectral Imaging from space.”30 HICO was integrated and flown under the direction of DOD’s Space Test Program. One of the HICO mission requirements was to “demonstrate new and innovative ways to develop and build the imaging payload (reduce cost, reduce schedule).”31 The sensor was delivered 16 months after project start and was installed within a total time of 3 years of its proposal. HICO has since met its demonstration requirement. HICO’s implementation demonstrated that the ISS is a viable platform for demonstrations of Earth observing technologies and Earth observations.32 (See Figure 4.2.) Another instrument scheduled for manifestation on the ISS is NASA’s Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment III-ISS (SAGE III-ISS) to measure atmospheric ozone, water vapor, and aerosols. SAGE III is scheduled for launch in 2014 on a SpaceX rocket from NASA Kennedy Space Center.33
Formation flying can deliver multiple benefits, not the least of which is the ability to flexibly combine (and maintain over time) multiple, synergistic, and multisensor measurement types.34 Advances in both station-keeping ability and coordination protocols now make it possible to achieve formation flight with a diverse set of spacecraft, whether launched simultaneously or years apart, including the large EOS observatories, small satellites, and co-manifested satellites. Constellations may remain in place beyond the lifetime of individual satellites if appropriate planning and funding remain in place. The Afternoon Constellation (A-Train) continues to exemplify the best of international scientific cooperation and coordination35 and can provide valuable experience, best practices, and lessons learned for future constellation efforts (e.g., potential establishment of a constellation based on the Joint Polar Satellite System, JPSS). Coordinated formation flight efficiencies can include the synergies of complementary measurements, where the assigned degree
29National Research Council, The Role of Small Satellites in NASA and NOAA Earth Observation Programs, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 2000.
30M.R. Corson (Naval Research Laboratory) and C.O. Davis, (Oregon State University), “HICO Science Mission Overview,” available at http://hico.coas.oregonstate.edu/publications/Davis_HICO_for%20IGARSS.pdf, p. 22.
31Corson and Davis, “HICO Science Mission Overview,” p. 7.
32See http://www.ioccg.org/sensors/Davis_HICO_IOCCG-15.pdf.
33See http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/sage3.html.
34Formation flight can provide a much clearer way of quantifying errors in parameter estimation and identifying major biases/flaws in past data derived from single sensors. For example, the combined cloud information from CALIPSO and CloudSat has exposed significant biases in interpretation of ISCCP (International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project) global cloudiness, the combination of CALIPSO and CloudSat has led to a new and more accurate way of retrieving aerosol optical depth, and CALIPSO has yielded powerful new information about polar stratospheric clouds, and so on.
35See http://atrain.nasa.gov/, http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/a-train/a-train.html, and http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/eos_observ/pdf/Jan-Feb_2011_color_508.pdf.
FIGURE 4.2 HICO image of the Straits of Gibraltar, December 5, 2009. SOURCE: Naval Research Laboratory; available at http://hico.coas.oregonstate.edu/gallery/gallery-scenes.shtml.
of simultaneity is based on position within the train; train permanence (with its composition changing over time);36 a ready mechanism for international cooperation; technology insertion, with research and operational technologies operating side by side; the avoidance of engineering complexities and management difficulties associated with integration on a common bus; and a more agile and cost-effective replacement of individual sensors. Also important is the role of formation flight in enabling Earth system science by moving away from a single parameter and sensor-centric approach toward a systems approach that ties observations together to study processes important to understanding Earth-system feedbacks.37
Finding: Alternative platforms and flight formations offer programmatic flexibility. In some cases, they may be employed to lower the cost of meeting science objectives and/or maturing remote sensing and in situ observing technologies.
36S.W. Boland, M.D. Garcia, M. Vincent, S. Hu, P.J. Guske, and D. Crisp, “Ground Track Selection for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 Mission,” American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting 2011, abstract #A33C-0242, American Geophysical Union, 2011.
37For example, the combination of water vapor and temperature from AIRS, together with proper cloud screening tested with other data, has provided insight on the strength of water vapor feedback; the combination of MODIS, AMSR-E, and CloudSat has revealed new insights on rain-forming processes, thus exposing major biases in climate model parameterizations; and the combination of AIRS, CloudSat, and CERES is being used to understand the sources of seasonal loss of sea ice in the Arctic. | https://www.nap.edu/read/13405/chapter/6 |
specific event.
Introduction to Studio
Studio is a management platform that enables users to create their own customized virtual space in a few minutes, such as conferences, webinars, social, themed events, galleries and meetups.
The platform guides the user from the early steps of making the event to measuring exposure and engagement from the analytics session.
The virtual event ultimately takes place in Exvo, an immersive, fully-branded, metaverse platform.
My role
Product designer- UX/UI, User Research
People I worked with
Roni Gabai- Head of design
Dor Hershkovitch- VP design
Corinne Yeffet- Product manager
Ron Ramal, Yuval Saadaty, David Tover- Fronted developers
Users
Event admins in the Studio. It depends on the requirements of the event whether it needs a single admin or multiple. In most cases,
event administrators come from the company that is organizing
the event.
Overview
To identify and design a system that allows the admin(s) to add collaborators and attendees to an internal system, invite them to the space (a virtual event) and delegate roles.
Requirements
To create identifiable visual signs for different roles and entities, which are connected to each other
Having the ability to search widely
Allowing the upload and editing of CSV lists
Transform a collaborator into an attendee or vice versa
We knew this section could represent an initial successful experience in creating an event if differences between participants will be conveyed to the user as necessary.
Differences between Collaborators & Attendees
Collaborator
-
A collaborator is someone that has been invited into the space but will also have a specific role there.
-
He won't be an organizer, nor have admin privileges, but they can be someone that needs to manage a stage or manage an area.
Attendee
-
An attendee is a participant that comes into the space for the experience, just there to participate and view everything in the space.
-
They are not managing anything, not speaking and not operating anything.
Research
Our first main question: How can we ensure that the user will understand the difference between collaborators and attendees even though their tables are located on the same page?
Low fidelity wireframe
We asked ourselves if we should separate attendees and collaborators into individual tabs or make one page split into two. We had many discussions and scenarios for both options and came to the conclusion that dividing the section into two tabs will let the user understand the contrast between them.
Low fidelity wireframes
High fidelity wireframes
Participants hierarchy
Entity visualization
Regarding the collaborator’s roles, there were many changes to the requirements during the project - from many roles and entities to a minimum number, enabling us to understand that simplification is much needed in this case for the user’s readability inside the table.
That way, he can “scan” the table quickly, figure out the role and even see the entity’s preview image, all for
a specific collaborator.
Features
Add collaborator/attendee
Adding collaborators or attendees has been made easier through an internal system that allows users to upload attendees manually or by simply uploading a CSV file.
Manual uploads allow users to upload one after another without additional clicks. The selected entity also has a preview image.
Import CSV
We had another issue that relates to CSV uploads of attendees, a file that requires specific conditions that the user downloads and fills in manually. Based on past user tests, we noticed that they encounter problems such as an incorrect email or duplicate attendees.
Therefore, an upload summary is designed that informs the user of incorrect inputs and the ability to edit options-in order to ensure a smooth and controlled upload.
Flow of CSV uploads
Filtered Search
This part led to another dilemma - how should the search input behave? At first, we considered the option of a search input in every tab but, as the user test continued, the greatest need that arose was for an intuitive search, without a transition to another tab.
This enabled users to search by name, email, company, role, entity or comment and to receive a stimulating and full image of both participants' and attendees' results. If needed, the user can click on the desired result and its location in the table.
Become an Attendee
As part of the quick actions available to the event admin, they can change a collaborator into an attendee, and vice versa. This replaces a previous longer process that required manually deleting and re-adding the user.
Internal version for
Allseated event managers
After the beta version, we were tasked to create
another version of the participant tab for internal use
by Allseated’s event managers.
This version is different with tags attached to each attendee and collaborator. This allows the admin to make quick changes to each user by editing tags
or via a multi-selection option. | https://www.carmieinav.com/copy-of-live-dahsboard |
Aiming towards space
When attending the master programme in Spacecraft Design, you'll get knowledge of both space and spacecrafts. Space is an extreme environment, hence satellites require complex technical systems and devices, systems and devices you learn how to construct.
In space, there is electromagnetic radiation, fast protons and electrons and neutral atoms that can slow down a spacecraft, or erode its sensitive surfaces. There are charged particles that can cause catastrophic discharge and orbital debris and meteoroids that could pose a danger to the spacecraft when in vacuum.
It is with this knowledge in mind that a spacecraft is designed.
What will you learn?
You will learn about a satellite's different subsystems, what is needed in order to manage its propulsion, attitude control, thermal balance and electric power systems. Of course, all the electronics have to cope with the space environment. The spacecraft must have telecommunication with Earth and perhaps also with other satellites.
The spacecraft carries a payload and will operate in a special orbit in space. Therefore, you must be able to calculate the spacecraft's orbit i various coordinate systems. You will also learn how several typical payload instruments are designed.
During the programme's second year, you and your fellow students build at least one payload instrument that can be placed on a spacecraft. The instruments can be tested in a vacuum chamber, in a shaking machine and in high altitude balloons sent up from the nearby rocket- and balloon base Esrange.
In a computer environment you will also learn how to design the spacecraft that will carry the payload you build. This work is performed with the method concurrent engineering, several groups work at the same time with different subsystems and have intense communication with other groups. This method speeds up the design process.
The programme ends with a thesis project during the last semester.
Specific entry requirements
The entry requirements for the programme include course work in linear algebra, multivariable calculus and ordinary differential equations. State in the form below which of your completed courses include these prerequisites and submit the form to your application on Universityadmission.se. | https://www.ltu.se/edu/program/TMRDA/Mer-om-utbildningen?l=en |
21 Feb 2017
Nanotechnology has potential to shrink critical space instrumentation dramatically, by replacing traditional optical components.
Spectrometers used in space applications could be reduced in size drastically, if the development of a prototype instrument based around quantum-dot wavelength “filters” proves successful.
A collaboration between NASA and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is currently working on the approach, with a view to launching the first such system on board a CubeSat.
Miniaturization
Spectrometers are used in virtually all space missions, and NASA is hoping that adopting quantum dots could transform the way that they are built and integrated, at potentially a very low cost.
Backed by NASA’s Center Innovation Fund, which supports high-risk technology development, Mahmooda Sultana from the Goddard Space Flight Center is collaborating with a research group led by Moungi Bawendi, a chemistry professor at MIT.
Bawendi’s group has pioneered quantum dot technology since the early 1990s, developing photovoltaic, biological and microfluidics applications. Meanwhile, quantum dots are starting to have a major impact on the consumer electronics industry, with a multitude of televisions now featuring the technology to enhance LCD quality.
Sultana says that the approach could miniaturize and potentially revolutionize space-based and other spectrometers, particularly those used on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) and small satellites. “It really could simplify instrument integration,” she commented in a NASA release.
Initially, that could be in the form of an absorption spectrometer, where instead of the traditional combination of optical components like gratings, prisms, or interference filters to split light into different wavelengths, quantum dots would effectively do the light filtering themselves.
Because the absorption or emission of light by quantum dots is determined by their diameter – the smaller the dot, the shorter the wavelength - an array of different-sized dots could in principle do the same job as the familiar optics setup.
And even though conventional spectrometers are already being miniaturized thanks to integrated optics and photonics devices, they are still relatively large. Sultana explained:
“Higher spectral resolution requires long optical paths for instruments that use gratings and prisms. This often results in large instruments. Whereas here, with quantum dots that act like filters that absorb different wavelengths depending on their size and shape, we can make an ultra-compact instrument. In other words, you could eliminate optical parts, like gratings, prisms, and interference filters.”
Tunable wavelength filters
In theory, a spectrometer could be based around a virtually unlimited number of dots of different sizes, to provide high-resolution performance.
“This makes it possible to produce a continuously tunable, yet distinct, set of absorptive filters where each pixel is made of a quantum dot of a specific size, shape, or composition,” Sultana said. “We would have precise control over what each dot absorbs. We could literally customize the instrument to observe many different bands with high spectral resolution.”
At the moment, Sultana is working to develop and demonstrate a 20 x 20 quantum-dot array sensitive to visible wavelengths needed to image the sun and the aurora.
In principle the approach could be broadened, using quantum dots to cover wavelengths from the ultraviolet to the mid-infrared spectrum – suggesting a wide range of potential applications in Earth observation, heliophysics, and planetary science.
NASA reports that Sultana is developing an instrument concept specifically for a CubeSat application, with MIT doctoral student Jason Yoo looking to synthesize precursor chemicals to create the dots and then print them onto a suitable substrate. “Ultimately, we would want to print the dots directly onto the detector pixels,” Sultana said.
Although the approach is at a very early stage, the NASA researcher adds that the plan is to raise the technology-readiness level very quickly. “Several space-science opportunities that could benefit are in the pipeline,” she said. | https://optics.org/news/8/2/24 |
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Headquarters, Space Technology Mission Directorate (STMD) will be releasing an umbrella NASA Research Announcement (NRA) titled "Space Technology Research, Development, Demonstration, and Infusion-2015 (SpaceTech-REDDI-2015)" in October 2014. The NRA will be accessible from the NASA Solicitation and Proposal Integrated Review and Evaluation System (NSPIRES) website, (http://nspires.nasaprs.com ) by linking through the menu listing "Solicitations", and then selecting "Open Solicitations" and finally selecting "Space Technology Research, Development, Demonstration, and Infusion-2015 (SpaceTech-REDDI-2015)." Under SpaceTech-REDDI-2015, proposals will be solicited through Appendices which will be issued as technology topics are defined and funding is made available for new opportunities. Once new Appendices are released, interested parties will be able to access them by clicking through the Open Solicitations link, then selecting "NRA NNH15ZOA001N", and then selecting "List of Open Program Elements". It is anticipated that this umbrella solicitation (SpaceTech-REDDI-2015) will be open for one year (through October 2015) and follow-up umbrella SpaceTech-REDDI solicitations will be issued annually at about the same time.
The STMD portfolio supports a combination of early-stage studies, for assessing the feasibility of entirely new technologies (which corresponds to a technology readiness level (TRL) range from 1 to 3); maturing feasible technologies through rapid competitive development and ground-based testing (TRL 3-5); and flight demonstrations in relevant environments to complete the final steps prior to mission infusion (TRL 5-7). This technological diversity results in a sustainable pipeline of revolutionary concepts. STMD seeks aggressive technology development efforts that may require undertaking significant technical challenges and risk to achieve a higher potential payoff.
Additional information about the STMD Programs is available at http://www.nasa.gov/spacetech . The SpaceTech-REDDI-2015 solicitation will contain target release dates for the Appendices that will be solicited in that year. To the greatest extent practicable, participation will be open to all categories of organizations, domestic and foreign, including industry, educational institutions, nonprofit organizations, NASA Centers, and other Government agencies. Foreign entities may also partner with US proposers, but only without the exchange of funding. The Appendices will provide details of the solicited opportunities including: specific scope of the work solicited, anticipated budget for new awards, number of awards anticipated, notice of intent and proposal due dates, and specific instructions about proposal content and evaluation criteria. The number and value of awards will depend on the availability of funds and the quality of proposals received. This is a broad agency announcement as specified in FAR 35.016 and NFS 1835.016. Notwithstanding the posting of this opportunity at FedBizOpps.gov and Grants.gov, NASA reserves the right to determine the appropriate award instrument for each proposal selected pursuant to the NRA. The individual Program Officers and assigned Contracting Officers will be listed in the each Appendix.
Proposals must be submitted electronically using either NASA's proposal data system, NSPIRES (http://nspires.nasaprs.com ) or Grants.gov. Each electronic proposal system places requirements on the registration of principal investigators and other participants (e.g., co-investigators). Potential proposers and proposing organizations are urged to access the electronic proposal system(s) well in advance of the proposal due date(s) to familiarize themselves with its structure and enter the requested information. Every organization that intends to submit a proposal in response to this NRA must be registered with NSPIRES; organizations that intend on submitting proposals via Grants.gov must be registered with Grants.gov, in addition to being registered with NSPIRES. Registration must identify the authorized organizational representative(s) who will submit the electronic proposal.
Interested proposers should monitor the NSPIRES website or subscribe to the electronic notification system there for release of the Space Tech-REDDI-2015 umbrella solicitation and Appendices. Further questions concerning the Space Tech-REDDI-2015 solicitation may be directed to Bonnie James, STMD Senior Investment Strategist at E-mail: [email protected] . Responses to inquiries will be answered by e-mail and may also be included in the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) document located on the NSPIRES page associated with the solicitation; anonymity of persons/institutions who submit questions will be preserved. | http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=46142 |
The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)-U, scheduled to launch in late 2024, won’t be an exact replica of its siblings in the GOES-R Series. That’s because GOES-U will accommodate an additional space weather instrument, the Naval Research Laboratory’s Compact Coronagraph (CCOR). CCOR recently completed its Critical Design Review, which affirmed that the design meets requirements and is ready to proceed with full-scale fabrication, assembly, integration and testing.
CCOR will provide critical space weather measurements for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Space Weather Prediction Center (SPWC). CCOR will image the solar corona (the outer layer of the sun’s atmosphere) and help detect and characterize coronal mass ejections (CMEs). CMEs are large expulsions of plasma and accompanying magnetic field from the corona. They can be remotely detected with white light imagery of the upper solar corona and CCOR is designed to capture this white light imagery. Sequences of CME images can be used to determine size, velocity, and density of CMEs. CME imagery is currently the only source of 1+ day watches of impending geomagnetic storm conditions.
Geomagnetic storms are major disturbances of Earth’s magnetosphere caused by shock waves in the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms are the costliest type of space weather events as they can cause widespread damage to power grids, satellites, and communication and navigation systems. CMEs are the primary cause of geomagnetic storms.
Currently, CME imagery at the Earth-sun line is provided by the Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) instrument on board the European Space Agency (ESA)/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) satellite, launched in 1995. As part of NOAA’s Space Weather Follow-On Program, CCOR was developed at the Naval Research Laboratory to ensure continuity of critical CME imagery. The first CCOR instrument will fly on GOES-U and subsequent CCORs will fly on other missions. CCOR-1 was optimized for geostationary orbit and for GOES-U interfaces.
CCOR-1 will reside on GOES-U’s Solar Pointing Platform, along with the Solar Ultraviolet Imager (SUVI) and Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray Irradiance Sensors (EXIS). CCOR was designed to meet NOAA’s observational requirements. CCOR will deliver imagery within 30 minutes of acquisition, compared to up to 8 hours from LASCO. CCOR will capture at least two images of each CME and will be capable of operating during intense solar storms and flares. The addition of CCOR to GOES-U will enhance NOAA’s space weather observational capabilities and improve forecasts.
Thanks to NASA, NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center, and NOAA’s Office of Projects, Planning and Analysis for providing information and imagery for this article. | https://www.goes-r.gov/featureStories/CCOR_feature.html |
More than 25 years of airborne imaging spectroscopy and spaceborne sensors such as Hyperion or HICO have clearly demonstrated the ability of such a remote sensing technique to produce value added information regarding surface composition and physical properties for a large variety of applications . Scheduled missions such as EnMAP , HISUI or PRISMA prove the increased interest of the scientific community for such a type of remote sensing data. In France, after gathering a group of Science and Defence users of imaging spectrometry data (Groupe de Synthèse Hyperspectral, GSH ) to establish an up-to-date review of possible applications, define instrument specifications required for accurate, quantitative retrieval of diagnostic parameters, and identify fields of application where imaging spectrometry is a major contribution, CNES (French Space Agency) decided a pre-phase A study for an hyperspectral mission concept called HYPXIM (HYPerspectral-X IMagery), the main fields of applications of which were to be vegetation, coastal and inland waters, geosciences, urban environment, atmospheric sciences, cryosphere and Defence. During this pre-phase A, the feasibility of such a platform was evaluated, based on specific studies supported by Defence and a more accurate definition of reference radiances and instrument characteristics. Results also pointed to applications where high spatial resolution was necessary and would not be covered by the other foreseen hyperspectral missions. For example, in the case of ecosystem studies, it is generally agreed that many model variables and processes are not accurately represented and that upcoming sensors with improved spatial and spectral capabilities, such as higher resolution imaging spectrometers, are needed to further improve the quality and accuracy of model variables [8, 9]. The growing interest for urban environment related applications also emphasized the need for an increased spatial resolution [10, 11]. Finally, short revisit time is an issue for security and Defense as well as crisis monitoring. Table 1 summarizes the Science and Defence mission requirements at the end of pre-phase A. Two instrument designs were proposed by the industry (EADS-Astrium and Thales Alenia Space) based on these new requirements : HYPXIM-Challenging, on a micro-satellite platform, with a 15 m pixel and HYPXIM-Performance, on a mini-satellite platform, with a 8 m pixel, and possible TIR hyperspectral capabilities. Both scenarios included a PAN camera with a 1.85 m pixel. Platform agility would allow for “on-event mode” with a 3-day revisit time. CNES decided to select HYPXIM-Performance, the system providing a higher spatial resolution (pixel ≤ 8 m, [13, 14]), but without TIR capabilities, for a phase A study . This phase A was to start at the beginning of 2013 but is currently stopped due to budget constraints. An important part of the activities has been focusing on getting the French community more involved through various surveys and workshops in preparation for the CNES prospective meeting, an important step for the future of the mission. During this prospective meeting, which took place last March, decision was taken to keep HYPXIM alive as a mid-term (2020-2025) mission. The attendance at the recent workshop organized by the SFPT-GH (Société Française de Photogrammétrie et Télédétection, Groupe Hyperspectral) which gathered more than 90 participants from various field of application, including the industry (see http://www.sfpt.fr/hyperspectral for more details), demonstrates the interest and support of the French scientific community for a high spatial resolution imaging spectrometry mission. | https://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/19601/ |
HI Operations Document – R. Harrison (presented by Dave Neudegg – SciOps for Cluster, Mars Express, Double Star) • HI Image Simulation – C. Davis & R. Harrison • HI Operations Scenarios – R. Harrison & S. Matthews • HI Beacon Mode Specification – S. Matthews
HI in a nutshell: First opportunity to observe Earth-directed CMEs along the Sun-Earth line in interplanetary space - the first instrument to detect CMEs in a field of view including the Earth! • First opportunity to obtain stereographic views of CMEs in interplanetary space - to investigate CME structure, evolution and propagation. • Method: Occultation and baffle system, with wide angle view of the heliosphere, achieving light rejection levels of 3x10-13 and 10-14 of the solar brightness.
Radiator • HI in a nutshell: HI-1 Door HI-2 Inner Baffles Forward Baffles
HI Operations Document • HI Operations Document – Version 4 released Dec 1, 2003 • Author: Richard Harrison, HI Principal Investigator • Document located at UK Web site: http://www.stereo.rl.ac.uk • The HI team is not aware of any other instrument operations document on STEREO.
HI Operations Document • Purpose: Sets out plans for the operation of the Heliospheric Imager. It is intended that this information be used as an input to the discussion on • the development of on-board and ground software (including planning tool software, archive software and data handling, inspection and analysis software), • payload operations planning, • commanding, • monitoring and data receipt, • data handling and archiving. In short – it spells out the requirements on operation and software.
HI Operations Document – contents: • Operations planning and implementation • HI Scientific operation • Data monitoring and archiving • Image processing and calibration requirements • Instrument monitoring and maintenance • Commissioning plan • The beacon mode • Software requirements • Scientific operations sequences
HI Operations Document: • With regard to software and operations requirements, the HI Operations Document lists 34 requirements which must be considered by the SECCHI software team and those planning the operations facilities. • These requirements range from flexibility of programming parameters such as exposure times, to the return of partial frames, from cosmic ray cleaning to the definition of the beacon mode.
HI Operations Scenarios: • With regard to HI Scientific Operations Sequences, we have continued the design of specific operations schemes, aimed at addressing specific scientific questions. • This is used to define the operation and its flexibility and comes out of the highly successful ‘Blue Book’ studies of CDS/SOHO. • The products are a clear understanding of how we wish to use the instrument, and clear definitions of the requirements on software and operations. • 15 scenarios so far – next slide…
Study-Programme-Scenario Author Synoptic CME programme R. Harrison Beacon mode * Matthews, Harrison, Davis Impact of CME on Earth R. Harrison Understanding how observations at L1 & SECCHI are related P. Cargill CMEs in interplanetary space * P. Cargill 3-D structure of interplanetary CMEs * L. Green CME onset * S. Matthews Particle acceleration at CME shocks S. Matthews The relationship between CMEs and magnetic clouds S. Matthews Boundary regions between fast & slow streams in the solar wind A. Breen Development of co-rotating interaction regions A. Breen Solar wind microstructure A. Breen Differential drift velocities in the fast & slow solar winds A. Breen Remote solar wind measurements from 3-D obs. of cometary ion tails G. Jones Interplanetary acceleration of ICMEs * M. Owens
HI-1 HI-2 Image array 1024x1024 (2kx2k summed) 1024x1024 (2kx2k summed) FOV 200 (3.65-23.65) 700 (18.35-88.35) Nominal Exposure 12 s 60 s Summed Exposures 70 60 Synoptic Cadence 1 hr 2 hr Telemetry Rate 2.9 kbit/s 1.5 kbit/s • HI Scientific Operations Scenarios – the Synoptic Mode:
The Beacon Mode – • Provided for quick data receipt, for space weather purposes • HI is a key player in this – the only instrument to see CMEs with Earth within the boundary of the FOV • Options: • Reduced resolution images; • N-S strip Sunward of Earth; • Partial images.
The Beacon Mode – • Current plan: Returned image 256x256 pixel image (summed from 2048x2048 array on board) Rate 1 image per hour, alternately HI-1 and HI-2. Pixel depth 32 bits (defined by on board summed data) Nominal telemetry 588 bit/sec. Note: The beacon mode must be programmable so we can explore different approaches particularly in the early mission. | https://www.slideserve.com/jase/hi-operations-document-r-harrison |
Diana of Versailles By Sting, CC BY-SA 2.5
The Temple of Diana at Ephesus, which is also known as the Temple of Artemis; was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
This could be another link to the green stone in the Head Room.
Originally built by the Amazons according to myth, and unlike the rest of Greece and Rome Artemis/Diana was worshiped mainly as a fertility goddess. Associated with the goddess Kybele, who was a mother goddess of Eastern lands. Kybele is believed to the the evolution of the Paleolithic and Neolithic Magna Mater, specifically Matar Kubileya. Artemis/Diana of Ephesus was also conflated with Hekate at the Ephesus Temple as an aspect of Diana according to Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder).
The cult of Diana of Ephesus viewed this goddess in a matter which closely resembles Hekate Soteira of the Chaldean Oracles in her role as Anima Mundi or World Soul, Axis Mundi or World Pillar and Cosmic Mother containing all men, animals and spirits within her.
Moldavite By H. Raab (User:Vesta) – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0
The Amazons viewed the palm tree as sacred, being representative of their goddess and it is believed that the first Artemis/Diana of Ephesus was originally made out of a palm trunk. The goddess as a tree has great significance as a universal symbol of the Axis Mundi, often portrayed as a World Tree.
The palm tree was also believed to be sacred to the Hellenic Artemis, being a symbol of the island of Delos where she and her brother Apollo were born and many ancient coins from Ephesus depict a stag and a palm tree, the symbols of Artemis. It is believed that for this reason that the many breasts of the later Artemis/Diana of Ephesus statues are actually Palm-Dates as breasts, echoing back to the Amazonian palm tree goddess.
“Tradition relates that the amazons built a temple at Ephesus to house a primitive image of a goddess (later identified with Artemis), probably made of a palm trunk.”-Warner Rex, Encyclopedia of World Mythology
That earliest temple contained a sacred stone that had “fallen from Jupiter” called the Diopet and was later reportedly placed within the tower-like crown of the statue of Artemis/Diana. It was held as being a divine object, not only because it fell from the sky, but because it resembled Artemis/Diana of Ephesus. The Diopet held such reverence that it was paired together with the statue of Artemis/Diana in Acts 19:35 in the Bible, “And when the town clerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and of her image which fell down from Jupiter?” It’s interesting to also note that in Aradia, Gospel of the Witches it says that Diana fell to Earth, just as Lucifer had, to teach mankind witchcraft.
The City of Liverpool Museum acquired a stone from antiquarian Charles Seltman who bought it at Ephesus in the 1940s, claiming that it was the diopet.
“Liverpool’s Keeper of Archaeology, Dr. Dorothy Downes, says that just because it was purchased at Ephesus doesn’t prove its origins but that “it may well have come from one of the Ephesian temples.” The stone was originally a neolithic pestle of volcanic greenstone, she adds, “and was converted into an object of worship sometimes after c. 700 B.C. by reshaping and the addition of iron bands. Many people believed that that such stray finds were meteorites and therefore sacred.”- Elizabeth Pepper & John Wilcock, Magical and Mystical Sites: Europe and the British Isles
It isn’t that difficult to imagine that the Diopet might be Moldavite. It fell from the heavens/Jupiter, was supposedly in resemblance of Artemis/Diana of Ephesus (which is easy to imagine if you take into account that it might relate to the fact that most Moldavite pieces have an aerodynamic shape similar to palm leaves), and may have been similar to volcanic greenstone or volcanic glass. | https://yutani.studio/2017/12/18/the-diopet-the-stone-of-jupiter-that-crowns-diana/ |
The Antipater of Sidon, a famous Greek poet lived during the latter half of the 2nd century BC. During his travels, he visited landmarks belonging to the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. This included the Temple of Artemis that now stands near the ancient ruins of Ephesus, in Selcuk on the Aegean coast of Turkey.
The Greek Temple, also known as the Temple of Diana, was built in honour of the goddess of fertilely Artemis and was rebuilt two more times, until its final destruction in 401. Historians report that 800 years later, remains of the temple could not be found and locals knew nothing of its existence. History had forgotten it.
In 1869, an expedition funded by the British museum, discovered the lost temple and excavations carried on until 1874. During that time, most artefacts were taken out the country and are now on display in the British Museum of London. The story varies according to who you speak to, as to whether the artefacts were smuggled out or permission was granted by the totally broke and penniless Ottoman government.
Visiting the Temple of Artemis
Anyway, the Antipater of Sidon said upon visiting…
“I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, ‘Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught so grand.”
My words upon visiting were…
“What the f*** did I come here for?”
Now before you accuse me of disrespecting history, let me show you something. According to historians, this is more or less an accurate portrayal of how the temple looked.
(Model of the Temple of Artemis at Miniaturk)
Now, this is what I saw…
Can you understand my disappointment?
I spent more time taking photos of turtles, a duck swimming in the swamp land and a lonely stork who had built a nest on top of the single column. After I put my camera away, an old, smelly gentleman who tried to flog fake coins to me for 500 USD, would not stop following me about. Imagine my rage, especially since I had forgotten to take my Xanax!
Perhaps I had put too much emphasis on the importance of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World but I couldn’t understand why the historical world turned its back on the magnificent temple. I thought of the treasures that lay buried beneath the earth. I thought of the artefacts that would be uncovered and the neglect was hard to comprehend.
Then the Turkish Newspaper called the Hurriyet Daily News published an article. Excavations were to start again at the temple because visitor numbers were extremely low! Better late than never as they say! So, visit the temple if you drive directly past the entrance, otherwise don’t make a special detour.
However, I will be keeping my eye on excavations for the next 10 years. Maybe one day, we will see a glimpse of the former glory of the Temple of Artemis, considered by the Antipater of Sidon, to be one of the best Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. | https://turkishtravelblog.com/temple-of-artemis-selcuk-ephesus-turkey-ancient-wonders-world/ |
Church near the Temple of Artemis
The small brick-and-rubble building located near the southeast corner of the Temple of Artemis is known as ‘Church M’. The structure was probably set up in the later 4th century, and was used by local residents as a place of Christian worship until the early 7th century. The massive medieval landslide that buried the east end of the Temple accounts for the exceptional preservation of Church M, which was discovered in 1911.
The construction of a small church or chapel within the temenos of a classical temple reflects the far-reaching changes that swept across the later Roman Empire during the 4th century. State recognition of Christianity by the emperor Constantine was soon followed by his founding a new eastern capital at Constantinople. While the Temple of Artemis probably had passed out of active use before this time, its massive walls and imposing columns continued to dominate the area. Yet the decline of the cult of Artemis is poorly understood. The official recognition of Christianity in the fourth century led to the closure of pagan sanctuaries, but the building probably remained in use.
In the 4th-5th centuries, terms with Christian significance, “light” (ΦΩΣ) and “life” (ΖΩΗ), along with multiple crosses were carved near the Temple’s east entrance reflect the efforts of local inhabitants to deconsecrate the building and neutralize any lingering spiritual power of the classical cult. The closing of Roman temples under the emperor Theodosius in the 390s may have encouraged some Sardis residents to build houses in the area and to dismantle the classical structure for stone. Church M may have been intended both for devotional use by families living nearby and to commemorate this important change in Lydian religious traditions. | https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/church-m |
The splendour and magnificence of the Dudhsagar waterfall is truly a captivating sight. The cascading water of the four-tiered waterfall is milky white in appearance. Hence, the name Dudhsagar with a literal translation as "Sea of Milk". Nestled amidst the hills of Western Ghats, on the Goa- Karnataka border, it's a worth visiting spot. Afterwards being awe inspired by the waterfalls, you visiting the Mahadev Temple. Located in a small village called Tambdi Surla, it is the oldest temple in the state of Goa. Famous for its prominent history and beautiful architecture, it holds high cultural and religious significance amongst the local populace. This trip takes you to the destinations that are well known among the visitors, both domestic and international and are major crowd pullers.
What is included in the tour
- Pick up and drop
- Tour guide
- Enjoy the natural beauty of the Dudhsagar waterfalls, with is amongst the tallest waterfalls in the country.
- Explore the Goan architecture and culture with a visit to the famous Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla, which is the oldest temple in Goa and also a world heritage site.
7:00 am- Pick up in an air conditioned car
Reach Mollem after a 40 minutes drive. Transfer to a jeep that'll drive up to the Dudhsagar Waterfalls. Spend an hour at the waterfall. | http://www.tripbuffet.com/trips/dudhsagar-waterfall-mahadev-temple/7384 |
Thursday, July 21, 2016
The Temple of Apollo in Didim Turkey.
The Temple of Apollo has to be the most impressive old world architecture that I have ever seen. The columns have such a large circumference that they seem like they have to have been made by giants. A large stone hallway still leads to the center of the temple. There is no way to truly convey the vast scale of the site, When you get dos to the still standing columns, they are over whelming. There was a large puddle at the base of the steps to the temple. Thousands of tiny tad poles swam in the puddle frantically. I imagined the sun must be evaporating the water making it an imperative that they sprout legs an adapt to life on dry land. A turtle lumbered along across the path I wag on, as I sketched.
The ruins of Didyma are located at a short distance to the northwest of modern Didim in Aydin Province, Turkey, whose name is derived from Didyma's. Greek and Roman authors refer the name Didyma to temples of the twins, Apollo and Artemis, whose own cult center at Didyma was only recently established. Excavations by German archaeologists have uncovered a major sanctuary dedicated to Artemis, with the key ritual focus being water.
The 6th century Didymaion, dedicated to Apollo, enclosed a smaller temple that was its predecessor, which archaeologists have identified. Its treasury was enriched by gifts from Croesus. To approach the temple, visitors would follow the Sacred Way to Didyma, about 10 miles long. Along the way, were ritual way stations, and statues of members of the Branchidae family, male and female, as well as animal figures. Some of these statues, dating to the 6th century BC, are now in the British Museum, taken by the British archaeologist Charles Newton in the 19th century
Prints are available for each sketch for $250 and many originals can be purchased for $400. White museum grade shadow box frames are $100 more. You can e-mail Thor at [email protected]
Posted by Thor at 12:00 AM
Labels: Didim, Didyma, Temple of Apollo, Turkey
No comments: | http://www.analogartistdigitalworld.com/2016/07/the-temple-of-apollo-in-didim-turkey.html |
Our visit to Syracuse begins in Ortigia, an islet connected to the mainland by two bridges, the site of the first settlement in Syracuse. There are obvious traces of the different historical periods that have characterized the rich past of Syracuse, and a short distance from the dock, in the square called Largo XXV Luglio, are the remains of one of the oldest religious buildings built by the Greeks in Sicily, the sixth century Temple of Apollo, where an inscription on one of the steps linked it with the worship of this God.
Piazza Duomo is the city’s living-room, where you can admire beautiful Baroque palaces, the Palace of Beneventano del Bosco and the Palace of the Senate; the Church of Santa Lucia: the Church of the Jesuits with its splendid façade; and the Civic Gallery of Contemporary Art in what was once a convent.
The Piazza Duomo is also the home of the Duomo or Cathedral of Syracuse. Initially a temple, later a Cathedral, then a mosque and finally a triumph of Baroque architecture, the current façade was built from 1728 to 1753, encompassing the ancient Temple of Minerva, which itself was constructed on top of an even more ancient and very famous Temple of Athena. It is the only example in the world of a Greek temple whose function and usability as a place of worship has been conserved uninterrupted since ancient times.
Palazzo Bellomo Regional Gallery
Church of San Benedetto
Early Christian Basilica of San Martino
Our tour continues with a visit to the Palazzo Bellomo Regional Gallery (Via Capodieci 16), whose pictures include the Annunciation by Antonella da Messina, and where we can also admire Arabic and Sicilian ceramics, Cretan-Venetian paintings, and a series of sacred and artistic objects, in the Church of San Benedetto and the nearby Early Christian Basilica of San Martino, which has a Gothic-Catalan portico.
Fonte Aretusa
Symbol of the city since ancient times, the Fonte Aretusa is a fresh water spring which rises in a cave a few metres from the sea, in the middle of which there is a bed of papyrus. According to the legend, Aretusa was a nymph who was changed into a spring by the Goddess Artemis, a myth mentioned by Virgil and by Ovid in the Metamorphosis. In the vicinity, in Via Pompeo Picherali, we can see the Arabic-Catalan balcony of the Palazzo Migliaccio. We can also visit: the Palazzo Mergulense-Montalto, a splendid example of Gothic-Chiaramontana architecture which was built in the 14th century; Piazza Archimede, which is home to the Norman-style Palazzo Lanza in the centre of which we can admire the nineteenth century Fountain of Artemis; the Church of San Francesco all'Immacolata; the Church of San Filippo Neri, the Palazzo Bongiovanni and the Palazzo Impellizzeri. | http://www.umayyad.eu/?q=visits-syracuse |
7 Wonders Of The Ancient World That You Should Know About
There is no doubt in our mind that you might have heard about the seven wonders of the ancient world. However, not many are aware of the architectural importance of these beautiful structures across the globe. The problem is, people think that creating these monuments was a straightforward task. However, when you dig in deep, you will discover it took a long while to construct each of these historical buildings. Each of these structures was build in the classical era, and the beautiful part is it is still very much strong in its conceptualization.
In the forthcoming sections of this write-up, we will discuss the original 7 wonders of the world from an architectural point of view.
All these remarkable magnificent structures were made by humans and without using any advanced technology. The archaeologist said that they were only made from primitive tools like chisels and hammers. But after looking at them, it is hard to believe. We promise after reading this piece of content; you will have a fair idea about the structural importance of these historical monuments.
Let’s start with the list:
1. Great Pyramid Of Giza
This historical building was commissioned and built by the Pharoah Khufu. The amazing part is, it is regarded as one of the oldest buildings to have ever existed in Egypt. Now, let us look at the salient features from an architectural point of view. This historical monument is 456 ft. long.
Source: travelandleisure.com
Can you imagine it? Its construction has startled scholars, and they are still wondering how it has been created? The great thing is, it has been developed using 2 million stone blocks that weigh approximately 2 to 30 tons each.
2. Hanging Gardens Of Babylon
This architectural monument was built roughly in 600 BC. Although, there is a much-heated debate going on about the existence of this structure as it has not been chronicled in Babylonian records.
Source: pinterest.com
It was only through external records that have come up with its architectural prominence. According to Herodotus, its walls stretch for 56 miles, 80 feet thick with a height of 320 feet. Unbelievable. It was built in the form of high rooftop gardens with foundations of multi-level terraces.
3. Statue Of Zeus At Olympia
The great Greek sculptor Phidias created this beautiful statue of Zeus at Olympia. He is one of the finest sculptors in the ancient time. He also worked on a statue of Athena and Parthenon. The statue depicted the god Zeus, who is the major god of the Greek culture.
Source: flickr.com
Some archeological reports say that the proportions of the statue and the temple are not correct. Because the head of the statue is almost touching the roof of the temple. The statue stood around 40 feet (12 m), but nevermind its proportions still, this statue is a remarkable example of ancient architectural skills.
4. Temple Of Artemis At Ephesus
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus is on the fourth number of our list. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus is one of the wonders that still make people rethink about our ancient architecture. Another Shocking fact is that this temple took around 120 years to built.
Source: wilstar.com
A wealthy king Croesus of Lydia sponsored the whole construction of this magnificent temple. But unfortunately, On July 21, 356 BCE, this temple was destroyed by a man named Herostratus.
He wanted that people remember his name as he was the destroyer of the most remarkable temple in human history. You’ll be amazed to know that on the same night, the temple was set on fire, Alexander the Great was born!!
5. Mausoleum At Halicarnassus
The Persian Satrap Mausolus wanted to create a city whose beauty is unmatched in the country. The mausoleum was the tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus city, built-in 351 BCE.
Source: orangesmile.com
To give tribute to the queen, workers entombed her ashes in the mausoleum. The overall height of the tomb is 135 feet (41 m). But sadly, an earthquake ruined this beautiful tomb.
6. Colossus Of Rhodes
Colossus of Rhodes is another statue that is dedicated to a Greek god. At that time, people love to built their deity sculptures, that’s why you’ll find a lot of structures and idols dedicated to gods. The whole structure has two parts- the statue and base.
Source: archdaily.com
Source: thedailybeast.com
The figure was something 110 feet (33 m) tall, which was standing on a solid rectangular base. It stood only for 56 years; after that, an earthquake (in 226 BCE) destroyed its significant parts. But it is still a famous visitor’s site.
7. Lighthouse Of Alexandria
And the last but not the least on our list is the Lighthouse Of Alexandria. It was situated on the islands of pharos and built around 280 BCE. You know, it is the tallest Human-made structure in ancient times!! ( Except the Great Pyramid of Giza). Another interesting fact about it is that its light could be seen from as far as 35 miles.
Source: imgur.com
Source: britannica.com
We can only imagine its beauty in words because it was damaged by a series of earthquakes- in 956 CE, 1303 CE, 1323 CE, and then in 1480 CE, it was gone entirely. Today you’ll be only able to see the Egyptian Fort Quaitbey, which is made from the ruins of the lighthouse.
Most of the structures are demolished because of climate conditions like earthquakes or by human destruction. But still, we found their ruins, which are always a point of attraction for people. Actually, there is no perfect or official definition of the 7 natural wonders of the world. Some people agree on this list, which is made by Philo of Byzantium. But many writers disagreed on his list.
So, this is all about the ancient wonders of the world. The wonderful thing is that they are not only the wonders of ancient times, but they are also the most impressive structures even today. For more information about the spectacular architecture, visit Architecturesstyle.
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Title of the article:
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CHURCH WOODEN ARCHITECTURE OF THE RUSSIAN NORTH: TRADITIONS AND ORTHODOXY
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Author(s):
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Anna B. Permilovskaya
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Information about the author/authors
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Anna B. Permilovskaya — DSc in Culturology, Chief Researcher Scientific Center of Traditional Culture and Museum Preservation, N. Laverov Federal Center for Integrated Arctic Research Russian Academy of Sciences, Severnaya Dvina Emb. 23, 163000 Arkhangelsk, Russia. E-mail: [email protected]
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Section
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Theory and history of culture
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Year
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2019
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Volume
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Vol. 53
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Pages
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pp. 54–70
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Received
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February 25, 2019
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Date of publication
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September 28, 2019
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Index UDK
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008+72.03(470.11)
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Index BBK
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71.1+85.113(2Рос-4Арх)
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Abstract
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Wooden architecture represents a special direction of the traditional architecture in Russia. To a large extent, its history is the history of the Russian North wooden architecture, which turned the region into a “country of architects”. The article discusses issues related to the temple-building tradition: the relationship of peasant customers and carpentry artels, construction without drawings — on the “model" based on the contract (“poryadnya”). In the North and the Arctic conditions, the specifics of the Russian life generated a special type of thinking and mentality, which was supported by the Orthodoxy, including pre-Christian, pagan beliefs of the Slavs. Previously, this relationship was called “Dual Faith”, “Domestic Orthodoxy”. The term “Folk Orthodoxy” is adopted at present. Dealing with the given issue, the author refers to the comparative experience of studying world religions. Peasant cultures of various nations possess a single “cosmic level”. Folk varieties of religions and mythologies based on the agricultural structure have survived, being modified into Christianity. The peasants ’worldview is characterized by constant inclusion in cosmic and natural rhythms. The study shows the role and significance of Folk Orthodoxy in the establishment and transformation of the traditional temple architecture of the Russian North and the Arctic. The historical legends about the choice of a place for church construction, the holding of public peers (“bratchina”) and widespread building of promise chapels and commercial chapels, characteristic of the Pomorie maritime culture, serve as the thesis confirmation. In folk rituals, many items of church use: candles, holy water, icons, performed values uncharacteristic of Orthodox Culture. Candles were used during divination, holy water at fortune-telling. The icon was perceived not only as a sacred image, but also as a magical object. The study suggests that Folk Orthodoxy has become an integral part of Russian Christian culture, while preserving the tradition and the Orthodox picture of the world. By introducing the topic of wooden church building into the field of national ethnoculturology this paper actually creates a new research direction.
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Keywords
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traditional culture, wooden architecture, church, chapel, Folk Orthodoxy, Russian North, Arctic. | http://vestnik-sk.ru/english/archive/2019/volume-53/permilovskaya |
The first large-scale scientific excavations at Sardis were carried out by Prof. Howard Crosby Butler of Princeton University, at the invitation of Osman Hamdi Bey, director of the Imperial Museum (Müze-i Hümayun; today’s Istanbul Archaeological Museum) (figs. 1, 2). Between 1910 and 1914, with a final season in 1922, Butler uncovered the Temple of Artemis, much of its precinct, and more than 1,100 tombs in the Necropolis of Sardis (figs. 3, 4). The excavations were discontinued due to Butler’s unexpected death in 1922 and the unsettled political situation.
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The Archaeological Exploration of Sardis
In 1958 George M. A. Hanfmann, Professor of Archaeology in the Departments of Fine Arts and Classics, Harvard University, as well as Curator of Ancient Art at Harvard's Fogg Art Museum, and Prof. Henry Detweiler, Dean of the Architecture School at Cornell University, founded a new expedition, the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, with the permission and support of the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey (figs. 5, 6). Prof. Hanfmann undertook many projects in excavation, research, conservation, and restoration, with a multidisciplinary team employing the latest techniques and methods. Major results of Prof. Hanfmann’s research include the excavation and restoration of the Bath-Gymnasium complex (fig. 7), Synagogue, and Byzantine Shops in the northwestern portion of the city; excavation of a Lydian gold refinery at sector PN (Pactolus North), with the discovery of early, technologically sophisticated chemical processing; deep excavations at sector HoB (House of Bronzes), which produced remains dating from the Late Bronze Age through the Lydian period and into Late Antiquity; excavations on the Acropolis of Sardis; excavations in tumuli at the royal cemetery of Bin Tepe, including the colossal mound of Karnıyarık Tepe (fig. 8); excavations of prehistoric settlements on the shores of the Gygaean Lake; and many other locations.
Prof. Crawford H. Greenewalt, jr., professor in the Department of Classics at the University of California, Berkeley, directed the Sardis Expedition for more than 30 years, from 1976-2007 (figs. 9, 10, 11). With his particular interest in the Lydian world, Prof. Greenewalt focused on the city in the Lydian period, particularly its fortification walls and gate, only discovered in 1976 by Prof. Andrew Ramage (sectors MMS, MMS/N, and MMS/S), monumental terraces that probably formed the core of the Lydian city (ByzFort and Field 49), and on the tumuli at Bin Tepe. Prof. Greenewalt cultivated a deep interest and expertise in all aspects of antiquity, from Lydian pottery to perfumes and unguents, cuisine, horsemanship, and other little-known aspects of the ancient world. His generosity, openness, and modesty were as legendary as his extraordinary learning.
The Expedition has been directed since 2008 by Prof. Nicholas Cahill of the University of Wisconsin-Madison (fig. 12). With associate directors Andrew Ramage, David Mitten, Bahadır Yıldırım, Marcus Rautman, Elizabeth Gombosi, Susanne Ebbinghaus, and Ruth Bielfeldt, the expedition conducts ongoing fieldwork, conservation, research, and publication. Current research projects include the excavation of the Lydian palatial (?) complex and buildings of later periods (at sectors F49 and ByzFort); excavation and conservation in the Sanctuary of Artemis; excavation at a Roman sanctuary of the imperial cult (sectors Wadi B and F55), and at the western gate to the city (sector RT). Each year’s team consists of 50-60 scholars, students, and professionals from the United States, Turkey, and around the world, including experts in archaeology, art history, architecture, anthropology, conservation, numismatics, epigraphy, illustration, photography, geophysics, history, and other disciplines (figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18). Over the past half-century more than 700 students and scholars from more than 100 institutions have worked at Sardis.
The permanent research and publication center is located at the Harvard Art Museums in Cambridge, MA, and is directed by Bahadır Yıldırım (fig. 19). Publications Data Manager Theresa Huntsman is responsible for increasingly large digital and digitized archive that the Expedition has accumulated over half a century, and for much of the content of this web site. Robin Woodman, Expedition Coordinator, manages the office and preparation for each year’s fieldwork. Student staff and volunteers constitute an essential part of the research team and have contributed to many important aspects of the project.
With Harvard University Press, the Sardis Expedition has published eighteen reports and monographs, and numerous articles, exhibition catalogs, and other studies. Publications now in process include Churches E and EA at sector PN, by Hans Buchwald; the Lydian levels at sector HoB, by Andrew Ramage (fig. 20) with Gül Gürtekin-Demir, and at sector PC, by Nancy Ramage; the Synagogue, by Andrew Seager (fig. 21), with Marcus Rautman and Vanessa Rousseau; the Temple of Artemis, by Fikret Yegül (fig. 22); prehistoric and protohistoric settlements around the Gygaean Lake, by Daniel Pullen, with Andrew Ramage, Phil Sapirstein, Ann Gunter, and Christopher Roosevelt; inscriptions, by Georg Petzl (fig. 23); coins, by Jane DeRose Evans (fig. 24); and Hellenistic pottery, by Andrea Berlin and Susan Rotroff (figs. 25, 26).
Conservation and site development projects in recent years have included the conservation of the Lydian Altar in the Sanctuary of Artemis (figs. 27, 28), conservation of mosaics and other features of the Synagogue (fig. 16), and cleaning of biological films (lichens, cyanobacteria, etc.) from the Temple of Artemis (figs. 29, 30, 31), all generously supported by the J.M. Kaplan Fund. We are developing projects to build permanent protective roofs of glass and steel over the Synagogue and Lydian fortification, to conserve and open to the public the Lydian fortification and gate, Lydian and Roman houses, and other features in sectors MMS, MMS/N, and MMS/S, and to conserve Church M in the Sanctuary of Artemis as well as other parts of the site.
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Further Reading
A general account of Prof. Butler’s results is published in his Sardis I: The Excavations, and specialized studies include reports on the Temple of Artemis, Greek Inscriptions, Lydian inscriptions, coins, sarcophagi, and jewelry.
A general account of Prof. Hanfmann’s excavations is published in his Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times. Other publications of his results are available in the publications section as freely downloadable pdfs.
A volume of essays dedicated to Prof. Greenewalt is Love For Lydia: A Sardis Anniversary Volume Presented to Crawford H. Greenewalt, jr. (pdf) This includes a bibliography of Greenewalt’s publications until 2008.
Results of fieldwork are published in preliminary reports in the Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (1958 - 1993 seasons) and the American Journal of Archaeology (1994 to present), and in the yearly Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı. For a full list of publications see the bibliography. | http://sardisexpedition.org/en/essays/about-sardis-expedition |
UW units such as Learning Technologies, departmental IT staff, the eScience Institute, Center for Teaching and Learning, Undergraduate Academic Affairs, ACTT, UW Libraries, and equivalent units at UWT and UWB are likely to hear about unmet needs from the people they work with regularly. By meeting regularly with members of these units, we can become more aware of unmet needs as they arise and able to track and prioritize investigation into these needs.
1.2 Conduct targeted inquiry into the needs of UW community members
Investigate identified needs through systematic data collection methods (e.g. surveys, interviews) to gain a more complete understanding of pain points and the context(s) in which they occur. The goal is a thorough understanding of needs before trying to find solutions to meet those needs.
2. Understand the field of potential technology solutions
2.1 Engage in discovery
Investigate new tools that hold potential for supporting teaching, learning, and research at UW (might be mentioned by peer institutions, etc.). Schedule demos with vendors if appropriate.
2.2 Uncover new use cases
In some cases, departments or individuals at UW may be using an application that UW-IT does not support centrally (e.g., Gradescope). In this event, the goal is to understand what needs the selected tool is meeting that are not met by existing enterprise tools, and to better understand its features and use cases.
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of technology solutions
3.1 Pilot test promising campus technology solutions
Partner with UW departments or individuals who are already using or interested in using new technologies to meet identified needs. Pilot test promising technology solutions and gather data on users’ experience; share findings with community.
3.2 Evaluate appropriateness of technology solutions for campus adoption
Evaluate new technologies in light of users’ experience and additional criteria for adoption by central IT (e.g., accessibility, support burden, vendor maturity, cost). Summarize evaluation and provide recommendations on adoption. | https://itconnect.uw.edu/tools-services-support/teaching-learning/research/campus-technology-research/objectives/ |
FieldSight is a technological platform developed by UNOPS in partnership with Nepal Innovation Lab and Miyamoto Relief that supports remote supervision and monitoring in order to improve quality and reduce risk on construction, humanitarian, and development projects. Through the delivery of educational guides, the creation and deployment of customized field assessments, and the ability to provide targeted feedback to specific sites and issues, FieldSight facilitates ongoing engagement between central offices and field sites, enabling monitoring, quality assurance, coaching, and capacity building. At the same time, by creating a central repository for data from multiple sites and projects, FieldSight also helps organizations to review progress across projects, regions, and countries. Targeted at organizations in the development and humanitarian sectors, FieldSight is an open-source platform that anyone can use to improve quality and project delivery.
Over the past year, FieldSight has been developed, released, and pilot-tested on projects throughout Nepal. In the coming year, FieldSight will be reviewing the pilot tests and will be updating the platform based on feedback and experience from its use. With an updated product, FieldSight will look to expand its use both within Nepal and around the globe, pursuing strategic partnerships that aim to integrate FieldSight into broad use. FieldSight will also look to formalizes its institutional structure in a way that will make it widely available to UNOPS and other partners.
Oversee a team of staff and contractors working on the ongoing development and implementation of FieldSight.
Develop terms of reference and conduct procurement and hiring processes to hire new staff and organizations, or extend contracts, as necessary.
Develop mechanisms for management and communication between and among staff and contractors.
Collect feedback from users of FieldSight on issues, challenges, and problems as well as additional features and uses they might need.
Maintain a list of bugs and potential additional features that will inform further development of FieldSight.
Oversee ongoing adjustments and modifications to FieldSight based on feedback from user tests.
Design and oversee the development of new features for FieldSight, such as a community feedback portal and data analysis modules.
Present FieldSight to organization both inside Nepal and within the broader development and humanitarian community that focus on how the platform can support their work.
Work with partners and organizations to develop new projects to provide supervision using FieldSight.
Work with UNOPS Nepal country office, World Vision Nepal Earthquake Response, and other UNOPS offices to deploy FieldSight across projects.
Identify ways to integrate FieldSight with other existing IT tools and resources of partner organizations.
Provide support to FieldSight users in the form of project development, content development, training, IT help, and project review.
Travel as necessary to present FieldSight and support partners.
Develop stakeholder/partner group of organizations that use and support FieldSight.
Provide ongoing support in the forms of facilitation, communication, and record-keeping.
Develop a permanent institutional structure, home, and staffing structure for FieldSight.
Provide support to the global Response Innovation Lab as the representative member from UNOPS and support its work in identifying, developing, and deploying innovations in response contexts.
Facilitate the UNOPS field-based IT tools development group and support their work in developing design principles and a shared repository for tools within UNOPS. | https://www.impactpool.org/jobs/294251 |
When pharmaceutical companies develop new medicines, they are required to comply with regulatory requirements by reporting and publishing their clinical results. Adhering to these requirements incentivises pharma to design their trials, choose comparators and pre-specify the endpoints in a way that they feel most sure to win. The result is that the reported findings may not give the full picture of the product; failing to capture in the trial other benefits the product may have.
Structural challenges in designing early clinical trials
The shortfall in data collection arises already in phase I and phase II clinical trials, which primarily focus on providing answers to how the product works and if the drug is safe for use in humans. Small samples of subjects are usually selected to participate in the trials, and this combined with the need to generate knowledge about the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of a prospective drug often leads to little information about the effectiveness of the product being collected.
Even if patient-reported outcomes (PROs) were included in the early phase I or phase II trials, the low number of trial subjects inhibit pharma’s ability to fully understand how patients feel about the study medication. Furthermore, the situation does not improve much when the larger phase III trials are designed, as the main source of evidence for a phase III trial is the early phase I and III clinical trials.
For the safety of patients, health authorities have set up a structured process to ensure that the negative experienced effects or, so-called, adverse events (AEs) are reported throughout the clinical trials. Interestingly, no such structured reporting process exists for documenting and reporting the positive effects experienced by the users. The question this can pose is: Does it matter whether or not pharma captures all benefits of the product, or asks potential users to review their product before it reaches the market?
Post-launch is often too late to learn of unforeseen added benefits and opportunities
The informed response is: Yes, it does matter. All the benefits of an investigational product observed during clinical trials should be captured and documented before a product is released into the market.
The reason why it matters is that once the product is on the market, it may be too late to properly address additional product benefits that begin to surface from real-life patient experience. The difficulty in this scenario is that the large clinical trials with most relevant comparators are over and it can be hard to convince the organisation to do or redo a clinical trial because an additional attribute has been discovered or another PRO could have better captured the users’ responses on the product’s attributes. Is the company open to take the cost and risk of re-doing a clinical trial to gain an additional benefit? In reality, this is often not the case
An alternative example is that it may come to light that patients or doctors simply do not think that the way the product is administered fits in well enough with their daily activities.
Moreover, by the time a product is launched, the marketing department has already developed materials to support the product. Also, the company’s sales representatives will have been out talking with doctors about the value of the product. The impact of the roll-out of these activities needs to be weighed by asking: Is the additional benefit worth changing the whole messaging and promotion campaign?
At this late stage, the price of the product will have been negotiated with the payers already it will be challenging to get the additional value recognised. Once the initial product pricing is set, it is most often too late to ask for higher prices. It is, therefore, smart to ask: What can be done to avoid such situation?
Exit interviews – a good source of early insights
A simple solution is the so-called Exit-interviews which is becoming increasingly popular among pharmaceutical companies – for good reasons. Through these interviews it is possible to hear the users (investigators, nurses and/or patients) elaborate on their views and experiences of an investigational drug after they have participated in a clinical trial.
Exit interviews on completion of a clinical trial, can help pharma structure the feedback received from investigators, nurses and/or patients to provide a more holistic picture of the product. The feedback from these interviews can thus help take out much uncertainty around what the users think of an investigational product (positive/negative), how it impact their daily life and how they prefer to use it which can guide the trial designs, choice of endpoints and PROs for subsequent clinical trials. You can read more about when to use exit-interviews on “When to use us” page here on our homepage.
Are exit-interviews a solution for you?
Exit interviews, are an aid that can be used to potentially gather insights earlier about the users’ overall experiences and views of an investigational product.
Exit interviews can capture user experiences and views and help answer questions, such as:
- In what way does the study medication impact their daily ability to function?
- What degree of meaningfulness is associated with the related changes (positive and negative) experienced by using a treatment?
- What do they like about the product? What symptoms/impacts are most important to the users?
- How do they prefer to use the product? Do they have suggestions to improve the products? For example, when to use it? the administration? taste? etc.
- What is their overall experience of taking the medication? In what way does the medication bring a solution to their unmet needs?
Following this, the feedback from the exit-interviews can support and help facilitate an interpretation of data from the more traditional PRO´s and/or clinical measures.
In conclusion, two questions to ask yourself:
- Have you thought of what value it can bring to your organisation to hear the views of users of your investigational product?
- Do you have a clinical trial that is soon scheduled to report its findings and would you like to hear what users think of your product before designing your next trial? | https://www.csoutcomes.com/2018/01/18/the-value-of-generating-early-insights-on-your-investigational-product/ |
The Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS) has announced plans to enhance the unmanned aircraft (UA or drone) regulatory framework and is seeking feedback from members of the public.
Areas being reviewed include the UA operating guidelines, the UA pilot competency requirements, as well as requirements for UA with total mass of more than 25 kg.
The review is based on CAAS’ three-year experience with the implementation of the UA regulatory framework, international benchmarking and feedback from UA users in Singapore.
A public consultation exercise kicked off on 29 April 2018 at the Drone Showcase, in conjunction with Car-Free Sunday SG @ one-north, organised by JTC and the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA).
Members of the public can provide their feedback via the Reach website (http://www.reach.gov.sg) until 31 May 2018.
Current framework
Under the current framework, Operator Permits (OP) and/or Activity Permits are required for operating UA under the following circumstances:
An Operator Permit is granted by CAAS to an organisation or individual after the applicant has been assessed to be able to conduct operation of UA safely. CAAS' assessment includes, but not limited to, the applicant’s organisational set-up, competency of the personnel especially those flying the UA, procedures to manage safety including the conduct of safety risk assessments, and the airworthiness of each UA.
An Activity Permit is granted by CAAS to an applicant for a single activity or a block of repeated activities to be carried out by a UA taking into account the location, altitude and period of the operation, type(s) of operation to be conducted, and mitigation measures to address location-specific circumstances. This is to ensure that adequate safety measures are put in place at the area(s) of operation and that the UA operations will not disrupt manned aircraft operations.
Proposed enhancements
Additional guidance
CAAS intends to enhance UA operating guidelines to include additional guidance for addressing the importance of understanding the characteristics of the UA, particularly the limitations published by the UAS manufacturers. The additional guidance will also address users’ modification or customisation of UA with a view to ensuring the airworthiness of the UA.
Online training programme
CAAS will also introduce an online training programme to equip persons flying UA with the essential knowledge of flying UA safely. Currently, a person flying a UA with total mass of 7 kg or below for recreational or research purposes is advised to follow the UA operating guidelines. The online training programme will be compulsory for persons flying UA with total mass of more than 1.5 kg but up to 7 kg for recreational or research purposes.
Pilot licensing framework
A UA pilot licensing framework will be introduced for certain UA operations to ensure that UA pilots have a minimum competency level. Under this framework, a person must demonstrate competency in terms of skills, knowledge and experience before he can be granted a UA pilot licence (UAPL) by CAAS.
Any person flying UA with total mass of more than 7 kg for recreational or research purposes will be required to obtain a UAPL granted by CAAS. With the UAPL, the person will no longer be required to apply for an OP.
There will be three categories of UAPL, namely Aeroplane, Rotorcraft and Powered-lift, with ratings associated to each category depending on whether the total mass of the UA is 25 kg or below or above 25 kg.
Any person flying UA for non-recreational or non-research purposes will be required to obtain a UAPL granted by CAAS. This seeks to enhance the flexibility for holders of OP to engage any UA pilot with a valid UAPL. However, holders of OP must still ensure that the UA pilots they engage are familiar with their specific operational requirements.
UA training organisation framework
CAAS will introduce a UA training organisation framework to support the proposed UA pilot licensing. Under this framework, training organisations approved by CAAS will provide training to equip UA pilots with the necessary competency, as well as to conduct the assessment required for the grant of a UAPL by CAAS.
Additional requirements for persons operating UA with total mass more than 25 kg
CAAS will also introduce additional requirements for persons operating UA with total mass more than 25 kg, which correspond with the increase in safety risk. These requirements may include partial or full type certification of the UA (type certificate defines the design of the aircraft type and certifies that this design meets the appropriate airworthiness requirements established), certification of the UA operator and maintenance organisation.
Proposed framework
With the above proposed enhancements, the UA regulatory framework will be as below: | https://www.opengovasia.com/articles/civil-aviation-authority-of-singapore-proposes-enhanced-drone-regulatory-framework |
We will try to also provide some concrete instructions on how to use each of these features before the Alpha is released. Updates to these instructions and additional documentation will be generated after the Alpha has been made available for downloading.
As in prior releases, we will be conducting a Pilot Program with selected interested organizations. If you are interested in participating in the OpenClinica 3.1 Pilot Program (or just want more information about it), please send an email to [email protected]. The Pilot Program is designed to give organizations an opportunity to test out new features of OpenClinica and provide valuable feedback on how the features are working. It was very successful prior to releasing 3.0 where 10 participating organizations received help and support from Akaza while experiencing and learning the new product features firsthand.
The next major milestone for OpenClinica (project code-named “Amethyst”) will be OpenClinica version 3.1. While this release contains roughly 85 tweaks, fixes, and enhancements, this post describes some of the more significant enhancements that will be included (check out the Amethyst project roadmap page for a full list—note: openclinica.org login required).
OpenClinica 3.1 will support Showing and Hiding of CRF Items using both the CRF template and a Rules file. When a user enters data and saves a CRF section, data fields may be shown or hidden based on value(s) that user provided in one or more other fields on that form. This capability is also commonly referred to as “skip patterns.” A simple example would be a CRF question asking if the patient is male or female. If the value provided is female, a pregnancy related question could then be displayed to the user entering data and all questions associated with males could be hidden from view.
Audit Log data and Discrepancy Note data for a subject will be available in the ODM data extract format with OpenClinica extensions. This will allow the user to have all of the clinical data, audit log data, and discrepancy note data in a single data file.
Currently, OpenClinica supports assignment and workflows around only the Query type of Discrepancy Note. OpenClinica’s “assignment” capability will be expanded to also include the Failed Validation Check type of Discrepancy Note. For Failed Validation Checks, the first note in the Discrepancy Note thread will not be assigned, but Data Managers, Study Directors and Monitors will be allowed to assign the thread to a user for review/resolution. OpenClinica will also restrict the Clinical Research Coordinators and Investigators (both site-level users) from setting the status of Failed Validation Checks to Closed.
A new enhancement to Rules authoring will allow the Rule creator to write one Rule Assignment for a particular CRF Item, and have the Rule execute wherever that Item’s OID is used throughout all of the study events. This increases the “portability” of rules, allowing the user to write one Rule, and have it apply multiple times rather than having to author multiple Rules and multiple Rule Assignments.
If the CRF was used in multiple events, the creator of the Rule file would have to specify the path to the other event as well.
and the Rules will be executed wherever that Item shows up in the study.
OpenClinica 3.1 will include additional Discrepancy Note flag colors that correspond to the various statuses of a particular thread. Currently in OpenClinica, if a Discrepancy Note thread exists, the flag will always display in a red color regardless of the Discrepancy Note status. In 3.1, the color of the flag will be reflect the “most severe” status of any thread that is on a particular item (more than one thread may exist for any item). For example, if there is a Closed thread and an Updated thread on one item, the color of the flag will be yellow representing the Updated status. If there is just a Closed thread, the color of the flag will be black. To support people who are color blind or shade blind (like myself) there will be a roll over when you put your mouse on the flag, showing you the number of threads and each of their statuses when Viewing a CRF.
Modularization is defined as a software design technique that increases the extent to which software is composed from separate parts, called modules. Conceptually, modules represent a separation of concerns, and improve maintainability by enforcing logical boundaries between components.
What this means for OpenClinica is we have started to separate the application into multiple pieces. In version 3.1, we have modularized the web application from the web services functionality. This will allow new web services to be developed on separate release timelines from the main web application, facilitating the system’s extensibility.
OpenClinica 3.1 will allow different site level users access to an Event CRF, even if they are not the conceptual “owner” of that CRF. In prior versions of OpenClinica, once a user began data entry in a CRF, the system prevented other users from adding information or data to the CRF until it had been marked complete. The new feature will allow a second user to continue entering data before the CRF is marked complete.
This change to OpenClinica will also help facilitate the ease of recording adverse events in a separate CRF. A user will not have to mark it complete in order for another user to provide additional adverse events that have occurred for a particular subject. In addition, this new functionality will prevent users from accessing an Event CRF if another user already has the form open. In this case, the second user will receive a message saying that the form is currently being accessed by another user.
In addition to the Dynamics capabilities that will be part of 3.1, we have added a feature called Simple Conditions. This feature is similar to Dynamics in many ways, but can be implemented through the CRF Template directly rather than writing a separately Rules XML document.
With Simple Conditions, a person creating an OpenClinica CRF will have the ability to designate Items as “hidden” from the data entry person’s view until a particular option is chosen for another CRF Item. The data entry person will not have to click “save” on the form–instead, as soon as the option is selected, this hidden field will be shown in real time.An example of the type of use case this feature targets, is a CRF question with two fields, one for “race” and the other for “comments” (which is hidden). If the data entry person selects the value of “other” for the race field, the hidden comments field will be display underneath.
Akaza Research is excited about bringing OpenClinica 3.1 to the community! Your comments and feedback are appreciated. Please check back in next week or so for an update on our timelines for Alphas, Betas and a Production release. | https://blog.openclinica.com/tag/dynamics/ |
Purpose:The purpose of this project is to address the lack of evidence-based teacher training programs to support family engagement in education. Using an iterative process, the research team will develop a new teacher training curriculum and coaching model called Supporting Teachers in Engaging Parents (STEP). The STEP Model will focus on using feasible, efficient, and sophisticated methods for training and supporting teachers in developing communication and culturally responsive skills necessary to effectively engage all families in education and improve student academic and social outcomes.
Project Activities:Using a multi-phase iterative process, the researchers will follow four phases (i.e., initial development, development and refinement, social validity and feasibility testing, and pilot testing) to create a fully developed STEP Model focused on improving teachers' family engagement practices. During initial development and refinement, the researchers will convene expert panels and focus groups to receive feedback on STEP Model development. During social validity and feasibility testing, the researchers will recruit ten teachers and 30 families to receive the STEP training and coaching. After further refinement based on social validity and feasibility testing, a group RCT will be conducted to determine the promise of the full STEP Model.
Products:Outcomes of this project will include a fully developed model (i.e., STEP Training + STEP Coaching) for elementary teachers that will enhance their capacity to work with families and improve student outcomes. The finalized STEP Model materials will be shared and made freely available as an intervention option on the CCU website (https://classroomcheckup.org). Other products include materials and resources for both scientific and professional audiences as well as peer-reviewed publications.
Structured Abstract
Setting: Elementary schools from Fulton Public Schools and Jefferson City Public Schools will participate in the proposed project.
Population/Sample: The project will include teachers, students, and parents from elementary schools in one rural and one suburban school district in central Missouri. These districts include 14 elementary schools with approximately 11,000 students.
Intervention: The primary goal of the STEP Model, inclusive of both a training curriculum and a coaching process, is to increase teacher use of evidence-based family engagement strategies that foster parent involvement, family-school partnerships, and ultimately support children's academic, behavioral, and social-emotional development. Specific STEP motivational enhancement strategies, rooted in motivational interviewing theory, will include giving personalized feedback to teachers on family engagement practices; encouraging personal responsibility for decision making while offering explicit advice if solicited; creating a menu of options for improving fidelity; and fostering teacher self-efficacy by identifying existing strengths and past experiences in which teachers have effectively engaged families.
Research Design and Methods: The researchers will use a multi-phase iterative process consistent with the ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation) instructional design model. In Phase 1, two expert panel groups and school personnel and other stakeholders from several districts will provide feedback about the training and coaching model and proposed measures and processes. The STEP Model will be revised with each successive meeting. In Phase 2, researchers will gather additional perspectives from the expert panel and stakeholder groups about the refined intervention and related tools. In Phase 3, the team will conduct an initial feasibility test with 10 teachers and 30 families; collect pre-post-data, and refine the intervention content, procedures, and measures with each implementation. In Phase 4, researchers will conduct a pilot test of the final model with 60 teachers (30 treatment, 30 control) and students and parents (n =600) in participating classrooms to evaluate the promise of the STEP Model for enhancing student social and academic outcomes.
Control Condition: During the Phase 4 randomized field test assessing the promise of the full STEP Model, teachers in the control condition will receive business as usual professional development (i.e., professional development opportunities already available).
Key Measures: Proximal outcomes will include teacher family engagement practices (i.e., observed parent-teacher interactions, teacher/parent report of practices) and teacher efficacy for promoting partnerships. Other measures will include student and parent-reported engagement practices, parent-teacher relationships, teacher attitudes towards family engagement, teacher cultural responsiveness, coach/teacher alliance, fidelity, and social validity. Primary distal outcomes will include student behaviors, competence, relatedness, engagement, and academic performance.
Data Analytic Strategy: The research team will code focus group and survey data by themes for consistency and recommendations across phases. They will conduct descriptive and correlational analyses on quantitative data collected during Phases 2 and 3. For student level outcomes in Phase 4, the research team will conduct two-level (students nested within classrooms) hierarchical linear models (HLM) to compare the two conditions (i.e., STEP vs. control condition) on the variables of interest.
Cost Analysis: The research team will conduct a cost analysis of STEP using the Center for Benefit-Cost Studies Education (CBCSE) Cost Tool Kit. The researchers will estimate the costs associated with implementing the STEP training and coaching process and materials. The team will also use focus group interview data to identify variables to include in a sensitivity analysis, which will provide a range of possible cost estimates depending on the context of delivery. They will develop a final cost analysis model in the final year of the project to identify costs to schools, school staff, and students. The cost analysis will provide information to inform subsequent efficacy trials as well as adoption and sustainability of the STEP Model in effectiveness trials. | https://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=4671 |
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Abstract:PHMSA project DTRS56-05-T-0005 "Development of ICDA for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines" led to the development of a Direct Assessment (DA) protocol to prioritize locations of possible internal corrosion. The underlying basis LP-ICDA is simple; corrosion in liquid petroleum systems is most likely where water and/or solids accumulate. Despite the development of this protocol, it still suffers from the same limitations as other DA methods in that no direct measurement regarding the pipe or the environmental aggressiveness is made. That is, the LPICDA methodology attempts to predict the locations most likely to experience internal corrosion in liquids lines but then the operator needs to conduct subsequent evaluations, such as ILI runs or excavations both of which are expensive and may not always be easy to accomplish, to confirm the LP-ICDA predictions. The method developed here is a complimentary technology that can be used in both piggable and un-piggable pipelines that is capable of making direct measurements of the corrosive environment that may be present at the locations predicted by LP-ICDA. The goal of the project team was to build a prototype and test in the lab and for validation in field. Based on the outcome of the lab tests and field trials, additional modifications and improvements were envisioned to better enable the acceptance and adoption of this technology by pipeline operators and regulatory agencies. To accomplish this objective, the following tasks are proposed: 1. Assemble a prototype that can detect water as well as provide its location 2. Conduct trials in the laboratory to validate its operation in pipeline conditions 3. Conduct trials in the field and identify any necessary system improvements.
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You May Also Like: | https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/34635 |
In 2004, the BBC conducted the development of a new application, the integrated Media Player (iMP) to enable users to download tv and radio programmes to their laptop from bbc.co.uk and watch/listen to them for up to seven days following transmission. The initial technical pilot trialled the use of peer-to-peer distribution technology to share the files and Digital Rights Management to prevent users from copying and forwarding content to others.
Following a successful trial of the technology, the BBC embarked on the second phase of the project which was to run a consumer trial with 5,000 volunteers to test a revised application and to gather research data on the use and viewing behaviours of, the technology.
Requirement
The BBC initially approached CMI Synergy to provide an independent audit of the consumer trial programme and identify any significant risks with the development of the new iMP player and the supporting content infrastructure. Following a successful audit, CMI was retained to project manage the consumer trial involving the recruitment and selection of the volunteers, set-up of the support desk and, gathering the market research data.
Approach
The initial approach for the audit was to conduct one-to-one interviews with the programme team and workstream leads. In addition, we reviewed key documentation and processes to understand how the project was structured and to identify any emerging risks and issues. CMI used dependency modelling to structure the investigation and to visualise how risks and issues were impacting the programme. A final report was delivered with a series of recommendations to improve aspects of the delivery.
As a result of the report, CMI were asked to project manage the consumer trial to allow the technical project manager to focus on the iMP development and infrastructure. Our approach in this regard was to divide the trial into three specific areas of delivery:
- The registration and selection of the participants.
- The help desk and support arrangements, and
- The gathering and validation of the research data.
The research data was identified as the key output from the trial, so this aspect was prioritised. By developing the scope of the data needed from the trial, the team were able to design the data collection methods, the timing of them and also ensuring success by linking data collection to the terms and conditions for joining the trial.
The team developed the processes for managing the trial as well as running the support function and data collection.
Outcomes
The three-month trial was rolled out to 5,000 participants from over 30,000 applicants. This was later extended by a further month to obtain additional data following an upgrade to the player after the trial exposed bugs and technical issues. The trial was considered a success and provided all of the necessary data in support of the Public Value Test and scrutiny by Ofcom and the BBC Trust.
Related Testimonial
Jon Mulliner, myBBCPlayer programme manager said “We initially engaged CMI to conduct an independent audit of the iMP project to understand the delivery risks across the BBC team and our partners. Using the dependency modelling approach, they quickly demonstrated that they had a comprehensive understanding of the project and its complexities and we seized the opportunity to bring them on board to manage the consumer trial”. | https://www.cmisynergy.com/cmi-case-study-imp-consumer-trial/ |
After yesterday’s release, some users have encountered some issues with the new update and it resulted Jolla to keep the update on hold for a day:
As you may have noticed, the rolling out of Vaarainjärvi was put on hold last evening. At Jolla, we follow a process for staged releasing of software updates, allowing us to gather end user feedback right from the field before making it a mass public release.
This has allowed us to catch the device lock issue spotted by two users yesterday. We promptly put the release on hold and investigated the issue. At this point, considering the holiday season, we decided that it’s best to remove the alphanumeric lock code feature from the release.
Existing update10 users, if you have enabled alphanumeric lock code in settings, consider switching it back to numeric, otherwise after accepting the hotfix you will have to stay with alphanumeric mode until Update 11.
The rest of our users will receive 1.1.1.27 directly on Monday without the alphanumeric lock code feature.
As for now, the update is available or will be available to all the users. Please be patient if you’re still not getting it. | http://www.jollausers.com/2014/12/sailfish-os-update-10-1-1-1-27-hotfix-released/ |
Aug 2, 2017
Conducting context-driven type of testing involves identifying the intended market for the software product and evaluating the environment in which customers are most likely to use it. The two best approaches for achieving this include:
People-centric Approach: In this approach, the testing team enlists so-called domain experts to interview software users and gather input on their experience with the product. Typically, domain experts might include a team of Subject-Matter Experts (SME), including those in the actual roles being interviewed such as nurses, providers and care managers, along with User Acceptance Testing (UAT) users, developers, business analysts and quality assurance testers. These experts should be knowledgeable about the software, but it’s also important that they remain unbiased so that they do not influence users based on their own experience with the product. Once the feedback is collected, domain experts use data from those interviews and experiences to create and conduct exploratory tests. Based on the outcomes of the tests, experts analyze the data and provide feedback to the business team concerning usage patterns, defects, and enhancements that could be made to the product itself as well as its documentation. This analysis can also help the testing team improve their evaluation strategies.
Technology-based Approach: This approach to context-driven testing is similar to the people-centric approach. In both approaches, data collection and analysis take place that reveal usage patterns and help inform product and documentation enhancements, as well as testing strategies. The main difference is that this approach uses technology—usually a lightweight, discreet agent on a computer or another device—to capture the user actions and test data.
Which approach should you use? Since context-driven testing places more emphasis on the people using the software, logic would suggest that a people-centric approach would be better. The more likely determinant for using one approach over the other, though, is what your organization and the users of your software will allow. If your organization won’t allow the testing team to install an agent that captures actions performed by users (as is often the case), the people-centric approach is your best and only option.
Read more about the methodology behind context-driven testing, its benefits for rolling out software and best practices for implementing this testing strategy in our white paper. | https://www.emids.com/insights/best-approaches-to-conducting-context-driven-testing/ |
Scientists in a network of medical research institutions across the United States are set to begin a series of clinical trials to gather critical data about influenza vaccines, including two candidate H1N1 flu vaccines. The research will be under the direction of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health.
"With the emergence of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, we have undertaken a collaborative and efficient process of vaccine development that is proceeding in stepwise fashion," says NIAID Director Anthony S. Fauci, M.D.
After the isolation and characterization of the virus, the U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention generated and distributed a 2009 H1N1 seed virus to vaccine manufacturers for the development of vaccine pilot lots for testing in clinical trials.
"Now, NIAID will use our longstanding vaccine clinical trials infrastructure — the Vaccine and Treatment Evaluation Units — to help quickly evaluate these pilot lots to determine whether the vaccines are safe and to assess their ability to induce protective immune responses," says Dr. Fauci. "These data will be factored into the decision about how and if to implement a 2009 H1N1 flu immunization program this fall."
Initial studies will look at whether one or two 15 microgram doses of H1N1 vaccine are needed to induce a potentially protective immune response in healthy adult volunteers (aged 18 to 64 years old) and elderly people (aged 65 and older). Researchers also will assess whether one or two 30 microgram doses are needed. The doses will be given 21 days apart, testing two manufacturers’ vaccines (Sanofi Pasteur and CSL Biotherapies). If early information from those trials indicates that these vaccines are safe, similar trials in healthy children (aged 6 months to 17 years old) will begin.
A concurrent set of trials will look at the safety and immune response in healthy adult and elderly volunteers who are given the seasonal flu vaccine along with a 15 microgram dose of 2009 H1N1 vaccine. The H1N1 vaccine would be given to different sets of volunteers either before, after, or at the same time as the seasonal flu vaccine. If early information from those studies indicates that these vaccines are safe, similar trials in healthy children (aged 6 months to 17 years old) will start.
A panel of outside experts will conduct a close review of the safety data from these trials to spot any safety concerns in real time. Information from these studies in healthy people will help public health officials develop recommendations for immunization schedules, including the optimal dosage and number of doses for multiple age and groups, including adults, the elderly, and children. Data may also be used to support decisions about the best recommendations for people in high risk groups, including pregnant women and people whose immune systems are weakened or otherwise compromised.
The trials are being conducted in a compressed timeframe in a race against the possible autumn resurgence of 2009 H1N1 flu infections that may occur at the same time as seasonal influenza virus strains begin to circulate widely in the Northern Hemisphere. | http://www.healthylifeinfo.com/2015/lifehealth/3158/ |
Go back to the Lower Cascades Park web page.
The City of Bloomington launched a pilot project to convert Old State Road 37 North through Lower Cascades Park to a bicycle- and pedestrian-only trail on Friday, March 13, 2020. The pilot road closure period will take place through next spring, and the city will continue to gather feedback from park and trail users about their experiences in the park, and the impact of the pilot road closure.
A .6-mile segment of Old SR 37 North is closed to motor vehicle traffic during the six-month trial period. The road is converted to a bicyle- and pedestrian-only trail between the IMI quarry entrance and the Lower Cascades Park playground. Access to the parking lots at the Sycamore Shelter, at the intersection of Clubhouse Drive and Old SR 37 N, and at both the north and south ends of the playground will remain open.
The Waterfall Shelter is accessible only by bicycle or on foot. The drive-through creek crossing just south of the Waterfall Shelter is inaccessible by motor vehicle. Vehicles may park south of the playground; the closest walking route is across the road and over the footbridge to the Waterfall Shelter.
One of seven public amenity improvements being funded by Bicentennial Bonds issued in 2018, the pilot trail project is intended to expand and integrate with Bloomington's network of walking and biking trails; provide a safe, accessible destination for recreation and exercise; and to offer bicycle commuters additional options for safer routes.
This pilot road conversion project will allow all park users the chance to see what converting the road into a trail through the park will be like, and to explore the impacts of such a change.
Bloomington's Board of Public Works heard and approved the request from the Bloomington Parks and Recreation Department to convert the road to a bicycle- and pedestrian-only trail on Tuesday, March 3, 2020 at their regularly scheduled meeting.
Park users are encouraged to visit the park and provide feedback about how the road conversion impacted their visits, and neighbors are encouraged to provide feedback on the impact of the road conversion. See the green buttons below to take an online survey about your visit, or about the impact of the pilot road conversion on your travel. | https://bloomington.in.gov/parks/lower-cascades-road |
Entering the research field is something that holds a lot of opportunity for anyone. Great salaries, excellent benefits, and personal satisfaction are all among the key reasons that this field remains one of the most common for anyone to enter.
See our list of the highest paying research careers in public health.
#1 Bioterrorism Researcher – $35,000 – $84,000
A bioterrorism researcher is someone who is trained in chemistry, biology, and other scientific fields and who uses their skills to conduct research into bioterrorism and its various sub-fields of study. They will look at a variety of areas within the subject of bioterrorism with the ultimate goal of identify risk areas and working to improve the safety of the public. Potential job duties will vary greatly, but will likely include the following.
#2 Clinical Research Director – $53,000 – $99,000
A clinical research director works to provide leadership in clinical research settings. They help to oversee the overall evaluation and development of drugs or healthcare solutions, oversee programs designed to prevent or treat infectious disease, and more. In short, they are responsible for the management of the research side of a healthcare organization. Job duties that these professionals may be responsible for include the following:
#3 Director of Applied Research – $45,000 – $82,000
A director of applied research essentially tests theories of healthcare application and practice in a real world situation. You would not only be responsible for making sure that the program itself runs smoothly, but you would also need to consider how the program is impacting the public. This information is then used to make changes within the practices.
#4 Disaster Preparedness Researcher – $36,000 – $68,000
A disaster preparedness researcher is responsible for assessing community preparedness in the event of a natural or manmade threat, as well as determining the statistical potential for such an occurrence. This career path is also focused on developing plans at a local and state level to cope with incidences, and reduce the risk to the community and the loss of life.
#5 Mental Health Researcher – $66,000 – $122,000
In the field of public health, a mental health researcher is a doctor of psychology who studies how mental health conditions affect populations, and how demographic, environmental, and social factors can affect the course and expression of psychological conditions. Mental health researcher will engage in clinical practice as a course of studying the effects of intervention, but primary concerns are to understand the causes of psychological disease and the influences that exacerbate them. This will also translate into a greater ability to provide effective treatment and prevention services for the public.
#6 Outcomes Researcher – $54,000 – $102,000
An outcomes researcher reviews current standard in health care practice and looks at public health programs to determine benefit impact on a variety of levels. This can include community health, use of resources, and fiscal expenditures. You would weigh positives and negatives within your analysis to determine if changes in practice and implementation need to occur. Along with your analysis, you would also consult with providing facilities and other healthcare professionals to optimize the impact of practice and programs.
#7 Public Health Researcher – $38,000 – $69,000
A public health researcher is a type of public health professional who is charged with researching all matters of public health. This will mean researching public health trends as well as hazards and different environmental risks, and these researchers provide very important information to other public health professionals and this allows them to do their jobs more efficiently. A public health researcher will conduct research through the analyzing of data as well as lab test results and different noted trends in order to gain a better perspective of the state of health of a population as well as the risks they may be exposed to.
#8 Research Analyst -$45,000 – $84,000
A research analyst in the health field is similar to a research analyst in any other role. They work to plan and conduct analysis of different aspects of health care. They do so by using statistical and epidemiological data, and often spend as much of their time gathering data as they do analyzing it. They use their findings to determine which areas of health in a community or facility are at risk or could be improved, and then they take steps to improve it by discussing with others who are in charge of policy and procedure.
#9 Research Biostatistician – $53,000 – $100,000
Research biostatisticians gather data and oversee clinical trials for the development of new treatment interventions. This position includes ensuring that legal and ethical as well as scientific protocols are followed, but is also concerned with the proper and accurate gathering, recording, and evaluating of data. Research biostatisticians will also prepare results that outline the information, findings, and implications of these trials and present them as possible consideration for new treatment modalities.
#10 Research Data Analyst – $48,000 – $89,000
A research data analyst will work with a clinical trial team to evaluate the meaning and implications of quantitative data that is gathered in studying new treatment modalities. This job requires the ability to determine variables that may affect results and also to evaluate if there is effective or natural change that occurs over the course of the treatment. Research data analysts will often use specialized software applications to organize information and look for possible discrepancies and isolate human error in data recording. This position allows for a valid assessment of clinical trial results so that safe and effective interventions may be presented to the public.
#11 Research Scientist – $51,000 – $96,000
A research scientist may investigate the characteristics and lifecycles of organisms that create disease, as well as perform clinical trials for the treatment of the ailments in the population. This may include studying and culturing microbes in the lab, but it can also include tracking trends in the community, and developing better interventions through the testing of medications and treatments.
#12 Statistical Research Analyst
A statistical research analyst in a public health setting will be in charge of carrying out various different tasks related to all types of statistical data collected by other public health professionals such as epidemiologists or environmental scientists. The statistical research analyst will use these different types of statistical data to craft projects, relay information, and assist with method efficiency. The work that this type of professional provides is important to the overall bigger picture of public health, and without statistical research analysts the data collected by different public health groups would not be able to be properly correlated or understood by all personnel in the field.
#13 Survey Researchers
A survey researcher works with numbers, and their primary goals are to design surveys, gather data from those surveys, and analyze the data gained from it to help influence future decisions about research, policy, and even marketing. They may also focus on more existential issues, like trying to gain a greater understanding about preferences or beliefs. Common job duties for a survey researcher include the following.
#14 Vaccine Researcher
A vaccine researcher carries out job duties just like their title would suggest. They specialize in studying and developing vaccines, monitoring and modifying existing vaccines, and studying the overall safety of vaccines in general. | https://www.careersinpublichealth.net/resources/14-awesome-research-careers-public-health/ |
Since the early 2000s, a number of publications in the medical literature have highlighted inadequacies in the design, conduct and reporting of pilot trials. This work led to two notable publications in 2016: a conceptual framework for defining feasibility studies and an extension to the CONSORT 2010 statement to include pilot trials. It was hoped that these publications would educate researchers, leading to better use of pilot trials and thus more rigorously planned and informed randomised controlled trials. The aim of the present work is to evaluate the impact of these publications in the field of physical activity by reviewing the literature pre- and post-2016. This first article presents the pre-2016 review of the reporting and the current editorial policy applied to pilot trials published in physical activity journals.
Fourteen physical activity journals were screened for pilot and feasibility studies published between 2012 and 2015. The CONSORT 2010 extension to pilot and feasibility studies was used as a framework to assess the reporting quality of the studies. Editors of the eligible physical activity journals were canvassed regarding their editorial policy for pilot and feasibility studies.
Thirty-one articles across five journals met the eligibility criteria. These articles fell into three distinct categories: trials that were carried out in preparation for a future definitive trial (23%), trials that evaluated the feasibility of a novel intervention but did not explicitly address a future definitive trial (23%) and trials that did not have any clear objectives to address feasibility (55%). Editors from all five journals stated that they generally do not accept pilot trials, and none gave reference to the CONSORT 2010 extension as a guideline for submissions.
The result that over half of the studies did not have feasibility objectives is in line with previous research findings, demonstrating that these findings are not being disseminated effectively to researchers in the field of physical activity. The low standard of reporting across most reviewed articles and the neglect of the extended CONSORT 2010 statement by the journal editors highlight the need to actively disseminate these guidelines to ensure their impact.
Pilot trials play a crucial role in the design of randomised controlled trials (RCT). They provide an opportunity to identify and address feasibility issues prior to the main RCT, thus avoiding the wasted resources and unnecessary participant burden that can incur from poorly designed RCTs. However, there is some confusion in the research community over the definition, purpose, conduct and reporting of pilot studies. A number of publications describe the tendency for small underpowered studies which focus on testing efficacy or effectiveness to be inappropriately described by authors as pilot or feasibility studies [1–4].
In response to these findings, 2016 saw the release of two notable publications that aimed to address the inadequacies and misunderstandings surrounding pilot and feasibility work. The first, published in March 2016, addressed the inconsistencies in the use of the terms pilot and feasibility across medical literature . This publication presented a conceptual framework for defining feasibility and pilot studies in preparation for RCTs. The authors concluded that feasibility is an overarching term that asks whether something will work. A feasibility study asks whether something can be done, should we proceed with it and if so how. A pilot study is a study in which a part or a whole of a future study is conducted on a smaller scale to see whether it will work. Therefore, all pilot studies are feasibility studies, but not all feasibility studies are pilot studies. To clarify, a study in which participants fill in a questionnaire to assess the types of outcomes that they think are important is given by Eldridge et al. as an example of a feasibility study which is not a pilot study .
The second paper, published in September 2016, presented a Consolidated Standards of Reporting (CONSORT) 2010 statement extension to include randomised pilot and feasibility trials carried out in advance of a future definitive trial . For brevity, we will refer to this publication as the CONSORT 2010 extension. Eldridge et al. use the term pilot trial to refer to “any randomised study in which a future definitive RCT, or a part of it, is conducted on a smaller scale” . We will use the term pilot trial to refer to any article that fits the inclusion criteria outlined in our methods section. In theory, this should be consistent with the terminology used by Eldridge et al.
While these two publications have the potential to mark a turning point in the conduct, reporting and publication of feasibility work, it is important to evaluate the impact. The challenges and uncertainties faced when carrying out a trial can vary depending on the area of research, making it informative to evaluate the impact of these guidelines in specific fields. Physical activity is a growing field of research due to its associations with some of the most prevalent morbidities in western society, such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and certain cancers [7, 8]. Some examples of uncertainties and challenges faced in this field include recruiting hard-to-reach individuals , measuring physical activity in a free-living setting (physical activity carried out in a participant’s own environment at their own pace) and initiating and maintaining behaviour change, particularly in older people . It is an essential pre-requisite to the development of effective physical activity interventions that the uncertainties surrounding definitive trials are appropriately addressed in advance by well-conducted pilot trials. Furthermore, pilot trials should be reported in a transparent manner to inform other researchers in the field.
The overall aim of this work is to evaluate the impact of the CONSORT 2010 extension in the field of physical activity. This will be done by reviewing the reporting of pilot trials in physical activity journals before and after the 2016 publication of the CONSORT 2010 extension. This first article presents a review of articles published in 2012–15. Our intention is to carry out a follow-up review of articles published in 2018–21 to evaluate the impact. The objectives of both will be to review the reporting and methodological components of external randomised pilot trials across a selection of physical activity journals and to review the editorial policy regarding the publication of pilot and feasibility trials across these journals.
Our initial review was carried out across 14 journals (Table 1) concerned with physical activity, exercise and sport. These 14 journals were intentionally generic and not specific to conditions or populations, for example we included the Journal of Physical Activity and Health but excluded the Journal of Physical Activity and Ageing. MEDLINE was searched for articles with either randomised or randomized, and either pilot or feas* in the title or abstract, restricting the search to the years 2012–15 and the 14 generic physical activity journals. Articles were eligible if they fulfilled either of the following two criteria: they identified as either a pilot or feasibility study in the title OR they explicitly identified as a pilot or feasibility study in the abstract or introduction (e.g. “This pilot/feasibility study…”). Articles were excluded if they were either not randomised or they reported an internal pilot trial. Articles from journals with five or more eligible articles were included in the literature review, and these journals were included in the review of editorial policy.
A data extraction form was developed using the CONSORT 2010 extension as a guide . The development of the form was an iterative process that involved two reviewers piloting it on three articles and updating the form according to disagreements in responses. Data were extracted from each article by two independent reviewers. We did not extract data corresponding to every item on the CONSORT 2010 extension, but instead focused on the items that address features which have been identified by previous research as the main shortcomings of pilot trials [2, 4, 5]. Briefly, these features are the justification of the pilot trial as an assessment of the feasibility of a future definitive trial and the inappropriate use of hypothesis testing in pilot trials. The included CONSORT 2010 extension items are detailed in Table 2.
Inconsistencies in the use of the terms pilot and feasibility have been highlighted by previous publications [2, 12]. This issue was addressed by Eldridge et al. in their development of a conceptual framework for defining feasibility trials in preparation for RCTs, published in 2016 . This motivated the extraction of data related to item 1a. Contrasting the use of the terms pilot and feasibility before and after this publication provides the opportunity to evaluate whether it affected terminology in this field.
To assess adherence to item 2a, we recorded whether the article gave rationale for the future definitive trial and rationale for carrying out a pilot trial. Corresponding to item 2b, we recorded whether the article gave clear objectives to assess the feasibility of a future definitive trial.
To investigate the design of the pilot trials in our review, we extracted data corresponding to items 3a and 5. To address item 3a, we categorised the articles into the following groups, based on their design: parallel, crossover, cluster, waitlist control and other. The inclusion of a control group is not mandatory in pilot trials; a control group should only be included if it is necessary for addressing uncertainties regarding the future definitive RCT. We recorded whether the trial included a control group, corresponding to item 5.
Pilot trial objectives should address the feasibility of a future definitive trial, making items 6a and 6c key to the appropriate reporting of a pilot trial. The outcomes to address these objectives should be completely defined and pre-specified, as per item 6a. Each outcome should correspond to a specific aspect of feasibility being addressed by the pilot trial.
Thabane et al. proposed four aspects to broadly classify the different rationale for performing a pilot trial; full details on these aspects can be found in their paper. Briefly, the four aspects are process (e.g. recruitment and retention rates), resources (e.g. cost, time, equipment), management (e.g. data entry and storage) and scientific (e.g. dose). We used this classification, including two further categories, to explain the aspects of feasibility addressed by the pilot trials. The two further categories added were sample size (pilot trial used to inform the sample size calculation for future definitive trial) and feedback (pilot trial used to collect qualitative or quantitative feedback from participants and staff, e.g. to explore the acceptability of the intervention or suggestions for improvements).
For an article to qualify as having addressed any of these aspects of feasibility, the aspect had to be addressed explicitly as an objective in the introduction or as an outcome in the methods section. If applicable, pre-specified criteria should be applied to these outcomes in order to inform the progression to a future definitive trial, corresponding to item 6c.
While a formal sample size calculation is not a requirement in pilot trials, the article should give a rationale for the number of participants in the trial, corresponding to item 7a. We extracted two pieces of information regarding sample size from each article. The first was whether the study gave rationale for the number of participants in the study, based on the numbers required to assess feasibility of the future definitive trial. The second was whether a sample size calculation had been carried out, based on hypothesis testing of the primary outcome intended for the future definitive trial. The latter refers to the type of sample size calculation that should be carried out in a definitive RCT, whose primary objective is to assess the effectiveness of an intervention.
A previous literature review identified that pilot trials put inappropriate emphasis on hypothesis testing . The CONSORT 2010 extension explains in reference to item 12a that “any estimates of effect using participant outcomes as they are likely to be measured in the future definitive RCT would be reported as estimates with 95% confidence intervals without p-values” . Corresponding to this item, we recorded whether hypothesis-testing of effectiveness was carried out.
Discussions of pilot trials have been shown to be particularly poorly reported . Shanyinde et al. highlight that discussions of pilot trials often focus on efficacy, rather than feasibility issues or the planning of future trials . In line with this, it is important to distinguish items 20 and 21 in the CONSORT 2010 extension to pilot trials to items 20 and 21 in the CONSORT 2010 statement for definitive RCTs .
The “limitations and sources of potential bias” part of item 20 (CONSORT 2010 extension) should be considered in reference to the progression to a future definitive RCT, and how the design could be altered to overcome them. Similarly, the generalisability referred to in item 21 (CONSORT 2010 extension) should be considered in the context of generalisability of findings and methods to a future definitive RCT, rather than generalisability of findings to a clinical setting, as is the case when discussing the findings of a definitive RCT. The information extracted corresponding to these items is presented under the following headings: sources of potential bias, remaining uncertainty about feasibility and generalisability to future definitive trial.
As pilot trials should be carried out primarily to assess feasibility of a future definitive RCT, the implications for a future definitive RCT should be made clear in the discussion of the pilot trial, as per item 22a. We extracted information regarding the implications for a future definitive RCT, the planned progression to a future definitive RCT and the realised progression to a future definitive RCT. Planned progression was categorised as future definitive RCT planned without any changes, planned with changes from the pilot trial, not planned because of major problems with feasibility or unclear. The information for realised progression to future definitive trial was obtained by an online search as a first step, and where this did not produce results, we contacted the first author of each article by email to request the information. Realised progression was categorised as definitive RCT completed, definitive RCT registered, definitive RCT not registered or no information (if both our online search was unsuccessful and we did not receive a response to the email enquiry).
Editors of the physical activity journals with five or more eligible articles received an email enquiry regarding their editorial policy for pilot trials. All editors were sent an initial email and a follow-up email 1 month later if they did not respond. Their responses, along with the information provided on the journal website, are included in this review.
Figure 1 illustrates the flow of articles into the review and names the included journals. The initial search across 14 journals identified 77 articles. Restricting to journals with five or more relevant articles left 57 articles across five journals. After further exclusions, 31 articles across five journals were included in the review (Table 3).
Breast cancer risk reduction—is it feasible to initiate a randomised controlled trial of a lifestyle intervention programme (ActWell) within a national breast screening programme?
After data extraction, it was apparent that the pilot trials in the review could be classified into three categories: trials that were carried out in preparation for a future definitive trial (FDT); trials that evaluated the feasibility of a novel intervention but did not explicitly address a future definitive trial in their objectives (FNI); and trials that had no objectives, pre-defined assessments or measurements to assess feasibility, referred to as non-feasibility (NF). Articles reporting FDT and FNI trials were assessed according to their adherence to all items listed in Table 2. As the NF trials did not address objectives relating to feasibility, these articles were excluded from the sections of the review that focus on the aspects of feasibility addressed and the discussion points that focus on the feasibility of a future definitive trial. The category assigned to each article is given in Table 3. All results are stratified by these three categories (FDT, FNI or NF).
Of the 31 trials included in the review, seven (23%) were FDT, seven (23%) were FNI and 17 (55%) were NF. An interesting observation taken from Table 3 was that all seven of the FDT articles were published in IJBNPA. The FNI and NF articles both had a fairly even distribution across the five journals. In terms of the numbers of participants randomised in each trial, the FDT trials were substantially larger than the FNI and FN trials, with a median of 108 (IQR 130) participants. The FNI trials had a median of 48 (IQR 32) participants, and NF trials were the smallest, with a median of 19 (IQR 24).
The full results for the literature review are detailed in Table 4. All data extracted in this review can be found in Additional file 1.
Notable differences were found across the three categories of trials in terms of how they identified in the title of the article. FDT and FNI trials varied as to whether they identified as pilot or feasibility, all of them identifying as either or both. In contrast, 12 (71%) of the NF trials identified as pilot in the title, and none as feasibility. In addition, only one (6%) of the NF trials identified as randomised, compared with five (71%) and three (43%) of the FDT and FNI studies respectively. The original CONSORT 2010 statement advises that RCTs should identify as randomised in the title , thus highlighting the poor reporting in these trials in general as these were the guidelines they should have been following at the time of publication.
Across all articles, the introduction focused on the scientific background and rationale for carrying out a definitive trial. However, none of the articles reported uncertainties in the context of relevant evidence in their introduction, and none gave a clear rationale for the need to carry out a pilot trial as opposed to a definitive trial. Even in the trials with feasibility objectives (FDT and FNI), the rationale for exploring feasibility was not supported with relevant evidence.
Specific aspects of feasibility to be addressed were outlined in the introduction in all but one of the FDT articles. This article simply stated “This study aims to assess the feasibility…” with no detail on the specific aspects of feasibility to be addressed. However, the specific aspects of feasibility to be addressed were detailed by Anderson et al., in the methods section of the article .
In contrast, only one (14%) FNI article detailed specific aspects of feasibility to be addressed in their introduction . However, five (71%) of the FNI articles did detail aspects of feasibility to be addressed in the methods section. Of the remaining two, one revealed the specific aspect of feasibility that they were addressing in the discussion , while one did not address any specific aspects of feasibility, listing only outcomes to address the effectiveness of the intervention .
Inherent to the labelling of the NF trials, none of the NF articles detailed feasibility objectives in the introduction or in the methods section.
None of the NF articles made reference to feasibility when stating their objectives. Thirteen (76%) listed effectiveness of an intervention as their primary or sole objective, and the remaining four listed objectives relating to usefulness of a scale , reproducibility of a test , monitoring physiological mechanisms and efficacy . None of these articles outlined rationale for the need to carry out a pilot trial as opposed to a definitive trial.
Of all 31 studies, a parallel design was used in 55%, crossover in 19%, cluster in 6%, waitlist control in 10% and the remaining 10% had other designs. All six crossover trials were in the NF category, accounting for 35% of the total NF trials.
All but three of the trials were two-arm; of the three that were not, one was three- and two were four-arm. All of the FDT trials had a control arm, while a control arm was included in five (71%) and 11 (65%) of the FNI and NF studies respectively.
The NF articles are omitted as they did not address feasibility. Process, scientific and feedback aspects were addressed by all seven of the FDT trials, and by four (57%), six (86%) and five (71%) of the FNI trials respectively. Resources and sample size were both addressed by four (57%) of the FDT, but by none of the FNI trials. Neither the FDT nor FNI trials addressed management as an aspect of feasibility. The median number of aspects of feasibility addressed was four (IQR one) in the FDT trials, compared with two (IQR one) in the FNI trials.
None of the trials detailed pre-specified criteria used to judge whether, or how, to proceed with a future definitive trial. However, two of the FNI trials specified a minimum attendance rate for the intervention to be deemed feasible [22, 23], but direct implications for a future randomised trial were not detailed.
Rationale for the number of participants in the study was given in four (57%) of the FDT articles and one (14%) of the FNI articles. Of all 31 trials, four (13%) carried out a sample size calculation using the primary outcome intended to test the effectiveness/efficacy of the intervention.
Hypothesis testing was used in 26 (84%) of the trials in total, despite only four (13%) carrying out sample size calculations to ensure they were powered to do so. The practice of incorporating hypothesis testing into analysis was least prevalent in the FDT trials, but still almost half of these trials did so.
Only eight (26%) of the total articles addressed sources of potential bias in their discussion [17, 19, 24–29]. Bias should always be addressed when discussing the findings of a trial, regardless of the design, thus highlighting poor reporting of the discussion in general across the articles included in this review. As the remaining three discussion points (corresponding to items 20, 21 and 22a listed in Table 2) refer to the feasibility of a future definitive trial, results are not reported for the NF studies. There was a clear discrepancy between the FDT and FNI articles in the reporting of these discussion points. Remaining uncertainty regarding feasibility and the implications of the pilot trial findings for a future definitive trial were well reported by most FDT articles. However, only three (43%) of the FDT articles reported whether their methods and findings were generalisable to a future definitive trial.
As stated at the beginning of this section, the FNI articles did not explicitly address the feasibility of a future definitive trial in their objectives, instead considering the feasibility of a novel intervention. Only one of the FNI articles addressed the remaining uncertainty about feasibility , none considered the generalisability of their methods and findings to a future definitive trial and three (43%) considered the implications of their findings to a future definitive trial. While this highlighted poor reporting of the discussion, it does demonstrate that some of the articles which did not explicitly consider the feasibility of a future definitive trial in their objectives then went on to address it in their discussion.
In terms of progression to a future definitive RCT, there was a clear distinction in the quality of reporting between the FDT and FNI trials. All but one of the FDT trials planned to carry out a definitive RCT with changes based on the findings from the pilot trial, while plans for progression were unclear in the remaining one FDT trial. Conversely, plans for progression were unclear in all but one of the FNI trials, with the remaining one stating that a future definitive RCT was planned with changes based on pilot trial findings. None of the studies planned to progress to a future definitive trial without changes. Of the six studies in which the plans were unclear, the lack of clarity generally related to whether the suggested changes were due to be implemented in a future definitive RCT, or whether they should be tested in further feasibility work, prior to carrying out a definitive RCT.
Three (43%) of the FDT trials progressed to definitive trials which have since been completed. One trial was registered . However, following contact with Greaves (the lead author), we understand that the definitive trial does not directly correspond to the pilot trial, as it was carried out in a different region, under a different institution and with additional components, but uses the intervention piloted by Greaves et al. The protocol for the definitive trial has been published . We did not obtain information from the remaining three FDT trials. Of the FNI trials, one had been registered as a definitive trial, two were not registered (although the authors stated intentions to do so when contacted) and we did not obtain any information on the remaining four FNI trials.
Of the five journals, only the International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (IJBNPA) and Journal of Physical Activity and Health (JPAH) detailed their editorial policy for pilot trials on the journal website or in the author guidelines, both stating that they rarely accept pilot trials. Editors from all five journals responded to our enquiry regarding their editorial policy for pilot trials. Across all five journals, the editors stated that they generally do not accept pilot trials, although none stated that they would be automatically rejected without review, thus giving themselves some flexibility. Editors from IJBNPA and JPAH stated that they would only consider pilot studies that were novel and well-reported, while editors from the Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport (JSMS) and the Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (JSSM) did not state any criteria specific to pilot trials and requested only consistency with their author guidelines for research articles.
In agreement with the findings of Shanyinde et al. , yet in contrast to those of Arain et al. , we found more articles identified as pilot than feasibility in this subject area. As the term feasibility was used only in articles with appropriate feasibility objectives (labelled FDT or FNI in this review), we did not observe the misuse of this term in our review. Conversely, the term pilot was used across articles that did not have feasibility objectives but instead tested an intervention’s effectiveness on a small sample and at a single site (labelled NF in this review).
Our review found that, beyond the lack of clear feasibility objectives, the defining characteristics of the trials inappropriately labelled as pilot (NF trials) were that they had small sample sizes unsupported by sample size calculation and that they used hypothesis tests despite most being underpowered to do so. Not only is the inappropriate use of the term pilot misleading in this context, the conduct of such trials is in most cases unethical, as they put participants at risk for limited benefit . These findings reinforce the need to disseminate the Conceptual Framework to Define Feasibility and Pilot Studies to discourage inappropriate use of the term pilot and dissuade the practice of conducting a main trial in miniature to test effectiveness. Conditional on the dissemination of the Conceptual Framework to Define Feasibility and Pilot Studies , we anticipate very few, if any, such pilot trials will be identified in the follow-up review of articles published in 2018–21.
It is also of note that 35% of the inappropriately labelled pilot trials (NF trials) were cross-over in design. The benefit of this design is that, by making comparisons within rather than between participants, fewer participants are required to detect a change in the primary outcome compared with the number needed in an equivalent parallel trial . However, this design has a history of inappropriate use, for example, in the field of fertility medicine .The motivation for choosing this design should be driven by context, not by low participant numbers. Only one of the six cross-over pilot trials in this review reported a sample size calculation, suggesting that the design could have been motivated by small sample size in the other five cases. The reason for conducting a pilot trial should be to inform a future definitive RCT. Therefore, the use of the cross-over design in pilot trials should be discouraged unless this is the intended design for the future RCT. To elaborate, feasibility issues in the pilot trial may be associated with the cross-over design and thus not applicable to the definitive trial of a different design. To our knowledge, the inappropriate use of the cross-over design in pilot trials has not been highlighted by previous reviews. However, it is likely to be of relevance across other areas of medical research and not only in physical activity.
Amongst the articles with feasibility objectives (FDT and FNI trials), many did not give appropriate reference to the future definitive trial in their introductions and discussions. However, we are hopeful that the publication of the CONSORT 2010 extension should ameliorate this issue, as the guidelines give explicit recommendations to both justify the need for a pilot in advance of a future definitive trial and to discuss the findings in relation to a future definitive trial. At the time of these articles’ publication, no such guidelines existed.
A more concerning practice amongst the articles with feasibility objectives (FDT and FNI trials) was that many gave inappropriate emphasis to hypothesis tests of the primary outcome intended for the definitive trial. In a review published in 2004, Lancaster et al. recommend that the analysis of pilot studies “should be mainly descriptive” and that “results from hypothesis testing should be treated with caution, as no formal power calculations have been carried out” . In the follow-up to this review, Arain et al. conclude that pilot studies still put “inappropriate emphasis on hypothesis testing” . This raises the concern that these recommendations are either not reaching the relevant researchers or that they are being ignored. This calls for the need for both better scientific training and better dissemination of research methodology in the field of pilot and feasibility work.
The launch of the Pilot and Feasibility Studies journal in 2015 was a major step to address these issues and was described by Lancaster as providing “a forum for discussion of methodological issues that will lead to increased scientific rigour in this area” . The journal also provides a platform for the publication of pilot and feasibility work. Our review of editorial policy, which identified an increasing reluctance to publish pilot work across the five reviewed physical activity journals, emphasises the need for a journal dedicated to the publication of pilot work.
While the multi-disciplinary nature of Pilot and Feasibility Studies has the benefit of sharing ideas across different subject areas, it is also crucial that subject-specific journals acknowledge the importance of pilot and feasibility work. This means considering prospective pilot trial submissions on the merit of their potential to inform future research, rather than the significance of an effect size. A key step to implementing these changes in editorial policy is the adoption of the CONSORT 2010 extension as a guideline for submissions identified as pilot or feasibility work.
To our knowledge, this is the first review to document the reporting and editorial policy of pilot trials in the field of physical activity. A strength of this work was the extensive use of the CONSORT 2010 statement as a framework for the data extraction form. The CONSORT 2010 statement was extended to pilot trials by a research team with expert input from the research community at multiple stages throughout the process. This is described in detail elsewhere . A further strength of this work was the use of two reviewers for data extraction, which enhanced the accuracy and rigour of the review.
A weakness of this review was the small number of studies included with feasibility objectives. While this reflects the necessity of further work to encourage appropriate use of the term pilot, limited conclusions can be drawn from the trends observed within the 14 studies with feasibility objectives. We also anticipated that a greater number of physical activity journals would have published at least five pilot trials in 2012–15. This result either reflects the low number of pilot trials being published in physical activity journals generally or suggests that pilot trials of physical activity interventions are being published elsewhere. The 14 journals included in our search cover some of the highest impact physical activity journals, but the review of editorial policy (limited to the five journals included in the review) identified a reluctance to publish pilot trials in these journals. This could be indicative that physical activity researchers are publishing pilot trials in lower impact journals (not included in our review). An alternative explanation is that condition-specific journals are more open to publishing feasibility work (examples of condition-specific journals that relate to physical activity are Diabetes Care and the European Heart Journal). The second avenue of further work, outlined in the following paragraph, suggests an alternative approach to reviewing the literature which may provide clarity on this issue.
We suggest two avenues for further work. The first avenue is our intention to carry out a follow-up review using articles published in 2018–21. This follow-up review will use the same methods as the current review and will be used to evaluate the impact of the CONSORT 2010 extension in the field of physical activity. A second avenue for further work would be to identify a collection of articles reporting definitive trials in the field of physical activity and to look backwards to find whether appropriate feasibility work was carried out prior to the definitive trial, and if so, where the feasibility work was published, and how it influenced the design of the definitive trial. This approach would focus on the reporting and conduct of trials with feasibility objectives, thus addressing the weakness mentioned in the previous paragraph. Taken together, these two styles of review would give a more complete picture of the use of feasibility work undertaken for physical activity trials. We recommend that researchers in other fields carry out both styles of review in order to gain a thorough understanding of the feasibility work in their field.
To summarise, the aim of this study was to review the reporting and methodological components of pilot trials published across a selection of physical activity journals, using the CONSORT 2010 extension as a guide. We designed the search criteria to identify external randomised pilot trials, as these are the trials specifically targeted by the CONSORT 2010 extension. We found that despite identifying as randomised pilot trials, over half (55%) of the articles identified by our search criteria did not list objectives relating to the feasibility of conducting a future definitive trial. These findings are not unique to the field of physical activity and agree with the findings of three previous literature reviews, all reporting the frequent use of the terms pilot or feasibility to inappropriately describe trials with efficacy or effectiveness as their primary aim. In many cases, these trials had no objectives relating to feasibility [2–4].
This study was supported by the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre at University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and the University of Bristol. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the National Institute for Health Research or the Department of Health and Social Care. Elsie Horne is funded by an NIHR Doctoral Pre-Research Fellowship (RMFI-2015-06-03).
The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its Additional file 1.
EH and SL conceived the study. EH drafted the data extraction form and GL and SL reviewed it. EH undertook the literature search and primarily reviewed all articles. RM was the second reviewer for all articles. EH drafted the manuscript and GL, RM, AC, AN and SL reviewed it. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. | https://pilotfeasibilitystudies.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40814-018-0317-1 |
SINGAPORE: Three Neighbourhood Police Posts (NPPs) have undergone a revamp as part of an effort toward providing better access to services and fostering closer partnership between the police and the local community in neighbourhood peace and security.
The revamped NPPs are in Marsiling, Radin Mas and West Coast.
Police have chosen these areas as each has a different demographical profile to allow police to test the effectiveness of the revamped NPPs in serving both the younger and older users within the community.
At these NPPs, the police aim to improve service delivery to the public through round-the-clock automated access to their e-services.
An e-kiosk allows the public to make online police reports or apply for police documents. And if they encounter problems using the e-services, they can speak to an officer via video conferencing.
Besides police e-services, the public can also access ICA's e-services -- such as applying for a Singapore passport online and scheduling an appointment with ICA.
At Radin Mas NPP, police have also collaborated with POSB to enhance the range of automated services and provide additional convenience to residents with one-stop services, such as ATM and AXS machines.
There are also drop-boxes for residents to deposit items they may have found in a tamper-proof bag.
NPPs are usually manned, but with the automation of such services, officers can be deployed to other policing duties such as foot and bicycle patrols.
The NPP will also serve as an area for police to conduct its community engagement activities.
Each revamped NPP includes a new community zone for police to engage community partners and grassroots organisations.
For example, the community zone in West Coast NPP will be used for meetings and training sessions for members of West Coast Protectors, a local neighbourhood watch group.
Minister in Prime Minister's Office and Second Minister for Home Affairs and Trade and Industry S Iswaran launched the revamped NPPs, together with the opening of the West Coast Wellness Club on Saturday morning.
Speaking at the launch, Mr Iswaran said the revamped NPPs will serve as a platform for the police and the local community to come together and work on joint programmes to build a safer and more secure neighbourhood.
He said: "The transformation of the Neighbourhood Police Posts represents an augmentation, of the role of the Neighbourhood Police Post beyond that of a police service centre.
"The revamped NPPs will serve as a platform for Police and the community to come together and work on joint programmes to build a safer and more secure neighbourhood."
As part of the rollout of the revamped West Coast NPP, the police have worked closely with the West Coast Wellness Club to train senior citizens to become Crime Prevention Ambassadors.
These senior citizens will advise residents on how to stay vigilant and also be trained to help residents in using automated e-services available at the revamped NPPs.
Thomas Lim, a West Coast Wellness Club volunteer and e-service ambassador, said: "The seniors today, many of us are quite afraid of technology. With this training, it also allows the seniors to feel very comfortable with technology and they find it so simple."
The police will gather public feedback during the six-month pilot at the three revamped NPPs before rolling out the revamp to all other NPPs in Singapore.
There are currently 63 NPPs in Singapore. | http://www.campusrock.sg/publicaffairs/revamped-npps-to-bring-police-and-local-community-closer-together |
Guidance Recap Podcast | Interacting with the FDA on Complex Innovative Trial Designs for Drugs and Biological Products Podcast
Thank you for joining us for another episode of the Guidance Recap Podcast. The Guidance Recap Podcast provides highlights for FDA guidance documents straight from the authors. My name is Kylie Haskins, and I am the host for today’s podcast. I am a member of the Guidance, Policy, and Communications Team in the Office of Translational Sciences here at the FDA. In today’s episode, I am excited to be talking with Dr. Greg Levin, who is the Deputy Director of the Division of Biometrics III in CDER’s Office of Biostatistics. Dr. Levin will be sharing some thoughts with us on the newly published final guidance titled, “Interacting with the FDA on Complex Innovative Trial Designs for Drugs and Biological Products.” Welcome, Dr. Levin! Thank you for speaking with us today.
Dr. Levin, can you explain what a complex innovative trial design is for listeners who may not be familiar with this area?
Sure, there is no fixed definition of complex innovative trial design (also called CID) because what is considered innovative or novel can change over time. The guidance describes CID as trial designs that have rarely or never been used to date, and these may include some types of adaptive designs, Bayesian designs, and designs that are so complex that they require simulations to estimate trial operating characteristics. CID can also include the novel application of complex trial design features to a given indication, even when those design features have been used in other indications. Some examples of trial designs that might be considered CID are trials that formally borrow external or historical information, such as adult data to support a pediatric trial or control arm data from Phase 2 to support a Phase 3 trial; Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trials (also known as SMART trials); and master protocols that assess multiple interventions or diseases.
Can you explain to the audience the potential value of complex innovative trial designs and provide some of the reasons that FDA issued this guidance?
These trial designs have the potential to improve trial efficiency, for example making trials smaller and more affordable. They also may have ethical advantages by minimizing patient exposure to ineffective therapies and accelerating the approval and adoption of effective therapies. They are also appealing to stakeholders such as sponsors because of the potential to add flexibility and can be particularly helpful for dealing with the statistical challenges posed by a small patient population in situations such as rare disease drug development.
However, with these potential advantages also comes additional challenges, in part, because we don’t have experience with using these trial designs in regulatory decision making. We also may not understand the operating characteristics of the design, making results from such trials difficult to interpret. To address this unfamiliarity and uncertainty, CID submissions often necessitate additional documentation, which require additional resources for industry to generate and additional resources for FDA staff to review. For example, these trial designs may require simulations to understand the operating characteristics, and these advanced techniques may require additional training for stakeholders and additional time and effort at the planning stage. In some cases, the potential advantages of these designs may not outweigh the limitations and challenges, and it may be more appropriate for sponsors to use a more traditional design.
FDA is issuing this guidance to help ensure successful interactions between sponsors and the FDA that support the regulatory review of CID proposals for trials intended to provide substantial evidence of effectiveness for drugs and biologics. The guidance provides clarity on the type of information needed to determine if a specific design proposal is appropriate for a specific therapeutic setting to facilitate a productive discussion between sponsors and FDA. The guidance doesn’t determine whether a specific type of CID is appropriate, but instead provides the types of information and the types of interactions that are critical to help determine if a specific design proposal is appropriate for a sponsor’s drug development program. FDA issued this guidance as part of an ongoing effort to support innovation in medical product development and to satisfy a mandate under the 21st Century Cures Act.
Can you provide a little background about the Complex Innovative Trial Design (CID) Pilot Meeting Program? How does this guidance relate to the CID Pilot Meeting Program?
The CID Pilot Program launched in August 2018 and offers sponsors an opportunity for increased engagement with FDA to discuss CID proposals in drug and biologic development programs. The CID pilot program is a joint CDER/CBER program that accepts up to two submissions every three months. The program provides sponsors of CID proposals two additional face to face meetings with FDA to allow for a more substantive and interactive regulatory discussion and the opportunity to focus on challenging statistical issues. Participants in the program agree to unique disclosure agreements that allow FDA to publicly share certain information about the trial design and the interactions to help educate stakeholders on CID. Before FDA grants the initial meeting under the CID pilot meeting program, FDA and the sponsor must discuss and agree on the information that FDA will share publicly. FDA intends to request public disclosure of information that is beneficial to advancing the use of CIDs, such as the important components of a simulation report to help understand a CID and the potential value of certain designs for clinical trials intended to support regulatory approval.
The CID guidance discusses methods for interacting with FDA on CID proposals. These discussions can occur through existing pathways for interacting with FDA during the course of drug development but also may occur through the recently initiated CID Pilot Program. The final version of the CID guidance also includes a brief discussion of some submissions reviewed in the CID Pilot Program.
That segues nicely to our next question, what has changed from the draft version to the final version of the guidance?
There a few changes between the draft version and the final version of the CID guidance, but none of them are major.
The draft version of the CID guidance published in September of 2019. As I mentioned earlier, FDA issued this guidance to promote the appropriate use of complex innovative trial designs and to satisfy a mandate under the 21st Century Cures Act. The public comments we received for the draft version of the guidance were overall very positive. Most of the comments expressed appreciation for the recommendations provided in the guidance and many requested additional examples. However, we did receive a few technical comments related to the choice of operating characteristics for clinical trials with Bayesian inference.
Because of the positive feedback received for the draft guidance, not many changes were made in the final version. The two biggest changes are the following:
- First, we added case studies from the CID pilot review program, including one involving a master protocol design, to provide additional examples that were requested in the public comments.
- And second, we eliminated one specific technical statement on operating characteristics of trials with Bayesian inference that received critical feedback in the public comments.
How do you anticipate this guidance will affect external and internal stakeholders?
We anticipate that the final guidance will be welcomed by both FDA and industry as it provides additional clarity on interactions and information needed to determine appropriateness of CID proposals in drug and biologic development programs. The public comments for the draft guidance were positive, and the requests for additional information and clarification were addressed. This guidance also publicly shows FDA’s commitment to innovation and encourages sponsors to consider CID approaches in settings where they may add value.
The guidance contains an incredible amount of useful and important information. What are a couple of key items that you especially want listeners to remember?
That is a great question. First, I would like listeners to remember that the information and discussions necessary to support CID proposals are going to be complex, and applications will thus benefit from earlier and potentially more frequent interactions, and that CIDs may not be appropriate for all settings but may add value in certain cases.
Second, to facilitate productive interactions on CID proposals, stakeholders should review the content elements recommended in the guidance for a CID proposal. For example, documentation to facilitate discussions may need to include the statistical analysis considerations related to the complex innovative design features, how any prior information is used, a simulation report containing details about operating characteristics if simulations are used, and a comprehensive data access plan defining how trial integrity will be maintained, among other things.
Lastly, if a CID proposal contains Bayesian features, especially if the design proposes to utilize external information in the form of an informative prior that will be combined with data in the trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a drug, the guidance emphasizes that the submission should address the choice and justification of the prior distribution and the efficacy criteria for primary and secondary endpoints.
Dr. Levin, thank you for taking the time to share your thoughts on the CID final guidance. We have learned so much from your experience and insights in this area, and we appreciate the hard work that you do to ensure the safe and effective use of the drugs and biologics we regulate. We would also like to thank the guidance working group for writing and publishing this final guidance.
To the listeners, we hope you found this podcast useful. We encourage you to take a look at the snapshot and to read the final guidance. | https://www.fda.gov/drugs/guidances-drugs/guidance-recap-podcast-interacting-fda-complex-innovative-trial-designs-drugs-and-biological |
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