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Travel to the remotest reaches of space in this wondrous follow-up to the acclaimed NOUMENON – a tale of exploration, adventure, and science.
In 2125, the interstellar convoy NOUMENON set out on a voyage that changed humanity’s place in the universe forever. Three millenia later, the convoy’s remaining ships and the clone descendants of its original crew are returning to the anomalous star LQ Pyxidis with new dreams and new objectives.
But NOUMENON was not the only mission to leave Earth behind in the 22nd century.
Physicist Vanhi Kapoor is the leader of Convoy 12. Hers is the smallest Planet United Mission and the only one working entirely within our solar system, but as Vanhi’s team pushes the boundaries of sub-dimensional research further than ever before, disaster strikes. Suddenly, they find themselves very far from home, with the unknown on their horizon.
NOUMENON INFINITY is the story of two missions, aeons and light years apart. They are connected both by a spirit of adventure and an interstellar mystery that transcends time and space.
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- Cat. No. | https://forbiddenplanet.com/251728-noumenon-infinity-hardcover/ |
Voyager spacecraft still reaching for the stars and setting records after 40 years
Humanity's farthest and longest-lived spacecraft, Voyager 1 and 2, achieve 40 years of operation and exploration this August and September. Despite their vast distance, they continue to communicate with NASA daily, still probing the final frontier.
Their story has not only impacted generations of current and future scientists and engineers, but also Earth's culture, including film, art and music. Each spacecraft carries a Golden Record of Earth sounds, pictures and messages. Since the spacecraft could last billions of years, these circular time capsules could one day be the only traces of human civilization.
"I believe that few missions can ever match the achievements of the Voyager spacecraft during their four decades of exploration," said Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for NASA's Science Mission Directorate (SMD) at NASA Headquarters. "They have educated us to the unknown wonders of the universe and truly inspired humanity to continue to explore our solar system and beyond."
The Voyagers have set numerous records in their unparalleled journeys. In 2012, Voyager 1, which launched on Sept. 5, 1977, became the only spacecraft to have entered interstellar space. Voyager 2, launched on Aug. 20, 1977, is the only spacecraft to have flown by all four outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Their numerous planetary encounters include discovering the first active volcanoes beyond Earth, on Jupiter's moon Io; hints of a subsurface ocean on Jupiter's moon Europa; the most Earth-like atmosphere in the solar system, on Saturn's moon Titan; the jumbled-up, icy moon Miranda at Uranus; and icy-cold geysers on Neptune's moon Triton.
Though the spacecraft have left the planets far behind—and neither will come remotely close to another star for 40,000 years—the two probes still send back observations about conditions where our Sun's influence diminishes and interstellar space begins.
Voyager 1, now almost 13 billion miles from Earth, travels through interstellar space northward out of the plane of the planets. The probe has informed researchers that cosmic rays, atomic nuclei accelerated to nearly the speed of light, are as much as four times more abundant in interstellar space than in the vicinity of Earth. This means the heliosphere, the bubble-like volume containing our solar system's planets and solar wind, effectively acts as a radiation shield for the planets. Voyager 1 also hinted that the magnetic field of the local interstellar medium is wrapped around the heliosphere.
Voyager 2, now almost 11 billion miles from Earth, travels south and is expected to enter interstellar space in the next few years. The different locations of the two Voyagers allow scientists to compare right now two regions of space where the heliosphere interacts with the surrounding interstellar medium using instruments that measure charged particles, magnetic fields, low-frequency radio waves and solar wind plasma. Once Voyager 2 crosses into the interstellar medium, they will also be able to sample the medium from two different locations simultaneously.
"None of us knew, when we launched 40 years ago, that anything would still be working, and continuing on this pioneering journey," said Ed Stone, Voyager project scientist based at Caltech in Pasadena, California. "The most exciting thing they find in the next five years is likely to be something that we didn't know was out there to be discovered."
The twin Voyagers have been cosmic overachievers, thanks to the foresight of mission designers. By preparing for the radiation environment at Jupiter, the harshest of all planets in our solar system, the spacecraft were well equipped for their subsequent journeys. Both Voyagers carry redundant systems that allow the spacecraft to switch to backup systems autonomously when necessary, as well as long-lasting power supplies. Each Voyager has three radioisotope thermoelectric generators, devices that use the heat energy generated from the decay of plutonium-238—only half of it will be gone after 88 years.
Space is almost empty, so the Voyagers are not at a significant level of risk of bombardment by large objects. However, Voyager 1's interstellar space environment is not a complete void. It's filled with clouds of dilute material remaining from stars that exploded as supernovae millions of years ago. This material doesn't pose a danger to the spacecraft, but is a key part of the environment that the Voyager mission is helping scientists study and characterize.
Because the Voyagers' power decreases by four watts per year, engineers are learning how to operate the spacecraft under ever-tighter power constraints. And to maximize the Voyagers' lifespans, they also have to consult documents written decade's earlier describing commands and software, in addition to the expertise of former Voyager engineers.
"The technology is many generations old, and it takes someone with 1970s design experience to understand how the spacecraft operate and what updates can be made to permit them to continue operating today and into the future," said Suzanne Dodd, Voyager project manager based at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena.
Team members estimate they will have to turn off the last science instrument by 2030. However, even after the spacecraft go silent, they'll continue on their trajectories at their present speed of more than 30,000 mph (48,280 kilometers per hour), completing an orbit within the Milky Way every 225 million years.
First and Farthest: How the Voyagers Blazed Trails
Few missions can match the achievements of NASA's groundbreaking Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft during their 40 years of exploration. Here's a short list of their major accomplishments to date.
Planetary Firsts
Launched in 1977, the Voyagers delivered many surprises and discoveries from their encounters with the gas giants of the outer solar system: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Between 1977 and 1990, the mission attained these distinctions:
- First spacecraft to fly by all four planets of the outer solar system (Voyager 2)
- First mission to discover multiple moons of the four outer planets (both spacecraft): three new moons at Jupiter, four new moons at Saturn, 11 new moons at Uranus, six new moons at Neptune
- First spacecraft to fly by four different target planets (Voyager 2)
- First spacecraft to visit Uranus and Neptune (Voyager 2)
- First spacecraft to image the rings of Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune (Voyager 2)
- First spacecraft to discover active volcanoes beyond Earth (on Jupiter's moon Io—Voyager 1)
- First spacecraft to detect lightning on a planet other than Earth (at Jupiter—Voyager 1)
- First spacecraft to find suggestions of an ocean beyond Earth (at Jupiter's moon Europa—both spacecraft)
- First spacecraft to detect a nitrogen-rich atmosphere found beyond our home planet (at Saturn's moon Titan—Voyager 1)
Heliophysics Firsts
After Voyager 1 departed from Saturn in November 1980, it began a journey to where no human-made object had ever gone before: the space between the stars. On August 25, 2012, it crossed over into interstellar space, leaving behind the heliosphere—the enormous magnetic bubble encompassing our Sun, planets and solar wind. Voyager 2 set course for interstellar space after departing from Neptune in August 1989, and is expected to enter interstellar space in the next few years. Together the Voyagers have taught us a great deal about the extent of our sun's influence and the very nature of the space that lies beyond our planets.
- First spacecraft to leave the heliosphere and enter interstellar space (Voyager 1)
- First spacecraft to measure full intensity of cosmic rays—atoms accelerated to nearly the speed of light—in interstellar space (Voyager 1)
- First spacecraft to measure magnetic field in interstellar space (Voyager 1)
- First spacecraft to measure density of interstellar medium—material ejected by ancient supernovae (Voyager 1)
- First spacecraft to measure solar wind termination shock—the boundary where solar wind charged particles slow below the speed of sound as they begin to press into the interstellar medium (Voyager 2)
Engineering and Computing Firsts and Records
The Voyagers, which launched with nearly identical configurations and instruments, were designed to withstand the harsh radiation environment of Jupiter—the greatest physical challenge they would ever encounter. Preparations for the peril at Jupiter ensured that the Voyagers would be well equipped for the rest of their journeys, too. Engineering and computing advances that the Voyagers debuted set the stage for future missions.
- First spacecraft extensively protected against radiation, which also set the standard for radiation design margin still in use for space missions today
- First spacecraft protected against external electrostatic discharges
- First spacecraft with programmable computer-controlled attitude and articulation (which means the pointing of the spacecraft)
- First spacecraft with autonomous fault protection, able to detect its own problems and take corrective action
- First use of Reed-Solomon code for spacecraft data—an algorithm to reduce errors in data transmission and storage, which is widely used today
- First time engineers linked ground communications antennas together in an array to be able to receive more data (for Voyager 2's Uranus encounter)
Beyond that, the Voyager spacecraft continue setting endurance and distance records: | https://phys.org/news/2017-08-voyager-spacecraft-stars-years.html |
Talk about the novels, new and used books that Blish has written!
Author Blish's Book Reviews
Earthman, Come Home
A city searching for work in outer space is forced to leave the galaxy. Earthman, Come Home is the third novel in James Blish's Cities in Flight tetralogy, With the invention of the "spindizzy" (making faster-than-light travel possible for vessels of very large size) and anti-aging drugs, interstellar and intergalactic travel becomes practical. One by one, entire cities leave an economically declining Earth in search of work among humanity's colonies (ba... | http://allreaders.com/books/james-blish-18006 |
Mining asteroids, traveling on laser beams, and developing self-aware robots: science fiction or science fact? World-renowned physicist and futurist Michio Kaku says that these milestones are not only in humanity's future, but are beginning to occur right now. Dr. Kaku joins the Curiosity Podcast for a fascinating inside look at interstellar travel, artificial intelligence, human immortality, and alien contact. Stream or download the podcast using the player below or find the episode everywhere podcasts are found, including iTunes, Stitcher, and Gretta.
What does the "second space race" look like, who's involved, and where's the finish line?
Why asteroid mining could become the next gold rush for nations and entrepreneurs.
How humans will travel to planets that are several light-years away.
A brief primer on string theory, string field theory, and nuclear and fusion power.
Who's right about artificial intelligence: Elon Musk or Mark Zuckerberg?
How humans will become immortal in the future — and how we've already started.
What it means for humans to transition from a Type 0 civilization to a Type I civilization, and the implications for the future of the human race.
Aliens: what they look like, where they are, and when we'll encounter them.
Click here to listen to an interactive written transcript of this episode, where you can also share clips with your friends.
"The Future of Humanity: Terraforming Mars, Interstellar Travel, Immortality, and Our Destiny Beyond Earth"
"Physics of the Impossible: A Scientific Exploration into the World of Phasers, Force Fields, Teleportation, and Time Travel"
"The Future of the Mind: The Scientific Quest to Understand, Enhance, and Empower the Mind" | https://curiosity.com/topics/interstellar-travel-artificial-intelligence-and-immortality-with-michio-kaku-curiosity/ |
Space Physics Laboratory takes space research to greater heights: ISRO chairperson K Sivan
The ISRO chief says Space Physics Laboratory has proved its expertise in developing lunar and interplanetary instruments for Chandrayaan-1.
Published: 09th April 2019 05:39 AM | Last Updated: 09th April 2019 05:39 AM | A+A A-
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM: ISRO chairperson K Sivan, while addressing a function celebrating 50 years of the Space Physics Laboratory’s (SPL) association with Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), on Monday said, the payloads from SPL aboard the ambitious Chandrayaan-2, Aditya-L1, Venus and Mars missions will soon script their own discovery as they have been conducting pioneering research in space science, including atmospheric phenomena and interplanetary science.
The SPL has proved its expertise in developing lunar and interplanetary instruments for Chandrayaan-1 and also for Mars Orbiter Mission. During Chandrayaan-1, ChACE-1 payload indicated the presence of water molecules, therefore providing new insight into the behaviour of the lunar surface. The SPL network has now spread as far as the north east, north and south poles, and the Himalayas, thanks to its experience in leading multi-agency large scale scientific programmes and exemplary contribution to the Indian middle atmospheric programmes, he added.
The SPL has also been playing a leading role in developing indigenous capability in vital areas through the development of an array of instruments like photometers and spectrometers. This is not an easy task, an inter-disciplinary effort is required in designing and realising these instruments with desired specifications. Further, the Indian region is an area of extreme ionospheric disturbance and an accurate model of the ionosphere over the Indian region is required for satellite based navigation systems to precisely operate.
“We should recognise the efforts of SPL to correctly characterise not only the ionosphere, but region-specific models as well. Humanity has always seen space as a vantage point to dramatically advance the exploration of planets, solar systems and the universe. In this era, new generation instruments in space have been regularly providing insights about the stars, and other cosmic phenomena,” he said.
Dr K Kasturirangan, former ISRO chairman, inaugurated the function.
Floravilla to be renovated
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM: Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) has decided to renovate Floravilla, the building which once housed the Space Physics Division (SPD) of the agency. It had been lying in neglect for sometime after the Space Physics Laboratory (SPL) was formed under the umbrella of ISRO on 11 April, 1984 with Dr C A Reddy as its first director. The reports and photographs of the dilapidated structure published, has caught the attention of authorities and the VSSC has decided to renovate the old structure, said a senior officer. | http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2019/apr/09/space-physics-laboratory-takes-space-research-to-greater-heights-isro-chairperson-k-sivan-1962027.html |
Christopher Nolan co-wrote, directed, and produced Interstellar, a 2014 epic science fiction drama movie. The film depicts a crew of astronauts who travel through a wormhole near Saturn in quest of a new home for humanity in a bleak future where civilization is battling to live. On October 26, 2014, the movie Interstellar premiered in Los Angeles, California.
The film grossed approximately $677 million worldwide (and $701 million with re-releases), placing it as the tenth highest-grossing movie of 2014. The screenplay, directing, themes, visual effects, musical soundtrack, acting, and ambition of Interstellar all received positive reviews. It also received numerous accolades. It’s been years, and viewers are wondering if there will be a sequel to the great movie Interstellar.
Possibility Of Interstellar 2
If you’ve seen the movie, you’ll know that it came to a satisfying finish with not too many questions for the audience. Despite a satisfying conclusion, many are clamoring for a sequel and even hoping for one. You’re probably here for the same reason. In November of 2014, McConaughey stated that he is interested to return for a second Interstellar movie. If the opportunity arises and everything about the project seems right.
Well he also made a statement when he was questioned whether audiences would get to see an Interstellar sequel with him making his return, McConaughey stated, “It’s possible, I’d have to go through the due diligence I always do – script, director, et cetera, but it’s possible.”
As a result, the movie is possible but not currently in the development. They’re happy to make one, but this comment was made about 7 years ago, and no information has been released since then.
Why Is There Scope For Interstellar 2?
Spoiler Alert!
Close to death and with her own family. Murphy pushes Cooper to travel to Amelia Brand towards the end of the movie. Cooper and TARS board a spacecraft bound towards Edmunds’ habitable planet. Where they will reunite with Amelia and the robot CASE. If a sequel to Interstellar is produced, it could take up with Cooper and Amelia establishing Edmunds’ world and develop the relationship that was alluded at in the first movie.
Will There Be A Sequel Of Interstellar?
Regardless of the movie’s chances of being made, there’s a good possibility it won’t happen anytime soon. For the time being, the movie is not in the works. And the phrase has been around for a long time. They’re largely interested in making, but haven’t given it any thought. Though Christopher Nolan is known for keeping his initiatives under wraps, we can’t rule out the possibility of an Interstellar sequel in the not-too-distant tomorrow.
But for the time being, all we can do is hope Nolan can persuade himself to do it. You can watch the movie on Netflix and hope for the best in terms of a sequel’s renewal. If any new knowledge about the production of Interstellar 2 becomes accessible, we will keep everyone informed. | https://www.thetealmango.com/entertainment/can-we-get-to-see-interstellar-2-in-the-future/ |
[Note: The post contains major spoilers for Interstellar. An initial, spoiler-free assessment of the film is presented in my November 5, 2014 review for St. Louis Magazine.]
Christopher Nolan has created some staggeringly ambitious science-fiction films over the past decade, but Interstellar is the first that brings the genre's scientific components decisively into the foreground. Most conspicuously, the film’s heroes are actual physicists, engineers, biologists, and geographers—and not the curiously incurious “punk rocker” sort, either. There’s something quaint about filling the cast of a sci-fi feature with characters who are genuine researchers and explorers, the sort of individuals who are fundamentally driven to illuminate, catalog, and harness the natural universe. One could even call Nolan’s film classical in its reverence for the scientist-hero, save that the PhDs of cinematic sci-fi’s midcentury golden era were just as likely to be deranged villains.
Science is also an essential aspect of Interstellar’s plot, and not merely in the broad sense that it is a work of space-based fiction. The film’s story is one of quantities and dimensions, where the characters (and humanity in general) are entrapped by fearsomely concrete deficits and surpluses. Earth has suffered a massive population collapse due to the ravages of climate change and an inter-species plant pathogen known as Blight. The future of the survivors is grim, as the remaining subsistence crops are falling one by one to the Blight’s withering touch. Unbeknownst to most of Earth's population, the Blight is also emitting so much nitrogen that the proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere is approaching unbreathable levels. The end of Homo sapiens is to be death by starvation and suffocation.
Corn farmer and ex-NASA test pilot Cooper (Matthew McConaughey) has an painfully vague but unshakeable hope that humanity will find the means to save itself from such a fate. It’s a strangely myopic perspective for a man who is otherwise depicted as droll and world-weary. One could say that Interstellar itself indulges in such techno-utopianism, as Cooper's prediction is ultimately proven correct, albeit a bit off the mark regarding the “how” and the “when”. Humankind's salvation lies not in some earthbound agricultural discovery, but in the colonization of distant, habitable planets free from dust storms and Blight. This feat is accomplished through the labors of earthly scientists, but also with a considerable assist from unseen, hyper-advanced beings.
Once the crew of the experimental craft Endurance leaves Earth, Interstellar creates drama primarily through the punishing parameters of space travel. As in Alfonso Cuarón’s slicker and more stripped-down thriller, Gravity, stark metrics such as velocity, mass, acceleration, pressure, and temperature define the astronauts’ fates. When physicist Romilly (David Gyasi) confesses his terror at the thought of mere millimeters of aluminum separating him from airless void, Cooper reassures him by noting that some championship solo sailors do not know how to swim. Not only is physical peril a part of an explorer’s job description, it’s what defines our species. As Cooper's old colleague Professor Brand (Michael Caine) observes, Earth is actually a somewhat unfavorable environment for the human organism. Our story has been one of struggle under hostile conditions since the day we crawled out of the ooze.
What makes Interstellar distinctive among space thrillers is the characters’ contention with a whole new parameter: relativity. The longer the Endurance takes to complete its mission, the closer earthbound humanity lurches towards extinction. The conventional, rocket-powered journey from Earth to the inter-galactic wormhole near Saturn takes the Endurance over two years, but that’s the least of the crew's troubles. The three candidate Earth 2.0's on the far side of the wormhole orbit a massive black hole named Gargantua, which subjects nearby objects (and people) to an unfortunate time dilation effect. The upshot is that a mere hour on the innermost planet’s surface corresponds to seven years on Earth. The time dilation becomes yet another factor that the crew must consider in each decision, a variable that must be weighed against a multitude of others. Interstellar’s performers portray this aspect of the story fantastically, and watching their characters react as the seemingly outlandish effects of relativity become reality is one of the film’s many novel pleasures.
Were it simply a white-knuckle astronautical adventure tale, Interstellar would be a visceral, memorable work of Hollywood entertainment, and little more. However, as Christopher Nolan joint, the film is also engaged with Big Ideas, and it proclaims this fact in a thunderous voice at every opportunity. It’s easy to criticize the filmmaker’s penchant for operatic earnestness and screaming DayGlo dialog, but these elements fit Interstellar in ways that they never did with Nolan’s Batman trilogy, The Prestige, or Inception. As extraordinary as the events of those films might be, Interstellar is in entirely different league, if only in terms of stakes. It is, after all, the story of how the whole of humanity breaks its terrestrial shackles and escapes its looming extinction. What better occasion for a grave, sincere tone and sweeping, guileless speeches?
In retrospect, it’s apparent that almost every line and shot of Interstellar lays the groundwork for the film’s climactic revelations. Although Nolan and his brother Jonathan are (often rightly) disparaged for their needlessly convoluted and sprawling screenplays, Interstellar is remarkably lean for a film with a running time that clocks in at just under three hours. There are barely any red herrings, abandoned subplots, or whimsical digressions crowding for the viewer’s attention. Every jot of the film reveals some new narrative swerve or essential bit of characterization. It is a relentlessly focused film, even if this is not always apparent in the moment. That focus ultimately falls on the childhood bedroom of Cooper’s daughter Murphy (Mackenzie Foy).
As Amelia Brand (Anne Hathaway) explains to Cooper at one point, time can slow down and speed up owing to relativity, but it cannot be reversed, at least by any means available to primitive, four-dimensional creatures such as human beings. The past cannot be changed. This neatly foreshadows the seemingly unsurmountable obstacles facing the Endurance in the film’s final act. Professor Brand’s Plan A—to move humanity off Earth by harnessing gravitation—proves to be a sham, his critical equation apparently unresolvable. Murphy (Jessica Chastain), having grown into a brilliant theoretical physicist in her own right, might be able to accomplish what her mentor could not, if she had more time and a set of observations from beyond a black hole’s event horizon. She has neither. Cooper develops a plan to extract data from Gargantua using the robot TARS as a probe, but by the time the information reaches Earth, humanity will have long turned to dust.
Resolved to the fact that he will never see his children again, Cooper ultimately elects to sacrifice himself, allowing Amelia to escape Gargantua’s gravitation and proceed to the third and final candidate planet. (Conditions permitting, she can then enact Plan B’s “population bomb,” becoming a surrogate mother to all that remains of Homo sapiens.) When Cooper falls into the black hole, however, he emerges within a tesseract, a three-dimensional representation of time that has been constructed specifically for him by the same beings that created the Saturnine wormhole. Briefly disoriented, Cooper eventually realizes that he is “behind” Murphy’s bookcase, and that like some Narnian version of Vonnegut’s Trafalmadorians, all moments in time are available to him. The rub is that his field of view is limited to his daughter’s bedroom, and that he can exert only tiny gravitational nudges through the walls of the tesseract.
Overcome at the sight of his daughter and frantic to prevent the Endurance’s doomed mission from ever occurring, the unseen Cooper pleads in vain with Murphy and his past self, going so far as to knock over books to spell out “S-T-A-Y” in Morse code. (This doesn’t work, of course, because his past self has already dismissed this message as a childish fabrication by his distraught daughter.) McConaughey is especially riveting here, as Cooper sobs and screams himself hoarse, his unflappable cowboy demeanor evaporating while he rages against his own impotence. It’s a naked, anguished moment, recalling Claire’s futile wailing at the fuzzy image of her dream-self in Wim Wenders’ Until the End of the World.
It is TARS who points out what Cooper, drowning in his parental angst, cannot see: the benefactor beings did not create the tesseract so he could alter his own past, but so he could prevent the demise of humankind. It’s at this juncture that the Cooper realizes he must trace out the binary coordinates in dust that once brought him to NASA’s door. He’s traveled across the universe not to change history, but to ensure that it happens exactly as it should. What’s more, he’s there to convey the data from beyond the event horizon across the years and light-years to someone in a position to receive it. That someone must also be able to make sense of the results, solve Brand’s equation, and rescue humanity from its dying home world. That someone is, of course, adult Murphy. Cooper apprehends that the fifth-dimensional entities who created the wormhole and tesseract are not members of an alien species. They are future humans, reaching back through time to ensure their own survival, with father and daughter as their tools.
Interstellar is thus revealed as not only a space travel tale, but a time travel tale, one in which the message sent between past and future is crude in nature, but profound in content. One thinks of Jean-Dominique Bauby in The Diving Bell and the Butterfly, blinking out his life’s story with his left eye, one letter at a time, to be printed into a book and read by millions of people. Suddenly, Amelia’s earlier groan-worthy monologue about the timeless power of love seems not only salient, but insightful (if only inadvertently). Only someone who loved Murphy would know exactly where and when to reliably find her. Only such a person would know how to convey the unifying equation to her using only gravitational twitches. Only love would send Murphy back to her childhood room to retrieve her watch, a gift from the father that she despises but nonetheless hopes will return.
Depending on the conceptual model one favors for time travel, this may or may not leave Interstellar with a yawning paradox at its center. (How did humanity first unify gravitational theory and escape Earth without the assistance of their future selves? The Möbius loop has to start somewhere, doesn't it?) The film does seem to provide a riposte to Stephen Hawking's glib objection to time travel: that it probably is not possible given the evident absence of visitors from the future. In Interstellar's universe, future humans, while able to traverse time as easily as we might stroll down the street, can only be perceived imperfectly by our lowly four-dimensional selves. (This mathematical hurdle was highlighted over a century ago in Edwin Abbott's visionary satirical novel, Flatland, and more recently in Nic Pizzolatto's crypto-weird mystery series True Detective, also starring McConaughey.) The best that the hyper-humans of tomorrow can muster is some gravitational tinkering to give their ancestors a window to save their own skins.
Such cosmological thought experiments certainly excite the imagination, but time travel in fiction serves as a basis for philosophical as well as scientific rumination. To some extent, it has assumed the role that omens and curses used to play in ancient tragedies, where a prophecy sets events into motion that ensure its own fulfillment. Gussied up with a bit of of theoretical physics, the conceit of time travel establishes a just-believable-enough stage for a study of causation and free will. In such a context, Interstellar's recursiveness, like that of Oedipus the King and Macbeth, is a bug rather than a feature. It forces the viewer to confront the difficulty (impossibility, even) of pinpointing agency in a material universe of incalculable, interlinked causes and effects. Like a Weird Sister or spectral Banquo, Murphy's bookshelf poltergeist provokes Cooper to take actions he might not have otherwise taken, actions that nonetheless express his repressed yearnings. The fact that the ghostly presence was Cooper himself does not negate the challenge that Interstellar poses to our conception of metaphysical freedom, but rather adds a significant space-time wrinkle. | http://gatewaycinephile.com/blog/2014/11/11/hurrah-for-science-woo-part-i-interstellar |
- talked about long range visions – daVinci inspiring human flight attempts, Jules Verne inspiring space travel with his 1865 story about a voyage to the Moon.
- Why DoD interest? Pointed out some space exploration technologies of interest to the military (food, energy, biotech, etc.) and cases where the military has made use of space technologies.
Pete Worden, NASA Ames
- coming to the end of the one year study on the 100 year starship
- within a few decades we will have human settlements off Earth – which is one of the best justifications for a human exploration program.
- settlements can only be done by the private sector
- can the private sector spread humanity to other stars?
Ariel Waldman, spacehack.org
- gave examples of citizen involvement in space development – small balloon flights, learning to make smallsats, rover contests, crowd-sourcing galaxy classification, hacker space
- Dave Neyland praised her talk for “addressing problems differently”
- [but there was a stark contrast between the small scale public efforts she described and the task of traveling to the stars]
Jim Benford, Time-Distance Solutions track chair
- reminded attendees of the challenge of interstellar flight with discussion of the distances involved. (‘If Earth-Moon distance fit in this conference room, where is the nearest star? .. at the distance of the Moon.’)
- said 205 abstracts were submitted for this track
- “If starships can be built, they will be our civilization’s cathedrals
Richard Obousy, President, Icarus International
- “The 100 year starship study has reenergized the small starship community”
- Icarus International was formed in March 2011 to continue studies on starship design.
James French, Icarus International
- – reviewed 1970’s Daedalus starship design, with some updates from current technology – claimed “no show-stoppers” for technology
- – “When I worked on Voyager, I signed the spacecraft.. and since spacecraft cleaning is not perfect, my DNA is on the way to the stars. But I want to send the rest of me too.”
Rob Adams, NASA MSFC
- gave paper for M. Stanic, reviewing current fusion designs for applicability for starship propulsion
- “The National Ignition Facility is about the size of this convention center.. it will require some development to shrink it’s size to a starship propulsion system”
Geoff Landis, NASA Glenn
- giving the paper for Stan Bobrowski, reviewed Nuclear (fission) Thermal Propulsion systems and the new effort to continue development of the 1960’s NERVA engine designs, aiming for flight test around 2020. | http://www.parabolicarc.com/2011/09/30/100-year-starship-conference-day-1/ |
Directed by: Christopher Nolan.
Starring: Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, Jessica Chastain, Michael Caine, Mackenzie Foy, Bill Irwin, Timothée Chalamet, Casey Affleck & Matt Damon.
***
Christopher Nolan wanted Interstellar to be the modern day equivalent of 2001: A Space Odyssey, and in many ways he succeeded. Interstellar is an epic sci-fi drama packed full of tension, emotion, visual brilliance, and mind-bending science (unless you’re a scientist, I guess). In the end Interstellar only fails to rival 2001 because it borrows so many ideas from Stanley Kubrick’s film. Nonetheless, Interstellar is an outstanding experience that will leave you contemplating its many questions and dilemmas for quite some time.
Would you give up life as you know it for a chance to save the world? Would you abandon your family forever, if you thought it might allow future generations to survive? How would you cope with losing decades of your life in moments? What would you do if you were faced with the uncompromising loneliness of space? These are all questions that Interstellar poses, and forces lead character Cooper (Matthew MacConaughey) to agonise over.
With the Earth’s crops decimated by disease, time is running out for the next generation of Earth’s population. After discovering a localised and unexplained space-time anomaly with his young daughter Murphy (Mackenzie Foy), former pilot Cooper finds himself being asked if he’s prepared to abandon his young daughter and son (Timothée Chalamet) in order to pilot Earth’s last functioning space vessel in a bid to preserve life as we know it. Cooper’s mission is a hopeful, yet ultimately desperate, last-ditch attempt to find a new world for people to colonise on the other side of a wormhole, seemingly placed on the edge of the solar system by a higher power.
Professor Brand (Michael Kane) plans to use the time that it’ll take Cooper and his crew, which includes Brand’s granddaughter Amelia (Anne Hathaway), to find a new Earth wisely. Brand’s plan is to solve a seemingly impossible equation that will allow him create a centrifugal ship capable of transporting Earth’s remaining population to the new world. Cooper, Amelia and the rest of Endurance’s crew need to explore three planets orbiting a supermassive black hole on the other side of the wormhole, in order to establish which is the most suitable for human life to continue on. Three astronauts have already visited these planets, on one-way missions years earlier, and Cooper and his crew must decide which of these planets could now be the most viable new home for Earth. Cooper leaves on his mission, which devastates his daughter Murphy (portrayed by Jessica Chastain when she’s a grown-up), despite his promise to one day return.
All of this happens relatively early on in Interstellar’s 169 minute running time, and there are plenty more heart-wrenching moments to come as Christopher Nolan explores time, space, and ultimately, humanity; our potential for love, anger, deceit, and loneliness. It’s all portrayed brilliantly within Interstellar, with no single cast member shining, but only because everyone performs excellently. All the emotions feel completely real, and once you get past his mumbly-American tones, Matthew MacConaughey proves beyond doubt that he’s a talented leading man. It’s impossible to deny that the real beauty of Interstellar lies in its casting, with the actors and actresses showing the horrors that a lifetime (and more) in space could have on those departed and those left behind. As mankind looks once again to the frontiers of space, with a mission to Mars a possibility that would see those sent having no hope of returning to Earth, Interstellar asks a poignant question: what cost does the quest to conquer space pose to our humanity?
The second part of Interstellar’s beauty comes from its art direction. Interstellar is a visual treat, with the blackness of space, the swirling colours of the wormhole, the cold alien words, and much more, all showing off the stunning presentation and excellent visual effects. Sound direction follows suit, with Hans Zimmer’s beautiful, and at times hauntingly rousing, score enhancing each and every moment. There’s a reason Interstellar won an Oscar for Best Achievement in Visual Effects, a BAFTA in Best Special Visual Effects and a Golden Globe for Best Original Score in a Motion Picture.
For all this beauty, Interstellar is not without criticism. The 169 minutes running time makes Interstellar a long film, which will put some off. Personally, for the story Interstellar is telling, I feel this long running time is justified, but there’s no denying that overall Interstellar has short peaks of action and long, suspenseful troughs of downtime. Some people will inevitably find this frustrating, especially early on when the film struggles to pick up any discernable pace, and towards the end when things suddenly wrap up very quickly when everything is at its most confusing.
Interstellar is also very derivative of its main influence, the aforementioned 2001: A Space Odyssey. Nolan unashamedly borrows 2001’s heavy focus on AI (albeit in a different way), as well as replicating the main theme in Kubrick’s film, namely the exploration of the origins and meaning of life, and the role of any unexplained higher powers in this process. Interstellar and 2001 also share other similar underlying ideas, including examining the way space exploration tests what it means to be human and to have humanity. It’s not a big problem for Interstellar, as Nolan does enough to ensure Interstellar carves out a path of its own, but it’s hard to ignore that at times Nolan’s film feels a lot like a prettier version of 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Interstellar is confusing. This isn’t a criticism, but it is a warning. You can’t watch Interstellar if you’re not prepared to pay attention, think things through, and possibly come away baffled. This is trademark Nolan, with Interstellar replicating those head scratching moments of ‘dreams within dreams’ from Inception, this time through the exploration of time, space and multiple dimensions. Things aren’t left quite as inconclusively as they were in Inception, but you’ll still come away with an itch that can’t be scratched without a sequel, which deep down you’ll hope is never made. Interstellar is definitely a film to watch more than once.
Interstellar is one of those rare films where all of the elements come together to create a special experience. Rare as they are though, this is pretty much typical of a Christopher Nolan film. Whilst Interstellar may not manage to be quite as original as it could be, there’s no denying that this intense, emotional and beautiful space journey is one worth taking. | https://dresslikethehulk.com/2015/03/30/interstellar-review/ |
The Student Affairs Unit is dedicated to the well-being of the students in terms of safety, comfort and happiness within the school environment. The unit focuses on maximizing the potential of each student by building a close relationship between home and school. In the middle and senior campuses the unit helps students understand and deal with social, behavioral and personal issues. We are committed to providing personalized attention to all students through counseling and various mentoring and guidance programs.
We have professional, qualified counselors who work with students one-on-one on a range of needs. The also consult and interact with parents, teachers and administrators in order to develop and implement strategies to help students be successful in the education system and to be comfortable in their personal lives. A mentorship program for new students helps them settle into the new system with ease.
The Student Affairs Unit also conduct programs to make students and parents aware about important life issues such as discipline and positive and ethical behavior. Awareness programs are offered for parents and for students, on topics such as drug resistance, safety and security, health and hygiene, good citizenship and building character.
We also believe that it is important to recognize the achievement and efforts of our students as a motivating factor for their success. Various methods of recognition are used, including issuance of certificates and letters, public recognition during assembly or award ceremonies, highlighting achievements in the Newsletter or Yearbook, and providing rewards over the course of the school year. | http://scholasticabd.com/parents-&-students/support.php |
April 15-21 is National Volunteer Week in Canada, a time when we recognize the volunteers in our communities and their valuable contributions.
Volunteers across the province selflessly donate their time and money to create positive change in all areas of our communities. They give their time and energy to help others, and at the same time set an example of leadership and community engagement for their peers. On April 25, a ceremony will be held at Government House in Victoria to recognize the recipients of this year’s B.C. Community Achievement Awards. The 34 recipients of this award are individuals who have made outstanding contributions in any area of volunteerism or work in the community.
One of these individuals is Dave Dickson of Williams Lake. Dickson is the safer communities co-ordinator with the Williams Lake RCMP and the director of the Williams Lake Emergency Social Services team. As the safer communities co-ordinator, Dickson has been instrumental in initiating and expanding programs that have reduced crime and increased the safety of our community. He has spearheaded community policing programs such as Business Watch, Downtown Closed Circuit Television, and Operation Red Nose, and he continues to encourage volunteerism through Citizens on Patrol and the Positive Ticketing program, which rewards youth for positive community activity. As director for the ESS team, Dickson works with local volunteers who provide basic services and supplies for individuals and families who have been evacuated from their homes in emergency situations. The ESS team also provides support to large scale search and rescue activities. Dickson is a valuable member of our community, and I am happy to see him receive the recognition he deserves. He is described as a dedicated individual whose work ethic, professionalism, and passion are unrivaled. He sets an outstanding example for his peers, the people he works and volunteers with, and the rest of our community. Volunteerism creates stronger and healthier families and communities, and I hope that we all take the time to recognize and appreciate the hard work of the volunteers in Williams Lake and across B.C.
Donna Barnett is the Liberal MLA for the Cariboo-Chilcotin. | https://www.wltribune.com/opinion/recognize-volunteers/ |
Combat Working in Silos with Microsoft Teams and Vantage Rewards
In the wake of the Covid-19 Pandemic, technology came into play to connect people caught indoors.
The Covid-19 pandemic has altered the way we live, think, and socialize with one another. Classrooms became silent, and offices turned into abandoned workplaces. People began relying on technology for work, education, communication, and sustaining relationships with loved ones.
As meetings, classes, and social interactions have moved online, usage of video conferencing and collaboration applications have skyrocketed. Similar tools are also being used privately by individuals to meet virtually while confined to their houses.
Humans are social beings, a fact that is undeniable. We negotiate through economic alliances and political coalitions. We envisage responsibility and purpose through religious beliefs. We live in families, and our culture is a result of communal living that shapes our norms.
Prevalence of Silo Work Culture
If you are a full-time remote worker who manages a distributed team across different time zones, you may have experienced your share of working in silos. The term "silo" is often used as a metaphor for a group or organization that does not work together but rather functions independently.
If everyone’s focusing only on their specific duties without considering wider business goals and the bigger picture, they’re working in silos. They make you (and your team and pretty much anyone you work with) unproductive, unhappy—and unlikely to play nice with others.
Although it is not exclusive to remote workers, they do tend to affect them more severely. Since you are far from everyone else, it becomes much simpler to remain silent. Your once highly engaged workforce may be working less effectively, which is a certain sign that they are disengaging.
When employees are engaged, they are more likely to invest in their work, leading to higher performance results. Employee engagement improves work culture, reduces turnover, increases productivity, builds better work and customer relationships, and affects the organization’s bottom line.
So how can you get away from this silo culture? How can you empower yourself and your team to communicate better and work together more effectively?
Collaboration in the Workplace
Communication throughout the workflow is critical to stopping a silo work culture from disrupting your team. Instead of working alone, employees are more productive and feel more connected to the organization when they collaborate. Additionally, it becomes simpler to generate solutions for current issues or provide the necessary work on schedule.
Organizations can solve problems more quickly and effectively when employees with diverse ideas, viewpoints, and specialties collaborate to find innovative solutions.
Timely Recognition
Do you find recognition to be more meaningful when it happens at the moment rather than many weeks or months later?
It is no secret that recognition that is received timely is rather impactful. Here are some reasons why–
1) Insinuates a connection between recognition and the activity of being recognized
When we wait to recognize positive behaviors or outstanding performance until a year-end review or quarterly meeting, the employee often forgets the context of the reason they are being rewarded.
2) Encourages the recipients to repeat behaviors
Delaying recognition makes the employee less likely to realize the significance of their work or actions. But employees can easily comprehend expectations and know what you want them to do or repeat if they receive timely recognition.
3) Drives motivation by recognizing progress for meaningful work
We must not delay recognition until the completion of a major project. In some departments or industries, those projects can take years to complete. It’s important to recognize the people involved as they progress along the way, achieve key milestones, or demonstrate desired behaviors in line with core values as they push to reach the end goal.
Rewards and Recognition with Microsoft Teams
During the pandemic, Microsoft Teams users increased dramatically, from 20 million in November 2019 to 44 million in March 2020 and 75 million by April.
We understand the importance of collaboration and recognition. So we have put our efforts into developing a seamless integration of Vantage Rewards with Microsoft Teams. Now it is even more convenient to carry out recognitions within the organization.
If your company uses Microsoft Teams as a collaboration tool, you can add your Vantage Rewards platform to Teams. And use it to recognize, reward, and create a culture of recognition in the same platform your company uses daily for communication.
Benefits of Microsoft Teams-Vantage Rewards integration
- Secure& Within the Organization– Access functionalities of Vantage Rewards without leaving the Teams platform.
- Easy & Convenient Recognition– Appreciate and nominate employees for awards in your respective Teams channel timely and on the go.
- Capture the Moment of Joy– Build a healthy and productive workplace by promoting a culture of recognition and engagement.
- Simple Setup for all employees– Employees can easily add Vantage Rewards on their Teams account on their own (Know more).
- Scalable & Cost Efficient– Vantage Rewards can accommodate your employees, however big and scattered your workforce may be.
Our Partner Success Story
A leading Indian tech giant was already using Microsoft Teams for their internal communication and collaboration. And was simultaneously using Vantage Rewards web application for employee engagement. With remote work implemented online, hours spent on teams increased. This is where the Vantage Rewards Microsoft Teams app was introduced, and this enabled the users to instantly recognize their coworkers for outstanding efforts using the message extension right in the middle of a chat. Additionally, users had access to the leaderboard, wall of fame, announcements, and the whole social feed. They could even redeem their points for gift cards.
After the client enabled the Vantage Rewards Teams app, the overall recognitions skyrocketed to 147% as compared to the previous period. Similarly, the employees started engaging more on the personal scope of the app; 2.1x times likes and a 13% increase in comments were observed on the platform.
Takeaway
The new-age workplace is confined to a laptop screen. The work culture is more flexible. This promotes the siloed work culture. The silo mentality sabotages a company's cohesive vision and undermines the achievement of long-term objectives.
In order to optimize employee engagement and effectiveness in the modern workplace, organizations should emphasize effective collaborative work within and across virtual teams. Collaboration creates a pool of knowledge and skills by bringing varied talents together. Employees that are engaged have a shared vision with the aims and objectives of the company.
Vantage Circle envisions revolutionizing teamwork through the Microsoft Teams integration. We aspire to drive employee engagement with a highly collaborative workforce in this new world of work. | https://blog.vantagecircle.com/working-in-silos/ |
The program recognizes the achievements of the Not-for-Profits, Charities and Services Groups in our communities of Cambridge and North Dumfries. The Chamber important to acknowledge, recognize and appreciate in a tangible way the efforts that all the volunteers and the Not-for-Profits, Charities and Services Groups who make our city and town such a great place and such a great community.
Nominate an Organization or Individual using the online form below. | https://www.cambridgechamber.com/Events-CommunityAwards.htm |
The OVC Rewards and Recognition Program is designed to recognize individual employees and teams who have shown excellence.
The program is intended to foster an environment of commitment and shared success, and to showcase employee achievement. All OVC employees and Chancellor-area staff have an opportunity to recognize and reward their peers both in formal and informal ways.
The Office of the Vice Chancellor firmly believes in the importance of recognizing and rewarding the meritorious achievements of our staff and invites participation in our two signature recognition programs, the OVC Appreciation Program OVC and the Infinite Mile Awards Program. | https://ovc.mit.edu/for-staff/working-ovc/rewards-and-recognition/ |
The Cayman Islands Airports Authority (CIAA), which owns and operates the Owen Roberts International Airport (ORIA) and the Charles Kirkconnell International Airport (CKIA), recently honored its long-serving staff at ORIA and CKIA in awards ceremonies held during the Authority’s Christmas parties at the Marriott Beach Resort in Grand Cayman and the Brac Reef in Cayman Brac.
The CIAA currently employs 200 staff members and seeks to achieve excellence through encouraging effective communication, enhancing employment relations, fostering a culture of learning, ensuring compliance with best practices of people management and implementing staff incentives and productivity schemes. As part of this strategic vision, the Authority first implemented an Employee Recognition Programme several years ago to acknowledge the outstanding efforts of its long-serving employees and to attract and retain local talent.
The Programme was revitalized in 2017 with the appointment of a diverse Rewards & Recognition Committee. The Committee is empowered to coordinate a host of supporting events and initiatives to assist with the recruitment and retention of talent for the CIAA and to recognize its long-serving employees.
Twenty-eight long service employees were celebrated at the ceremonies, including 15 for five years, five for 10 years, four for 15 years and four with 35 or more years of service. Each was awarded with a commemorative gift and a cash prize. The five-year long-service recipients were Nicholas Johnson, Tashaena Young, Tashiana Ffrench-Gonzalez, Santa Ritch, Carlos Rizo, Lex Scott, Stephen Harris, Melantha Wright, John Barron, Tammy Bush, Andrene Myles, Melissa King, Howard Tomlinson, Mark Danziger and Heber Ebanks. The 10-year long-service recipients were Jason Giddings, Robert Smith, Barbara Wilson, Ivis Matute and Wayne DaCosta. Employees with 15 years of long service were Donna Conolly, Jeffery Watson, Heikie Conolly and Joshua Burke, and those celebrating 35 or more years were Ollen McLaughlin, Neville Lynch, Kenneth Lewis and Laurie Farrington.
Chief Human Resources Officer Mario Ebanks remarked, “We believe that our people are our greatest assets, an extension of the Authority’s core values and purpose, and we are honored to celebrate those who have continuously brought commitment and dedication to their important work at the airports every single day. This Long Service Awards recognition is only a start as in 2018 the Rewards & Recognition Committee will enthusiastically pursue a host of other innovative strategies to motivate and engage staff towards the Vision and Mission of the CIAA.”
We appreciate your feedback. You can comment here with your pseudonym or real name. You can leave a comment with or without entering an email address. All comments will be reviewed before they are published. | https://www.caymaniantimes.ky/news/ciaa-honors-long-serving-staff |
All members of the Sun Devil nation are invited to nominate students, faculty, staff and alumni women they think are badass! All nominees will receive a token of recognition and certain nominees will be selected to be features with profiles on Social Media, in Her Campus magazine, and at select HERstory events this March.
Nominate great ASU women by Wednesday, February 15, 2017!
The HERstory committee would greatly appreciate your support and assistance in spreading the word about this exciting campaign to recognize the achievements, efforts, and leadership of Sun Devil women. Please share this campaign widely and consider nominating some of the incredible women in your Sun Devil community.
Questions? Contact Kellyn Johnson, Coordinator, Student and Cultural Engagement at ASU at [email protected]. | https://intheloop.engineering.asu.edu/2017/02/06/nominate-great-asu-women-by-feb-15/ |
The deadline for Brampton Citizens Awards nominations is fast approaching for recognition at the ceremony in May. If you know an outstanding athlete, artist, volunteer, senior or local hero, you have until Jan. 13.
Since 1974, the City of Brampton has been proud to recognize outstanding residents in the community.
Residents who have made a meaningful contribution or have had a significant achievement in one of the following categories during 2018 are eligible.
The Sports Achievement Award recognizes Brampton athletes whose achievements have been recognized at the provincial, national or international level. The Arts Acclaim Award recognizes individuals or groups whose exemplary achievements in the arts have positively impacted the community and advanced the arts in the City of Brampton.
The Long-Term Service Award recognizes dedicated volunteers who have devoted significant time and effort towards the development and advancement of community life in our city.
The Inspirational Award recognizes Brampton residents who advocate for and/or practice humane action or who have had an inspirational influence on others.
The Emergency Services Award of Valour recognizes an individual or individuals who voluntarily risked their own life/lives while performing a heroic act to save the life of another person.
The Volunteer of the Year Award recognizes Brampton volunteers who have demonstrated all-round community involvement rather than a specific activity or contribution. The award recognizes local residents who build communities and show what can be achieved with passion and determination. Awards are available in two age categories: adult and youth for volunteers under the age of 18.
The Senior of the Year Award recognizes an individual over the age of 65 who has made a significant contribution to the quality of life within Brampton through specific humanitarian efforts or all-around involvement with community growth.
A selection committee comprised of community members will review the nominations to determine those residents who will be honoured at the awards ceremony. The committee includes individuals with subject matter expertise in the award categories, along with elected city officials and representatives from Brampton Fire and Emergency Services, Brampton Sports Alliance, Brampton Seniors Council and Peel Regional Police.
Visit brampton.ca/citizensawards for information on the program and to find nomination forms. | https://peelregionreview.com/nominate-an-outstanding-brampton-resident-for-the-brampton-citizens-awards/ |
WVU must incentivize faculty to be engaged, productive and collaborative and to contribute to the University’s mission.
To remain a competitive institution that attracts a range of students, we must consider how we incentivize our faculty to be engaged and collaborative and to contribute to the University's mission by appropriately and consistently rewarding them for their achievements in the classroom and beyond.
The Faculty Rewards and Recognition Committee is utilizing both internal data (e.g., salary structures, faculty workload agreements, available benefits, annual review data) and external data (e.g., analysis of promotion and tenure process at peer institutions) to guide their process.
This effort will also recognize the importance of faculty contributions in the areas of diversity and inclusion and will ensure that under-represented and minoritized faculty are equitably valued and rewarded.
By examining our current processes and identifying new areas of need and of opportunity, we will improve our current system and reward faculty for their excellence and impact.
Results to Date
Results January - August 2021
- Drafted proposal on University workload guidelines.
- Drafted proposal on post tenure/promotion reviews.
- Drafted revision of promotion and tenure document to address a variety of contributions, such as applied, public, and community-engaged research.
- Developed more rigorous teaching and service evaluation tools to supplement SEI’s and expanded what is recognized and valued in research.
- Compiled data on salary disparities and estimated costs for addressing inequities
Timeline & Process
Fall 2021-Spring 2022
- Re-establish the Faculty Recognition and Rewards Committee and begin regular meetings.
- Initiate and complete the campus process for changing the promotion and tenure guidelines to ensure the process is inclusive, clear and transparent.
- Continue to address salary disparities.
- Work with external expert to improve the University workload guidelines.
- Work with deans and chairs to create and approve equity-minded faculty workloads for colleges and departments. | https://provost.wvu.edu/academic-transformation/priorities/priority-5 |
Many workplaces have come to tolerate the lack of respect and recognition given for their efforts to attain collective goals. Either recognition is absent, mismanaged, distributed substandard, or even guarded by those who deeply believe that rewards are only given in the form of paychecks.
When employees and/or managers continually give to the employee-employer relationship and receive little to no praise, affirmation or recognition for their contributions they will express their unhappiness in a number of ways. It may result in negative behaviors towards the company or even leaving the company in the hopes of finding an employer who will appreciate all that they do and have to offer.
Today’s world of work is changing and organizational leaders are embracing a new business reality filled with both challenges and extraordinary opportunities. New workplaces where people are respectfully empowered are forming partnerships between employers and employees that foster the creation of remarkable business results that everyone can be proud of.
But recognized?
Yes, you can help enable the change by creating an environment that embraces this important people management practice. Begin by generating and making connections through meaningful conversations that bring you closer to creating an environment that celebrates contribution and results by asking and describing how you and other individuals would like to be recognized.
Think back to a time when you contributed to adding value to a group project or “wowed” a customer and maybe even a manager who genuinely expressed their thanks to you for making a special effort. How did the level of respect and recognition stand out to you? What made it memorable?
If you’re contributing to organizational objectives, working long and hard and a “thank you” isn’t extended or is not what you consider meaningful, it’s important that you follow up with that person, your supervisor, and discuss the topic.
Here’s a five-point approach to moving recognition forward from the bottom up. Coordinate time to meet with your superior or fellow colleague and cover these points.
1. Acknowledge your superior’s or fellow colleague’s efforts toward recognizing you in the past.
2. Don’t assume they are clear on the way and manner in which you find value and respect of recognition for your contributions. Describe a time when you received acknowledgement, how it made you feel, and inspired you toward future effort.
3. Reinforce partnership and commitment to your superior or fellow colleagues by stating something such as, “I am confident that you’d like to see more of my best contributions that will help us achieve great results for our customers.”
4. Align and encourage new behavior. Express your request. “To support me in
delivering my best, I would be grateful (or would really appreciate it) if in the future when you thank me for my contributions you make recognition closer to what I described.” Your superior and/or colleague will most likely be appreciative of your candor in communicating how best to recognize your contributions going forward.
5. Explore with your manager how recognizing the collective group might be achieved further. Offer suggestions on ways to expand peer-to-peer recognition and cross-divisional practices to acknowledge partnerships within the organization. You’ll assist your superior by thinking beyond the departmental level and increase awareness of others contributions that impact business outcomes. | https://selfgrowth.com/articles/break-free-from-recognition-deprivation |
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VOLUNTEER RECOGNITION
We greatly appreciate the hard work and dedication of our volunteers throughout the community. Because of that, Keep Hutto Beautiful is working on a program that will recognize volunteers (both individual and groups) that go above and beyond supporting the Keep Hutto Beautiful mission during the course of a year.
COMING SOON! | https://www.keephuttobeautiful.org/volunteerrecognition |
Welcome back to the Pathway blog!
We hope you’ve been faring well throughout this long, frigid winter, and that perhaps these little glimpses of Spring are bringing some hope and lightness to your days.
Today’s post is focused on a topic designed to improve the atmosphere of your workplace and the motivation of your team: Recognition and reward.
It’s common to hear phrases like “positive work environment” and “maintaining high morale” in discussions of leadership. And, of course, these are things we would like to embody in our own workplaces! The question is, though, how exactly do we put these theories into practice?
There are many answers, but one of the simplest and most impactful ways to improve morale, communication, and job satisfaction is by enacting a plan for recognition and reward.
What is recognition?
Sometimes it’s helpful to really get down to the basics. What, exactly, does “recognition” mean? In a general sense, recognition is considered to be the “acknowledgment of something’s existence, validity, or legality.”
That sounds nice, doesn’t it? We all want to be acknowledged as valid, whether it’s at work, at home, or simply in our own minds. In the workplace, however, that needs to go just a little bit further. Valid is good, but as leaders, it’s important to recognize that what your team members are doing is not only valid but also done well.
This doesn’t mean you have to pretend each and every team member does everything fantastically, but it does mean that you need to evaluate them individually and find what they actually do fantastically (or at least quite well) and make a deliberate effort to acknowledge them for it.
Recognizing or honoring employees for their levels of service is meant to encourage repeat actions, through reinforcing the behavior you would like to see repeated.
Not all recognition is created equal.
As you build your plan to incorporate recognition and reward into your workplace, it’s important to remember that not everyone has the same motivations and interests. What sends one employee over the moon might leave another wondering, “Do they even know me?”
This makes a deliberate, individualized effort even more important. Some people are satisfied by simply knowing they have meaning at work, and others react better to more tangible rewards.
By combining a couple of different methods, you’ll be able to create an accurate picture of your team’s motivations:
Just ask!
Providing a “reflection question” is a great way to just come right out with it — you want to acknowledge your team for their efforts and talents, and you want to know exactly how to do it meaningfully. This can be done in a department meaning or in a way that allows employees to turn in their answers later. You can take this a step further by making this information public via something like Word Cloud (if your team grants you permission) so that everyone knows how to best acknowledge each other’s efforts.
Pay attention to demographics.
While we’re not advocating for stereotyping, it’s important to recognize that individuals raised in certain eras carry with them some “motivational similarities” that are helpful to be aware of. Shared experiences, notable cultural phenomena, and technological differences are all factors that can affect how certain age groups prioritize reward and recognition. Use the following generation/reward descriptions as guideposts, rather than golden rules.
- Traditionalists (1928-1945): Job titles and money
- Baby Boomers (Born between 1946 and 1964): Promotions, professional development, expertise valued and acknowledged, prestigious job titles, office size, and parking spaces
- Gen X (1965-1980): Flexible schedules, benefits like telecommuting, recognition from the boss, bonuses, stock, and gift cards as monetary rewards
- Gen Y/Millennials (1981-1996): Offer skills, training, mentoring, feedback and culture, flexible schedules, time off, structure, stability, prefer stock options as monetary rewards
- Gen Z (1997-2012): Social rewards, mentorships, constant feedback, want to be meaningful and given responsibility, expect structure, clear directions, transparency, like experiential rewards
While each of these methods are useful in their own rights, we highly recommend blending them in order to gather comprehensive data that will help you plan highly-effective reward systems.
Don’t forget to follow through.
A recognition and rewards system is only effective when it’s implemented consistently, genuinely, and fairly. If it’s seen as a gimmick designed solely to increase productivity and further the company’s interests, there’s a good chance it won’t be received well.
When a recognition and rewards system proves itself to be long-lasting and dependable, however, it becomes an integral part of the company culture. This not only encourages career longevity but improves the attractiveness of your company as a workplace in general.
Happy team members, satisfied managers, and a smoothly-functioning company. It doesn’t get much sweeter than that!
Join us for our next post, where we share specific ideas for reward and recognition that are fun, time-tested, and sure to give your workplace a big boost. | https://pathwaydesigngroup.com/reward-and-recognition/ |
International Volunteer Day 2022 is on Monday, December 5, 2022. This day pays tribute to the frontline, selfless public welfare workers who also assist the organizations in the fulfilment of formidable goals like societal, environmental and economical development. The UN’s General Assembly mandated annual and worldwide observance of this day on December 17, 1985.
Theme of the day 2022
International Volunteer Day theme is “Solidarity through volunteering.” The theme aims to gather all people to volunteer work for social and economic development and to change people’s mindsets to build a better world. This time is not to stand alone, but we must stand with each other to work together. We must act together for the future of our planet and start acting upon this idea right now before it becomes too late because sustainable human development and a spirit of equity underpin all interactions in this world.
History of the Event
In 1985, the U.N. General Assembly adopted Resolution A/RES/40/212 for International Volunteer Day. Since then, the day has provided opportunities for governments, foundations, organizations, and individuals to set and achieve goals and to recognize the efforts of volunteers from all walks of life.
Purpose of the Day
We celebrate the day to recognize, appreciate and promote the tireless work of UN Volunteers and volunteers existing worldwide. It offers an opportunity to encourage the government to acknowledge and support volunteer contributions in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at local, national, and international levels.
Importance of the Day
This day is significant to celebrate as it is vital in motivating people to achieve (SDGs). Some points which highlight the importance of this day are given below:
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Promotes volunteerism
It inspires and encourages people to volunteer when they see how much volunteerism impacts their society, environment, and economy. It is an opportunity to educate the public on issues of concern and show them how the contributions of others have changed things from worse to better.
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Provides solutions to global problems
When we face global problems together, we’re more likely to come up with lasting solutions. When the public gets involved in solving problems around them, their answers are more likely to be feasible in the long term as they’re more people-centric and inclusive.
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Creates a better future
Your support of a worthy cause today helps to build a better world for tomorrow. Building schools, taking care of our environment, and passing on valuable skills to youth help to create a better future and set an example for future generations.
How to Celebrate International Volunteer Day?
Here are some activities to celebrate the day in a better way:
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Read the World Volunteerism Report
UN produces The State of the World’s Volunteerism Report (S.W.V.R) every three years. It has a record of volunteer efforts worldwide and the achievements made from their contributions.
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Involve in volunteer work
You can take an active role in volunteering in your community. Share your pictures and videos of your efforts while your activity with hashtags to raise awareness and motivate people to do so.
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Donate to a volunteer organization
You can contribute money as a donation to volunteer organizations on this day. This will also help frontline workers and vulnerable groups with essential services.
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Share quotes, slogans, and messages
If you want to celebrate the day at home, you can share messages and quotes on social media to appreciate and encourage the efforts of volunteerism.
Some Facts About Volunteering
- Over 1 billion people volunteer worldwide.
- The effect of their labor is equal to over 109 million full-time workers.
- Clinical research shows that volunteering positively affects general health and chronic pain management.
- Around 30.3% of Americans volunteer.
- In the US and Canada, 38% donate between $101 and $999.
- 70% of volunteer work is done informally.
- Volunteer time in the States is currently valued at $28.54 per hour.
- In the US, 15% of people support hunger and homelessness causes.
- In Africa, 62% of people who donate are enrolled in a recurring giving program.
- Volunteering connects with others and builds a support base, which helps ward off stress and depression.
- Volunteering, especially among the elderly, helps reduce mortality rates and helps people live longer, more fulfilled lives.
- Volunteers have a higher chance of being very happy than people who never volunteered, going up by as much as 12% among people who volunteer every two to four weeks.
- People in the States spend an average of 52 hours a year volunteering.
- Unemployed volunteers are more likely to find work than non-volunteers.
- Women are more likely than men, as 57% of volunteers are women.
- Approximately 25.7% of volunteers are volunteering for sports, hobbies, or cultural groups, and 19.2% spend their time volunteering for educational organizations.
Role of Volunteers
Volunteers play an essential role in the implementation of the event, not only because of the skills they can bring to the event organizing process but also because they help to reduce the costs incurred in staging the event. U.N. volunteers assist in running local and national elections and supporting humanitarian and peacekeeping projects worldwide. Volunteering contributes to the economy and builds a safer, unified society. This, in turn, promotes civic engagement resulting in the socioeconomic growth of a nation. Youth have a particularly vital role in leveraging volunteer programs to shape a better future.
Quotes for International Volunteer Day
- “Alone, we can do so little; together, we can do so much.” – (Helen Keller)
- Elizabeth Andrew quoted, “Volunteers do not necessarily have the time; they just have the heart.”
- “When we give cheerfully and accept gratefully, everyone is blessed.” – (Maya Angelou)
- Audrey Hepburn said, “As you grow older, you will discover that you have two hands — one for helping yourself, the other for helping others.”
- “When I started counting my blessings, my whole life turned around.” – (Willie Nelson)
- Seuss quoted, “Unless someone like you cares a whole awful lot, nothing is going to get better. It’s not.”
- “Because the people who are crazy enough to think they can change the world are the ones who do.” – (Steve Jobs)
- Bernard Meltzer said, “There is no better exercise for your heart than reaching down and helping lift someone up.”
- “We cannot live only for ourselves. A thousand fibers connect us with our fellow men.” – (Herman Melville)
- Martin Luther King, Jr quoted, “Everybody can be great because anybody can serve. You don’t have to have a college degree to serve. You don’t have to make your subject and your verb agree to serve. You don’t have to know physic’s second theory of thermodynamics to serve. You only need a heart full of grace. A soul generated by love.”
- “Service to others is the rent you pay for your room here on earth.” – (Muhammad Ali)
- Winston Churchill said, “We make a living by what we get. We make a life by what we give.”
- “Life’s most persistent and urgent question is, what are you doing for others?” – (Martin Luther King, Jr)
- John Walters said, “I urge young people to consider public service, whether they do it now by volunteering in their community or preparing for public service as an adult.”
- “The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others.” – (Gandhi)
- Heather French Henry said, “Volunteering is at the very core of being a human. No one has made it through life without someone else’s help.”
- “Volunteerism is the voice of the people put into action. | https://internationaleventday.com/event/international-volunteer-day/ |
This information was originally published by Meewasin Valley Authority on May 21, 2021. Read the original news release.
Exceptional sustainability achievements in Saskatchewan are celebrated at the annual Regional Centre of Expertise (RCE) Saskatchewan Education for Sustainable Development Recognition Event.
This year marks the 13th year of the RCE Saskatchewan awards event, which was hosted virtually on May 12, 2021. At the event, Meewasin along with our partners at Saskatoon Public Schools and Greater Saskatoon Catholic Schools, were recognized with the Lyle Benko Future Generations Award. This special award recognizes an individual or group in the K-12 system for outstanding contributions to Education for Sustainable Development in Saskatchewan. This award was received in recognition of our work to develop curricular–linked digital learning resources for students from K – 12.
“This award is well deserved by the teachers and Meewasin staff who worked hard on developing the valuable and timely learning materials. We are looking forward to expanding on digital learning options in 2021 to continue supporting nature-based education.” Said Andrea Lafond, CEO of Meewasin.
Meewasin would like to acknowledge the partners that contributed to this project, the Saskatoon Public and Greater Saskatoon Catholic School divisions. Meewasin’s team worked in partnership with very skilled and knowledgeable educators from each school division to develop and create a comprehensive series of individual curricular-linked lessons for Kindergarten through Grade 12. The aim of these resources is to help educators achieve curriculum outcomes in an outdoor environment, and to instill stewardship in youth of all ages in a safe and accessible way. These resources can be requested by educators through Meewasin’s website at www.meewasin.com/education.
“We’re honoured to be part of this award winning initiative,” said Terri Fradette, Superintendent of Learning at Greater Saskatoon Catholic Schools. “We’re so fortunate to have the river valley and Meewasin’s infrastructure to use as a ready-made outdoor classroom. These digital tools will help more students and staff access environmental education, recognize and appreciate the gift that our unique geology and ecology is, and learn how we can be better stewards of our shared environment.”
“Environmental education is more important than ever for our students, starting from kindergarten and continuing through their formative years.” Said Superintendent of Education at Saskatoon Public Schools, Dean Newton. “At Saskatoon Public Schools, we aim to develop each student’s character through a deep understanding of respect and responsibility. Educating our youth about the role they can play as stewards for the environment aligns with that goal. We are proud to share this award with our partners at Meewasin Valley Authority and Greater Saskatoon Catholic Schools and look forward to the dividends this work will provide for our students, our community, and the environment.”
All projects receiving recognition through RCE Saskatchewan include Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) as a means to support the advancement of the United Nation’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Saskatchewan. The 17 SDGs derived from the 2015 adoption of the United Nations’ “2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” by 193 countries, including Canada.
RCE Saskatchewan celebrates sustainability achievements of such diverse groups as school boards, post-secondary institutions and organizations. For more information and the full list of recipients, visit https://www.saskrce.ca/. | https://www.scsba.ca/2021/06/04/land-based-education-resources-recognized-with-rce-saskatchewan-award/ |
International Volunteer Day (IVD), celebrated on 5 December, is the opportunity to recognize and appreciate all efforts invested by volunteers to advance on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) across the world. The United Nations Volunteers (UNV) programme joins this celebration to honour, with other volunteering organizations, the thousands of women and men, young and old, who are giving their time and capacity to strengthen community resilience to climatic, social or political challenges.
In West and Central Africa, IVD is celebrated in all 24 countries by governments, civil society, non-governmental organizations and the UN system.
This year’s theme, "Volunteers build resilient communities", focuses on the values of volunteerism through the appreciation of local volunteers (including the marginalized groups and women, who make up nearly 60 per cent of volunteers worldwide) and their impact on building a resilient community.
In Bamako (Mali), UNV commends the engagement of women in volunteerism, in a photo exhibition called "portraits of women volunteers in Mali". Through this activity, the role and outstanding achievements of women serving as UN Volunteers with the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) and other UN agencies, funds and programmes are highlighted and recognized. The exhibition will introduce to the public 15 to 20 portraits of UN Volunteers in action in their working environment in Mali. This activity also targets increasing the number of women signed up to the global UNV database as volunteer candidates.
In Gabon, young people are invited to participate in a slam competition, as a popular urban art for young people. The themes of the texts to be declaimed will have to take into account the promotion of volunteering and development and the fight against discrimination against women. The slam contest is organized at the French Institute of Libreville to award the prize for the best text in translating the theme chosen for the occasion: "Volunteers build resilient communities".
In Guinea Bissau, UN Volunteers are working with UN Habitat, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the National Volunteer Committee, Civil Protection, the Red Cross and the Government to promote the resilience of urban communities in Gabusinho and Antula neighborhoods. A training of 50 volunteers and community members is organized over two days, on infrastructure resilience and good practices on house building as well as to establish a 'plant barrier' (sebes vivas) with enlarged canopy trees to reduce the impact of the heavy winds in Gabusinho.
Togo stands out strongly in the IVD celebrations. Volunteers from different organizations will share experiences between them through a television broadcast by local television channel TVT. UNV also participates in "Eco jogging", a public health and sports event that allows participants, while running to keep fit, to pick up plastic bags in the street. Other activities include the organization of a"Volunteer of the Year" contest, and the installation of the IVD Village, which is a fair where various volunteer structures will be displayed around their exhibition booth.
In Guinea, UNV will facilitates the training of 200 young people on the concept of volunteering at the University of Kindia on 5 December. IN the lead up to that, a fundraising campaign in solidarity with people with disabilities was initiated from 25 November to 4 December by international and national institutions, companies and non-governmental organizations in Conakry and Kindia.
In Niger, the production and broadcasting of a documentary film on the work of volunteers in agriculture, gender equality, community resilience and more is planned for the IVD launch in NIamey and Maradi. Additionally, UNV is convening a volunteer forum on the theme of community resilience, gender and development, prevention and peaceful crisis management. Another important activity targets the collection of food products, pharmaceuticals, clothes and toys for distribution to minors in detention in the prison of Kollo in Niamey.
In Liberia, eight high schools were chosen and prepared to discuss the values of volunteerism under the theme "Does Volunteerism Contribute to Resilient Communities?" On this occasion, UNV is working with partners to provide awards (UNV t-shirts, caps and certificates) to the top three schools.
In Chad, UNV and partners are launching awareness-raising activities on volunteerism for women and youth. In solidarity with people affected with leprosy, volunteers will clean a clinic and school for their children and then donate school supplies to students, mainly girls, to encourage them to have quality education.
With UNV, volunteers in Cameroon launched the rehabilitation of two boreholes in the Bogo community in the far North of the country and participated in a fair to present to the public the achievements made by volunteers for their communities. The activity took place at the Reunification Monument in Yaoundé.
In Benin, volunteers organized a safety and hand-washing awareness-raising caravan followed by donations of waste bins and handwashing equipment in Cotonou on 3 December.
In Sierra Leone, IVD activities will take place over four days, including the cleaning-up and painting a hospital ward, the Princess Christian Maternity Teaching Hospital.
Other activities to celebrate the volunteers are underway, such as in Dakar, Senegal, where a high-level panel on community resilience through volunteering, an exhibition of volunteer organizations and a blood donation drive have been organized.
IVD will also be markedin Nigeria where UNV, in partnership with other stakeholders, paid a pre-visit to camps for internally displaced persons in Abuja and where a rapid needs assessment was conducted. Internally displaced persons at Gongola camp will be benefiting from a training and medical outreach programme on 4 December 2018, supported by the UN Clinic. About 100 internally displaced persons will be trained as advocates for peace building, conflict resolution and community resilience.
In Congo, the Volunteer Organizations Platform has put in place a joint plan for the commemoration of 5 December 2018. It aims at fostering community resilience to promote sustainable development. Among the planned activities, a conference-debate on "Resilience", a donation of books for local libraries, clean-up operations and sports activities between international and national volunteers will be held.
In the Gambia, UNV hosted a radio show about the importance of volunteerism and the dangers of illicit drugs, as well a round table with university students to discuss on volunteerism as a solution for community development and the dangers of irregular migration.
In Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic and Ghana, etc., volunteers will also be fully commended for their various contributions to local communities, as part of the celebrations on IVD.
Currently, 109 million volunteers around the world, including 7.1 million in West and Central Africa, from diverse backgrounds and professions, support the development of vulnerable communities.
This day, 5 December, is dedicated to volunteers and recognizing their involvement and commitment to build sustainable and more resilient societies. | https://www.unv.org/news/ivd-west-and-central-africa-volunteers-support-learning-and-empowerment |
A new piece in The New Yorker takes a look at Anne Harrington’s new book Mind Fixers (covered previously on AHP here and here). As Jerome Groopman writes,
Her narrative begins in the late nineteenth century, when researchers explored the brain’s anatomy in an attempt to identify the origins of mental disorders. The studies ultimately proved fruitless, and their failure produced a split in the field. Some psychiatrists sought nonbiological causes, including psychoanalytic ones, for mental disorders. Others doubled down on the biological approach and, as she writes, “increasingly pursued a hodgepodge of theories and projects, many of which, in hindsight, look both ill-considered and incautious.” The split is still evident today.
The history that Harrington relays is a series of pendulum swings. For much of the book, touted breakthroughs disappoint, discredited dogmas give rise to counter-dogmas, treatments are influenced by the financial interests of the pharmaceutical industry, and real harm is done to patients and their loved ones. One thing that becomes apparent is that, when pathogenesis is absent, historical events and cultural shifts have an outsized influence on prevailing views on causes and treatments. By charting our fluctuating beliefs about our own minds, Harrington effectively tells a story about the twentieth century itself.
The full piece can be read online here. | https://ahp.apps01.yorku.ca/2019/05/the-new-yorker-the-troubled-history-of-psychiatry/ |
History and social science largely rest on Humean causation: the belief in causes that can be established by something approaching a constant conjunction between two events, one envisaged as a cause and the other as its outcome.
The social world is open-ended and non-linear, both of which render Humean causation of limited value. By open-ended I mean a world in which events in one domain, say the political or social, can influence events in another, like economics, and perhaps even the understandings people have about how such a domain works. Non-linear refers to the interaction of multiple causes which have effects that are more than additive, and may be responsible for bringing about major transformations.
The social revolution of the 1960s, to offer an example, was brought about by the interaction effects of the rise of a youth culture (due to the creation of a market niche and the development of rock and roll), the invention of the birth control pill, the civil rights movement, and the Vietnam War. All these events had independent chains of causation in diverse domains but interacted in non-linear ways to transform the social-political context of 1960s America.
Counterfactuals provide a critical tool for exploring complex causation of all kinds and I use my two historical case studies of World War I and the end of the Cold War to demonstrate how both were the result of highly contingent non-linear confluences. Despite the common belief that both developments were the result of deep causes and all but inevitable, counterfactual historical research makes it apparent that these events, not merely their timing, were highly contingent. Such contingency has profound implications for the kinds of theories we think capable of making sense of our world.
I first became involved with counterfactuals because American security policy during the Cold War rested on a counterfactual: if only Britain and France had stood firm early on against Hitler, World War II and all of its horrors could have been prevented.
As Stalin and Khrushchev were assumed to be the linear descendants of Hitler, deterrence was considered the appropriate response. No effort was made to test this counterfactual against rich and available historical evidence. Deterrence, moreover, was confirmed tautologically. Its failures were never attributed to the strategy and the responses it provoked but rather to the putative failure to apply it forcefully enough. Such “learning” in Washington and Moscow was responsible for the chain of crises culminating in the 1961 Cuban missile crisis, the closest the superpowers came to destroying themselves through a nuclear war.
Counterfactuals can have enormous rhetorical appeal and be made partially self-fulfilling. This is all the more reason we must study them and do so in the most scientific manner possible. | http://rorotoko.com/interview/20100407_lebow_richard_on_forbidden_fruit_counterfactuals_intl_relations/?page=2 |
A term first coined by Voltaire, Philosophy of History means to search for wisdom in the study of history. What can we learn from the experiences and past actions of humanity? And how can the lessons be applied to present times? In this part of the course we will consider what can be understood by the term history, what are the different ways of approaching history and what is the difference between myth and history? We will also take a look at different perspectives on the nature of time itself and at the principle of cycles and patterns in history. We will explore some examples of cycles and patterns, among them the concept of astrological ages (something already contemplated by Plato in his concept of the ‘Great Year’ of around 26,000 years) and ‘the Age of Aquarius’.
The ancient Greeks had two Gods to represent time. The first, Chronos, represented the order of time, its quantitative aspect. He also lent his name to the concept of chronology and the chronometer. Alongside Chronos is Kairos, the second god of time, who is the god understood as the opportune moment, time in its qualitative aspect. Throughout history, cultures have recognised that there are different ways of experiencing and talking about time: a chronological and quantitative aspect that situates events like co-ordinates on a map and another qualitative aspect which indicates the nature or quality of the moment.
The prevailing view of history today is that its movement is linear, in a movement of ceaseless progress towards an ever more scientific and technological future. However, how many cultures and civilisations have risen and fallen in the past and why should ours be the only exception? Events over the last hundred years have given historians pause for thought and the concept of historical cycles is gradually becoming more acceptable.
If we look back at ancient civilisations, we will find that they predominantly took a cyclic view of history. We will look at the example of ancient India where the doctrine of ‘Yugas’ – immense periods of cyclic time – was taught. We find a similar idea in ancient Greece, with Hesiod’s concept of ages of gold, silver, bronze and iron. We will consider what implications the cyclic idea of history would have for us today and how both theories can be combined in a harmonious synthesis.
In this part of the course we will look at the major political developments which have led to the modern world as we know it today, starting with the fall of the Roman empire, passing through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and reviewing the development of liberal and directed states in recent centuries. Can philosophy of history help us to make sense of our current times and shine a light on our next steps towards the future? | https://www.newacropolisuk.org/course_details?topic=philosophy_history |
I have had the privilege of teaching the courses listed below at Bowdoin College, The University of Chicago, and UMass Amherst. The syllabi included are the most recent versions.
This course provides a broad introduction to the study of international relations (IR); it is designed to strike a balance between empirical and historical knowledge and the theoretical approaches and paradigms in IR. The course material predominantly focuses on trends, actors, institutions, and debates in global politics since the end of the Cold War, and topics include: an introduction to concepts and historical events, IR theories, global governance, international security, human rights, and the global economy. As an introductory course, it will familiarize students with no prior background in the subject, and is recommended for first- and second-year students intending to take upper-level international relations courses.
This course will introduce students to the theories and empirical realities of state failure from both comparative politics and international relations perspectives. The defining characteristics of statehood and measures of state-society relations that contribute to collapse will comprise the first topics, providing the theoretical framework from which we can understand the subsequent security and development implications. The second topic will address the causes and implications of civil wars in failed states with a case study focus on the Democratic Republic of Congo. The third section is on whether failed states produce transnational threats, specifically terrorism, with a case study focus on Afghanistan and Pakistan. A fourth, brief, section will focus on Somalia as a potential “archetype of anarchy”, given the connections between internal disorder and transnational threats. The final topic will cover various options available to the international community to respond to weak and failed states, to both prevent threats with intervention and strengthen state-society relations with state-building.
This course addresses various global crises in terms of their causes, how the international community responds to them, and their impact on international politics and human life. The types of crises include those broadly related to international inequality and insecurity, specifically case study topics of poverty, famine, threats from weak and failed states, human security, and “culture clashes.” Following an introduction to agency and advocacy in global governance, analysis of each crisis will entail a review of scholarly analysis and policy debates. This course is geared to students whose interests are in international development, international security, and human rights.
This course addresses the major theoretical debates and empirical trends in accountability for atrocities and human rights violations and the political dynamics of international and local justice processes. The material will address conceptual questions about justice and reconciliation, paradigmatic debates that compare different justice processes, and the historical and contemporary context of violence and justice in multiple case studies. The course addresses major concepts of justice and reconciliation, institutional responses of tribunals, truth commissions, and grassroots justice, and the debates over the role of justice in conflict resolution and resolving “impunity gaps.” By bridging the field of international relations with international law and comparative politics, students in this course will gain an understanding of the globalization of accountability and post-conflict societal transitions from violence to peace. | https://alanatiemessen.com/teaching/ |
History is “a branch of knowledge that records and explains past events" (http://www.merriam-webster.com).
This guide will help prepare you for your classes and assignments with resources that we have at the library to help you in your studies.
In the course of your studies here at Monroe College, you might take classes such as:
American History I / American History II (LA130 / LA131)
LA-130: This survey course presents students with a broad overview of the people and events that have shaped America from 1776 to the Civil War. Major ideas, institutions, social groups, and crises are examined in historical context.
LA-131: This survey course offers a broad overview of the people and events that have shaped America from Reconstruction to the present. Emphasis is on the major ideas, institutions, social groups and crises that have helped to shape contemporary America.
Caribbean History (LA135)
LA-135: The Caribbean is a region that has experienced unique major historical and geographical changes. Various populations of people have migrated into the region. Over the years, these groups have interacted with the landscape and transformed it in many ways. This course uses the "eye" of the historian to survey some of these transformations, from the advent of the Amerindians around 500, to the Twentieth Century.
Foundations of Education (ED101)
ED-101: This course is an introduction to the history of education in the United States, including major theorists who have influenced American education. Students explore the concepts, laws, and regulations of the teaching profession in general and special needs education for early childhood through adolescent education. Students gain an understanding of learning and behavioral disabilities, within the foundation of education, from historical, legal, and social constructs. Additional Requirements: 20 hours of field experience. Fieldwork includes observation of Early Childhood learning environments.
History of the New York City Police Department (CJ208)
CJ-208: This course examines the history of policing in New York City from 1625 to the present. Students learn the evolution of security forces in NYC from the Shout and Rattle Watch, through the transformation of the Municipal and Metropolitan Police Departments into the modern NYPD. Newsworthy events, high profile cases, and their impact on the reformation of the NYPD are discussed.
The Honors Experience (HN150)
HN-150: This introductory Honors course is required for all students in the Honors Program. It utilizes New York City as a basis for interdisciplinary study of politics, economics, transportation, demographics, science and technology, labor, culture and the arts. The specific themes studied vary each academic year. The course requires extensive reading and writing assignments in conjunction with field trips and site visits to complement coursework. It culminates in the presentation of a final research project.
The Human Rights Movements in History (HN260)
HN-260: This interdisciplinary course uses the study of the Holocaust to investigate causes and lessons of other modern genocides. Readings, films, field trips, and guest lecturers offer students a range of perspectives. Students discuss and research genocidal conditions and responses. The course culminates in a final presentation reflecting students’’ own investigation and analyses. This course fosters the development of a community of scholars, guiding them to become global citizens and "up standers" for social justice. | http://monroecollege.libguides.com/history |
Проект: New in the military
Network, our favorite time killer, hidden in the woods. And underwater cables that carry our data are unprotected in the mud at the bottom of the sea. And that our connection is threatened.
20-01-2018 admin 2663 0
Проект: Causes and consequences of abnormal heat in summer 2010
Sooner or later every historian that studies Rome, asks the question: what part of the history of Rome is the modern civilization? Historians like to use the past for analogies with the events of the present, but even if history does not repeat itself and does not tolerate moral lessons, it can deepen our understanding of what it means to be human and how fragile our society.
01-01-2018 admin 2000 0
Проект: Markets: estimates and projections
An explosion at a major Austrian gas hub has stopped the transit of Russian gas to several European countries. RBC figured out what it means for Gazprom, its partners and the Russian gas projects.
13-12-2017 admin 3399 0
Проект: New in the military
"How serious a threat is Russia to the Alliance, we can assume, judging by the growing number of cyber attacks," — said in an interview with Hospodářské noviny, General Petr Pavel, Chairman of the NATO Military Committee. An interview he gave at the conference "Where are you going, Czech Republic?", organized by the Aspen Institute Central Europe and the newspaper Hospodářské noviny.
01-12-2017 admin 2127 0
Проект: Future of the Information Society
The first cyberscene Russia and the countries of the Eurasian economic Union (EEU) may take place during March—June 2018, the draft road map in the field of digital economy. They planned to work on the restoration of the cooperative information infrastructure in case of possible cyber attacks. The EEU this initiative is not yet approved. After the Russian cimarusti 2014 wrote a bill requiring all operators of the Russian Internet connect their networks to the points of traffic exchange from the register of the Ministry of communications.
27-11-2017 admin 1957 0
Проект:
Catalonia is an Autonomous community of Spain located in the North-East of the Iberian Peninsula, between the Mediterranean coast and the Pyrenees. Is part of the historical and cultural area of the Principality of Catalonia.
14-11-2017 admin 11519 0
Проект: The future of Russia and the world: estimates and projections
The modern world has faced the necessity of solving a complex problem in the field of security, ecology, demography, economy, which overcome the efforts of individual countries, as routinely comes practice over time. Moreover, in XX – XXI centuries now familiar problems (hunger, poverty, depletion of natural resources, armed violence) was not only eradicated, but has grown with new difficulties (the threat of nuclear war, terrorism, overpopulation, etc.). While a significant part of them, according to experts, the predefined socio-economic reasons, without understanding that to rectify the situation extremely difficult. The Russian Federation in this situation is often hostage to the prevailing circumstances and experiencing the consequences of problems created by the actions of other political and economic actors.
10-11-2017 admin 10132 0
Проект: Revolution of the XXI century: nonviolent methods
In the result of the obsolescence of earlier methods of cheating companies, the West is now experiencing a crisis that may end in a revolution, a major war or the advent of the "strong hand", says assistant to the President in an article for RT.
07-11-2017 admin 3659 0
Проект:
Called deadly Russian weapons of the future; in unit Rvia will supply modernized SAU "Msta-s"; the 2nd army of the CVO were armed drones new format; in Saint-Petersburg carried out the launching of the latest RAID tugboat "RB-2186", built for the Russian Navy; the second in a series of ship anti-mine defense project 12700 "Ivan Antonov" will be launched in St. Petersburg in the beginning of 2018; the Pacific fleet received a new anti-sabotage boat project "Rook"; to the end of the year two vessels of auxiliary fleet, able to work in the ice, will be part of the Northern fleet, the Russian sappers in Syria dressed in a "space" hedgeley; concern "Sozvezdie" will start production of the laptops for the security forces; successfully completed the marine portion of the state trials of tugboat "RB-369", built for the Russian Navy. About these and other developments in the monitoring of the media during the week from 30. 10. 05. 11. 2017.
06-11-2017 admin 2191 0
Проект: Markets: estimates and projections
If August passes without any major upheavals, usually Russian sigh of relief. Still fresh memories of what it was in this month in Russia was a major catastrophe, like the putsch against Gorbachev or the collapse of the ruble in 1998. | http://csef.ru/en/tags/62?page=5&per-page=10 |
Life writing is difficult because we not only have to make sense of our experiences, but we also have to make our experiences make sense for others. This course will consider a number of different forms of life writing in order to gain insight into the methodology of literary scholarship. This will in part be focused on how writers this term deal with "things."
“Thing”. What is the thingness of things? Why and how do things matter to us? What is the use of things? Can we become things? How do things come to mean so much to us? How do things come to mean nothing to us? What are the things that matter within a story? Are things only objects, or can they be people? Can they be ideas? Can they be beliefs and desires? This introduction to the methodology of literary form and interpretation will focus on personal writing in a range of forms that deals with the implied author or narrator’s relationship to artifacts—things—in the world around them.
We will focus form and style, literary criticism, historical context, and theoretical interventions in order to better understand how interpreting place is central to both literature and life.
English 270 is the introduction to the English major, and as such, it is primarily a methods course—we will learn the basics of close reading, literary interpretation, and the process of developing our thoughts into literary analyses.
Literary terms
, or the terminology used in the field for particular features of texts, theories, traditions, etc.,
Historical context
, or the prevailing political and cultural forces that existed in conversation with a literary work,
Theoretical ideas
, or the theoretical schools that provide various lenses that help us highlight particular aspects and ask a specific range of questions about a text, and
Literary criticism
, or the work of scholars on a text that illuminates aspects of that text, its production, and its reception.
In addition to learning about these broader areas in literary and cultural studies, we will also develop our writing skills. For me, one of the most important aspects of writing is the “so what?” We’re all busy, we all have many things we want to read. Why am I reading this now? Why is your interpretation of this text useful
now
? Certainly, we read Shakespeare because he is an important writer, but why
else
?
As an introduction to the English major, I believe that it is my job to show you how interpretation—specifically,
your
interpretation—can matter today. Texts aren’t dead any more than history. History affects the present, and texts are a part of our cultural heritage that reshape the way with speak, act, and think. As a methods course, you will need to consider with each writing assignment the following.
Symbolism and themes
, or how this text created a multifaceted view of a moment in time.
History
, or how this text responded and interpreted a historical moment.
Theory
, or how this text created a vision of the world that both exposed problems and suggested solutions.
Your contribution
, or what you are situated to say about a text—from your vantage point in terms of identity, history, and culture—that is new and useful.
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Create your own unique website with customizable templates. | https://literaryformandinterpretation.weebly.com/ |
The course has various objectives. First of all, it enables the student to understand the history of their field of study, economics. Second, it gives the student another chance to learn about economics, to see how economic theories have been developing and how they are improved upon (and sometimes are not). Third, it shows the student how theories fit into the proper historical and economic context. Economics is a social science and therefore adapts to the current issues and needs within society. Fourth, the course gives the student the opportunity to learn from the greatest thinkers of economic science. How did they see the world and how did they analyze the economic problems they were faced with? Finally, the course improves critical thinking by setting past and current economic theories in their proper perspective.
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The course History of Economic Thought gives the student a broad overview of the history of economics as a science. We will visit the major schools of economic thought and many of the greatest economic thinkers in history. We will study their contributions, taking into account the proper historical context. The course will emphasize not only the strengths of the theories, but also their deficiencies and the various ways in which other economists have dealt with these deficiencies.
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Knowledge and understanding of first year and second year microeconomics and macroeconomics (intermediate level). | https://code.unimaas.nl/Code/Display?intCalendarID=29&intBAMA=4&SearchString=EBC2153 |
Do you think that history is that which is determined by the world as written about in textbooks? Drop your preconceptions and with a fresh eye carefully study old manuscripts page by page. You may lead to a great many new discoveries. Indeed, established theories actually change over time, and history, as we know it now, differs from that known only a decade ago. This field trains students in how to read and interpret historical documents. Through an examination of the events of the past and how people lived and thought in earlier times, students consider how we should live today. Field trips for hands-on experience, such as trips to survey the inscriptions on stone monuments at Yamagata’s famous Yamadera mountain temples, study at the historical site of Hiraizumi in Iwate prefecture, or the study of documents excavated at historical sites, are just some of the cultural property surveys conducted by this department.
Archaeology
The field of archaeology seeks an understanding of the history of mankind on the basis of the excavation and survey of ruins and historical sites or the reconstruction of a certain period or region’s culture. The study of archaeology deepens an awareness of how people lived in the past and leads to the discovery of the roots of social and human issues facing us today. Students will study a variety of approaches as they come to understand the culture of the Tohoku region, and develop an appreciation of the mutual relationship between humankind, nature and society, and the evaluation of their own thinking. Class work will consist of ample lecture time supplemented by a rich array of actual fieldwork surveys. The practice of excavation will give students the fundamental skills in the field, while opportunities will also arise for students to participate in archaeological, cultural anthropological and ethnographic surveys conducted both in and outside Japan.
Folklore and Anthropology
In today’s society we are confronted with major issues such as environmental damage and the collapse of regional society. The field of folklore studies the actual conditions of the lives of those people living in the coastal or mountain regions of Tohoku and their harsh natural conditions. This study explores both the “objects” of such a society, such as folk crafts, tools and other inventions created for use in everyday life, as well as its “spirit,” whether expressed through their festivals and religious beliefs or their tales and legends. Students also explore how folk culture has played a role in regional society, and how it can deepen our understanding of the future of our own lifestyles. Through seminars, students will work with the Tohoku Cultural Research Center as they conduct studies in various regions within Tohoku, deepening the interchange with local people and developing an understanding of local folk life and culture. Oral surveys with local people, an experience of the lifestyles and customs of the four seasons, and other aspects of this course will allow students to discover the fascinating culture of this region. In addition, experiments will also employ the use of photography and moving imagery to illustrate the modern history of regional society. | https://www.tuad.ac.jp/english/departments/hh/ |
Among the first physicians and physiologists at the pre-Hippocratic medicine with contradictions and oscillating doctrines was Alcmaeon from Croton in the 6th century BC, which was a reference point for the activity of physicians and philosophers over the years.
Alcmaeon of Croton's Observations on Health, Brain, Mind, and Soul
- PhilosophyJournal of the history of the neurosciences
- 2012
Alcmaeon of Croton (sixth–fifth century BC), a pre-Socratic physician–philosopher, introduced the concept that mind and soul are located in the brain, and contributed two major ideas to natural sciences: the brain is the seat of human intelligence and physicians should draw conclusions from empirical observations.
Bygone theatres of events: A history of human anatomy and dissection
- MedicineAnatomical record
- 2021
An abridged account of anatomy's development is provided, highlighting key moments in its growth, the valuable contributions of many different societies to the discipline, and the important roles of several luminary anatomists of antiquity.
Heart in anatomy history, radiology, anthropology and art.
- Art, MedicineFolia morphologica
- 2014
New radiologic techniques and computer technology have produced such images of heart, which substantially improved diagnosis, but also enhanced the heart aesthetics, which is similar to the works of modern artists.
The anatomy of the brain – learned over the centuries
- HistorySurgical neurology international
- 2021
A historical review is proposed to describe in a historical review to summarize the main theories and concepts that emerged throughout brain anatomy history and understand how the socio-historical context can reflect on the nature of scientific knowledge.
Mind-brain serie Neuroimaging and mediumship : a promising research line
- Psychology
- 2013
The mind-body relationship has prompted debate from the times of millennial religious traditions and the ancient Greeks through to contemporary neuroscience, and although these questions have yet to…
A brief history of topographical anatomy
- MedicineJournal of anatomy
- 2016
This brief history of topographical anatomy begins with Egyptian medical papyri and the works known collectively as the Greco‐Arabian canon, the time line then moves on to the excitement of discovery…
Brain and art: illustrations of the cerebral convolutions. A review.
- ArtFolia morphologica
- 2014
The cerebral convolutions or gyri, thanks to their extensive cortical mantle, are the specific morphological basis for the human mind, but also the structures with their own aesthetics.
Cochlea and other spiral forms in nature and art.
- ArtAmerican journal of otolaryngology
- 2012
A New Approach to Treating Neurodegenerative Otologic Disorders
- BiologyBioResearch open access
- 2018
Various causes of loss of auditory function are surveyed and potential neurological underpinnings, including mitochondrial dysfunction are discussed, suggesting that new drugs targeting mitochondrial dysfunction and modulating epigenetic pathways via HDAC inhibition or other mechanisms hold great promise.
References
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Alcmaeon of Croton: His Life, Work, and Fragments
- HistoryProceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
- 1932
The Pythagoreans were interested in Generation and Decay, Vision, the nature of the Sperm, the possible production of Sperm by the Female, and Embryology, which resembled in principle the contemporary medicine of Egypt and Babylonia.
Alkmaion’s discovery that brain creates mind: A revolution in human knowledge comparable to that of Copernicus and of Darwin
- PsychologyNeuroscience
- 2007
Philosophy and the Brain
- BiologyPerspectives in biology and medicine
- 1965
The processes by which brain produces mind are inherently covert and obstinately elusive. Man has thus been free to give full scope to poetic inventiveness in explaining his experiential being. The…
The text and translation of the fragment on the senses.
- Philosophy
- 1964
Alcmaeon and the early history of dissection. | https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Alcmaeon-of-Croton-Debernardi-Sala/dd269798029b42dfb3f1d47ae8a950eb75b450c9 |
Organizational scholars have raised a number of questions with regard to the future of organizational theory. Is organizational sociology losing its audience? If so, is it because of the expansion of organizational studies in business schools and the increased interests in questions asked by other subfields in sociology? If organizational theory is losing its audience, is the shift due solely to changes external to the field or can it be explained by the origins and development of organizational theory itself?
Some organizational sociologists may be concerned by the expansion of graduate programs in business schools as undermining job opportunities for organizational sociologist. Although this is a relevant concern, it should not come as a surprise. Despite the interdisciplinary focus of a few graduate programs in organizational studies, business (and public administration) schools have questioned the relevance of the sociology of organizations for years. Many of these questions emerge from the inherently conflicting disciplinary agendas and the failure to confront and resolve these conflicting agendas.
Although organizational theory may be losing some of its audience, there are many reasons to be optimistic about the future of field. Organizational theory has a long and rich history of high-quality empirical studies and useful concepts that explain a wide range of organizational phenomena. Despite these strengths, in my view, if organizational theory is to retain its audience, the primary task is to build on these analytic tools to construct organizational theories with greater explanatory power.
A central problem with organizational theory is the inherent tension between the sociological imperative and the managerial imperative and the development of theories that attempt to incorporate both imperatives. Although rarely discussed in current organizational theorizing, these competing agendas are impediments to theory development.
On the one hand, in the classical tradition, the sociological imperative produces knowledge that explains the origin and nature of society where organizations are conceptualized as specific instances of a broader process of social organization. The sociological imperative lends itself toward research questions related to how different structures emerge and the implications of the historically specific organizational structures for society including how inequality emerges, who holds power, and how power is exercised. The answer to these questions begins with the understanding that organizational structures and behaviors vary over time and organizations are embedded in environments. To illustrate, the sociological imperative was central to Max Weber’s observation that modern bureaucracies emerged from the historical transition to capitalist economies and democratic forms of government.
On the other hand, the managerial imperative produces knowledge that has implications for practical problems internal to organizations such as effectiveness, efficiency and productivity. Although these problems may have their origins in the environment, the primary focus is on how to solve them by modifying the internal strategy and structure of organizations. The managerial imperative also requires that managers give primacy to short-term outcomes. Although the managerial imperative may include the study of long-term outcomes, its gives primacy to the short-term because the failure to achieve short-term goals has important consequences for the survival of organizations and the careers of its managers.
The distinction between sociological and managerial imperatives cannot be equated with organizational research in sociology versus management departments; the sociological imperative informs much research conducted in management departments. Further, an argument can be made to pursue the sociological imperative and teaching it to prospective managers because they must understand organizations in order to effectively manage them and sociological theory provides the analytic tools to understand organizations.
The managerial imperative is only a problem for organizational theory when it directs researchers’ attention away from the larger historical processes and social forces that effect organizational structures, processes, and outcomes. Unfortunately, the managerial and sociological imperatives have been intertwined since the early 20th century and the sociological imperative has often been secondary to the managerial imperative. To illustrate, the rational model in organizational theory was heavily influenced by Taylor, Fayol and other early advocates of the managerial imperative who focused on constructing organizations to increase efficiency. In contrast, the rational model gave limited attention to Max Weber’s concern with the implication for social organization and society when people adhered to formally rational principles to increase efficiency. Similarly, drawing on Durkheim’s theory, early human relations theory focused on informal characteristics of organizations and work groups within organizations. However, as the human relations perspective developed, it focused on how to manipulate the group in ways that increased motivation, efficiency, and productivity. Another illustration of the predominance of the managerial imperative is principle-agent analysis, which does not pay sufficient attention to the larger social processes and the organizational structures in which principles and agents are embedded.
In short, the separation of management programs from the sociology of organization can be understood as the manifestation of the conflicting agendas between the sociological and managerial imperatives. Rather than lament this development, from a social scientific perspective where theory development is primary, this separation is an opportunity for each field to assess their strengths, build on those strengths, and develop more integrated organizational and managerial theories with distinct disciplinary foci.
One implication of the conflicting agendas of the managerial and sociological imperatives is the absence of an integrated sociological theory of organizations. Instead, there are numerous competing perspectives that give theoretical primacy to a concept to explain organizational phenomena. To illustrate, population ecology gives primary to fit with the environment, resource dependence gives primacy to resources, neo-institutionalism gives primacy to culture, and transaction cost analysis gives primacy to efficiency. The narrow scope conditions of each perspective limit the questions that can be asked and answered.
More importantly, the separation of organizational phenomena into different perspective creates obstacles to developing a theory capable of explaining (1) relational complexity between organizational entities (e.g., divisions, subsidiaries, and partnerships) and the implication of these internal organizational arrangements for society, and (2) the interconnections among organizational characteristics such as fit with the environment, resource dependence, culture, and efficiency enhancing initiatives. What is needed therefore is a theory capable of identifying the most salient characteristics of organizations and employing them to explain historical variation in organizations and the meaning of those changes for society.
A sociological theory of organization should begin with specifying the conditions within which organizational behavior occurs and how behavior changes over time. Contemporary organizational theorists could benefit by reconsidering Weber’s conception of ideal types, which identifies the most salient features of a phenomena. Among the prevailing perspectives, the evolutionary perspective has the most potential to develop a more inclusive and integrated organizational theory. Although it gives primacy to organizational change, strengths of the evolutionary perspective include incorporating concepts from other perspectives and examining multiple levels of analysis.
The narrow focus of the prevailing perspectives in organizational sociology can explain why so few organizational sociologists anticipated the 2007-2008 financial crisis even though most of the behaviors that caused the crisis occurred in organizations. As we now know, this was one of the most significant events in the last century. In contrast to the prevailing perspectives, building on the classical tradition (Marx, Weber, Durkheim, and Polanyi), organizational political economy examines how organizational and political-legal arrangements emerge and affect managers’ behavior. My research in this area concluded that the organizational and political-legal arrangements that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s permitted the emergence of capital structures similar to those that preceded the Great Depression and if another financial crisis occurs it will adversely affect a large proportion of the middle and working classes (Prechel 2000:265). In addition, prior to the financial crisis, journalists and public intellectuals exposed the widespread use of complex financial instruments, and the difficulties tracing financial transactions in the emergent corporate structures.
An organizational theory that conceptualizes organizations as part of society and examines historical variation and multiple levels of analysis will also direct researchers’ attention toward organizational types as they emerge and spread. Several contemporary organizational types have important implications for society, but receive little attention from organizational sociologist. Although political sociologists have given some attention to political action committees (PACs) and 501(c)4s, organizational sociologists have given little attention to how these organizations are expanding their influence over domestic politics and society. Similarly, foreign sponsored nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are rapidly increasing in numbers and size in less developed countries where they fulfill government functions. The emergence and spread of these kinds of organizations have important implications for society because their managers yield a substantial amount of power over the distribution of resources controlled by them. Although heath care organizations are rapidly expanding, they also receive little attention from organizational sociology.
One important characteristic of theory is that it provides a history and memory of knowledge that has been acquired. More inclusive theories provide a more comprehensive memory of acquired knowledge. This memory is important because it provides direction for future research and the bases to develop more complex theories with wider scope conditions and greater explanatory power. An integrated theory of organizational sociological specifies, for example, the conditions under which organizations remain stable, when change occurs, when organizations mobilize political to change their environment, when organizations change their structure, and what conditions are associated with high-risk managerial behavior. These topics are not new to organizational sociology. However, incorporating them into a more inclusive theory would represent a significant shift in organizational theory and provide a basis to revitalize and strengthen the field.
Harland Prechel is Professor of Sociology and College of Liberal Arts Cornerstone Fellow at Texas A&M University. | https://workinprogress.oowsection.org/2014/11/03/revisiting-theoretical-presuppositions-and-the-future-of-organizational-theory/ |
World History B is the second semester in a two-semester series. One-half credit is awarded for successful completion of each semester.
demonstrate knowledge of significant people, events, and issues from the earliest times to the present.
identify historical points of reference in world history.
analyze important events and issues in western civilization as well as in civilizations in other parts of the world.
evaluate the causes and effects of political and economic imperialism and of major political revolutions since the 17th century.
understand the impact of geographic factors on major historic events and identify the historic origins of contemporary economic systems.
understand the process by which constitutional governments evolved as well as the ideas from historic documents that influenced that process.
trace the historical development of important legal and political concepts.
describe the history and impact of major religious and philosophical traditions.
understand the connections between major developments in science and technology and the growth of industrial economies.
use the process of historical inquiry to research, interpret, and use multiple sources of evidence. | https://highschool.utexas.edu/world-history-b |
In ancient Greek society, the concept of agon underlay the view that anything can be achieved as the result of effort, healthy rivalry and noble competition. The most characteristic expression of this competitive spirit was athletics and the Olympic Games, which for the first time in history assumed such dimensions Ancient Greece - Olympic Games. The Greeks invented athletic contests and held them in honour of their gods. The Isthmos game were staged every two years at the Isthmos of Corinth. The Pythian games took place every four years near Delphi. The most famous games held at Olympia, South- West of Greece, which took place every four years Ontdek de perfecte stockfoto's over Ancient Greece Olympic Games en redactionele nieuwsbeelden van Getty Images Kies uit premium Ancient Greece Olympic Games van de hoogste kwaliteit The ancient Greek Olympic Games were athletic competitions between contestants from the Greek cities of antiquity, and the most important of the panhellenic.
Doping was punished at the ancient Olympic Games in Greece. If athletes were caught cheating at the ancient Olympic Hames in Greece, they were punished for their offence. They were banned from the games and their names were often engraved into stone and placed in a pathway that led to the stadium The palaestra of Olympia, a place devoted to the training of wrestlers and other athletes during the ancient Olympic Games in Greece. Credit: Bgabel, CC BY-SA 3.0 /Wikipedia The first competition held during the ancient Olympics, according to the Greek traveler Pausanias who wrote in 175 AD, was the stadion race, a race of about 190 meters (623.36 feet) — supposedly measured after the feet. The ancient Olympic Games (Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες) were primarily a part of a religious festival that was in honour of Zeus, the father of the Greek gods and goddesses. The festival and the games were held in Olympia, an ancient rural sanctuary site in the western Peloponnesos dedicated to the worship of Zeus The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece
According to the ancient Greek lyric poet Pindar, Hercules established the Olympic Games after he had completed his 12 labours. The purpose of the Games were to honour his father, Zeus. Another theory, however, suggests that Hercules only revived the Games, which had originally been established by Pelops The Games at Olympia. The festival at Olympia in honour of Zeus was the most important athletic event in the Greek world. From every region of Greece and its colonies athletes came to Olympia to compete in a range of events over five days. To achieve victory at the Olympic Games brought the highest honours to an athlete
The Olympic Games in Ancient Greece. By the British Museum (Greece and Rome) / 08.08.2015. Every fourth year between 776 B.C.E. and 395 C.E., the Olympic Games, held in honor of the god Zeus, the supreme god of Greek mythology, attracted people from across Greece. Crowds watched sports such as running, discus-throwing and the long-jump The Ancient Olympic Games were religious and athletic festivals, held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration, horse and chariot.
In Ancient Greece, sport was part of man's overall education which cultivated in a balanced and harmonious way his intellectual, mental and physical faculties. The Olympic Games were held from 776 B.C. to 394 A.D. every four years in Olympia. They formed an integral part of a way of life, a cultural experience Olympic games were important all around Greece, because the purpose of Olympic games was to worship Zeus and for entertainment. Olympic games. The Olympics were very important event. The Olympic games began in Ancient Greece from 776 BC and lasted to 393 AD. It is believed that they may have begun for hundreds of years before
The ancient Olympic Games were a sporting event held every four years at the sacred site of Olympia, in the western Peloponnese, in honour of Zeus, the supreme god of Greek religion. So important were the Games in the ancient world that they were even used as a basis for the calendar In Ancient Greece, the essence of the Olympic Games was sports. Despite this, the event itself was primarily of religious significance. Professional sports are dangerous, and even nowadays, athletes are injured at competitions sometimes. But in Ancient Greece, during the Olympic Games, there were often deaths that did not even surprise anyone In Ancient Greece, athletes participated in competitive sports to honor their God, Zeus. The ancient Olympic Games were socially, religiously, and even mythologically important for the people in Greece during that time. The winners were considered to be in the likeness and image of the gods Olympia was the birthplace of the most famous and important sporting event in the ancient world. The Olympic Games took place here every four years from 776 BC to 393 AD. The site was also a place of worship dedicated to the Greek god Zeus from about the 10th century BC. Here you will find incredible sculptures such as the decoration of the temple of Zeus, as well as the famous Hermes of. The ancient Greek Olympics. The ancient Greek Olympics were similar to the modern Olympics, but there were a few differences. The Olympics in ancient Greece consisted of some of the same sports we see today in the summer Olympics. The long jump is the same as it is today. There are also short sprints measuring in between 180 and 240 m
According to the Greek History, the first Olympic Games in the Greek Civilization can be traced back to the 776 BC. The games were dedicated to the 12 Olympian Gods and were hosted on the ancient green plains of Olympia, the place was famous for its great temples of the two gods, Zeus, and his wife Hera Women in Ancient Greece. Outside of Sparta, women in ancient Greece had few rights, and their lives were controlled by the men of their family, first the father, Damagetos and Akousilaos, both won at the Olympic Games in two different categories (the pankration and boxing, respectively) in 448 BCE
The Olympics are something that everyone knows about and athletes dream to even compete in. Yet, the idea of the Olympic games came from ancient Greek culture. It's truly special how so many Greek and Roman practices have bled over into the modern era .. . Women were not allowed to compete. . . Married women were not allowed to watch because the men would be nude and the women. would be held in dis-grace. . Only free men (not slaves), that could speak Greek were allowed to compete Training for the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece. Posted by Heather Voight. 1. If you have worked in a manner worthy of coming to Olympia, and have done nothing in an offhand or base way, proceed with good courage; but as for those who have not so exercised, go away wherever you like.. These were the instructions given to athletes and. Ancient Olympics: Then and now By Charles Raspin August 2 2016. The modern Olympic games began in Athens in 1896. It quickly became the world's biggest sporting event. Long before those games, however, the Ancient Greeks held the Olympics. Discover five amazing ways the Olympic games have changed since then
Live worksheets > English > History > Ancient Greece > Ancient Olympic Games. Ancient Olympic Games Compare and contrast old and modern olympic games. ID: 809443 Language: English School subject: History Grade/level: 6th Age: 10-12 Main content: Ancient Greece Other contents: games Hellanodikai: The judges of the ancient olympic games ; It was their duty to maintain the standards of the games and uphold the rules. They supervised individual events with a head supervisor, the Hellanodikos, who worked as an overseer.; They were handpicked from the people of Elis, the region responsible for the running of the Olympic games The Influence Of Ancient Greek Olympic Games. When the Greek competed in the Olympics games they did so for honor, religion, and bluster their cities, witch can be clearly reflected form the poems of that time. The Olympics become such a big part of the region that it began to influence Greek society as a whole The ancient Olympic Games were originally a festival, or celebration, of and for Zeus; events such as a footrace, a javelin contest, and wrestling matches were added later. The Olympic Games (Ancient Greek: Ὀλύμπια, Olympia, the Olympics; also Ὀλυμπιάς, Olympias, the Olympiad) were a series of athletic competitions among representatives of city-states and one o
Homework help olympic games. College essays come with stricter rules and guidelines Homework brooklyn public library online homework help Help Olympic Games as well as more specific formats like APA, etc. Writing college papers can also take homework help olympic games up a lot of your time and with the many distractions and other tasks assigned to you, it can be so homework help olympic games. The Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques) is an important international event featuring summer and winter sports. Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games are held every four years. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece at Olympia.The first games were in 776 BC. They were held every four years until the 6th century AC . The Olympics is said to have mythological origins, with many different myths claiming to be the cause of the games Visiting the Ancient Stadium at Olympia, Greece. The Ancient Stadium at Olympia is part of the Archaeological Zone of Olympia and is where the events of the Olympic Games were held. Learn about this amazing ancient stadium, the Olympic Games, and the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. Get the best tips on how to visit and the best places to stay
Ancient Greek Olympics: 27 Historical Facts On The Festival And Its Games. Marble sculpture of ancient Greek wrestlers, ca 510 BC, courtesy National Archaeological Museum, Athens. For a thousand years from 776 BC, every four years, people from all over the Greek-speaking world traveled to the site of Olympia to celebrate the ancient Olympic Games Greek Mythology Tours to Ancient Olympia. Not only were the Games at Olympia the most important in the ancient Greek world, but they also served as the inspiration for the modern Olympic Games. It's a fascinating archaeological site to visit, and it's even possible for people to run on the stadium track - a track well over two thousand years old
Ancient Greek games like the Olympics provided a place for the international elite to compete and rival one another without killing each other on the battlefield. They also served as a place for cities to jockey for position in honor and bragging rights What would the ancient Greeks think of an Olympics with no fans? July 23, 2021 8.15am EDT. Because of a dramatic rise in COVID-19 cases, the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2021 Olympics. Jul 5, 2016 - History of the Olympics. See more ideas about ancient olympia, olympic games, olympia 2012 Olympic Games Ancient Greece in modernity | Cultural Travel Guide. Learn about the link between the 2012 Olympic Games and Antiquity, the role of Greek Goddess attire and the ideals of excellence and glory! Article by Cultural Travel Guide - Travel Itineraries. 6 Find the perfect olympic games ancient greece stock photo. Huge collection, amazing choice, 100+ million high quality, affordable RF and RM images. No need to register, buy now
The Ancient Greek Olympic Games eventually died down and became less and less important. This is believed to be a result of the newly formed numbers of Romans in Greece. There is no known specific date for when the Olympics died although it was thought to be around 393 AD, when Theodosius 1 declared the abolishment of the Greek Olympic Games . The Pentathlon- Originally was a series of running, jumping, and discus throwing.However, in 708 B.C., wrestling was included The Olympic Games began over 2,700 years ago in Olympia, in south west Greece. Every four years, around 50,000 people came from all over the Greek world to watch and take part. The ancient games were also a religious festival, held in honour of Zeus, the king of the gods It's a curious aspect of sports that even when they are part of a celebration of global peace, like the Olympics, they are nationalistic, competitive, violent, and potentially deadly.Substitute panhellenic (open to all Greeks) for global and the same could be said about the ancient Olympics.Sports, in general, could be described as ritualized warfare where one power competes with another. Greek Olympic Games. The Ancient Olympics seem to have begun in the early 700s BC in honor of Zeus. Women and slaves couldn't join the games or else they would be killed. The male champions in their home city-states were also awarded with numerous honors, valuable gifts, and privileges. It lasted five days, at Olympia, as part of a festival.
Ancient Greeks loved sport and most cities in Ancient Greece had public gymnasiums where people gathered to train and relax. The Greeks believed that a healthy body was very important. The most important of the sports contests was the Olympic Games. These were played at Olympia, every four years, in honour of Zeus The Ancient Olympics had lots of rules and regulations such as.. . Women were not allowed to compete. Only free men (not slaves), that could speak Greek were allowed to compete. Once you enter you cannot leave the Olympics. No one can start earlier and other competitors; if they do they would get beaten or disqualified AFP/AFP/Getty Images. When an athlete was crowned champion of his sport during the ancient Greek Olympics, his prize was a wreath of olive leaves that were cut from the trees in Zeus' sacred grove in Olympia, as well as having a statue of himself erected in Olympia. The prizes were quite minimal, as the honor associated with winning was by far. The ancient Olympics stopped because of a ban on pagan festivals by the emperor Theodosius I. Like other Christians, he saw the Olympic Games, which honored the Greek god Zeus, as an offense to his Christian religion. As Christianity's influence waxed in the Roman Empire, the popularity of the Olympic Games waned The Ancient Greek Olympics started in 776 BCE as a tribute to the Greek god Zeus. Over the next one thousand years, the games would evolve into multiple events, athletic heroism, and a way to.
The ancient Greek Olympics began over 2,700 years ago in Olympia, in south-west Greece. The games took place every four years and around 50,000 people came from all over the Greek world to watch and take part in them. The games were also a religious festival that was held in honour of Zeus, the king of the gods Slavery in ancient Greece Religion in ancient Greece Learn by doing: hold your own Olympic games More about the Olympic games Bibliography and further reading about the Greek Olympics: The Ancient Greek Olympics, by Richard Woff (2000).From Oxford University Press
Olympic Games. ( historical, Ancient Greece) A sporting festival held every four or five years on the Plain of Olympia in southern Greece, in honour of Zeus. [from 16th c.] quotations . The first Olympic Games are traditionally dated to 776 BC. 1603, Michel de Montaigne, chapter 17, in John Florio, transl., The Essayes [ ], book II, Londo This planned lesson pack compares and contrasts the modern-day Olympics with the Ancient Greek Olympics for KS2 Students. This resource uses pottery as a historical artefact to show evidence about the games played in the ancient Greek Olympics. It includes a PowerPoint about the Olympic games that you can use to introduce the topic to your students and lots of fun activities to engage. Last Updated on May 5, 2015, by eNotes Editorial. Word Count: 549. The subject matter of Olympic Games in Ancient Greece presents a formidable challenge to the writer of nonfiction for young. Ancient Greeks - Olympics teaching resources for Key Stage 1 - Year 1, Year 2. Created for teachers, by teachers! Professional History of the Olympics teaching resources Browse 63,504 greek olympics stock photos and images available, or search for ancient greek olympics to find more great stock photos and pictures. Olympic Games', 1890. The ancient games were also a religious festival, held in honour of Zeus, king of the gods, the first Olympics is dated to.. | https://mein-ocividne.com/2021/07/18/story-of-the-olympic-games/qdp18371z-7x4- |
Olimpiya Antik Yunanistan´da Olimpiyat Oyunları´nın gerçekleştirildiği Elis iline bulunan antik bir kenttir.
The Leonidaion was the lodging place for athletes taking part in the Olympic Games at Olympia.
The palaestra at Olympia is an ancient edifice in Olympia, Greece, part of the gymnasium at the sanctuary.
The Temple of Zeus at Olympia was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the god Zeus.
The stadium at the archaeological site of Olympia, Greece, is located to the east of the sanctuary of Zeus.
The Temple of Hera, or Heraion, is an ancient Archaic Greek temple at Olympia, Greece, that was dedicated to Hera, queen of the Greek Gods.
The Pelopion was a structure at the ancient site of Olympia, Greece. It was the alleged tomb of Pelops a figure in Greek mythology.
The Hippodrome of Olympia housed the equestrian contests of the Ancient Olympic Games.
The Echo Stoa is located within the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. | https://travel.sygic.com/tr/list/archaia-olympia-neler-gorulmeli-city:1035733 |
Location of Ancient Olympia
Ancient Olympia is an archaeological site of Peloponnese, in southern Greece. The district is surrounded by the Alphios river and the Kladeos river, which empties into the river Alphios.
The archaeological site of Ancient Olympia was discovered during excavations that began in 1829 and lasted for several decades.
The Olympic Games
According to tradition, the first participants of the Olympic games were the Greek gods themselves! Zeus defeated Cronus in a fight, Apollo outran Hermes and defeated Ares in boxing.
Ancient Olympia was a sacred place to the ancient Greeks. There, they worshiped Zeus and held the Olympic Games in his honor. The Olympic Games dated back to 776 BC and were held every four years.
The Gold and Ivory statue of Zeus
Also located in Olympia was the gold and ivory statue of Zeus, a piece of Art that was built around 432 BC by the great sculptor Phidias. The statue was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.The sanctuary of Zeus was in Altis, a small grove that spread around the lush green hills of Olympia. | http://www.greek-gods.info/ancient-greece/olympia/ |
A full day private tour from Athens to Ancient Olympia will allow you to explore the birthplace of the Olympic Games and visit the temples dedicated to the gods Hera and Zeus.
Ancient Olympia is located in a valley in Elis west of the Peloponnese peninsula, 270 kilometres from Athens. It is here that the first and most important event in ancient Greece, the Olympic Games were held in honour of Zeus, father of the gods and men. It then became a tradition to host the games every four year from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Ancient Olympia was also important to writers, poets and historians where they recited their work in front of a large audience. The games continued for almost 12 centuries until they gradually lost importance and were suppressed by the Roman Emperor Theodosius in 393 AD. The Modern Olympic Games were re-established in 1896 and are now held every four years in different cities around the world.
In less than four hours from Athens, visitors can experience history through the impressive ruins which stand here till this day. What is there to see today? The sanctuary of the Ancient Olympia is known as the Altis which consists of various buildings. The most important temple is the Temple of Zeus,dedicated to the father of the gods. Built in the 5th century BC it once contained a 12 meter high statue of Zeus, which was one of the seven wonders of the world. Part of the temple’s sculptural decorations can be found in the Archaeological Museum of Olympia. On the northwest corner of the sacred precinct of the Altis stand the Temple of Hera, the wife of Zeus — the oldest monumental temple in Greece. The temple was constructed in Doric style with sixteen columns at the sides.
The Ancient Stadium of Olympia can be entered through an archway and is located on the west side of the Altis. It could once seat approximately forty-five thousand people. The starting line is still visible to this day, in case you decide to participate in a run. .
Our guests may also visit the Archaeological Museum of Olympia which houses the artefacts from the Ancient Olympia. The famous exhibit of the museum is the Nike of Paeonius, dedicated to the goddess of victory.
At the end of our full day excursion to Ancient Olympia we can enjoy a traditional Greek dinner in a local restaurant by the sea where we can share our experiences from a memorable day. At the end of the full day sightseeing tour we will return you to your hotel. | http://taxitransferathens.gr/index/private-tour-to-ancient-olympia-from-athens.html |
Sport, religion and politics converged in ancient Olympia
Beginning in 776 B.C. as a simple foot race, the quadrennial Olympic Games grew—during a span of 1,200 years—into the most prestigious athletic/religious festival of the Greek-speaking world. The feats of Olympic champions were recorded by historians and poets, and victorious competitors were thought to be the favorites of Zeus, chief god of the Greek pantheon. Below, learn what the ancient Olympics were like in David Gilman Romano’s article “When the Games Began” from the July/August 2004 issue of Archaeology Odyssey.—Ed.
It’s one of history’s curiosities. A rural sanctuary of Zeus in a relatively obscure part of Greece—far from the bustle and brilliance of Athens—became the site of the most famous athletic-religious festival of the entire ancient world, the direct precursor of the modern Olympic Games.
As in antiquity, we call these celebrations Olympiads, and we number them sequentially. Athletes from around the world participate in events also contested in long-ago Olympia: the javelin, the long jump, footraces, wrestling and boxing. Even the words we use to refer to these events are often the same (“discus,” “pentathlon”), as are the names of places for competition and training (“gymnasium,” “stadium” and “hippodrome”).a
According to the fifth-century B.C. Greek poet Pindar,
If you wish to celebrate great games
look no further for another star
shining through the sky
brighter than the sun
or for contests greater than the Olympic Games.1
Every four years, athletes, dignitaries, emissaries and tourists traveled to Olympia for an athletic-religious festival in honor of Zeus. The festival began with the second full moon following the summer solstice—that is, the end of July or the beginning of August. At first, in the eighth century B.C., the festival was small and the athletes came from the nearby cities and towns of the western and southern Peloponnesus. By the fifth century B.C., however, athletes were flocking to Olympia from all over the Greek-speaking world for the five-day celebration, and 100 bulls were sacrificed to Zeus at Olympia’s sanctuary.
Olympia is actually located far from the mountain that gives the site its name. Mount Olympus, the tallest mountain in Greece (9,570 feet) and the mythological home of the Greek pantheon, sits hundreds of miles to the north. Olympia lies at the juncture of the Alpheus and the Kladeus rivers, in a wide, fertile river valley only 7 miles from the Ionian Sea.
The Olympic Games were the oldest and the most prestigious of the four great panhellenic festivals (or national festivals, as opposed to the numerous local festivals celebrated all over the Greek world), each of which was dedicated to a god. The games at Olympia (Zeus) were supposedly inaugurated in 776 B.C.; the games at Delphi (Apollo) in 582 B.C.; the games at Isthmia (Poseidon) also in 582 B.C.; and the games at Nemea (Zeus) in 573 B.C. (See Stephen G. Miller’s “The Other Games: When Greeks Flocked to Nemea.”)
Tracing the enigmatic, mystical genesis of the Greek Olympiad, The Olympic Games: How They All Began takes you on a journey to ancient Greece with some of the finest scholars of the ancient world. Ranging from the original religious significance of the games to the brutal athletic competitions, this free eBook paints a picture of the ancient sports world and its devoted fans.
The victors in all of the panhellenic events received symbolic awards, in the form of wreaths. Those who won events at local festivals, however, generally received prizes of some material value; victors in the games at Argos won a shield, for example, while those who won in Athens received amphoras filled with olive oil. The panhellenic victors, too, often received a little something in addition to honor; they were routinely rewarded with cash and privileges upon returning home.b A fifth-century B.C. inscription recounts that Athenian citizens who won competitions at panhellenic festivals got a free meal every day for the rest of their lives in the prytaneion (town hall), along with other civic honors.2
Two Greek myths account for the origins of the ancient Olympic Games. According to Pindar, Heracles created the site of Olympia for the festival:
[Heracles] measured out a sacred precinct for his father most mighty; he fenced in the altisc and set it apart in the open, and he made the surrounding plain a resting place for banqueting.3
The second-century A.D. writer Pausanias relates that Heracles won victories at Olympia in wrestling and pancratium.4
In another story, a young man named Pelops travels to the western Peloponnesus to compete for the hand of Hippodameia, the daughter of the wealthy king Oenomaus. According to Pindar, Pelops and Oenomaus compete in a chariot race, during which the king is killed. Pelops wins the race, marries Hippodameia and establishes the Olympic Games.5 The region of Greece where Olympia is found is thus named the Peloponnesus, or “Pelops Island.” At Olympia, the ancients erected a shrine to Pelops, called the Pelopeion.
Both myths are depicted in the sculptural program of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. The pedimental sculpture from the east facade depicts the moment before the chariot race between Pelops and Oenomaus, and the metopes—or relief carvings—inside the front and rear porches include depictions of Heracles’s 12 labors (one was to clean the Augean Stables, which Heracles accomplished by diverting one of the two rivers that meet at Olympia, the Alpheus).
The exact origins of the Olympic festival, however, are lost in the shadowy dark ages of Greek history. The 776 B.C. date is based on the Olympic Register, a listing of Olympic victors compiled by Hippias of Elis in the fifth century B.C. and then worked on by others throughout antiquity. But there is evidence that the religious cult, and possibly even the athletic contests, may be even older. Pottery found in recent German excavations at Olympia suggests that cult activity in the area of the altis (the enclosed heart of the sanctuary) dates to the late 11th century B.C.6 Bronze dedications from the tenth and ninth centuries B.C. have also been discovered at Olympia, including tripods and miniature charioteers—which may indicate that equestrian games were held at this early date.
The sanctuary of Zeus lay just south of Cronus Hill (named after Zeus’s father). The principal part of the sanctuary was the altis, a walled enclosure that included the ash altar of Zeus, the altar of Hera (Zeus’s wife), the Pelopeion, the Temple of Hera, the Temple of Zeus and the Temple of Rhea (Zeus’s mother). Statues were set up in and around the altis to honor victorious athletes and to commemorate military victories and political alliances.
The ash altar to Zeus was probably the earliest structure at the sanctuary. At the beginning of each Olympic festival, participants would march into the sanctuary and sacrifice 100 bulls to Zeus at this altar. In the second century A.D., according to Pausanias, the altar consisted of a stone platform, where animals were sacrificed; piled on this base was a tower of ash, where the thighs of the sacrificed animals were burned. Pausanias observes that the ash altar reached 22 feet into the air. Following the sacrifice of the bulls, the crowd consumed the meat at a great public banquet.7
The massive Temple of Zeus, built between 471 and 457 B.C., was 210 feet long and 90 feet wide—only 16 feet shorter and 10 feet narrower than the Parthenon in Athens (which was completed some 20 years later). The temple’s Doric colonnade consisted of six columns at each end and 13 columns along the sides, and the roof supported tiles made of Pentelic marble (from Mount Pentelicus, near Athens, which also supplied the marble for the Parthenon). The temple’s pediments, 40 feet above the ground, were adorned with sculptures depicting scenes from Greek myth—Lapiths battling Centaurs on the west end, and Pelops, Oenomaus and their entourages on the east end (where visitors entered).
Inside the temple, completely filling its west end, was a 40-foot-high bronze statue of Zeus sitting on a throne—which became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The statue was made by the Athenian sculptor Phidias (c. 490-425 B.C.) in a common Greek style called chryselephantine, meaning that it was covered with gold and ivory (like the statue of Athena in the Parthenon, which was also made by Phidias).
To the west of the Temple of Zeus was a modest fifth-century B.C. facility where the Olympian athletes bathed. The building had a series of tubs, in which the athletes reclined and had water poured over their heads. A 5-foot-deep swimming pool, measuring 79 feet by 52 feet, lay adjacent to the baths; this pool also dates to the fifth century B.C.
In the third century B.C. a palaestra was added just north of the bath building. This was a large open-air courtyard enclosed on all four sides by a colonnade, which was surrounded by rooms. The Greek word “palaestra” means “the place of wrestling,” so wrestling and other events were probably practiced in the courtyard.
In the second century B.C. a large gymnasium was constructed to the north of the bath facility. This structure included a roofed racecourse, 600 feet long, allowing runners to train under cover. The gymnasium also included a large open-air courtyard for practicing the discus, javelin and long jump.
Tracing the enigmatic, mystical genesis of the Greek Olympiad, The Olympic Games: How They All Began takes you on a journey to ancient Greece with some of the finest scholars of the ancient world. Ranging from the original religious significance of the games to the brutal athletic competitions, this free eBook paints a picture of the ancient sports world and its devoted fans.
A vaulted entrance led from the altis to the stadium, and this was the route that athletes and judges would follow during the games.
The Olympic stadium evolved considerably over the years. It began as a simple rectangular running track, or dromos, on which the athletes competed. Gradually spectator facilities were added around the sides of the race track. Archaeologists have found starting lines carved in stone at both ends of the dromos, 600 feet apart (the length of a stadion). Spectators used the northern slope of the Cronus Hill to view the contests. By the mid-fifth century B.C., the dromos was surrounded on four sides by artificial earth embankments on which 45,000 spectators could watch the contests.
Spectators at Olympia stood while watching the games. The word stadion, in fact, may have originally meant “the standing place”—only later coming to mean the length of the stadium (and, for us, the stadium itself). The judges, however, had a small seating section reserved for them on the southern embankment of the stadium. There were also simple seats for dignitaries and diplomats.
The hippodrome—for equestrian events—was located south of the stadium, in the broad, flat plain north of the Alpheus River. Although the hippodrome has not been excavated, Pausanias gives us a description of the structure with particular attention to the mechanical starting gates, designed by one Kleoetas, which provided a fair start for as many as 40 chariots at one time. The starting line had the triangular shape of the prow of a ship, with each of the two sides more than 400 feet long. A mudbrick altar at the tip of the “prow” held a bronze eagle with outstretched wings. The contestants lined up along the wings of the prow, behind ropes held by officials. They then moved slowly forward; when they came even with the altar, the ropes were released and the race began. The hippodrome track was probably about 2,000 feet long and 650 feet wide. One lap of the hippodrome would have been about three-quarters of a mile long.8
Athletes at ancient Olympia competed to please Zeus. An Olympic champion was the man most pleasing to the god, and the qualities that made him attractive to the god were aidos (modesty and self-respect), sophrosune (moderation) and arête (excellence).
Pausanias tells us that the athletes who competed at Olympia had to swear an oath in the bouleuterion (the archives building), before a statue of Zeus Horkios (Zeus holding a thunderbolt in each hand) and upon slices of boar’s flesh—that they would do nothing to dishonor the Olympic Games.9 The athletes also had to swear that they had followed the regulations for training during the ten preceding months. The athletes trained at Elis, another town in the western Peloponnesus, for the month directly before the festival at Olympia.
From the Olympic Register, we have the names of more than 794 ancient Olympic champions,10 who won a total of 1,029 events.11 The first recorded victor was Koroibos of Elis, who won the stadion race in 776 B.C. The last champion we know about was Zopyrus, a late-fourth-century A.D. boxer from Athens.12
Unfortunately, the Olympic Register is incomplete, nor does it include athletes who competed but did not win. In the 293 Olympiads from 776 B.C. to 393 A.D., 4,760 events were contested; our known 1,029 victories constitute less than 22 percent of the total number. If the ratio between victors and victories recorded in the Olympic Register (794:1,029) is representative of what actually happened over the entire history of the games, we would expect to have 3,672 ancient victors—meaning that we know nothing at all about 2,878 Olympic champions. Possibly future scholars will discover the names and deeds of at least some of these unknown heroes.
Is it possible to determine the greatest Olympic champion? We know of seven athletes who won three times in a single day, the so-called triastes. The only known athlete to accomplish this feat on more than one occasion was Leonidas of Rhodes, who achieved triastes status at four different festivals between 164 B.C. and 152 B.C. He was a swift, powerful runner, winning the stadion (a sprint of 600 feet, or one length of the stadium), the diaulos (a sprint of 1,200 feet, or two lengths of the stadium) and the hoplitodromos (a race with armor).
Leonidas’s 12 gold medals (or, rather, olive wreaths) may well make him the greatest Olympic athlete of antiquity, perhaps even of all time.
The ancient Olympic festival, based so completely on the cult of Zeus, came to a close because of competition from another religion: Christianity. Following Constantine (274-337 A.D.), most Roman emperors embraced Christianity as the state religion and, as such, sought to end pagan cults and festivals, like the cult of Zeus at Olympia. The most conspicuous competition for the Christian church came in the form of the festive, intense and wildly popular Olympic Games. In 393 A.D. the Roman emperor Theodosius I closed all pagan temples and called for the end of pagan festivals.
In his Description of Greece, the second-century A.D. traveler Pausanias tells of a second festival held at Olympia, called the Heraia.
Every four years a committee of 16 married women, one from each of the cities of the region, wove a sacred robe called a peplos for Hera (the wife of Zeus) and held games—footraces for unmarried girls—in three age groups. The three races were held in the stadium at Olympia, though the race was only 5/6 the length of the dromos (the running track in the stadium) for boys and men.
Pausanias vividly describes the girls running their races: their hair hangs down their back, their chiton reaches to just above the knees, and they bare their right shoulder as far as the breast (as can be seen in the early-fifth-century B.C. bronze figurine, probably from Sparta). Each victor received an olive wreath, a portion of the cow that was sacrificed to Hera, and the right to make an offering to Hera.
The Temple of Hera, the earliest temple at Olympia, was built around 600 B.C. It was a Doric structure originally with wooden columns, though these were gradually replaced with stone columns. Some scholars believe that in the beginning this temple was used to house both the cult of Zeus and the cult of Hera, since the Temple of Zeus at Olympia was not built for almost 150 years.
“When the Games Began” by David Gilman Romano was originally published in the July/August 2004 issue of Archaeology Odyssey.
David Gilman Romano is the Nicholas and Athena Karabots Professor of Greek Archaeology in the School of Anthropology at University of Arizona. He is a specialist in the Ancient Olympic Games, Greek and Roman cities and sanctuaries, ancient surveying, and modern cartographic and survey techniques to reveal and study ancient sites. He has directed the Corinth Computer Project since 1988, and he is the Director of the Archaeological Mapping Lab in the School of Anthropology. Romano is the Field Director and Co-Director of the Mt. Lykaion Excavation and Survey Project, a founding member of the Parrhasian Heritage Park, and Director of the Digital Augustan Rome project.
a. There are startling differences as well. Whereas the ancient festival was held in Olympia over a period of about 1,200 years, the modern games move around the world from city to city. The modern games, too, are much larger and more extravagant, probably the greatest secular gathering of peoples in the history of mankind. At the 2000 games in Sydney, Australia, for example, 10,651 athletes from 199 countries competed in 300 events, for which 6.7 million tickets were sold. And 3.5 billion people watched the games on television!
b. The Greek word athletes means “one who competes for a prize (athlon)” and could refer to those who won symbolic prizes as well as prizes of material worth.
c. The altis at Olympia was an enclave of temples, altars and freestanding statuary enclosed by a wall—the cult center of the sanctuary.
1. Pindar, Olympian Odes 1.5-8.
2. Inscriptiones Atticae, vol. 1 (2), 77.
3. Pindar, Olympian Odes 10.43-45.
4. Pausanias, Description of Greece 5, 8, 4.
5. Pindar, Olympian Odes 1.
6. Helmust Kyrieleis, “Zu Anfangen des Heligtums von Olympia,” Olympia 1875-2000, 125 Jahre Deutsche Ausgrabungen (Mainz am Rhein, 2002), pp. 215-217.
7. Pausanias, Description of Greece 5, 13, 8-11.
8. Pausanias, Description of Greece 6, 20, 10-19.
9. Pausanias, Description of Greece 5, 24, 9.
10. L. Moretti lists a total of 794 individual Olympic victors in two publications: Olympionikai, i vincitori negli antichi agoni Olimpici (Rome: MemLinc, 1957).
11. This number includes Olympic victories of uncertain date and authenticity.
12. This information comes from a bronze inscription from the clubhouse of the athlete’s guild at Olympia. The building was constructed in the first century A.D. by Nero and was in continuous use until the late fourth century A.D. (see U. Sinn, Olympia: Cult, Sport and Ancient Festival [Princeton: Markus Wiener, 2000], pp. 114-118).
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Guests will be met by our English speaking guide to commence the tour. Upon completion of the tour, transfer to the ship.
Olympia is situated in the quiet beautiful valley of the Alfios, in the territory of Pisatis. The setting, in great contrast with most Greek sites, is pastoral, green and lush. The ruins are shaded by evergreen oaks, Aleppo pines, poplars, and olive-trees. En route to Olympia, pass Pyrgos, the modern capital city of the province. Olympia was not a city, but a sacred precinct occupied exclusively by temples, dwellings for priests and officials, and public buildings in connection with the Pan-Hellenic games that were hosted there for more than a millennium. In 393 AD, the Christian Emperor Theodosius, in his crackdown of pagan festivals, closed the games and his successor had the temples destroyed. Later, the River Alfios changed its course to flow directly over the sanctuary where it remained buried under seven meters of sand and silt until the 1870s. A striking feature of the festival was the proclamation of the Ekecheiria, or Olympic Truce. Still more surprising was its almost universal observance, witness to the high prestige of the Olympic festival. Explore the archaeological site including the Stadium, the Temples of Zeus & Hera, the Ancient Wrestling House, the Altar (where the Olympic Flame of the modern times is lit), the Roman Aqueduct, the guesthouse and the workshop of the Athenian sculptor, Pheidias.
Next, visit the museum and admire the sculptures from the Temple of Zeus, the statue of Nike Peonios, and the statue of Hermes of Praxiteles. The museum also includes a rich collection of statues of the Roman emperors and objects used or dedicated by the ancient competitors.
Pick up at Katakolon port and drive to Ancient Olympia where you will have the chance to feel the wonder and thrill of the original Olympic Games, which were held from 776 BC to 393 AD as you explore the ruins of the great monuments. Enter the famous Archeological site of Olympia and marvel at the Temple of Zeus, which once housed the Golden and Ivory statue of Zeus (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) and the original Stadium and Bouleuterion, unique in history, where once competitors swore an oath to confirm to the rules. Follow your guide and walk a short distance in order to visit the world famous Archeological Museum of Olympia where you can admire, amongst many priceless exhibits, the marble statues of the Temple of Zeus and the unique statue of Hermes, carved by the ancient Greek sculptor Praxiteles. After visiting the museum, drive through picturesque villages and unspoiled scenery, to arrive at the Merkouri Estate, known not only for its wines of supreme quality but also for its magnificent location. This is the area where the Refosco grape was first planted after being imported from Italy. In 1930, the Mercouris built a modern winery and distillery, updated again in 1990 with the latest technology. You are invited to experience the beauty and charm of the vineyards, to see the old and new winery, and also to have a taste of different wines produced locally. Return to Katakolon port for embarkation to the cruise ship.
Katakolon is your gateway to Olympia, where the ancient Greeks flocked every four years for more than a millennium to celebrate the sacred games dedicated to Zeus.
Meet at the Port of Katakolon with our experienced guide to begin the tour. Upon completion of the tour, the clients will be transferred back to the Port.
Explore the site of the first Olympic Games (which ran from 776 BC to AD 393).
Major structures include the Temple of Zeus (6th century BC), the Temple of Hera, Nero's Villa, the Altis Sanctuary and a museum (superb sculpture displays). The International Olympic Academy is headquartered in Olympia, and there's a Museum of the Olympic. | https://www.froschvacations.com/cruise/offer/regent-seven-seas-cruises/10-night-glories-of-greece-cruise/1279736 |
How were the Olympics a part of ancient Greek religion?
The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god Zeus, and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him. … The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece.
How were the Olympics important to the Greek civilization?
The Greeks believed that a healthy body was very important. Most men and boys practised sports every day because they enjoyed them and wanted to keep fit. … The Olympic games, held there every four years, were so important in Greek life that they were used as the basis for the Greek calendar.
Why did the ancient Greeks hold the Olympic Games quizlet?
Because the ancient Greeks believed that competitions of physical strength and agility pleased the gods, they held a competition called the Olympic Games to honor Zeus, the most powerful Greek god.
How did people honor Zeus?
Each year, the various city-states of Greece sent athletes to festivals of games, which were held to honor the gods. The most important and prestigious were the games held at Olympia to honor Zeus, the king of the gods. These Olympic games took place in the summer only once every four years.
How did the Olympic Games affect everyday life in ancient Greece?
The Olympic Games became so popular that they helped spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas area, to Greek colonies and beyond. Because the Games were held to honor Zeus and other gods; the Games also featured many religious celebrations, rituals, cultural and artistic competitions.
What do the Olympics symbolize?
The Olympic symbol (the Olympic rings) expresses the activity of the Olympic Movement and represents the union of the five continents and the meeting of athletes from throughout the world at the Olympic Games.
What were the purposes of the Olympic Games?
The purpose of the Olympic Games is to bring together the world’s finest male and female athletes in some predesignated group of summer and winter sports. Winners in each of these contests are now generally regarded as the champions in their sport for the four-year period following their triumph. | https://vilamarkovic.com/albania/how-were-the-olympics-a-part-of-ancient-greek-religion-quizlet.html |
Most of us know of the Olympic Games, which first took place in Olympia of Ancient Greece. Every few years, top athletes from all over Ancient Greece would meet to not only compete, but to also honor Zeus, the king of the gods. What most people don’t realize is that the Olympics wasn’t the only athletic competition that took place in Ancient Greece. The Pythian Games, also referred to as the Delphic Games, is one of these competitions. Here is more information about what the Pythian Games are and the importance they played in Ancient Greece:
Where the Pythian Games Were Played
When visiting the Ancient Archaeological Site at Delphi, one thing you will notice is that there are several structures in the area. Delphi is located in the center of the modern country of Greece, but back in Ancient Greece it was known as a site where the legendary Oracle of Delphi lived. It was also a place where the god, Apollo, had a presence. He was historically associated with the Oracle and there is also a temple at Delphi that is dedicated to him. There is also a stadium where the Pythian Games were played. Just as the Olympic Games were dedicated to Zeus, the Pythian games were dedicated to Apollo.
Information About the Pythian Games
The Pythian Games were held at Delphi, the sanctuary of the god, Apollo, once every four years in order to honor him. The first documented instance that these games took place originated around the 6th Century B.C. and they were designed to celebrate the physical prowess of the top athletes and competitors in Greece. However, unlike other events, such as the Olympic Games, individuals competed in more than just athletics. There were also competitions for both art and dance. In fact, it is thought that the art and dance competitions were in place at the Pythian Games long before the athletic events. Athletic competitions at the Pythian Games included boxing, wrestling, gymnastics, and pankration. The artistic competitions included musical competitions, dancing, painting, and later on the game’s history, theatrical competitions.
Pythian Games in Greek Mythology
Although Delphi has been proven to be a real place, it is one of those locations that was also an active part of Greek mythology. The same is true of the Pythian Games themselves. It is said that Python, the mythical serpent of the Greek myths, started the games. Python fled to Delphi to hide after he was unsuccessful at killing Leto, who was pregnant with the twins, Artemis and Apollo. Because Athena sent Python to kill Leto, the serpent experienced a feeling of shame when he was unable to complete his mission. Apollo followed the creature to Delphi with the intent of killing him. The two battled, and the end result is that Python was slain. After Delphi was rid of Python, Apollo started the Oracle of Delphi. However, Zeus was displeased with Python’s killing and declared that Apollo had committed a crime. The Pythian Games were founded as payment for the crime.
Winners at the Pythian Games didn’t actually win money. However, they were gifted a wreath made from bay laurel, which was traditional associated with Apollo.
Sources:
Categorized in: Ancient Greek History
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Ancient Olympia lies 10 kilometers east of Pirgos, in a valley between wooded Mt. Kronos, the Alfios river and its tributary, the Kladeos.
According to legend, this area was inhabited by the Pisans. Their King was Oinomaus, whose daughter Hippodameia had married Pelops. There are indications that already by 1000 BC, games were being held in honour of the couple. Though exclusively local at the start, the games began gradually to attract the interest of the other towns in the vicinity In 776 BC, the leader of the Eleians, Iphitos, rededicated the games to the honour of Zeus.
This date marks the first Olympiad; afterwards every four years panhellenic contests were held attracting athletes from all the Greek city-states. While the Games were taking place, the Olympic Truce was in force and all hostilities suspended. The victor's prize was a crown made from a wild olive branch, which was always cut from the same tree, the Kallistefano.
'Tinella kallinike': Well done, glorious victor shouted the crowd in praise of the winner. Back in his birthplace, people would knock down the city walls. The Olympic Games, which included the foot-race, wrestling, the Pankration, the Pentathlon, chariot racing and horse racing, as well as artistic and literary competitions, came to an end in 393 AD, with the prohibitory edict of Theodosios I.
Fifteen centuries later, in 1896, they were revived where they had been born, in Greece, by the French historian and educator Pier de Coubertin. Since then every four years a torch bearer, like the ancient heralds, starts out from Olympia bearing the sacred flame to the place where the Games are held. To everse the organisation of the Games, an International Olympic Academy was founded with headquarters since 1961 in Olympia.
Must see: The first building on the left is the Prytaneion, where ceremonies honoring the winners took place. Further south, Philippeion and next to it the Heraion, a Doric temple dedicated to Hera. Special running races, the Heraia, were held in her honor in which only virgins from Eleia could participate. Southwest of the Heraion lies the Pelopion, an altar dedicated to Pelops, for whom the Peloponnese is named. Nearby is the Doric Temple of Zeus (472 BC), here stood the famous gold and ivory statue of the god, a work of Pheidias.
Outside the sacred grove of the Altis are ruins of other buildings: the Bouleuterion or Council House, where the athletes took the Olympic oath; the Leonidaion, used as a hostel for official visitors; the Palaistra (wrestling school), Gymnasion and the Baths.
The Treasuries, placed at the foot of Mt Kronos, were small edifices raised by each city to house sacrificial vessels. Next to them stands the Nymphaion, a semicircular marble tank that held Olympia's water supply. Just beyond the Treasuries lie the Stadium and the Stoa Poikile or Echo Colonnade, and near it Nero's house. Set in the shade stands the monument containing the heart of de Coubertin, the man who revived the Olympic Games.
Olympia's new museum lies in a shady grove opposite the site. Here are displayed finds from the area, among them the stone head of Hera, Praxiteles' marble statue of Hermes (330 BC), the Victory by Paionios (421 BC), Miltiades' helmet, the terra cotta group of Zeus carrying Ganymede, and the sculptures from the pediments and metopes of the Temple of Zeus, among the most important works of Classical art. There are also pottery, terra cotta and bronze figurines, votive offerings from the sanctuary, etc.
Very near the ancient site lies the modern village of Olympia. Here one of its prettiest buildings houses the Museum of the Olympic Games, the only one of its kind in the world. It contains mementos connected with the history of the Games and a unique series of postage stamps, designed by Papastephanos - Provatakis commemorating the Games. | http://www.destinationgreece.com/LocationInfo.asp?Location=Olympia |
Olympia a sanctuary of ancient Greece in Elis, is known for having been the site of the Olympic Games in classical times, comparable in importance to the Pythian Games held in Delphi.
The Greeks held their Olympics here in Olympia, 150 km from Athens. The Olympics were held in honour of Zeus, the main man on Mount Olympus, and the statue of Zeus in the temple of Olympia was one of the seven wonders of the world.
==== OLYMPIA - SIGHTSEEING
The sanctuary, known as the Altis, consists of an unordered arrangement of various buildings. Enclosed within the temenos (sacred enclosure) are the Temple of Hera (or Heraion/Heraeum) and Temple of Zeus, the Pelopion and the area of the altar, where the sacrifices were made. The hippodrome and later stadium were also to the east.
Olympia is also known for the gigantic ivory and gold statue of Zeus that used to stand there, sculpted by Pheidias, which was named one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World by Antipater of Sidon. Very close to the Temple of Zeus which housed this statue, the studio of Pheidias was excavated in the 1950s. Evidence found there, such as sculptor's tools, corroborates this opinion. The ancient ruins sit north of the Alfeios River and Mount Kronos (named after the Greek deity Kronos). The Kladeos, a tributary of the Alfeios, flows around the area. Its located in the part of Greece which is called Peloponesse. | http://www.mvmtravel.com/places-to-visit/greece/2634/ |
The ancient Olympic Games were primarily a part of a religious festival in honor of Zeus, the father of the Greek gods and goddesses.
How was Zeus honored during the games?
The Games were held in honor of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods, and a sacrifice of 100 oxen was made to the god on the middle day of the festival. Athletes prayed to the gods for victory, and made gifts of animals, produce, or small cakes, in thanks for their successes.
Is Zeus a patron god of any city?
Athens worshipped Athena, the goddess of wisdom, as a patron city-state god. … Elis and Olympia had Zeus as their city god. The statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
What is the oldest Olympic sport still played today?
The running race known as stadion or stade is the oldest Olympic Sport in the world.
Why is Greece always first in the Olympics?
The modern Olympic Games began in Athens in 1896. So Greece gets the honor of starting in the Parade of Nations. The countries that are hosting the next few Games go at the end, with the host country last. | https://wyseniorolympics.com/games/did-the-olympic-games-honor-zeus.html |
The first athletic contest, the foot race, was held at the sacred place of Olympia, in western Peloponnesus, for the first time in 776 BC, in honour of the Olympian Zeus. This we learn from Hippias of Elis, a sophist of the fifth century BC, who was the first to compile the initial victor list of the Olympic Games. Later ancient sources inform us that the Olympic festival was one of the largest and most famous Pan-Hellenic festivals by the time of early 5th century.
The Olympic festival was the most important and ancient of all other Greek festivals. It was the greater religious festival among others dedicated to Zeus, the supreme of all gods. The sanctuary of Olympia imposed its authority throughout the Greek world, whereas soon the Olympic Games became the symbol of Pan-Hellenic unity.
The Olympic festival was held once every four years in the most hot days of the summer. During the five days of the festivals, a number of sacrifices were dedicated to the altars of the gods of Olympia, the most magnificent of all being the sacrifice of one hundred cattle in front of Zeus' altar. A series of athletic contests were held in the stadium, the hippodrome and other areas of the site in front of thousands of spectators from all cities of the known-Greek world. The victors were crowned with a wreath of wild olive and enjoyed special honours from their hometown.
During the Olympic festival, a number of athletic contests were held:
Those who participated in the contests followed common rules and conventions.
Among the rules, the most important were:
The Olympic festival and victory in the games as symbols of unity and spirit in Antiquity
To gain victory became a major achievement that gave credits not only to the athlete but to his city as well. Athletic victory became inextricably linked to the victory of his city and the city became the only collective body with rights to assign glory and awards.
The credit to the personal achievement and the wide recognition of the athlete's physical and moral virtues was high. The main concern of those competing was not to develop one physical ability at the expense of others, but to succeed a balanced development of all physical and moral values.
It was the moral reward that made the victory worthy of all efforts and physical pain. The Olympic victors shared in the divine splendour and imperishable fame of the first mythical heroes. Victory was the highest honour for a mortal to attain, for his fame became immortal thanks to the gods who preferred him and helped him to win. The favour of the gods and the wide recognition the victor gained by his city was the highest prize.
Lastly, thanks to the truce, all Greek cities could send their official missions to attend the games. This way, the Greek world responded to the challenge to promote cooperation and exhibit political unity.
Hellenistic and Roman Times
The spread of the Hellenistic culture and the new economic, political, and social conditions following the campaign of Alexander the Great, led to important changes of the athletic spirit and the ideological content of the games.
The number of athletic festivals and institutions increased at the new Greek centres. The number of professional athletes coming from Alexandria and the east increased and monetary prizes became a common rule.
Sports became an important component in social life and education. The Greeks, who lived in Asia and Egypt, in an effort to hold on to their culture, built athletic facilities and continued their athletic traditions. The gymnasium was not only the physical place for training, but a place where Greeks could meet, thus preserving their language and customs throughout Asia.
The bond between religion and the athletic ideal ceased to exist and the games now turned into secular events. Victory was more linked to the athlete's personal effort and less to the assistance of gods. In the Roman period, the athletic ideal changed once more. For the Romans, the contests were spectacles, performances (ludi) and not competitions among all citizens. Usually the athletes were slaves or gladiators. Olympia ceased to be the centre of the ancient world and the games were now instituted in honour of the Roman emperor. | http://www.eu2003.gr/en/cat/169/ |
The blessed land of Olympia, as characterized by many, is a home to the most praised sanctuary of ancient Greece, dedicated to the father of the Gods, Zeus.
It is the place where the most significant games of ancient Greece, the Olympic Games, were born, which were held every four years since 776 BC in honor of Zeus. The lighting of the Olympic flame takes place in ancient Olympia before each Olympic Game and proclaims the start of the Games.
On the archaeological site of Olympia you will visit the Temple of Zeus, which used to host the gold and ivory statue of Zeus, a work of the famous sculptor Phidias and known in antiquity as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. All around you can see temples and buildings related to the worship of the Gods, and also buildings related to the Olympic Games such as: sports facilities, additional buildings, utilitarian and administrative, but also buildings of socializing kind. The ancient Olympic stadium is one of UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites. | https://www.travelocity.com/things-to-do/ancient-olympia-day-tour.a2233286.activity-details |
Olympos, Kissavos and Chimera
“Olympos and Kissavos, the two mountains, are arguing:
Which one should let the rain fall, which the snow.
Kissavos lets the rain fall and Olympos the snow.
Olympos turns to Kissavos and says:
‘Don’t scold me, Kissavos, you who the Turks stepped over,
I am old Olympos, known to the whole world
I have forty-two tops and sixty-two fountains.’”
Traditional folk songs are carried by word of mouth. Their composers are unknown. So we cannot know the exact age of this popular Greek “cleft” folk song from Thessaly, which was registered by the 19th-century French historian Claude Faourel in his famous book “Chants populaires de la Grèce modern.” But this song, with its powerful poetic imagery of two of the highest Greek mountains, located literally side by side, “arguing” over who is the greatest, came to my mind for a very contemporary reason. Actually you may guess it, if you replace Kissavos with Olympos of Lykia.
I am referring, of course, to the issue raised by the Prime Minister Tayyip Erdoğan and his Minister of Sport Suat Kılıç over the true origins of the Olympic flame. The news was reported like this: While in London for the occasion of the 2012 Olympic Games, the Turkish prime minister, according to his minister of sport, told the president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), Jacques Rogge, that the “[original] source of the Olympic flame is in Antalya, on Mount Olympos, at Çıralı, where it is still burning. You have the power to put an end to Turkey’s waiting of. Anatolia is waiting for the Olympic flame. The love for this flame is in our hearts,” Erdoğan reportedly told Rogge, while the president of the Greek delegation diplomatically suggested the Turkish PM check the history books.
When I visited the region of Lykia many summers ago, local people showed me a curious flame on the side of the Lykian Olympos, visible from afar. They called it Yanartaş, the “burning rock,” and it was one of the natural curiosities of the area. Scientists tell us now that the flame or group of flames comes from methane gas emissions which erupt through the vents of the volcanic bed.
Nineteenth-century Western archaeologists identified the location as the ancient mount of Chimera, a mythological horrific monster, part lion, part snake and part goat, which terrified people in ancient times, as they attributed supernatural powers to the odd flaming emissions. Ruins of an ancient Temple of Hephaestus nearby confirm that the volcanic fire was present in antiquity. Temples of that ingenious god of metallurgy, who often upset the Olympian gods, causing them to throw him from their mountain kingdom down to earth, are usually found near such locations. He was the son of Hera, and she is linked with ancient Olympia, as the sanctuary of the ancient Olympics was dedicated to her. There, a flame burned continuously, symbolizing Prometheus’ stealing fire from the Olympic Gods to give it to the mortals. The modern Olympic flame is ignited at the site where the temple of Hera used to stand.
So, how did it come to pass that the ancient games of Olympia, in honor of Zeus and Hera, were linked to the methane emissions of Chimera on Lykian Olympos?
Here is an explanation. The Olympic Games were dedicated to Hera and Zeus, who reside on Mount Olympus (in Thessaly). The fire which was lit by the sun’s rays during every Olympics at least since 776 B.C. was linked to Hera, as the sanctuary at Olympia (in the Peloponnese) was dedicated to her, and there a flame was kept burning throughout the games to symbolize the stealing of fire by Prometheus from the Gods on Olympus (in Thessaly) to give it to humans. The Olympos of Lykia is linked to another mythological flame, that of Chimera, which is also linked to Hephaestus, who is linked to Hera as her son.
Actually there is not one, but four, mountains known as “Olympos” in present-day Turkey, while there are six in Greece, and one in Cyprus, not to mention the many villages in both countries with the same name.
The term “chimera” is used today by geneticists to describe imaginary creatures or objects resulting from the combination of unrelated elements. Would the expectation of a link between the flame of Olympia and that of Lykian Olympos be what we might call chasing a chimera? | https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/ariana-ferentinou/olympos-kissavos-and-chimera-27137 |
Altis, in Greek religion, the sacred grove of Zeus, or the sacred precinct in Olympia, Greece. It was an irregular quadrangular area more than 200 yards (183 m) on each side, and walled except to the north, where it was bounded by the Kronion (hill of Cronus). In it were the temples of Zeus and of Hera, his consort; the principal altars and votive offerings; the small treasuries built by various Dorian states; and the administration buildings for the Olympic Games, which were held nearby. Outside the sacred place were the stadium, hippodrome, baths, and other accommodations for visitors.
Learn More in these related articles:
ruined ancient sanctuary, home of the ancient Olympic Games, and former site of the massive Statue of Zeus, which had been ranked as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Olympia is located near the western coast of the Peloponnese peninsula of southern Greece, 10 miles (16 km) inland from the...
Body of stories concerning the gods, heroes, and rituals of the ancient Greeks. That the myths contained a considerable element of fiction was recognized by the more critical Greeks,... | https://www.britannica.com/place/Altis |
lympia is known for having been the site of the Olympic Games in classical times, the most famous games in history. The Olympic Games were held every four years throughout Classical Antiquity, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. The first Olympic Games were in honor of Zeus. Olympia is also known for the gigantic ivory and gold statue of Zeus that used to stand there, sculpted by Pheidias, which was named one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World by Antipater of Sidon.
Olympia was situated in a valley in Elis, in western Peloponnese, through which runs the Alpheus River. It was not a town, but only a sanctuary with buildings associated with games and the worship of the gods. Olympia was a national shrine of the Greeks and contained many treasures of Greek art, such as temples, monuments, altars, theaters, statues, and votive offerings of brass and marble. The Altis, or sacred precinct, enclosed a level space about 200 m (about 660 ft) long by nearly 177 m (nearly 580 ft) broad. In this were the chief centers of religious worship, the votive buildings, and buildings associated with the administration of the games.
The Olympic flame of the modern-day Olympic Games is lit by the reflection of sunlight in a parabolic mirror in front of the Temple of Hera and then transported by a torch to the place where the games are held. When the modern Olympics came to Athens in 2004, the men’s and women’s shot put competition was held at the restored Olympia stadium. | http://www.athenstaxiservices.com/olympia-tour/ |
Image || A copy of Myron’s Discobolus in the Museum of The History of the Olympic Games of Antiquity, Olympia, Peloponnese, Greece. May 7, 2017.
Olympia, Peloponnese, Greece
If the present-day archaeological site of Ancient Olympia, the former celebrated sanctuary of Greek supreme god Zeus and the birthplace of the Olympic Games, doesn’t win gold for being Greece’s most redolent ancient site then it would at the very least be assured of a podium finish.
dMb Country Overview - Greece
Region – Southeastern Europe/The Balkans (dMb tag: The Balkans). Capital – Athens. Population – 10.8 million. Official Language – Greek. Currency – Euro (€) GDP (nominal) per capita – US$21,000 Political System – Unitary parliamentary republic. EU Member? – Yes (10th member joined January 1981). UN Member? – Yes (founding member joined October 1945). G20 Member? – No. Size – 132,000 km² (Europe’s 15th largest country is approximately half the size of Ecuador, twice the size of Sri Lanka, and roughly the same size as the US southern states of Alabama and Louisiana. Topography – A mountainous interior (80% of Greece is mountainous), a long and convoluted coastline, and hundreds of offshore islands. Independence – 1830 from the Ottoman Empire following 1821 to 1830 Greek War of Independence. Brief History – From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as poleis (singular polis), which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Philip of Macedon united most of the Greek mainland in the fourth century BC, with his son Alexander the Great rapidly conquering much of the ancient world, from the eastern Mediterranean to India. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, which adopted the Greek language and culture. The Greek Orthodox Church, which emerged in the first century AD, helped shape modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World. After falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, Greece emerged as a modern nation state in 1830 following a war of independence. UNESCO World Heritage sites – 18. Tourism Catchphrase/Slogan – All Time Classic. Famous For – Endless coastline and beaches; shipping; democracy (born here); a classical and hallowed past; ouzo; sun-drenched islands; Alexander the Great; the Olympics; being the cradle of Western civilisation; food (tzatziki, feta, souvlaki, moussakas, yogurt, grapes, olives and olive oil); economic collapse & austerity.
Highlights – Cyclades island-hopping and the remnants of all that ancient history (Greece boasts four millennia of sun-bleached ruins, artefacts, and architecture). Greece Titbits – At nearly 14,000 km (8,500 miles), Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world; Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilisation, being the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, Western literature, historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles, Western drama, and the Olympic Games (the country’s rich historical legacy is reflected in part by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as of 2017); the Greek economy is the largest in the region with an economy larger than all other Balkan countries combined, this despite its well-documented economic battering and subsequent austerity measures.
Visits – 2 (May 2008 and April/May 2017). Where I Went/What I Saw – Thessaloniki; The Cyclades (Santoríni, Paros, Mykonos, Delos, Tinos); Zakynthos/Zante; Olympia; Sparta; Mystras; Athens.
– On display in the archaeological site of Ancient Olympia
Ancient Olympia & The Olympics
It’s a quadrennial event of huge significance today, one of the largest sporting events on the planet, but the very first Olympiad, aka Olympic Games, were held here in Olympia in 776 BC. An ancient Panhellenic celebration held in honour of the supreme Greek god Zeus, who had been worshipped on the site since as early as 1000 BC, the games were undoubtedly the Ancient World’s biggest sporting event in which male competitors would compete naked (the modern word gymnasium derives from the Ancient Greek word for naked) in the likes of foot racing, wrestling, chariot racing and pentathlon, the most revered of all Olympiad events. Staged, and just as it is today, every 4 years (or olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies), the games pitted against each other the best athletes from various Greek city-states, who would suspend any hostilities (the Sacred Truce) to allow the games to take place, for the paltry prize of a simple wild-olive wreath, the kotinos: status gained as an Olympic winner was a much more coveted prize, the highest honour bestowed upon a mortal. The games would reach their zenith by 576 BC and would continue to grow in size and importance over the course of a millennia, that before their abolition in AD 393, after 1,169 years of continuous competition, by the killjoy Roman Emperor Theodosius I – a result of religious dogma, Theodosius had recently converted to Christianity and suspended the games as part of a general crackdown on public pagan festivities.
– UNESCO commenting on the Archaeological Site of Olympia
Ordered destroyed by imperial decree by Theodosius II in AD 426, little remains today of Ancient Olympia’s magnificent temples, athletic facilities, and other structures dedicated to deities, over 70 in total (a subsequent barbarian invasion and various earthquakes down through the years, especially in AD 522 and AD 551, haven’t helped the site’s cause either). It is widely believed that flooding, attributed to the region’s Alfiós (Alpheus) and Kládhios rivers and/or by tsunami, led to the total abandonment of the area in the 7th century. Covered by alluvial deposits of up to 8 meters deep, the site was lost to history until it was re-discovered in 1766 by Englishman Richard Chandler. The first site excavations, by French archaeologists, took place in 1829. However, what we see today is as a result of excavations by archaeologists from the German Archaeological Institute at Athens that began in the 1870s. As with most such sites from antiquity, you need a sense of imagination to fully appreciate it, although some rather grandiose groupings of ancient stone, a clearly defined site plan, great explanatory signage, and the site’s awesome Archaeological Museum of Olympia all combine to adequately convey the sanctuary’s former glory.
The centrepiece of any modern Olympic Games is also the natural focus of the Ancient Olympia site. A trailblazer par excellence, the void that is the site of the Ancient Stadium was to be my highlight of Ancient Olympia.
Leave time for these. No visit to Ancient Olympia is complete without a visit to the on-site museums; visiting them in conjunction with the ruins helps to put the ancient site into full and fascinating perspective. I found time to take in two of the three museums (missing out only on the Museum of the History of the Excavations at Olympia), the Archaeological Museum of Olympia and the Museum of the History of the Olympic Games of Antiquity, the latter now occupying the original 1880s building of the former.
The oldest of the Ancient Olympia trio of museums, the awesome Archaeological Museum of Olympia was established in the early 1880s to house artifacts being unearthed in the surrounding Ancient Olympia site. At the time it was the only museum in Greece outside of Athens. Today it’s one of the country’s principle museums, its present 12 rooms displaying artifacts from over 3,500 years of history, from around the 3rd millennium BC when humans first settled in Olympia to the twilight of Ancient Olympia in the 7th century AD. The museum is renowned for its sculptures and its ancient Greek bronze collection, the richest in the world – far more bronze artefacts have been uncovered at Ancient Olympia than at any other ancient site.
Running on fumes coming around the final bend and into the home straight of my Ancient Olympia marathon, I somehow found the time and energy to take in the awesome Museum of the History of the Olympic Games of Antiquity. I didn’t think I could possibly absorb any more history, any more antiquity. But it just kept on coming. And again it was fascinating. | https://travel.davidmbyrne.com/olympia-greece/ |
The Olympics, a pagan celebration?
TWH – The Modern Olympics website quotes Professor Paul Christesen of Dartmouth College when noting the pagan origins of the Olympics. Dr Christesen said: “Basically, the ancient Olympics were a religious festival held in a religious sanctuary.”
Dr Christesen added: “It wasn’t just about playing sports.” The Olympics were located at a temple site. “The Greeks were aggressively polytheistic,” Christesen said. “So although Olympia was a sanctuary for Zeus, we know that he was not the only deity worshiped at the site. There were over 70 different altars, you could sacrifice just about anyone.
In ancient games, the runner in the foot race served as the officiant at a ritual sacrifice. A priest sacrificed the animals and placed the portion for the gods on the altar. In “Greek Religion”, Walter Burkett described the sacrificial ritual at the ancient games. Before burning the offering, a priest used a torch to give the signal. This signal would trigger the run. The runner would then run towards the sacred olive tree of Zeus at the finish line. This tree provided the leaves for victory crowns. The winner would then go to the ash altar of Zeus. Once there, they lit the fire to consume the offering.
The Perseus Project of the Classics Department at Tufts University described the ancient games as “part of a great religious festival honoring Zeus, the chief Greek god”. These games have become one of the biggest events in the Greek world. In the middle of these games, the priests sacrificed 100 oxen. Athletes prayed and made offerings to their gods for victory.
The ancient games have always been held in Olympia in the northwest of the Peloponnese, facing the Ionian Sea.
Walter Burkett wrote in “Greek Religion” that the Olympics began as a funeral game. Like someone who screams and moans, the athlete would accomplish grief by expending energy.
Fish bone
Performative grief may have driven the earliest ancient games. Over time, “virtue ethics” became more dominant.
Zeus did not issue commands. Instead, the Greeks developed a set of virtues, or habits of behavior, that promoted their idea of a good life. This tradition has come down to us today as a field of virtue ethics.
Both Plato and Aristotle described virtue. According to them, virtue “is linked to the exercise of a function”. The habitual practice of virtue reinforces this function.
Aristotle held that people had the function of living a good life. When virtue has become habitual, a good life follows. Like Jefferson, he was talking about the male elite, not everyone.
People competed as individuals. They did not compete as representatives of city-states. This individual competition reflected the Greek value of Arete. Scholars usually translate this term par excellence with more than a hint of honor. In the Greek world, the habitual practice of Arete led to fame and glory. Usual Arete led Greek art, athletics, culture and philosophy to their heights.
An Olympic winner did not just win a sporting event. The pursuit of Arete’s athlete led to their victory. Losing a contest brought shame and disgrace. Athletes caught cheating had to pay a fine. These fines paid for bronze statues of Zeus. On these statues, the authorities had inscribed the offenses which paid the statue. These statures also carried ambitious messages. Some messages stressed that skills, not money, lead to victory. Others emphasized the “Olympic spirit of piety towards the gods and fair competition”. These statues lined the stadium road.
Arete also permeated the artistic works throughout the ceremonial complex. The habitual practice of Arete prompted architects, sculptors and stonemasons to create the beauty of the monumental structures of Olympia. It also prompted poets to praise the prowess of the victors. Great poets like Pindar wrote these poems of praise. Some of these poems have survived in the statues and temples of Olympia. Unlike modern games, non-athletes had ways to excel in ancient games.
Sex and who could compete and attend
The ancient games were far from egalitarian. Tufts University Classics Department’s Perseus Project described the differences between the ancient and modern Olympics. Only Greek-speaking free men could compete. For most events, they competed naked. In the 30 days prior to competition, athletes should abstain from sex and meat.
The Perseus Project said authorities barred women from competing. It was a capital crime for married women to attend. Young girls could, however, attend. The ancient Olympics were part of the cult of Zeus.
The cult of Hera, however, had running races for women in Olympia. Three races took place. One for girls, one for teenage girls and one for young women. Unfortunately, very few of these foot races have survived.
The sacred truce
National Geographic noted that the Greek world put an end to organized violence at these games. This truce protected the people who went to the games. During this truce, the Greek armies would stop waging wars. Truces frequently held. A similar truce occurred during the Eleusinian rites.
The ceremonial complex
Olympia was home to a large ceremonial complex as well as a stadium. The complex contained a sacred grove for Zeus, an altar of ashes for Zeus, and a temple for Zeus. Befitting a polytheistic culture, there were also 70 altars for sacrifices, each to a different god.
The ancients called the sacred grove of Zeus at Olympia “Altis”. It was shaped like an irregular quadrilateral with sides measuring 183 meters (600.4 ft). The Altis also housed other altars and votive offerings. The Greek city-states had small treasures in the Altis.
Theoi quoted Pausanias, a Greek traveler, who lived from around 110 to 180 CE. He described his experience in the sanctuary. He said that after leaving the temple of Zeus, a person would climb into the citadel. From there, they could see several temples: that of Dionysius Nyctelius (Nocturne), that of Aphrodite Epitrophia, and that of Zeus Conius. Nearby stood the Chamber of Demeter. Other temples in the area included those of Isis, Apollo and Artemis.
The altar of the ashes of Zeus
The Joukowsky Institute for Archeology and the Ancient World at Brown University explained that the Greeks did not build the altar of Zeus at Olympia out of stone. The accumulation of hundreds of years of bones and ashes made the altar. At each sacrifice, the priests would place another femur wrapped in fat on the altar and burn it. In the second century AD, Pausanias estimated its height. Modern scholars have converted its measurement into modern measurements. It would have been 7 meters (22 feet) tall.
It is suspected that on hot days the altar would have given off a memorable aroma.
This ash altar dedicated to Zeus marked the spot where a thunderbolt struck, long before the ancient games began. The myth says that Zeus threw it himself from Mount Olympus, on the other side of Greece.
The Temple of Zeus
Inside the Temple of Zeus stood the statue of Zeus, one of the seven wonders of the Greco-Roman world. Historians have estimated that it would have reached over 12 meters (40 ft) high. Sculptors used ivory and gold for the face of Zeus. Clay and gypsum made up the rest of the statue.
Ancient games were organized around the cult of Zeus. Unfortunately, that sounded the death knell. In 393 CE, the fanatical Christian emperor Theodosius banned pagan rituals throughout the Empire, ending the games for 1,500 years, but not forever. The modern Olympics began in 1896.
Today, the Olympics are resolutely secular, more inclusive and more egalitarian than in the past. They created their own rituals and traditions, and yet the pageantry of the ancient Olympic games still persists. | https://new-europe.info/the-olympics-a-pagan-celebration/ |
Temple of Hera, Olympia
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Archaeological Development
The site first fell into disuse after the last games were held there in 393 AD. Floods from the river Alpheios, landslides and rockfalls from mount Cronos, and numerous earthquakes resulted in the site dissappearing under 3-4m layers of mud.
A frenchman first suggested the location of the site in the early 1700's. The first excavations took place in 1829 when the temple of zeus was explored. Then a German team conducted a comprehensive excavation between 1875 and 1881.
1900-1950 Excavation was continued in a more limited way by Dorpfeld between 1908 and 1929 but a new systematic excavation was begun in 1936 on the occasion of the 1936 Summer in Berlin under Emil Kunze and Hans Schleif . Their excavation focus on the area to the south of the stadium, the South stoa, bath complex and gymnasion.
1950 to present Between 1952 and 1966, Kunze and Schleif continued the excavation joined by architect Alfred Mallwitz. They excavated Pheidias' workshop, the Leonidaion and the north wall of the stadium. They also excavated the southeast section of the sanctuary and out of approximately 140 debris pits found many bronze and ceramic objects along with terracotta roof tiles.
However, in August 2007 fierce forest fires ravaged many parts of the Pelopannese. There was a real danger of the fires destroying ancient Olympa. Onn account of the fires, most of the vegitation surrounding the site has been destroyed.
Gods/Heroes
The Temple was dedicated to the Goddess Hera. Hera was the wife of Zeus and queen of the ancient Greek gods, represented the ideal woman and was goddess of marriage and the family. However, she was perhaps most famous for her jealous and vengeful nature, principally aimed against the lovers of her husband and their illegitimate offspring. Hera herself was notable as one of the very few deities that remained faithful to her partner and she therefore came to symbolise monogamy and fidelity.
Ritual Activity
Sacrifice-
add text here as appropriate. Note that "shift + enter" inserts a line break without any paragraph spacing.
Dedications-
Pausanias mentions a multitide of votive offerings in the temple of Hera. He refers to an ivory adorned couch, the 'quiot of Iphitus', and a table on which the crowns for victors of the Herian games are displayed. The couch is said to have been a toy of Hippadameia. The 'quiot of Iphitus' has inscribed upon it the truce which the Eleans proclaim at the Olympic festivals.
Festivals-
The Herian Games occured every four years, like the Olympic games. The ancient Herian Games was dedicated to the Goddess Hera. It was the first recorded and sanctioned women's athletic competition to be held in the stadium of Olympia. Pausanias (5.15.1-6.) dates the games to be as early as the 6th Centuary B.C., where he states (C 175 AD) that Hippodaemia gathered a group, known as the 16 women, and made them administrators of the Herean games out of gratitude for marriage to Pelops. Other texts indicate that the "Sixteen Women" were peace-makers from Pisa and Elis and, because of their political competence, became administrators of the Heraea Games.
Like the men's competition, The Herian Games originally consisted of foot races only. The Herian champions won olive crowns, cow or ox meat from the animals sacrificed to Hera, and the right to dedicate statues inscribed with their names or painted portraits of themselves on the collumns of Hera's temple. It is still apparent where the portraits were attached to the temple, though the artwork itself has dissappeared.
The women competed in three age age groups, on a track in the Olympic stadium that was 5/6 the length of the mens track. Pasaunias discribes their appearence for the race as "their hair hangs down, a tunic [chiton] reaches to a little above the knee, and they bear the right shoulder as far as the beast."
Though the men competed nude and the women dressed, 'Chitons' were worn by men doing heavy physical work. Thus, the women competitors were dressed like men.
Rules and Regulations
None found
Other Activities
Earlier 20th Century scholars have used the evidence of Pausanias (v.17-20.3) and his account of the temple of Hera to characterise the sanctuary as a 'sort of storehouse' and a 'museumn.'
By the time Pausanias visited Olympia around 173 CE, it had become a crowded, popular sanctuary. According to his account, the Atlis included two major temples, that of Zeus and the early 6th Centuary temple named by him as being dedicated to Hera.
The temple is known to have held the 'Disk of Iphitos' on which the olympic truce was inscribed.
Additionally, in the Opisthodomos, one of the 3 chambers on the temple, stood the 'Chest of Kyoselos', made of wood, gold and Ivory, decorated with mythical scenes. It was where the Olympic victor's olive crowns were displayed.
Historical Significance
The Temple of Hera at Olympia was located North of the sacred precinct, the Altis. It was one of the earliest Doric Temple in Greece, as well as the oldest peripteral temple at that site, having a single row of collumns on all sides, posing the question that the location may have previously been the place for of worship for an older cult. The temple was built in approximately 590 BC, but was destroyed by an earthquake in the early 4th century AD.
Layout Description
The temple measures 169ft by 63ft with the height of 50ft at the of the temple platform , 'the Stylobate.' It was longer and narrower than the common architecture of the previous era, although the long preportions are a common feature of early Doric architecture.
Structure of the Temple
The temple was divided into three chambers: Pronaos, Cella and Opisthodomos. The Cella, which was entered through the Pronaos by a double door 2.9m wide, and was divided longitudinally by two rows of doric collumns.
On a pedestal at the end of the Cella stood the cult statue of Zeus and Hera, mentioned by Pausanias. Zeus was depicted standing next to Hera who was seated on a throne. The Archaic stone head of Hera, recovered near the Heraion, and is displayed in the Olympia Archeological Museumn.
Who used the site, and where did they come from?
The Temple was erected around 590 BC., as a dedication by the Tiphylian Polis of Skillous, originally in honour of their main partron deity at Olympia, Zeus, which was later dedicated to Hera after the control pf Olympia was passed from Tiphylia to Elis in 580 B.C., or when the famous temple of Zeus was built.
Select Site Bibliography
Arafat, K.W. (1995) 'Pausanias and the Temple of Hera at Olympia' The Annual of the British School at Athens Vol. 90. pp. 461-473
Darling, J. K. (2004). 'Architecture of Greece.' Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 195–197.
DesMarteau, L. (2005) 'The Heraea Games'. The History and Mythology of the Heraea Games and the Sixteen Women
Miron, D. (2004-5) 'The Heraia at Olympia: Gender and Peace'
AMERICAN JOURNALOF ANCIENT HISTORY volume 3-4. pp 1-33.
Olympia Greece Site. Accessed at http://www.olympia-greece.org/site.html
Scanlon, Thomas F. (2004) 'Games for Girls'. Ancient Olympics Guide.
Swaddling, Judith. "Women at the Heraia". Ancient Greek Olympics Gallery. Accessed: at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/greeks/greek_olympics_gallery_06.shtml
Pausanias- http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0160 Translated by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod
Footnotes
1- Olympia Greece Site- http://www.olympia-greece.org/site.html
2- Pausanias 5.20.1.
3- Darling. (2004). 195–197.
4- Scanlon. (2004)
5- DesMarteau.(2005) 'The Heraea Games'.
6- Pausanias 5.15.1-6.
7- Swaddling. "Women at the Heraia". Ancient Greek Olympics Gallery. Accessed: at http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/greeks/greek_olympics_gallery_06.shtml
8- Pausanias 5.15.1-6.
9- Arafat (1995) 463.
10- Pausanias V.17-20.3.
11- Pausanias 516.1 xvi
12- Pausanias 5.16.1. xvi.
13- Pausanias V,17,1.
Location
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The ancient Olympic Games were originally a festival, or celebration of and for Zeus; later, events such as a footrace, a javelin contest, and wrestling matches were added. The Olympic Games (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Ὀλύμπια, Olympia, "the Olympics"; also Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Ὀλυμπιάς, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Olympias, "the Olympiad") were a series of athletic competitions among representatives of city-states and one of the Panhellenic Games of ancient Greece. They were held in honor of Zeus, and the Greeks gave them a mythological origin. The first Olympics is traditionally dated to 776 BC. They continued to be celebrated when Greece came under Roman rule, until the emperor Theodosius I suppressed them in AD393 as part of the campaign to impose Christianity as the State religion of Rome. The games were held every four years, or olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies.
During the celebration of the games, an Olympic Truce was enacted so that athletes could travel from their cities to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were olive leaf wreaths or crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rivals. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations. The statue of Zeus at Olympia was counted as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Sculptors and poets would congregate each olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons.
The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate, although there were victorious women chariot owners. As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greek city-state and kingdom were allowed to participate, although the Hellanodikai, the officials in charge, allowed king Alexander I of Macedon to participate in the games only after he had proven his Greek ancestry. The games were always held at Olympia rather than moving between different locations as is the practice with the modern Olympic Games. Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations.
To the Greeks, it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology. During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games.
These origin traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games.
The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life.
Since these myths were documented by historians like Pausanias, who lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the AD160, it is likely that these stories are more fable than fact. It was often supposed that the origins of many aspects of the Olympics date to funeral games of the Mycenean period and later. Alternatively, the games were thought to derive from some kind of vegetation magic or from initiation ceremonies. The most recent theory traces the origins of the games to large game hunting and related animal ceremonialism.
The Olympic games were held to be one of the two central rituals in ancient Greece, the other being the much older religious festival, the Eleusinian Mysteries. The games first started in Olympia, Greece, in a sanctuary site for the Greek deities near the towns of Elis and Pisa (both in Elis on the peninsula of Peloponnesos). The Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia housed a 13adj=midNaNadj=mid statue in ivory and gold of Zeus that had been sculpted by Phidias circa 445 BC. This statue was one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. By the time of the Classical Greek culture, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the games were restricted to male participants.
The historian Ephorus, who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to Hippias of Elis, to Eratosthenes, or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated. The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using the term Olympiad for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except the historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad. Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began.
The only competition held then was, according to the later Greek traveller Pausanias who wrote in AD175, the stadion race, a race over about 190m (620feet), measured after the feet of Hercules. The word stadium is derived from this foot race.
The Greek tradition of athletic nudity (gymnos) was introduced in 720 BC, either by the Spartans or by the Megarian Orsippus, and this was adopted early in the Olympics as well.
Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of Argos was commissioned by the town of Pisa to capture the sanctuary from the town of Elis, which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control.
The Olympic Games were part of the Panhellenic Games, four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The Olympic Games were more important and more prestigious than the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games.
The games were in decline for many years but continued past AD385, by which time flooding and earthquakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia. In 394 Theodosius I banned all pagan festivals, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held.
The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god Zeus, and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him. Over time Olympia, the site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek pantheon and a temple, built by the Greek architect Libon, was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest Doric temples in Greece. The sculptor Pheidias created a statue of the god made of gold and ivory. It stood tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. As the historian Strabo put it,
Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets, painters and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Sculptors created works like Myron's Diskobolos or Discus Thrower. Their aim was to highlight natural human movement and the shape of muscles and the body. Poets would be commissioned to write poems in praise of the Olympic victors. Such victory songs or epinicians, were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose. Pierre de Coubertin, one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games. His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in 1896.
Power in ancient Greece became centered around the city-state in the 8th century BC. The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity. These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction. The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: on one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources. The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other.
In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to the mountain competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' rolls. The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that Cyrene was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from Thera with Spartan support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, Hellenic culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted.
The games faced a serious challenge during the Peloponnesian War, which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenic city-state. The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory.
During the Olympic Games, a truce, or ekecheiria was observed. Three runners, known as spondophoroi, were sent from Elis to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce. During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia; and legal disputes, and the use of the death penalty, were forbidden. The truce — primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games — was, for the most part, observed. Thucydides wrote of a situation when the Spartans were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 minae for assaulting the city of Lepreum during the period of the ekecheiria. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold.
While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world. As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, Pausanias, a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades,
|Events at the Olympics|
|Olympiad||Year||Event first introduced|
|1st||776 BC||Stade|
|14th||724 BC||Diaulos|
|15th||720 BC||Long distance race (Dolichos)|
|18th||708 BC||Pentathlon, Wrestling|
|23rd||688 BC||Boxing (pygmachia)|
|25th||680 BC||Four horse chariot race (tethrippon)|
|33rd||648 BC||Horse race (keles), Pankration|
|37th||632 BC||Boys stade and wrestling|
|38th||628 BC||Boys pentathlon|
|41st||616 BC||Boys boxing|
|65th||520 BC||Hoplite race (hoplitodromos)|
|70th||500 BC||Mule-cart race (apene)|
|93rd||408 BC||Two horse chariot race (synoris)|
|96th||396 BC||Competition for heralds and trumpeters|
|99th||384 BC||Tethrippon for horse over one year|
|128th||266 BC||Chariot for horse over one year|
|131st||256 BC||Race for horses older than one year|
|145th||200 BC||Pankration for boys|
Apparently starting with just a single foot race, the program gradually increased to twenty-three contests, although no more than twenty featured at any one Olympiad. Participation in most events was limited to male athletes except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the equestrian events. Youth events are recorded as starting in 632 BC.Our knowledge of how the events were performed primarily derives from the paintings of athletes found on many vases, particularly those of the Archaic and Classical periods.
The only event recorded at the first thirteen games was the stade, a straight-line sprint of just over 192 metres. The diaulos (lit. "double pipe"), or two-stade race, is recorded as being introduced at the 14th Olympiad in 724 BC. It is thought that competitors ran in lanes marked out with lime or gypsum for the length of a stade then turned around separate posts (kampteres), before returning to the start line. Xenophanes wrote that "Victory by speed of foot is honored above all."
A third foot race, the dolichos ("long race"), was introduced in the next Olympiad. Accounts of the race's distance differ; it seems to have been from twenty to twenty-four laps of the track, around 7.5 km to 9 km, although it may have been lengths rather than laps and thus half as far.
The last running event added to the Olympic program was the hoplitodromos, or "Hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the games. Competitors ran either a single or double diaulos (approximately 400 or 800 metres) in full military armour. The hoplitodromos was based on a war tactic of soldiers running in full armor to surprise the enemy.
Wrestling (pale) is recorded as being introduced at the 18th Olympiad. Three throws were necessary for a win. A throw was counted if the body, hip, back or shoulder (and possibly knee) touched the ground. If both competitors fell nothing was counted. Unlike its modern counterpart Greco-Roman wrestling, it is likely that tripping was allowed.
Boxing (pygmachia) was first listed in 688 BC, the boys' event sixty years later. The laws of boxing were ascribed to the first Olympic champion Onomastus of Smyrna. It appears that body-blows were either not permitted or not practised. The Spartans, who claimed to have invented boxing, quickly abandoned it and did not take part in boxing competitions.At first the boxers wore himantes (sing. himas), long leather strips which were wrapped around their hands.
The pankration was introduced in the 33rd Olympiad (648 BC). Boys' pankration became an Olympic event in 200 BC, in the 145th Olympiad. As well as techniques from boxing and wrestling, athletes used kicks, locks, and chokes on the ground. Although the only prohibitions were against biting and gouging, the pankration was regarded as less dangerous than boxing.
It was one of the most popular events: Pindar wrote eight odes praising victors of the pankration. A famous event in the sport was the posthumous victory of Arrhichion of Phigaleia who "expired at the very moment when his opponent acknowledged himself beaten."
See main article: Ancient Olympic pentathlon.
The pentathlon was a competition made up of five events: running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, and wrestling. The pentathlon is said to have first appeared at the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC. The competition was held on a single day, but it is not known how the victor was decided, or in what order the events occurred, except that it finished with the wrestling.
Horse racing and chariot racing were the most prestigious competitions in the games, due to only the wealthy being able to afford the maintenance and transportation of horses. These races consisted of different events: the four-horse chariot race, the two-horse chariot race, and the horse with rider race, the rider being hand picked by the owner. The four-horse chariot race was the first equestrian event to feature in the Olympics, being introduced in 680 BC. It consisted of two horses that were harnessed under a yoke in the middle, and two outer horses that were attached with a rope. The two-horse chariot was introduced in 408 BC. The horse with rider competition on the other hand, was introduced in 648 BC. In this race, Greeks didn't use saddles or stirrups, so they required good grip and balance.
In AD67, the Roman Emperor Nero competed in the chariot race at Olympia. He was thrown from his chariot and was thus unable to finish the race. Nevertheless, he was declared the winner on the basis that he would have won if he had finished the race.
See main article: List of ancient Olympic victors.
See main article: Ancient Greek Olympic festivals. | http://everything.explained.today/Ancient_Olympic_Games/ |
He staged games in Olympia in honour of Zeus, because the latter had helped him conquer Elis when he went to war against Augeas. Zeus was considered the most important of all the Olympic gods. He was originally worshipped as a god of meteorological change.
How was Zeus honored in the Olympics?
The Games were held in honor of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods, and a sacrifice of 100 oxen was made to the god on the middle day of the festival. Athletes prayed to the gods for victory, and made gifts of animals, produce, or small cakes, in thanks for their successes.
Why was Zeus important in the Olympics opening ceremony?
The sanctuary of Zeus was the most sacred place in the ancient world. The gods paid as much attention to the sports results as mortals. Athletes offered sacrifices nonstop to the gods, and the gods were even meant to have competed in the Olympics at an early stage.
How did Zeus punish Olympians?
The Punishment of Prometheus
Zeus was outraged by Prometheus’ theft of fire and so gave the Titan an eternal punishment by having him taken far to the east, perhaps the Caucasus. Here Prometheus was chained to a rock (or pillar) and Zeus sent an eagle to eat the Titan’s immortal liver.
Who was the king of all the gods?
Zeus overthew his Father Cronus. He then drew lots with his brothers Poseidon and Hades. Zeus won the draw and became the supreme ruler of the gods.
Why did they pray to Zeus?
The Ancient Greeks believed that they had to pray to the gods for help and protection, because if the gods were unhappy with someone, then they would punish them. … Zeus, the leader of the gods, in charge of rain and the sky. Hera, Zeus’s wife, was the goddess of marriage and childbirth.
Who killed Zeus?
The most widely known example is probably the God of War series. The protagonist Kratos main motivation is to kill Zeus. In The episode of Xena Warrior Princess “God Fearing Child” Hercules kills Zeus when the King of Olympus tries to kill Xena’s daughter.
What was Zeus weakness?
But representations of Zeus as a powerful young man also exist. Symbols or Attributes: Thunderbolt. Strengths: Highly powerful, strong, charming, persuasive. Weaknesses: Gets in trouble over love, can be moody. | https://wyseniorolympics.com/games/you-asked-what-did-zeus-do-for-the-olympics.html |
When were the Olympic Games Banned?
In 393 AD, the Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned the Olympic Games for religious reasons, claiming that they encouraged paganism. They were not revived until the modern era.
How many years did the Olympic Games last from their start until the Roman ban?
The Olympic Games started in 776 B.C. in the Ancient Greek sanctuary of Olympia and lasted until 393 AD when Theodosius I banned them in order to promote Christianity. They took place every four years, an Olympiad.
Why did the Olympics stopped in 393 AD?
In A.D. 393, Emperor Theodosius I, a Christian, called for a ban on all “pagan” festivals, ending the ancient Olympic tradition after nearly 12 centuries. It would be another 1,500 years before the Games would rise again, largely thanks to the efforts of Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) of France.
Which country cheats the most in the Olympics?
The country with the most stripped medals is Russia (and Russian associated teams), with 46, four times the number of the next highest, and more than 30% of the total. The Post-Soviet states account for more than 60% of the overall total.
What is the oldest Olympic sport still played today?
The running race known as stadion or stade is the oldest Olympic Sport in the world.
Why did the Romans ban the Olympics?
The ancient Olympics, held every four years, occurred during a religious festival honoring the Greek god Zeus. … With the rise of Rome, the Olympics declined, and in 393 A.D. the Roman Emperor Theodosius I, a Christian, abolished the Games as part of his efforts to suppress paganism in the Roman Empire.
Why did the Olympic Games stop for awhile?
The games likely came to an end under Theodosius II, possibly in connection with a fire that burned down the temple of the Olympian Zeus during his reign. During the celebration of the games, an Olympic Truce was enacted so that athletes could travel from their cities to the games in safety. | https://wyseniorolympics.com/games/best-answer-how-long-were-the-olympic-games-banned.html |
The Olympic Games (Greek: Ολυμπιακοί αγώνες, "Olympiakoi Agones") were a series of athletic competitions among representatives of city-states and one of the Panhellenic Games of Ancient Greece. They were held in honor of Zeus, and the Greeks gave them a mythological origin. The first Olympics is traditionally dated to 776 BC. They continued to be celebrated when Greece came under Roman rule, until the emperor Theodosius I suppressed them in 394 AD as part of the campaign to impose Christianity as the state religion of Rome. The games were held every four years, or olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies.
During the celebration of the games, an Olympic Truce was enacted so that athletes could travel from their countries to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were olive leaf wreaths or crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rivals. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations and artistic competitions. The statue of Zeus at Olympia was counted as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Sculptors and poets would congregate each olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons.
The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate, although a woman, Bilistiche, is also mentioned as a winning chariot owner. As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greek city-state and kingdom were allowed to participate, although the Hellanodikai, the officials in charge, allowed king Alexander I to participate in the games only after he had proven his Greek ancestry. The games were always held at Olympia rather than alternating to different locations as is the tradition with the modern Olympic Games. Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations.
Contents
Origins
To the Greeks, it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology. During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games. These origin traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games.
The earliest myths regarding the origin of the games are recounted by the Greek historian, Pausanias. According to the story, the dactyl Herakles (not to be confused with the son of Zeus) and four of his brothers, Paeonaeus, Epimedes, Iasius and Idas, raced at Olympia to entertain the newborn Zeus. He crowned the victor with an olive tree wreath (which thus became a peace symbol), which also explains the four year interval, bringing the games around every fifth year (counting inclusively). The other Olympian gods (so named because they lived permanently on Mount Olympus) would also engage in wrestling, jumping and running contests.
Another myth of the origin of the games is the story of Pelops, a local Olympian hero. The story of Pelops begins with Oenomaus, the king of Pisa, Greece, who had a beautiful daughter named Hippodamia. According to an oracle, the king would be killed by her husband. Therefore, he decreed that any young man who wanted to marry his daughter was required to drive away with her in his chariot, and Oenomaus would follow in another chariot and spear the suitor if he caught up with them. Now, the king's chariot horses were a present from the god Poseidon and were therefore supernaturally fast. Pelops was a very handsome young man and the king's daughter fell in love with him. Before the race, she persuaded her father's charioteer Myrtilus to replace the bronze axle pins of the king's chariot with wax ones. Naturally, during the race the wax melted and the king fell from his chariot and was killed. At the same time the king's palace was struck by lightning and reduced to ashes, save for one wooden pillar that was revered in the Altis for centuries, and stood near what was to be the site of the temple of Zeus. Pelops was proclaimed the winner and married Hippodamia. After his victory, Pelops organized chariot races as thanksgiving to the gods and as funeral games in honor of King Oenomaus, in order to be purified of his death. It was from this funeral race held at Olympia that the beginnings of the Olympic Games were inspired. Pelops became a great king, a local hero, and gave his name to the Peloponnese.
One other myth, this one occurring after the aforementioned myth, is attributed to Pindar. He claims the festival at Olympia involved Herakles, the son of Zeus. The story goes that after completing his labors, Herakles established an athletic festival to honor his father.
The games of previous millennia were discontinued and then revived by Lycurgus of Sparta, Iphitos of Elis, and Cleisthenes of Pisa at the behest of the Oracle of Delphi who claimed that the people had strayed from the gods, which had caused a plague and constant war. Restoration of the games would end the plague, usher in a time of peace, and signal a return to a more traditional lifestyle. The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life.
Since these myths were documented by historians like Pausanias, who lived during the reign of Marcus Aurelius in the 160s nbsp;AD, it is likely that these stories are more fable than fact. It was often supposed that the origins of many aspects of the Olympics date to funeral games of the Mycenean period and later. Alternatively, the games were thought to derive from some kind of vegetation magic or from initiation ceremonies. The most recent theory traces the origins of the games to large game hunting and related animal ceremonialism.
History
The Olympic games were held to be one of the two central rituals in Ancient Greece, the other being the much older religious festival, the Eleusinian Mysteries.
The games started[when?] in Olympia, Greece, in a sanctuary site for the Greek deities near the towns of Elis and Pisa (both in Elis on the peninsula of Peloponnesos). The first games began as an annual foot race of young women in competition for the position of the priestess for the goddess, Hera, and a second race was instituted for a consort for the priestess who would participate in the religious traditions at the temple.
The Heraea Games, the first recorded competition for women in the Olympic Stadium, were held as early as the sixth century BC. It originally consisted of foot races only, as did the competition for males. Some texts, including Pausanias's Description of Greece, c. AD 175, state that Hippodameia gathered a group known as the "Sixteen Women" and made them administrators of the Heraea Games, out of gratitude for her marriage to Pelops. Other texts related to the Elis and Pisa conflict indicate that the "Sixteen Women" were peacemakers from Pisa and Elis and, because of their political competence, became administrators of the Heraea. Being the consort of Hera in Classical Greek mythology, Zeus was the father of the deities in the pantheon of that era. The Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia housed a 13-metre-high (43 ft) statue in ivory and gold of Zeus that had been sculpted by Phidias circa 445 BC. This statue was one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World. By the time of the Classical Greek culture, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the games were restricted to male participants.
The historian Ephorus, who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to Hippias of Elis, to Eratosthenes, or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated. The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using the term Olympiad for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except the historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad. Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began.
The only competition held then was, according to the later Greek traveller Pausanias who wrote in 175 AD., the stadion race, a race over about 190 metres (620 ft), measured after the feet of Hercules. The word stadium is derived from this foot race.
The Greek tradition of athletic nudity (gymnos) was introduced in 720 BC, either by the Spartans or by the Megarian Orsippus, and this was adopted early in the Olympics as well.
Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of Argos was commissioned by the town of Pisa to capture the sanctuary from the town of Elis, which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control.
The Olympic Games were part of the Panhellenic Games, four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The Olympic Games were more important and more prestigious than the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games.
The games were in decline for many years but continued past 385 AD, by which time flooding and earthquakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia. In 394 Theodosius I banned all pagan festivals, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held.
Some of the games that were played:
|Event||Athlete||Winner||Additional Information|
|Foot Race||Runner||Runner||When this race was run once across the field it was called a Stade. The race was called a diaulos when running once across the field and then back to the starting point. Another race was called a Hippicos when the runners ran four Stades in a row.|
|Chariot Race||Rider||The Owner||It was possible for the winner to be a woman in official games from early on. This was likely because she was not physically competing, she was just the owner of the chariot. Women, like many athletes of their time, typically came from well known and wealthy families.|
|Discus||Thrower||Thrower||The thrower had restriction on his method of throwing, and could only throw directly in front of himself. The thrower, like most athletes, had to practice his positioning and was required to position his body in order to properly throw the discus|
|Jumping||Jumper||Jumper||The athlete would wear weights to toss his body forward. These were leather bands tied to their arms with weights attached to them. The jumper was required to land with both feet close together and could not land on all fours.|
|Running with Armor||Runner||Runner||Was called a Hoplite. Consisted of men running in some pieces of armor. These were typically a helmet or shield, not too much or the runner would be weighed down. This event can be seen as an indication to the games being connected to war.|
Culture
The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god Zeus, and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him. Over time Olympia, site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek pantheon and a temple, built by the Greek architect Libon was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest Doric temples in Greece. The sculptor Pheidias created a statue of the god made of gold and ivory. It stood 42 feet (13 m) tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. As the historian Strabo put it,
"... the glory of the temple persisted ... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece."
Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Sculptors created works like Myron's Diskobolos or Discus Thrower. Their aim was to highlight natural human movement and the shape of muscles and the body. Poets would be commissioned to write poems in praise of the Olympic victors. Such victory songs or epinicians, were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, one of the founders of the modern Olympic Games, wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games. His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in Athens in 1896.
Politics
Power in ancient Greece became centered around the city-state in the 8th century BC. The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity. These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction. The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: On one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources. The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other.
In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to the mountain competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' rolls. The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that Cyrene was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from Thera with Spartan support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, Hellenistic culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted.
The games faced a serious challenge during the Peloponnesian War, which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenistic city-state. The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory.
During the Olympic Games, a truce, or ekecheiria was observed. Three runners, known as spondophoroi were sent from Elis to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce. During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia, wars were suspended, and legal disputes and the use of the death penalty were forbidden. The truce was primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games and was, for the most part, observed. Thucydides wrote of a situation when the Spartans were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 minae for assaulting the city of Lepreum during the period of the ekecheiria. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold.
While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world. As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, Pausanias, a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades,
"Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans."
Events
Only free men who spoke Greek were allowed to participate in the Ancient Games of classical times. They were to some extent "international", in the sense that they included athletes from the various Greek city-states. Additionally, participants eventually came from Greek colonies as well, extending the range of the games to far shores of the Mediterranean and of the Black Sea.
To be in the games, the athletes had to qualify and have their names written in the lists. It seems that only young people were allowed to participate, as the Greek writer Plutarch relates that one young man was rejected for seeming overmature, and only after his lover, who presumably vouched for his youth, interceded with the King of Sparta, was he permitted to participate. Before being able to participate, every participant had to take an oath in front of the statue of Zeus, saying that he had been in training for ten months.
Participation in most events was limited to male athletes except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the equestrian events. In 396 BC, and again in 392 BC, the horses of a Spartan princess named Cynisca won the four-horse race.
The winner of an Olympic event was awarded an olive branch and often was received with much honour throughout Greece, especially in his home town, where he was often granted large sums of money (in Athens, 500 drachma, a small fortune) and prizes including vats of olive oil. (See Milo of Croton.) Sculptors would create statues of Olympic victors, and poets would sing odes in their praise for money.
Originally, athletes competing in the Olympic Games wore loin-cloths covering their genitals, this item of clothing was however phased out and eventually athletes competed in the nude. The athletes usually competed nude, not only because the weather was appropriate, but also as the festival was meant to celebrate, in part, the achievements of the human body. Olive oil was used by the competitors, not only as a substitute for soap for washing, bathing, and cleaning, but also as a natural cosmetic, to keep skin smooth, and provide an appealing look for the participants. Because the men competed nude, married women were forbidden to watch the Olympics under penalty of death. Contrastingly, in Sparta—which, compared to Athens, was less restrictive to its female citizens in general—both men and women did exercise unclothed.
Running events
At first, the Olympic Games lasted only one day, but eventually grew to five days. The Olympic Games originally contained one event: the stadion (or "stade") race, a short sprint measuring between 180 and 240 metres (590 and 790 ft), or the length of the stadium. The length of the race is uncertain, since tracks found at archeological sites, as well as literary evidence, provide conflicting measurements. Runners had to pass five stakes that divided the lanes: one stake at the start, another at the finish, and three stakes in between.
The diaulos, or two-stade race, was introduced in 724 BC, during the 14th Olympic games. The race was a single lap of the stadium, approximately 400 metres (1,300 ft), and scholars debate whether or not the runners had individual "turning" posts for the return leg of the race, or whether all the runners approached a common post, turned, and then raced back to the starting line.
A third foot race, the dolichos, was introduced in 720 BC. Accounts of the race present conflicting evidence as to the length of the dolichos; however, the length of the race was 18–24 laps, or about three miles (5 km). The runners would begin and end their event in the stadium proper, but the race course would wind its way through the Olympic grounds. The course often would flank important shrines and statues in the sanctuary, passing by the Nike statue by the temple of Zeus before returning to the stadium.
The last running event added to the Olympic program was the hoplitodromos, or "Hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the Olympic Games. The runners would run either a single or double diaulos (approximately 400 or 800 yards) in full or partial armour, carrying a shield and additionally equipped either with greaves or a helmet. As the armour weighed between 50 and 60 lb (27 kg), the hoplitodromos emulated the speed and stamina needed for warfare. Due to the weight of the armour, it was easy for runners to drop their shields or trip over fallen competitors. In a vase painting depicting the event, some runners are shown leaping over fallen shields. The course they used for these runs were made out of clay, with sand over the clay.
Additional events
Over the years, more events were added: boxing (pygme/pygmachia), wrestling (pale) in 708 BC, and pankration, a fighting competition combining both elements. Wrestling was also the final decisive event in the ancient pentathlon. Boxing became increasingly brutal over the centuries. Initially, soft leather covered their fingers, but eventually, hard leather with metal sometimes was used. The fights had no rest periods and no rules against hitting a man while he was down. Bouts continued until one man either surrendered or died - however, the dead boxer was automatically declared the winner.
Other events include chariot racing, as well as a pentathlon, consisting of wrestling, stadion, long jump, javelin throw, and discus throw (the latter three were not separate events). In the chariot racing event, it was not the rider, but the owner of the chariot and team who was considered to be the competitor, so one owner could win more than one of the top spots.
The addition of events meant the festival grew from one day to five days, three of which were used for competition. The other two days were dedicated to religious rituals. On the final day, there was a banquet for all the participants, consisting of 100 oxen that had been sacrificed to Zeus on the first day.
Famous athletes
- from Sparta
- Cynisca of Sparta (owner of a four-horse chariot) (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor)
- from Rhodes:
- Diagoras of Rhodes (boxing 79th Olympiad, 464 BC) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (boxing and pankration)
- Leonidas of Rhodes (running: stadion, diaulos and hoplitodromos)
- from Croton:
- Astylos of Croton (running: stadion, diaulos and hoplitodromos)
- Milo of Croton (wrestling)
- Timasitheos of Croton (wrestling)
- from other cities:
- Koroibos of Elis (stadion, the very first Olympic champion)
- Orsippus of Megara (running: diaulos)
- Theagenes of Thasos (boxer, pankratiast and runner)
- non-Greek:
Olympic festivals in other places
Athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original festival at Olympia, were established over time in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at Antioch, obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of Pisa.
See also
- List of ancient olympic victors
- Pindar
- Epinikion
- Heraea Games
- Olympic Games
- Nemean Games
- Isthmian Games
- Panathenaic Games
- Olympic Games ceremony
- Archaeological Museum of Olympia
- Ludi, the Roman games influenced by Greek traditions
- New Testament athletic metaphors
- Prizes
Notes
- ↑ "Jeux Olympiques - Sports, Athlètes, Médailles, Rio 2016". olympic.org.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ David Sansone, Ancient Greek civilization, Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, p.32
- ↑ Robert Malcolm Errington, A history of Macedonia, University of California Press, 1990, p.3
- ↑ Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington, A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p.16
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 "The Ancient Olympics". The Perseus Project. Tufts University. Archived from the original on 10 February 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2010. Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Kyle, 1999, p.101
- ↑ Kyle, 1999, pp.101–102
- ↑ Kyle, 1999, p.102
- ↑ Spivey, 2005, pp.225–226
- ↑ Pausanias, Description of Greece, 5.7.6-9
- ↑ Spivey, 2005, p.226
- ↑ Kyle, 1999, pp.102–103
- ↑ Kyle, 1999, p.102–104
- ↑ Wendy J. Raschke (15 June 1988). Archaeology Of The Olympics: The Olympics & Other Festivals In Antiquity. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-0-299-11334-6. Retrieved 12 August 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Patay-Horváth, András (2015). The Origins of the Olympic Games. Budapest: Archaeolingua. ISBN 978-963-9911-72-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "The Ancient Olympic Games". HickokSports. 4 February 2005. Archived from the original on 10 May 2007. Retrieved 13 May 2007. Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Pausanias: v. 16. 2
- ↑ Pindar: Pythian Odes ix
- ↑ Plutarch, Numa Pompilius 1.4
- ↑ Dionysius, 1.74-1-3. Little remains of Eratosthenes' Chronographiae, but its academic influence is clearly demonstrated here in the Roman Antiquities by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
- ↑ Denis Feeney in Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2007), 84.
- ↑ "The Athletics of the Ancient Olympics: A Summary and Research Tool" by Kotynski, p.3 (Quote used with permission). For the calculation of the date, see Kotynski footnote 6.
- ↑ See, for example, Alfred Mallwitz's article "Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia" p.101 in which he argues that the games may not have started until about 704 BC. Hugh Lee, on the other hand, in his article "The 'First' Olympic Games of 776 B.C.E" p.112, follows an ancient source that claims that there were twenty-seven Olympiads before the first one was recorded in 776. There are no records of Olympic victors extant from earlier than the fifth century BC.
- ↑ N.Yalouris.1976.The Olympic Games-through the ages.Print
- ↑ David C. Young (15 April 2008). A Brief History of the Olympic Games. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–. ISBN 978-0-470-77775-6. Retrieved 1 April 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Tony Perrottet (8 June 2004). The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-1-58836-382-4. Retrieved 1 April 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Golden, Mark, p. 77.
- ↑ Stanton, 2000, pp.3–4
- ↑ Stanton, 2000, p. 17
- ↑ Hansen, 2006, p. 9
- ↑ Hansen, 2006, pp.9–10
- ↑ Hansen, 2006, p.10
- ↑ Hansen, 2006, p.114
- ↑ Raschke, 1988, p. 23
- ↑ Spivey, 2005, p.172
- ↑ Spivey, 2005, pp.182–183
- ↑ Lendering, Jona. "Peloponnesian War". Livius, Articles on Ancient History. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Thucydides. The History of the Peloponnesian War. 5. Translated by Richard Crawley. The Internet Classics Archive. ISBN 0-525-26035-8. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Swaddling, 1999, p.11
- ↑ Strassler & Hanson, 1996, pp.332–333
- ↑ Kyle, 2007, p. 8
- ↑ Ageladas
- ↑ Crawford, Michael H. (1983). Archaic and Classical Greece: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation. Cambridge University Press. p. 172. ISBN 9780521296380.
For originally, even in the Olympic Games, athletes competed with loin-cloths covering their genitals, and it is not many since the practice ceased.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "The Women: Were the Ancient Olympic Games Just for Men?". Penn Museum.
- ↑ Gilman, David (1993). Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: The Origins of the Greek Stadion. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-206-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Perrottet, Tony. "Let the Games Begin". Smithsonian Magazine.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Brutium," in Barclay Vincent Head, Historia Numorum.
- ↑ Olympic Wrestling.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Rules and styles of Ancient Olympic wrestling".<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "ACTA - Pancrace".<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "Boxing gets Brutal". Encarta. 23 March 2006. Archived from the original on 31 October 2009. Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>.
- ↑ "A Brief History of the Olympic Games". Retrieved 16 April 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Tiberius, AD 1 or earlier – cf. Ehrenberg & Jones, Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius [Oxford 1955] p. 73 (n.78)
- ↑ 369 according to Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece by Nigel Wilson, 2006, Routledge (UK) or 385 according to Classical Weekly by Classical Association of the Atlantic States
- ↑ William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875 – ancientlibrary.com
References
- Golden, Mark, Sport and Society in Ancient Greece, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
- Hansen, Mogens Herman (2006). Polis, an Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920849-2. Retrieved 12 February 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Hanson, Victor Davis; Strassler, Robert B. (1996). The Landmark Thucydides. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-9087-3. Retrieved 12 February 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Kotynski, Edward J. The Athletics of the Ancient Olympics: A Summary and Research Tool. 2006. (Archived 2009-10-25); new link
- Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22970-4. Retrieved 12 February 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Mallowitz, Alfred. Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia. Raschke 79–109.
- Miller, Stephen. "The Date of Olympic Festivals". Vol. 90 (1975): 215–237.
- Patay-Horváth, András (2015). The Origins of the Olympic Games. Budapest: Archaeolingua Foundation. ISBN 978-963-9911-72-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Raschke, Wendy J., ed. (1988). The Archaeology of the Olympics: the Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity. Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin University Press. ISBN 978-0-299-11334-6. Retrieved 12 February 2010.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Spivey, Nigel (2005). The Ancient Olympics. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280433-2. Retrieved 12 February 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Stanton, Richard (2000). The Forgotten Olympic Art Competitions:The story of the Olympic art competitions of the 20th century. Victoria, Canada: Trafford. ISBN 1-55212-606-4. Retrieved 23 February 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
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- Tufts – "Women and the Games" | https://infogalactic.com/info/Ancient_Olympic_Games |
Over a fixed circuit of four years (periodos), the Greek World gathered to participate in the four major panhellenic festivals, the Olympic (founded in c.776BC in honour of Zeus), the Isthmian (c.581BC honouring Poseidon), the Nemean (c.573BC, Zeus) and the Pythian (c.582BC, Apollo Pythios)Games, which, alongside the athletics, staged a musical competition of great antiquity and enormous prestige.
Much has been argued on whether the character of these gatherings (panegyris) was indeed "panhellenic", a pretty loose and unhelpful term anyway. Probably with the emergence of the Polis-cult, in 8th c. BC the character of the Greek sanctuaries changed (although, initially, Olympia seems to be the place of gathering for NW Peloponnese and Delphi seemed to attract people from much further afield), and instead of being restricted to locals it became interstate influencing a much broader area, attracting visiting citizens of other poleis. Nevertheless, specific sanctuaries still belonged to and were controlled by specific poleis, and, for example, in order for someone to participate in the Olympic Games, he had to be invited by the city of Elis. Moreover, there was no such thing as a panhellenic centre.
Archaeology has furthermore revealed an alteration in the pattern of dedications in Greek sanctuaries. In Delphi, there was a wide range of dedications and archaeological material - even from Crete. Delphi, being on the trade-route from West to East for ships sailing in the Corinthian Gulf, enjoyed dedications even by non-Greeks. Additionally, Herodotus describes how the Kings of Lydia made impressive dedications to Delphi, which undoubtedly attracted visitors and magnified Delphi. This is less true with Olympia, where the majority of foreign dedications are from S. Italy and Sicily as well as Epidamnus - although these are indeed Greek colonies and therefore perhaps not really "foreign". Archaeological sites show a sharp increase in dedications of valuable objects - bronze, jewellery, painted pottery and terracotta along with arms and armour, which are of particular importance, as the emergence of the City-State system was contemporary with and basis of the hoplite warfare. In Olympia, large bronze tripods of a very practical shape were excavated, usually dedicated by members of the elite. This phenomenon was less dramatically obvious in Delphi. Clearly the pattern shifted from cemetery to sanctuary dedications, which also discloses a different mentality emerging from a change in interests. This way, personal status was displayed during one's life, rather than family status displayed after one's death. Wealth was deposited in such a way that it would be visible for sometime and to the entire Greek World and especially to elite members of other Greek Poleis, and not only during the burial to the local community. Thus, apart from honouring the god, dedications stood for advertisements of status.
For reasons difficult to identify, sanctuaries get more global significance, especially with regard to athletic festivals, which gradually become a formal ritualised process. Archaeological findings only help us understand the function that the Games served, and literary evidence gives us a more coherent interpretation of festivals. Although in the Iliad there are references to Games (the Games held by Achilles at the funeral of Patroclos) and Hesiod refers to them as well, Games at a religious festival are much different; they take place regularly and preparation is required.
The periodos, namely the four-year circle in which the major festivals occurred, displays, according to C. Morgan, serious political considerations: "It is interesting to note that athletic contests were founded at around the same time at the two sites more closely connected with Corinth, Isthmia and Delphi, in emulation of Olympia. These were then copied at Nemea, a political creation like Isthmia, which was at least indirectly controlled by Argos, a rival Polis to Corinth and probably eager to copy Corinthian achievements." Morgan implies that Corinth was of major importance in sanctuary activity, as it was the city that created and controlled the Isthmian Games and provoked its rivals into festival activity. So far as the city of Athens was concerned, there was indeed an attempt to create a rival to the events of the four major interstate sanctuaries of the Greek mainland, but it did not succeed, as the Panathenaic festival and Games remained more Athenian than Greek. This phenomenon is a new form of competition between the Poleis, which may offer some interesting conclusions regarding the basis and origins of the religious festivals (which are perhaps similar to the competitions on which city would construct the greatest temple) - was there a use of religion for competing purposes?
Using the advantage to show themselves off in public, the athletes, who had to be all Greek citizens, went into training in their cities - Pausanias records that in Olympia, competitors had to swear that they had been training for ten months and that, later in Antiquity, they had to come and reside to the sanctuary for thirty days before the competition.
In order to prevent wars from disrupting the Games and to make sure that the thousands of visitors and athletes who came to Olympia and also had to return home were safe, Olympic Truce (Olympiake Ekecheiria: suspension specifically of the military hostilities) was declared, at first probably restricted to a month's time before and after the Games, and later extended to two and even to three months, as athletes and visitors came from greater distances. Therefore, the Eleians were not permitted to be at war with anyone during the Truce and were punished by fines according to the Olympic Law. The Games were preceded by heralds-sacred ambassadors (theoroi from Delphi and spondoforoi from Olympia and Athens) travelled to cities to announce the formal Truce that would facilitate the gatherings (panegyreis), enjoying generous and luxurious hospitality and usually inviolability.What is also interesting, is that slaves and non-Greeks during the Ekecheiria could take advantage of the temporary inviolability (asylia). Nevertheless, the Truce did not always work; Thucydides (5.49-50), reports an event in c.420BC, when, during the Olympic Games, hostilities between Eleia and Sparta did not actually cease. In general, the attitude towards the Olympic Truce was extremely legalistic and it was universally acknowledged. A characteristic example is the year's Truce between Athens and Sparta in c.421-420BC, right in the middle of the Great Peloponnesian War. There is, however, the question on whether the Truce always came to force on time.
Apart from honouring the Gods, taking part in the panhellenic Games was a sign of status. As T. Martin underlines, excellence (arete) was a competitive value for male Greek aristocrats - as well as for all Greek citizens - that was vividly displayed in the Games. "The emphasis on physical prowess and fitness, competition and public recognition by other men corresponded to the idea of Greek masculine identity as it developed in this period." The status gained by success in athletic competition was really high. The athletes had to be healthy and able to train. They did not engage themselves in activities which would damage their physique, therefore preparing for the Olympic Games (or indeed all panhellenic Games) was incompatible with labour-workers, who, anyway, could not afford to actually get there, abandoning their work for so long. So, although only the non-Greeks were excluded from the Games, the elite was actually only able to participate and win. One more argument to support the view that the panhellenic Games were elitist events, is that chariot-racing (hippodromion), one of the categories of sport that were recognised, was quite expensive and was itself an advertisement of wealth and power. This is because horses cannot be used for other activities apart from equestrian fighting, which requires a different kind of training. In other words, in the Archaic period, the Games were an essentially elite competition. In later times (4th c. BC onwards) the character of things changes and panhellenic festivals including the Olympic Games were dominated by professional athletes, who made their living from appearance fees and prizes won at various Games held all over Greece (T. Martin).
The agon (competition), according to Bruid-Zaidman, was the "most highly esteemed method of measuring oneself against others, precisely because the Gods themselves sanctioned it". The prizes for the Olympic victors were symbolic crowns of olive (Olympia), laurel (Delphi), pine (Isthmia) and wild celery (Nemea). Nevertheless, the cities took credit for the success of their citizens. Home cities granted to their victors such honours as triumphal entries, statues, money prizes and free entertainment for life at public banquets (sitesis) (Murray). In Athens, the victors and their descendants would enjoy lifetime dining rights in the Prytaneion. The victors were treated as major benefactors by the home city, and many well-known individuals were Olympic victors, such as Cylon, Theagones of Thasos, who competed successively at all the Games in a cycle and was victorious, and thus gained the glorious title of periodonikes, Miltiades, who was a chariot race winner and founder of a colony in the Chersonese, as well as Alcibiades. Actually, according to Plutarch (Life of Alcibiades 11), Alcibiades, in the Olympic Games of c.416BC, entered seven teams of the particularly prestigious chariot race, and came first, second and fourth (Thucydides), or first, second and third (Euripides). In 4th c. BC, the dead Olympic victors were treated similarly to heroes and hero-cults, not only in Athens, but in a number of Greek cities. This was surely an indication that they were particularly important people, and it signifies that victory was regarded as gift from the Gods, so the victor was considered to be a divine favourite. Not surprisingly, Greek cities competed fiercely with each other through the medium of their prize athletes.
Although implications and overtones of panhellenic festivals should not be seen as straightforward political moves, it is well accepted that a gathering of the powerful Hellenes every four years provided plenty of opportunities of varied activities that were of a political character and, of course, for diplomatic negotiations, usually quiet. Cities took the opportunity to make policy statements through public oration, since they knew that they were going to be widely publicised. Finley reports that treaties and other state documents were frequently publicly displayed in Olympia, inscribed on stone or bronze plaques, as, for example, the Decree of the Acharnanian League in c.216BC. Finley argues that "The deposition of this Decree in Olympia is an example of a common custom of solemnising public documents by placing copies in the great panhellenic shrine of Zeus." Although it might be a rather generalised statement, victorious athletes were tempted to and frequently actually entering the political field. The best example on that is definitely Alcibiades, son of Cleinias, who "illustrates the interplay between Games and politics", according to Finley. Alcibiades actually used his Olympic victories as one of his arguments in the public debate held in Athens over the launching of the Sicilian Expedition, dated c.415BC. Victors in the chariot race had a claim to be taken seriously, and in such Ekklesia debates personalities were discussed alongside any other arguments. An extreme aspect of the behaviour associated with Olympic victors is the fact that a number of them may go on to act as tyrants. Pausanias (6.9) delivers the story of Cleomedes of Astypalaea, who destroyed a school by throwing a discus some years after his victory in the Games. Instead of punishment, the Oracle said to treat him as a hero. However, we have to mention that not every outstanding athlete was interested in politics and some even entered the political field only when they were old enough and had to retire from the Games, as, for example, Theogenes.
As seen, literary evidence provides us with more opportunity to explore the other, of significantly minor importance, social and political influences of the panhellenic festivals. Apart from the historical, another form of evidence for victories in Olympia, Nemea, Isthmia and Delphi were the Victory Odes. Pindar of Thebes, writing in the early 5th c. BC named about thirty other contests apart from the major ones and implied that many more existed. The glory (kleos) of the victors was celebrated by Pindar in his Epiniceian ("victory") Odes. They were written for public performance, and many dedicators are from Italy and Sicily, while fewer from Athens. In these Odes, there was a celebration of the individual, his ancestry and his city, as well, set in the framework of an appropriate myth.
Xenia and philoxenia (hospitality and friendliness towards strangers) were two fundamental elements of Greek society in Archaic and Classical years. The panhellenic nature of the Games, therefore, allowed for the establishment and renewal of these bonds - especially when it comes to meeting on neutral grounds under the strict enforcement of the Truce. Pindar himself praises the xenoi, as well as the victorious citizens. Anyway, we must always keep in mind that one of the characteristics of Zeus, in whose honour the Olympic and Nemean Games were held, was "Xenios" (of the guests), which makes this side of the festivals another form of dedication to the him. Everything that occurred in the Games was, in other words, under his patronage.
The case of women in relation with the panhellenic festivals is another example that proves how religion integrated in civic life. Much has been debated on the suppressed role of women in Classical Athens, who were, however, priestesses of Athena, and virgins even carried her peplos in the Grand Panathenaic procession. Married women were not allowed to take part in or even attend the Olympic Games, where men competed without clothes, but apparently the ban applied only to married women as Pausanias states elsewhere that "virgins were not refused admission". Unfortunately, no other written evidence survives to explain this discrimination, but perhaps, as was the case in Athens, but it seems that only virgins were considered to be pure enough to attend sacred rites. Nevertheless, women had their own separate festival at Olympia on a different date in honour of Hera, the wife of Zeus. Worth mentioning is also that the Pythia of the Delphic oracle was a mature virgin woman, usually of low class. | http://www.anistor.gr/english/enback/v012.htm |
The Ancient Olympics were held in Olympia, Greece. Modern Olympics are held in various areas.
the ancient Olympics games were held once in 4 years. the time period was called as Olympiads & was only held in Olympia in Greece
Greece
Yes.
it was in the ancient greece the first olympics
The ancient Olympics were held in ancient Greece at Olympia in the Peloponnese every four years as a festival of the god Zeus.
ancient Olympics were held every 4 years
Olympia, hence the name 'Olympics'
greece
In Olympia Greece.
they were held in ancient Greece
The ancient Greeks held the Olympics in honour of the Greek God Zeus.
The first official 'modern Olympics' were held in 1896 in Athens, Greece. The modern Olympics origianted from the 'ancient Olympics' first held in 776 BC till 393 AD in Ancient Olympia in Greece.
The ancient Olympic games were held in Olympia, Greece.
The first ever olympics were held in 776bc
It was first held in Mount Olympia, In Greece.
The first ancient Olympics were held in Athens Greece and it was held every four years.
Both the first ancient Olympics and the first modern Olympics were held in Greece.
The first Olympics where held in Olympia in ancient Greece in 776 BC
being naked
to honour god zeus
yes
The first modern Olympics was held in 1896 in Greece, the country where the ancient Olympics were held. | https://sports.answers.com/Q/In_ancient_Greece_how_often_were_the_Olympics_held |
We make our first stop the Corinth Canal for thirty minutes . We continue to the mount of Vitina through Levidi at the Lagadia village where we make another stop for coffee for about thirty minutes. Our final stop is Olympia where we visit the archaeological places and the museum. We will have lunch in a local tavern. After that we will return to Athens through the beautiful village of Vitina where we will make another stop for coffee.
1st Day: We make our first stop the Corinth Canal. We continue to the mount of Vitina through Levidi at the Lagadia village where we make another stop for lunch. Then we arrive at the hotel at Olympia. The night we visit the village of Olympia where we will have dinner.
2nd Day: The morning around 10.00am we visit the archaeological places and the museum. Then we stop for coffee at village of Olympia. Our next stop is Levidi, where we have lunch at the village’s plaza and then we continue to Athens.
Olympia was the most celebrated sanctuary of ancient Greece dedicated to Zeus.
It was the venue of the Olympic Games, the most important feast of the ancient Greeks.
The Pythian Games held in honor of Apollo at Delphi.
Isthmian at Isthmus of Corinth in honor of Poseidon.
Nemea in honor of Zeus at Nemea.
At Olympia, inside the temple, there was the gold and ivory statue of Zeus by Phidias, which in ancient times was one of the seven wonders of the world.
From 776 BC and after the Games slowly became more important throughout ancient Greece, reaching their zenith in the fifth and sixth century BC The Olympics also had religious importance since held in honor of Zeus, whose huge statue stood at Olympia. The number of competitions was twenty celebration took place during several days. The winners of the games were admired and became immortal through poems and statues. The prize for the winners was a wreath of olive branches.
The Games gradually lost their importance when the Romans conquered Greece and when Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, the Olympic longer considered as a pagan celebration, and in 393 AD Emperor Theodosius banned their conduct. In this way over a period of one thousand years during which the Olympic subsequently held every four years.
Andreas Syngros as an ideal philhellene built the current museum, at his own expense. | https://limobus.gr/en/private-tours/olympia-tour/ |
6 Most Famous Places in Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is unanimously described as the birthplace of Western civilization. With its tentacles of influence reaching into the arts, philosophy, literature, architecture, democracy, governance, and religion, ancient Greece had one of the most spectacular places on earth as at the time. The golden age saw them organize themselves into thriving city-states. With this came the flourishing of refined socio-political structures that allowed for incredible advancements in the aforementioned areas.
Worldhistoryedu presents to you six most famous places in ancient Greece. These places were at the forefront of the cultural and social advancement of the era.
OLYMPIA
Olympia was a famous ancient Greek sanctuary site located on the western side of Greek Peloponnese (the “valley of the gods”). Found where two rivers – the Alpheus and the Kladeos – intersect, the city’s inhabitants primarily worshiped Zeus and Hera, king and queen of the Olympian gods respectively. Olympia was famous for its valleys which abounded with olive trees and pines.
Olympia gets the top spot on the list of famous places in ancient Greece because the site was well-known for the ancient Olympic Games – history’s most famous sporting event. Scholars opine that the first Olympic Game was held around 776 BCE.
The inhabitants of Olympia celebrated the Olympic Games to commemorate Zeus’ victory over his father Cronus [and his Titan army]. According to the myth, Zeus led his siblings and other Olympians to overthrow the old gods, the Titans, who were led by Cronus. The famous mythical battle came to be known as the Titanomachy.
Did you know: Olympia allowed girls to compete in their own category during the Olympics in order to gain the blessings of Hera?
For more than 700 years, the games went unimpeded until the Roman emperor Theodosius I abolished the games in the 4th century CE. Several prized architectural jewels and temples in Olympia were destroyed by Theodosius II in 426 CE.
Aside from Olympia being a bustling site during the Olympic Games, the place could also boast of a very vibrant economy and culture, including several architectural structures. Olympia was the home of several ancient Greek temples in honor of Zeus and his wife/sister Hera. The Temple of Zeus for example had a thirteen-meter gold and ivory statue of Zeus. There were also magnificent stadia, bath houses, gymnasium, wrestling and boxing centres (Palestra), arena, and theaters.
Read More: Statue of Zeus – one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
The largest of those stadia was believed to have the capacity to accommodate over 20,000 spectators. Most of the city’s spectacular sculpting were done by renowned artists such as Pheidias, who sculpted the chryselephantine statue of Zeus. The statue depicted Zeus with the winged goddess Nike in his right hand and a scepter in his left hand.
Did you know: The first stadium in Olympia was believed to have been constructed around 560 BCE?
As it was common back then, the city of Olympia had a Pryteneion – a town hall (located in the city’s center, agora) where city officials and administrators met to discuss issues while sitting around or near a public hearth. The public hearth and the fire that burned symbolized the Greek goddess Hestia, a sibling of Zeus.
Since 1989, the site has held the UNESCO World Heritage site.
ATHENS
The Greek city-state of Athens comes in second on our list of most famous sites in ancient Greece. Athens’ rise to prominence coincided with the end of the dark age in ancient Greece. Thus Athenians ushered in the gold age of Greek civilization.
Owing to the city’s never-before-seen democratic systems, the city was able to flourish in all spheres – literature, philosophy, poetry, architecture and a host of other areas. When given a choice between the Greek gods Poseidon and Athena, the inhabitants chose Athena as the city’s patron goddess. Guided by Athena – the Greek goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare – Athens prospered exponentially, becoming the famous Greek city of the time. The city’s spectacular landmark buildings, statues and socio-political systems attracted people from all over the ancient world. Athens hospitable and democratic systems allowed for the proliferation of ideas and advancements in science, music, and drama.
Of all the monuments in ancient Athens, the Acropolis of Athens certainly comes out tops. Purposely built on a high ground for strategic military purposes, the Acropolis housed several buildings that held a huge significance to ancient Athenians. An example of such structure was the Parthenon, a spectacular temple built in honor the goddess Athena.
For the arts and drama, Athenians frequented the Theatre of Dionysus to be dazzled by the most renowned stage actors, poets and playwrights. As at the 4th century BCE, the Theatre of Dionysus, which is located on on the south slope of the Akropolis hill, could boast of about 16,000 sitting capacity. Dionysus is the Greek god of wine, pleasure, art, drama and other forms of entertainment.
Read More:
CRETE
The ancient Greek city of Crete emerged in the 4th millennium BCE. The inhabitants of Crete were reasoned to be of Minoan civilization. Crete remained relevant in across the Mediterranean for well over three thousand years, spreading into mainland Greek cities and Egyptian cities.
Crete benefited enormously from being geographically positioned as an influential trading site in between Europe and Africa. As a result, Minoans on the islands of Crete prospered tremendously.
The arable nature of the land on the island allowed for the city’s inhabitants to plant corn and wheat. There were also a number olive and grape trees littered across Crete. Those crops were processed into oil and wine, products which further made Crete prosperous.
Due to Crete being an island, threats from neighboring cities could easily be handled. However, the city was susceptible to a number of deadly earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This was due to it being located in unstable regions of where the Eurasian and African tectonic plates meet.
Some scholars attribute Crete’s decline to the excessive natural disasters that struck the region at the time. Crete is famously home to magnificent ancient remains of the Palace of Knossos, Hagia Triada, and the palace of Phaestos. The ancient Romans selected the village of Gortys as the capital of Crete.
In Greek mythology, Crete is famous because it was the place ruled by king Minos whose wife fell in love with a bull. Minos, enraged by this as well as the offspring his wife bore with the bull, constructed a labyrinth to contain the Minotaur. Ultimately, the Greek hero Theseus shows up in Crete and kills the Minotaur. In addition to the above Crete features in the following myths:
- The demigod Heracles (Hercules) sailed to Crete to complete his seventh labor which involved the capturing of a Cretan bull.
- The Greek goddess of the Hunt and Orion met each other on the island of Crete.
- Crete was the place where Rhea delivered her youngest son Zeus. In a bid to prevent Cronus from gulping up the baby Zeus, Rhea is believed to have hid Zeus in a cave around Mount Dicte on Crete.
THEBES
According to many archaeologists, Thebes began long before the dark ages in ancient Greek history. The city was an extremely famous and powerful Greek city-state with a lot of amazing architecture and bustling social life.
Thebes was situated near the plains of Boeotia, making it an easily defensible city. Thebes got itself in periodic conflicts with Athenians and Spartans.
Towards the end of 5th century BCE, Thebes supported the Persians after the Spartans were vanquished by Persia at Thermopylae. Ultimately, when the Greeks defeated the Persians, Thebes was punished for its betrayal.
Thebes and Sparta came to dominate the region after the two cities banded together to defeat Athens in the Peloponnesian War. Towards the end of the 4th century, Thebes briefly (for about a couple of decades) came under the control of Sparta.
The city of Thebes came to significant prominence during the reign of Pelpidas who led the city to revolt against Sparta. However, after the death of Pelopidas, Thebes started to decline, tasting massive losses at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.
In 335, Alexander the Great of Macedon brought Thebes to its knees. With the exclusion of the religious temples and a number of buildings, Alexander razed the entire city to the ground. Many of the city’s inhabitants were forced into slavery and sold to cities in the region.
Ancient Greeks believed that city of Thebes was established by Cadmus after an oracle in the region commanded him to do so. Prior to that, Cadmus had searched in vain for his sister Europa, who had been kidnapped by Zeus. The city is also famed to be the birthplace of Heracles and Dionysus (the Greek god of wine).
ARGOS
The city of Argos is considered by many historians as one of the first cities in ancient Greece; the city perhaps stretches even beyond the Dark Ages of ancient Greece. For centuries, Argos benefited enormously from its fertile land, allowing for communities to develop rapidly in the city.
Located north of the Gulf of Argolis, Argos thrived due to the trading routes that passed through the city. Along with nearby cities such as Mycenae and Tiryns, Argos reached very high heights in terms of culture. At its zenith, the city was ruled by a very wise military tactician called Pheidon. Owing Pheidon’s military inventions, Argos was able to capture a number of cities, including Argolis.
At its peak, Argos was believed to rub shoulders with the mighty Spartans. During the Battle of Hysiae in 669 BCE, Argos handed the Spartans a convincing defeat.
The ancient Greeks believed that Argos was established by Argus, one of Zeus’ numerous sons. Legend has it that Hera and Poseidon once fought over the city with the queen of the gods coming out tops. Argos was also famous in ancient times because it was believed to be the birthplace of the Greek hero Perseus, another son of Zeus. The famous Greek writer, Homer, noted that Argos was the hometown of Diomedes, the famous Trojan War hero.
The Heraion of Argos (a temple dedicated to Hera), the Amphitheater, and the Larissa Castle are just some examples of the magnificent monuments that the ancient Greek City of Argos housed. The Amphitheater, a twenty thousand-sitting capacity theatre – is perhaps the most famous of Argos’ ancient monuments.
Read More:
- Demeter: Myth and Powers
- Everything You Need Know about Aphrodite, the Greek Goddess of Beauty, Love, Sex and Passion
- Who is Hades in Greek Mythology?
SPARTA
There is certainly a lot that can be inferred from a city whose inhabitants believed that they themselves were art of works and as such did not need too many monuments.
The Greek city-state of Sparta was the envy of many ancient Greek cities simply because of its military prowess. With a very militaristic culture and approach to dealing with its neighbors, the Spartan military might was feared across the Mediterranean.
Right from birth, a Spartan was trained to be fearless, mentally and physically. The goal was to transform every child into not just a brave warrior but also a strategic warrior for that matter. In addition to their military might, Sparta had some of the best philosophers, poets and orators. Ancient historians often claimed that the first love poems for women came from Sparta.
Sparta was also far from a brutish and uncivilized society; as a matter of fact, Spartan women had arguably the best rights anywhere at the time. They were allowed to own property and go to school. Women were also encouraged to be vocal – something a city as civilized as ancient Athens struggled to do.
Sparta perhaps can be equated to modern militarized socialist state, where the rights of the state trumped over the individual rights. Every action or social initiative in Sparta was taken to advance the interest of Sparta and it military pursuits.
In terms of monuments, the two most significant ones are the statue of Leoniades and the Temple of Artemis Orthia. | https://www.worldhistoryedu.com/famous-places-in-ancient-greece/ |
Until recent years the origin of life and its possible occurrence elsewhere in the universe have been matters for speculation only. The rapid growth of molecular biology since 1940 has, to be sure, made it possible to discuss life's origins in far more precise and explicit terms than was possible earlier; and the subject entered a new experimental phase in the 1950's with successful abiogenic synthesis of important biochemical substances in conditions simulating the presumptive environment of the primitive Earth. But the real transformation that the subject has undergone stems from the spectacular growth of space technology in the last decade. The possibility of life's origin and occurrence on planets other than ours is no longer limited to idle speculation: it has entered the realm of the testable, of science in the strict sense. Given the rockets now available, and especially those available by 1969, it has become fully realistic to consider plans for the biological exploration of Mars.
Biology and the Exploration of Mars: Report of a Study concludes that the exploration of Mars—motivated by biological questions—does indeed merit the highest scientific priority in the nation's space program over the next decades. This report further concludes that the favorable opportunities for exploration between 1969 and 1973 can and should be exploited as vigorously as possible. The report considers the potential scientific yields of exploration, the possibility of life occurring on Mars and our ability to detect it with available and foreseeable technology, and gains from further astronomical work from Earth, by Martian fly-by missions, Martian orbiters, and Martian landers. Biology and the Exploration of Mars: Report of a Study contains the findings of the study, a postscript discussing the significance of the observations obtained during the flight of Mariner IV past Mars, and a collection of the working papers that formed the basis of discussions.
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Table of Contents
|skim chapter|
|Front Matter||i-xvi|
|Part I: Biology and the Exploration of Mars, Summary and Conclusions||1-18|
|Postscript: October 1965||19-22|
|Part II: Life: Its Nature and Origin, 1 What is Life?||23-40|
|2 The Origin of Life||41-70|
|Part III: The Cosmic Setting, 3 The Solar System as a Abode of Life||71-113|
|4 Biological Materials in Carbonaceous Chrondrites||114-124|
|Part IV: Recognition of Life and Some Terrestrial Precedents, 5 Signs of Life||125-140|
|6 Optical Asymmetry||141-146|
|7 The Biochemestry of Terrestrial Soils||147-163|
|8 Properties of Desert Soils||164-186|
|9 Remote Detection of Terrestrial Life||187-210|
|Part IV: Some Extrapolations and Speculations, 10 Development of Rigorous Tests for Extraterrestrial Life||211-228|
|11 A Model of Martial Ecology||229-242|
|12 Exotic Biochemistry in Exobiology||243-251|
|13 Higher Organisms on Mars||252-258|
|14 Some Terrestrial Programs||259-263|
|15 Potential Yields of Biological Relevance from Remote Investigations of Mars||264-282|
|16 Launch Opportunities and Seasonal Activity on Mars||283-291|
|17 Space Vehicles for Planetary Missions||292-322|
|Part VII: Martial Landings: Unmanned, 18 Biological Objective and Strategy for the Design of a Space Vehicle to be Landed on Mars||323-330|
|19 The Automated Biological Laboratory||331-346|
|20 Analytical Methods for Landers||347-426|
|21 The Use of Martian Materials in the Search for Martial Life||427-430|
|Part VIII: Martian Landings: Manned, 22 Impact of Manned Spacecraft on the Exobiology Program||431-435|
|23 Prospects for Manned Mars Missions||436-442|
|24 "Back Contamination" and Quarantine Problems and Perspectives||443-446|
|Part IX: Avoiding the Contamination of Mars, 25 The Nature of the Problems||447-462|
|26 The Objectives and Technology of Spacecraft Sterilization||463-466|
|27 Spacecraft Sterilization||467-469|
|28 Decontamination Standards for Martial Exploration Programs||470-481|
|29 The Special Problem of Encapsulated Contaminants||482-484|
|Appendix I: Instrumentation for the Detection of Extraterrestrial Life||485-502|
|Appendix II: Potential Application of Electron-Optical Methods to Storage of Information for Direct Retrieval||503-506|
|Appendix III: List of Participants and Contributors||507-509|
|Appendix IV: Note on the Space Science Board||510-518|
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Is there really intelligent life outside the Earth?
Today, with advances in telecommunications and remote-sensing technologies scientists expanded the search for extraterrestrial intelligence to a new realm wit with detectors adjusted to infrared light at the University of California’s Lick Observatory on Mt. Hamilton near San Jose. The new device called the Near-Infrared Optical Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (NIROSETI), an instrument that can detect infrared pulses transmitted across interstellar distances.
Shelley Wright heads the team that built the NIROSETI instrument. She is an assistant professor of physics at UCSD,
“Optical SETI looks for brief laser pulses that may be from extraterrestrial intelligence,” Wright said during her interview with the UCSD Guardian.
She explained the premise underlying optical SETI, infrared light serves as a more effective means of interstellar communication than visible light because of its capability to penetrate through interstellar gas and dust. It requires less energy to transmit the same amount of information, thus the transmission of infrared pulses is more efficient.
The notion of using the laser as a means of interstellar communication dates back to the UC Berkeley scientist, Charles Townes, who suggested the idea in a paper published in 1961.
“We had to wait until technology was good enough to build the receivers. We’re trying to build instruments that can detect such a signal if extraterrestrial intelligence was communicating to us,” Wright noted.
The new technology Wright referred to can detect optical or infrared signals at a speed of one billionth of a second.
Wright also commented on the capability of the NIROSETI’s receivers, the long terms goals of the NIROSETI team is to run the instrument for several years and look at thousands of stars in order to get a signal.
The NIROSETI team has been together for over a decade and was part of the main team that worked on the optical SETI instrument at Lick Observatory. Wright helped develop the NIROSETI while at the University of Toronto’s Dunlap Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics.
The team comprises of Shelley Wright, Dan Wertheimer, Jerome Maire, Patrick Dorval, Frank Drake, Remington Stone, Richard Treffers and Geoffrey Marcy.
Darren Charrier, told the Guardian that the NIROSETI reflects the recent growth of the privatized space industry that as the new privatized space industry is emerging, I think it will bring with it a wave of interest in what is out there.
Charrier is a freshman aerospace engineer in Sixth College and serves as the business manager and national expansion manager of Students for the Exploration and Development of Space at UCSD.
Besides, NIROSETI could discover new data about the physical universe. | http://www.esbtrib.com/2015/04/02/8848/the-importance-of-new-and-working-extraterrestrial-life-detector/ |
Readers tour several bizarre worlds in this slim read, as Summers and Trefil, professors of physics at George Mason University, show how “defining a ‘planet’ has been made significantly more difficult” in the exoplanet age. Astronomical investigations outside our celestial backyard are ripe with paradigm shifts because scientists suffered “the curse of the single example”: our solar system and carbon-based life. Detailed photos and illustrations aid “visits” to unusual worlds, including 55 Cancri e, where volcanoes spew liquid diamond; Kepler 186f, with its vast lagoons and black flora that absorb “what energy they can from the faint sun”; and a rogue planet wandering dark space, where any life “must see in the infrared” and be warmed by the planet’s core. The authors temper runaway imaginations with scientific uncertainties about each location, and they reexamine the Drake equation—used in the search for extraterrestrial life—in light of our current understanding of exosystem frequency and dynamics. Summers and Trefil write confidently and straightforwardly for lay readers, who will long ponder what planets circle other suns and the peculiar possibilities of life beyond our blue marble. Illus.
KIRKUS REVIEW
A comprehensive introduction to the thousands of newly discovered planets beyond our solar system, which are beautiful and mind-bending in their diversity—and those are just the ones we know of.
Though astronomers had long predicted that there were other solar systems out there, only in the past decade has satellite telescope technology been able to confirm the existence of an enormous number of exoplanets, “planets outside our solar system. Even more significant than their abundance is their diversity, and even more astonishing than their diversity is, in some cases, their very existence—many of these worlds defy what scientists thought they knew about what was possible about how planets form and behave. Planetary scientist Summers (Physics and Astronomy/George Mason Univ.), who has been a member of multiple NASA mission teams, and Trefil (Physics/George Mason Univ.; Space Atlas: Mapping the Universe and Beyond, 2016, etc.) take readers on an exhilarating tour of the universe as we now know it. In a series of chapters that detail a variety of recently detected planets, the authors provide both a history of exoplanet discovery and a look toward the future of the field (which just may bear fruit in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence). “If there really are rogue planets floating around just outside the solar systems,” they write, then perhaps “multigenerational starships…won’t be needed to reach them.” These otherworldly planets are dizzying in scope and are a wonderful feast for the imagination, even as the authors back up their imagery with the latest research findings. Also included are a number of photographs and illustrations that provide a welcome visual accompaniment to the lay-friendly text.
Space enthusiasts of all ages will enjoy this exploration into the farthest reaches of the universe and the cutting edge of astronomical research.
CHOICE
Summers and Trefil (both, George Mason Univ.) have written a short, entertaining book about the huge variety of extrasolar planetary types, many of which were not even dreamt of a decade ago. The authors explore characteristics of some types discovered and extrapolated, such as worlds covered in ice and water, worlds with volcanoes that erupt diamonds, and some not yet seen, such as rogues ejected from planetary systems during formation to wander the galaxy without a star. The authors devote the most important part of the book to two questions: Is there life elsewhere and can we recognize it? If so, is there intelligent life? They posit that the first question may be answered in the affirmative soon, as new telescopes begin the necessary observations. Yet the question about intelligent life may never be answered. The book has been written to avoid the obsolescence that rapid progress can bring about in this field. | https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/549299/exoplanets-by-michael-summers-and-james-trefil/ |
Heavenly Questions by the poet Qu Yuan during the Warring States period, with its first question about the genesis of the cosmos and the creation of the world, poses more than one hundred and seventy questions manifesting a grand vision that surpasses space and time, while conveying profound thinking about and exploration of the formation of heaven and earth, natural order, life, society, and history.
The question about the cosmos has always been a focal point in technology as much as philosophy. It transcends generational differences, history, disciplines, and genres, as well as involves both the progression of times and changes of viewpoints. From ancient theology to modern sciences, our cosmic views and cognitive framework have undergone a recurring process of re-discovery and re-definition. Since the ancient time, human exploration, perception, and imagination of the cosmos have also been a driving force behind aesthetic experiments and multiple topics, which enable us to break through existing frameworks and ways of thinking. In early 20th century, hyperspace philosophy and cosmic consciousness, which combined science and spirituality, and the concept of the tesseract and the fourth dimension, have brought forth innovative experimentation carried out by the avant-garde art. Moreover, space research and cosmic technology after the war have also driven artistic imagination and practice informed by modernity in the Western society and Taiwan. In the summer of 2022, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the U.S.A. announced the latest images of the deep space. The splendid, colorful pictures are not simply visually pleasing and emblematic of technological advancement, but also re-launch the issue of the cosmos in a more tangible way, shaking our current perception and customary imagination, while encouraging people to re-examine our homogenous, centralized thinking about and mode of the world. | https://www.chinigallery.com/re-sensing-the-cosmos/ |
I first encountered the wonders of the protist realm back in childhood, when a murky droplet of pond scum was revealed by the microscope to entail an alien world in its own right. It took another decade to discover there was a field and a community dedicated to these organisms, and I bade farewell to the study of more familiar big things. As a kid I was also fascinated by tales of exploration of the New World, as well as those of fantasy worlds. I was then sad that the age of surveying new landmasses on earth was over, and that human extraterrestrial adventures are unlikely to happen within our lifetimes. It seemed everything was discovered already. But that could hardly be further from the truth—all that is necessary to begin one's own Age of Exploration is a new approach or perspective, and a healthy does of imagination. Since reality has conjured far more than the human mind alone ever could, science yields a way to write stories much wilder than fiction. All one needs to access the alien world of microbes around (and inside) them is a shift of scale by simple glass sphere. | https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/ocelloid/about/ |
Space experts feel that there could be different extraterrestrial civic establishments covered up in our Milky Way cosmic system that can convey.
Another investigation distributed in The Astrophysical Journal evaluates the probability of Communicating Extra-Terrestrial Intelligent (CETI) human advancements dependent on presumptions thinking about different situations. In view of the presumption that wise life on different planets could advance as it did on Earth, scientists determined that there could be more than 30 dynamic conveying shrewd civic establishments in the system.
This presumption that takes advancement to the inestimable scale is known as the Astrobiological Copernican Limit clarifies research lead by Prof Christopher Conselice from the University of Nottingham expressing that “There ought to be at any rate two or three dozen dynamic developments in our Galaxy under the suspicion that it takes 5 billion years for canny life to frame on different planets, as on Earth.”
The primary creator of the examination,
Tom Westby from the University of Nottingham clarifies, The great strategy for assessing the quantity of smart civic establishments depends on making estimates of qualities identifying with life, whereby sentiments about such issues fluctuate considerably.
Analysts in their examination considered two Astrobiological Copernican limits that depict when astute life came to be on a planet, under 5 billion years after planet’s development or after around 5 billion years – which would be like Earth where an imparting shrewd human advancement shaped about 4.5 billion years.
Thus, if there extraterrestrial human advancements like our own, which is 100 years of age, analysts gauge there ought to be around 36 of them in our system. Such human advancements’ presence is just conceivable if their endurance times of developments like on Earth are long. In any case, the nearest such progress would be around 17,000 light-years away, so it is highly unlikely to affirm the theory as correspondence over that separation is beyond the realm of imagination.
Analysts believe that the exploration not just uncovers a great deal about the chance of extraterrestrial astute human progress yet in addition gives a thought of the life span of our own development.
Prof Conselice clarifies that by searching for extraterrestrial life, | https://kreweduoptic.com/stargazers-assume-the-milky-way-galaxy-might-hold-36-extraterrestrial-civilizations/ |
Bessone, Loredana and Beblo-Vranesevic, Kristina and Cossu, Quirico Antonello and De Waele, Jo and Leuko, Stefan and Marcia, Paolo and Rettberg, Petra and Sanna, Laura and Sauro, Francesco and Taiti, Stefano (2013) ESA CAVES: TRAINING ASTRONAUTS FOR SPACE EXPLORATION. In: Karst and Caves: Social Aspects and Other Topics - 2013 ICS Proceedings, pp. 321-326. International Union of Speleology. 16th International Congress of Speleology, 21.-28. Juli 2013, Brno, Czech Republic.
Full text not available from this repository.
Abstract
The first spaceflight was several decades ago, and yet extraterrestrial exploration is only at the beginning and has mainly been carried out by robotic probes and rovers sent to extraterrestrial planets and deep space. In the future human extraterrestrial exploration will take place and to get ready for long periods of permanence in space, astronauts are trained during long duration missions on the International Space Station (ISS). To prepare for such endeavours, team training activities are performed in extreme environments on Earth, as isolated deserts, base camps on Antarctica, or stations built on the bottom of the sea, trying to simulate the conditions and operations of space. Space agencies are also particularly interested in the search of signs of life forms in past or present extreme natural environments, such as salt lakes in remote deserts, very deep ocean habitats, submarine volcanic areas, sulphuric acid caves, and lava tubes. One natural environment that very realistically mimics an extraterrestrial exploration habitat is the cave. Caves are dark, remote places, with constant temperature, many logistic problems and stressors (isolation, communication and supply difficulties, physical barriers), and their exploration requires discipline, teamwork, technical skills and a great deal of behavioural adaptation. For this reason, since 2008 the European Space Agency has carried out training activities in the subterranean environment and the CAVES project is one of those training courses, probably the most realistic one. CAVES stands for Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and Exercising human behaviour and performance Skills, and is meant as a multidisciplinary multicultural team exploration mission in a cave. It has been developed by ESA in the past few years (2008–2011) and is open for training of astronauts of the ISS Partner Space Agencies (USA, Russia, Japan, Canada, and Europe). Astronauts are first trained for 5 days to explore, document and survey a karst system, then take on a cave exploration mission for 6 days underground. A team of expert cave instructors, a Human Behaviour and Performance facilitator, scientists and video reporters, ensure that all tasks are performed in complete safety and guides all these astronauts’ activities. During the underground mission the astronauts’ technical competences are challenged (exploring, surveying, taking pictures), their human behaviour and decision-making skills are debriefed, and they are required to carry out an operational programme which entails performing scientific tasks and testing equipment, similarly to what they are required to do on the ISS. The science program includes environmental and air circulation monitoring, mineralogy, microbiology, chemical composition of waters, and search for life forms adapted to the cavern environment. The CAVES 2012 Course will be explained and the first interesting scientific results will be presented. | https://elib.dlr.de/83713/ |
In a harsh environment with very little water and intense ultraviolet radiation, most life in the extreme Atacama Desert in Chile exists as microbial colonies underground or inside rocks.
In a harsh environment with very little water and intense ultraviolet radiation, most life in the extreme Atacama Desert in Chile exists as microbial colonies underground or inside rocks.
The Baruch S. Blumberg NASA/Library of Congress Astrobiology Program establishes a focus in the nation's capital for the exploration of issues surrounding life's future in the universe, for humans and other species, on Earth and beyond.
If you were looking for the signatures of life on another world, you would want to take something small and portable with you.
Over the past two years 800 members of the astrobiology community have contributed, through in person meetings, white papers, a series of webinars and reviews, to define a new strategy for the next decade of astrobiology research. Mary Voytek, the Senior Scientist for Astrobiology, and Michael New, the Astrobiology Discipline Scientist, described the goal of the endeavor to create an "inspirational and aspirational" document. The strategy will replace the 2008 Astrobiology Roadmap.
Today the House Science, Space, and Technology Committee helad a hearing that reviewed the scientific methods employed to search for life, examine recent scientific discoveries in the field of astrobiology (the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe), and assess the prospects of finding life beyond Earth over the next decade.
The Astrobiological Periodic Table has been developed by astrobiologist Charles Cockell.
Self-organizing processes in chemical reaction/precipitation systems can lead to a variety of complex structures, including chemical gardens and inorganic membranes.
DNA is synonymous with life, but where did it originate? One way to answer this question is to try to recreate the conditions that formed DNA's molecular precursors.
A new study published in Science looks beyond the question of whether Earth's oceans can be traced to comets or other objects from space, and instead asks the question: where did the water in comets come from?
As NASA missions explore our solar system and search for new worlds, they are finding water in surprising places. Water is but one piece of our search for habitable planets and life beyond Earth, yet it links many seemingly unrelated worlds in surprising ways.
The self-organization properties of DNA-like molecular fragments four billion years ago may have guided their own growth into repeating chemical chains long enough to act as a basis for primitive life, says a new study by the University of Colorado Boulder and the University of Milan.
Learn about planets beyond our solar system, far-flung missions and possible life in the cosmos at "(un)Discovered Worlds," a one-day Cornell University space sciences conference, May 9, to inaugurate the new Institute for Pale Blue Dots.
Atmospheric chemical disequilibrium has been proposed as a method for detecting extraterrestrial biospheres from exoplanet observations.
NASA seeks a new Director for the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI). The ideal candidate will be an internationally recognized scientist with proven experience in leading or managing large interdisciplinary research programs or projects, possessed with a vision for leading the Institute into the future.
Astrobiology and the Search for Extraterrestrial Life by The University of Edinburgh. Self-paced online course.
Old Dominion University faculty member Nora Noffke has made a name for herself as a geobiologist during the past decade by producing sedimentary evidence that prokaryote biofilms existed on Earth billions of years ago.
NASA's Mars Curiosity rover has measured a tenfold spike in methane, an organic chemical, in the atmosphere around it and detected other organic molecules in a rock-powder sample collected by the robotic laboratory's drill.
New research published today in the journal Physical Review Letters describes how recreating isotopes that occur when a star explodes, can help physicists understand where life-supporting elements may be found in space.
Scientists believe there is an ocean hidden beneath the surface of Jupiter's moon Europa. NASA-JPL astrobiologist Kevin Hand explains why scientists are so excited about the potential of this ice-covered world to answer one of humanity's most profound questions.
How did life originate? And can scientists create life? These questions not only occupy the minds of scientists interested in the origin of life, but also researchers working with technology of the future. | https://mt.spaceref.net/mt4/mt/mt-search.cgi?search=Astrobiology&__mode=tag&IncludeBlogs=13&limit=20&page=4 |
The Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) is an international effort devoted to answering one of humanity’s most perplexing questions: are we alone in the universe? The tumultuous history of this ambitious endeavor rose from humble beginnings at the dawn of radio in the early 1900s. Nikola Tesla suggested in 1896 to create an extreme version of a wireless electrical transmission system to contact a civilization thought to exist on Mars, which he tested with lackluster results. Between August 21-23 in 1924, when Mars appeared the closest to Earth during its 80 year opposition cycle, the United States promoted a “National Day of Silence” for a 36 hour period, where all radios went quiet for five minutes at the end of every hour, while the United States Naval Observatory tuned in to detect any possible Martian messages, with US Army cryptographers eagerly awaiting any Martian rabble, though they only met with silence.
Fast forwarding to March 1955, American physicist John D. Kraus proposed a concept to scan space for incoming radio signals, leading to the construction of a flat-plane radio telescope at the Ohio State University. The telescope was dubbed “Big Ear,” and would become the center piece of the world’s first SETI program. In 1959, Philip Morrison and Giuseppe Cocconi proposed using the microwave spectrum while tuning into certain frequencies, such as the frequency of hydrogen (1,420Mhz), the most common element found in the universe. This created a chain reaction in the development of technology that lead to some rather interesting discoveries.
1960 found Cornell University astronomer Frank Drake performing Project Ozma which became the first modern SETI experiment, surveying a pocket of space with a radio telescope tuning in at the 1.42 gigahertz frequency toward sun-like stars. The reasonable idea only produced a single false signal originating from a high flying aircraft.
Soviet Scientists became strongly fascinated in SETI in the 1960s, performing searches with omni-directional antennas. Soviet astronomer Iosif Shklovsky wrote his groundbreaking book in 1962, Universe, Life, Intelligence, expanding on many of American space legend Carl Sagan’s ideas and leading both men to collaborate and coauthor a revision published in 1966, sowing the seeds needed to foster a relationship of cooperation in space between rival superpowers.
In 1977, while performing volunteer research at Ohio’s Big Ear, Jerry Ehman discovered the Wow! Signal, the first and only potential candidate for a radio signal emitted from an artificial extraterrestrial source, capturing the curiosity and enthusiasm of the entire world. Alas, it remains the only signal of its kind.
SETI continued growing steadily, becoming an international effort. In 1980, Carl Sagan, Louis Friedman, and Bruce Murray founded the Planetary Society, an organization dedicated to space exploration, planetary defense from near-earth objects, and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, which has since gained near 60,000 members from over 100 nations.
Programs such as Sentinel, META, and BETA continued to build upon the innovations of the past, utilizing technology like spectrum analyzers and digital signal processing to search for SETI transmissions. As the price tags for these ambitious endeavors increased, many programs found themselves in the battlegrounds of Congress, some becoming ridiculed and canceled as was the case with NASA’s Microwave Observing Program (MOP), a long term effort conducting a sky survey targeting specific stars with the support of NASA’s Deep Space Network. MOP continued operations despite the lack of government funding, and in 1995 the SETI Institute revived the program, aptly renaming it Project Phoenix, backed by private benefactors. Phoenix searched for signals in a uniquely broad range of 1 Hz to 3,000 MHz. In 2004, the project announced that after a deep analysis of 800 stars within 200 light-years from Earth concluded that our planet resides in a quiet neighborhood, and Project Phoenix went offline.
Arecibo Observatory Radio Telescope in Puerto Rico, home of Project Phoenix from August 1998 onward.
There remain several facilities performing ongoing SETI radio searches, including the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR), the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA), and the Allen Telescope Array. In recent years, late legendary cosmologist Stephen Hawking collaborated with Russian billionaire Yuri Milner in 2015 to create the Breakthrough Initiatives, an exceptionally funded project that aims to advance the search for extra terrestrial intelligence, even offering competitions with sizable prize pools to those eager innovators of tomorrow. Other projects, like SETI@home, offer any passionate human the opportunity to volunteer their background computer power to perform analyses on SETI signal data, joining a netwrok of over 180,000 active participants utilizing over 300,000 computers! Interested in assisting humanity in the hunt for advanced extraterrestrial civilizations? Then look no further!
The SETI Institute, founded in 1984 by Thomas Pierson, provides public outreach and education in this curious field. Their mission statement aims “to explore, understand, and explain the origin and nature of life itself in the scope of the universe and the evolution of intelligence,” and they remain the gateway for aspiring intergalactic envoys and individuals hoping to contribute to mankind’s greatest quest.
The search for extraterrestrial intelligence has become a defining characteristic of our species, an embodiment of our tireless curiosity and desire to explore the unknown. As ventures into the realm of space exploration rapidly expand, some of our civilization’s most demanding questions might be at the precipice of resolving, though as is the case with any scientific endeavor, the answer to one great question might just lead to many deeper mysteries. | http://bastianofthestars.com/seti/ |
- Is there a conscious perception finish line?
- For animal consciousness, is there a fact of the matter?
- Peter Carruthers on the problems of consciousness
- The battle between integration and workspace will take a while
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Tag Archives: Aeon
How life transformed the planet – Robert Hazen – Aeon
In my post on how similar or dissimilar life might be if evolution started over, I observed that much of the environment that life operates within is itself generated by other life. It turns out that goes deeper than I … Continue reading
Posted in Zeitgeist Tagged Aeon, Biological process, Biology, Earth, Earth Science, Evolution, Geology, Mineral, Plate tectonics, Robert Hazen, Science 3 Comments
It’s time to look for life in Europa’s ocean
Lee Billings has a fascinating article up at Aeon asking why we continue to send missions to Mars when the best chance of life existing today is in Europa’s underground ocean. If Europa is alive, if some biology dwells within … Continue reading
What is mathematics about? – James Franklin – Aeon
James Franklin has an interesting piece today at Aeon, asking what exactly mathematics is. He looks at Nominalism and Platonism, but discounts both in favor of Aristotelian Realism, which is something I’d not heard of before but seems equivalent to the … Continue reading
Deep history, and deep future? | https://selfawarepatterns.com/tag/aeon/ |
Terrestrial bacteria can grow on nutrients from space
In the past decade, there has been renewed thinking about human missions to the moon and perhaps even to Mars. Inevitably, terrestrial microorganisms on the bodies of astronauts, spaceships or equipment will come into contact with extraterrestrial environments. Researchers from the Radboudumc describe in an article in Astrobiology that bacteria can survive on an "extraterrestrial diet," which affected their pathogenic potential.
No matter how well astronauts and material are decontaminated, co-traveling microorganisms cannot be prevented. Given the enormous adaptability potential of bacteria, it is conceivable that they could even survive space travel and settle in an extraterrestrial environment.
For this study, four non-fastidious environment-derived bacterial species with pathogenic features were selected, including Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. To determine whether extraterrestrial survival and growth were possible, the researchers developed a minimal bacterial diet based on nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, iron and water to which carbohydrates found in carbonaceous meteorites were added. The four bacterial species were shown to survive and multiply on this minimal diet.
In follow-up experiments, the researchers observed that the adaptation of bacteria, especially in the case of K. pneumoniae, caused changes in the cell membrane, as a result of which the immune system reacted more strongly to the bacteria. In short, the bacteria become more immunogenic. Research in cell culture, but also in mice, showed that the bacteria survive on extraterrestrial nutrients and become less virulent as a result of this necessary adaptation. At the same time, this research shows that bacteria can survive under these conditions, which means that the risk of infection among space travelers remains, because—as other researchers have shown—a space journey has negative effects on the functioning of the immune system, making astronauts more susceptible to infections. | https://phys.org/news/2020-05-terrestrial-bacteria-nutrients-space.html |
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It's not surprising that in the past 100 years, baking and indeed bakeries have undergone some significant changes.
These changes are not just apparent in the equipment and baking methods adopted by bakers, but in the tastes and changing shopping patterns of customers.
As we peep through the bakers window from 1920 to present day, we are able to gain a fascinating snapshot of social and commercial changes that have taken place and it is also possible to see that each decade looks to be the baking heyday only to be followed by an equally fascinating and innovative decade of baking.
Take a read through Seren's introduction to baking throughout the years in Britain, and look out for future articles on each decade that will appear every month below.
Life Through the Baker's Window Over the Last Century
This was an exciting period for commercial and home bakers alike, with plenty of cooking innovations making the task of baking easier and more efficient....
Baking in the 1920s - The Decade that Roared
This era spelled mixed fortunes for baking and the bakery industry.... | https://www.dawnfoods.com/uk/campaigns/seren-charrington-hollins---100years-of-bakery |
If we're ever going to explore the only celestial body in our solar system with surface bodies of liquid, we're going to need a sea-worthy vehicle. Luckily, NASA is all over the niche space submarine market.
Titan, a moon on Saturn, has lakes and seas of liquid methane, which NASA is thinking of exploring by 2040. So, instead of rover like the Mars missions use, they will need a submarine. NASA explains the reason for the mission this way:
We propose to develop a conceptual design of a submersible autonomous vehicle (submarine) to explore extraterrestrial seas. Specifically, to send a submarine to Titan's largest northern sea, Kraken Mare. This craft will autonomously carry out detailed scientific investigations under the surface of Kraken Mare, providing unprecedented knowledge of an extraterrestrial sea and expanding NASA's existing capabilities in planetary exploration to include in situ nautical operations. Sprawling over some 1000 km, with depths estimated at 300 m, Kraken Mare is comparable in size to the Great Lakes and represents an opportunity for an unprecedented planetary exploration mission. This mission would be a logical follow-on to a Titan surface mission such as TiME (Titan Mare Explorer) or even a component of a flagship mission of multiple vehicles.
They go on to show that the autonomous submarine, which they show in the concept video, would be doing a lot of heavy science lifting:
The mission concept we propose to study will investigate a full spectrum of oceanographic phenomena: chemical composition of the liquid, surface and subsurface currents, mixing and layering in the "water" column, tides, wind and waves, bathymetry, and bottom features and composition. Measurements of all these aspects of Titan's hydrocarbon ocean environment can only be made through focused in situ exploration with a well-instrumented craft. This investigation represents a significant advancement in our understanding of the history and evolution of organic compounds in the solar system, and hence a critical step along the path to understanding the evolution of life here on Earth and potential life elsewhere in the galaxy.
No word on whether or not the submarine will also be experimenting with Ewok shattering, which is an idea that truly inspires methane lake dreams: | https://gizmodo.com/here-are-nasas-plans-to-send-a-submarine-to-titan-1685606751 |
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Art in Orbit
FROM THE SEPTEMBER 2003 ISSUE
Art in Orbit
Boldly going where no gallery has gone before
By
Jennifer Kahn
|
Monday, September 01, 2003
RELATED TAGS:
SPACE FLIGHT
In January 2002 British artist Susan Collins presented curators at the Tate Museum in London with a proposal for an art gallery in Earth orbit. She meant it as a provocative work of fiction: "At the time, the Tate was opening a slew of satellite museums in the U.K. I thought, 'Why not a literal satellite?'" But something curious happened: Everyone seemed to like the idea.
The Tate placed the proposal on the museum's Web site, and Collins asked three architecture firms to propose designs for an orbiting museum (see
www.tate.org.uk/space
). The firms quickly warmed to the task. ETALAB, based in London and New York, drew up elaborate plans for a flexible, amoeba-shaped structure that included a float-through gallery in the middle, telescopic windows to magnify distant planets, and outer rooms in which visitors could experience different amounts of simulated gravity. Softroom, a British design house, was more pragmatic, suggesting a capsulelike "space island" built from spare shuttle parts. Somewhere in between, Sarah Wigglesworth Architects of London drafted a modernist alternative: a straightedged, sharp-cornered satellite exhibiting pieces from the Tate collection that would take on new meanings in zero gravity. Artist Eduardo Kac has taken these ideas a step further. He envisions a gallery of works designed specifically for the space environment, such as a huge sculpture held together by a single delicate hinge.
"We wanted to maximize sight lines through the gallery and create an environment that is dynamic and liberating, like space itself," says ETALAB director Opher Elia-Shaul. The gallery's lightweight reinforced-aerogel skin would contain actuators or hydraulics so it could change shape like a giant water droplet.
Illustration courtesy of Virtual Artworks and Etalab © 2002.
The Tate in Space project drew attention from scientists as well. "It's a little insane, but the parts that aren't insane are intriguing," says astronomer Neil deGrasse Tyson of the American Museum of Natural History. "We're so focused on planting flags on other planets that we forget that zero gravity opens a whole new realm of artistic expression." Since
Sputnik,
the realm beyond Earth's atmosphere has effectively been a private playground for big-budget research and military experiments. According to Ann Druyan, who heads Cosmos Studios and who cowrote
Cosmos
with her late husband, Carl Sagan, this off-limits feeling is one reason that space exploration has lost its initial romance. "We used to see space as an exciting frontier, as part of a future where we were all going to be cool and wear Mylar. I think we've lost that dream," she says with a sigh. A space gallery could recapture some of that magic, especially at a time when the future feels increasingly apocalyptic.
Many mission planners seem to agree. NASA created a publicity blitz when it equipped
Voyager 1
and
2
with gold-plated discs that carried recordings of sights and sounds on Earthan idea masterminded by Saganbefore sending the probes past the outer planets toward other stars. Hoping for a similar reaction, the team developing the
Beagle 2
lander commissioned British artist Damien Hirst to create a multicolored painting that will double as a calibration chart when the spacecraft touches down on Mars in December. Druyan herself is working to put a 100-foot-wide reflective solar sail into space using a ballistic missile launched from a Russian submarine. The purpose of the mission,
Cosmos 1
, is to test a new type of space propulsion. But when the sail reaches orbit, it will open like a flower and slowly spiral away from Earth, powered only by sunlightalmost like a conceptual artwork. For a few weeks,
Cosmos 1
will be visible from the ground as a new, fast-moving star.
Space scientist Andrew Coates of University College London describes Tate in Space as "an adventure of the imagination" but recognizes that it raises practical questions as well. He therefore signed on to help Collins shape her proposal so it would be physically plausibleor at least as plausible as a manned mission to Mars. That is still an awfully high hurdle, of course, and Collins would be astonished (though intrigued) if these tentative mixings of space and art led to an orbiting gallery. "My intention was not necessarily to see it built," she says. "I think the idea may be better than the reality."
But that doesn't mean it can't happen. With the finances of a Bill Gates and the determination of a Steve Fossett, Earth-orbiting sculpture could become the new avant-garde. Meanwhile, the Tate exhibit has Druyan thinking about how other types of space art, even on a more modest scale, could help restore our sense of wonder. "Rationally we know that the universe is vast, but emotionally we're unreconstructed pre-Copernicans. If extraterrestrial art helps us come to grips with the fact that we're part of this larger universe, I think that would only be good," she says.
The Tate in Space Web site has cool downloadable models of many of the entries:
www.tate.org.uk
.
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Humanity is moving toward an era of energy conversion and new space exploration centered on electric vehicles, passing through the past civilization era supported by fossil fuels. Nikola Tesla, an American electrical engineer and inventor, has focused on energy, frequency, and vibration as the most important factors to understand the world's principles. The history of science and technology has made a significant leap forward through the invention of electrical and communication technologies to overcome spatial and physical constraints by geopolitical locations.
Through the development of advanced science and technology, humanity is now expanding its dreams and goals beyond the realm of Earth to the unknown world, and since the Apollo Project in the 1960s, Mars exploration has recently begun in earnest through SpaceX and others, setting a goal of sending people to Mars in 2024. Space exploration has great significance not only in terms of these scientific and technological advances, but also in terms of expanding the horizon of human consciousness. Just as humans have projected and imagined familiar images to humans on clouds, stars, and moons in the past, space exploration technology is making rapid progress around Mars, and humans still project certain images on unknown objects found in space, imagining, and making them exist on a cognitive level.
The project name, Whale Rock, was taken by NASA's image probe Curiosity in 2014, and is an important clue to speculating that water may have existed on Mars in the past. It has ripples and sand dunes formed by the flow of water to lakes believed to have existed on ancient Mars, intersecting by geological phenomena, and rising into the sky as a whole. It is very interesting that human imagination reminded whales of stones discovered in the search for the first clue of life, water, on Mars.
Whales in the sea and stones on Mars. The sea and the universe are unknown areas of the two extremes in terms of physical and cognitive terms as much as their vast distance, but the existential gap is narrowed through a kind of metaphor called "whale." And coincidentally, these metaphors begin with images of stones transmitted over 400 MHz of radio waves between Earth and Mars. Furthermore, the communication of whales below the Earth, human communication, and communication with space are connected in a similar way by non-material-based media. | https://spine-press.com/Whale-Rock-Project |
Now here’s a book that needed to be written: The Eerie Silence: Renewing Our Search for Alien Intelligence/Are We Alone in the Universe? by noted astrophysicist Paul Davies addresses the hard fact that after 50 years of searching the heavens for a signal from an extraterrestrial intelligence, absolutely nothing has been heard. Davies’ thesis is now is a good time to take a step back and reexamine the assumptions and craft new approaches.
I’ve been a big proponent of the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) project for years. I do my part by dutifully running the SETI screen saver on my various computers to process radio telescope data packets distributed to thousands of disciples around the world. I watch the beautiful display every day as it performs Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs) and hope I’ll be the one to make the big discovery. At the end of each day as I shut off the lights to my lab, the SETI program continues to churn away, faithfully, without question. I smile to myself knowing I’m doing a small thing to help move humanity forward in a very profound way.
Davies provides a penetrating analysis of the assumptions that underlie SETI and continues by concluding that the lack of a signal after 50 years of listening has several explanations. One is that life here on Earth might be so improbable that our planet is the only one hosting life. Or if life is common, then intelligence might be so rare that humans are the only such occurrence. Or it could be science itself, rather than life or intelligence, is unique to Earth. Or it could be that extraterrestrial signals could be everywhere, but unrecognizable by us. Or the eerie silence could be due to the inability of all past technological civilizations to survive their own technology.
My own view is that our human perception of the world may just be so Earth-centric, so specific to our evolutionary path that it simply differs in innumerable ways from the perceptions of other civilizations across the void. Our collection of senses may be too limited to ever be able to perceive the realities of the universe (think dark energy), but this is not to say another alien race can do any better. Each form of life may be predisposed to exist in its own realm and never be able to interact with any other life. That could be a sad reality, but I’ve prepared myself for that possibility for some time now. | http://www.physicsgroupie.com/2010/03/book-review-eerie-silence-by-paul.html |
While research into distance education has evolved over the years, the fast-paced changes in technology of the past decade have caused a widening divide between the research completed and the technology available (Means et al., 2009). A lack of research shows this disconnect is clearly evident in the realm of computer based instructional simulation (CBIS) in online learning and is further apparent in technical college courses designed to teach technologically diverse students familiarity with computer applications. The purpose of this study was to explore the student experience in relation to the use of computer based instructional simulation in an online introductory computer applications course in a Georgia technical college. This study was a cross-sectional survey, mixed research study utilizing a self-administered, web-based questionnaire for data collection. The questionnaire was developed specifically for this study and was administered to 141 participants. Data for the study was analyzed quantitatively through descriptive statistics and qualitatively through the development of themes. The results of this study indicate a positive perception of the CBIS in general and a positive perception of the impact of CBIS on learning for students enrolled in the final weeks of an online introduction to computer applications course at a technical college. The conclusions for this study discussed the perception that experiential learning had occurred in the course; the perception that transfer of learning had occurred; the conclusion that even participants with computer experience still had a positive perception of the CBIS; and the impact of sensitivity and bugs on the perception of the functional fidelity of the CBIS. | https://athenaeum.libs.uga.edu/handle/10724/27288 |
The days of the U.S.-Soviet Space Race are over, and the domain of space exploration is expanding daily to include more countries than ever before. With the advent of private companies such as Elon Musk’s SpaceX, which aim to reduce the costs of space transportation, expeditions into our extraterrestrial surroundings are no longer limited to just two contenders.
Though it may seem like we are entering an exciting and fast-paced moment in the history of space exploration, invasion biologists and other scientists who study the environments of foreign planets have voiced concerns that this period of expansion carries the risk of unintended repercussions.
What exactly is at stake? Anthony Ricciardi, a researcher from McGill’s Department of Biology, alongside a team of scientists well-versed in the fields of invasion biology, biosecurity, and astrobiology, recently released a paper detailing the concerns of cross-contamination of life forms between planets during space missions.
“In the face of increasing space missions […], it is crucial to reduce the risks of biological contamination in both directions,” Ricciardi wrote in an email to The McGill Tribune. “The most plausible life forms would be microbial [….] We have no information [yet] to anticipate whether they could survive on Earth and what effect, if any, they might have.”
According to the team’s paper published in BioScience, contamination of extraterrestrial bodies through space missions transporting organisms from Earth—termed “forward contamination”— and the introduction of foreign planetary organisms to Earth—“back contamination”—have very different scientific ramifications. Yet, both stem from the difficulty of ensuring complete control over what enters and exits NASA “clean rooms”—the rooms that discharge and receive spacecrafts.
“Given that various strains of microbes have been discovered in the clean rooms in which spacecraft have been assembled, it is conceivable that some organisms were introduced during [the missions to Mars], and it is also conceivable […] that some may have survived on the planet,” Ricciardi wrote.
This poses novel challenges for scientists who are searching for specific environmental conditions found on Earth as clues to help determine if and where life can be found on other planets.
“If astrobiologists ultimately discover extant life on Mars, they must be able to distinguish truly indigenous organisms from those that might have been introduced accidentally during the previous space missions,” wrote Ricciardi.
From this emerges another concern for scientists like Ricciardi: In the event that a foreign-turned-invasive organism disrupts the environment around it, the origin of this organism might be more difficult to determine due to events of forward and back contamination, and might interfere with measures to restore the balance of that environment.
“Effective risk assessment and rapid response depends on reliable identification of the origin of an encountered microbe: is it endemic to Mars, or did we put it there? Or was it introduced previously?” wrote Ricciardi.
To prevent such scenarios, Ricciardi and his team aimed to learn from past examples of “insular ecosystems”—flora and fauna that evolved in isolated regions such as Hawaii, Australia, and Antarctica. Ricciardi explained that invasion biology and the effects that invasive species have had on such insular ecosystems are central to understanding the impacts of extraterrestrial contamination.
“Biological invasions have often been devastating for the plants and animals that have evolved in these systems,” Ricciardi wrote. “I would argue that planets and moons potentially containing life should be treated as if they were insular systems.”
Because of this, Ricciardi and his colleagues believe that invasion scientists are crucial to the development of preventative measures to help limit contamination between the habitats of our planet and others. | https://p4-r5-01081.page4.com/_blog/18783-raumfahrt-increased-space-missions-risk-extraterrestrial-contamination/ |
The water of Saturn
Enceladus is a fantastic moon of Saturn, characterized by volcanic phenomena opposite to those of the Earth and linked to the intense cold. From fractures called “tiger stripes” at the South Pole, so far, there were registered at least 30 geysers that make splash water heated below the surface and then immediately frozen by the cold of space.
There must be heat sources, but which? Maybe radioactive elements whose decay could heat the water beneath the icy surface of Enceladus, or linked to tidal friction linked to approach and move away from Saturn. At present we are not yet able to say whether the water extends under the entire surface od Enceladus or just below the South Pole, but certainly there are significant reserves. In which, perhaps, could be elementary forms of life, such as bacteria.
Water is not only present on Enceladus. Around Saturn there are in fact the famous rings, inside which have been identified in recent years other 62 small moons. It is estimated that between these rings and satellites, largely made up of ice, there may be an amount of water equal to 26 times of the reserves all over the planet Earth. Among other things, a “centaur” asteroid, ie wandering between two orbiting planets (Saturn and Uranus), Chariklo, only discovered in 1997, has two ice rings around it.
So much water close to Saturn could be valuable, in the future, for space exploration and who knows if it has not already been noticed and exploited by some extraterrestrial explorer, over the past million years. Is it just a case that the Sumerian god Enki is the deified representation of Saturn? In the Sumerian texts it is indeed reported that the constellations consecrated to Enki were those of Capricorn and the aquarium; coincidentally in astrology the planet Saturn has “home” right in Capricorn and the aquarium. All mere coincidences? | https://www.fanwave.it/en/news/338-the-water-of-saturn.html |
The relatively calm history of the development of our solar system contributed to the emergence and prosperity of life on Earth. To find where else living organisms can exist in space, you need to narrow your search to identify systems with the same peaceful past as our planet.
For about 30 years, astronomers have been studying planets orbiting stars, some of which are very different from our solar system. Unlike the stable and nearly circular trajectory of "our" planets, whose orbits have hardly changed since their inception, many planetary systems orbiting other stars have undergone metamorphoses in the past.
Astrophysicists have found that 20% to 35% of Sun-like stars feed on their own planets, according to an article in the journal Nature Astronomy. The closest figure to the truth is 27%. Consequently, at least a quarter of the planetary systems orbiting stars similar to the Sun had a very chaotic and dynamic past.
Double stars can help detect life in space
The gravity of exoplanetary systems, which show significant movement of large or medium planets, could also disrupt the trajectories of other planets or even push them into unstable orbits.
For most of these dynamic systems, it is likely that some planets have fallen into the "sphere of influence" of the parent star. Until recently, there was no evidence of how common such chaotic systems were compared to quieter systems such as ours, which contributed to the flourishing of life on Earth. This was achieved by analyzing the chemical composition of binary stars.
Binary stars - also called binary systems - are made up of two stars orbiting each other. Since both stars usually formed at the same time from the same gas, they must contain the same combination of elements.
Astrophysicists are approaching the search for extraterrestrial civilizations
After studying the chemical composition of 107 binaries of solar-like stars by analyzing the spectrum of light they emit, it was determined how many stars contain more planetary material than their companion star.
The differences in chemical composition are due to the "eating" of the planets.
- Stars with a thinner outer layer are more likely to be iron-rich than their companions. This approach fits into the "eating planets" hypothesis, since when planetary material dissolves in a thinner layer, it greatly changes the chemical composition of the layer.
- The stars richer in iron and other elements of rocky planets also contain more lithium than their satellites. Lithium quickly decays in stars, while it is stored on planets. The abnormally high level of lithium in the star should have appeared after the formation of the star, which is consistent with the idea that lithium was carried by the planet until it was "eaten" by the star.
- Stars that contain more iron than their companion also contain more iron than similar stars in the Galaxy. However, these same stars have a standard carbon content, which is a volatile element and for this reason is not transported by rocks. Consequently, these stars were chemically enriched with planetary rock or planetary material.
The results of this study are a breakthrough in stellar astrophysics and exoplanet research.It turned out that "eating planets" can not only change the chemical composition of stars like the Sun, but also the fact that a significant part of their planetary systems have experienced a very dynamic past, unlike our solar system.
Thus, scientists have the opportunity to use chemical analysis to identify stars that are more likely to be analogous to our solar system. Without this method, trying to find a second Earth among a million stars would be like looking for a needle in a haystack. | https://chronicles-life.com/12980456-astrophysicists-managed-to-find-a-shortcut-to-aliens |
Building on work in the field of rural geography, this thesis considers the changes which have taken place to the ways in which woods are managed and how the market for woodfuel has evolved following the considerable growth in demand for firewood and woodchip over the past decade. Through the use of in-depth interviews and field visits to woods and woodfuel businesses across the Midlands, it is demonstrated that the growth of the market has encouraged private woodland owners to carry out more management. This is a significant change from the latter half of the 20th Century when falling timber prices, and the lack of a market for wood products generally, resulted in many woodlands being neglected. In particular, the woodfuel markets have stimulated the removal and restoration of ‘Plantation on Ancient Woodland Sites’ (PAWS) by creating a market for the products of first and second thinning operations. Woodland owners are now able to make small, but significant, profits from their woods which is a marked change from a decade ago. A principal driver of the woodfuel market is the ‘Renewable Heat Incentive’ (RHI), whereby the Government is subsidising the use of woodchip-fed biomass boiler systems as part of the transition towards a greater use of renewable energy sources. Whilst the Forestry Commission’s principal objective remains the production of high quality timber, this thesis demonstrates it is reviewing how it may contribute to the woodfuel market’s growing share of the UK’s energy sector. In the thousands of small, privately-owned woods across England, the majority of which are owned for amenity and wildlife purposes, the thesis explores how the growing demand for firewood and woodchip is encouraging greater management. The many ways in which woodfuel management is complementary to other management objectives like timber production, wildlife and shooting are highlighted. The changes which have taken place to the UK’s forestry sector with the growing use of woodfuel is contextualised by exploring the extent to which they typify a ‘post-productivist’ shift. In many ways, the UK’s forestry sector appears to have entered a post-productivist era, with less emphasis placed on timber production since the 1980s and more policies to promote wildlife. The doctrine has been widely critiqued by examining the changes to agriculture but the forestry sector has been largely neglected, barring the work of Mather et al. (2006) who claim it has undergone a post-productivist shift. This view is contested by exploring how the growth of the woodfuel markets is promoting greater timber harvesting, as well as affecting how public and private woodland owners view their woods as money-making assets. The market from the perspective of the woodfuel merchants is also explored. Their histories and backgrounds are presented, revealing a diverse community of people with different business aims. Following an analysis of the ways in which merchants operate, from the types of machinery used to the methods of delivery, a typology of merchants is proposed. Whilst a ‘professionalisation’ of the sector has taken place over the past decade, with more standardised units of sale and improved customer service, an informal firewood market exists whereby some customers are unwillingly sold unseasoned firewood. With wood burning becoming a more popular activity in the UK following a surge in the use of dedicated wood burners, people are becoming more knowledgeable about the burning properties of different species of wood. However, the growth in demand for wood has led merchants to question whether the UK’s woods and forests can continue supplying the market at the current rate. Many merchants struggle to source timber for woodfuel and this had led them to supplement their stocks by purchasing from European suppliers. A contrasting view, however, is that the UK has a surplus of timber across its many unmanaged woods, as demonstrated by the Forestry Commission’s most recent national survey. The thesis therefore highlights a perception amongst merchants that the country’s timber supplies are at risk from the growing demand for woodfuel. | https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.719716 |
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Tag Archives: Solar System
Subsurface oceans everywhere and the possible pervasiveness of life
Well, it now looks like Ganymede, one of Jupiter’s moons, has a subsurface ocean. Ganymede’s great distinction among moons – apart from its size – is that it has its own magnetic field. Hubble has managed to track that field’s … Continue reading
Posted in Zeitgeist Tagged Aliens, Earth, Europa, Extraterrestrial life, Ganymede, Jupiter moons, Jupiter's moons, outer solar system, Solar System, Space 4 Comments
Methane-Based Life Possible On Titan
ratamacue0 sent me this interesting Slashdot post: Methane-Based Life Possible On Titan – Slashdot. Randym writes: With the simultaneous announcement of a possible nitrogen-based, cell-like structure allowing life outside the “liquid water zone” (but within a methane atmosphere) announced by researchers at Cornell … Continue reading
Posted in Zeitgeist Tagged Biology, Extraterrestrial life, Habitable zone, liquid methane, Mars, methane, methane atmosphere, methane based life, Solar System, Space, Titan 24 Comments
A close pass by a red dwarf star, and a note on interplanetary and interstellar distances
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Posted in Zeitgeist Tagged Astronomy, Galaxy, interstellar exploration, interstellar travel, Oort Cloud, red dwarf star, Solar System, Space, stars, the solar system 18 Comments
Wanderers – a short film on exploring the solar system
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Posted in Zeitgeist Tagged Carl Sagan, Erik Wernquist, Future, Solar System, Space, space exploration 9 Comments
Two Kuiper Belt objects found: Hubble to proceed with full search for New Horizons targets
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Posted in Zeitgeist Tagged Hubble Space Telescope, Kuiper belt, Nasa, New Horizon, Pluto, Science, Solar System, Space 2 Comments
xkcd: Surface areas in the solar system
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Did a cosmic fluke make life on land possible? | https://selfawarepatterns.com/tag/solar-system/ |
Journal of Space Exploration is an open access journal and internationally renowned scientists describe their own research in the wider context of the field.
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The main aim of this journal is to provide a platform for scientists and academicians all over the world to promote, share, and discuss various new issues and developments in different areas of Space Exploration.
The Journal of Space Exploration welcomes the submission of research articles, review articles, short communication, rapid communication, letter to the editor, case reports, etc in all areas of Space Exploration.
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The literature regarding the process of internationalization has been using the “push-oriented” concept which states that the outward movement of the firms is driven by strategic objectives. However, based on the recent phenomena of newcomers and latecomers MNCs, internationalization is reconsidered to be a “pull” process as well. John A. Mathews (2006) argues that the best definition for internationalization nowadays is “the process of the firm’s becoming integrated in international economic activities”. He emphasizes on the important use of the term “integration” which covers both the “pull and push” concept of previous authors’ definitions. Internationalization is considering the global economy as pre-existing and offering resources to the companies which aim for involvement in the international global market place.
The conceptual and theoretical frameworks developed regarding the drivers of firms to internationalize start from the idea that firms expand abroad because of their capacity to utilize their advantages in the host countries. This concept was formulated by Hymer (1960) and Kindleberger (1969), who built up on even earlier idea of internationalization discussed in terms of international trade and FDI and not in terms of the specific firm’s activities.
Theoretical perspectives that explain the level and pattern of FDI or MNCs activities vary from conventional economic theories (Caves, 1971; Hymer, 1976; Kindleberger, 1969), internationalization models (Buckley & Casson, 1976) to Duning’s eclectic paradigm (Dunning, 1988, 2006). The eclectic paradigm based on the experience of Anglo-American successful-international firms together with the Uppsala school (Johanson & Vahlne 1977) have been the dominant conceptual models in IB research concerning the internationalization of firms from developed countries. The international business literature provides explanations of the motivations and challenges, entry mode decisions and characteristics of MNEs from developed countries. Unfortunately, there is no single theory that explains the outward FDI from emerging country economies which is the major topic of this dissertation (Buckley et al., 2007; Luo & Tung, 2007). Previous work on developing economies or third world MNCs has been adapting the transaction cost theory in order to explain the model of internationalization (Kumar, 1982). Most recent observations by Bonaglia et al., 2007; Luo & Tung 2007; Mathews, 2006 have argued that the international expansion of EM MNCs is much more complex and requires attention from different perspectives.
The Eclectic Paradigm: OLI Framework
John Dunning, a finding scholar of the international business, discusses in his works the modern capitalism which suggests that big businesses from developing economies are becoming important players in the global economy. He traces the path through which these firms succeed to expand overseas by establishing joint ventures in home markets, after that expanding into regional markets and later becoming independent by buying out its OECD-based partners. Dunning’s work, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (1993), discusses the eclectic paradigm which predicts that is essential for a company to possess specific advantages in order to successfully invest abroad. Also, the foreign location needs to be more attractive compared to the one at the home country. According to Dunning, expanding abroad is the best mode of maximizing those specific to the company advantages. Therefore, a question rises if companies from emerging or transition economies possess such kind of advantages with location-specific ones as well as if it is possible to internalize them.
The ownership, location, and internationalization (OLI) perspective is based on international firms which can easily ding the resources and the capabilities to expand abroad if they wish to do so. Dunning combines several factors that offer a greater explanation of MNE or FDI activity in open markets and emphasizes on the importance of both structural and transaction cost deficiency for MNE activity.
The first factor, the “ownership advantage”, is the potential advantage derived from extending the firm’s proprietary assets abroad (brands and proprietary technologies). By doing so the firm brings greater power against its domestic competitors in host markets. The second factor is the “location advantage” which the firm has by being able to integrate activities across countries with different factor and resource costs. This advantage is a specific to a country and dictates the choice of production site of the firm. Last, the “internationalization advantage” which derives from building economies of scope and scale by internationalizing the firm’s activities around the foreign regions. The latter advantage determines whether foreign production will be organized through licensing or FDI.
Even though, Dunning’s paradigm provides an appropriate framework explaining the FDI activity of EM MNCs, it is challenged by prominent authors (Luo & Tung, 2007; Mathews, 2006) because of its assumption that EM MNCs should possess ownership advantages in order to operate internationally. Dunning’s principle does not take into consideration the cases where firms can derive advantages by their expansion abroad in order to access resources that are not available at their home country. Therefore, it can be concluded that EM MNCs do not have the same motives as MNCs from developed countries – the asset exploitation motive instead they are driven by asset seeking one (to develop ownership advantage) such as technology, brand and distribution networks, and management expertise which compensate for their capability disadvantages. Finally, according to Makino (2002) asset exploitation perspective considers FDI as the transfer of firm’s proprietary assets internationally and in asset seeking, the FDI is a means of acquiring strategic assets. Therefore, both assets seeking and asset exploitation motives are distinct but at the same time complementary motives which can be together observed in the expansion models of EM MNCs.
The Alternative LLL Framework
Mathews (2002, 2006) is one of the authors who criticizes Dunning’s OLI framework. He believes that the EM MNCs expand internationally in pursuit of resources and customers which are not otherwise available. Mathews proposes a modified OLI framework, a more globalized one, which consists of considerations that apply to the recent EM MNCs driven by resource linkage, leverage and learning (LLL framework).
The first one, linkage refers to the focus of EM MNCs not on their own advantages but on the ones which can be acquired internationally. Mathews considers the global orientation as a source of advantage because of the opportunities which can be found by a firm by its expansion to the global market rather than at its domestic one. The challenges of this proposed outward orientation are higher compared to the ones of inward orientation – overcoming problems of market intelligence and uncertainty of the quality of knowledge available. The resource access as a motive is “an attempt to access external resources in order to offset the weaknesses of the investor” (Chen and Chen, 1998: 446). Globalization offers opportunities for networks such as joint ventures or other collaborative partnerships as a mean of gaining entry to the new market. By using those linkages, latecomers such as EM MNCs, can draw themselves into an environment of exchange and sources of advantage.
The driver of resource leverage focuses on the resources themselves and how accessible they are in terms of limitability, transferability and substitutability.
Lastly, learning results from the repetition of linkage and leverage processes when the firm starts to perform its operation more and more effectively. Table 1 depicts the differences between Dunning’s OLI and Mathew’s LLL framework explaining the success of MNEs over their competitors at home (Mathew, 2006)
Table 1 Why do MNEs out-compete their domestic rivals? OLI and LLL framework compared
Criterion
OLI
LLL
Resourced utilized
Proprietary resources
Resources accessed through linkage with external firms
Geographic Scope
Location established as part of vertically integrated whole
Location tapped as part of international network
Make or buy?
Bias towards operations internalized across national borders
Bias towards operations created through external linkage
Learning
Not part of the OLI framework
Learning achieved through repetition of linkage and leverage
Process of internationalization
Not part of the OLI framework: MNE’s international reach assumed
Proceeds incrementally through linkage
Organization
Not part of OLI framework: organization could be multinational or transnational
Global integration sought as latecomer advantage
Driving paradigm
Transaction cost economies
Capturing of latecomer advantage
Time frame
Comparative static observations, comparing one point in time with another
Cumulative development process
Uppsala Sequential International Process Model
The evolutionary approach of internationalization is also characteristic of the Uppsala sequential international process model according to which the firm’s path of foreign expansion is slow and incremental, with frequent loops of experimental learning (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977). The firm focuses on its development through gradual acquisitions and integration. The sequential Uppsala model is reflected not only in terms of the knowledge about foreign markets and operations, and the intensity of commitment of the firm to the foreign market, but also in terms of the diversity of modes used in product offerings of geographical penetration (Welch and Luostarinen 1988: 158-9). The model indicates that typically firms start to internationalize by exporting to a country via an agent followed by establishment of sales subsidiaries and at the end starting to produce in the host country. This sequence of stages specifies an increasing commitment of resources to the market. However, as latecomers, EM MNCs need to accelerate their activities of internationalization in order to be able of catching up with the traditional MNCs. Therefore, the existing criticism against this model is that internationalization is not always a step-by-step learning process of its stages because the knowledge of foreign expansion can be gained from other firms instead of mimicking other firm’s internationalization experience (Eriksson et al, 1997) and by setting a network with others (Johanson and Mattson 1986).
According to the internationalization process theory, during the procedure of foreign expansion, learning is transferred through institutionalized organizational practices (decision-making procedures and corporate policies) which facilitate comapanies’ progress through acquisitions of site-specific knowledge (Andersen, 1993). Despite the fact that importance of learning refers to EM MNCs, their commitment to size of investments are often large and not necessarily engage step-by-step process. Another contradiction to the Uppsala model’s suggestion that as the firm’s commitment to the host country increases and the entry mode is riskier, the firm’s senior representatives’ control must increase as well (Hennart, 1989; Hill et al., 1990). However, in the case of EM MNCs, they are more likely to use senior management team which is localized instead of representatives from the company’s home country.
Springboard Perspective
As mentioned earlier in the paper, the framework which analyzes the internationalization of EM MNEs is considered to be unique compared to the one of traditional MNEs. One of Luo and Tung’s (2007) empirical work presents a springboard prospective according to which EM MNEs use international expansion as a springboard to access strategic resources as well as to reduce their constrains at home both institutional and market ones. By using that kind of outward investments these companies are becoming more effectively competitive against their global rivals. The authors concentrate their studies on the top six attractive global business locations – Brazil, Mexico, Russia, China, and India. The following factors are being taken into consideration in the observation of these countries’ MNEs: their motives and strategies, facilitating forces, risks and challenges of their internationalization. EM MNEs usually face many disadvantages when expanding abroad because of being the so called “latecomers” to the global market. However, they successfully overcome challenges by aggressive and risk-taking strategies, by acquiring or directly buying significant assets from mature MNEs in order to be able to compensate their weaknesses. Hence, most of the EM MNEs do not follow a particular path of internationalization or a model of selecting entry modes and country locations.
According to Luo and Tung (2007) EM MNEs are pushed to invest abroad because of their position as latecomers, the strong presence of competitors at the domestic market, the quick innovations in technology as well as product development, and last but not least their institutional obstacles at home. It can be concluded that nowadays EM MNEs are much less path dependent compared and much more risk-taking compared to the traditional MNEs and the “Third World” ones.
According to Luo and Tung (2007), the “springboard” perspective characterizes EM MNCs activities as repetitive since they use subsequent acquisitions of foreign companies through which they gain brand awareness and access to foreign customers. It also distinguishes itself from the “leapfrog” EM MNCs which entails late entrants catching up with earlier mover’s companies by avoiding risks in technological obsolescence and ownership of technological diffusion to competitors (Anderson and Engers, 1994). Therefore, “springboard” strives for more extensive strategic gains beyond the late comers’ advantages and most importantly it links a company’s international expansion to its operations at home. EM MNCs successful foreign operations are highly dependent on their sales, market, and manufacturing activities at its home base. Hence, it can be concluded that the long-term capability and effective performance of EM MNCs is based on their abilities to continually control their activities at home while seeking opportunities by integration abroad.
Springboard Motivations
The “springboard” perspective outlines several behaviors of EM MNCs companies which relate to their motivations and reasons of expansion abroad. This type of companies internationalizes in order to compensate for their competitive disadvantages through acquiring companies with high technology or superior manufacturing facilities, therefore contradicting Dunning’s ownership-specific completive advantage of foreign expansion. As latecomers, EM MNCs face many disadvantages; therefore by path-independent strategy of acquiring foreign companies they become able to overcome their deficiencies in the consumer base, brand awareness, and technological areas. Hence, their outward FDI is driven by “pull” factors such as need for specific resources, managerial expertise, and access to consumers. Since the traditional MNCs have already entered the EM MNCs countries, companies from emerging economies use international expansion as a counter-attack.
Many EM MNCs enter their rivals’ home countries in search of market share and a way of becoming global or transnational. Some outward foreign direct investments are also triggered by the companies’ desire to avoid or overcome trade barriers. Companies with production of standardized products depend on exporting abroad by using intermediaries or distributors. In this way they facilitate their massive production capabilities and establish connections with customers from other countries. EM MNCs’ home markets are characterized by many institutional voids such as weak legal protection of ownership rights, no enforcement of laws and non-transparent judicial system, inefficient market intermediaries; and political instability – unpredictable changes, interference of the government, corruption and bureaucracy.
All of the mentioned factors challenge the competitiveness of the domestic firms, therefore pushing them to seek further development at foreign markets – opportunity-seeking motivation. For instance, niche players from Russia, and countries from Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) are driven by a desire to gain a foothold in the enlarged EU. They seek market opportunities by expanding to their neighboring CEE countries seeking better legal protection overseas. Facing the institutional and political obstacles is both financially and time-wise costly; therefore companies try to select more transparent and efficient country environments which permit EM MNCs to concentrate on developing and utilizing their competitive advantages.
EM MNCs use internationalism as a springboard in order to secure favored treatment offered by emerging market governments. The so called “reverse investments” take place when EM MNCs first make an investment abroad by creating a subsidiary, and then use it as a “foreign” unit to invest at their home country. By doing so the company receives financial and non-financial benefits such as cheaper land fees and access to scarce resources offered by emerging market governments. Many emerging market governments provide financial privileges for encouraging their business to expand globally (Andreff, 2002).
Finally, EM MNCs expand internationally as a springboard so they can make use of their competitive advantages in other emerging markets. One of the specific characteristics of EM MNCs is that they are national giants at home, being experts in mass production they spread internationally to other emerging countries to manufacture technologically standardizes products. Hence, they generate a low-cost position of a latecomer offering prices suitable for local consumers which allows them to successfully compete with companies from industrialized countries that have entered much earlier. It can be concluded that companies from emerging markets are less likely to seek opportunities for inexpensive production because of their home supply which allows them constant access to low-cost advantages because of their vertically integrated global production system.
Table 2 International Expansion of Emerging Market MNEs: a springboard perspective
Springboard External and Internal Issues
Following the main drivers for internationalization according to the springboard perspective, it is important to present and analyze the external and internal issues which influence EM MNCs to invest overseas. Luo and Tung (2007) identify five main factors starting with the role of the government in the MNCs activities for going global. The liberalization of government policies is a critical issue which affects outward foreign direct investment. The theoretical and empirical findings of the latter topic are discussed later on in the paper’s literature review. Second factor indicated by Luo and Tung is the corporate entrepreneurship and strong motivation for entering important markets. For EM MNCs the interaction between the institutions of emerging countries and their corporate entrepreneurs is essential for the decision-making of their internationalization strategy. In order to successfully expand and operate abroad, corporate executives in EM MNCs need to recive political support which gives them the ability to be independent and follow their own expansion strategies without the involvement of institutional legacies (Andreff, 2002).
Springboard behaviors in outward FDI are also driven by the willingness of advanced countries’ MNCs to sell their strategic business units or create partnerships which allows EM MNCs to acquire or cooperate with rivals in order to increase their competitive advantage and international experience. The fourth factor which influences EM MNCs’ international strategy is the big competition of advanced countries MNCs needed to be faced domestically. In order to successfully compete with these rivals, companies from emerging countries take extreme measures by aggressively expanding their scale and scope through capital investments in new projects or reinvesting accumulated retained earnings in already established projects. The last issue, quick changes in the technology and market environment together with the increased globalization of the world’s economy, motivates EM MNCs to expand overseas. The current competitive environment which international companies from emerging economies face is characterized by high tech facilities, shorter product life cycle, and increased awareness of knowledge and information importance.
Internationalization Challenges
The springboard perspective does not only provide EM MNCs with latecomer’s opportunities but with some unique global challenges for them as well. The first challenge identifies by Luo and Tung (2007) is the disfavored market environment at the home country such as poor accountability, lack of transparency, and weak corporate government. These factors decline company’s reputation and decrease domestic and global shareholders’ confidence. The measures which need to be taken in order successfully to cope with the country’s instability is that the EM MNEs to appoint top executives of the essential frontline units. Using the services of well-known international accounting firms is an option for improving the financial accountability in the company.
The second challenge according to the springboard perspective is the post-acquisition stage difficulties such as establishing effective working relationships with host shareholders, fitting the host and home companies’ cultures together, aligning their objectives and integrating the two companies’ operations. The lack of previous experience in cross-cultural acquisitions and mergers trigger major challenges for EM MNCs. Therefore, they need to have sufficient knowledge in global planning and execution; the companies should be able to plan ahead the entire product and resource related issues before engaging into risky expansion.
Third challenge, the lack of global experience and managerial competence,
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It is widely asserted that the XXI century is an era of rapid and irrevocable unification and dissolving of national borders, cultures, and economies. This process of the world’s compression and obvious intensification of any international ties directly refers to the concept of globalization. In a nutshell, the term can be defined as a worldwide international integration in political, economic, financial, social, and cultural dimensions that results in increase of international financial flows and trade, migration, global tourism, and cultural exchange among others. Although global integration undeniably bears positive changes into the world, they are unequally spread among the nations playing into the hand of the wealthy countries.
Regardless of that globalization can bring benefits, its destructive effects are exceedingly tangible and sometimes even surpass all the good manifestations the phenomenon has. On the one hand, one can claim that globalization stimulates the process of economic growth in developing countries, for example, extremely high rates of foreign direct investment. On the other hand, the process turns them into “peripheral markets” being able to contribute nothing but raw or intermediate materials and cheap labor force to the international market (Beck 2015). However, the latter fact almost neutralizes all the positive impact of the first one. Thus, global integration of markets and labor division is only widening the existing enormous development continuum gap between the wealthy North and the Global South instead of shrinking it (Milanovic 2016). In other words, the less a country is developed, the more it suffers from inequality in the global trade and economy systems.
Not only developing countries are experiencing harmful aftermath of globalization, but the wealthy ones also undergo its negative consequences. The transnational corporations (TNCs) and multinational companies (MNCs) tend to move their industrial capacities into the so-called Third-World countries as they have an opportunity to pay lower taxes and salaries there in comparison with their domestic markets (Beck 2015). This fact directly leads to a reduction in employment rate and related social problems in te industrialized states. According to the empirical data, in the period of 18 years (1990-2008), the number of created jobs in the United States of America grew from about 122 million to about 149 million (Spence 2011). The figure is relatively small for such a sizable country. Moreover, the striking 98% of those job offers were opened in the nontradable economy sector, which produces goods and services that cannot be exported (Spence 2011). Obviously, this was a direct result of that the American TNCs have moved their manufacturing sites to the emerging economies.
Furthermore, one should not forget that globalization, while usually positively perceived in the West, often meets resistance in the East. International terrorism is a phenomenon that most accurately illustrates this firm anti-westernization stance. Rejection of Western values and democratization process as a whole urges radicals to express their protest by such outrages atrocious attacks to oppose a direct threat to the core tenets of Islam. Otherwise speaking, terrorism represents the reaction from the ‘periphery’ aimed against the American-led globalization “steamroller” that ruins national cultures and traditions while replacing them with the alien mass culture (Lizardo 2006). Globalization has not only triggered the bombings but also created favorable scenery for their implementation. Innovative technologies, the Internet, and easier ways of cross-border migration all contributed to the increase in the number of conducted terroristic assaults.
Fair to note, the fears of the radical activists from the East are not utterly groundless. The concept of social and cultural globalization and integration is often called ‘McDonaldization’ or even ‘Americanization’ of the global society, claiming that the American mass culture is firmly rooting in different countries ousting the native traditions from their homelands (Pieterse 2015). There is an existing possibility that the process of the global cultural homogenization based on the predominance of democratic values, western traditions, and lifestyles will lead to the extinction of small authentic local cultures turning our planet into a unified indistinctive nation (Tomlinson 20113). This process can result in the decline of the global tourism as a whole. There will be no need visiting other countries as there would be nothing new to experience.
Of course, it is impossible to omit from analysis the environmental issues directly summoned by the world integration. Although this aspect is traditionally addressed in a favorable manner, one should consider it from another angle. While advanced countries are big at environmentalist rhetoric, praising their low pollution rates, they tend to conceal the fact they owe this eco-friendly image to the movement of their hazardous industries to developing countries. The TNCs tend to relocate their facilities to the countries with less stringent environmental laws, thereby doing a favor for their country of origin and, at the same time, rendering a disservice to the countries to which they move their industries (Lecher & Boli 2014). In fact, this is not the only way to avoid dealing with the ecological challenges. Toxic waste, such as mercury, arsenic, and cyanide, is shipped at relatively lucrative prices to the Third-World states, for instance, India, which is literally used as a dumping ground by the Northern industrialized countries. Moreover, pursuing economic goals, the developed countries not only shift the responsibility for dealing with the toxic waste. They inadvertently cause even more harm to the environment as many of the importing states do not obtain enough of the technology to process those chemicals (Lecher & Boli 2014).
All these points lead to the logical conclusion that while the inevitable phenomenon of globalization has its favorable and auspicious effects, those benefits are distributed unequally between the nations and usually serve only the richest states, leaving most of the developing countries out in the cold. Moreover, even the most advanced international actors face many side-effects of the global integration, such as growing unemployment rates and living under the pressure of a constant threat of the terroristic attacks, to name a few. Hence, given the irreversibility of globalization, we have to acknowledge all the drawbacks of this process and come up with the efficient way of overcoming them. | https://custom-paper-writing.org/free-essays/society/what-is-globalization |
Minimum wage has gained an important place in the brain of politicians to reduce social gaps and inequality. Governments intervene on the market to allocate a better wage towards workers than the one offer by the market equilibrium. This controversial measure raises lots of debate on whether raising the minimum wage results in workers becoming jobless. Government intervention on minimum wage has one main goals: increase the demand by an increasing of wage. The main reason against minimum wage is that it creates unemployment among low skilled workers; on top of that it can be argued that the redistribution effect is not going to the target people of the measure.
The Effect of Globalization on Labor Movement Introduction Today, globalization is a phenomenon which affects all aspects of our life. In a broad sense, globalization is the process or processes that increase the movement of people, culture, technology, ideologies and information across the world. Economists describe the term to refer to international integration in commodity, capital and labor markets. If we look at the integration in these markets as the benchmark, it is clear that globalization is not a new phenomenon. The aim of this paper is explaining the impact of globalization on specific area, international labor movement which is a type of the migration.
Privatization is necessary for expanding one 's economy and enhance the global connectivity. Privatization strengthen the private sectors. It may be noted that privatization changes the role of state and not necessarily reduces it. The monitoring and regulation of the privatized system, discussed later, is a complex and difficult job. Globalization: Today, Indian economy is open to foreign financial investments, imports of capital equipment, technology and personnel, in almost all sectors.
Globalization can be defined as the growing interconnection of the various nations worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross border transactions which results in capital flow , and also through the more rapid and widespread dispersion of technology (Hill, 2011). Globalization is the harvest of human modernization and technological progress. It refers to the increasing amalgamation of economies across the globe though trade and capital flows. The term also refers to the migration of people (labor) and technology across international borders. It has the potential of making societies richer through trade and creates an environment of knowledge and understanding across the world.
This is what we call as Economic Globalization. Economic Globalization is the increasing economic integration and interdependence of national, regional, and local economies across the world through an intensification of cross-border movement of goods, services, technologies and capital (“Economic globalization,” 2016). One country to another will do export and import to fulfill their needs and this leads to the economic policies that both or more countries made. Of course those countries want to get more benefits more than just fulfill their needs, they will make some agreements about trade between them such as, lowering the
A more technical measure of globalisation is the convergence towards a global market, with a single price and wage (Henry). This simply has not happened. In fact, where incomes are concerned the opposite is more likely to be true. Contrary to public perception there has been a growing divergence, not convergence, in income levels between countries and peoples, with widening inequality among and within nations (Heine, 2011). While the average income appears to be rising due to the increase in trade and production the gap between the high skilled, high wage workers and low skilled, low wage workers increases.
Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people, and economic activity. It is generally used to refer to economic globalization. For instant, the global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import quotas. Moreover, global business will be characterized similarly as corporate alternately investment movement that takes spot crosswise over distinctive nations (Williams,2010). However, there are significant relationship between globalisation and global business.
Opponents believe that globalization ultimately will have a negative result on jobs. They argue that outsourcing leads to decreased job security and wage reductions in the MNCs home country. Moreover, opponents claim that MNCs severely compete in a “race to the bottom” (Tonelson, 2000, as cited in Preble, 2010). This claim is reinforced by differences in employment statistics between developed and developing countries. In other words, there should be a more equal share of benefits.
Proponents of globalisation insist that developing countries stand to benefit from integration since they develop both socially and economically. Some scholars such as Kiggundu (2002) contend that poor nations become exposed to more opportunities and challenges as they integrate with the rest of the World. Developing nations would then have the chance of improving the lives of their citizens by increasing the nation’s wealth, reducing poverty and improving wages. On the other hand, opponents of this concept maintain that the multinationals from the Western world are the only beneficiaries of globalisation and that the small local firms are disadvantaged (de Soysa and Vadlamannati,
Global Markets – it’s a place where markets around the world mergeand become one huge center (Hill, 2009). With the developments of worldwide markets change the financial exercises of trade of products and trusts. Evacuation of Cross-Border Trades hindrances has made establishment of Global Markets more practical. 2. International Institution – institution such as United Nations organisations, World Trade organisation support world powers that basically dictate the entire world, regulate relations between different countries based on criminal justice human or political factors(IMF,2005). Main objective of WTO is to organise, enrol different economies around the world. | https://www.ipl.org/essay/Introduction-To-Globalization-P3VRHYK6JEDR |
The traditional perspectives on international human resource management are inadequate in addressing the volatile global landscape. These traditional perspectives have largely been driven by a conformist view on globalization such that human resource managers believe, or used to believe, that globalization entailed workers migrating to other countries that presented attractive compensation packages, career growth opportunities, and better working environments compared to the home countries.
However, with globalization now branching out in a different path that sees more and more workers engaging in reverse migration due to economic improvements in their home countries, human resource managers cannot rely on the same tactics to recruit the international worker. They can no longer dangle attractive pay packages in the Diaspora to entice talented employees, which in turn makes it harder for companies to acquire talent in an already competitive employment landscape. Tung, (2016) asserts that globalization, reverse migration, the emergence of third world markets, and the demand for workers with a global market have contributed to fundamental changes in the nature, magnitude, and raison detre of human resource management globally. Hence, there is a requirement to adopt new perspectives in the context of international human resource management (IHRM) practices.
Tung (2016) notes that a firms competitive leverage, both regionally and globally, is hinged on the human capital it can acquire. Thus, firms that were able to attract talented employees remained dominant in their market. Most of these firms, Tung (2012) asserts, were traditionally based in developed countries since these countries were able to offer better living conditions and career opportunities (Tung, 2012). That is not the situation today, as more and more people in developed countries are willing to relocate abroad, on the temporary or permanent basis, further compounding the war for talent. The war for talent, as Tung (2012) asserts is driven by various forces such as an aging workforce, ascendancy of emerging markets, and increased educational and technical skills of the indigenous populations (especially those in developing countries). These forces have lowered the immigration desires in workers, and in fact, occasioned immigration from developed countries.
Thus, the net result of current globalization trends is evident in the emergence and prominence of multicultural teams, especially in multinational companies (MNCs), homophily (tendency to assign indigenous people to head MNCs), variety in the workspace. These fruits, according to Tung (2012) have a considerable impact on the operations of organizations. Variety, which was traditionally seen as a negative factor in teams, today proves to have a positive outcome in team performance. Homophily, which may carry negative connotations, is seen as a factor that can increase the productivity of an MNC in a particular ethnic region.
Hence from the findings made by Tung (2016), it appears that current international human resource practices must take these factors into consideration when developing human resource policies. Such policies should seek to ensure that the international workforce features culturally diverse members so as to leverage the advantages of variety mentioned by Tung (2016). It should also leverage the benefits of homophily for the same reasons. However, there still remains a question on how contemporary international human resource management should respond to the rising trend of reverse migration. That is, human resource professionals must updating their recruiting policies to factor in the impact of reverse migration so as to replace the aging workforce with diverse individuals from different countries, even when these individuals are no longer enticed by career opportunities abroad for the reasons mentioned earlier. As such, it is necessary for IHRM practitioners to result to other forms of enticement outside compensation, working conditions, or career opportunities to continually draw from the diverse talent in the global pool.
In conclusion, talent acquisition and recruitment today are no longer reliant on physical promises traditionally used by IHRM professionals. Today, the international human resource manager must rely on more than just the promise of a better career to recruiting talent for international firms. Additionally, the manager must also reward the company with a diverse and talented workforce, which therefore calls for changes in IHRM policies to reflect the changing landscape.
References
Tung, R. L. (2016). New perspectives on human resource management in a global context. Journal of World Business, 51(1), 142-152.
Zweig, D., & Wang, H. (2013). Can China bring back the best? The Communist Party organizes China's search for talent. The China Quarterly, 215, 590-615.
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New face of globalization
The developing countries, on the other hand, have growing population bases, and although most import a limited number of goods and services from other countries, longer-term growth potential exists in these nations. Often, marketers in developing nations must be educators, using marketing techniques to education populations about unfamiliar, new products and services and the benefits they provide.
Figure 1: GDP growth rate by country: Shading indicates real rate of economic growth in Those in favor of globalization theorize that a wider array of products, services, technologies, medicines, and knowledge will become available, and that these developments will have the potential to reach significantly larger customer bases. These benefits of globalization are viewed as utilitarian, providing the best possible benefits for the largest number of people.
- Globalization.
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- Failure to Adjust | Council on Foreign Relations.
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- To save globalization, its benefits need to be more broadly shared.
Technological developments have made doing business internationally much more convenient than in the past. MNCs seek to benefit from globalism by selling goods in multiple countries, as well as sourcing production in areas that can produce goods more profitably. In other words, organizations choose to operate internationally either because they can achieve higher levels of revenue or because they can achieve a lower cost structure within their operations. Or they may look for economies of scope, through horizontal expansion into new geographic markets.
There is particularly strong opportunity for business growth in markets where strong economic growth is also projected. In these areas, incomes are rising.
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In many cases, local populations can now afford goods and services that were previously out-of-reach, including many good produced in industrialized countries. Global companies stand to capture stronger growth and profitability if they can make headway into these markets. At the same time, international operations contain innate risk in developing new opportunities in foreign countries. Potholes in Poland: Poor road infrastructure can be difficult for businesses that rely on road transportation. For organizations operating in developing and less-developed countries, additional challenges can arise, particularly in the following areas:.
How can we make globalization work for Africa? | World Economic Forum
All of these factors—both benefits and challenges—should go into decisions about whether and how to expand globally. Organizational leaders must consider carefully how to balance costs and risks against the potential for gain and growth. Answer the question s below to see how well you understand the topics covered in this outcome. Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to 1 study the previous section further or 2 move on to the next section.
Skip to main content. Module Marketing Globally. But they also have been important factors behind the rise in inequalities we have witnessed—with technological change playing a stronger role.
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The distributional consequences of these forces, however, are not pre-ordained. Outcomes that are more inclusive are certainly possible. Much depends on policies. Sadly, policies for the most part have not risen to the new challenges. Indeed, they have often exacerbated rather than ameliorated the outcomes. Attempting to inhibit globalization or technological change would be the wrong response to the rising popular discontent with their distributional outcomes.
What does it take to succeed in this new era?
Instead, policies must do better to ensure that the economic gains are more widely shared. This means improving the enabling environment for firms and workers—to broaden access to opportunities that come with globalization and technological change and to enhance capabilities to adjust to the new challenges.
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Competition must be strengthened in industry and finance to check the growth of monopolistic structures and abuse of market power. Competition policies must be revamped for the digital age marked by the rise of winner-take-all technology giants. Access to quality education and training must be greatly improved, including putting in place stronger and smarter programs for worker upskilling and reskilling and lifelong learning to respond to the shifting demand for skills. New models of public-private partnerships and technology-enabled solutions must be explored. Labor market policies and social protection systems must be adapted to the realities of a dynamic job market with more frequent shifts between jobs and more diverse work arrangements.
Governments must reorient expenditure priorities and find the fiscal space to restore public investment programs in infrastructure and research and development that have been allowed to run down. They must also review tax and transfer systems that have seen erosion of their redistributive role.
Reforms are needed at the international level as well, so that rules of engagement between countries in trade and other areas are fair. But the dominant part of the agenda to make globalization work better and for all rests with policies at the national level.
Rather than decry globalization, politicians should exert more to put national policy houses in order. The political debate needs to shift from frenzied rhetoric to take up the cudgels against primal forces to a calmer and more serious focus on policies that matter.
The elephant chart revisited Homi Kharas and Brina Seidel. | https://statenaliden.ga/africa-adjustment-to-the-challenges-of.php |
Citation: Mukherjee, S. (2021). Economic globalization in the 21st Century: A case study of India, Review of Socio-Economic Perspectives, Vol 6(1), 23-33.
Abstract
Globalization has integrated the economies of the world, especially the developing countries. With that, there has been considerable progress in economic globalization. Economic globalization, is defined as increased interconnectedness through higher trade volumes and enhanced capital flows. Factors such as better transport and communication facilities, relaxation in government policies, and advancement in technology (digitally and physically) have led to rapid economic globalization. In case of India, Multinational Corporations (MNCs) have contributed a lot towards the globalization process. The MNCs have attracted non-debt creating flows and imported technology for the benefit of the country. The liberalized government foreign trade policies have helped in increasing trade openness. In spite of the progress, numerous challenges in various forms such as lack of strong and efficient institutions, favorable redistributive and regulatory policies, domestic companies unable to compete with foreign MNCs, increase in the volume of foreign portfolio flows and MNCs adopting oligopolistic practices. Suitable policies and corrective measures can help the economy in matters of further progress in globalization.
E-mail: [email protected] & ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1293-1342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.19275/RSEP105
Article Type: Review Paper
References
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Special Issue: MNCs and (de)globalization: New paradigm for emerging markets
Guest Editor
Dr. Andrei Panibratov, Professor, St. Petersburg State University, Russia. Email: [email protected]
Background to the topic
Trade disputes and political tensions between countries have evoked concerns of scholars about the ongoing deglobalization that has been actively problematized since the end of the 2010s (Witt, 2019; Tung & Stahl, 2018). The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic has only accelerated the pace of this phenomenon, leading to new restrictions on mobility and disruptions in value chains (Delios et al., 2021). While many scholars expect greater risk aversion, protectionism, and nationalism to become a paradigm for national economies and for multinational companies (MNCs) (Fontaine, 2020; Abdelal, 2020; Young, 2020), others oppose the assumption that the foundations of globalization have not eroded, and the post-pandemic world will need even greater globalization. This point is based on the idea that now and for a long time to come, the world will be fragmented and unequal, and international firms will exist as bridges connecting the fragmented reality (Contractor, 2021). There is also a third point of view, according to which the consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic will result in both globalization of labor and deglobalization of capital (Brakman et al., 2021).
Deglobalization, political turmoil and the Covid-19 consequences lead to disruptive and far-reaching changes in the social, political and technological environment (Panibratov, 2020). If these changes evoke qualitative shifts in international business, companies, as well as institutions and industries, will likely have to adapt (Witt et al., 2021). One of the possible consequences may be a revision of Buckley’s “Global factory” concept, and the choice of value chain and governance mode that result from this revision. These choices involve relocation, reshoring and nearshoring, and the strategic response here is to cover the contingencies and time horizons that shape these choices (Witt et al., 2021).
As part of the dynamic reassessment, relocation and reorganization of activities, divestment is one of the possible strategic decisions of firms in response to the (de)globalization-related uncertainty and turmoil (Arte & Larimo, 2019; Dachs et al., 2019). IB scholars have studied companies’ divestment strategy as an essential part of their (de)internationalization strategy when placed in an unfavorable environment (Panibratov & Brown, 2018), using the example of the behavior of Japanese and Korean firms when leaving China under the impact of the trade war (Chung et al., 2019; Trencher et al. 2020) or Western MNCs continually divesting from Russia due to economic sanctions applied by the US and EU governments.
The question that remains open is whether in the coming years firms will retract MNCs global markets, or just relocate their international activities to other foreign destinations (Delios et al., 2021). The special issue will be devoted to the phenomena of deglobalization, as well as foreign divestment and relocation of business, which are assumed to persist in the new post-Covid reality.
SI will seek out conceptual papers, literature reviews, empirical works, and case studies on the phenomenon of deglobalization and the strategy of foreign divestments and relocation of MNCs.
Topics for submissions
Illustrative, but by no means exhaustive, questions pertaining to the special theme include the following:
- What is the role of environmental uncertainty (caused by sanctions, Covid-19, geopolitical conflicts) for the de-internationalization strategy and for the host country of divesting MNCs?
- How do the institutional factors of domestic and host markets affect the decision of a firm to de-internationalize?
- How is a foreign divestment (FD) decision made? What precedes FD?
- How do companies choose a destination when they change locations? What is the motivation for relocating firms’ operations?
- To what extent is the FD decision conditioned by the image of the home country of the divesting firm? What is the effect of FD on the legitimacy of firms?
- What is the role of location-specific and firm-specific advantages in deciding on FD?
- What does FD mean for divesting firms? Is it a failure or part of a strategy?
Submission Checklist
Please.
- read the Aims & Scopeto gain an overview and assess if your manuscript is suitable for this journal;
- use the Microsoft Word templateto prepare your manuscript;
- make sure that issues about publication ethics, copyright policies, authorship, figure formats, data and references formathave been appropriately considered;
- ensure that all authors have approved the content of the submitted manuscript. | https://www.econ.msu.ru/science/Article.20210616190732_7889/ |
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The marginal are getting a chance to exhibit in the world market. Here are some other arguments for globalization: The proponents of global free trade say that it promotes global economic growth, creates jobs, makes companies more competitive, and lowers prices for consumers.
The critics criticize globalisation as the corporate agenda—the agenda of the big business and the ideology the developed countries to dominate and control the international economic system in a bigger, deeper and more subtle and intensive manner.
Explain the arguments put forward by advocates of globalisation. The arguments are: (i) It generates greater economic growth and well-being for larger sections of the population when there is de-regulation. (ii) Greater trade among countries allows each economy to do what it does best.
EROSION OF STATE SOVEREIGNTY Another common argument is that globalisation has eroded state sovereignty. International trade limits the ability of nation-states to control domestic economies, whereas international organisations and laws place limits on their decision-making abilities.
Globalisation has two thrust areas: 1. Liberalisation provides freedom of trade and investment eliminate restrictions imposed on external trade and payments and expand technological progress to globalize faster. 2. Privatisation permits MNCs to produce goods and services inside the country to attract FDI.
Although globalization has promised an improved standard of living and economic development, it has been heavily criticized for its production of negative effects. Globalization is not simply an economic project, but it also heavily influences the country environmentally, politically, and socially as well.
Globalization has brought benefits in developed countries as well as negative effects. The positive effects include a number of factors which are education, trade, technology, competition, investments and capital flows, employment, culture, and organization structure.
Answer: Broadly speaking, economic, financial, political, technological and social factors have paved the way to globalization. Economic factors mainly include lower trade and investment barriers.
In many instances, quality of life has improved for those who live in developing nations. For many developing nations, globalization has led to an improvement in standard of living through improved roads and transportation, improved health care, and improved education due to the global expansion of corporations.
Some positive/ neutral consequences of globalisation for family life. Increased migration means more families are stretched across national borders and have family members living abroad, which in turn reinforces globalisation as more families maintain contacts through media and physical visits. | https://readinganswer.com/what-is-one-argument-in-support-of-globalization/ |
Multinational companies essay
In conclusion, i think multinational companies are both boon and bane at the same time by lowering the unemployment burden, by exploiting the laborers and causing pollution essay categories: ielts writing task ii - ielts academic. Multinational corporations business ethics essay assignment: multinational corporations submitted to: prof h aronovitch university of ottawa submitted by: david hamilton student # 5322750 phi 2397 c thursday november 29, 2011 personal ethics agreement concerning university assignments individual assignment i submit this assignment and attest that i have applied all the appropriate rules. Multinational companies are companies that operate across international borders the multinational company has overseas production units, marketing or service units a mnc is a corporation that has a given proportion of its assets, personnel, sales or earnings originating from or set-up in a foreign country. Multinational companies are often accused of exploiting the natural and human resources of developing countries for example, most of the world’s gadgets are built in developing countries like china and taiwan.
Multinational corporations (mncs), also known as transnational corporations (tncs), are enterprises operating in a number of countries and having production or service facilities outside the country of their origin a commonly accepted definition of an mnc is an enterprise producing at least 25 per. The advantages and disadvantages of multinational companies essay sample by admin in essay samples on september 8, 2017 in a modern society many transnational companies have been founded. This essay will discuss the issues above, and make introduction about organizational culture, national culture and leadership, and corresponding impacts on employees and organizations as follows: firstly, a brief summary of the influence given by organizational cultures and national cultures on multinational companies will be made secondly, it.
Never before have multinational companies played such a pivotal role in society in the past, rarely a local company's products would reach external markets. Throughout my essay i was looking on the general impacts and role played by the multinational corporations the one finding we can make at once is that, indeed, role played by the mncs in the globe economies is really huge and important and it is impossible to however, their impact sometimes can be controversial. The anthropology of transnational and multinational corporations (hereafter t&mcs) intertwines anthropological concerns with capitalism, personhood, institutions, development, and globalization to critically examine one of the most powerful phenomena in the world.
China's ability to attract multinational companies - in the business world, management information systems (mis) is one of the most important departments in business organizations and the main means of mis is risk management. For fdi-based strategies to be successful for consumer products, the multinational corporations (mnc) looking to expand into india will need to be much more culturally aware and sensitive than the it outsourcing companies hiring call center agents, programmers and systems analysts. In the case of japan, a factory which was founded by a multinational company emitted contaminated drainage into the sea the matter gave rise to a strike by local fishermen in conclusion, i believe that multinational companies' products have damaged our quality of life in terms of economy, safety, and environment. Multinational companies raul a murguia june 19, 2012 research and prepare a discussion that addresses the ethical dilemmas that face multinational companies.
Examples for multinational companies not us based but operates in us - shell is established in 1833 in britain it is a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies with 104,000 employees in more than 110 countries, they play a key role in helping to meet the world’s growing demand for energy in economically, environmentally and. Multinational corporation essay multinational, international, global, or transnational corporations are those that operate in more than one country—not simply exporting goods from one country to another, but offering services in multiple countries or operating production facilities in more than one country. Download file to see previous pages the globalisation concept does not reveal the challenges leaving the companies to look at the positive side of the concept there are very many management challenges due to different cultural issues and government intervention in different nations. Essay: multinational corporations (mncs) usually large companies like mncs have their own websites that monitoring the actions of mncs in different countries this website is used to make it more easily to see by visitors and enables them to look benefits that earned by multinational corporations. Multinational companies essay sample multinational companies can be successful only if they use smart advantages that help them to take on many problems that occur when working abroad.
Multinational companies essay
In this essay, companies which run multinational business are to be characterized as multinational companies' by following the globalization campaign, multinational companies' supply chains can be enriched, high costs work force can be transformed and potential markets can be expanded. Essay about secrets goals and dreams fahrenheit 451 fire essay essay for american university visits you (essay on photos baisakhi in punjabi) essay on behaviour change ransomware what is modern essay lover 80 words essay length my hobby and interest essay jogging buy an essay now very review. 2 what is meant by a multinational corporation (mnc) give 2 examples of mncs that are u s based, and 2 that are based elsewhere but operate in the u s multinational corporation is the corporation of having operations, subsidiaries, or investments in more than one countries.
- In most countries multinational companies and their products are becoming more and more importantthis trend is seriously damaging our quality of life essay topics: in most countries multinational companies and their products are becoming more and more important.
- Exchange rate fluctuation impact multinational companies profits finance essay introduction general overview in this research studies the exchange rate of currencies which are the medium of exchange between companies and its effect on multinational companies.
Over the past couple of years multinational companies (mnc) had to face a number of new challenges in their daily business globalization changed numerous things for global players normally the structure of a typical mnc shows a focus on their main resources and departments like finance, technology. Multinational organisations and culture essay this essay is about the extent to which working for a multinational organisation help you to understand other cultures the best way to understand other cultures is to work for a multinational organisation. Pte academic sample essay multinational companies in developing countries pro and cons pte academic , pte essays some developing countries invite large multinational companies to open offices and factories in order to help their economy. | http://unessaymkmx.soalmatematika.info/multinational-companies-essay.html |
There have been a lot of debates on the impact of globalization on developing countries. Many people have drawn their concerns on its true effects to peoples lives, and especially those living in underdeveloped countries. There are different pluses and minuses that come with globalization. In addition, scholars have found out that people living in different parts of the world tend to share certain beliefs, values and ideas.
Globalization has always been seen as a source of hope and trepidation since it hit its peak in the start of 20 th century. The degree towards which countries have adapted to globalization phenomenon varies greatly. Those in developed countries fear the fact that availability of cheap labor in developing countries will render them jobless, whereas those in developing countries wonder what impact this global village possess.
Despite the many benefits expected from globalization, developing countries have always lagged behind and the gap between these parties has been widening. Many reasons for this kind of disparity have been put forward. Interestingly, globalization impacts development in developing countries in many ways. В Through growth of trade, many developing countries have improved wellbeing of the people. В Trade is a great channel when it comes to globalization and it holds many prospects for underdeveloped countries.
It has affected local markets in most of these countries as the prices of capital goods have increased or decreased. Industrial policies have also been distorted as most of the developed countries want to trade what they come across at cheap rates. This has also increased competition and local traders have lost faith in their businesses.В Globalization has also lead to increased varieties of capital flows. This great flow of capital has been seen as a source of instability in these countries.
Financial capability has led to increased annual economy growth, but these high growth rates have reduced likelihood of developing countries to rely on the available resources, but seek capital or equity from other exploitive sources. Delayed integration is costly and many countries have been forced to defer financial and regulatory change which can aid in resources allocation. It then prevents access to foreign resources that are vital for investment in these countries.
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Globalization has also pushed many people in these countries to migrate to other destinations due to the huge capital movements. In a sense, migration has led to decline in labor market and loss of cultural routes. Nevertheless, it is also advantageous as migrants send back huge remittances; individuals also gain skills by working industrialized countries and have become part of the international production networks.
Globalization also acts as a linkage to computerization and worldwide web and its impact on trade, technology and information transfer is matchless. Traders in developing countries can access cheap and convenient information on securing contracts, market demand and how to increase efficiency of sales and payment procedures. Essentially, for many developing countries, internet helps lowers entry of barriers for small and medium sized companies when it comes to competing with larger companies.
All in all, developing countries have to engage in active and open negotiation to integrate with the international economy. With many trade opportunities, it is wise to embrace technology and reach a wider market. Good domestic policies and openness in the local economies offer a great chance for developing countries to embrace the global village. Hence, globalization is not a universal remedy, but if properly embraced it can be quite effective.
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How does globalization affect social class?
Compounding resistance to globalization in the mature democracies, globalization has become associated with the increasing concentration of income and wealth at the top and the relative loss of stature and political influence of the old middle class to a new professional and business elite—the 1 percent in the United Aug 3, 2017.
What is the simple meaning of globalization?
Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.
What does social mean in globalization?
Social globalisation refers to the sharing of ideas and information between and through different countries. In today’s world, the Internet and social media is at the heart of this. Social globalisation is often criticised for eroding cultural differences.
What is the meaning of cultural globalization?
Cultural globalization, phenomenon by which the experience of everyday life, as influenced by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, reflects a standardization of cultural expressions around the world. Although homogenizing influences do indeed exist, they are far from creating anything akin to a single world culture.
How does globalization affects the society in general?
Globalization is associated with rapid and significant human changes. The movements of people from rural to urban areas has accelerated, and the growth of cities in the developing world especially is linked to substandard living for many. Family disruption and social and domestic violence are increasing.
What is globalization class?
Globalization considers the dynamic processes and consequences of human contact over time that cross traditional economic, cultural and geographic boundaries. The course examines the ever increasing flows of goods, people, ideas, capital and services and the subsequent challenges that have emerged for humankind.
What are some examples of globalization today?
Other Globalization Examples The Olympics began in ancient Greece and continue today. The FIFA World Cup has more viewers than any other sporting event in the world. Travel and tourism allows for the globalization of many things, like the exchange of money, cultures, ideas and knowledge.
Is globalization in the social interest?
social interest? Globalization is the expansion of international trade, borrowing and lending, and investment. It is in the self-interest of consumers who buy low-cost imported goods and services and multinational firms that produce in low-cost regions and sell in high-price regions.
What is the advantage of globalization?
The advantages of globalization are actually much like the advantages of technological improvement. They have very similar effects: they raise output in countries, raise productivity, create more jobs, raise wages, and lower prices of products in the world economy.
What are the 3 main classifications of globalization?
There are three types of globalization. Economic globalization. Here, the focus is on the integration of international financial markets and the coordination of financial exchange. Political globalization. Cultural globalization.
What is social and cultural globalization?
Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations. Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities.
How does globalization affect culture today?
Globalization of culture contributes to the exchange of cultural values of different countries, the convergence of traditions. For cultural globalization characterized convergence of business and consumer culture between the different countries of the world and the growth of international communication.
Who does globalization benefit?
Globalization allows companies to find lower-cost ways to produce their products. It also increases global competition, which drives prices down and creates a larger variety of choices for consumers. Lowered costs help people in both developing and already-developed countries live better on less money.
How does globalization affect us?
Globalization has benefits that cover many different areas. It reciprocally developed economies all over the world and increased cultural exchanges. It also allowed financial exchanges between companies, changing the paradigm of work. Many people are nowadays citizens of the world.
What societal factor is most affected by globalization?
The important factors are: (1) Historical: The trade routes were made over the years so that goods from one kingdom or country moved to another. (2) Economy: (3) Resources and Markets: (4) Production Issues: (5) Political: (6) Industrial Organisation: (7) Technologies: Eight barriers in economic activities:.
What is the positive and negative impact of globalization?
Some argue that globalization is a positive development as it will give rise to new industries and more jobs in developing countries. Others say globalization is negative in that it will force poorer countries of the world to do whatever the big developed countries tell them to do.
What are the 10 types of globalization?
10 Types of Globalization Trade. Commercial exchanges between companies and individuals that cross borders. Transportation. International transport links such as roads, train networks and airports. Communication. Culture. Capital. Technology. Knowledge. Science.
What are the manifestations of globalization in society today?
Mittelman (2000, p 15) states that “The manifestations of globalisation include the spatial reorganization of production, the interpenetration of industries across borders, the spread of financial markets, the diffusion of identical consumer goods to distant countries, massive transfers of population-mainly within the Jan 1, 2015.
What are the 7 major types of globalization?
What are the 7 major types of globalization? Financial Globalization. Economic Globalization. Technological Globalization. Political Globalization. Cultural Globalization. Sociological Globalization. Ecological Globalization. Geographical Globalization.
What is the negative effect of social globalization?
It has had a few adverse effects on developed countries. Some adverse consequences of globalization include terrorism, job insecurity, currency fluctuation, and price instability.
What is the impact of the globalization?
Globalization creates greater opportunities for firms in less industrialized countries to tap into more and larger markets around the world. Thus, businesses located in developing countries have more access to capital flows, technology, human capital, cheaper imports, and larger export markets.
What are the negative impact of globalization in developing countries?
the volume and volatility of capital flows increases the risks of banking and currency crises, especially in countries with weak financial institutions. competition among developing countries to attract foreign investment leads to a “race to the bottom” in which countries dangerously lower environmental standards.
Why is social globalization important?
Social globalization also provides cultural integration among the world’s people, and it changes lifestyles and consumption patterns worldwide. The consequences of this change can have positive and negative effects.
How does globalization affect family?
Some positive/ neutral consequences of globalisation for family life. Increased migration means more families are stretched across national borders and have family members living abroad, which in turn reinforces globalisation as more families maintain contacts through media and physical visits. | https://diime.org/social-class-in-the-globalization/ |
While discussing the topics of trade, development and political economy, globalization is often discussed. In general, globalization means a process in which world economies become highly integrated, leading to a global economy and highly global economic policymaking, through international agencies such as the World Trade Organization (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Since late 1980s, the increasing globalization in the manufacturing sector and service sector has also globalized the telecommunication industry. A large number of telecom companies are expanding rapidly from their home countries to other countries in order to increase their customer base and their sales, off course. Globalization has with it many challenges and economic benefits too. For many economists, globalization can cause serious troubles in the whole world, such as inequality is accentuated, environmental degradation, and dominance of rich countries etc. But at the same time proponents of globalization are of the view that globalization leads to the rapid growth of knowledge and innovation and improved living standards.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF GLOBALIZATION
How globalization occurred or which forces gave birth to this phenomenon? The three chief economic and financial indicators that led to globalization are: The international trade of goods and services, the widening and freeing of trade has led to globalization to increase at a rapid pace. The greater flow of capital because of growth of global capital markets. Globalization of financial sector is the most influential aspect of economic globalization. The greater movement of people around the globe has also contributed to rapidly growing globalization, breaking down cultural barriers. Globalization means integration of different markets in the global economy. Globalization may occur in different markets such as financial markets, commodity markets and even in the service sector (Scholte, 2000). Producers and consumers and national economies as a whole benefit from the process of globalization. For example, economies may benefit from specializing themselves in particular products in which they have comparative advantage. Firms may become cost competitive through globalization by accessing to cheap raw materials from other countries. Similarly, benefit of economies of scale is achieved through access to large markets and higher demand for products, thus reducing average production cost of the firm. Large multinationals are the main carriers of economic globalization. They are globally aligning their production and resources according to the principle of profit maximization.
GLOBALIZATION OF TELECOMMUNICATION INDUSTRY- CASE OF VODAFONE Initially telecommunication industry was owned and controlled by state-owned national telecommunication companies. But with the passage of time, innovation in technology and globalization has transformed the nature of telecommunication industry. Globalization has opened up markets and brought competition in this sector. National telecommunication companies were being privatized and the industry deregulated to make it competitive. All over the world, the multinational companies have become the main vehicle for accelerating globalization. Vodafone, a British multinational telecommunication company, is the world’s leading telecommunication having significant existence in Europe, United States, Middle East, Asia Pacific and Africa. It is one of the most rapidly flourishing global companies, which started as a holder of one of the first two mobile communications licenses in the UK and now it’s a dominant...
References: 1. Carlson, B. A., 2002. Job Losses, Multinational and Globalization: The Anatomy of Disempowerment. Santiago: United Nations Publications.
2. Fackler, M. & Belson, K., 2005. A Major Backfire in Japan Deflates Vodafone 's One-Size-Fits-All Strategy. [Online]
Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/05/business/worldbusiness/05vodaphone.html?pagewanted=all
3. Ibbott, C. J., 2007. Global Networks: The Vodafone-Ericsson Journey to Globalization and the Inception of a Requisite Organization. s.l.:Palgrave Macmillan.
4. Salvatore, D., 2004. Globalization, Comparative Advantage and Europe 's Double Competitive Squeeze. Global Economy Journal, 4(1).
5. Scholte, J. A., 2000. Globalization: A Critical Introduction. s.l.:Palgrave Macmillan.
6. Siochru, S. O., 2004. Social Consequences of the Globalization of the Media and Communication Sectors: Some Strategic Considerations. s.l.:Policy Integration Department, World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization, International Labor Force, Geneva.
7. Todaro, M. P. & Smith, S. C., 2006. Economic Development. Eighth ed. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd. licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Economic-Consequences-Of-Globalization-On-Telecommunication-50695658.html |
La Paloma Theatre is both a cinema and a venue for live music that opened in 1928. The theatre airs classic, independent, foreign and art films and also has featured notable artists like Jerry Garcia, Ralph Stanley, and Nickle Creek.
Located within San Elijo Hills Community Park, San Elijo Hills Dog Park features a partially sloped field consisting of grass and dirt. The park provides drinking water, benches and a separate small dog area.
San Elijo Park is a large multi-use public park. Amenities include horseshoe pits, picnic areas, baseball fields, football or soccer fields, dog park and children's play area. Children also enjoy the sprayground, a water play area for younger visitors.
The gated recreational Simpson Park features a sheltered picnic area, restrooms, hiking trails, bicycle trails, and barbecues. The park also has a classroom lab with a botanical garden as well as an equestrian trail.
A beautiful strip of sandy seashore located in Redondo Beach is the Torrance State Beach. The beach is favorited as a fitness beach and running trail by both locals and visitors to the area.
Visitors who are interested in viewing native plants, low water plants, and endangered plants may enjoy what the San Diego Botanic Gardens has to offer. The location also offers tours and hosts birthday parties for younger visitors.
The 25th Street Beach is a public beach location commonly visited during the warmer days during the year. Visitors at the beach enjoy surfing, swimming, having picnics, or spending a day relaxing in the sun.
Affectionately known as RAT beach, Redondo and Torrance Beach is a wide sand beach that tends to be pet and family friendly. The beach offers good opportunities to jog or run, and features bathrooms and drinking fountains.
Known for its picnicking opportunities, Woodland Park offers 11 acres of land with ponds, fountains, and shaded areas. The picnic areas have several playgrounds with climbing walls, swings, and other play structures.
An off leash dog park, the Lawndale Dog Park features separate fenced areas for small and for larger dogs. Both areas feature water fountains and equipment for cleaning up after dogs. | http://www.tripbuzz.com/things-to-do/mission-viejo-ca/page-192 |
by MIW Water Cooler Experts
A successful roll out of 10 bottle refill stations with drinking fountains across the school to help reduce single-use plastics on site and provide hydration to students and staff. We recommended the installation of WRAS-approved Halsey Taylor chilled indoor unit that are also ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) approved meaning they can be easily accessed by wheelchair users as well. Capable of processing up to 1.5 gallons of chilled drinking water per minute, these fountains meet the demands of the school, and hands-free bottle filling mechanism and antimicrobial coating also maintain a high degree of hygiene.
Contact MIW Water Cooler Experts by clicking the button below to find out which products were used in this case study. | https://source.thenbs.com/case-study/bedford-modern-school/9JdSAALT7eQYzJG5ihJNt9 |
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